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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Modern Malthusianism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Malthus was not the first to outline the problems he perceived. The original essay was part of an ongoing intellectual discussion at the end of the 18th century regarding the origins of poverty. \"Principle of Population\" was specifically written as a rebuttal to thinkers like William Godwin and the Marquis de Condorcet, and Malthus's own father who believed in the perfectibility of humanity. Malthus believed humanity's ability to reproduce too rapidly doomed efforts at perfection and caused various other problems. His criticism of the working class's tendency to reproduce rapidly, and his belief that this, rather than exploitation by capitalists, led to their poverty, brought widespread criticism of his theory. Malthusians perceived ideas of charity to the poor, typified by Tory paternalism, were futile, as these would only result in increased numbers of the poor; these theories played into Whig economic ideas exemplified by the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834. The Act was described by opponents as \"a Malthusian bill designed to force the poor to emigrate, to work for lower wages, to live on a coarser sort of food\", which initiated the construction of workhouses despite riots and arson. Malthus revised his theories in later editions of \"An Essay on the Principles of Population\", taking a more optimistic tone, although there is some scholarly debate on the extent of his revisions. According to Dan Ritschel of the Center for History Education at the University of Maryland, The great Malthusian dread was that \"indiscriminate charity\" would lead to exponential growth in the population in poverty, increased charges to the public purse to support this growing army of the dependent, and, eventually, the catastrophe of national bankruptcy. Though Malthusianism has since come to be identified with the issue of general over-population, the original Malthusian concern was more specifically with the fear of over-population by the dependent poor. One of the earliest critics was David Ricardo. Malthus immediately and correctly recognised it to be an attack on his theory of wages. Ricardo and Malthus debated this in a lengthy personal correspondence. Another one of the 19th century critics of Malthusian theory was Karl Marx who referred to it as \"nothing more than a schoolboyish, superficial plagiary of De Foe, Sir James Steuart, Townsend, Franklin, Wallace\" (in \"Capital\", see Marx's footnote on Malthus from \"Capital\" – reference below). Marx and Engels described Malthus as a \"lackey of the bourgeoisie\". Socialists and communists believed that Malthusian theories \"blamed the poor\" for their own exploitation by the capitalist classes, and could be used to suppress the proletariat to an even greater degree, whether through attempts to reduce fertility or by justifying the generally poor conditions of labour in the 19th century. One proponent of Malthusianism was the novelist Harriet Martineau whose circle of acquaintances included Charles Darwin, and the ideas of Malthus were a significant influence on the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution. Darwin was impressed by the idea that population growth would eventually lead to more organisms than could possibly survive in any given environment, leading him to theorize that organisms with a relative advantage in the struggle for survival and reproduction would be able to pass their characteristics on to further generations. Proponents of Malthusianism were in turn influenced by Darwin's ideas, both schools coming to influence the field of eugenics. Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr. advocated \"humane birth selection through humane birth control\" in order to avoid a Malthusian catastrophe by eliminating the \"unfit\". Malthusianism became a less common intellectual tradition as the 19th century advanced, mostly as a result of technological increases, the opening of new territory to agriculture, and increasing international trade. Although a \"conservationist\" movement in the United States concerned itself with resource depletion and natural protection in the first half of the twentieth century, Desrochers and Hoffbauer write, \"It is probably fair to say... that it was not until the publication of Osborn’s and Vogt’s books [1948] that a Malthusian revival took hold of a significant segment of the American population\".", "Malthusian theory is a recurrent theme in many social science venues. John Maynard Keynes, in \"Economic Consequences of the Peace\", opens his polemic with a Malthusian portrayal of the political economy of Europe as unstable due to Malthusian population pressure on food supplies. Many models of resource depletion and scarcity are Malthusian in character: the rate of energy consumption will outstrip the ability to find and produce new energy sources, and so lead to a crisis. In France, terms such as \"\"politique malthusienne\"\" (\"Malthusian politics\") refer to population control strategies. The concept of restriction of the population associated with Malthus morphed, in later political-economic theory, into the notion of restriction of production. In the French sense, a \"Malthusian economy\" is one in which protectionism and the formation of cartels is not only tolerated but encouraged. Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party and the main architect of the Soviet Union was a critic of Neo-Malthusian theory (but not of birth control and abortion in general). \"Neo-Malthusianism\" is a concern that overpopulation as well as overconsumption may increase resource depletion and/or environmental degradation will lead to ecological collapse or other hazards. The rapid increase in the global population of the past century exemplifies Malthus's predicted population patterns; it also appears to describe socio-demographic dynamics of complex pre-industrial societies. These findings are the basis for neo-Malthusian modern mathematical models of \"long-term historical dynamics\". There was a general \"neo-Malthusian\" revival in the mid-to-late 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, 2000s and 2010s after the publication of two influential books in 1948 (Fairfield Osborn's \"Our Plundered Planet\" and William Vogt's \"Road to Survival\"). During that time the population of the world rose dramatically. Many in environmental movements began to sound the alarm regarding the potential dangers of population growth. The Club of Rome published a book entitled \"The Limits to Growth\" in 1972. The report and the organisation soon became central to the neo-Malthusian revival. Paul R. Ehrlich has been one of the most prominent neo-Malthusians since the publication of \"The Population Bomb\" in 1968. Leading ecological economist Herman Daly has acknowledged the influence of Malthus on his concept of a steady-state economy. Other prominent Malthusians include the Paddock brothers, authors of \"\" The neo-Malthusian revival has drawn criticism from writers who claim the Malthusian warnings were overstated or premature because the green revolution has brought substantial increases in food production and will be able to keep up with continued population growth. Julian Simon, a cornucopian, has written that contrary to neo-Malthusian theory, Earth's \"carrying capacity\" is essentially limitless. Simon argues not that there is an infinite physical amount of, say, copper, but for human purposes that amount should be treated as infinite because it is not bounded or limited in any economic sense, because: 1) known reserves are of uncertain quantity 2) New reserves may become available, either through discovery or via the development of new extraction techniques 3) recycling 4) more efficient utilization of existing reserves (e.g., \"It takes much less copper now to pass a given message than a hundred years ago.\" [The Ultimate Resource 2, 1996, footnote, page 62]) 5) development of economic equivalents, e.g., optic fibre in the case of copper for telecommunications. Responding to Simon, Al Bartlett reiterates the potential of population growth as an exponential (or as expressed by Malthus, \"geometrical\") curve to outstrip both natural resources and human ingenuity. Bartlett writes and lectures particularly on energy supplies, and describes the \"inability to understand the exponential function\" as the \"greatest shortcoming of the human race\". Prominent neo-Malthusians such as Paul Ehrlich maintain that ultimately, population growth on Earth is still too high, and will eventually lead to a serious crisis. The 2007–2008 world food price crisis inspired further Malthusian arguments regarding the prospects for global food supply. From approximately 2004 to 2011, concerns about \"peak oil\" and other forms of resource depletion became widespread in the United States, and motivated a large if short-lived subculture of neo-Malthusian \"peakists.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Early career.", "Wentworth Place.", "Isabella Jones and Fanny Brawne.", "Last months: Rome.", "Death.", "Reception.", "Letters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "John Keats was born in Moorgate, London, on 31 October 1795 to Thomas Keats and his wife, Frances Jennings. There is little evidence of his exact birthplace. Although Keats and his family seem to have marked his birthday on 29 October, baptism records give the date as the 31st. He was the eldest of four surviving children; his younger siblings were George (1797–1841), Thomas (1799–1818), and Frances Mary \"Fanny\" (1803–1889) who eventually married Spanish author Valentín Llanos Gutiérrez. Another son was lost in infancy. His father first worked as a hostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop Inn, an establishment he later managed, and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, but there is no evidence to support his belief. The Globe pub now occupies the site (2012), a few yards from the modern-day Moorgate station. He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate, and sent to a local dame school as a child. His parents were unable to afford Eton or Harrow, so in the summer of 1803, he was sent to", "From 1814, Keats had two bequests, held in trust for him until his 21st birthday: £800 willed by his grandfather John Jennings (about £50,000 in today's money) and a portion of his mother's legacy, £8000 (about £500,000 today), to be equally divided between her living children. It seems he was not told of either, since he never applied for any of the money. Historically, blame has often been laid on Abbey as legal guardian, but he may also have been unaware. William Walton, solicitor for Keats' mother and grandmother, definitely did know and had a duty of care to relay the information to Keats. It seems he did not. The money would have made a critical difference to the poet's expectations. Money was always a great concern and difficulty for him, as he struggled to stay out of debt and make his way in the world independently. Having finished his apprenticeship with Hammond, Keats registered as a medical student at Guy's Hospital (now part of King's College London) and began studying there in October 1815. Within a month of starting, he was accepted as a dresser at the hospital, assisting surgeons during operations, the equivalent of a junior house surgeon today. It was a significant promotion, that marked a distinct aptitude for medicine; it brought greater responsibility and a heavier workload. Keats' long and expensive medical training with Hammond and at Guy's Hospital led his", "John Keats moved to the newly built Wentworth Place, owned by his friend Charles Armitage Brown. It was on the edge of Hampstead Heath, ten minutes' walk south of his old home in Well Walk. The winter of 1818–19, though a difficult period for the poet, marked the beginning of his \"annus mirabilis\" in which he wrote his most mature work. He had been inspired by a series of recent lectures by Hazlitt on English poets and poetic identity and had also met Wordsworth. Keats may have seemed to his friends to be living on comfortable means, but in reality he was borrowing regularly from Abbey and his", "Keats befriended Isabella Jones in May 1817, while on holiday in the village of Bo Peep, near Hastings. She is described as beautiful, talented and widely read, not of the top flight of society yet financially secure, an enigmatic figure who would become a part of Keats' circle. Throughout their friendship Keats never hesitates to own his sexual attraction to her, although they seem to enjoy circling each other rather than offering commitment. He writes that he \"frequented her rooms\" in the winter of 1818–19, and in his letters to George says that he \"warmed with her\" and \"kissed her\". The trysts may have been a sexual initiation for Keats according to Bate and Gittings. Jones inspired and was a steward of Keats' writing.", "During 1820 Keats displayed increasingly serious symptoms of tuberculosis, suffering two lung haemorrhages in the first few days of February. On first coughing up blood, on 3 February 1820, he said to Charles Armitage Brown, \"I know the colour of that blood! It is arterial blood. I cannot be deceived in that colour. That drop of blood is my death warrant. I must die.\" He lost large amounts of blood and was bled further by the attending physician. Hunt nursed him in London for much of the", "The first months of 1821 marked a slow and steady decline into the final stage of tuberculosis. Keats was coughing up blood and covered in sweat. Severn nursed him devotedly and observed in a letter how Keats would sometimes cry upon waking to find himself still alive. Severn writes, John Keats died in Rome on 23 February 1821. His body was buried in the city's Protestant Cemetery. His last request was to be placed under a tombstone bearing no name or date, only the words, \"Here lies One whose Name was writ in Water.\" Severn and Brown erected the stone, which under a relief of a lyre", "When Keats died at 25, he had been writing poetry seriously for only about six years, from 1814 until the summer of 1820; and publishing for only four. In his lifetime, sales of Keats' three volumes of poetry probably amounted to only 200 copies. His first poem, the sonnet \"O Solitude\", appeared in \"the Examiner\" in May 1816, while his collection \"Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes and other poems\" was published in July 1820 before his last visit to Rome. The compression of his poetic apprenticeship and maturity into so short a time is just one remarkable aspect of Keats' work. Although prolific during his short career, and now one of the most studied and admired British poets, his reputation rests on a small body of work, centred on the Odes, and only in the creative outpouring of the last years of his short life was he able to express the inner intensity for which he has been lauded since his death. Keats was convinced that he had made no mark in his lifetime. Aware that he was dying, he wrote to Fanny Brawne in February 1820, \"I have left no immortal work behind me – nothing to make my friends proud of my memory – but I have lov'd the principle of beauty in all things, and if I had had time I would have made myself remember'd.\" Keats' ability and talent was acknowledged by several influential contemporary allies such as Shelley and Hunt. His admirers praised him for thinking \"on his pulses\", for having developed a style which was more heavily loaded with sensualities, more gorgeous in its effects, more voluptuously alive than any poet who had come before him: \"loading every rift with ore\". Shelley often corresponded with Keats in Rome and loudly declared that Keats' death had been brought on by bad reviews in the \"Quarterly Review\". Seven weeks after the funeral he wrote \"Adonais\", a despairing elegy, stating that Keats' early death was a personal and public tragedy: Although Keats wrote that \"if poetry comes not as naturally as the Leaves to a tree it had better not come at all\", poetry did not come easily to him; his work was the fruit of a deliberate and prolonged classical self-education. He may have possessed an innate poetic sensibility, but his early works were clearly those of a young man learning his craft. His first attempts at verse were often vague, languorously narcotic and lacking a clear eye. His poetic sense was based on the conventional tastes of his friend Charles Cowden Clarke, who first introduced him to the classics, and also came from the predilections of Hunt's \"Examiner\", which Keats read as a boy. Hunt scorned the Augustan or \"French\" school, dominated by Pope, and attacked the earlier Romantic poets Wordsworth and Coleridge, now in their forties, as unsophisticated, obscure and crude writers. Indeed, during Keats' few years as a published poet, the reputation of the older Romantic school was at its lowest ebb. Keats came to echo these sentiments in his work, identifying himself with a \"new school\" for a time, somewhat alienating him from Wordsworth, Coleridge and Byron and providing the basis from the scathing attacks from \"Blackwood's\" and \"The Quarterly\". By the time of his death, Keats had therefore been associated with the taints of both old and new schools: the obscurity of the first-wave Romantics and the uneducated affectation of Hunt's \"Cockney School\". Keats' posthumous reputation mixed the reviewers' caricature of the simplistic bumbler with the image of the hyper-sensitive genius killed by high feeling, which Shelley later portrayed. The Victorian sense of poetry as the work of indulgence and luxuriant fancy offered a schema into which Keats was posthumously fitted. Marked as the standard-bearer of sensory writing, his reputation grew steadily and remarkably. His work had the full support of the influential Cambridge Apostles, whose members included the young Tennyson, later a popular Poet Laureate who came to regard Keats as the greatest poet of the 19th century. Constance Naden was a great admirer of his poems, arguing that his genius lay in his 'exquisite sensitiveness to all the elements of beauty'. In 1848, twenty-seven years after Keats' death, Richard Monckton Milnes published the first full biography, which helped place Keats within the canon of English literature. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, including Millais and Rossetti, were inspired by Keats and painted scenes from his poems including \"The Eve of St. Agnes\", \"Isabella\" and \"La Belle Dame sans Merci\", lush, arresting and popular images which remain closely associated with Keats' work. In 1882, Swinburne wrote in the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" that \"the Ode to a Nightingale, [is] one of the final masterpieces of human work in all time and for all ages\". In the twentieth century, Keats remained the muse of poets such as Wilfred Owen, who kept his death date as a day of mourning, Yeats and T. S. Eliot. Critic Helen Vendler stated the odes \"are a group of works in which the English language find ultimate embodiment\". Bate declared of \"To Autumn\": \"Each generation has found it one of the most nearly perfect poems in English\" and M. R. Ridley claimed the ode \"is the most serenely flawless poem in our language.\" The largest collection of the letters, manuscripts, and other papers of Keats is in the Houghton Library at Harvard University. Other collections of material are archived at the British Library, Keats House, Hampstead, the Keats-Shelley Memorial House in Rome and the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York. Since 1998 the British Keats-Shelley Memorial Association have annually awarded a prize for romantic poetry. A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque was unveiled in 1896 to commemorate Keats at Keats House.", "Keats' letters were first published in 1848 and 1878. During the 19th century, critics deemed them unworthy of attention, distractions from his poetic works. During the 20th century they became almost as admired and studied as his poetry, and are highly regarded within the canon of English literary correspondence. T. S. Eliot described them as \"certainly the most notable and most important ever written by any English poet.\" Keats spent a great deal of time considering poetry itself, its constructs and impacts, displaying a deep interest unusual amongst his milieu who were more easily distracted by metaphysics or politics, fashions or science. Eliot wrote of Keats' conclusions; \"There is hardly one statement of Keats' about poetry which... will not be found to be true, and what is more, true for greater and more mature poetry than anything Keats ever wrote.\" Few of Keats' letters are extant from the period before he joined his literary circle. From spring 1817, however, there is a rich record of his prolific and impressive skills as letter writer. Keats and his friends, poets, critics, novelists, and editors wrote to each other daily, and Keats' ideas are bound up in the ordinary, his day-to-day missives sharing news, parody and social commentary. They glitter with humour and critical intelligence. Born of an \"unself-conscious stream of consciousness,\" they are impulsive, full of awareness of his own nature and his weak spots. When his brother George went to America, Keats wrote to him in great detail, the body of letters becoming \"the real diary\" and self-revelation of Keats' life, as well as containing an exposition of his philosophy, and the first drafts of poems containing some of Keats' finest writing and thought. Gittings describes them as akin to a \"spiritual journal\" not written for a specific other, so much as for synthesis. Keats also reflected on the background and composition of his poetry, and specific letters often coincide with or anticipate the poems they describe. In February to May 1819 he produced many of his finest letters\". Writing to his brother George, Keats explored the idea of the world as \"the vale of Soul-making\", anticipating the great odes that he would write some months later. In the letters, Keats coined ideas such as the Mansion of Many Apartments and the Chameleon Poet, concepts that came to gain common currency and capture the public imagination, despite only making single appearances as phrases in his correspondence. The poetical mind, Keats argued: has no self – it is every thing and nothing – It has no character – it enjoys light and shade;... What shocks the virtuous philosopher, delights the camelion [chameleon] Poet. It does no harm from its relish of the dark side of things any more than from its taste for the bright one; because they both end in speculation. A Poet is the most unpoetical of any thing in existence; because he has no Identity – he is continually in for – and filling some other Body – The Sun, the Moon, the Sea and Men and Women who are creatures of impulse are poetical and have about them an unchangeable attribute – the poet has none; no identity – he is certainly the most unpoetical of all God's Creatures. He used the term negative capability to discuss the state in which we are \"capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts without any irritable reaching after fact & reason...[Being] content with half knowledge\" where one trusts in the heart's perceptions. He wrote later: \"I am certain of nothing but the holiness of the Heart's affections and the truth of Imagination – What the imagination seizes as Beauty must be truth – whether it existed before or not – for I have the same Idea of all our Passions as of Love they are all in their sublime, creative of essential Beauty\" again and again turning to the question of what it means to be a poet. \"My Imagination is a Monastery and I am its Monk\", Keats notes to Shelley. In September 1819, Keats wrote to Reynolds \"How beautiful the season is now – How fine the air. A temperate sharpness about it... I never lik'd the stubbled fields as much as now – Aye, better than the chilly green of spring. Somehow the stubble plain looks warm – in the same way as some pictures look warm – this struck me so much in my Sunday's walk that I composed upon it\". The final stanza of his last great ode: \"To Autumn\" runs: <poem> Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they? Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,- While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day, And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue; </poem> Later, \"To Autumn\" became one of the most highly regarded poems in the English language. There are areas of his life and daily routine that Keats does not describe. He mentions little about his childhood or his financial straits and is seemingly embarrassed to discuss them. There is a total absence of any reference to his parents. In his last year, as his health deteriorated, his concerns often gave way to despair and morbid obsessions. The publications of letters to Fanny Brawne in 1870 focused on this period and emphasised this tragic aspect, giving rise to widespread criticism at the time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"middle-range theory\" does not refer to a specific theory, but is rather an approach to theory construction. Raymond Boudon defines middle-range theory as a commitment to two ideas. The first is positive, and describes what such theories should do: sociological theories, like all scientific theories, should aim to consolidate otherwise segregated hypotheses and empirical regularities; \"if a 'theory' is valid, it 'explains' and in other words 'consolidates' and federates empirical regularities which on their side would appear otherwise segregated.\" The other is negative, and it relates to what theory cannot do: \"it is hopeless and quixotic to try to determine the overarching independent variable that would operate in all social processes, or to determine the \"essential\" feature of social structure, or to find out the two, three, or four couples of concepts... that would be sufficient to analyze all social phenomena\".", "The midrange approach was developed by Robert Merton as a departure from the general social theorizing of Talcott Parsons. Merton agreed with Parsons that a narrow empiricism consisting entirely of simple statistical or observational regularities cannot arrive at successful theory. However, he found that Parsons' \"formulations were remote from providing a problematics and a direction for theory-oriented empirical inquiry into the observable worlds of culture and society\". He was thus directly opposed to the abstract theorizing of scholars who are engaged in the attempt to construct a total theoretical system covering all aspects of social life. With the introduction of the middle-range theory programme, he advocated that sociologists should concentrate on measurable aspects of social reality that can be studied as separate social phenomena, rather than attempting to explain the entire social world. He saw both the middle-range theory approach and middle-range theories themselves as temporary: when they matured, as natural sciences already had, the body of middle-range theories would become a system of universal laws; but, until that time, social sciences should avoid trying to create a universal theory. Merton's original foil in the construction was Talcott Parsons, whose action theory C. Wright Mills later classified as a \"grand theory\". (Parsons vehemently rejected this categorization.) Middle-range theories are normally constructed by applying theory-building techniques to empirical research, which produce generic propositions about the social world, which in turn can also be empirically tested. Examples of middle-range theories are theories of reference groups, social mobility, normalization processes, role conflict and the formation of social norms. The middle-range approach has played a role in turning sociology into an increasingly empirically oriented discipline. This was also important in post-war thought. In the post-war period, middle-range theory became the dominant approach to theory construction in all variable-based social sciences. Middle-range theory has also been applied to the archaeological realm by Lewis R. Binford, and to financial theory by Robert C. Merton, Robert K. Merton's son. In the recent decades, the analytical sociology programme has emerged as an attempt synthesizing middle-range theories into a more coherent abstract framework (as Merton had hoped would eventually happen). Peter Hedström at Oxford is the scholar most associated with this approach, while Peter Bearman is its most prominent American advocate." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "History.", "SOAP terminology.", "Specification.", "SOAP building blocks.", "Transport methods.", "Message format.", "Example message (encapsulated in HTTP)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "SOAP provides the Messaging Protocol layer of a web services protocol stack for web services. It is an XML-based protocol consisting of three parts: SOAP has three major characteristics: As an example of what SOAP procedures can do, an application can send a SOAP request to a server that has web services enabled—such as a real-estate price database—with the parameters for a search. The server then returns a SOAP response (an XML-formatted document with the resulting data), e.g., prices, location, features. Since the generated data comes in a standardized machine-parsable format, the requesting application can then integrate it directly. The SOAP architecture consists of several layers of specifications for: SOAP evolved as a successor of XML-RPC, though it borrows its transport and interaction neutrality from Web Service Addressing and the envelope/header/body from elsewhere (probably from WDDX).", "SOAP was designed as an object-access protocol in 1998 by Dave Winer, Don Box, Bob Atkinson, and Mohsen Al-Ghosein for Microsoft, where Atkinson and Al-Ghosein were working. The specification was not made available until it was submitted to IETF 13 September 1999. According to Don Box, this was due to politics within Microsoft. Because of Microsoft's hesitation, Dave Winer shipped XML-RPC in 1998. The submitted Internet Draft did not reach RFC status and is therefore not considered a \"standard\" as such. Version 1.1 of the specification was published as a W3C Note on 8 May 2000. Since version 1.1 did not reach W3C Recommendation status, it can not be considered a \"standard\" either. Version 1.2 of the specification, however, became a W3C recommendation on June 24, 2003. The SOAP specification was maintained by the XML Protocol Working Group of the World Wide Web Consortium until the group was closed 10 July 2009. \"SOAP\" originally stood for \"Simple Object Access Protocol\" but version 1.2 of the standard dropped this acronym. After SOAP was first introduced, it became the underlying layer of a more complex set of web services, based on Web Services Description Language (WSDL), XML schema and Universal Description Discovery and Integration (UDDI). These different services, especially UDDI, have proved to be of far less interest, but an appreciation of them gives a complete understanding of the expected role of SOAP compared to how web services have actually evolved.", "SOAP specification can be broadly defined to be consisting of the following 3 conceptual components: protocol concepts, encapsulation concepts and network concepts.", "The SOAP specification defines the messaging framework, which consists of:", "A SOAP message is an ordinary XML document containing the following elements:", "Both SMTP and HTTP are valid application layer protocols used as transport for SOAP, but HTTP has gained wider acceptance as it works well with today's internet infrastructure; specifically, HTTP works well with network firewalls. SOAP may also be used over HTTPS (which is the same protocol as HTTP at the application level, but uses an encrypted transport protocol underneath) with either simple or mutual authentication; this is the advocated WS-I method to provide web service security as stated in the WS-I Basic Profile 1.1. This is a major advantage over other distributed protocols like GIOP/IIOP or DCOM, which are normally filtered by firewalls. SOAP over AMQP is yet another possibility that some implementations support. SOAP also has an advantage over DCOM that it is unaffected by security rights configured on the machines that require knowledge of both transmitting and receiving nodes. This lets SOAP be loosely coupled in a way that is not possible with DCOM. There is also the SOAP-over-UDP OASIS standard.", "XML Information Set was chosen as the standard message format because of its widespread use by major corporations and open source development efforts. Typically, XML Information Set is serialized as XML. A wide variety of freely available tools significantly eases the transition to a SOAP-based implementation. The somewhat lengthy syntax of XML can be both a benefit and a drawback. While it promotes readability for humans, facilitates error detection, and avoids interoperability problems such as byte-order (endianness), it can slow processing speed and can be cumbersome. For example, CORBA, GIOP, ICE, and DCOM use much shorter, binary message formats. On the other hand, hardware appliances are available to accelerate processing of XML messages. Binary XML is also being explored as a means for streamlining the throughput requirements of XML. XML messages by their self-documenting nature usually have more 'overhead' (e.g., headers, nested tags, delimiters) than actual data in contrast to earlier protocols where the overhead was usually a relatively small percentage of the overall message. In financial messaging SOAP was found to result in a 2–4 times larger message than previous protocols FIX (Financial Information Exchange) and CDR (Common Data Representation). XML Information Set does not have to be serialized in XML. For instance, CSV and JSON XML-infoset representations exist. There is also no need to specify a generic transformation framework. The concept of SOAP bindings allows for specific bindings for a specific application. The drawback is that both the senders and receivers have to support this newly defined binding.", "The message below is requesting a stock price for AT&T (stock ticker symbol \"T\"). POST /InStock HTTP/1.1 Host: www.example.org Content-Type: application/soap+xml; charset=utf-8 Content-Length: 299 SOAPAction: \"http://www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope\" <?xml version=\"1.0\"?> <soap:Envelope xmlns:soap=\"http://www.w3.org/2003/05/soap-envelope\" xmlns:m=\"http://www.example.org\"> </soap:Envelope" ] }

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{ "title": [ "ARP vulnerabilities.", "Anatomy of an ARP spoofing attack.", "Defenses.", "Static ARP entries.", "ARP spoofing detection and prevention software.", "OS security.", "Legitimate usage.", "Tools.", "Spoofing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a widely used communications protocol for resolving Internet layer addresses into link layer addresses. When an Internet Protocol (IP) datagram is sent from one host to another in a local area network, the destination IP address must be resolved to a MAC address for transmission via the data link layer. When another host's IP address is known, and its MAC address is needed, a broadcast packet is sent out on the local network. This packet is known as an \"ARP request\". The destination machine with the IP in the ARP request then responds with an \"ARP reply\" that contains the MAC address for that IP. ARP is a stateless protocol. Network hosts will automatically cache any ARP replies they receive, regardless of whether network hosts requested them. Even ARP entries that have not yet expired will be overwritten when a new ARP reply packet is received. There is no method in the ARP protocol by which a host can authenticate the peer from which the packet originated. This behavior is the vulnerability that allows ARP spoofing to occur.", "The basic principle behind ARP spoofing is to exploit the lack of authentication in the ARP protocol by sending spoofed ARP messages onto the LAN. ARP spoofing attacks can be run from a compromised host on the LAN, or from an attacker's machine that is connected directly to the target LAN. Generally, the goal of the attack is to associate the attacker's host MAC address with the IP address of a target host, so that any traffic meant for the target host will be sent to the attacker's host. The attacker may choose to inspect the packets (spying), while forwarding the traffic to the actual default destination to avoid discovery, modify the data before forwarding it (man-in-the-middle attack), or launch a denial-of-service attack by causing some or all of the packets on the network to be dropped.", "", "The simplest form of certification is the use of static, read-only entries for critical services in the ARP cache of a host. IP address-to-MAC address mappings in the local ARP cache may be statically entered. Hosts don't need to transmit ARP requests where such entries exist. While static entries provide some security against spoofing, they result in maintenance efforts as address mappings for all systems in the network must be generated and distributed. This does not scale on a large network since the mapping has to be set for each pair of machines resulting in \"n\"-\"n\" ARP entries that have to be configured when \"n\" machines are present; On each machine there must be an ARP entry for every other machine on the network; \"n-1\" ARP entries on each of the \"n\" machines.", "Software that detects ARP spoofing generally relies on some form of certification or cross-checking of ARP responses. Uncertified ARP responses are then blocked. These techniques may be integrated with the DHCP server so that both dynamic and static IP addresses are certified. This capability may be implemented in individual hosts or may be integrated into Ethernet switches or other network equipment. The existence of multiple IP addresses associated with a single MAC address may indicate an ARP spoof attack, although there are legitimate uses of such a configuration. In a more passive approach a device listens for ARP replies on a network, and sends a notification via email when an ARP entry changes. AntiARP also provides Windows-based spoofing prevention at the kernel level. ArpStar is a Linux module for kernel 2.6 and Linksys routers that drops invalid packets that violate mapping, and contains an option to repoison/heal. Some virtualized environment such as KVM also provides security mechanism to prevent MAC spoofing between guest running on the same host. Additionally some ethernet adapters provides MAC and VLAN anti-spoofing features. OpenBSD watches passively for hosts impersonating the local host and notifies in case of any attempt to overwrite a permanent entry", "Operating systems react differently. Linux ignores unsolicited replies, but, on the other hand, uses responses to requests from other machines to update its cache. Solaris accepts updates on entries only after a timeout. In Microsoft Windows, the behavior of the ARP cache can be configured through several registry entries under HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\\SYSTEM\\CurrentControlSet\\Services\\Tcpip\\Parameters, ArpCacheLife, ArpCacheMinReferenceLife, ArpUseEtherSNAP, ArpTRSingleRoute, ArpAlwaysSourceRoute, ArpRetryCount.", "The techniques that are used in ARP spoofing can also be used to implement redundancy of network services. For example, some software allows a backup server to issue a gratuitous ARP request in order to take over for a defective server and transparently offer redundancy. ARP spoofing is often used by developers to debug IP traffic between two hosts when a switch is in use: if host A and host B are communicating through an Ethernet switch, their traffic would normally be invisible to a third monitoring host M. The developer configures A to have M's MAC address for B, and B to have M's MAC address for A; and also configures M to forward packets. M can now monitor the traffic, exactly as in a man-in-the-middle attack.", "", "Some of the tools that can be used to carry out ARP spoofing attacks:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical approaches.", "Conceptual models.", "Theory of Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation.", "Fourfold models.", "Predictors of acculturation strategies.", "Acculturative stress.", "Other outcomes.", "Culture.", "Language.", "Food.", "Controversies and debate.", "Definitions.", "Recommended models.", "Typological approach." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The history of Western civilization, and in particular the histories of Europe and the United States, are largely defined by patterns of acculturation. One of the most notable forms of acculturation is imperialism, the most common progenitor of direct cultural change. Although these cultural changes may seem simple, the combined results are both robust and complex, impacting both groups and individuals from the original culture and the host culture. The first psychological theory of acculturation was proposed in W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki's 1918 study, \"The Polish Peasant in Europe and America\". From studying Polish immigrants in Chicago, they illustrated three forms of acculturation corresponding to three personality types: Bohemian (adopting the host culture and abandoning their culture of origin), Philistine (failing to adopt the host culture but preserving their culture of origin), and creative-type (able to adapt to the host culture while preserving their culture of origin). In 1936, Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits provided the first widely used definition of acculturation as: Long before efforts toward racial and cultural integration in the United States arose, the common process was assimilation. In 1954, Milton Gordon's book \"Assimilation in American Life\" outlined seven stages of the assimilative process, setting the stage for literature on this topic. Later, Young Yun Kim authored a reiteration of Gordon's work, but argued cross-cultural adaptation as a multi-staged process. Kim's theory focused on the unitary nature of psychological and social processes and the reciprocal functional personal environment interdependence. Although this view was the earliest to fuse micro-psychological and macro-social factors into an integrated theory, it is clearly focused on assimilation rather than racial or ethnic integration. In Kim's approach, assimilation is unilinear and the sojourner must conform to the majority group culture in order to be \"communicatively competent.\" According to Gudykunst and Kim (2003) the \"cross-cultural adaptation process involves a continuous interplay of deculturation and acculturation that brings about change in strangers in the direction of assimilation, the highest degree of adaptation theoretically conceivable.\" This view has been heavily criticized, since the biological science definition of adaptation refers to the random mutation of new forms of life, not the convergence of a monoculture (Kramer, 2003). In contradistinction from Gudykunst and Kim's version of adaptive evolution, Eric M. Kramer developed his theory of Cultural Fusion (2011, 2010, 2000a, 1997a, 2000a, 2011, 2012) maintaining clear, conceptual distinctions between assimilation, adaptation, and integration. According to Kramer, assimilation involves conformity to a pre-existing form. Kramer's (2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2003, 2009, 2011) theory of Cultural Fusion, which is based on systems theory and hermeneutics, argues that it is impossible for a person to unlearn themselves and that by definition, \"growth\" is not a zero sum process that requires the disillusion of one form for another to come into being but rather a process of learning new languages and cultural repertoires (ways of thinking, cooking, playing, working worshiping, and so forth). In other words, Kramer argues that one need not unlearn a language in order to learn a new one, nor does one have to unlearn who one is in order to learn new ways of dancing, cooking, talking and so forth. Unlike Gudykunst and Kim (2003), Kramer argues that this blending of language and culture results in cognitive complexity, or the ability to switch between cultural repertoires. To put Kramer's ideas simply, learning is growth rather than unlearning.", "", "Although numerous models of acculturation exist, the most complete models take into consideration the changes occurring at the group and individual levels of both interacting groups. To understand acculturation at the group level, one must first look at the nature of both cultures before coming into contact with one another. A useful approach is Eric Kramer's theory of Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation (DAD). Two fundamental premises in Kramer's DAD theory are the concepts of hermeneutics and semiotics, which infer that identity, meaning, communication, and learning all depend on differences or variance. According to this view, total assimilation would result in a monoculture void of personal identity, meaning, and communication. Kramer's DAD theory also utilizes concepts from several scholars, most notably Jean Gebser and Lewis Mumford, to synthesize explanations of widely observed cultural expressions and differences. Kramer's theory identifies three communication styles (\"idolic\", \"symbolic\", or \"signalic\" ) in order to explain cultural differences. It is important to note that in this theory, no single mode of communication is inherently superior, and no final solution to intercultural conflict is suggested. Instead, Kramer puts forth three integrated theories: the theory Dimensional Accrual and Dissociation, the Cultural Fusion Theory and the Cultural Churning Theory. For instance, according to Kramer's DAD theory, a statue of a god in an \"idolic\" community literally is god, and stealing it is a highly punishable offense. For example, many people in India believe that statues of the god Ganesh – to take such a statue/god from its temple is more than theft, it is blasphemy. \"Idolic\" reality involves strong emotional identification, where a holy relic does not simply symbolize the sacred, \"it is\" sacred. By contrast, a Christian crucifix follows a \"symbolic\" nature, where it represents a symbol of God. Lastly, the \"signalic\" modality is far less emotional and increasingly dissociated. Kramer refers to changes in each culture due to acculturation as \"co-evolution\". Kramer also addresses what he calls the \"qualities of out vectors\" which address the nature in which the former and new cultures make contact. Kramer uses the phrase \"interaction potential\" to refer to differences in individual or group acculturative processes. For example, the process of acculturation is markedly different if one is entering the host as an immigrant or as a refugee. Moreover, this idea encapsulates the importance of how receptive a host culture is to the newcomer, how easy is it for the newcomer to interact with and get to know the host, and how this interaction affects both the newcomer \"and\" the host.", "The fourfold model is a bilinear model that categorizes acculturation strategies along two dimensions. The first dimension concerns the retention or rejection of an individual's minority or native culture (i.e. \"Is it considered to be of value to maintain one's identity and characteristics?\"), whereas the second dimension concerns the adoption or rejection of the dominant group or host culture. (\"Is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships with the larger society?\") From this, four acculturation strategies emerge. Studies suggest that individuals' respective acculturation strategy can differ between their private and public life spheres. For instance, an individual may reject the values and norms of the dominant culture in his private life (separation), whereas he might adapt to the dominant culture in public parts of his life (i.e., integration or assimilation).", "The fourfold models used to describe individual attitudes of immigrants parallel models used to describe group expectations of the larger society and how groups should acculturate. In a melting pot society, in which a harmonious and homogenous culture is promoted, assimilation is the endorsed acculturation strategy. In segregationist societies, in which humans are separated into racial, ethnic and/or religious groups in daily life, a separation acculturation strategy is endorsed. In a multiculturalist society, in which multiple cultures are accepted and appreciated, individuals are encouraged to adopt an integrationist approach to acculturation. In societies where cultural exclusion is promoted, individuals often adopt marginalization strategies of acculturation. Attitudes towards acculturation, and thus the range of acculturation strategies available, have not been consistent over time. For example, for most of American history, policies and attitudes have been based around established ethnic hierarchies with an expectation of one-way assimilation for predominantly White European immigrants. Although the notion of cultural pluralism has existed since the early 20th century, the recognition and promotion of multiculturalism did not become prominent in America until the 1980s. Separatism can still be seen today in autonomous religious communities such as the Amish and the Hutterites. Immediate environment also impacts the availability, advantage, and selection of different acculturation strategies. As individuals immigrate to unequal segments of society, immigrants to areas lower on economic and ethnic hierarchies may encounter limited social mobility and membership to a disadvantaged community. It can be explained by the theory of Segmented Assimilation, which is used to describe the situation when immigrants individuals or groups assimilate to the culture of different segments of the society of the host country. The outcome of whether entering the upper class, middle class, or lower class is largely determined by the socioeconomic status of the last generation. On a broad scale study, involving immigrants in 13 immigration-receiving countries, the experience of discrimination was positively related to the maintenance of the immigrants' ethnic culture. In other words, immigrants that maintain their cultural practices and values are more likely to be discriminated against than those whom abandon their culture. Most individuals show variation in both their ideal and chosen acculturation strategies across different domains of their lives. For example, among immigrants, it is often easier and more desired to acculturate to their host society's attitudes towards politics and government, than it is to acculturate to new attitudes about religion, principles, values, and customs.", "The large flux of migrants around the world has sparked scholarly interest in acculturation, and how it can specifically affect health by altering levels of stress, access to health resources, and attitudes towards health. The effects of acculturation on physical health is thought to be a major factor in the immigrant paradox, which argues that first generation immigrants tend to have better health outcomes than non-immigrants. Although this term has been popularized, most of the academic literature supports the opposite conclusion, or that immigrants have poorer health outcomes than their host culture counterparts. One prominent explanation for the negative health behaviors and outcomes (e.g. substance use, low birth weight) associated with the acculturation process is the \"acculturative stress theory\". Acculturative stress refers to the stress response of immigrants in response to their experiences of acculturation. Stressors can include but are not limited to the pressures of learning a new language, maintaining one's native language, balancing differing cultural values, and brokering between native and host differences in acceptable social behaviors. Acculturative stress can manifest in many ways, including but not limited to anxiety, depression, substance abuse, and other forms of mental and physical maladaptation. Stress caused by acculturation has been heavily documented in phenomenological research on the acculturation of a large variety of immigrants. This research has shown that acculturation is a \"fatiguing experience requiring a constant stream of bodily energy,\" and is both an \"individual and familial endeavor\" involving \"enduring loneliness caused by seemingly insurmountable language barriers\". One important distinction when it comes to risk for acculturative stress is degree of willingness, or migration status, which can differ greatly if one enters a country as a voluntary immigrant, refugee, asylum seeker, or sojourner. According to several studies, voluntary migrants experience roughly 50% less acculturative stress than refugees, making this an important distinction. According to Schwartz (2010), there are four main categories of migrants: This type of entry distinction is important, but acculturative stress can also vary significantly within and between ethnic groups. Much of the scholarly work on this topic has focused on Asian and Latino/a immigrants, however more research is needed on the effects of acculturative stress on other ethnic immigrant groups. Among U.S. Latinos, higher levels of adoption of the American host culture has been associated with negative effects on health behaviors and outcomes, such as increased risk for depression and discrimination, and increased risk for low self-esteem. However, some individuals also report \"finding relief and protection in relationships\" and \"feeling worse and then feeling better about oneself with increased competencies\" during the acculturative process. Again, these differences can be attributed to the age of the immigrant, the manner in which an immigrant exited their home country, and how the immigrant is received by the both the original and host cultures. Recent research has compared the acculturative processes of documented Mexican-American immigrants and undocumented Mexican-American immigrants and found significant differences in their experiences and levels of acculturative stress. Both groups of Mexican-American immigrants faced similar risks for depression and discrimination from the host (Americans), but the undocumented group of Mexican-American immigrants also faced discrimination, hostility, and exclusion by their own ethnic group (Mexicans) because of their unauthorized legal status. These studies highlight the complexities of acculturative stress, the degree of variability in health outcomes, and the need for specificity over generalizations when discussing potential or actual health outcomes. Researchers recently uncovered another layer of complications in this field, where survey data has either combined several ethnic groups together or has labeled an ethnic group incorrectly. When these generalizations occur, nuances and subtleties about a person or group's experience of acculturation or acculturative stress can be diluted or lost. For example, much of the scholarly literature on this topic uses U.S. Census data. The Census correctly labels Arab-Americans as Caucasian or \"White\". By doing so, this data set omits many factors about the Muslim Arab-American migrant experience, including but not limited to acculturation and acculturative stress. This is of particular importance after the events of September 11, 2001, since Muslim Arab-Americans have faced increased prejudice and discrimination, leaving this religious ethnic community with an increased risk of acculturative stress. Research focusing on the adolescent Muslim Arab American experience of acculturation has also found that youth who experience acculturative stress during the identity formation process are at a higher risk for low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression. Some researchers argue that education, social support, hopefulness about employment opportunities, financial resources, family cohesion, maintenance of traditional cultural values, and high socioeconomic status (SES) serve as protections or mediators against acculturative stress. Previous work shows that limited education, low SES, and underemployment all increase acculturative stress. Since this field of research is rapidly growing, more research is needed to better understand how certain subgroups are differentially impacted, how stereotypes and biases have influenced former research questions about acculturative stress, and the ways in which acculturative stress can be effectively mediated.", "", "When individuals of a certain culture are exposed to another culture (host) that is primarily more present in the area that they live, some aspects of the host culture will likely be taken and blended within aspects of the original culture of the individuals. In situations of continuous contact, cultures have exchanged and blended foods, music, dances, clothing, tools, and technologies. This kind of cultural exchange can be related to selective \"acculturation\" that refers to the process of maintaining cultural content by researching those individuals’ language use, religious belief, and family norms. Cultural exchange can either occur naturally through extended contact, or more quickly though cultural appropriation or cultural imperialism. Cultural appropriation is the adoption of some specific elements of one culture by members a different cultural group. It can include the introduction of forms of dress or personal adornment, music and art, religion, language, or behavior. These elements are typically imported into the existing culture, and may have wildly different meanings or lack the subtleties of their original cultural context. Because of this, cultural appropriation for monetary gain is typically viewed negatively, and has sometimes been called \"cultural theft\". Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another, usually occurring in situations in which assimilation is the dominant strategy of acculturation. Cultural imperialism can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general attitude regarding cultural superiority.", "In some instances, acculturation results in the adoption of another country's language, which is then modified over time to become a new, distinct, language. For example, Hanzi, the written language of Chinese language, has been adapted and modified by other nearby cultures, including: Japan (as kanji), Korea (as hanja), and Vietnam (as hán tự). Jews, often living as ethnic minorities, developed distinct languages derived from the common languages of the countries in which they lived (for example, Yiddish from High German and Ladino from Old Spanish). Another common effect of acculturation on language is the formation of pidgin languages. Pidgin is a mixed language that has developed to help communication between members of different cultures in contact, usually occurring in situations of trade or colonialism. For example, Pidgin English is a simplified form of English mixed with some of the language of another culture. Some pidgin languages can develop into creole languages, which are spoken as a first language.", "Food habits and food consumption are affected by acculturation on different levels. Research indicated that food habits are discreet and practiced privately, and change occurs slowly. Consumption of new food items is affected by the availability of native ingredients, convenience and cost; therefore, an immediate change is likely to occur. Aspects of food acculturation include the preparation, presentation and consumption of food. Different cultures have different ways in which they prepare, serve and eat their food. When exposed to another culture for an extended period of time, individuals tend to take aspects of the \"host\" culture's food customs and implement them with their own. In cases such as these, acculturation is heavily influenced by general food knowledge, or knowing the unique kinds of food different cultures traditionally have, the media, and social interaction. It allows for different cultures to be exposed to one another, causing some aspects to intertwine and also become more acceptable to the individuals of each of the respective cultures.", "", "Anthropologists make a semantic distinction between group and individual levels of acculturation. In such instances, the term \"transculturation\" is used to define individual foreign-origin acculturation, and occurs on a smaller scale with less visible impact. Scholars making this distinction use the term \"acculturation\" only to address large-scale cultural transactions. Acculturation, then, is the process by which migrants gain new information and insight about the normals and values of their culture and adapt their behaviors to the host culture.", "Most research seems to indicate that the integrationist model of acculturation leads to the most favorable psychological outcomes and marginalization to the least favorable. An initial meta-analysis of the acculturation literature found these results to be unclear. However, a more thorough meta-analysis of 40 studies showed that integration was indeed found to have a \"significant, weak, and positive relationship with psychological and sociocultural adjustment\". A study was done by Berry (2006) that included 7,997 immigrant adolescents from 13 countries found that immigrant boys tend to have slightly better psychological adaptation than immigrant girls. Overall, immigrants in the integration profile were found to be more well-adapted than those in other profiles. Perceived discrimination was also negatively linked to both psychological and sociocultural adaptation. There are many factors that can explain the differences in these findings, including how different the two interacting cultures are, and degree of integration difficulty (bicultural identity integration). These types of factors partially explain why general statements about approaches to acculturation are not sufficient in predicting successful adaptation. As research in this area has expanded, one study has identified marginalization as being a maladaptive acculturation strategy.", "Several theorists have stated that the fourfold models of acculturation are too simplistic to have predictive validity. Some common criticisms of such models include the fact that individuals don't often fall neatly into any of the four categories, and that there is very little evidence for the applied existence of the marginalization acculturation strategy. In addition, the bi-directionality of acculturation means that whenever two groups are engaged in cultural exchange, there are 16 permutations of acculturation strategies possible (e.g. an integrationist individual within an assimilationist host culture). According to the research, another critic of the fourfold of acculturation is that the people are less likely to cultivate a self-perception but either not assimilate other cultures or continuing the heritage cultures. The interactive acculturation model represents one proposed alternative to the typological approach by attempting to explain the acculturation process within a framework of state policies and the dynamic interplay of host community and immigrant acculturation orientations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "In Chinese mythology, the giant Kua Fu drained the Yellow River and the Wei River to quench his burning thirst as he pursued the Sun. The valley of the Wei was one of the early cradles of Chinese civilization, along which the capitals of the Zhou, Qin, Han, and Tang Dynasties were situated. The area of Dingxi around its headwaters in Gansu has numerous stone age sites from various early cultures. The Wei Valley is likely the earliest center of Chinese civilization, and also the location of China's first major irrigation works. Some Chinese historians now believe the Wei is the ancient Jiang River that gave its name to the families of Shennong and the Yan emperor, two Chinese legendary heroes credited with the early development of agriculture there. As \"China's natural gateway\" to the west, the headwaters of the Wei River are also notable in the development of the Northern Silk Road. The Chinese segment of the Northern Silk Road connected Chang'an (then the capital of China) to the west via Baoji, Tianshui at the Wei's headwaters, Lanzhou, Dunhuang, and the Wushao Ling Mountain, before looping north of the Taklamakan on its way to Kashgar and the routes into Parthia. In September 2003 extensive rainfall led to flooding that caused over 30 fatalities, and temporarily displaced over 300,000 people. Ecological aspects of the Wei River have been examined with respect to flow rates in the Wei River. The Wei River Bridge (Weihe Qiao 渭河桥) featured in the design of the 5000-yuan note of the first series of the renminbi, dated 1953, and shows a train passing over the bridge." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Family.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Conrad II was the son of Prince Luitpold of Znojmo and his wife Ida, a daughter of the Babenberg margrave Leopold II of Austria. Upon his father's death in 1112, Znojmo passed to his uncle Ulrich I of Brno, who died the next year. From 1115 onwards, both the Brno and Znojmo principalities in Moravia were held by Soběslav I, youngest son of the late King Vratislaus II of Bohemia. Finally, when Soběslav fell out with his elder brother Duke Vladislaus I of Bohemia in 1123, Conrad II was able to succeed his father in Znojmo. However, Duke Vladislaus died two years later and as the dynastic struggles culminated in the 1126 Battle of Chlumec, Soběslav had Conrad II deposed and imprisoned at Dohna Castle in 1128. In an attempt to reconcile with his Moravian cousin and to stabilise his rule in the Bohemian lands, Duke Soběslav reinstalled Conrad as Znojmo prince and also arranged his marriage with the Vukanović princess Mary (d. 1189), a daughter of Grand Prince Uroš I of Serbia. When in 1140 Vladislaus II, son of the late Duke Vladislaus I, succeeded to the Bohemian throne, the Přemyslid quarrels broke out again. Two years later, Prince Conrad II gathered troops and together with his Brno and Olomouc cousins marched against Prague. However, while the castle was successfully defended by the duke's younger brother Prince Děpold I of Jamnitz, Vladislaus II himself proceeded to the court of King Conrad III of Germany in Würzburg and returned with a large royal army. The Moravian forces had to retire and Prince Conrad, excommunicated by the Olomouc bishop Jindřich Zdík, had to accept the Bohemian overlordship. Conrad II commissioned the wall paintings (frescoes) of the Znojmo Rotunda some time after 1134.", "Conrad II married Mary (\"Marija\", known in Czech as \"Marie Srbská\"), a Serbian princess, daughter of Grand Prince Uroš I (r. 1112–45). They had five children, among them:", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Domestic policy.", "Marriage and issue." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He was the second son of Duke Conrad I of Bohemia (died 1092) and his consort, the Bavarian countess Wirpirk of Tengling. Luitpold's father ruled the Duchy of Bohemia only for a few months before his death, having succeeded his elder brother Vratislaus II. Both had wrangled over the newly implemented seniority principle with their eldest brother Duke Spytihněv II: not until Spytihněv's death in 1061 and the accession of Vratislaus II to the Bohemian throne, Conrad received his share, ruling over the Moravian lands of Znojmo and Brno for more than 30 years. Luitpold did not succeed his father as Duke of Bohemia; according to the principle of agnatic seniority, the ducal title passed to his eldest cousin Bretislav II, son of the late Vratislaus II. Instead, Luitpold ruled in half of Moravia (the western part) as his father Conrad I, though again divided into two principalities: Brno and Znojmo, and Luitpold was co-ruler (diarch) for all in this part with his elder brother Ulrich I. All Moravian lines of the Přemyslid dynasty as a whole were systematically associated by dynastic marriages with princesses of major royal and ducal dynasties, especially Árpád dynasty, Rurik dynasty, Piast dynasty, Nemanjić dynasty-senior line, Vukanović, the House of Babenberg and other dynasties of Bavarian dukes; as it was the other way around (\"vice versa\"). Members of the Moravian dynasty were fully predisposed to take over the central throne (for both countries - Bohemia and Moravia) in Prague, under the principles of agnatic seniority.", "Luitpold ruled over southern Moravia as diarch in Znojmo for 20 years, once interrupted by the illegitimate regency of Duke Bretislav II in 1099-1100, when he and Ulrich were evicted. Both fell out with Bretislav when the duke tried to enforce the succession of his younger brother Bořivoj. He had Ulrich captured and arrested in Kladsko, while Luitpold fought against the forces of Bořivoj's father-in-law, the Babenberg margrave Leopold II of Austria. Upon Duke Bretislav's assassination in 1100, Emperor Henry IV confirmed the accession of Bořivoj to the Prague throne; nevertheless Luitpold and Ulrich enforced their return to Moravia and the restoration of the Brno duchy - with the help of Austrian and Bavarian armed forces as well as with indirect support by the emperor, whom the brothers visited in early February 1101 in Frankfurt. After they returned, they continued to reign in the two principalities of Brno and Znojmo in certain territorial union. Emperor Henry IV gave Ulrich insignia of rank and banner (\"vexillum\") for their reign as Moravian dukes, while Luitpold's brother officially renounced all claims to the Prague throne. Luitpold himself, however, once again participated in the successful rebellion led by his Moravian cousin Svatopluk of Olomouc against Duke Bořivoj in 1107. About 1101, Luitpold and Ulrich together established the Benedictine abbey of Třebíč and prepared its St. Procopius Church as mausoleum for the Brno-Znojmo branch of the Přemyslid dynasty, where they were both were buried. Luitpold died in 1112, whereafter his Znojmo principality passed to Ulrich.", "By his marriage to Princess Ida of Babenberg, daughter of Margeve Leopold II of Austria and his consort Ida of Formbach, he had one son, the other children (if any) are unknown;" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early years.", "Ferrari.", "McLaren.", "Return to Ferrari.", "Final seasons with Benetton.", "Berger and Senna.", "After retirement from racing.", "Helmet.", "Racing record.", "Complete Formula One results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Gerhard Berger was born in Wörgl, Austria. His father Johann worked in his own truck company with Gerhard later working for his father and before being promoted to a driver. Berger, a multiple race winner in European Formula Three, moved up to Formula One in driving for the ATS team. Berger was fortunate to be alive after a serious road accident shortly after entering Formula One. A week after the 1984 season ended, he was driving home in his BMW 323i through the hills above Salzburg when his car was rammed from behind, resulting in it cartwheeling off a cliff. Berger, at that time not wearing the seatbelt, was thrown clear of the BMW through the rear window. By chance, the first car on the crash scene was occupied by two surgeons who specialised in back injuries. The doctors realised the extent of his injuries (a broken neck and some damaged bones in his back) and made sure he was not moved until special equipment arrived. Following emergency surgery, and a stay in hospital in Innsbruck, he made a full recovery. A full season for Arrows followed in, though both Berger and teammate Thierry Boutsen were hampered by the Arrows A8 which was not the best chassis on the grid and did not allow either to exploit the immense power of the BMW M12 engine. Although he had some good drives (including running 6th in France), Berger would finish the season in 20th place having scored 3 points in the last two races of the year in South Africa and Australia. It was not until joining Benetton in that his F1 career took off. Finally in a car that allowed him to exploit both his talent and the exceptional power of the BMW turbo engine ( in qualifying in 1986), coupled with a clever Pirelli tyre strategy, Berger won his first Grand Prix in Mexico using the Benetton B186. Berger was also on course for an easy victory at his home race, the 1986 Austrian Grand Prix before being forced into the pits from a comfortable lead with a flat battery. Berger out-qualified teammate Teo Fabi 12–4 in 1986 though Fabi, who as a Rookie had qualified on the pole for the 1983 Indianapolis 500, took pole at the faster Österreichring and Monza circuits. Berger established himself as a very fast driver in Formula One that year, recording the fastest speed trap of the season, clocking an incredible 351.22 km/h (218.23 mph) at the Italian Grand Prix at Monza. This remains the fastest straight line speed attained by a turbocharged car in the first turbo era. Berger was also successful in Group A touring cars during this time, racing for the highly rated German Schnitzer BMW team, driving the highly competitive BMW 635 Csi in the European Touring Car Championship. He won the 1985 Spa 24 Hours partnering Italian touring car ace Roberto Ravaglia and fellow Formula One driver, Marc Surer of Switzerland. Until the mid-1980s when teams began stopping their drivers competing in other categories of racing (primarily due to the risk involved), it was not uncommon for a Grand Prix driver to race in sports and touring cars. However, by 1985 Formula One drivers were not permitted race in any other category within 24 hours of the start of a Grand Prix. At the season ending 1985 Australian Grand Prix in Adelaide, Berger had to obtain permission from the FIA, FOCA, and from Arrows team to race in a Group A touring car race which was a support category for the weekend. He needed the permission as the Grand Prix was scheduled to start at 2 pm on Sunday, 3 November and the Group A race was to start at 3 pm on the Saturday. Driving an ex-Schnitzer BMW 635 CSi (that had finished 2nd behind his own at the Spa 24 Hours) for Australian racing legend and millionaire Bob Jane, Berger qualified 2nd on the grid but his race lasted just 3 laps before he was punted into the gravel trap at the end of the pit straight by the Holden Commodore V8 of local veteran John Harvey.", "For the 1987 season, Berger signed for Ferrari, partnering the Italian Michele Alboreto and replacing Stefan Johansson. After mechanical failures robbed him of the chance to perform, Berger came on strongly in the latter half of 1987, winning the final two rounds of the season. The 1987 Ferrari F1/87 benefitted from the work of ex-McLaren designer John Barnard although the car was designed by Austrian Gustav Brunner. Ferrari were back competing for race honours for the first time since mid-1985 from the Hungarian Grand Prix onwards. Berger was running a close second to Nigel Mansell at the Hungaroring before he was forced to retire. At Estoril for the Portuguese Grand Prix Berger dominated the race from pole position before spinning in the latter stages to finish second after pressure from Alain Prost. The Austrian then looked to be heading for a second consecutive victory at the Hermanos Rodriguez circuit for the Mexican Grand Prix as he once again dominated the race but mechanical problems forced him to retire when leading. Success at both Suzuka and Adelaide for the Japanese and the Australian Grands Prix, including pole positions in both events and the fastest lap in Adelaide, ensured Ferrari and Berger went into the winter season with boosted confidence and both team and driver were tipped as favourites for the 1988 Championship. As he had done to Fabi in 1986, Berger out-qualified teammate Alboreto 12–4 in 1987. Berger's wins also gave Ferrari its first back to back victories since the late Gilles Villeneuve won the Monaco and Spanish Grands Prix in. In, the McLaren team, with twice World Champion Alain Prost and the sensationally fast Ayrton Senna dominated the season, winning 15 of the 16 rounds. The Honda V6 turbo engine in the McLaren MP4/4, and Lotus's 100T had superior fuel efficiency to the Ferrari, which caused both Berger and Alboreto to often drive much slower than possible in races. Berger was the only driver to break the McLaren stranglehold in 1988, winning the Italian Grand Prix after Senna tangled with Jean-Louis Schlesser, who had temporarily replaced Nigel Mansell (who was sick with chicken pox) in the Williams-Judd. Alboreto made it a Ferrari 1–2, finishing only half a second behind the Austrian. This was a particularly poignant victory for the team, as it came just weeks after the death of Enzo Ferrari. Berger was also the only non-McLaren to take pole in 1988 when he sat on pole for the British Grand Prix at Silverstone. It was also the only race where both Ferrari cars were on the front row, with Alboreto qualifying only 0.199 behind his teammate. The Ferrari F1/87/88C proved troublesome for both Berger and teammate Alboreto especially in terms of fuel consumption from the 1.5 litre turbo engine (Ferrari, unlike the Japanese, had not built a new engine for the season to cope with the lower fuel limit of 150 litres and the lower 2.5 Bar turbo limit, instead fronting with an updated version of their 1987 engine). At the very wet British Grand Prix for instance, Berger led the opening laps from Senna having already attained pole position, consequently building a large cushion over the rest of the field before having to slow just to finish (at the halfway mark he was in 2nd place, 50 seconds in front of 3rd placed Nigel Mansell). Ultimately he finished in 9th position, having fallen from 5th after running out of fuel coming out of the Woodcote chicane on the very last lap, with Alboreto already having run out of fuel 3 laps from the finish. In the space of 200 metres Berger was passed by Nelson Piquet (Lotus), Derek Warwick and Eddie Cheever (Arrows) and Riccardo Patrese (Williams). Both Ferrari drivers were often forced to use the lowest turbo boost setting they had (approximately 2.0 bar) and reduce their engine's revs in order to get the cars to the finish of a race. Until changes were made to the Ferrari's V6 engine late in the season, this meant that Berger and Alboreto were often vulnerable to attack from the leading atmospheric cars, with Berger estimating that he could often only use of the cars available during a race if he wanted to finish. Berger was leading the final race of the season at Adelaide ahead of Prost and Senna before he clashed with former Ferrari driver René Arnoux in the Ligier while trying to lap the Frenchman. Before the race Berger, apparently with the full support of the team, told the McLaren drivers who qualified 1-2 in front of him that he was going to go all out and run as fast as he could without worrying about running out of fuel to give a good show for the fans. He did just that and after passing Senna for 2nd on lap 3, he set numerous fastest laps before finally catching and passing Prost on lap 14. From there he put some 5 seconds between himself and Prost before being taken out by Arnoux on lap 28. Berger out-qualified Alboreto in all 16 events for the 1988 Formula One calendar and in the eight races where they were both classified as finishers, finished behind Alboreto only once in France, spelling the end for the Italian after five seasons with the Maranello outfit. For 1989, Berger was joined at Ferrari by Nigel Mansell. The Ferrari 640 with its V12 engine was fast but fragile, thanks in part to its revolutionary semi-automatic gearbox designed by John Barnard. At the Brazilian Grand Prix, Berger tangled with Senna at the very first corner as the Brazilian found himself trapped between Riccardo Patrese's Williams-Renault to the left and Berger's Ferrari to the right, with the three drivers dicing for the lead. Berger was lucky to escape alive from a crash during the San Marino Grand Prix at Imola's Tamburello corner, where he went straight on into the wall at almost. The car spun multiple times along the wall before catching fire. It took 16 seconds for a rescue crew to reach the Ferrari and put the fire out. Suffering remarkably few injuries, notably burns to his hands and some broken ribs, Berger was able to make it back to the cockpit at the Mexican Grand Prix after missing just the Monaco Grand Prix. Berger attributed this to Ferrari's unique semi-automatic paddle shift gearbox, saying that his return would have been delayed if Ferrari still used the traditional gear stick transmission used in all other F1 cars in 1989. With the exception of the Australian Grand Prix where both Ferrari drivers had poor qualifying sessions, Berger featured in the top four in qualifying and races in all of the remaining Grands Prix but poor reliability and accidents meant that he only finished three races all year (by mid-season the problem with the semi-automatic transmission was found to be not enough power from the battery which was fixed with the help of team sponsor, electrical experts Magneti Marelli). His first points of the year didn't come until he finished in second place in Round 12 at the Italian Grand Prix. He won the next race in Portugal which was overshadowed by the accident involving Mansell and Senna, and then finished second at the next race in Spain. These races were in fact his only points scored for the year but was still enough to give him 7th in the championship after being 3rd in 1988. The improvement in form from Ferrari came too late though. At the British Grand Prix it was announced that Alain Prost would leave McLaren at the end of the season to join the Scuderia while Berger decided to sign for McLaren who, with their Honda V10 engines, were at the time the best and fastest team in Grand Prix racing.", "From 1990 to 1992 Berger joined Ayrton Senna at McLaren. His arrival was met with great anticipation as he had proven great form for Benetton and Ferrari. A McLaren-Honda seemed to offer Berger a genuine chance at the world championship for the first time. However, although generally quicker than his predecessor Alain Prost in relation to Senna in qualifying (he often qualified 2nd behind Senna), he was rarely able to match the Brazilian's pace during races. He took three wins in these three seasons, gifted the 1991 Japanese Grand Prix by Senna; as well as victories in Canada and Australia in 1992. During his three years at McLaren, Berger also obtained four pole positions and out-qualified Senna 8 times. His debut at McLaren ruffled feathers, as he outqualified Senna for the 1990 United States Grand Prix obtaining pole position. Initially, Berger complained of a lack of space in the McLaren MP4/5B for the 1990 season, which had been designed in 1988/89 for the shorter Senna and Prost. At the 1990 Canadian Grand Prix Berger finished first, around 45 seconds ahead of the eventual winner Senna, but was penalized by one minute for creeping at the start before the green lights. Berger also started from pole position at the 1990 Mexican Grand Prix. In 1990 Berger failed to win a race for his new team, while teammate Senna won the Drivers' Championship for the second time. Towards the end of 1991, Berger found his form in the McLaren MP4/6 - a car he was able to fit in better than the MP4/5B, out-qualifying teammate Senna at the Portuguese, Spanish and the title deciding Japanese Grands Prix (claiming pole position in the latter two events). In 1992, Berger won the 1992 Canadian Grand Prix having overtaken Riccardo Patrese's Williams and attacking teammate Senna before the Brazilian retired. During the 1992 Portuguese Grand Prix, Berger was involved in an incident with the Williams of Patrese. Patrese did not realize that Berger was heading towards the pitlane touched the McLaren's rear wheel and went airborne, narrowly missing a bridge, before coming to a halt in front of the armco of the pitlane. Berger then went on to win the Australian Grand Prix for the second time after a battle with Patrese. Berger therefore won his last race for McLaren and McLaren's last race with Honda engines. A lucrative offer from Ferrari proved too tempting for Berger who announced before the 1992 Belgian Grand Prix that he would be returning to the struggling Italian outfit.", "Berger was persuaded by Ayrton Senna (who told him that Honda would leave Formula One at the end of the 1992 season, leaving McLaren without a works engine for the 1993 season) and also by his countryman Niki Lauda to return to the Italian team in 1993 as Lauda felt Berger brought valuable experience with him from his partnership with Senna. The active ride suspension made the car unpredictable to drive and the Ferrari F93A failed to record a single victory and spent the majority of the season competing for the lower points. Berger's best result was third position at the 1993 Hungarian Grand Prix. Berger had a number of spectacular incidents during the season including a clash with Michael Andretti at the start of the 1993 Brazilian Grand Prix and a dramatic impact with the armco at the 1993 Portuguese Grand Prix having just exited the pits. The 1993 Monaco Grand Prix was perhaps where Berger displayed his fighting qualities best of all, obtaining second fastest lap before he attempted an opportunistic move on Damon Hill's Williams at Loews hairpin while challenging for second position. The Austrian was forced to retire. In 1994, Berger recovered from the deaths of close friend Senna and countryman Roland Ratzenberger at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, to score an emotional win at Hockenheim for the 1994 German Grand Prix in the Ferrari 412T, the first win for Ferrari since the 1990 Spanish Grand Prix. Berger also scored two pole positions in 1994, the first at Hockenheim and then at Estoril for the 1994 Portuguese Grand Prix where he retired from while leading. Berger was also in the lead at the final round at the 1994 Australian Grand Prix when he made a mistake, letting his former teammate Nigel Mansell pass and win for Williams. A final season with the team in 1995 saw Berger score a number of podiums and was in a race winning position at the 1995 San Marino Grand Prix having qualified second before stalling in the pits but the fastest lap was a mere consolation. A particularly audacious pass on Damon Hill in Canada was just one example of his strong racecraft. Berger produced another aggressive drive for third having received a 10-second stop-go penalty for a jump start and then climbing up through the field from 14th position at the 1995 German Grand Prix, making a number of overtakings on the way. At Monza both Ferrari drivers were in contention for the win, when an on-board camera on Jean Alesi's Ferrari fell into the path of Berger and smashed the Austrian's front suspension after damaging Alesi's car. The departure of both Alesi and Berger from Ferrari to Benetton also spelt the end of the number 27 and 28 era for Ferrari that stretched back to 1981 with Gilles Villeneuve and Didier Pironi only interrupted by the signing of 1989 world champion Alain Prost for the 1990 season.", "With the arrival of Michael Schumacher at Ferrari in 1996, Berger moved back to Benetton, although the team lost the competitiveness of the previous years. He could have remained at Maranello, but felt that the new Ferrari V10 engine would take too much time to develop. Berger spent his final two years in the sport at the team he drove for in 1986 while also sporting a revised helmet design, with the Austrian flag being rotated horizontally. 1996 proved to be a disappointing season for the Austrian, the handling characteristics of the Benetton B196 not being to his taste. Berger nearly won the German Grand Prix for the second time in his career before his Renault V10 engine blew up, handing victory to Damon Hill in the Williams. Berger's main problem for the early part of 1996 was his driving position that prevented a smooth airflow into the airbox. Consequently, Berger was significantly slower down the straights than teammate Jean Alesi. The Benetton B197 had a lacklustre opening to the 1997 season at Melbourne but the team and Berger bounced back at the 1997 Brazilian Grand Prix, with Berger finishing second having overtaken Mika Häkkinen and Michael Schumacher. Berger then scored Benetton's final Grand Prix victory at the age of 37, again at Hockenheim, coming back after a 3 race layoff following illness and the death of his father in a light aircraft accident. As well as the victory, Berger also claimed pole position and fastest lap during the 1997 German Grand Prix. He announced his decision to leave Benetton at the end of the season during the same weekend. He eventually retired at the end of the season, his final race seeing him finish a very close fourth in Jerez only seconds behind the victor Mika Häkkinen. In his final season as a Formula One driver, Berger and Alesi out-qualified each other 7 times each with the Austrian missing three races due to illness. Rumours of a Ferrari return for 1998 were false. Sauber offered Berger a drive for 1998 to partner Alesi, but the Austrian turned down the offer for a number of reasons, not least because of the new regulations for grooved tyres which the Austrian did not find inspiring.", "During the years that Berger was at McLaren (1990–1992), he became most famous for his humorous side. Popular accounts tell of many ingenious practical jokes thought up by the Austrian to break through his serious, focused and unyielding teammate Ayrton Senna. Senna accepted the challenge and as both were spurred on by team manager Ron Dennis, the practical joking escalated. Accounts tell of an incident at Monza where in a joint helicopter ride Senna had been showing off his new tailor-made briefcase. Having been made of carbon fibre composite, Senna argued that it was virtually indestructible. Berger opened the door of the helicopter and threw the briefcase out, to Senna's disbelief. Berger asserted innocently that he only sought to test the hypothesis. Berger later recounted further events before the 1990 Australian Grand Prix. \"After dinner, we started to throw people in the swimming pool, all dressed. As I was good at defending myself, I escaped from the bath, but many people got wet. Senna ran away to avoid us from getting him, however, later, I went to his room and he awkwardly threw a glass of water at me. For a Tyrolean, that was nothing, but it did mean that the game was now on. With a hose, we improvised an extension to the fire extinguisher and we put it under his room door at three in the morning. We invited some people to watch and when we pushed the lever, Senna flew out of the window like a rocket. It looked like a bomb had exploded inside the room. The confusion woke many people up, who started to scream at Senna for making so much noise. He was terribly embarrassed.\" In an Australian hotel room Berger filled Senna's bed with frogs. Senna, understandably infuriated, confronted Berger, who replied, \"Did you find the snake?\" This incident prompted retaliation by Senna, who then proceeded to put a strong smelling French cheese in the air conditioning unit of Berger's room. On another occasion, Senna and Brazilian compatriot Maurício Gugelmin decided to fill Berger's shoes with shaving foam on a fast train ride to a dinner in Japan. The Austrian was forced to attend the dinner wearing a tuxedo with running shoes. A further incident followed in which Berger replaced Senna's passport photo with what Ron Dennis described as \"an equivalent-sized piece of male genitalia\" (although other media accounts refer to a black pair of breasts). Senna's fame meant he rarely had his passport checked, but on a later trip to Argentina, Berger's prank resulted in officials holding the Brazilian for 24 hours. As a response to this gag, Senna superglued all of Berger's credit cards together. Berger's pranks continued at his new team for 1993, Scuderia Ferrari. Specifically, at the Fiorano Circuit a day before the launch of that season's new F1 car, Berger and his then new teammate, Jean Alesi, decided to take a nearby roadcar for a spin. Unbeknownst to them, that roadcar was team director Jean Todt's new specially made Lancia Y10. Because of the view that Alesi was driving conservatively, Berger decided to apply the handbrake causing the Lancia to flip upon their return to the pits, skidding upside down centimeters away from their yet-to-be unveiled new F1 car. Alesi was sent to the hospital. Later when Todt enquired about his roadcar, Berger conceded the two had put some \"slight curb marks on the roof\". The strong connection between Senna and Berger has extended beyond the Brazilian's death in 1994. Berger later acted as an advisor to Bruno Senna, Ayrton's nephew, who made his Formula One debut with the HRT F1 Team in the 2010 World Championship, and subsequently switched to Williams.", "A hugely popular figure in Formula One, Berger was up until 2003 regularly seen in the pitlane in his new capacity as Competitions Director at BMW, overseeing their successful return to Formula One in 2000. Berger was the first to drive a F1 car on the new Shanghai Grand Prix circuit when he demonstrated a 2003 Ferrari F2003-GA. On 25 April 2004; 10 years after Ayrton Senna's death, Berger drove the JPS Lotus Renault 97T, which Senna had used in the 1985 championship, for 3 laps at Imola before the start of the 2004 San Marino Grand Prix. In February 2006, he acquired 50% of Scuderia Toro Rosso in a business deal which saw Red Bull boss Dietrich Mateschitz purchase half of Berger Logistik, a road haulage company founded by Berger's father Johann in 1961. His Toro Rosso team won their first Grand Prix with Sebastian Vettel taking the win. He sold his share back to Mateschitz in November 2008. In 2012 Berger was appointed President of the FIA Single Seat Commission. He left the seat in December 2014. In March 2017, Berger became chairman of ITR, the promoter of the Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters.", "Berger's helmet originally was blue with yellow lines and azure and white details near the visor. In 1986, during his first spell at Benetton he used a different design that complimented the livery of the Benetton BMW. In 1987 his helmet was dark grey-blue, featuring the Austrian flag on either side. For the 1995 Portuguese Grand Prix Berger sported a helmet featuring flags of multiple nations. The top was painted to resemble the Austrian flag and \"NO WAR IN THE WORLD\" at the rear. The special design was a result of a winning entrant for a one-off competition. In 1996 Berger modified his original design with the Austrian flag rotated horizontally.", "", "Berger was driving his team's \"second entry\", and as the team had only entered one car for the entire championship, the second entry was ineligible to score points" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Motivation.", "History and practical application.", "Position encoders.", "Mathematical puzzles.", "Genetic algorithms.", "Boolean circuit minimization.", "Error correction.", "Communication between clock domains.", "Cycling through states with minimal effort.", "Gray code counters and arithmetic.", "Gray code addressing.", "Constructing an \"n\"-bit Gray code.", "Converting to and from Gray code.", "Special types of Gray codes.", "\"n\"-ary Gray code.", "Balanced Gray code.", "Monotonic Gray codes.", "Beckett–Gray code.", "Snake-in-the-box codes.", "Single-track Gray code.", "Two-dimensional Gray code.", "Gray isometry.", "Related codes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bell Labs researcher Frank Gray introduced the term \"reflected binary code\" in his 1947 patent application, remarking that the code had \"as yet no recognized name\". He derived the name from the fact that it \"may be built up from the conventional binary code by a sort of reflection", "Many devices indicate position by closing and opening switches. If that device uses natural binary codes, positions 3 and 4 are next to each other but all three bits of the binary representation differ: The problem with natural binary codes is that physical switches are not ideal: it is very unlikely that physical switches will change states exactly in synchrony. In the transition between the two states shown above, all three switches change state. In the brief period while all are changing, the switches will read some spurious position. Even without keybounce, the transition might look like 011 — 001 — 101 — 100. When the switches appear to be in position 001, the observer cannot tell if that is the \"real\" position 001, or a transitional state between two other positions. If the output feeds into a sequential system, possibly via combinational logic,", "Reflected binary codes were applied to mathematical puzzles before they became known to engineers. Martin Gardner wrote a popular account of the Gray code in his August 1972 Mathematical Games column in Scientific American. The French engineer Émile Baudot used Gray codes in telegraphy in 1878. He received the French Legion of Honor medal for his work. The Gray code is sometimes attributed, incorrectly, to Elisha Gray. Frank Gray, who became famous for inventing the signaling method that came to be used for compatible color television, invented a method to convert analog signals to reflected binary code groups using vacuum tube-based apparatus. The method and apparatus were patented in 1953 and the name of Gray stuck to the codes. The \"PCM tube\" apparatus that Gray patented was made by Raymond W. Sears of Bell Labs, working with Gray and William M. Goodall, who credited Gray for the idea of the reflected binary code. Gray was most interested in using the codes to minimize errors in converting analog signals to digital; his codes are still used today for this purpose.", "Gray codes are used in linear and rotary position encoders (absolute encoders and quadrature encoders) in preference to weighted binary encoding. This avoids the possibility that, when multiple bits change in the binary representation of a position, a misread will result from some of the bits changing before others. For example, some rotary encoders provide a disk which has an electrically conductive Gray code pattern on concentric rings (tracks). Each track has a stationary metal spring contact that provides electrical contact to the conductive code pattern. Together, these contacts produce output signals in the form of a Gray code. Other encoders employ non-contact mechanisms based on optical or magnetic sensors to produce", "The binary-reflected Gray code can serve as a solution guide for the Towers of Hanoi problem, as well", "Due to the Hamming distance properties of Gray codes, they are sometimes used in genetic algorithms. They are very", "Gray codes are also used in labelling the axes of", "In modern digital communications, Gray codes play an important role in error correction. For example, in a digital modulation scheme such as QAM where data is typically transmitted in symbols of 4 bits or more, the signal's constellation diagram is arranged", "Digital logic designers use Gray codes extensively for passing multi-bit count information between synchronous logic that operates at", "If a system has to cycle through all possible combinations of on-off states of some set of controls, and the changes of the controls require non-trivial expense (e.g. time, wear, human work), a Gray code minimizes the number of setting changes to just one change for each combination of states. An example would be testing a piping system for all combinations of settings of its manually operated valves. A balanced Gray code can be constructed, that flips every bit equally often. Since bit-flips are evenly distributed, this is optimal in the following way: balanced Gray codes minimize the maximal count of bit-flips for each digit.", "A typical use of Gray code counters is building a FIFO (first-in, first-out) data buffer that has read and write ports that exist in different clock domains. The input and output counters inside such a dual-port FIFO are often stored using Gray code to prevent invalid transient states from being captured when the count crosses clock domains. The updated read and write pointers need to be passed between clock domains when they change, to be able to track FIFO empty and full status in each domain. Each bit of the pointers is sampled non-deterministically for this clock domain transfer. So for each bit, either the old value or the new value is propagated. Therefore, if more than one bit in the multi-bit pointer is changing at the sampling point, a \"wrong\" binary value (neither new nor old) can be propagated. By guaranteeing only one bit can be changing, Gray codes guarantee that the only possible sampled values are the new or old multi-bit value. Typically Gray codes of power-of-two length are used. Sometimes digital buses in electronic systems are used to convey quantities that can only increase or decrease by one at a time, for example the", "As the execution of program code typically causes an instruction memory access pattern of locally consecutive addresses, bus encodings using Gray code addressing instead of binary addressing can reduce the number of state changes of the address bits significantly, thereby reducing the CPU power consumption in some low-power designs.", "The binary-reflected Gray code list for \"n\" bits can be generated recursively from the list for \"n\" − 1 bits by reflecting the list (i.e. listing the entries in reverse order), prefixing the entries in the original list with a binary 0, prefixing the entries in the reflected list with a binary 1, and then concatenating the original list with the reversed list. For example, generating the \"n\" = 3 list from the \"n\" = 2 list: The one-bit Gray code is \"G\" = (0, 1). This can be thought of as built recursively as above from a zero-bit Gray code \"G\" = ( Λ ) consisting of a single entry of zero length. This iterative process of generating \"G\" from \"G\" makes the following properties of the standard reflecting code clear: These characteristics suggest a simple and fast method of translating a binary value into the corresponding Gray code. Each bit is inverted if the next higher bit of the input value is set to one. This can be performed in parallel by a bit-shift and exclusive-or operation if they are available: the \"n\"th Gray code is obtained by computing formula_3. Prepending a 0 leaves the order of the code words unchanged, prepending", "The following functions in C convert between binary numbers and their associated Gray codes. While it may seem that Gray-to-binary conversion requires each bit to be handled one at a time, faster algorithms exist. typedef unsigned int uint; // This function converts an unsigned binary number to reflected binary Gray code. uint BinaryToGray(uint num) // This function converts", "In practice, \"Gray code\" almost always refers to a binary-reflected Gray code (BRGC). However, mathematicians have discovered other kinds of Gray codes. Like BRGCs, each consists of a lists of words, where each word differs from the next in only one digit (each word has a Hamming distance of 1 from the next word).", "There are many specialized types of Gray codes other than the binary-reflected Gray code. One such type of Gray code is the \"n\"-ary Gray code, also known as a non-Boolean Gray code. As the name implies, this type of Gray code uses non-Boolean values in its encodings. For example, a 3-ary (ternary) Gray code would use the values {0, 1, 2}. The (\"n\", \"k\")-\"Gray code\" is the \"n\"-ary Gray code with \"k\" digits. The sequence of elements in the (3, 2)-Gray code is: {00, 01, 02, 12, 11, 10, 20, 21, 22}. The (\"n\", \"k\")-Gray code may be constructed recursively, as the BRGC, or may be constructed iteratively. An algorithm to iteratively generate the (\"N\", \"k\")-Gray code is presented (in C): // inputs: base, digits, value // output: Gray // Convert a value to a Gray code with the given base and digits. // Iterating through a sequence of values would result in", "Although the binary reflected Gray code is useful in many scenarios, it is not optimal in certain cases because of a lack of \"uniformity\". In balanced Gray codes, the number of changes in different coordinate positions are as close as possible. To make this more precise, let \"G\" be an \"R\"-ary complete Gray cycle having transition sequence formula_26; the \"transition counts\" (\"spectrum\") of \"G\" are the collection of integers defined by A Gray code is \"uniform\" or \"uniformly balanced\" if its transition counts are all equal, in which case we have formula_28 for all \"k\". Clearly, when formula_29, such codes exist only if \"n\" is a power of 2. Otherwise, if \"n\" does not divide formula_30 evenly, it is possible to construct \"well-balanced\" codes where every transition count is either formula_31 or formula_32. Gray codes can also be \"exponentially balanced\" if all of their transition counts are adjacent powers of two, and such codes exist for every power of two. For example, a balanced 4-bit Gray code has 16 transitions, which can be evenly distributed among all four positions (four transitions per position),", "Monotonic codes are useful in the theory of interconnection networks, especially for minimizing dilation for linear arrays of processors. If we define the \"weight\" of a binary string to be the number of 1s in the string, then although we clearly cannot have a Gray code with strictly increasing weight, we may want to approximate this by having the code run through two adjacent weights before reaching the next one. We can formalize the concept of monotone Gray codes as follows: consider the partition of the hypercube formula_53 into \"levels\" of vertices that have equal weight, i.e. for formula_55. These levels satisfy formula_56. Let formula_57 be the subgraph of formula_58 induced by formula_59, and let formula_60 be the edges in formula_57. A monotonic Gray code is then a Hamiltonian path in formula_58 such that whenever formula_63 comes before formula_64 in the path, then formula_65. An elegant construction of monotonic \"n\"-digit Gray codes for any \"n\" is based on the idea of", "Another type of Gray code, the Beckett–Gray code, is named for Irish playwright Samuel Beckett, who was interested in symmetry. His play \"Quad\" features four actors and is divided into sixteen time periods. Each period ends with one of the four actors entering or leaving the stage. The play begins with an empty stage, and Beckett wanted each subset of actors to appear on stage exactly once. Clearly the set of actors currently on stage can be represented by a 4-bit binary Gray code. Beckett, however, placed an additional restriction on the script: he wished the actors to enter and exit so that", "Snake-in-the-box codes, or \"snakes\", are the sequences of nodes of induced paths in an \"n\"-dimensional hypercube graph, and coil-in-the-box codes, or \"coils\", are the sequences of nodes of induced cycles in a hypercube. Viewed as Gray", "Yet another kind of Gray code is the single-track Gray code (STGC) developed by Norman B. Spedding and refined by Hiltgen, Paterson and Brandestini in \"Single-track Gray codes\" (1996). The STGC is a cyclical list of \"P\" unique binary encodings of length n such that two consecutive words differ in exactly one position, and when the list is examined as a \"P\" × \"n\" matrix, each column is a cyclic shift of the first column. The name comes from their use with rotary encoders, where a number of tracks are being sensed by contacts, resulting for each in an output of 0 or", "Two-dimensional Gray codes are used in communication to minimize the number of bit errors in quadrature amplitude modulation adjacent", "The bijective mapping { 0 ↔ 00, 1 ↔ 01, 2 ↔ 11, 3 ↔ 10 } establishes an isometry between the metric space over the finite field formula_85 with the metric given by the Hamming distance and the", "There are a number of binary codes similar to Gray codes, including: The following binary-coded decimal (BCD) codes are Gray code variants as well:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characterisations of the Wiener process.", "Wiener process as a limit of random walk.", "Properties of a one-dimensional Wiener process.", "Basic properties.", "Covariance and correlation.", "Wiener representation.", "Running maximum.", "Self-similarity.", "Brownian scaling.", "Time reversal.", "Time inversion.", "A class of Brownian martingales.", "Some properties of sample paths.", "Quantitative properties.", "Modulus of continuity.", "Local time.", "Information rate.", "Related processes.", "Brownian martingales.", "Integrated Brownian motion.", "Time change.", "Change of measure.", "Complex-valued Wiener process.", "Self-similarity.", "Time change.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "4", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The Wiener process \"formula_1\" is characterised by the following properties: That the process has independent increments means that if 0 ≤ \"s\" < \"t\" ≤ \"s\" < \"t\" then \"W\" − \"W\" and \"W\" − \"W\" are independent random variables, and the similar condition holds for \"n\" increments. An alternative characterisation of the Wiener process is the so-called \"Lévy characterisation\" that says that the Wiener process is an almost surely continuous martingale with \"W\" = 0 and quadratic variation [\"W\", \"W\"] = \"t\" (which means that \"W\" − \"t\" is also a martingale). A third characterisation is that the Wiener process has a spectral representation as a sine series whose coefficients are independent \"N\"(0, 1) random variables. This representation can be obtained using the Karhunen–Loève theorem. Another characterisation of a Wiener process is the definite integral (from time zero to time \"t\") of a zero mean, unit variance, delta correlated (\"white\") Gaussian process. The Wiener process can be constructed as the scaling limit of a random walk, or other discrete-time stochastic processes with stationary independent increments. This is known as Donsker's theorem. Like the random walk, the Wiener process is recurrent in one or two dimensions (meaning that it returns almost surely to any fixed neighborhood of the origin infinitely often) whereas it is not recurrent in dimensions three and higher. Unlike the random walk, it is scale invariant, meaning that is a Wiener process for any nonzero constant α. The Wiener measure is the probability law on the space of continuous functions \"g\", with \"g\"(0) = 0, induced by the Wiener process. An integral based on Wiener measure may be called a Wiener integral.", "Let formula_18 be i.i.d. random variables with mean 0 and variance 1. For each \"n\", define a continuous time stochastic process This is a random step function. Increments of formula_20 are independent because the formula_21 are independent. For large \"n\", formula_22 is close to formula_23 by the central limit theorem. Donsker's theorem asserts that as formula_24, formula_20 approaches a Wiener process, which explains the ubiquity of Brownian motion.", "", "The unconditional probability density function, which follows normal distribution with mean = 0 and variance = \"t\", at a fixed time \"t\": The expectation is zero: The variance, using the computational formula, is \"t\": These results follow immediately from the definition that increments have a normal distribution, centered at zero. Thus", "The covariance and correlation (where formula_30): These results follow from the definition that non-overlapping increments are independent, of which only the property that they are uncorrelated is used. Suppose that formula_33. Substituting we arrive at: Since formula_37 and formula_38 are independent, Thus A corollary useful for simulation is that we can write, for \"t\" < \"t\": where \"Z\" is an independent standard normal variable.", "Wiener (1923) also gave a representation of a Brownian path in terms of a random Fourier series. If formula_42 are independent Gaussian variables with mean zero and variance one, then and represent a Brownian motion on formula_45. The scaled process is a Brownian motion on formula_47 (cf. Karhunen–Loève theorem).", "The joint distribution of the running maximum and \"W\" is To get the unconditional distribution of formula_50, integrate over −∞ < \"w\" ≤ \"m\" : the probability density function of a Half-normal distribution. The expectation is If at time formula_16 the Wiener process has a known value formula_54, it is possible to calculate the conditional probability distribution of the maximum in interval formula_55 (cf. Probability distribution of extreme points of a Wiener stochastic process). The cumulative probability distribution function of the maximum value, conditioned by the known value formula_1, is:", "", "For every \"c\" > 0 the process formula_58 is another Wiener process.", "The process formula_59 for 0 ≤ \"t\" ≤ 1 is distributed like \"W\" for 0 ≤ \"t\" ≤ 1.", "The process formula_60 is another Wiener process.", "If a polynomial \"p\"(\"x\", \"t\") satisfies the PDE then the stochastic process is a martingale. Example: formula_63 is a martingale, which shows that the quadratic variation of \"W\" on [0, \"t\"] is equal to \"t\". It follows that the expected time of first exit of \"W\" from (−\"c\", \"c\") is equal to \"c\". More generally, for every polynomial \"p\"(\"x\", \"t\") the following stochastic process is a martingale: where \"a\" is the polynomial Example: formula_66 formula_67 the process is a martingale, which shows that the quadratic variation of the martingale formula_63 on [0, \"t\"] is equal to About functions \"p\"(\"xa\", \"t\") more general than polynomials, see local martingales.", "The set of all functions \"w\" with these properties is of full Wiener measure. That is, a path (sample function) of the Wiener process has all these properties almost surely.", "", "Local modulus of continuity: Global modulus of continuity (Lévy):", "The image of the Lebesgue measure on [0, \"t\"] under the map \"w\" (the pushforward measure) has a density \"L\"(·). Thus, for a wide class of functions \"f\" (namely: all continuous functions; all locally integrable functions; all non-negative measurable functions). The density \"L\" is (more exactly, can and will be chosen to be) continuous. The number \"L\"(\"x\") is called the local time at \"x\" of \"w\" on [0, \"t\"]. It is strictly positive for all \"x\" of the interval (\"a\", \"b\") where \"a\" and \"b\" are the least and the greatest value of \"w\" on [0, \"t\"], respectively. (For \"x\" outside this interval the local time evidently vanishes.) Treated as a function of two variables \"x\" and \"t\", the local time is still continuous. Treated as a function of \"t\" (while \"x\" is fixed), the local time is a singular function corresponding to a nonatomic measure on the set of zeros of \"w\". These continuity properties are fairly non-trivial. Consider that the local time can also be defined (as the density of the pushforward measure) for a smooth function. Then, however, the density is discontinuous, unless the given function is monotone. In other words, there is a conflict between good behavior of a function and good behavior of its local time. In this sense, the continuity of the local time of the Wiener process is another manifestation of non-smoothness of the trajectory.", "The information rate of the Wiener process with respect to the squared error distance, i.e. its quadratic rate-distortion function, is given by Therefore, it is impossible to encode formula_77 using a binary code of less than formula_78 bits and recover it with expected mean squared error less than formula_79. On the other hand, for any formula_80, there exists formula_81 large enough and a binary code of no more than formula_82 distinct elements such that the expected mean squared error in recovering formula_77 from this code is at most formula_84. In many cases, it is impossible to encode the Wiener process without sampling it first. When the Wiener process is sampled at intervals formula_85 before applying a binary code to represent these samples, the optimal trade-off between code rate formula_86 and expected mean square error formula_79 (in estimating the continuous-time Wiener process) follows the parametric representation where formula_90 and formula_91. In particular, formula_92 is the mean squared error associated only with the sampling operation (without encoding).", "The stochastic process defined by is called a Wiener process with drift μ and infinitesimal variance σ. These processes exhaust continuous Lévy processes. Two random processes on the time interval [0, 1] appear, roughly speaking, when conditioning the Wiener process to vanish on both ends of [0,1]. With no further conditioning, the process takes both positive and negative values on [0, 1] and is called Brownian bridge. Conditioned also to stay positive on (0, 1), the process is called Brownian excursion. In both cases a rigorous treatment involves a limiting procedure, since the formula \"P\"(\"A\"|\"B\") = \"P\"(\"A\" ∩ \"B\")/\"P\"(\"B\") does not apply when \"P\"(\"B\") = 0. A geometric Brownian motion can be written It is a stochastic process which is used to model processes that can never take on negative values, such as the value of stocks. The stochastic process is distributed like the Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process with parameters formula_96, formula_97, and formula_98. The time of hitting a single point \"x\" > 0 by the Wiener process is a random variable with the Lévy distribution. The family of these random variables (indexed by all positive numbers \"x\") is a left-continuous modification of a Lévy process. The right-continuous modification of this process is given by times of first exit from closed intervals [0, \"x\"]. The local time \"L\" = (\"L\") of a Brownian motion describes the time that the process spends at the point \"x\". Formally where \"δ\" is the Dirac delta function. The behaviour of the local time is characterised by Ray–Knight theorems.", "Let \"A\" be an event related to the Wiener process (more formally: a set, measurable with respect to the Wiener measure, in the space of functions), and \"X\" the conditional probability of \"A\" given the Wiener process on the time interval [0, \"t\"] (more formally: the Wiener measure of the set of trajectories whose concatenation with the given partial trajectory on [0, \"t\"] belongs to \"A\"). Then the process \"X\" is a continuous martingale. Its martingale property follows immediately from the definitions, but its continuity is a very special fact – a special case of a general theorem stating that all Brownian martingales are continuous. A Brownian martingale is, by definition, a martingale adapted to the Brownian filtration; and the Brownian filtration is, by definition, the filtration generated by the Wiener process.", "The time-integral of the Wiener process is called integrated Brownian motion or integrated Wiener process. It arises in many applications and can be shown to have the distribution \"N\"(0, \"t\"/3), calculated using the fact that the covariance of the Wiener process is formula_101. For the general case of the process defined by Then, for formula_103, In fact, formula_106 is always a zero mean normal random variable. This allows for simulation of formula_107 given formula_106 by taking where \"Z\" is a standard normal variable and The case of formula_112 corresponds to formula_113. All these results can be seen as direct consequences of Itô isometry. The \"n\"-times-integrated Wiener process is a zero-mean normal variable with variance formula_114. This is given by the Cauchy formula for repeated integration.", "Every continuous martingale (starting at the origin) is a time changed Wiener process. Example: 2\"W\" = \"V\"(4\"t\") where \"V\" is another Wiener process (different from \"W\" but distributed like \"W\"). Example. formula_115 where formula_116 and \"V\" is another Wiener process. In general, if \"M\" is a continuous martingale then formula_117 where \"A\"(\"t\") is the quadratic variation of \"M\" on [0, \"t\"], and \"V\" is a Wiener process. Corollary. (See also Doob's martingale convergence theorems) Let \"M\" be a continuous martingale, and Then only the following two cases are possible: other cases (such as formula_122 formula_123 etc.) are of probability 0. Especially, a nonnegative continuous martingale has a finite limit (as \"t\" → ∞) almost surely. All stated (in this subsection) for martingales holds also for local martingales.", "A wide class of continuous semimartingales (especially, of diffusion processes) is related to the Wiener process via a combination of time change and change of measure. Using this fact, the qualitative properties stated above for the Wiener process can be generalized to a wide class of continuous semimartingales.", "The complex-valued Wiener process may be defined as a complex-valued random process of the form formula_124 where formula_125 and formula_126 are independent Wiener processes (real-valued).", "Brownian scaling, time reversal, time inversion: the same as in the real-valued case. Rotation invariance: for every complex number formula_127 such that formula_128 the process formula_129 is another complex-valued Wiener process.", "If formula_130 is an entire function then the process formula_131 is a time-changed complex-valued Wiener process. Example: formula_132 where and formula_134 is another complex-valued Wiener process. In contrast to the real-valued case, a complex-valued martingale is generally not a time-changed complex-valued Wiener process. For example, the martingale formula_135 is not (here formula_125 and formula_126 are independent Wiener processes, as before).", "Generalities: Numerical path sampling:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Lattice random walk.", "One-dimensional random walk.", "As a Markov chain.", "Higher dimensions.", "Relation to Wiener process.", "Gaussian random walk.", "Anomalous diffusion.", "Number of distinct sites.", "Information rate.", "Applications.", "Variants.", "On graphs.", "Self-interacting random walks.", "Long-range correlated walks.", "Maximal entropy random walk.", "Correlated random walks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A popular random walk model is that of a random walk on a regular lattice, where at each step the location jumps to another site according to some probability distribution. In a simple random walk, the location can only jump to neighboring sites of the lattice, forming a lattice path. In simple symmetric random walk on a locally finite lattice, the probabilities of the location jumping to each one of its immediate neighbors are the same. The best-studied example is of random walk on the \"d\"-dimensional integer lattice (sometimes called the hypercubic lattice) formula_2. If the state space is limited to finite dimensions, the random walk model is called simple bordered symmetric random walk, and the transition probabilities depend on the location of the state because on margin and corner states the movement is limited.", "An elementary example of a random walk is the random walk on the integer number line, formula_1, which starts at 0 and at each step moves +1 or −1 with equal probability. This walk can be illustrated as follows. A marker is placed at zero on the number line, and a fair coin is flipped. If it lands on heads, the marker is moved one unit to the right. If it lands on tails, the marker is moved one unit to the left. After five flips, the marker could now be on -5, -3, -1, 1, 3, 5. With five flips, three heads and two tails, in any order, it will land on 1. There are 10 ways of landing on 1 (by flipping three heads and two tails), 10 ways of landing on −1 (by flipping three tails and two heads), 5 ways of landing on 3 (by flipping four heads and one tail), 5 ways of landing on −3 (by flipping four tails and one head), 1 way of landing on 5 (by flipping five heads), and 1 way of landing on −5 (by flipping five tails). See the figure below for an illustration of the possible outcomes of 5 flips. To define this walk formally, take independent random variables formula_4, where each variable is either 1 or −1, with a 50% probability for either value, and set formula_5 and formula_6 The series formula_7 is called the simple random walk on formula_1. This series (the sum of the sequence of −1s and 1s) gives the net distance walked, if each part of the walk is of length one. The expectation formula_9 of formula_10 is zero. That is, the mean of all coin flips approaches zero as the number of flips increases. This follows by the finite additivity property of expectation: A similar calculation, using the independence of the random variables and the fact that formula_12, shows that: This hints that formula_14, the expected translation distance after \"n\" steps, should be of the order of formula_15. In fact, This result shows that diffusion is ineffective for mixing because of the way the square root behaves for large formula_17. How many times will a random walk cross a boundary line if permitted to continue walking forever? A simple random walk on formula_1 will cross every point an infinite number of times. This result has many names: the \"level-crossing phenomenon\", \"recurrence\" or the \"gambler's ruin\". The reason for the last name is as follows: a gambler with a finite amount of money will eventually lose when playing \"a fair game\" against a bank with an infinite amount of money. The gambler's money will perform a random walk, and it will reach zero at some point, and the game will be over. If \"a\" and \"b\" are positive integers, then the expected number of steps until a one-dimensional simple random walk starting at 0 first hits \"b\" or −\"a\" is \"ab\". The probability that this walk will hit \"b\" before −\"a\" is formula_19, which can be derived from the fact that simple random walk is a martingale. Some of the results mentioned above can be derived from properties of Pascal's triangle. The number of different walks of \"n\" steps where each step is +1 or −1 is 2. For the simple random walk, each of these walks is equally likely. In order for \"S\" to be equal to a number \"k\" it is necessary and sufficient that the number of +1 in the walk exceeds those of −1 by \"k\". It follows +1 must appear (\"n\" + \"k\")/2 times among \"n\" steps of a walk, hence the number of walks which satisfy formula_20 equals the number of ways of choosing (\"n\" + \"k\")/2 elements from an \"n\" element set, denoted formula_21. For this to have meaning, it is necessary that \"n\" + \"k\" be an even number, which implies \"n\" and \"k\" are either both even or both odd. Therefore, the probability that formula_20 is equal to formula_23. By representing entries of Pascal's triangle in terms of factorials and using Stirling's formula, one can obtain good estimates for these probabilities for large values of formula_24. If space is confined to formula_1+ for brevity, the number of ways in which a random walk will land on any given number having five flips can be shown as {0,5,0,4,0,1}. This relation with Pascal's triangle is demonstrated for small values of \"n\". At zero turns, the only possibility will be to remain at zero. However, at one turn, there is one chance of landing on −1 or one chance of landing on 1. At two turns, a marker at 1 could move to 2 or back to zero. A marker at −1, could move to −2 or back to zero. Therefore, there is one chance of landing on −2, two chances of landing on zero, and one chance of landing on 2. The central limit theorem and the law of the iterated logarithm describe important aspects of the behavior of simple random walks on formula_1. In particular, the former entails that as \"n\" increases, the probabilities (proportional to the numbers in each row) approach a normal distribution. As a direct generalization, one can consider random walks on crystal lattices (infinite-fold abelian covering graphs over finite graphs). Actually it is possible to establish the central limit theorem and large deviation theorem in this setting.", "A one-dimensional random walk can also be looked at as a Markov chain whose state space is given by the integers formula_27 For some number \"p\" satisfying formula_28, the transition probabilities (the probability \"P\" of moving from state \"i\" to state \"j\") are given by", "In higher dimensions, the set of randomly walked points has interesting geometric properties. In fact, one gets a discrete fractal, that is, a set which exhibits stochastic self-similarity on large scales. On small scales, one can observe \"jaggedness\" resulting from the grid on which the walk is performed. Two books of Lawler referenced below are a good source on this topic. The trajectory of a random walk is the collection of points visited, considered as a set with disregard to \"when\" the walk arrived at the point. In one dimension, the trajectory is simply all points between the minimum height and the maximum height the walk achieved (both are, on average, on the order of formula_30). To visualize the two-dimensional case, one can imagine a person walking randomly around a city. The city is effectively infinite and arranged in a square grid of sidewalks. At every intersection, the person randomly chooses one of the four possible routes (including the one originally travelled from). Formally, this is a random walk on the set of all points in the plane with integer coordinates. Will the person ever get back to the original starting point of the walk? This is the 2-dimensional equivalent of the level-crossing problem discussed above. In 1921 George Pólya proved that the person almost surely would in a 2-dimensional random walk, but for 3 dimensions or higher, the probability of returning to the origin decreases as the number of dimensions increases. In 3 dimensions, the probability decreases to roughly 34%. The mathematician Shizuo Kakutani was known to refer to this result with the following quote: \"A drunk man will find his way home, but a drunk bird may get lost forever\". Another variation of this question which was also asked by Pólya is: if two persons leave the same starting point, then will they ever meet again? It can be shown that the difference between their locations (two independent random walks) is also a simple random walk, so they almost surely meet again in a 2-dimensional walk, but for 3 dimensions and higher the probability decreases with the number of the dimensions. Paul Erdős and Samuel James Taylor also showed in 1960 that for dimensions less or equal than 4, two independent random walks starting from any two given points have infinitely many intersections almost surely, but for dimensions higher than 5, they almost surely intersect only finitely often. The asymptotic function for a two-dimensional random walk as the number of steps increases is given by a Rayleigh distribution. The probability distribution is a function of the radius from the origin and the step length is constant for each step.", "A Wiener process is a stochastic process with similar behavior to Brownian motion, the physical phenomenon of a minute particle diffusing in a fluid. (Sometimes the Wiener process is called \"Brownian motion\", although this is strictly speaking a confusion of a model with the phenomenon being modeled.) A Wiener process is the scaling limit of random walk in dimension 1. This means that if you take a random walk with very small steps, you get an approximation to a Wiener process (and, less accurately, to Brownian motion). To be more precise, if the step size is ε, one needs to take a walk of length \"L\"/ε to approximate a Wiener length of \"L\". As the step size tends to 0 (and the number of steps increases proportionally), random walk converges to a Wiener process in an appropriate sense. Formally, if \"B\" is the space of all paths of length \"L\" with the maximum topology, and if \"M\" is the space of measure over \"B\" with the norm topology, then the convergence is in the space \"M\". Similarly, a Wiener process in several dimensions is the scaling limit of random walk in the same number of dimensions. A random walk is a discrete fractal (a function with integer dimensions; 1, 2,...), but a Wiener process trajectory is a true fractal, and there is a connection between the two. For example, take a random walk until it hits a circle of radius \"r\" times the step length. The average number of steps it performs is \"r\". This fact is the \"discrete version\" of the fact that a Wiener process walk is a fractal of Hausdorff dimension 2. In two dimensions, the average number of points the same random walk has on the \"boundary\" of its trajectory is \"r\". This corresponds to the fact that the boundary of the trajectory of a Wiener process is a fractal of dimension 4/3, a fact predicted by Mandelbrot using simulations but proved only in 2000 by Lawler, Schramm and Werner. A Wiener process enjoys many symmetries random walk does not. For example, a Wiener process walk is invariant to rotations, but the random walk is not, since the underlying grid is not (random walk is invariant to rotations by 90 degrees, but Wiener processes are invariant to rotations by, for example, 17 degrees too). This means that in many cases, problems on a random walk are easier to solve by translating them to a Wiener process, solving the problem there, and then translating back. On the other hand, some problems are easier to solve with random walks due to its discrete nature. Random walk and Wiener process can be \"coupled\", namely manifested on the same probability space in a dependent way that forces them to be quite close. The simplest such coupling is the Skorokhod embedding, but there exist more precise couplings, such as Komlós–Major–Tusnády approximation theorem. The convergence of a random walk toward the Wiener process is controlled by the central limit theorem, and by Donsker's theorem. For a particle in a known fixed position at \"t\" = 0, the central limit theorem tells us that after a large number of independent steps in the random walk, the walker's position is distributed according to a normal distribution of total variance: where \"t\" is the time elapsed since the start of the random walk, formula_33 is the size of a step of the random walk, and formula_34 is the time elapsed between two successive steps. This corresponds to the Green's function of the diffusion equation that controls the Wiener process, which suggests that, after a large number of steps, the random walk converges toward a Wiener process. In 3D, the variance corresponding to the Green's function of the diffusion equation is: By equalizing this quantity with the variance associated to the position of the random walker, one obtains the equivalent diffusion coefficient to be considered for the asymptotic Wiener process toward which the random walk converges after a large number of steps: Remark: the two expressions of the variance above correspond to the distribution associated to the vector formula_37 that links the two ends of the random walk, in 3D. The variance associated to each component formula_38, formula_39 or formula_40 is only one third of this value (still in 3D). For 2D: For 1D:", "A random walk having a step size that varies according to a normal distribution is used as a model for real-world time series data such as financial markets. The Black–Scholes formula for modeling option prices, for example, uses a Gaussian random walk as an underlying assumption. Here, the step size is the inverse cumulative normal distribution formula_43 where 0 ≤ \"z\" ≤ 1 is a uniformly distributed random number, and μ and σ are the mean and standard deviations of the normal distribution, respectively. If μ is nonzero, the random walk will vary about a linear trend. If v is the starting value of the random walk, the expected value after \"n\" steps will be v + \"n\"μ. For the special case where μ is equal to zero, after \"n\" steps, the translation distance's probability distribution is given by \"N\"(0, \"n\"σ), where \"N\"() is the notation for the normal distribution, \"n\" is the number of steps, and σ is from the inverse cumulative normal distribution as given above. Proof: The Gaussian random walk can be thought of as the sum of a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables, X from the inverse cumulative normal distribution with mean equal zero and σ of the original inverse cumulative normal distribution: but we have the distribution for the sum of two independent normally distributed random variables, Z = X + Y, is given by In our case, μ = μ = 0 and σ = σ = σ yield By induction, for \"n\" steps we have For steps distributed according to any distribution with zero mean and a finite variance (not necessarily just a normal distribution), the root mean square translation distance after \"n\" steps is But for the Gaussian random walk, this is just the standard deviation of the translation distance's distribution after \"n\" steps. Hence, if μ is equal to zero, and since the root mean square(RMS) translation distance is one standard deviation, there is 68.27% probability that the RMS translation distance after \"n\" steps will fall between ± σformula_49. Likewise, there is 50% probability that the translation distance after \"n\" steps will fall between ± 0.6745σformula_49.", "In disordered systems such as porous media and fractals formula_51 may not be proportional to formula_52 but to formula_53. The exponent formula_54 is called the anomalous diffusion exponent and can be larger or smaller than 2. Anomalous diffusion may also be expressed as σ ~ Dt where α is the anomaly parameter. Some diffusions in random environment are even proportional to a power of the logarithm of the time, see for example Sinai's walk or Brox diffusion.", "The number of distinct sites visited by a single random walker formula_55 has been studied extensively for square and cubic lattices and for fractals. This quantity is useful for the analysis of problems of trapping and kinetic reactions. It is also related to the vibrational density of states, diffusion reactions processes and spread of populations in ecology. The generalization of this problem to the number of distinct sites visited by formula_17 random walkers, formula_57, has recently been studied for d-dimensional Euclidean lattices. The number of distinct sites visited by N walkers is not simply related to the number of distinct sites visited by each walker.", "The information rate of a Gaussian random walk with respect to the squared error distance, i.e. its quadratic rate distortion function, is given parametrically by where formula_60. Therefore, it is impossible to encode formula_61 using a binary code of less than formula_62 bits and recover it with expected mean squared error less than formula_63. On the other hand, for any formula_64, there exists an formula_65 large enough and a binary code of no more than formula_66 distinct elements such that the expected mean squared error in recovering formula_61 from this code is at most formula_68.", "As mentioned the range of natural phenomena which have been subject to attempts at description by some flavour of random walks is considerable, in particular in physics and chemistry, materials science, biology and various other fields. The following are some specific applications of random walk: In all these cases, random walk is often substituted for Brownian motion.", "A number of types of stochastic processes have been considered that are similar to the pure random walks but where the simple structure is allowed to be more generalized. The \"pure\" structure can be characterized by the steps being defined by independent and identically distributed random variables.", "A random walk of length \"k\" on a possibly infinite graph \"G\" with a root \"0\" is a stochastic process with random variables formula_69 such that formula_70 and formula_71 is a vertex chosen uniformly at random from the neighbors of formula_72. Then the number formula_73 is the probability that a random walk of length \"k\" starting at \"v\" ends at \"w\". In particular, if \"G\" is a graph with root \"0\", formula_74 is the probability that a formula_75-step random walk returns to \"0\". Building on the analogy from the earlier section on higher dimensions, assume now that our city is no longer a perfect square grid. When our person reaches a certain junction, he picks between the variously available roads with equal probability. Thus, if the junction has seven exits the person will go to each one with probability one-seventh. This is a random walk on a graph. Will our person reach his home? It turns out that under rather mild conditions, the answer is still yes, but depending on the graph, the answer to the variant question 'Will two persons meet again?' may not be that they meet infinitely often almost surely. An example of a case where the person will reach his home almost surely is when the lengths of all the blocks are between \"a\" and \"b\" (where \"a\" and \"b\" are any two finite positive numbers). Notice that we do not assume that the graph is planar, i.e. the city may contain tunnels and bridges. One way to prove this result is using the connection to electrical networks. Take a map of the city and place a one ohm resistor on every block. Now measure the \"resistance between a point and infinity.\" In other words, choose some number \"R\" and take all the points in the electrical network with distance bigger than \"R\" from our point and wire them together. This is now a finite electrical network, and we may measure the resistance from our point to the wired points. Take \"R\" to infinity. The limit is called the \"resistance between a point and infinity\". It turns out that the following is true (an elementary proof can be found in the book by Doyle and Snell): Theorem: \"a graph is transient if and only if the resistance between a point and infinity is finite. It is not important which point is chosen if the graph is connected.\" In other words, in a transient system, one only needs to overcome a finite resistance to get to infinity from any point. In a recurrent system, the resistance from any point to infinity is infinite. This characterization of transience and recurrence is very useful, and specifically it allows us to analyze the case of a city drawn in the plane with the distances bounded. A random walk on a graph is a very special case of a Markov chain. Unlike a general Markov chain, random walk on a graph enjoys a property called \"time symmetry\" or \"reversibility\". Roughly speaking, this property, also called the principle of detailed balance, means that the probabilities to traverse a given path in one direction or the other have a very simple connection between them (if the graph is regular, they are just equal). This property has important consequences. Starting in the 1980s, much research has gone into connecting properties of the graph to random walks. In addition to the electrical network connection described above, there are important connections to isoperimetric inequalities, see more here, functional inequalities such as Sobolev and Poincaré inequalities and properties of solutions of Laplace's equation. A significant portion of this research was focused on Cayley graphs of finitely generated groups. In many cases these discrete results carry over to, or are derived from manifolds and Lie groups. In the context of random graphs, particularly that of the Erdős–Rényi model, analytical results to some properties of random walkers have been obtained. These include the distribution of first and last hitting times of the walker, where the first hitting time is given by the first time the walker steps into a previously visited site of the graph, and the last hitting time corresponds the first time the walker cannot perform an additional move without revisiting a previously visited site. A good reference for random walk on graphs is the online book by Aldous and Fill. For groups see the book of Woess. If the transition kernel formula_76 is itself random (based on an environment formula_77) then the random walk is called a \"random walk in random environment\". When the law of the random walk includes the randomness of formula_77, the law is called the annealed law; on the other hand, if formula_77 is seen as fixed, the law is called a quenched law. See the book of Hughes, the book of Revesz, or the lecture notes of Zeitouni. We can think about choosing every possible edge with the same probability as maximizing uncertainty (entropy) locally. We could also do it globally – in maximal entropy random walk (MERW) we want all paths to be equally probable, or in other words: for every two vertexes, each path of given length is equally probable. This random walk has much stronger localization properties.", "There are a number of interesting models of random paths in which each step depends on the past in a complicated manner. All are more complex for solving analytically than the usual random walk; still, the behavior of any model of a random walker is obtainable using computers. Examples include: The self-avoiding walk of length n on Z^d is the random n-step path which starts at the origin, makes transitions only between adjacent sites in Z^d, never revisit a site, and is chosen uniformly among all such paths. In two dimensions, due to self-trapping, a typical self-avoiding walk is very short, while in higher dimension it grows beyond all bounds. This model has often been used in polymer physics (since the 1960s).", "Long-range correlated time series are found in many biological, climatological and economic systems.", "Random walk chosen to maximize entropy rate, has much stronger localization properties.", "Random walks where the direction of movement at one time is correlated with the direction of movement at the next time. It is used to model animal movements." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biosynthesis.", "Catabolism.", "Nutritional value.", "Dietary sources.", "Biological roles.", "Disputed roles.", "Roles in disease.", "Use of lysine in animal feed.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Two different pathways have been identified in nature for the synthesis of lysine. The diaminopimelate (DAP) pathway belongs to the aspartate derived biosynthetic family, which is also involved in the synthesis of threonine, methionine and isoleucine. Whereas the α-aminoadipate (AAA) pathway is part of the glutamate biosynthetic family. The DAP pathway is found in both prokaryotes and plants and begins with the dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHDPS) (E.C 4.3.3.7) catalysed condensation reaction between the aspartate derived, \"L\"-aspartate semialdehyde, and pyruvate to form (4\"S\")-4-hydroxy-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-(2\"S\")-dipicolinic acid (HTPA). The product is then reduced by dihydrodipicolinate reductase (DHDPR) (E.C 1.3.1.26), with NAD(P)H as a proton donor, to yield 2,3,4,5-tetrahydrodipicolinate (THDP). From this point on, there are four pathway variations found in different species, namely the acetylase, aminotransferase, dehydrogenase, and succinylase pathways. Both the acetylase and succinylase variant pathways use four enzyme catalysed steps, the aminotransferase pathway uses two enzymes, and the dehydrogenase pathway uses a single enzyme. These four variant pathways converge at the formation of the penultimate product, \"meso\"‐diaminopimelate, which is subsequently enzymatically decarboxylated in an irreversible reaction catalysed by diaminopimelate decarboxylase (DAPDC) (E.C 4.1.1.20) to produce \"L\"-lysine. The DAP pathway is regulated at multiple levels, including upstream at the enzymes involved in aspartate processing as well as at the initial DHDPS catalysed condensation step. Lysine imparts a strong negative feedback loop on these enzymes and, subsequently, regulates the entire pathway. The AAA pathway involves the condensation of α-ketoglutarate and acetyl-CoA via the intermediate AAA for the synthesis of \"L\"-lysine. This pathway has been shown to be present in several yeast species, as well as protists and higher fungi. It has also been reported that an alternative variant of the AAA route has been found in \"Thermus thermophilus\" and \"Pyrococcus horikoshii\", which could indicate that this pathway is more widely spread in prokaryotes than originally proposed. The first and rate-limiting step in the AAA pathway is the condensation reaction between acetyl-CoA and α‐ketoglutarate catalysed by homocitrate-synthase (HCS) (E.C 2.3.3.14) to give the intermediate homocitryl‐CoA, which is hydrolysed by the same enzyme to produce homocitrate. Homocitrate is enzymatically dehydrated by homoaconitase (HAc) (E.C 4.2.1.36) to yield \"cis\"-homoaconitate. HAc then catalyses a second reaction in which \"cis\"-homoaconitate undergoes rehydration to produce homoisocitrate. The resulting product undergoes an oxidative decarboxylation by homoisocitrate dehydrogenase (HIDH) (E.C 1.1.1.87) to yield α‐ketoadipate. AAA is then formed via a pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP)-dependent aminotransferase (PLP-AT) (E.C 2.6.1.39), using glutamate as the amino donor. From this point on, the AAA pathway differs depending on the kingdom. In fungi, AAA is reduced to α‐aminoadipate-semialdehyde via AAA reductase (E.C 1.2.1.95) in a unique process involving both adenylation and reduction that is activated by a phosphopantetheinyl transferase (E.C 2.7.8.7). Once the semialdehyde is formed, saccharopine reductase (E.C 1.5.1.10) catalyses a condensation reaction with glutamate and NAD(P)H, as a proton donor, and the imine is reduced to produce the penultimate product, saccharopine. The final step of the pathway in fungi involves the saccharopine dehydrogenase (SDH) (E.C 1.5.1.8) catalysed oxidative deamination of saccharopine, resulting in \"L\"-lysine. In a variant AAA pathway found in some prokaryotes, AAA is first converted to \"N\"‐acetyl-α-aminoadipate, which is phosphorylated and then reductively dephosphorylated to the ε-aldehyde. The aldehyde is then transaminated to \"N\"‐acetyl-lysine, which is deacetylated to give \"L\"-lysine. However, the enzymes involved in this variant pathway need further validation.", "Like all amino acids, catabolism of lysine is initiated from the uptake of dietary lysine or from the breakdown of intracellular protein. Catabolism is also used as a means to control the intracellular concentration of free lysine and maintain a steady-state to prevent the toxic effects of excessive free lysine. There are several pathways involved in lysine catabolism but the most commonly used is the saccharopine pathway, which primarily takes place in the liver (and equivalent organs) in animals, specifically within the mitochondria. This is the reverse of the previously described AAA pathway. In animals and plants, the first two steps of the saccharopine pathway are catalysed by the bifunctional enzyme, α-aminoadipic semialdehyde synthase (AASS), which possess both lysine-ketoglutarate reductase (LKR) (E.C 1.5.1.8) and SDH activities, whereas in other organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, both of these enzymes are encoded by separate genes. The first step involves the LKR catalysed reduction of \"L\"-lysine in the presence of α-ketoglutarate to produce saccharopine, with NAD(P)H acting as a proton donor. Saccharopine then undergoes a dehydration reaction, catalysed by SDH in the presence of NAD, to produce AAS and glutamate. AAS dehydrogenase (AASD) (E.C 1.2.1.31) then further dehydrates the molecule into AAA. Subsequently, PLP-AT catalyses the reverse reaction to that of the AAA biosynthesis pathway, resulting in AAA being converted to α-ketoadipate. The product, α‐ketoadipate, is decarboxylated in the presence of NAD and coenzyme A to yield glutaryl-CoA, however the enzyme involved in this is yet to be fully elucidated. Some evidence suggests that the 2-oxoadipate dehydrogenase complex (OADHc), which is structurally homologous to the E1 subunit of the oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (OGDHc) (E.C 1.2.4.2), is responsible for the decarboxylation reaction. Finally, glutaryl-CoA is oxidatively decarboxylated to crotony-CoA by glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase (E.C 1.3.8.6), which goes on to be further processed through multiple enzymatic steps to yield acetyl-CoA; an essential carbon metabolite involved in the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA).", "Lysine is one of the nine essential amino acids in humans. The human nutritional requirements varies from ~60 mg·kg·d in infancy to ~30 mg·kg·d in adults. This requirement is commonly met in a western society with the intake of lysine from meat and vegetable sources well in excess of the recommended requirement. In vegetarian diets, the intake of lysine is less due to the limiting quantity of lysine in cereal crops compared to meat sources. Given the limiting concentration of lysine in cereal crops, it has long been speculated that the content of lysine can be increased through genetic modification practices. Often these practices have involved the intentional dysregulation of the DAP pathway by means of introducing lysine feedback-insensitive orthologues of the DHDPS enzyme. These methods have met limited success likely due to the toxic side effects of increased free lysine and indirect effects on the TCA cycle. Plants accumulate lysine and other amino acids in the form of seed storage proteins, found within the seeds of the plant, and this represents the edible component of cereal crops. This highlights the need to not only increase free lysine, but also direct lysine towards the synthesis of stable seed storage proteins, and subsequently, increase the nutritional value of the consumable component of crops. Whilst genetic modification practices have met limited success, more traditional selective breeding techniques have allowed for the isolation of \"Quality Protein Maize\", which has significantly increased levels of lysine and tryptophan, also an essential amino acid. This increase in lysine content is attributed to an \"opaque-2\" mutation that reduced the transcription of lysine lacking zein related seed storage proteins and, as a result, increased the abundance of other proteins that are rich in lysine. Commonly, to overcome the limiting abundance of lysine in livestock feed, industrially produced lysine is added. The industrial process includes the fermentative culturing of \"Corynebacterium glutamicum\" and the subsequent purification of lysine.", "Good sources of lysine are high-protein foods such as eggs, meat (specifically red meat, lamb, pork, and poultry), soy, beans and peas, cheese (particularly Parmesan), and certain fish (such as cod and sardines). Lysine is the limiting amino acid (the essential amino acid found in the smallest quantity in the particular foodstuff) in most cereal grains, but is plentiful in most pulses (legumes). A vegetarian or low animal protein diet can be adequate for protein, including lysine, if it includes both cereal grains and legumes, but there is no need for the two food groups to be consumed in the same meals. A food is considered to have sufficient lysine if it has at least 51 mg of lysine per gram of protein (so that the protein is 5.1% lysine). L-lysine HCl is used as a dietary supplement, providing 80.03% L-lysine. As such, 1 g of L-lysine is contained in 1.25 g of L-lysine HCl.", "The most common role for lysine is proteinogenesis. Lysine frequently plays an important role in protein structure. Since its side chain contains a positively charged group on one end and a long hydrophobic carbon tail close to the backbone, lysine is considered somewhat amphipathic. For this reason, lysine can be found buried as well as more commonly in solvent channels and on the exterior of proteins, where it can interact with the aqueous environment. Lysine can also contribute to protein stability as its ε-amino group often participates in hydrogen bonding, salt bridges and covalent interactions to form a Schiff base. A second major role of lysine is in epigenetic regulation by means of histone modification. There are several types of covalent histone modifications, which commonly involve lysine residues found in the protruding tail of histones. Modifications often include the addition or removal of an acetyl (-CHCO) forming acetyllysine or reverting to lysine, up to three methyl (‐CH), ubiquitin or a sumo protein group. The various modifications have downstream effects on gene regulation, in which genes can be activated or repressed. Lysine has also been implicated to play a key role in other biological processes including; structural proteins of connective tissues, calcium homeostasis, and fatty acid metabolism. Lysine has been shown to be involved in the crosslinking between the three helical polypeptides in collagen, resulting in its stability and tensile strength. This mechanism is akin to the role of lysine in bacterial cell walls, in which lysine (and \"meso\"-diaminopimelate) are critical to the formation of crosslinks, and therefore, stability of the cell wall. This concept has previously been explored as a means to circumvent the unwanted release of potentially pathogenic genetically modified bacteria. It was proposed that an auxotrophic strain of \"Escherichia coli\" (1776) could be used for all genetic modification practices, as the strain is unable to survive without the supplementation of DAP, and thus, cannot live outside of a laboratory environment. Lysine has also been proposed to be involved in calcium intestinal absorption and renal retention, and thus, may play a role in calcium homeostasis. Finally, lysine has been shown to be a precursor for carnitine, which transports fatty acids to the mitochondria, where they can be oxidised for the release of energy. Carnitine is synthesised from trimethyllysine, which is a product of the degradation of certain proteins, as such lysine must first be incorporated into proteins and be methylated prior to being converted to carnitine. However, in mammals the primary source of carnitine is through dietary sources, rather than through lysine conversion. In opsins like rhodopsin and the visual opsins (encoded by the genes OPN1SW, OPN1MW, and OPN1LW), retinaldehyde forms a Schiff base with a conserved lysine residue, and interaction of light with the retinylidene group causes signal transduction in color vision (See visual cycle for details).", "There has been a long discussion that lysine, when administered intravenously or orally, can significantly increase the release of growth hormones. This has led to athletes using lysine as a means of promoting muscle growth while training, however, no significant evidence to support this application of lysine has been found to date. Because herpes simplex virus (HSV) proteins are richer in arginine and poorer in lysine than the cells they infect, lysine supplements have been tried as a treatment. Since the two amino acids are taken up in the intestine, reclaimed in the kidney, and moved into cells by the same amino acid transporters, an abundance of lysine would, in theory, limit the amount of arginine available for viral replication. Clinical studies do not provide good evidence for effectiveness as a prophylactic or in the treatment for HSV outbreaks. In response to product claims that lysine could improve immune responses to HSV, a review by the European Food Safety Authority found no evidence of a cause–effect relationship. The same review, published in 2011, found no evidence to support claims that lysine could lower cholesterol, increase appetite, contribute to protein synthesis in any role other than as an ordinary nutrient, or increase calcium absorption or retention.", "Diseases related to lysine are a result of the downstream processing of lysine, i.e. the incorporation into proteins or modification into alternative biomolecules. The role of lysine in collagen has been outlined above, however, a lack of lysine and hydroxylysine involved in the crosslinking of collagen peptides has been linked to a disease state of the connective tissue. As carnitine is a key lysine-derived metabolite involved in fatty acid metabolism, a substandard diet lacking sufficient carnitine and lysine can lead to decreased carnitine levels, which can have significant cascading effects on an individual's health. Lysine has also been shown to play a role in anaemia, as lysine is suspected to have an effect on the uptake of iron and, subsequently, the concentration of ferritin in blood plasma. However, the exact mechanism of action is yet to be elucidated. Most commonly, lysine deficiency is seen in non-western societies and manifests as protein-energy malnutrition, which has profound and systemic effects on the health of the individual. There is also a hereditary genetic disease that involves mutations in the enzymes responsible for lysine catabolism, namely the bifunctional AASS enzyme of the saccharopine pathway. Due to a lack of lysine catabolism, the amino acid accumulates in plasma and patients develop hyperlysinaemia, which can present as asymptomatic to severe neurological disabilities, including epilepsy, ataxia, spasticity, and psychomotor impairment. The clinical significance of hyperlysinemia is the subject of debate in the field with some studies finding no correlation between physical or mental disabilities and hyperlysinemia. In addition to this, mutations in genes related to lysine metabolism have been implicated in several disease states, including pyridoxine-dependent epilepsia (ALDH7A1 gene), α-ketoadipic and α-aminoadipic aciduria (DHTKD1 gene), and glutaric aciduria type 1 (GCDH gene). Hyperlysinuria is marked by high amounts of lysine in the urine. It is often due to a metabolic disease in which a protein involved in the breakdown of lysine is non functional due to a genetic mutation. It may also occur due to a failure of renal tubular transport.", "Lysine production for animal feed is a major global industry, reaching in 2009 almost 700,000 tonnes for a market value of over €1.22 billion. Lysine is an important additive to animal feed because it is a limiting amino acid when optimizing the growth of certain animals such as pigs and chickens for the production of meat. Lysine supplementation allows for the use of lower-cost plant protein (maize, for instance, rather than soy) while maintaining high growth rates, and limiting the pollution from nitrogen excretion. In turn, however, phosphate pollution is a major environmental cost when corn is used as feed for poultry and swine. Lysine is industrially produced by microbial fermentation, from a base mainly of sugar. Genetic engineering research is actively pursuing bacterial strains to improve the efficiency of production and allow lysine to be made from other substrates.", "The 1993 film \"Jurassic Park\" (based on the 1990 Michael Crichton novel of the same name) features dinosaurs that were genetically altered so that they could not produce lysine, an example of engineered auxotrophy. This was known as the \"lysine contingency\" and was supposed to prevent the cloned dinosaurs from surviving outside the park, forcing them to be dependent on lysine supplements provided by the park's veterinary staff. In reality, no animals are capable of producing lysine (it is an essential amino acid). In 1996, lysine became the focus of a price-fixing case, the largest in United States history. The Archer Daniels Midland Company paid a fine of US$100 million, and three of its executives were convicted and served prison time. Also found guilty in the price-fixing case were two Japanese firms (Ajinomoto, Kyowa Hakko) and a South Korean firm (Sewon). Secret video recordings of the conspirators fixing lysine's price can be found online or by requesting the video from the U.S. Department of Justice, Antitrust Division. This case served as the basis of the movie \"The Informant!\", and a book of the same title." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Production.", "Colours and availability.", "Properties.", "History.", "Uses.", "Historical.", "Current.", "Other." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "\"Shellac\" comes from \"shell\" and \"lac\", a calque of French \"laque en écailles\", \"lac in thin pieces\", later \"gomme-laque\", \"gum lac\". Most European languages (except Romance ones and Greek) have borrowed the word for the substance from English or from the German equivalent \"Schellack\".", "Shellac is scraped from the bark of the trees where the female lac bug, \"Kerria lacca\" (order Hemiptera, family Kerriidae, also known as \"Laccifer lacca\"), secretes it to form a tunnel-like tube as it traverses the branches of the tree. Though these tunnels are sometimes referred to as \"cocoons\", they are not cocoons in the entomological sense. This insect is in the same superfamily as the insect from which cochineal is obtained. The insects suck the sap of the tree and excrete \"sticklac\" almost constantly. The least-coloured shellac is produced when the insects feed on the kusum tree (\"Schleichera\"). The number of lac bugs required to produce of shellac has variously been estimated as,, or. The root word lakh is a unit in Indian numbering system for and presumably refers to the huge numbers of insects that swarm on host trees, up to 150 per square inch. The raw shellac, which contains bark shavings and lac bugs removed during scraping, is placed in canvas tubes (much like long socks) and heated over a fire. This causes the shellac to liquefy, and it seeps out of the canvas, leaving the bark and bugs behind. The thick, sticky shellac is then dried into a flat sheet and broken into flakes, or dried into \"buttons\" (pucks/cakes), then bagged and sold. The end-user then crushes it into a fine powder and mixes it with ethyl alcohol before use, to dissolve the flakes and make liquid shellac. Liquid shellac has a limited shelf life (about 1 year), so is sold in dry form for dissolution before use. Liquid shellac sold in hardware stores is often marked with the production (mixing) date, so the consumer can know whether the shellac inside is still good. Some manufacturers (e.g., Zinsser) have ceased labeling shellac with the production date, but the production date may be discernible from the production lot code. Alternatively, old shellac may be tested to see if it is still usable: a few drops on glass should quickly dry to a hard surface. Shellac that remains tacky for a long time is no longer usable. Storage life depends on peak temperature, so refrigeration extends shelf life. The thickness (concentration) of shellac is measured by the unit \"pound cut\", referring to the amount (in pounds) of shellac flakes dissolved in a gallon of denatured alcohol. For example: a 1-lb. cut of shellac is the strength obtained by dissolving one pound of shellac flakes in a gallon of alcohol. Most pre-mixed commercial preparations come at a 3-lb. cut. Multiple thin layers of shellac produce a significantly better end result than a few thick layers. Thick layers of shellac do not adhere to the substrate or to each other well, and thus can peel off with relative ease; in addition, thick shellac will obscure fine details in carved designs in wood and other substrates. Shellac naturally dries to a high-gloss sheen. For applications where a flatter (less shiny) sheen is desired, products containing amorphous silica, such as \"Shellac Flat\", may be added to the dissolved shellac. Shellac naturally contains a small amount of wax (3%–5% by volume), which comes from the lac bug. In some preparations, this wax is removed (the resulting product being called \"dewaxed shellac\"). This is done for applications where the shellac will be coated with something else (such as paint or varnish), so the topcoat will adhere. Waxy (non-dewaxed) shellac appears milky in liquid form, but dries clear.", "Shellac comes in many warm colours, ranging from a very light blonde (\"platina\") to a very dark brown (\"garnet\"), with many varieties of brown, yellow, orange and red in between. The colour is influenced by the sap of the tree the lac bug is living on and by the time of harvest. Historically, the most commonly sold shellac is called \"orange shellac\", and was used extensively as a combination stain and protectant for wood panelling and cabinetry in the 20th century. Shellac was once very common anywhere paints or varnishes were sold (such as hardware stores). However, cheaper and more abrasion- and chemical-resistant finishes, such as polyurethane, have almost completely replaced it in decorative residential wood finishing such as hardwood floors, wooden wainscoting plank panelling, and kitchen cabinets. These alternative products, however, must be applied over a stain if the user wants the wood to be coloured; clear or blonde shellac may be applied over a stain without affecting the colour of the finished piece, as a protective topcoat. \"Wax over shellac\" (an application of buffed-on paste wax over several coats of shellac) is often regarded as a beautiful, if fragile, finish for hardwood floors. Luthiers still use shellac to \"French polish\" fine acoustic stringed instruments, but it has been replaced by synthetic plastic lacquers and varnishes in many workshops, especially high-volume production environments. Shellac dissolved in alcohol, typically more dilute than French-Polish, is now commonly sold as \"sanding sealer\" by several companies. It is used to seal wooden surfaces, often as preparation for a final more durable finish; it reduces the amount of final coating required by reducing its absorption into the wood.", "Shellac is a natural bioadhesive polymer and is chemically similar to synthetic polymers, and thus can be considered a natural form of plastic. It can be turned into a moulding compound when mixed with wood flour and moulded under heat and pressure methods, so it can also be classified as thermoplastic. Shellac scratches more easily than most lacquers and varnishes, and application is more labour-intensive, which is why it has been replaced by plastic in most areas. But damaged shellac can easily be touched up with another coat of shellac (unlike polyurethane) because the new coat merges with and bonds to the existing coat(s). Shellac is much softer than Urushi lacquer, for instance, which is far superior with regard to both chemical and mechanical resistance. Shellac is soluble in alkaline solutions such as ammonia, sodium borate, sodium carbonate, and sodium hydroxide, and also in various organic solvents. When dissolved in de-natured alcohol or ethanol, shellac yields a coating of good durability and hardness. Upon mild hydrolysis shellac gives a complex mix of aliphatic and alicyclic hydroxy acids and their polymers that varies in exact composition depending upon the source of the shellac and the season of collection. The major component of the aliphatic component is aleuritic acid, whereas the main alicyclic component is shellolic acid. Shellac is UV-resistant, and does not darken as it ages (though the wood under it may do so, as in the case of pine).", "The earliest written evidence of shellac goes back years, but shellac is known to have been used earlier. According to the ancient Indian epic poem, the Mahabharata, an entire palace was built out of dried shellac. Shellac was in rare use as a dyestuff for as long as there was a trade with the East Indies. Merrifield cites 1220 for the introduction of shellac as an artist's pigment in Spain. Lapis lazuli, an ultramarine pigment from Afghanistan, was already being imported long before this. The use of overall paint or varnish decoration on large pieces of furniture was first popularised in Venice (then later throughout Italy). There are a number of 13th-century references to painted or varnished cassone, often dowry cassone that were made deliberately impressive as part of dynastic marriages. The definition of varnish is not always clear, but it seems to have been a spirit varnish based on gum benjamin or mastic, both traded around the Mediterranean. At some time, shellac began to be used as well. An article from the \"Journal of the American Institute of Conservation\" describes using infrared spectroscopy to identify shellac coating on a 16th-century cassone. This is also the period in history where \"varnisher\" was identified as a distinct trade, separate from both carpenter and artist. Another use for shellac is sealing wax. Woods's \"The Nature and Treatment of Wax and Shellac Seals\" discusses the various formulations, and the period when shellac started to be added to the previous beeswax recipes. The \"period of widespread introduction\" would seem to be around 1550 to 1650, when the substance moved from being a rarity on highly decorated pieces to being described in the standard texts of the day.", "", "In the early- and mid-twentieth century, orange shellac was used as a one-product finish (combination stain and varnish-like topcoat) on decorative wood panelling used on walls and ceilings in homes, particularly in the US. In the American South, use of knotty pine plank panelling covered with orange shellac was once as common in new construction as drywall is today. It was also often used on kitchen cabinets and hardwood floors, prior to the advent of polyurethane. Until the advent of vinyl, most gramophone records were pressed from shellac compounds. From 1921 to 1928, tons of shellac were used to create 260 million records for Europe. In the 1930s, it was estimated that half of all shellac was used for gramophone records. Use of shellac for records was common until the 1950s and continued into the 1970s in some non-Western countries. Until recent advances in technology, shellac (French polish) was the only glue used in the making of ballet dancers' pointe shoes, to stiffen the box (toe area) to support the dancer en pointe. Many manufacturers of pointe shoes still use the traditional techniques, and many dancers use shellac to revive a softening pair of shoes. Shellac was historically used as a protective coating on paintings. Sheets of Braille were coated with shellac to help protect them from wear due to being read by hand. Shellac was used from the mid-nineteenth century to produce small moulded goods such as picture frames, boxes, toilet articles, jewelry, inkwells and even dentures. Advances in plastics have rendered shellac obsolete as a moulding compound. Shellac (both orange and white varieties) was used both in the field and laboratory to glue and stabilise dinosaur bones until about the mid-1960s. While effective at the time, the long-term negative effects of shellac (being organic in nature) on dinosaur bones and other fossils is debated, and shellac is very rarely used by professional conservators and fossil preparators today. Shellac was used for fixing inductor, motor, generator and transformer windings. It was applied directly to single-layer windings in an alcohol solution. For multi-layer windings, the whole coil was submerged in shellac solution, then drained and placed in a warm place to allow the alcohol to evaporate. The shellac locked the wire turns in place, provided extra insulation, prevented movement and vibration and reduced buzz and hum. In motors and generators it also helps transfer force generated by magnetic attraction and repulsion from the windings to the rotor or armature. In more recent times, shellac has been replaced in these applications by synthetic resins such as polyester resin. Some applications use shellac mixed with other natural or synthetic resins, such as pine resin or phenol-formaldehyde resin, of which Bakelite is the best known, for electrical use. Mixed with other resins, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, zinc sulfide, aluminium oxide and/or cuprous carbonate (malachite), shellac forms a component of heat-cured capping cement used to fasten the caps or bases to the bulbs of electric lamps.", "It is the central element of the traditional \"French polish\" method of finishing furniture, fine string instruments, and pianos. Shellac, edible, is used as a glazing agent on pills (see excipient) and sweets, in the form of \"pharmaceutical glaze\" (or, \"confectioner's glaze\"). Because of its acidic properties (resisting stomach acids), shellac-coated pills may be used for a timed enteric or colonic release. Shellac is used as a 'wax' coating on citrus fruit to prolong its shelf/storage life. It is also used to replace the natural wax of the apple, which is removed during the cleaning process. When used for this purpose, it has the food additive E number E904. Shellac coating applied with either a standard or modified Huon-Stuehrer nozzle, can be economically micro-sprayed onto various smooth sweets, such as chocolate coated peanuts. Irregularities on the surface of the product being sprayed typically result in the formation of unsightly aggregates (\"lac-aggs\") which precludes the use of this technique on foods such as walnuts or raisins (however, chocolate-coated raisins being smooth surfaced, are able to be sprayed successfully using a modified Huon-Stuehrer nozzle). Shellac is an odour and stain blocker and so is often used as the base of \"solves all problems\" primers. Although its durability against abrasives and many common solvents is not very good, shellac provides an excellent barrier against water vapour penetration. Shellac-based primers are an effective sealant to control odours associated with fire damage. Shellac has traditionally been used as a dye for cotton and, especially, silk cloth in Thailand, particularly in the north-eastern region. It yields a range of warm colours from pale yellow through to dark orange-reds and dark ochre. Naturally dyed silk cloth, including that using shellac, is widely available in the rural northeast, especially in Ban Khwao District, Chaiyaphum province. The Thai name for the insect and the substance is \"khrang\" (Thai: ครั่ง). Wood finish Wood finishing is one of the most traditional and still popular uses of shellac mixed with solvents or alcohol. This dissolved shellac liquid, applied to a piece of wood, is an evaporative finish: the alcohol of the shellac mixture evaporates, leaving behind a protective film. Shellac as wood finish is natural and non-toxic in its pure form. A finish made of shellac is UV-resistant. For water-resistance and durability, it does not keep up with synthetic finishing products. Because it is compatible with most other finishes, shellac is also used as a barrier or primer coat on wood to prevent the bleeding of resin or pigments into the final finish, or to prevent wood stain from blotching.", "Shellac is used:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life, education, and early career.", "Early political career (1793–1817).", "Early diplomatic career and marriage.", "U.S. Senator from Massachusetts.", "Minister to Russia.", "Treaty of Ghent and ambassador to Britain.", "Secretary of State (1817–1825).", "1824 presidential election.", "Presidency (1825–1829).", "Inauguration.", "Administration.", "Domestic affairs.", "Ambitious agenda.", "Formation of political parties.", "Tariff of 1828.", "Indian policy.", "Foreign affairs.", "Trade and claims.", "Latin America.", "1828 presidential election.", "Later congressional career (1830–1848).", "Jackson administration, 1830–1836.", "Van Buren and Tyler administrations, 1837–1843.", "Opposition to the Mexican-American War, 1844–1848.", "Anti-slavery movement.", "Smithsonian Institution.", "Death.", "Personal life.", "Personality.", "Legacy.", "Historical reputation.", "Memorials.", "Film and television." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "John Quincy Adams was born on July 11, 1767, to John and Abigail Adams (née Smith) in a part of Braintree, Massachusetts that is now Quincy. He was named for his mother's maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, after whom Quincy, Massachusetts, is named. Young Adams was educated by private tutors – his cousin James Thaxter and his father's law clerk, Nathan Rice. He soon began to exhibit his literary skills, and in 1779 he initiated a diary which he kept until just before he died in 1848. Until the age of ten, Adams grew up on the family farm in Braintree, largely in the care of his mother. Though frequently absent due to his participation in the American Revolution, John Adams maintained a correspondence with his son, encouraging him to read works by authors such as Thucydides and Hugo Grotius. With his father's encouragement, Adams would also translate classical authors such as", "", "Adams initially avoided becoming directly involved in politics, instead focusing on building his legal career. In 1791, he wrote a series of pseudonymously-published essays arguing that Britain provided a better governmental model than France. Two years later, he published another series of essays attacking Edmond-Charles Genêt, a French diplomat who sought to undermine President George Washington's policy of neutrality in the French Revolutionary Wars. In 1794, Washington appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to the Netherlands; Adams considered declining the", "On his return to the United States, Adams re-established a legal practice in Boston, and in April 1802 he was elected to the Massachusetts Senate. In November of that same year he ran unsuccessfully for the United States House of Representatives. In February 1803, the Massachusetts legislature elected Adams to the United States Senate. Though somewhat reluctant to affiliate with any political party, Adams joined the Federalist minority in Congress. Like his Federalist colleagues, he opposed the impeachment of Associate Justice Samuel Chase, an outspoken supporter of the Federalist Party. Adams had strongly opposed Jefferson's 1800 presidential candidacy, but he gradually became alienated from the Federalist Party. His disaffection was driven by the party's declining popularity, disagreements over foreign policy, and Adams's hostility to Timothy Pickering, a Federalist Party leader whom Adams viewed as overly favorable to Britain. Unlike other New England Federalists, Adams supported the Jefferson administration's Louisiana Purchase and generally favored expansionist policies. Adams was the lone Federalist in Congress to vote for the Non-importation Act of 1806, which was designed to punish Britain for its attacks on American shipping during the", "After resigning from the Senate, Adams was ostracized by Massachusetts Federalist leaders, but he declined Democratic-Republican entreaties to seek office. In 1809, he argued before the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of \"Fletcher v. Peck\", and the Supreme Court ultimately agreed with Adams's argument that the Constitution's Contract Clause prevented the state of Georgia from invalidating a land sale to out-of-state companies. Later that year, President James Madison appointed Adams as the first United States Minister to Russia in 1809. Though Adams had only recently broken with the Federalist Party, his support of Jefferson's foreign policy had earned him goodwill with the", "Adams had long feared that the United States would enter a war it could not win against Britain, and by early 1812 he saw such a war as inevitable due to the constant British attacks on American shipping and the British practice of impressment. In mid-1812, the United States declared war against Britain, beginning the War of 1812. Tsar Alexander attempted to mediate the conflict between Britain and the United States, and President Madison appointed Adams, Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, and Federalist Senator James A. Bayard to a delegation charged with negotiating an end to the war. Gallatin and Bayard arrived in St. Petersburg in July 1813, but the British declined Tsar Alexander's offer of mediation. Hoping to commence the negotiations at another venue, Adams left Russia in April 1814. Negotiations finally began in mid-1814 in Ghent, where Adams, Gallatin, and Bayard were joined by two additional American delegates, Jonathan Russell and former Speaker of the House Henry Clay. Adams, the nominal head of the delegation, got along well with Gallatin, Bayard, and Russell, but he", "Adams served as Secretary of State throughout Monroe's eight-year presidency, from 1817 to 1825. Many of his successes as secretary, such as the convention of 1818 with Great Britain, the Transcontinental Treaty with Spain, and the Monroe Doctrine, were not preplanned strategy but responses to unexpected events. Adams wanted to delay American recognition of the newly independent republics of Latin America to avoid the risk of war with Spain and its European allies. However, Andrew Jackson's military campaign in Florida, and Henry Clay's threats in Congress, forced Spain to cut a deal, which Adam negotiated successfully. Biographer James Lewis says, \"He managed to play the cards that he had been dealt – cards that he very clearly had not wanted – in ways that forced the Spanish cabinet to recognize the weakness of its own hand.\" Apart from the Monroe doctrine, his last four years the Secretary of State were less successful, since he was absorbed in his presidential campaign and refused to make compromises with other nations that might have weakened his candidacy; The result was a small scale trade war, but a successful election to the White House. Taking office in the aftermath of the War of 1812, Adams thought that the country had been fortunate in avoiding territorial losses, and he prioritized avoiding another war with a European power, particularly Britain. He also sought to avoid exacerbating sectional tensions, which had been a major issue for the country during the War of 1812. One of the major challenges confronting Adams was how to respond to the power vacuum in Latin America that arose from Spain's weakness following the Peninsular War. In addition to his foreign policy role, Adams held several domestic duties, including overseeing the 1820 Census. Monroe and Adams agreed on most of the major foreign policy issues: both favored neutrality in the Latin American wars of independence, peace with Great Britain, denial of a trade agreement with the French, and expansion, peacefully if possible, into the North American territories of the Spanish Empire. The president and his secretary of state developed a strong working relationship, and while Adams often influenced Monroe's policies, he respected that Monroe made the final decisions on major issues. Monroe met regularly with his five-person cabinet, which initially consisted of Adams, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun, Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Crowninshield, and Attorney General William Wirt. Adams developed a strong respect for Calhoun but believed that Crawford was unduly focused on succeeding Monroe in 1824. During his time as ambassador to Britain, Adams had begun negotiations over several contentious issues that had not been solved by the War of 1812 or the Treaty of Ghent. In 1817, the two countries agreed to the Rush–Bagot Treaty, which limited naval armaments on the Great Lakes. Negotiations between the two powers continued, resulting in the Treaty of 1818, which defined the Canada–United States border west of the Great Lakes. The boundary was set at the 49th parallel to the Rocky Mountains, while the territory to the west of the mountains, known as Oregon Country, would be jointly occupied. The agreement represented a turning point in United Kingdom–United States relations, as the U.S. turned its attention to its southern and western borders and British fears over American expansionism waned.", "Immediately upon becoming Secretary of State, Adams emerged as one of Monroe's most likely successors, as the last three presidents had all served in the role at some point before taking office. As the 1824 election approached, Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun (who later dropped out of the race), and William H. Crawford appeared to be Adams's primary competition to succeed Monroe. Crawford favored state sovereignty and a strict constructionist view of the Constitution, while Clay, Calhoun, and Adams embraced federally-funded internal improvements, high tariffs, and the Second Bank of the United States, which was also known as the national bank. Because the Federalist Party had all but collapsed after the War of 1812, all the major presidential candidates were members of the Democratic-Republican Party. Adams felt that his own election as president would vindicate his father, while also allowing him to pursue an ambitious domestic policy. Though he lacked the charisma of his competitors, Adams was widely respected and benefited from the lack of other prominent Northern political leaders. Adams's top choice for the role of vice president was General Andrew Jackson; Adams noted that \"the Vice-Presidency was a station in which [Jackson] could hang no one, and in which he would need to quarrel with no one.\" However, as the 1824 election approached, Jackson jumped into the race for president. While the other candidates based their candidacies on their long tenure as congressmen, ambassadors, or members of the cabinet, Jackson's appeal rested on his military service, especially in the Battle of New Orleans. The congressional nominating caucus had decided upon previous Democratic-Republican presidential nominees, but it had become largely discredited by 1824. Candidates were instead nominated", "", "Adams was inaugurated on March 4, 1825. He took the oath of office on a book of constitutional law, instead of the more traditional Bible. In his inaugural address, he adopted a post-partisan tone, promising that", "Adams presided over a harmonious and productive cabinet that he met with on a weekly basis. Like Monroe, Adams sought a geographically-balanced cabinet that would represent the various party factions, and he asked the members of the Monroe cabinet to remain in place for his own administration. Samuel L. Southard of New Jersey stayed on as Secretary of the Navy, William Wirt kept his post of Attorney General, and John McLean of Ohio continued to serve as the Postmaster General, an important position that was not part of the cabinet.", "", "In his 1825 annual message to Congress, Adams presented a comprehensive and ambitious agenda. He called for major investments in internal improvements as well as the creation of a national university, a naval academy, and a national astronomical observatory. Noting the healthy status of the treasury and the possibility for more revenue via land sales, Adams argued for the completion of several projects that were in various stages of construction or planning, including a road from Washington to New Orleans. He also proposed the establishment of a Department of the Interior as a new cabinet-level department that would preside over these internal improvements. Adams hoped to fund these measures primarily through Western land sales, rather than increased taxes or public debt. The domestic agenda of Adams and Clay, which would come to be known as the American System, was designed to unite disparate regional interests in the promotion of a thriving national economy. Adams's programs faced opposition from various quarters. Many disagreed with his broad interpretation of the constitution and preferred that power be concentrated in state governments rather than the federal government. Others disliked interference from any level of government and were", "In the immediate aftermath of the 1825 contingent election, Jackson was gracious to Adams. Nevertheless, Adams's appointment of Clay rankled Jackson, who received a flood of letters encouraging him to run. In 1825, Jackson accepted the presidential nomination of the Tennessee legislature for the 1828 election. Though he had been close with Adams during Monroe's presidency, Vice President Calhoun was also politically alienated from the president by the appointment of Clay, since that appointment established Clay as the natural heir to Adams. Adams's ambitious December 1825 annual message to Congress further galvanized the opposition, with important figures such as Francis Preston Blair of Kentucky and Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri breaking with the Adams administration. By the end of the first session of the 19th United States Congress, an anti-Adams congressional coalition consisting of Jacksonians (led by Benton and Hugh Lawson White), Crawfordites (led", "During the first half of his administration, Adams avoided taking a strong stand on tariffs, partly because he wanted to avoid alienating his allies in the South and New England. After Jacksonians took power in 1827, they devised a tariff bill designed to appeal to Western states while instituting high rates on", "Adams sought the gradual assimilation of Native Americans via consensual agreements, a priority shared by few whites in the 1820s. Yet Adams was also deeply committed to the westward expansion of the United States. Settlers on the frontier, constantly seeking to move westward, cried for a more expansionist policy that disregarded the concerns of Native Americans. Early in his term, Adams suspended the Treaty of Indian Springs after learning that the Governor of Georgia, George Troup, had forced the treaty on the Muscogee. Adams signed a new treaty with the Muscogee in January 1826 that allowed the Muscogee to stay but ceded most of their land to Georgia. Troup refused to accept its terms, and authorized all Georgian citizens to evict the Muscogee. A showdown between Georgia and the federal government was only averted after the Muscogee agreed to a third treaty. Though many saw Troup as unreasonable in his dealings with the federal government and the Native Americans, the administration's handling of the incident alienated those in the Deep South who favored immediate Indian removal.", "", "One of the major foreign policy goals of the Adams administration was the expansion of American trade. His administration reached reciprocity treaties with a number of nations, including Denmark, the Hanseatic League, the Scandinavian countries, Prussia, and the Federal Republic of Central America. The administration also reached commercial agreements with the Kingdom of Hawaii and the Kingdom of Tahiti. Agreements with Denmark and Sweden opened their colonies to American trade, but Adams was especially focused on opening trade with the British West Indies.", "Aside from an unsuccessful attempt to purchase Texas from Mexico, President Adams did not seek to expand into Latin America or North America. Adams and Clay instead sought engagement with Latin America to prevent it from falling under the British Empire's economic influence. As part of this goal, the administration favored sending a U.S. delegation to the Congress of Panama, an 1826 conference of New World republics organized by Simón Bolívar. Clay and Adams hoped that the conference would inaugurate a \"Good Neighborhood Policy\" among the independent states of the Americas. However, the funding for a delegation and the confirmation of delegation nominees became entangled in a political battle over Adams's domestic policies, with opponents such as Van Buren impeding the process of confirming a delegation. Van Buren saw the Panama Congress as an unwelcome deviation from the more isolationist foreign policy established by President Washington, while many Southerners opposed involvement with any conference attended by delegates of Haiti, a republic that had been established through a slave revolt. Though the U.S. delegation finally won confirmation from the Senate, it never reached the Congress of Panama due to the Senate's delay.", "The Jacksonians formed an effective party apparatus that adopted many modern campaign techniques. Rather than focusing on issues, they emphasized Jackson's popularity and the supposed corruption of Adams and the federal government. Jackson himself described the campaign as a \"struggle between the virtue of the people and executive patronage.\" Adams, meanwhile, refused to adapt to the new reality of political campaigns, and he avoided public functions and refused to invest in pro-administration tools such as newspapers. In early 1827, Jackson was publicly accused of having encouraged his wife, Rachel, to desert her first husband. In response, followers of Jackson attacked Adams's personal life, and the campaign turned increasingly nasty. The Jacksonian press portrayed Adams as an out-of-touch elitist, while pro-Adams newspapers attacked Jackson's past involvement in various duels and scuffles, portraying him as too emotional and impetuous for the presidency.", "", "Adams considered permanently retiring from public life after his 1828 defeat, and he was deeply hurt by the suicide of his son, George Washington Adams, in 1829. He was appalled by many of the Jackson administration's actions, including its embrace of the spoils system. Though they had once maintained a cordial relationship, Adams and Jackson each came to loathe the other in the decades after the 1828 election. Adams grew bored of his retirement and still felt that his career was unfinished, so he ran for and won a seat in the United States House of", "In the mid-1830s, the Anti-Masonic Party, the National Republicans, and other groups opposed to Jackson coalesced into the Whig Party. In the 1836 presidential election Democrats put forward Martin Van Buren, while the Whigs fielded multiple presidential candidates. Because he disdained all the major party contenders for president, Adams did not take part in the campaign; Van Buren won the election. Nonetheless, Adams became aligned with the Whig Party in Congress. Adams generally opposed the initiatives of President Van Buren, long a political adversary, though they maintained a cordial public relationship. The Republic of Texas won its independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution of 1835–1836. Texas had largely been settled by Americans from the Southern United States, and many of those settlers owned slaves despite an 1829 Mexican law that abolished slavery. Many in the United States and Texas thus favored the admission of Texas into the union as a slave state. Adams considered the issue of Texas to be \"a question of far deeper root and more overshadowing branches than any or all others that agitate the", "Tyler made the annexation of Texas the main foreign policy priority of the later stages of his administration. He attempted to win ratification of an annexation treaty in 1844, but, to Adams's surprise and relief, the treaty was rejected by the Senate. The annexation of Texas became the central issue of the 1844 presidential election, and Southerners blocked the nomination of Van Buren at the 1844 Democratic National Convention due to the latter's opposition to annexation; the party instead nominated James K. Polk, an acolyte of Andrew Jackson. Though he once again did not take part in the campaigning, Adams was deeply disappointed that Polk defeated his old ally, Henry Clay, in the 1844 election. He attributed the outcome of the election partly to the Liberty Party, a small, abolitionist third party that may have siphoned votes from Clay in the crucial state of New York. After the election, Tyler, whose term would end in March 1845, once again submitted an annexation treaty to Congress. Adams strongly attacked the treaty, arguing that the annexation of Texas would involve the United States in \"a war for slavery.\" Despite Adams's opposition, both houses of", "In the 1830s, slavery emerged as an increasingly polarizing issue in the United States. A longtime opponent of slavery, Adams used his new role in Congress to fight it, and he became the most prominent national leader opposing slavery. After one of his reelection victories, he said that he must \"bring about a day prophesied when slavery and war shall be banished from the face of the earth.\" He wrote in his private journal in 1820: In 1836, partially in response to Adams's consistent presentation of citizen petitions requesting the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, the House of Representatives imposed a \"gag rule\" that immediately tabled any petitions about slavery. The rule was favored", "Adams also became a leading force for the promotion of science. In 1829, British scientist James Smithson died, and he left his fortune for the \"increase and diffusion of knowledge.\" In Smithson's will, he stated that should his nephew, Henry James Hungerford, die without heirs, the Smithson estate would go to the government of the United States to create an \"Establishment for the increase & diffusion of Knowledge among men.\" After the nephew died without heirs in 1835, President Andrew Jackson informed Congress of the bequest, which amounted to about US$500,000 ($75,000,000 in 2008 U.S. dollars after inflation). Adams realized that this might allow the", "In mid-November 1846, the 78-year-old former president suffered a stroke that left him partially paralyzed. After a few months of rest, he made a full recovery and resumed his duties in Congress. When Adams entered the House chamber on February 13, 1848, everyone \"stood up and applauded.\" On February 21, 1848, the House of Representatives was discussing the matter of honoring U.S. Army officers who served in the Mexican–American War. Adams had been a vehement critic of the war, and as Congressmen rose up to say, \"Aye!\" in favor of the measure, he instead yelled, \"No!\" He rose to answer a question put forth by Speaker of the House Robert Charles Winthrop. Immediately", "Adams and Louisa had three sons and a daughter. Their daughter, Louisa, was born in 1811 but died in 1812. They named their first son George Washington Adams (1801–1829) after the first president. This decision upset Adams's mother, and, by her account, his father as well. Both George and their second son, John (1803–1834), led troubled lives and died in early adulthood. George, who had long suffered from alcoholism, died in 1829 after going overboard on a steamboat; it is not clear whether he fell or purposely jumped from the boat. John, who ran an unprofitable flour and grist mill owned by his father, died of an unknown illness in 1834. Adams's youngest son, Charles Francis Adams Sr., was an important leader of the \"Conscience Whigs\", a Northern, anti-slavery faction of the Whig Party. Charles served as the Free Soil Party's vice presidential candidate in the 1848 presidential election and later became a prominent member of the Republican Party.", "Adams's personality and political beliefs were much like his father's. He always preferred secluded reading to social engagements, and several times had to be pressured by others to remain in public service. Historian Paul Nagel states that, like Abraham Lincoln after him, Adams often suffered from depression, for which he sought some form of treatment in early years. Adams thought his depression was due to the high expectations demanded of him by his father and mother. Throughout his life he felt inadequate and socially awkward because of his depression, and was constantly bothered by his physical appearance. He was closer to his father, whom he spent much of his early life with abroad, than", "", "Adams is widely regarded as one of the most effective diplomats and secretaries of state in American history, but scholars generally rank him as an average president. Adams is remembered as a man eminently qualified for the presidency, yet hopelessly weakened in his presidential leadership potential because of the 1824 election. Most importantly, Adams is remembered as a poor politician in an era when politics had begun to matter more. He spoke of trying to serve as a man above the \"baneful weed of party strife\" at the", "John Quincy Adams Birthplace is now part of Adams National Historical Park and open to the public. Adams House, one of twelve undergraduate residential Houses at Harvard University, is named for John Adams, John Quincy Adams, and other members of the Adams family associated with Harvard. In 1870, Charles Francis built the first presidential library in the United States, to honor his father. The Stone Library includes over 14,000 books written in twelve languages. The library is", "Adams occasionally is featured in the mass media. In the PBS miniseries \"The Adams Chronicles\" (1976), he was portrayed by David Birney, William Daniels, Marcel Trenchard, Steven Grover and" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Gauze bandage (common gauze roller bandage).", "Compression bandage.", "Triangular bandage.", "Tube bandage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The most common type of bandage is the gauze bandage, a woven strip of material with a Telfa absorbent barrier to prevent adhering to wounds. A gauze bandage can come in any number of widths and lengths and can be used for almost any bandage application, including holding a dressing in place.", "The term 'compression bandage' describes a wide variety of bandages with many different applications. Short stretch compression bandages are applied to a limb (usually for treatment of lymphedema or venous ulcers). This type of bandage is capable of shortening around the limb after application and is therefore not exerting ever-increasing pressure during inactivity. This dynamic is called resting pressure and is considered safe and comfortable for long-term treatment. Conversely, the stability of the bandage creates a very high resistance to stretch when pressure is applied through internal muscle contraction and joint movement. This force is called working pressure. Long stretch compression bandages have long stretch properties, meaning their high compressive power can be easily adjusted. However, they also have a very high resting pressure and must be removed at night or if the patient is in a resting position.", "Also known as a cravat bandage, a triangular bandage is a piece of cloth put into a right-angled triangle, and often provided with safety pins to secure it in place. It can be used fully unrolled as a sling, folded as a normal bandage, or for specialized applications, as on the head. One advantage of this type of bandage is that it can be makeshift and made from a fabric scrap or a piece of clothing. The Boy Scouts popularized use of this bandage in many of their first aid lessons, as a part of the uniform is a \"neckerchief\" that can easily be folded to form a cravat.", "A tube bandage is applied using an applicator, and is woven in a continuous circle. It is used to hold dressings or splints on to limbs, or to provide support to sprains and strains, so that it stops bleeding." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins (1929–39).", "World War II.", "1939.", "Invasion of Poland.", "First Divisions.", "1940.", "France and the Netherlands.", "1940 expansion.", "1941.", "Balkans.", "Soviet Union.", "1942.", "1942 expansion.", "Panzergrenadier divisions.", "Demyansk Pocket.", "1943.", "1943 expansion.", "Kharkiv.", "Warsaw Ghetto uprising.", "Kursk.", "Italy.", "1944.", "1944 expansion.", "Korsun-Cherkassy Pocket.", "Raid on Drvar.", "Baltic states.", "Normandy.", "Greece.", "Italy.", "Finland.", "Arnhem and Operation Market Garden.", "Warsaw Uprising.", "Vistula River line.", "Ardennes Offensive.", "Siege of Budapest.", "1945.", "1945 expansion.", "Operation Nordwind.", "Operation Solstice.", "East Pomeranian Offensive.", "Operation Spring Awakening.", "Berlin.", "Divisions.", "Casualties.", "Criminality.", "Post-war.", "Waffen-SS veterans in post-war Germany.", "Baltic states.", "HIAG lobby group." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The origins of the Waffen-SS can be traced back to the selection of a group of 120 SS men on 17 March 1933 by Sepp Dietrich to form the \"Sonderkommando\" Berlin. By November 1933 the formation had 800 men, and at a commemorative ceremony in Munich for the tenth anniversary of the failed Munich Putsch the regiment swore allegiance to Adolf Hitler. The oaths pledged were \"Pledging loyalty to him alone\" and \"Obedience unto death\". The formation was given the title \"Leibstandarte\" (Bodyguard Regiment) \"Adolf Hitler\" (LAH). On 13 April 1934, by order of Himmler, the regiment became known as the \"Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler\" (LSSAH). The \"Leibstandarte\" demonstrated their loyalty to Hitler in 1934 during the \"Night of the Long Knives\", when the Nazi regime carried out a series of political killings and the purge of the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA). Led by one of Hitler's oldest comrades, Ernst Röhm, the SA was seen as a threat by Hitler to his newly gained political power. Hitler also wanted to conciliate leaders of the \"Reichswehr\" (the Republic's army) and conservatives of the country, people whose support Hitler needed to solidify his position. When Hitler decided to act against the SA, the SS was put in charge of eliminating Röhm and the other high-ranking SA officers. The Night of the Long Knives occurred between 30 June and 2 July 1934 and saw the killing of up to 200 people. This included almost the entire SA leadership, effectively ending its power. This action was largely carried out by SS personnel (including the \"Leibstandarte\"), and the Gestapo. In September 1934, Hitler authorised the formation of the military wing of the Nazi Party and approved the formation of the \"SS-Verfügungstruppe\" (SS-VT), a special service troop under Hitler's overall command. The SS-VT had to depend on the German Army for its supply of weapons and military training, and they had control of the recruiting system through local draft boards responsible for assigning conscripts to the different branches of the Wehrmacht to meet quotas set by the German High Command (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht or OKW in German). The SS was given the lowest priority for recruits. Even with the", "", "", "Himmler's military formations at the outbreak of the war comprised several subgroups that would become the basis of the Waffen-SS. In August 1939, Hitler placed the \"Leibstandarte\" and the SS-VT under the operational control of the Army High Command (OKH). Himmler retained command of the \"Totenkopfstandarten\" for employment behind the advancing combat units in what were euphemistically called \"special tasks of a police nature\". In spite of the swift military victory over Poland in September 1939, the regular army felt that the performance of the SS-VT left much to be desired; its units took unnecessary risks and had a higher casualty rate than the army. They also stated that the SS-VT was poorly trained and its officers unsuitable for combat command. As an example, OKW noted that the \"Leibstandarte\" had to be rescued by an army regiment after becoming surrounded by the Poles at Pabianice. In its defence, the SS insisted that it had been hampered by having to fight piecemeal instead of as one formation, and was improperly equipped by the army to carry out its objectives. Himmler insisted that the SS-VT should", "In October 1939, the \"Deutschland\", \"Germania\", and \"Der Führer\" regiments were reorganised into the \"SS-Verfügungs-Division\". The \"Leibstandarte\" remained independent and was increased in strength to a reinforced motorised regiment. Hitler authorised the creation of two new divisions: the SS \"Totenkopf\" Division, formed from militarised \"Standarten\" of the \"SS-Totenkopfverbände\", and the Polizei Division, formed from members of the national police force. Almost overnight the force that the OKW had tried to disband had increased from 18,000 to over 100,000 men. Hitler next authorised the creation of four Motorized Artillery battalions in March 1940, one for each division and the \"Leibstandarte\". The OKW was supposed to supply these new battalions with artillery, but was reluctant to hand over guns from its own arsenal. The weapons arrived only slowly and, by the time of the Battle of France, only the \"Leibstandarte\" battalion was up to strength.", "", "The three SS divisions and the \"Leibstandarte\" spent the winter of 1939 and the spring of 1940 training and preparing for the coming war in the west. In May, they moved to the front, and the \"Leibstandarte\" was attached to the army's 227th Infantry Division. The \"Der Führer\" Regiment was detached from the SS-VT Division and attached to the 207th Infantry Division. The SS-VT Division minus \"Der Führer\" was concentrated near Münster awaiting the invasion of The Netherlands. The SS \"Totenkopf\" and Polizei Divisions were held in reserve. On 10 May, the \"Leibstandarte\" overcame Dutch border guards to spearhead the German advance of X.Corps into the Netherlands, north of the rivers towards the Dutch Grebbe line and subsequently the Amsterdam region. The neighbouring \"Der Führer\" advanced towards the Grebbeline in the", "Himmler gained approval for the Waffen-SS to form its own high command, the \"Kommandoamt der Waffen-SS\" within the \"SS-Führungshauptamt\", which was created in August 1940. It received command of the SS-VT (the \"Leibstandarte\" and the \"Verfügungs-Division\", renamed \"Reich\") and the armed SS-TV regiments (the \"Totenkopf-Division\" together with several independent \"Totenkopf-Standarten\"). In 1940, SS chief of staff Gottlob Berger approached Himmler with a plan to recruit volunteers in the conquered territories from the ethnic German and Germanic populations. At first, Hitler had doubts about recruiting foreigners, but he was persuaded by Himmler and Berger. He gave approval for a new division to be formed from foreign nationals with German officers. By June 1940, Danish and Norwegian volunteers had formed the SS Regiment \"Nordland\", with Dutch and Flemish volunteers forming the SS Regiment \"Westland\". The two regiments, together with \"Germania\" (transferred from the \"Reich\" Division), formed the SS Division \"Wiking\". A sufficient number of volunteers came forward requiring the SS to open a new training camp just for foreign volunteers at Sennheim in Alsace-Lorraine.", "At the beginning of the new year, the \"Polizei-Division\" was brought under FHA administration, although it would not be formally merged into the Waffen-SS until 1942. At the same time, the \"Totenkopf-Standarten\", aside from the three constituting the TK-Division, lost their Death's Head designation and insignia and were reclassified \"SS-Infanterie-\" (or \"Kavallerie-\") \"Regimente\". The 11th Rgt. was transferred into the \"Reich\" Division to replace \"Germania\"; the remainder were grouped into three independent brigades and a battle group in Norway. By the spring of 1941, the Waffen-SS consisted of the equivalent of six or seven divisions: the \"Reich\", \"Totenkopf\", \"Polizei\", and \"Wiking\" Divisions and \"Kampfgruppe\" (later Division) \"Nord\", and the \"Leibstandarte\", 1 SS Infantry, 2 SS Infantry, and SS Cavalry Brigades.", "In March 1941, a major Italian counterattack against Greek forces failed, and Germany came to the aid of its ally. Operation Marita began on 6 April 1941, with German troops invading Greece through Bulgaria and Yugoslavia in an effort to secure its southern flank. \"Reich\" was ordered to leave France and head for Romania, and the \"Leibstandarte\" was ordered to Bulgaria. The \"Leibstandarte\", attached to the XL Panzer Corps, advanced west then south from Bulgaria into the mountains, and by 9 April had reached Prilep in Yugoslavia, 30 miles from the Greek border. Further north the SS \"Reich\", with the XLI Panzer Corps, crossed the Romanian border and advanced on Belgrade, the Yugoslav capital. Fritz Klingenberg, a company commander in the \"Reich\", led his men into Belgrade, where a small group in the vanguard accepted the surrender of the city on 13 April. A few days later the Royal Yugoslav Army", "Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, started on 22 June 1941, and all the Waffen-SS formations participated (including the SS \"Reich\", which was formally renamed to SS \"Das Reich\" by the Fall of 1941). SS Division \"Nord\", which was in northern Finland, took part in Operation Arctic Fox with the Finnish Army and fought at the battle of Salla, where against strong Soviet forces they suffered 300 killed and 400 wounded in the first two days of the invasion. Thick forests and heavy smoke from forest fires disoriented the troops and the division's units completely fell apart. By the end of 1941, \"Nord\" had suffered severe casualties. Over the winter of 1941–42 it received replacements from the general pool of Waffen-SS recruits, who were supposedly younger and better trained than the SS men of the original formation, which had been drawn largely from \"Totenkopfstandarten\" of Nazi concentration camp guards. The rest of the Waffen-SS divisions and brigades fared better. The SS \"Totenkopf\" and Polizei divisions were attached to Army Group North, with the mission to advance through the Baltic states and on to Leningrad. The SS Division \"Das Reich\" was with Army Group Centre and headed towards Moscow. The SS Division \"Wiking\" and the \"Leibstandarte\" were with Army Group South, heading for the Ukraine and the city of Kiev. The war in the Soviet Union proceeded well at first, but the cost to the Waffen-SS was extreme: by late October, the \"Leibstandarte\" was at half strength due to enemy action and dysentery that swept through the ranks. \"Das Reich\" lost 60% of its strength and was still to take part in the Battle of Moscow. The unit was decimated in the following Soviet offensive. The \"Der Führer\" Regiment was reduced to 35 men out of the 2,000 that had started the campaign in June. Altogether, the Waffen-SS", "", "In 1942, the Waffen-SS was further expanded and a new division was entered on the rolls in March. By the second half of 1942, an increasing number of foreigners, many of whom were not volunteers, began entering the ranks. The 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division \"Prinz Eugen\" was recruited", "The front line divisions of the Waffen-SS that had suffered losses through the winter of 1941–1942 and during the Soviet counter-offensive were withdrawn to France to recover and be reformed as Panzergrenadier divisions. Due to the efforts of Himmler and \"Obergruppenführer\" Paul", "The Soviet offensive of January 1942 trapped a number of German divisions in the Demyansk Pocket between February and April 1942; the 3rd SS \"Totenkopf\" was one of the divisions encircled by the Red Army. The Red Army liberated Demyansk on 1 March 1943 with the retreat of the German troops. \"For his excellence in command and the particularly fierce fighting of the \"Totenkopf\"\", \"Obergruppenführer\" Theodor Eicke was awarded the Oak Leaves to the Knight's Cross on 20 May 1942.", "", "The Waffen-SS expanded further in 1943: in February the 9th SS Panzer Division \"Hohenstaufen\" and its sister division, the 10th SS Panzer Division \"Frundsberg\", were formed in France. They were followed in July by the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division \"Nordland\" created from Norwegian and Danish volunteers. September saw the formation of the 12th SS Panzer Division \"Hitlerjugend\" using volunteers from the Hitler Youth. Himmler and Berger successfully appealed to Hitler to form a Bosnian Muslim division, and the 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian), the", "On the Eastern Front, the Germans suffered a devastating defeat when the 6th Army was defeated during the Battle of Stalingrad. Hitler ordered the SS Panzer Corps back to the Eastern Front for a counter-attack with the city of Kharkiv as its objective. The SS Panzer Corps was in full retreat on 19 February, having been attacked by the Soviet 6th Army, when they received the order to counter-attack. Disobeying Hitler's order to \"stand fast and fight to the death\", Hausser withdrew in front of the Red", "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was a Jewish insurgency that arose within the Warsaw Ghetto from 19 April to 16 May, an effort to prevent", "For the Battle of Kursk, the SS Panzer Corps was renamed the II SS Panzer Corps and was part of the 4th Panzer Army. The II SS Panzer Corps spearheaded the attack through the Soviet defences. The attack penetrated to a depth of and was then stopped by the Soviet 1st Tank Army. The Soviet reserves had been sent south to defend against a German attack by the III Panzer Corps. With the loss of their reserves, any hope they may have had of dealing a major defeat to the SS Panzer Corps ended. But the German advances now failed – despite appalling losses, the Soviet tank armies", "The \"Leibstandarte\" was thereafter sent to Italy to help stabilise the situation there following the deposal of Benito Mussolini by the Badoglio government and the Allied invasion of Sicily, which was the beginning of the Italian Campaign. The division left behind its armour and equipment, which was given to \"Das Reich\" and \"Totenkopf\". After the Italian surrender and collapse of 8 September 1943, the \"Leibstandarte\" was ordered to begin disarming nearby Italian units. It also had the task of guarding vital road and rail junctions in the north of Italy and was involved in several skirmishes with partisans. This went smoothly, with the exception of a brief skirmish with Italian troops stationed in Parma on 9 September. By 19 September, all Italian forces", "", "The Waffen-SS expanded again during 1944. January saw the formation of the 19th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (2nd Latvian), formed from the two SS Infantry Brigades as cadre with Latvian conscripts. The 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian) was formed via general conscription in February 1944, around a cadre from the 3 Estonian SS Volunteer Brigade. The 21st Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Skanderbeg (1st Albanian) was formed in March 1944 from Albanian and Kosovan volunteers, which", "The Korsun-Cherkassy Pocket was formed in January 1944 when units of the 8th Army withdrew to the Panther-Wotan Line, a defensive position along the Dnieper River in Ukraine. Two army corps were left holding a salient into the Soviet lines extending some. The Red", "The Raid on Drvar, codenamed \"Operation Rösselsprung\", was an attack by the Waffen-SS and Luftwaffe on the command structure of the Yugoslav partisans. Their objective was the elimination of the partisan-controlled Supreme Headquarters and the capture of Tito. The offensive took place in April and May 1944. The Waffen-SS units involved were the 500th SS", "In Estonia, the Battle of Narva started in February. The battle can be divided into two phases: the Battle for Narva Bridgehead from February to July and the Battle of Tannenberg Line from July to September. A number of volunteer and conscript Waffen-SS units from Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Estonia fought in Narva. The units were all part of the III SS (Germanic) Panzer Corps in Army", "Operation Overlord, the Allied \"D-Day\" landings in Normandy, took place on 6 June 1944. In preparation for the expected landings, the I SS Panzer Corps \"Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler\" was moved to Septeuil to the west of Paris in April 1944. The Corps had the 1 SS \"Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler\", 12 SS \"Hitlerjugend\", the 17 SS \"Götz von Berlichingen\" and the army's Panzer-Lehr-Division divisions assigned to it. The Corps was to form a part of General Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg's Panzer Group West, the Western theatre's armoured reserve. The Corps was restructured on 4 July 1944 and only the 1", "While the bulk of the Waffen-SS was now on the Eastern Front or in Normandy, the 4th SS \"Polizei\" Panzergrenadier Division was stationed in Greece on internal security duties and anti-partisan operations. On 10 June, they committed", "On the Italian Front, the 16 SS \"Reichsführer-SS\", conducting anti-partisan operations, is remembered more for the atrocities", "In Finland, the 6 SS \"Nord\" had held its lines during the Soviet summer offensive until it was ordered to withdraw from Finland upon the conclusion of an armistice between Finland and the Soviet", "In early September 1944, the II SS Panzer Corps (9 SS \"Hohenstaufen\" and 10 SS \"Frundberg\") were pulled out of the line and sent to the Arnhem area in the Netherlands. Upon arrival, they began the task of refitting, and the majority of the remaining armoured vehicles were loaded onto trains in preparation for", "At the other end of Europe, the Waffen-SS was dealing with the Warsaw Uprising. Between August and October 1944, the Dirlewanger Brigade (recruited from criminals and the mentally ill throughout Germany) and the S.S. Sturmbrigade R.O.N.A. \"Russkaya Osvoboditelnaya Narodnaya Armiya (Russian National Liberation Army)\", which was made up of ethnic Russian collaborators, were both sent to Warsaw to put down the uprising. During the battle, the \"Dirlewanger\" behaved atrociously, raping, looting, and killing citizens of Warsaw regardless of whether they belonged to the Polish resistance or not; the unit commander SS-\"Oberführer\" Oskar Dirlewanger encouraged their excesses. The unit's behaviour was reportedly so bestial and indiscriminate that Himmler was forced to send a battalion of SS military police to ensure the Dirlewanger convicts did not turn their aggressions against the leadership of the brigade or other nearby German units. At the same time, they were encouraged by Himmler to terrorise freely, take no prisoners, and generally indulge their perverse tendencies. Favoured tactics of the Dirlewanger men during the siege reportedly included the ubiquitous gang rape of female Poles, both women and children; playing \"bayonet catch\" with live babies; and torturing captives to death by hacking off their", "In late August 1944, 5 SS \"Wiking\" was ordered back to Modlin on the Vistula River line near Warsaw, where it was to join the newly formed Army Group Vistula. Fighting alongside the Luftwaffe's Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 \"Hermann Göring\", they annihilated the Soviet 3rd Tank Corps. The advent of the Warsaw", "The Ardennes Offensive or \"Battle of the Bulge\", between 16 December 1944 and 25 January 1945, was a major German offensive through the forested Ardennes Mountains region of Belgium. The Waffen-SS units included the 6th Panzer Army under Sepp Dietrich. Created on 26 October 1944, it incorporated the I SS Panzer Corps (1 SS \"Leibstandarte\", the 12 SS \"Hitlerjugend\" and the SS Heavy Panzer Battalion 101). It also had the II SS Panzer Corps (2 SS \"Das Reich\" and the 9 SS \"Hohenstaufen\"). Another unit involved was Otto Skorzeny's SS Panzer Brigade 150. The purpose of the attack was to split the British and American line in half, capture Antwerp, and encircle and destroy four Allied armies, forcing the Western Allies to negotiate a peace treaty on terms favourable to the Axis Powers. However, advancing through the forests and wooded hills of the Ardennes proved difficult in the winter weather. Initially, the", "In late December 1944, the Axis forces, including IX Waffen Mountain Corps of the SS (Croatian), defending Budapest, were encircled in the Siege of Budapest. The IV SS Panzer Corps (3 SS \"Totenkopf\" and 5 SS \"Wiking\") was ordered south to join Hermann Balck's 6th Army (Army Group \"Balck\"), which was mustering for a relief effort code named Operation Konrad. As a part of Operation Konrad I, the IV SS Panzer Corps was committed to action on 1 January 1945, near Tata, with the advance columns of \"Wiking\"", "", "The Waffen-SS continued to expand in 1945. January saw the 32nd SS Volunteer Grenadier Division \"30 Januar\" formed from the remnants of other units and staff from the SS-Junkerschules. In February, the Waffen-Grenadier-Brigade der SS \"Charlemagne\" was upgraded to a division and became known as the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS \"Charlemagne\" (1st French). At this time, it had a strength of 7,340 men. The SS Volunteer Grenadier-Brigade Landstorm Nederland was upgraded to the 34th SS Volunteer Grenadier Division \"Landstorm Nederland\". The second SS", "Operation Nordwind was the last major German offensive on the Western Front. It began on 1 January 1945 in Alsace and Lorraine in north-eastern France, and it ended on 25 January. The initial attack was conducted by three Corps of the 1st Army. By 15 January, at least 17 German", "Operation Solstice, or the \"Stargard Tank Battle\" (February 1945) was one of the last armoured offensive operations on the Eastern Front. It was a limited counter-attack by the three Corps of the Eleventh SS Panzer Army, which was being assembled in Pomerania, against the spearheads of the 1st Belorussian Front. Originally planned as a major", "The East Pomeranian Offensive lasted from 24 February to 4 April, in Pomerania and West Prussia. The Waffen-SS units involved were the 11 SS \"Nordland\", 20 SS \"Estonian\", 23 SS \"Nederland\", 27 SS \"Langemark\", 28 SS \"Wallonien\", all in the III (Germanic) SS Panzer Corps, and the X", "After the Ardennes offensive failed, in Hitler's estimation, the Nagykanizsa oilfields southwest of Lake Balaton were the most strategically valuable reserves on the Eastern Front. The SS Divisions were pulled out and refitted in Germany in preparation for Operation Spring Awakening (\"Frühlingserwachsen\"). Hitler ordered Dietrich's 6th SS Panzer Army to take the lead and move to Hungary in order to protect the oilfields and refineries there. The 6th SS Panzer Army was made up of the I SS Panzer Corps (1 SS \"Leibstandarte\" and 12 SS \"Hitlerjugend\") and the II SS Panzer Corps (2 SS \"Das Reich\" and the 10 SS \"Frundsberg\"). Also present but not part of the 6th SS Panzer Army was the IV SS Panzer Corps (3 SS \"Totenkopf\" and 5 SS \"Wiking\"). This final German offensive in the east began on 6 March. The German forces attacked near Lake Balaton with the Sixth SS Panzer Army advancing northwards towards Budapest and the 2nd", "The Army Group Vistula was formed in 1945 to protect Berlin from the advancing Red Army. It fought in the Battle of the Seelow Heights (16–19 April) and the Battle of Halbe (21 April – 1 May), both part of the Battle of Berlin. The Waffen-SS was represented by the III (Germanic) SS Panzer Corps. On 23 April, \"Brigadeführer\" Wilhelm Mohnke was appointed by Hitler as Battle Commander for the centre government district (Zitadelle sector), which included the Reich Chancellery and \"Führerbunker\". Mohnke's command post was in the bunkers under the Reich Chancellery. He formed \"Kampfgruppe Mohnke\" (Battle Group Mohnke), divided into two weak regiments. It was made up of the LSSAH Flak Company, replacements from LSSAH Training and Reserve Battalion from Spreenhagan (under \"Standartenfuhrer\" Anhalt), 600 men from the \"Begleit-Bataillon Reichsführer-SS\", the Führer-Begleit-Company, and the core group—800 men of the LSSAH Guard Battalion assigned to guard the Führer. On 23 April, the Reich Chancellery ordered \"Brigadeführer\" Gustav Krukenberg to proceed to Berlin with his men, who were reorganised as \"Sturmbataillon\" (\"assault battalion\") \"Charlemagne\". Between 320 and 330 French troops arrived in Berlin on 24 April after a long detour to avoid Soviet advance columns. Krukenberg was also appointed the commander of (Berlin) Defence Sector C. This included the \"Nordland\" Division, whose previous commander, Joachim Ziegler, was relieved of command the same day. On 27 April, after a futile defence, the remnants of \"Nordland\" were", "All divisions in the Waffen-SS were ordered in a single series of numbers as formed, regardless of type. A total of 38 were formed, beginning with the", "Military historian Rüdiger Overmans estimates that the Waffen-SS suffered 314,000 dead. Casualty rates were not significantly", "The \"Allgemeine SS\" was responsible for the administration of both the concentration and extermination camps. Many members of it and the \"SS-Totenkopfverbände\" subsequently became members of the Waffen-SS, forming the initial core of the 3rd SS \"Totenkopf\" Division. A number of SS medical personnel who were members of the Waffen-SS were convicted of crimes during the \"Doctors' trials\" in Nuremberg, held between 1946 and 1947 for the Nazi human experimentation they performed at the camps. According to the \"Modern Genocide: The Definitive Resource and Document Collection\", the Waffen-SS had played a \"paramount role\" in the ideological war of extermination (\"Vernichtungskrieg\"), and not just as frontline or rear area security formations: a third of the \"Einsatzgruppen\" (mobile killing squads) members which were responsible for mass murder, especially of Jews, Slavs and communists, had been recruited from Waffen-SS personnel prior to the invasion of the Soviet Union. The Waffen-SS construction office built the gas chambers at Auschwitz, and, according to Rudolf Hoss, about 7,000 served as guards at that camp. Many Waffen-SS members and units were responsible for war crimes against civilians and allied servicemen. After the war the SS organisation as a whole was held to be a criminal organisation by the post-war German government. Formations such as the \"Dirlewanger\" and Kaminski Brigades were singled out, and many others participated in large-scale massacres or smaller-scale killings such as murder of 34 captured allied servicemen ordered by Josef Kieffer during Operation Bulbasket in 1944, the Houtman affair, or murders perpetrated by Heinrich Boere. The listed Waffen-SS units were", "", "Waffen-SS veterans in post-war Germany played a large role, through publications and political pressure, in the efforts to rehabilitate the reputation of the Waffen-SS, which had committed many war crimes during World War II. High ranking German politicians such as Konrad Adenauer, Franz Josef Strauss and Kurt Schumacher courted former Waffen-SS members and their veteran organisation, HIAG, in an effort to tap into the voter potential, and helped deflect blame for war crimes onto other branches of the SS. A small number of veterans served in the new German armed forces, the Bundeswehr, something that raised national and international unease in regards to how it would affect the democratic nature of the new army.", "In 1990, Latvian Legion veterans started commemorating \"Legionnaire Day\" (Leģionāru diena) in Latvia. On 21 February 2012, The Council of Europe’s Commission against Racism and Intolerance published its", "HIAG (, literally \"Mutual aid association of former Waffen-SS members\") was a lobby group and a revisionist veterans' organisation founded by former high-ranking Waffen-SS personnel in West Germany in 1951. It campaigned for the legal, economic and historical rehabilitation of the Waffen-SS, using contacts with political parties to manipulate them for its purposes. Kurt Meyer, a convicted war criminal, was HIAG's most effective spokesperson. HIAG's historical revisionism encompassed multi-prong propaganda efforts, including periodicals, books and public speeches, alongside a publishing house that served as a platform for its publicity aims. This extensive body of work – 57 book titles and more than 50 years of monthly periodicals – have been described by historians as" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Function.", "Design.", "Materials.", "Variants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The adhesive bandage protects the wound and scab from friction, bacteria, damage, and dirt. Thus, the healing process of the body is less disturbed. Some of the dressings have antiseptic properties. An additional function is to hold the two cut ends of the skin together to make the healing process faster.", "An adhesive bandage is a small, flexible sheet of material which is sticky on one side, with a smaller, non-sticky, absorbent pad stuck to the sticky side. The pad is placed against the wound, and overlapping edges of the sticky material are smoothed down so they stick to the surrounding skin. Adhesive bandages are generally packaged in a sealed, sterile bag, with a backing covering the sticky side; the backing is removed as the bandage is applied. They come in a variety of sizes and shapes.", "The backing and bag are often made of coated paper, but may be made of plastic. The adhesive sheet is usually a woven fabric, plastic (PVC, polyethylene or polyurethane), or latex strip. It may or may not be waterproof; if it is airtight, the bandage is an occlusive dressing. The adhesive is commonly an acrylate, including methacrylates and epoxy diacrylates (which are also known as vinyl resins). The absorbent pad is often made of cotton, and there is sometimes a thin, porous-polymer coating over the pad, to keep it from sticking to the wound. The pad may also be medicated with an antiseptic solution. In some bandages, the pad is made of a water-absorbing hydrogel. This is especially common in dressings used on blisters, as the gel acts as a cushion. Many people have allergies to some of these materials, particularly latex and some adhesives.", "Special bandages are used by food preparation workers. These are waterproof, have strong adhesive so they are less likely to fall off, and are usually blue so that they are more clearly visible in food. Some include a metal strip detectable by machines used in food manufacturing to ensure that food is free from foreign objects. Transdermal patches are adhesive bandages with the function to distribute medication through the skin, rather than protecting a wound. Butterfly closures, also known as butterfly stitches, are generally thin adhesive strips which can be used to close small wounds. They are applied across the laceration in a manner which pulls the skin on either side of the wound together. They are not true sutures, but can often be used in addition to, or in place of real sutures for small wounds. Butterfly stitches can be advantageous in that they do not need a medical professional to be placed or removed, and are thus a common item in first aid kits." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "History.", "Standard form.", "Simplex tableau.", "Pivot operations.", "Algorithm.", "Entering variable selection.", "Leaving variable selection.", "Example.", "Finding an initial canonical tableau.", "Example.", "Advanced topics.", "Implementation.", "Degeneracy: stalling and cycling.", "Efficiency.", "Other algorithms.", "Linear-fractional programming.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The simplex algorithm operates on linear programs in the canonical form with formula_4 the coefficients of the objective function, formula_5 is the matrix transpose, and formula_6 are the variables of the problem, formula_7 is a \"p×n\" matrix, and formula_8 are nonnegative constants (formula_9). There is a straightforward process to convert any linear program into one in standard form, so using this form of linear programs results in no loss of generality. In geometric terms, the feasible region defined by all values of formula_10 such that formula_11 and formula_12 is a (possibly unbounded) convex polytope. An extreme point or vertex of this polytope is known as \"basic feasible solution\" (BFS). It can be shown that for a linear program in standard form, if the objective function has a maximum value on the feasible region, then it has this value on (at least) one of the extreme points. This in itself reduces the problem to a finite computation since there is a finite number of extreme points, but the number of extreme points is unmanageably large for all but the smallest linear programs. It can also be shown that, if an extreme point is not a maximum point of the objective function, then there is an edge containing the point so that the objective function is strictly increasing on the edge moving away from the point. If the edge is finite, then the edge connects to another extreme point where the objective function has a greater value, otherwise the objective function is unbounded above on the edge and the linear program has no solution. The simplex algorithm applies this insight by walking along edges of the polytope to extreme points with greater and greater objective values. This continues until the maximum value is reached, or an unbounded edge is visited (concluding that the problem has no solution). The algorithm always terminates because the number of vertices in the polytope is finite; moreover since we jump between vertices always in the same direction (that of the objective function), we hope that the number of vertices visited will be small. The solution of a linear program is accomplished in two steps. In the first step, known as Phase I, a starting extreme point is found. Depending on the nature of the program this may be trivial, but in general it can be solved by applying the simplex algorithm to a modified version of the original program. The possible results of Phase I are either that a basic feasible solution is found or that the feasible region is empty. In the latter case the linear program is called \"infeasible\". In the second step, Phase II, the simplex algorithm is applied using the basic feasible solution found in Phase I as a starting point. The possible results from Phase II are either an optimum basic feasible solution or an infinite edge on which the objective function is unbounded above.", "George Dantzig worked on planning methods for the US Army Air Force during World War II using a desk calculator. During 1946 his colleague challenged him to mechanize the planning process to distract him from taking another job. Dantzig formulated the problem as linear inequalities inspired by the work of Wassily Leontief, however, at that time he didn't include an objective as part of his formulation. Without an objective, a vast number of solutions can be feasible, and therefore to find the \"best\" feasible solution, military-specified \"ground rules\" must be used that describe how goals can be achieved as opposed to specifying a goal itself. Dantzig's core insight was to realize that most such ground rules can be translated into a linear objective function that needs to be maximized. Development of the simplex method was evolutionary and happened over a period of about a year. After Dantzig included an objective function as part of his formulation during mid-1947, the problem was mathematically more tractable. Dantzig realized that one of the unsolved problems that he had mistaken as homework in his professor Jerzy Neyman's class (and actually later solved), was applicable to finding an algorithm for linear programs. This problem involved finding the existence of Lagrange multipliers for general linear programs over a continuum of variables, each bounded between zero and one, and satisfying linear constraints expressed in the form of Lebesgue integrals. Dantzig later published his \"homework\" as a thesis to earn his doctorate. The column geometry used in this thesis gave Dantzig insight that made him believe that the Simplex method would be very efficient.", "The transformation of a linear program to one in standard form may be accomplished as follows. First, for each variable with a lower bound other than 0, a new variable is introduced representing the difference between the variable and bound. The original variable can then be eliminated by substitution. For example, given the constraint a new variable, formula_14, is introduced with The second equation may be used to eliminate formula_16 from the linear program. In this way, all lower bound constraints may be changed to non-negativity restrictions. Second, for each remaining inequality constraint, a new variable, called a \"slack variable\", is introduced to change the constraint to an equality constraint. This variable represents the difference between the two sides of the inequality and is assumed to be non-negative. For example, the inequalities are replaced with It is much easier to perform algebraic manipulation on inequalities in this form. In inequalities where ≥ appears such as the second one, some authors refer to the variable introduced as a \"surplus variable\". Third, each unrestricted variable is eliminated from the linear program. This can be done in two ways, one is by solving for the variable in one of the equations in which it appears and then eliminating the variable by substitution. The other is to replace the variable with the difference of two restricted variables. For example, if formula_19 is unrestricted then write The equation may be used to eliminate formula_19 from the linear program. When this process is complete the feasible region will be in the form It is also useful to assume that the rank of formula_23 is the number of rows. This results in no loss of generality since otherwise either the system formula_24 has redundant equations which can be dropped, or the system is inconsistent and the linear program has no solution.", "A linear program in standard form can be represented as a \"tableau\" of the form The first row defines the objective function and the remaining rows specify the constraints. The zero in the first column represents the zero vector of the same dimension as vector \"b\".(Different authors use different conventions as to the exact layout.) If the columns of A can be rearranged so that it contains the identity matrix of order \"p\" (the number of rows in A) then the tableau is said to be in \"canonical form\". The variables corresponding to the columns of the identity matrix are called \"basic variables\" while the remaining variables are called \"nonbasic\" or \"free variables\". If the values of the nonbasic variables are set to 0, then the values of the basic variables are easily obtained as entries in \"b\" and this solution is a basic feasible solution. The algebraic interpretation here is that the coefficients of the linear equation represented by each row are either formula_26, formula_27, or some other number. Each row will have formula_27 column with value formula_27, formula_30 columns with coefficients formula_26, and the remaining columns with some other coefficients (these other variables represent our non-basic variables). By setting the values of the non-basic variables to zero we ensure in each row that the value of the variable represented by a formula_27 in its column is equal to the formula_33 value at that row. Conversely, given a basic feasible solution, the columns corresponding to the nonzero variables can be expanded to a nonsingular matrix. If the corresponding tableau is multiplied by the inverse of this matrix then the result is a tableau in canonical form. Let be a tableau in canonical form. Additional row-addition transformations can be applied to remove the coefficients from the objective function. This process is called \"pricing out\" and results in a canonical tableau where \"z\" is the value of the objective function at the corresponding basic feasible solution. The updated coefficients, also known as \"relative cost coefficients\", are the rates of change of the objective function with respect to the nonbasic variables.", "The geometrical operation of moving from a basic feasible solution to an adjacent basic feasible solution is implemented as a \"pivot operation\". First, a nonzero \"pivot element\" is selected in a nonbasic column. The row containing this element is multiplied by its reciprocal to change this element to 1, and then multiples of the row are added to the other rows to change the other entries in the column to 0. The result is that, if the pivot element is in row \"r\", then the column becomes the \"r\"-th column of the identity matrix. The variable for this column is now a basic variable, replacing the variable which corresponded to the \"r\"-th column of the identity matrix before the operation. In effect, the variable corresponding to the pivot column enters the set of basic variables and is called the \"entering variable\", and the variable being replaced leaves the set of basic variables and is called the \"leaving variable\". The tableau is still in canonical form but with the set of basic variables changed by one element.", "Let a linear program be given by a canonical tableau. The simplex algorithm proceeds by performing successive pivot operations each of which give an improved basic feasible solution; the choice of pivot element at each step is largely determined by the requirement that this pivot improves the solution.", "Since the entering variable will, in general, increase from 0 to a positive number, the value of the objective function will decrease if the derivative of the objective function with respect to this variable is negative. Equivalently, the value of the objective function is decreased if the pivot column is selected so that the corresponding entry in the objective row of the tableau is positive. If there is more than one column so that the entry in the objective row is positive then the choice of which one to add to the set of basic variables is somewhat arbitrary and several \"entering variable choice rules\" such as Devex algorithm have been developed. If all the entries in the objective row are less than or equal to 0 then no choice of entering variable can be made and the solution is in fact optimal. It is easily seen to be optimal since the objective row now corresponds to an equation of the form By changing the entering variable choice rule so that it selects a column where the entry in the objective row is negative, the algorithm is changed so that it finds the maximum of the objective function rather than the minimum.", "Once the pivot column has been selected, the choice of pivot row is largely determined by the requirement that the resulting solution be feasible. First, only positive entries in the pivot column are considered since this guarantees that the value of the entering variable will be nonnegative. If there are no positive entries in the pivot column then the entering variable can take any nonnegative value with the solution remaining feasible. In this case the objective function is unbounded below and there is no minimum. Next, the pivot row must be selected so that all the other basic variables remain positive. A calculation shows that this occurs when the resulting value of the entering variable is at a minimum. In other words, if the pivot column is \"c\", then the pivot row \"r\" is chosen so that is the minimum over all \"r\" so that \"a\" > 0. This is called the \"minimum ratio test\". If there is more than one row for which the minimum is achieved then a \"dropping variable choice rule\" can be used to make the determination.", "Consider the linear program With the addition of slack variables \"s\" and \"t\", this is represented by the canonical tableau where columns 5 and 6 represent the basic variables \"s\" and \"t\" and the corresponding basic feasible solution is Columns 2, 3, and 4 can be selected as pivot columns, for this example column 4 is selected. The values of \"z\" resulting from the choice of rows 2 and 3 as pivot rows are 10/1 = 10 and 15/3 = 5 respectively. Of these the minimum is 5, so row 3 must be the pivot row. Performing the pivot produces Now columns 4 and 5 represent the basic variables \"z\" and \"s\" and the corresponding basic feasible solution is For the next step, there are no positive entries in the objective row and in fact so the minimum value of \"Z\" is −20.", "In general, a linear program will not be given in canonical form and an equivalent canonical tableau must be found before the simplex algorithm can start. This can be accomplished by the introduction of \"artificial variables\". Columns of the identity matrix are added as column vectors for these variables. If the b value for a constraint equation is negative, the equation is negated before adding the identity matrix columns. This does not change the set of feasible solutions or the optimal solution, and it ensures that the slack variables will constitute an initial feasible solution. The new tableau is in canonical form but it is not equivalent to the original problem. So a new objective function, equal to the sum of the artificial variables, is introduced and the simplex algorithm is applied to find the minimum; the modified linear program is called the \"Phase I\" problem. The simplex algorithm applied to the Phase I problem must terminate with a minimum value for the new objective function since, being the sum of nonnegative variables, its value is bounded below by 0. If the minimum is 0 then the artificial variables can be eliminated from the resulting canonical tableau producing a canonical tableau equivalent to the original problem. The simplex algorithm can then be applied to find the solution; this step is called \"Phase II\". If the minimum is positive then there is no feasible solution for the Phase I problem where the artificial variables are all zero. This implies that the feasible region for the original problem is empty, and so the original problem has no solution.", "Consider the linear program This is represented by the (non-canonical) tableau Introduce artificial variables \"u\" and \"v\" and objective function \"W\" = \"u\" + \"v\", giving a new tableau The equation defining the original objective function is retained in anticipation of Phase II. By construction, \"u\" and \"v\" are both non-basic variables since they are part of the initial identity matrix. However, the objective function \"W\" currently assumes that \"u\" and \"v\" are both \"0\". In order to adjust the objective function to be the correct value where \"u\" = \"10\" and \"v\" = \"15\", add the third and fourth rows to the first row giving Select column 5 as a pivot column, so the pivot row must be row 4, and the updated tableau is Now select column 3 as a pivot column, for which row 3 must be the pivot row, to get The artificial variables are now 0 and they may be dropped giving a canonical tableau equivalent to the original problem: This is, fortuitously, already optimal and the optimum value for the original linear program is −130/7.", "", "The tableau form used above to describe the algorithm lends itself to an immediate implementation in which the tableau is maintained as a rectangular (\"m\" + 1)-by-(\"m\" + \"n\" + 1) array. It is straightforward to avoid storing the m explicit columns of the identity matrix that will occur within the tableau by virtue of B being a subset of the columns of [A, I]. This implementation is referred to as the \"\"standard\" simplex algorithm\". The storage and computation overhead are such that the standard simplex method is a prohibitively expensive approach to solving large linear programming problems. In each simplex iteration, the only data required are the first row of the tableau, the (pivotal) column of the tableau corresponding to the entering variable and the right-hand-side. The latter can be updated using the pivotal column and the first row of the tableau can be updated using the (pivotal) row corresponding to the leaving variable. Both the pivotal column and pivotal row may be computed directly using the solutions of linear systems of equations involving the matrix B and a matrix-vector product using A. These observations motivate the \"\"revised\" simplex algorithm\", for which implementations are distinguished by their invertible representation of B. In large linear-programming problems A is typically a sparse matrix and, when the resulting sparsity of B is exploited when maintaining its invertible representation, the revised simplex algorithm is much more efficient than the standard simplex method. Commercial simplex solvers are based on the revised simplex algorithm.", "If the values of all basic variables are strictly positive, then a pivot must result in an improvement in the objective value. When this is always the case no set of basic variables occurs twice and the simplex algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps. Basic feasible solutions where at least one of the \"basic \"variables is zero are called \"degenerate\" and may result in pivots for which there is no improvement in the objective value. In this case there is no actual change in the solution but only a change in the set of basic variables. When several such pivots occur in succession, there is no improvement; in large industrial applications, degeneracy is common and such \"\"stalling\"\" is notable. Worse than stalling is the possibility the same set of basic variables occurs twice, in which case, the deterministic pivoting rules of the simplex algorithm will produce an infinite loop, or \"cycle\". While degeneracy is the rule in practice and stalling is common, cycling is rare in practice. A discussion of an example of practical cycling occurs in Padberg. Bland's rule prevents cycling and thus guarantees that the simplex algorithm always terminates. Another pivoting algorithm, the criss-cross algorithm never cycles on linear programs. History-based pivot rules such as Zadeh's rule and Cunningham's rule also try to circumvent the issue of stalling and cycling by keeping track how often particular variables are being used, and then favor such variables that have been used least often.", "The simplex method is remarkably efficient in practice and was a great improvement over earlier methods such as Fourier–Motzkin elimination. However, in 1972, Klee and Minty gave an example, the Klee–Minty cube, showing that the worst-case complexity of simplex method as formulated by Dantzig is exponential time. Since then, for almost every variation on the method, it has been shown that there is a family of linear programs for which it performs badly. It is an open question if there is a variation with polynomial time, although sub-exponential pivot rules are known. In 2018, it was proved that a particular variant of the simplex method is NP-mighty, i.e., it can be used to solve, with polynomial overhead, any problem in NP implicitly during the algorithm's execution. Moreover, deciding whether a given variable ever enters the basis during the algorithm's execution on a given input, and determining the number of iterations needed for solving a given problem, are both NP-hard problems. Computing the output of some other pivot rules was already known to be PSPACE-complete. Analyzing and quantifying the observation that the simplex algorithm is efficient in practice despite its exponential worst-case complexity has led to the development of other measures of complexity. The simplex algorithm has polynomial-time average-case complexity under various probability distributions, with the precise average-case performance of the simplex algorithm depending on the choice of a probability distribution for the random matrices. Another approach to studying \"typical phenomena\" uses Baire category theory from general topology, and to show that (topologically) \"most\" matrices can be solved by the simplex algorithm in a polynomial number of steps. Another method to analyze the performance of the simplex algorithm studies the behavior of worst-case scenarios under small perturbation – are worst-case scenarios stable under a small change (in the sense of structural stability), or do they become tractable? This area of research, called smoothed analysis, was introduced specifically to study the simplex method. Indeed, the running time of the simplex method on input with noise is polynomial in the number of variables and the magnitude of the perturbations.", "Other algorithms for solving linear-programming problems are described in the linear-programming article. Another basis-exchange pivoting algorithm is the criss-cross algorithm. There are polynomial-time algorithms for linear programming that use interior point methods: these include Khachiyan's ellipsoidal algorithm, Karmarkar's projective algorithm, and path-following algorithms.", "Linear–fractional programming (LFP) is a generalization of linear programming (LP). In LP the objective function is a linear function, while the objective function of a linear–fractional program is a ratio of two linear functions. In other words, a linear program is a fractional–linear program in which the denominator is the constant function having the value one everywhere. A linear–fractional program can be solved by a variant of the simplex algorithm or by the criss-cross algorithm.", "These introductions are written for students of computer science and operations research:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Number of boxes.", "Mounting of boxes.", "Lobby open hours.", "Packages.", "Package delivery by private carriers.", "Locked bags and caller service.", "Security.", "By continent.", "Africa.", "Asia.", "Oceania.", "Australia.", "New Zealand.", "Europe.", "Austria.", "United Kingdom.", "North America.", "Street Addressing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "The quantity of post office boxes in a station varies widely. Stations of small areas are often equipped with fewer than 100 boxes, while stations in a central business district (CBD) area may offer a combined quantity of over 200,000 post office boxes.", "Post office boxes are usually mounted in a wall of the post office, either an external wall or a wall in a lobby, so that staff on the inside may deposit mail in a box, while a key holder (some older post office boxes use a combination dial instead of a key) in the lobby or on the outside of the building may open his or her box to retrieve the mail.", "In many post offices in the U.S., the PO box lobby is separate from the window-service lobby, so that the former may be kept open for longer hours or around the clock, while the latter is locked after business hours. In the U.S. since the 1980s, in cities and large urban areas, post offices have tended to close box lobbies overnight because of the tendency of homeless people to use them for sleeping quarters. As a result, some box lobbies are accessible after hours by customers who are provided a code to a door keypad. In addition, some post offices are located in rented facilities such as shopping malls. As a result, PO boxes can only be accessed while that facility is open.", "If a parcel does not fit in a PO box, the postmaster will leave a note advising that customer to pick up that parcel from the counter. In some post offices, a key will be left in the PO box that corresponds to a larger, locked box (parcel locker) where the patron may pick up his or her package if a signature is not required. Most often, in this case, once the key is used to open the larger, locked box, the key cannot be removed again by the patron, but the door cannot be secured either. Notes will also be left in the PO box in respect of cash on delivery (COD) and registered mail that has to be signed for. In 2011, the United States Postal Service began a pilot program called \"gopost\" which installed larger boxes to handle package pickup from an unstaffed station. A given box can be used by multiple customers thanks to the integration of a computer which accepts a delivery code. The system uses, issued February 10, 2004 to Michael A. Rivalto. Deutsche Post started a similar concept called a Packstation in 2001. The privately operated Amazon Locker, started in 2011, is a similar one-time-use pickup (and return) facility for parcels sent to and from the company.", "Until 2012, package delivery to USPS post office boxes was not available from private carriers like UPS, FedEx and others. In early 2012, the Postal Service introduced a P.O. Box Street Address (PBSA) service that allows box-holders to combine the street address of the post office where their box is located with their post office box number into a street address format. A mailing industry publication called the new service \"a great service for people who already have a PO Box and don't want their packages delivered to their home.\"", "Users receiving very large quantities of mail can use \"locked bags\", which are numbered like PO boxes. In the United States, this service is called caller service, and the assigned number is called a caller number, although mail is typically addressed to \"PO Box (caller number).\"", "Each country has its own rules and regulations as to how one can retrieve mail at a PO Box. Some countries, such as the United States or the United Kingdom, may require one or more forms of identification. Not all countries offer locked PO Boxes. In the United States, two forms of identification are required when signing up for a PO Box; one of which must be a photo ID.", "Many countries offer some type of PO Boxes for different uses. There are an increasing number of private companies that provide similar PO Box services to the official postal service privately under the guise of mail forwarding.", "In Namibia, PO boxes are the only form of mail delivery to private individuals. Even small settlements feature a block of PO boxes for rent. In Windhoek, capital and the only large town, blocks of PO boxes are scattered all over the city and not necessarily located at post offices but at shopping malls, in pedestrian zones or on public places. The South African Post Office has Post Boxes available for rent. These are usually attached to or close to a post office. In urban areas with PO Boxes for rent there also may be home delivery of mail. In rural areas Post Boxes are often compulsory as no street deliveries take place. In the area's that there is no street delivery, Post Boxes are not charged for. Boxes and Street delivery postal codes may be the same in an area, or may differ. Private Bags are available for recipients of large mail volumes. Cameroon also use the PO Box in different provincies such as: Kumba, Yaoundé, Duoala, Bamenda...", "In Hong Kong, PO boxes are available in two different sizes. They are available in many post offices throughout the territory. In Japan, PO boxes are available at most post office locations. There is no cost to rent a post office box, but the renter must be able to retrieve mail regularly (daily, in principle) from the box. The renter must also rent the box for 6 months or more. In the Philippines, PO boxes are available for rent in selected post offices. PO boxes, also known as lock boxes, are available in three sizes: small, medium and large. In South Korea, PO boxes are available in one size at selected post offices. There is no charge for renting PO box, but renter must fetch mail at least once in 30 days. Application is only available at post office with valid ID, seal for receiving registered mail, and key fee (usually around 10,000 won). Seoul CPO box room is the only PO box in Korea with fully automated mail retrieving system.", "", "In Australia, wall-mounted PO boxes come in five sizes: small, medium, large, jumbo and A4. The different sizes boxes can be mixed almost completely arbitrarily on the wall. There is also an option for locked private bag which comes in two different sizes as well: small and large. PO boxes and private locked bags can be combined.", "In New Zealand, customers have the option to select between two sizes of PO Boxes: small and large. There is also an option to hire a Private Bag similar to \"locked bags\" in other countries. The annual fee is paid annually in advance.", "", "In Austria, PO Boxes come in one size, and four different versions Only mail from Austrian Post can be delivered to an Austrian Post PO Box, but there are also private companies offering the same service but for example completely Anonymous or for parcels.", "In the United Kingdom, anyone applying for a Royal Mail PO box must produce documentation to verify their home or business address.", "In Canada and the U.S., Postal Boxes are available in five different sizes (A, B, C, D & E). They are generally available in all post offices throughout the country. In the United States, PO Boxes are generally available through the United States Postal Service (USPS). They are usually arranged from the smallest boxes at the top to the largest boxes at the bottom. The two largest sizes may be configured as drawers. To rent a PO Box, two different forms of identification are required. At least one of them must be a valid photo ID. This also applies to others who wish to share the box with the original subscriber's permission, and are of legal age. The post office will \"not\" forward mail from a PO Box until the box is closed, and then only to one address for all subscribers. As part of the agreement to rent a PO Box, if the PO Box is used for business, the Post Office will provide, upon request, the geographical (street) address of the business.", "Until 2012, only items mailed or shipped via USPS could be received at a USPS PO Box. However, a service called \"Street Addressing\" has begun to change this. Once a permission form is completed by the box holder, Street Addressing allows private shippers, such as United Parcel Service (UPS) or FedEx, to ship items to a modification of the actual street address of the Post Office where the PO Box is located. The Post Office accepts the item, and places it in the PO Box or, for larger items, handles them the same way they would a package sent via USPS. (Some have storage lockers.) Only certain Post Offices offer Street Addressing, and even for ones that do, it may not be available to all of its PO Box customers (e.g., boxes without a fee). Other restrictions also exist, including the same limitations on items that cannot otherwise be mailed by \"ground service\" though USPS. (Not to be confused with items that cannot be shipped by air.) In many cases, the package may require one additional business day for delivery, and the service was never intended for overnight delivery. Also, federal holidays not observed by the private shipper might cause a delay. If an item is shipped using Street Addressing in which the box holder did not properly sign up for, it will be returned to sender. Street Addressing will have the same street address of the post office, plus a \"unit number\" that matches the P.O. Box number. As an example, in El Centro, California, the post office is located at 1598 Main Street. Therefore, for P.O. Box 9975 (fictitious), the Street Addressing would be: 1598 Main Street Unit 9975, El Centro, CA. Nationally, the first five digits of the zip code \"may or may not\" be the same as the P.O. Box address, and the last four digits (Zip + 4) are virtually always different. Except for a few of the largest post offices in the U.S., the 'Street Addressing' (not the P.O. Box address) nine digit Zip + 4 is the same for all boxes at a given location." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Report.", "Race." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Mika Häkkinen, starting on pole for the fifth time in 1999, got off the line quickly and began building a gap between him and second place. David Coulthard and Jacques Villeneuve, starting third and sixth respectively, had great starts and were able to take second and third place by the first corner. Eddie Irvine, starting second, had a poor start and fell to fifth place after being passed by Coulthard, Villeneuve, and then in the second corner, his teammate Michael Schumacher. Olivier Panis and Marc Gené failed to start, with Gené retiring and Panis able to continue on in last place. The McLaren duo of Häkkinen and Coulthard began building up a substantial gap, with the Ferraris being held up by Villeneuve. Eddie Irvine, on lap 23, became the first of the front runners to pit. Mika Häkkinen came in the next lap, and had built up such a lead that he only fell to second place. Villeneuve and Schumacher both stopped simultaneously, but Villeneuve's stop was longer and Schumacher was able to pass Villeneuve in the pits. Irvine was also able to capitalize on Villeneuve's slow stop to pass him. After pitting, Michael Schumacher was initially caught behind Heinz-Harald Frentzen, but once past, he began the task of chasing down David Coulthard, fourteen seconds ahead. Schumacher closed to within a second of Coulthard on lap 41, but he pitted the next lap without making an attempt to pass. Mika Häkkinen pitted the lap after Schumacher, and Coulthard pitted on lap 45. Coulthard's stop was slightly faster that Schumacher's, and came out just ahead of Schumacher. Schumacher was able to close up behind Coulthard on cold tires, but was unable to pass Coulthard. Once Coulthard's tires warmed up, he was able to pull away from Schumacher. Jacques Villeneuve pitted on lap 40, suffering from a broken rear wing element. The mechanics pulled the broken element off the wing, but first gear broke when Villeneuve tried to leave his pit box, and he retired. Michael Schumacher made another late charge on David Coulthard as the two battled through the lap traffic of Damon Hill, Rubens Barrichello, and Toranosuke Takagi. Schumacher ran out of time, however, and finished the race in third place behind Coulthard. Mika Häkkinen won the race by over six seconds, marking the first time that both McLarens finished a race in 1999." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1977–92: X.", "1993–97: X Japan.", "1998–2007: Post X Japan.", "2007–08: Reunion.", "2008–10: Delays, Sugizo joins and first overseas performances.", "2011–2014: World tour and Madison Square Garden.", "2015–present: New album, documentary film and Japan tour.", "Musical style.", "Appearance and image.", "Legacy and influence.", "Tours and performances.", "Kōhaku Uta Gassen." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1977, Yoshiki and Toshi formed a band called Dynamite in their hometown of Tateyama, Chiba, when they were just 11 years old. Dynamite changed its name to Noise in 1978, while they were still in high school. At this time, Toshi played guitar and they had a singer named Kurata. In 1982, Noise disbanded and Yoshiki and Toshi formed a new band, they named it X while they tried to think of another name, but the name stuck. X began to actively perform in the Tokyo area in 1985 with a frequently changing lineup. They originally attempted to pitch in with Japan's underground punk movement, but the band did not fit in with it as they were considered too commercial and flamboyant. Their first single, \"I'll Kill You\" was released on Dada Records in June and the band contributed \"Break the Darkness\" to the sampler \"Heavy Metal Force III\"", "\"Art of Life\" was released on August 25, 1993, by Atlantic Records, and consists solely of the 29-minute, heavily orchestrated title track. It debuted at number one, however the band only performed two concerts that year, as each member began solo careers. Aptly titled X Japan Returns, the concerts were held at the Tokyo Dome on December 30 and 31, marking the beginning of a New Year's Eve tradition that would last until the group's disbandment. The solo careers continued into the following year, with X Japan only performing four shows. The first two were the last two days of The Great Music Experience, and the others were December 30–31 at the Tokyo Dome, titled and respectively. 1995 was also quiet, until November 19 when the band began the tour for their next album, Dahlia Tour 1995–1996. Around this time, the group dropped most of its original visual kei aesthetics in favor of a more casual look.", "While reissues, compilations and live footage continued to be released, the members of X Japan pursued solo careers and other projects. hide, who released his first solo album \"Hide Your Face\" in 1994, continued his solo career with a sound distinctively different from X Japan's music, leaning more towards alternative rock, until his death on May 2, 1998. Just two months later, the debut album \"3.2.1.\" from his American-based band Zilch, which included Ray McVeigh (The Professionals), Paul Raven (Killing Joke) and Joey Castillo (Queens of the Stone Age), was released. His third solo album \"Ja, Zoo\", formally including his live band Spread Beaver, was released in November 1998 and became his most successful, having reached number one and sold over a million copies. Prior to his death, hide and Yoshiki talked about restarting X Japan with a new vocalist in the year 2000. Toshi's solo career, which began in 1992, has been extensive, with him having released over 30 albums and performed numerous acoustic shows for smaller audiences. According to his website, his Utatabi Traveling Concert tour included over 3,000 concerts", "According to a report by the newspaper \"Sponichi\", Toshi visited Yoshiki in Los Angeles in November 2006 to work on the song \"Without You\" as a tribute to hide. On March 21, 2007, Toshi announced on his website that he and Yoshiki had recently resumed working together, stating that a \"new project\" would commence soon. Rumors of an X Japan reunion subsequently began, and in June Yoshiki was reported as having expressed interest in a tour (beginning in Los Angeles), \"Without You\" being released as a single, and that he was in talks with Heath and Pata regarding their participation. The band made its first public appearance on October 22, 2007, on the rooftop of the shopping center Aqua City in Odaiba, Tokyo, to film a music video for the newly recorded song \"I.V.\". The song was used as the theme of the American horror movie \"Saw IV\". It was written by Yoshiki and recorded with all X Japan members of the pre-breakup", "The hide memorial summit took place on May 3 and 4, 2008 at Ajinomoto Stadium, with X Japan performing the second day, as a tribute to the musician who was also a former X guitarist. Numerous other popular acts such as T.M.Revolution, Oblivion Dust and Versailles also performed, with Phantasmagoria and Luna Sea even reuniting for one day. Organizers planned for an estimated 100,000 fans to attend the two shows. On June 8, it was reported that all of X Japan's previously scheduled shows would be postponed until further notice, due to a recurrence of Yoshiki's disc herniation. The Paris and Taipei concerts were rescheduled, Paris for November 22, 2009. On September 15, 2008, Yoshiki held a press conference in Tokyo, where he announced a new, unnamed X Japan song was in the works. Concerts at Saitama Super Arena", "It was announced on January 27, 2011, that X Japan signed a 3-year agreement with EMI in November 2010. The label will handle the American distribution of their single \"Jade\", which was to be released on March 15, and their untitled album, which was set for release in late summer. In promotion of the new album, it was also stated they would be touring extensively around the world throughout 2011. X Japan performed on March 6 at Asia Girls Explosion, a fashion event and music concert that Yoshiki created with Jay FR. It was announced they would perform in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and Peru later in the year. Due to the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that occurred in Japan on March 11, the band decided to postpone the release of \"Jade\" until June 28. Yoshiki also decided to auction off one of his used signature Kawai crystal grand pianos, of which all proceeds were sent to help provide aid to the victims of the earthquake and tsunami. \"Scarlet Love Song\" was released in Japan on June 8, and on", "In June 2015, Yoshiki announced X Japan's sixth and first studio album in 20 years would be released on March 11, 2016. The band has announced that the sixth album would contain between 13 and 14 tracks, including some short pieces. It was also announced that they were to perform at the Wembley Arena in London on the following day, where \"We Are X\", a documentary film about the band, would be premiered. The band performed on June 28 at Makuhari Messe as part of the second night of Luna Sea's Lunatic Fest. The first single from the album, \"Born to Be Free\", was released on November 6, 2015. X Japan's first domestic tour of Japan in 20 years began with three consecutive dates at Yokohama Arena on December 2, continued with Osaka-jō Hall on December 7,", "X Japan's music developed in the wake of American and British glam and heavy metal music, and is characterized by driving speed/power metal compositions with symphonic elements (e.g. \"Kurenai\", \"Silent Jealousy\") and emotional ballads (e.g. \"Endless Rain\", \"Forever Love\"). Many of the group's songs make use of orchestrated passages, particularly on longer tracks such as the ten and a half minute \"Tears\", \"Crucify My Love\", and the twenty-nine-minute \"Art of Life\". The majority of the band's lyrics are in Japanese, the band's native language, however many instances show the lyrics alternating from Japanese to English and back. Examples of this include the spoken-word background vocals during the bridge of \"Rusty Nail\", and multiple lines (including the entire pre-chorus) of the song \"Week End\". The first recorded version of \"Kurenai\" from \"Vanishing Vision\" contains lyrics entirely in English. The majority of the band's catalog of music was written by Yoshiki with relatively little composition from the other members. hide contributed several songs, including the single \"Scars\", while Pata's only claim is \"White Wind from Mr. Martin ~Pata's Nap~\". Toshi's contributions are limited to lyrics for a few songs. Taiji contributed music to a couple of", "X Japan's appearance was inspired by glam rock, Kiss, David Bowie, as well as traditional Japanese kabuki theatre, where it was customary for male actors to play female roles and dress like women. Visual kei artists still often employ feminine looks and garbs for their stage. According to Josephine Yun, \"like its music, X's look was individualistic. Square-shouldered Toshi donned leather and metal, looking like a character out of the anime \"Gundam\". Taiji dolled up in perfect, pretty glam. Pata's sleepy, backseat demeanor and whiskey bottle became his trademark, as hide forever goaded the audience. And Yoshiki was a paradox all his own, bewitchingly effeminate one moment — and a full-force, wrist-breaking (literally) hurricane in concert the next.\" Will Hodgkinson of \"The Times\" described", "X Japan is considered one of the founders of visual kei, a movement among Japanese musicians comparable to Western glam, with the name itself believed to have been derived from their slogan \"Psychedelic Violence Crime of Visual Shock\". In 2011, Yoshiki briefly described their early years and the movement's development, saying \"when we started the band, the problem was we didn’t belong anywhere. Because we were playing very heavy music, we were wearing tons of make-up and crazy outfits. So we couldn’t belong anywhere\", \"[We did our own thing and] that eventually became visual kei.\" He added \"But visual kei is more like a spirit, it’s not a music style or, you know... I think it is a freedom about describing myself, a freedom to express myself, that’s what I believe visual kei is.\" Upon former guitarist hide's death in 1998, less than a year after the band broke up, \"Billboard\"'s Steve McClure declared it \"the end of an era\", explaining \"X was the first generation of visual kei bands[...] For the next generation of bands, it's like: \"That's it. The torch has been passed to us.\"\" Many bands and artists, most related to visual kei, count them as an influence or look up to them, including Miyavi, Dir en grey, Syu and Fumiya of Galneryus, The Gazette, D, Sadie vocalist Mao, Tōru Kawauchi from 12012, Maya of LM.C, Flow, Yuuki from Unsraw, DJ Ozma, Kei of Dio – Distraught Overlord, aie from Deadman, Screw's Jin, and DaizyStripper. The members of Versailles named X and Luna Sea as influences, with singer Kamijo saying \"I think there isn't anyone in the Japanese music business who hasn't been influenced by them.\" Likewise, Leda of Galneryus and Deluhi claims he was not even interested in music until a friend played him X Japan and Luna Sea, and also declared X Japan's music his \"Bible\". Established musicians Dancho (Nogod), Miya (Mucc), Yuu (Merry), Akane (ex-The Scanty) and Daisuke (Jupiter) occasionally perform in a X Japan cover band called X Suginami. American musician Marty Friedman called X Japan the biggest band in visual kei and \"by far the most versatile musically,\" and cited them as the reason he got into Japanese rock music. In \"We Are X\", Gene Simmons claims that if the X Japan members were \"born in America or England and", "", "X Japan performed 7 times on" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After the unsuccessful Slovak National Uprising, part of the resistance movement centered in Moravian Wallachia. Partisans formed armed groups along with local volunteers under Soviet commanders. They searched for help from villagers from surrounding settlements, who provided them with food, shelter, and basic treatment, and sometimes even helped them with military actions. The unit operating near Ploština was, however, infiltrated by Gestapo confidants and traitors who informed Nazis about the collaboration. This led to the punitive action conducted by Nazis on April 19, 1945, a few days before the end of World War II. According to Božena Húšťová, a witness whose brother was killed during the massacre, the men were forced to enter burning houses after a detonation of hidden ammunition in one of the houses. Those who attempted to escape were shot. A similar tragedy occurred on April 23, 1945 in the nearby village of Prlov, where fifteen people were burned, three hanged and one shot. The last Nazi punitive action occurred in the settlement Vařákovy Paseky on May 2 and 3, 1945. Four people were killed and eight houses burned. SS-Mann (1909-1983), a commander of the unit \"Josef\" during the massacre in Ploština, was sentenced to six years in prison in 1948. While serving his sentence, he was contacted by the Communist Czechoslovak State Security Service (StB). In 1953, he became an agent of StB and worked for Communist Czechoslovakia in West Germany, under the code name Konrad II. His criminal past was revealed again in 1962, but the investigation was interrupted and Tutter died as an honorable German citizen in 1983.", "Ladislav Mňačko, writer and a member of the partisan group \"\"Ploština\"\", described this tragedy in his book \"Death Is Called Engelchen\". The topic was also developed in the 1963 Czechoslovak war film \"Death Is Called Engelchen\", directed by Ján Kadár and Elmar Klos." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Geology.", "Ecology.", "Conservation issues.", "History.", "Early history.", "British and Dutch control.", "World War II.", "Recent history.", "Demographics.", "Administration.", "Economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The island is known by many names. Internationally it is known as \"Borneo\", derived from European contact with the kingdom in the 16th century during the Age of Exploration. The name \"Borneo\" probably originates from the local fruit name called \"Buah Nyiur\" which is the coconut fruit. The name \"Brunei\" possibly derives from the Sanskrit word \"\" (), meaning either \"water\" or Varuna, the Hindu god of rain. Indonesian natives called it \"Kalimantan,\" which was derived from the Sanskrit word \"Kalamanthana,\" meaning \"burning weather island\" (to describe its hot and humid tropical weather). In earlier times, the island was known by other names. In 977, Chinese records began to use the term \"Bo-ni\" to refer to Borneo. In 1225, it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua (趙汝适). The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as \"Nusa Tanjungnagara\", which means the island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom.", "", "Borneo was formed through Mesozoic accretion of microcontinental fragments, ophiolite terranes and island arc crust onto a Paleozoic continental core. At the beginning of the Cenozoic Borneo formed a promontory of Sundaland which partly separated from Asian mainland by the proto-South China Sea. The oceanic part of the proto-South China Sea was subducted during the Paleogene period and a large accretionary complex formed along the northwestern of the island of Borneo. In the early Miocene uplift of the accretionary complex occurred as a result of underthrusting of thinned continental crust in northwest. The uplift may have also resulted from shortening due to the counter-clockwise rotation of Borneo between 20 and 10 mega-annum (Ma) as a consequence of Australia-Southeast Asia collision. Large volumes of sediment were shed into basins, which scattered offshore to the west, north and east of Borneo as well into·a Neogene basin which is currently exposed in large areas of eastern and southern Sabah. In southeast Sabah, the Miocene to recent island arc terranes of the Sulu Archipelago extend onshore into Borneo with the older volcanic arc was the result of southeast dipping subduction while the younger volcanics are likely resulted from northwest dipping subduction the Celebes Sea. Before sea levels rose at the end of the last Ice Age, Borneo was part of the mainland of Asia, forming, with Java and Sumatra, the upland regions of a peninsula that extended east from present day Indochina. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula. Deeper waters separating Borneo from neighbouring Sulawesi prevented a land connection to that island, creating the divide known as Wallace's Line between Asian and Australia-New Guinea biological regions. The island today is surrounded by the South China Sea to the north and northwest, the Sulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes Sea and the Makassar Strait to the east, and the Java Sea and Karimata Strait to the south. To the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia: Java and Sulawesi, respectively. To the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of, it is the third-largest island in the world, and is the largest island of Asia (the largest continent). Its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of. The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of. Other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan (), the Barito in South Kalimantan (), Rajang in Sarawak () and Kinabatangan in Sabah (). Borneo has significant cave systems. In Sarawak, the Clearwater Cave has one of the world's longest underground rivers while Deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over deep. The Gomantong Caves in Sabah has been dubbed as the \"Cockroach Cave\" due to the presence of millions of cockroaches inside the cave. The Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in East Kalimantan which particularly a karst areas contains thousands of smaller caves.", "The Borneo rainforest is estimated to be around 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. It is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals, and the rainforest is one of the few remaining natural habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan. It is an important refuge for many endemic forest species, including the Borneo elephant, the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros, the Bornean clouded leopard, the hose's palm civet and the dayak fruit bat. Peat swamp forests occupy the entire coastline of Borneo. The soil of the peat swamp are comparatively infertile, while it is known to be the home of various bird species such as the hook-billed bulbul, helmeted hornbill and rhinoceros hornbill. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees (267 species are dipterocarps), 221 species of terrestrial mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo (about the same as Sumatra and Java combined). The Borneo river shark is known only from the Kinabatangan River. In 2010, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) stated that 123 species have been discovered in Borneo since the \"Heart of Borneo\" agreement was signed in 2007. The WWF has classified the island into seven distinct ecoregions. Most are lowland regions: The highest elevations of Mount Kinabalu are home to the Kinabalu mountain alpine meadow, an alpine shrubland notable for its numerous endemic species, including many orchids.", "The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area was reduced due to heavy logging by the Indonesian and Malaysian wood industry, especially with the large demands of raw materials from industrial countries along with the conversion of forest lands for large-scale agricultural purposes. Half of the annual global tropical timber acquisition comes from Borneo. Palm oil plantations have been widely developed and are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest. Forest fires since 1997, started by the locals to clear the forests for plantations were exacerbated by an exceptionally dry El Niño season, worsening the annual shrinkage of the rainforest. During these fires, hotspots were visible on satellite images and the resulting haze frequently affected Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia. The haze could also reach southern Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines as evidenced on the 2015 Southeast Asian haze.", "", "In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo. According to ancient Chinese (977), Indian and Japanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports by the first millennium AD. In Chinese manuscripts, gold, camphor, tortoise shells, hornbill ivory, rhinoceros horn, crane crest, beeswax, lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood of a thick liana, \"Dalbergia parviflora\"), dragon's blood, rattan, edible bird's nests and various spices were described as among the most valuable items from Borneo. The Indians named Borneo \"Suvarnabhumi\" (the land of gold) and also \"Karpuradvipa\" (Camphor Island). The Javanese named Borneo \"Puradvipa\", or Diamond Island. Archaeological findings in the Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about 1300. Stone pillars bearing inscriptions in the Pallava script, found in Kutai along the Mahakam River in East Kalimantan and dating to around the second half of the 4th century, constitute some of the oldest evidence of Hindu influence in Southeast Asia. By the 14th century, Borneo became a vassal state of Majapahit (in present-day Indonesia), later changing its allegiance to the Ming dynasty of China. The religion of Islam entered the island in the 10th century, following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples in the coastal areas. The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of Majapahit Emperor in mid-14th century. During its golden age under Bolkiah from the 15th century to the 17th century, the Bruneian Empire ruled almost the entire coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to the island due to its influence in the region) and several islands in the Philippines. During the 1450s, Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr, an Arab born in Johor, arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In 1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu; he titled himself as \"Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr\". Following their independence in 1578 from Brunei's influence, the Sulu's began to expand their thalassocracy to parts of the northern Borneo. Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving Chinese junks. Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms.", "Since the fall of Malacca in 1511, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Borneo, and especially with Brunei from 1530. Having visited Brunei's capital, the Portuguese described the place as surrounded by a stone wall. While Borneo was seen as rich, the Portuguese did not make any attempts to conquer it. The Spanish visit to Brunei led to the Castilian War in 1578. The English began to trade with Sambas of southern Borneo in 1609, while the Dutch only began their trade in 1644: to Banjar and Martapura, also in the southern Borneo. The Dutch tried to settle the island of Balambangan, north of Borneo, in the second half of the 18th century, but withdrew by 1797. In 1812, the sultan in southern Borneo ceded his forts to the English East India Company. The English, led by Stamford Raffles, then tried to establish an intervention in Sambas but failed. Although they managed to defeat the Sultanate the next year and declared a blockade on all ports in Borneo except Brunei, Banjarmasin and Pontianak, the project was cancelled by the British Governor-General Lord Minto in India as it was too expensive. At the beginning of British and Dutch exploration on the island, they described the island of Borneo as full of head hunters, with the indigenous in the interior practising cannibalism, and the waters around the island infested with pirates, especially between the north eastern Borneo and the southern Philippines. The Malay and Sea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo, along with the attacks by Illanuns of the Moro Pirates from the southern Philippines, such as in the Battle off Mukah. The Dutch began to intervene in the southern part of the island upon resuming contact in 1815, posting Residents to Banjarmasin, Pontianak and Sambas and Assistant-Residents to Landak and Mampawa. The Sultanate of Brunei in 1842 granted large parts of land in Sarawak to the English adventurer James Brooke, as a reward for his help in quelling a local rebellion. Brooke established the Raj of Sarawak and was recognised as its rajah after paying a fee to the Sultanate. He established a monarchy, and the Brooke dynasty (through his nephew and great-nephew) ruled Sarawak for 100 years; the leaders were known as the White Rajahs. Brooke also acquired the island of Labuan for Britain in 1846 through the Treaty of Labuan with the Sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddin II on 18 December 1846. The region of northern Borneo came under the administration of North Borneo Chartered Company following the acquisition of territory from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu by a German businessman and adventurer named Baron von Overbeck, before it was passed to British Dent brothers (comprising Alfred Dent and Edward Dent). Further enroachment by the British reduced the territory of Brunei. This led the 26th Sultan of Brunei, Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin to appeal the British to stop, and as a result a Treaty of Protection was signed in 1888, rendering Brunei a British protectorate. Before the acquisition by the British, the Americans also managed to establish their temporary presence in northwestern Borneo after acquiring a parcel of land from the Sultanate of Brunei. A company known as American Trading Company of Borneo was formed by Joseph William Torrey, Thomas Bradley Harris and several Chinese investors, establishing a colony named \"Ellena\" in the Kimanis area. The colony failed and was abandoned, due to denials of financial backing, especially by the US government, and to diseases and riots among the workers. Before Torrey left, he managed to sell the land to the German businessman, Overbeck. Meanwhile, the Germans under William Frederick Schuck were awarded a parcel of land in northeastern Borneo of the Sandakan Bay from the Sultanate of Sulu where he conducted business and exported large quantities of arms, opium, textiles and tobacco to Sulu before the land was also passed to Overbeck by the Sultanate. Prior to the recognition of Spanish presence in the Philippine archipelago, a protocol known as the Madrid Protocol of 1885 was signed between the governments of the United Kingdom, Germany and Spain in Madrid to cement Spanish influence and recognise their sovereignty over the Sultanate of Sulu—in return for Spain's relinquishing its claim to the former possessions of the Sultanate in northern Borneo. The British administration then established the first railway network in northern Borneo, known as the North Borneo Railway. During this time, the British sponsored a large number of Chinese workers to migrate to northern Borneo to work in European plantation and mines, and the Dutch followed suit to increase their economic production. By 1888, North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo had become British protectorate. The area in southern Borneo was made Dutch protectorate in 1891. The Dutch who already claimed the whole Borneo were asked by Britain to delimit their boundaries between the two colonial territories to avoid further conflicts. The British and Dutch governments had signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 to exchange trading ports in Malay Peninsula and Sumatra that were under their controls and assert spheres of influence. This resulted in indirectly establishing British- and Dutch-controlled areas in the north (Malay Peninsula) and south (Sumatra and Riau Islands) respectively.", "During World War II, Japanese forces gained control and occupied most areas of Borneo from 1941–45. In the first stage of the war, the British saw the Japanese advance to Borneo as motivated by political and territorial ambitions rather than economic factors. The occupation drove many people in the coastal towns to the interior, searching for food and escaping the Japanese. The Chinese residents in Borneo, especially with the Sino-Japanese War in Mainland China mostly resisted the Japanese occupation. Following the formation of resistance movements in northern Borneo such as the Jesselton Revolt, many innocent indigenous and Chinese people were executed by the Japanese for their alleged involvement. In Kalimantan, the Japanese also killed many Malay intellectuals, executing all the Malay Sultans of West Kalimantan in the Pontianak incidents, together with Chinese people who were already against the Japanese for suspecting them to be threats. Sultan Muhammad Ibrahim Shafi ud-din II of Sambas was executed in 1944. The Sultanate was thereafter suspended and replaced by a Japanese council. The Japanese also set-up \"Pusat Tenaga Rakjat\" (PUTERA) in the Indonesian archipelago in 1943, although it was abolished the following year when it became too nationalistic. Some of the Indonesian nationalist like Sukarno and Hatta who had returned from Dutch exile began to co-operate with the Japanese. Shortly after his release, Sukarno became President of the Central Advisory Council, an advisory council for south Borneo, Celebes, and Lesser Sunda, set up in February 1945. Since the fall of Singapore, the Japanese sent several thousand of British and Australian prisoners of war to camps in Borneo such as Batu Lintang camp. From the Sandakan camp site, only six of some 2,500 prisoners survived after they were forced to march in an event known as the Sandakan Death March. In addition, of the total of 17,488 Javanese labourers brought in by the Japanese during the occupation, only 1,500 survived mainly due to starvation, harsh working conditions and maltreatment. The Dayak and other indigenous people played a role in guerrilla warfare against the occupying forces, particularly in the Kapit Division. They temporarily revived headhunting of Japanese toward the end of the war, with Allied Z Special Unit provided assistance to them. Australia contributed significantly to the liberation of Borneo. The Australian Imperial Force was sent to Borneo to fight off the Japanese. Together with other Allies, the island was completely liberated in 1945.", "In May 1945, officials in Tokyo suggested that whether northern Borneo should be included in the proposed new country of Indonesia should be separately determined based on the desires of its indigenous people and following the disposition of Malaya. Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin meanwhile continuously advocated for a Greater Indonesian republic. Towards the end of the war, Japan decided to give an early independence to a new proposed country of Indonesia on 17 July 1945, with an Independence Committee meeting scheduled for 19 August 1945. However, following the surrender of Japan to the Allied forces, the meeting was shelved. Sukarno and Hatta continued the plan by unilaterally declaring independence, although the Dutch tried to retake their colonial possession in Borneo. The southern part of the island achieved its independence through the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945. The reaction was relatively muted with little open fighting in Pontianak or in the Chinese majority areas. While nationalist guerrillas supporting the inclusion of southern Borneo in the new Indonesian republic were active in Ketapang, and to lesser extent in Sambas where they rallied with the red-white flag which became the flag of Indonesia, most of the Chinese residents in southern Borneo expected to be liberate by Chinese Nationalist troops from Mainland China and to integrate their districts as an overseas province of China. Meanwhile, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo became separate British crown colonies in 1946. In 1961, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of the independent Federation of Malaya desired to unite Malaya, the British colonies of Sarawak, North Borneo, Singapore and the Protectorate of Brunei under the proposed Federation of Malaysia. The idea was heavily opposed by the governments in both Indonesia and the Philippines as well from Communist sympathisers and nationalists in Borneo. Sukarno, as the President of the new republic, perceiving the British trying to maintain their presence in northern Borneo and Malay Peninsula, he decided to launch a military infiltration later known as the confrontation from 1962 to 1969. As a response to the growing opposition, the British deployed their armed forces to guard their colonies against Indonesian and communist revolts, which was also participated by Australia and New Zealand. The Philippines opposed the newly proposed federation, claiming the eastern part of North Borneo (today the Malaysian state of Sabah) as part of its territory as a former possession of the Sultanate of Sulu. The Philippine government mostly based their claim on the Sultanate of Sulu's cession agreement with the British North Borneo Company, as by now the Sultanate had come under the jurisdiction of the Philippine republican administration, which therefore should inherit the Sulu former territories. The Philippine government also claimed that the heirs of the Sultanate had ceded all their territorial rights to the republic. The Sultanate of Brunei at the first welcomed the proposal of a new larger federation. Meanwhile, the Brunei People's Party led by A.M. Azahari desired to reunify Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo into one federation known as the North Borneo Federation (), where the Sultan of Brunei would be the head of state for the federation—though Azahari had his own intention to abolish the Brunei Monarchy, to make Brunei more democratic, and to integrate the territory and other former British colonies in Borneo into Indonesia, with the support from the latter government. This directly led to the Brunei Revolt, which thwarted Azahari's attempt and forced him to escape to Indonesia. Brunei withdrew from being part of the new Federation of Malaysia due to some disagreements on other issues while political leaders in Sarawak and North Borneo continued to favour inclusion in a larger federation. With the continuous opposition from Indonesia and the Philippines, the Cobbold Commission was established to discover the feeling of the native populations in northern Borneo; it found the people greatly in favour of federation, with various stipulations. The federation was successfully achieved with the inclusion of northern Borneo through the Malaysia Agreement on 16 September 1963. To this day, the area in northern Borneo is still subjected to attacks by Moro Pirates since the 18th century and militant from groups such as Abu Sayyaf since 2000 in the frequent cross border attacks. During the administration of Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos, the President made some attempts to destabilise the state of Sabah, although his plan failed and resulted in the Jabidah massacre and later the insurgency in the southern Philippines.", "The demonym for Borneo is Bornean. Borneo has 21.3 million inhabitants (in 2014), a population density of. Most of the population lives in coastal cities, although the hinterland has small towns and villages along the rivers. The population consists mainly of Dayak ethnic groups, Malay, Banjar, Orang Ulu, Chinese and Kadazan-Dusun. The Chinese, who make up 29% of the population of Sarawak and 17% of total population in West Kalimantan, Indonesia are descendants of immigrants primarily from southeastern China. In Sabah during the administration of Mustapha Harun of the United Sabah National Organisation (USNO) in the 1970s, thousands of Muslim immigrants and refugees from the southern Philippines of Mindanao and Sulawesi of Indonesia were given sanctuary and later identity cards in the bid to increase the Muslim population of the state: a policy later known as Project IC. Due to the high number of crimes attributed to the new migrant populations, ethnic tension between the indigenous and migrant populations has risen up to the present. In Kalimantan since the 1990s, the Indonesian government has undertaken an intense transmigration program; to that end it has financed the relocation of poor, landless families from Java, Madura, and Bali. By 2001, transmigrants made up 21% of the population in Central Kalimantan. Since the 1990s, the indigenous Dayak and Malays have resisted encroachment by these migrants, and violent conflict has occurred between some transmigrant and indigenous populations. In the 1999 Sambas riots, Dayaks and Malays joined together to massacre thousands of the Madurese migrants. In Kalimantan, thousands were killed in 2001 fighting between Madurese transmigrants and the Dayak people in the Sampit conflict.", "The island of Borneo is divided administratively by three countries.", "Borneo's economy depends mainly on agriculture, logging and mining, oil and gas, and ecotourism. Brunei's economy is highly dependent on the oil and gas production sector, and the country has become one of the largest oil producers in Southeast Asia. The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are both top exporters of timber. Sabah is also known as the agricultural producer of rubber, cacao, and vegetables, and for its fisheries, while both Sabah and Sarawak export liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petroleum. The Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan are mostly dependent on mining sectors despite also being involved in logging and oil and gas explorations. Some study about paddy planting of Sarawak was reported in." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Watersplash.", "Location names.", "Famous battles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A ford is a much cheaper form of river crossing than a bridge, but it may become impassable after heavy rain or during flood conditions. A ford is therefore normally only suitable for very minor roads (and for paths intended for walkers and horse riders etc.). Most modern fords are usually shallow enough to be crossed by cars and other wheeled or tracked vehicles (a process known as \"fording\"). In New Zealand, however, fords are a normal part of major roads, including, until 2010, along State Highway 1 on the South Island's east coast. As most inter-city domestic passengers travel by air and as much cargo goes by sea, long distance road traffic is low and fords are thus a practical necessity for crossing seasonal rivers. In dry weather, drivers become aware of a ford by crunching across outwash detritus on the roadway. A bailey bridge may be built off the main line of the road to carry emergency traffic during high water. At places where the water is shallow enough, but the material on the riverbed will not support heavy vehicles, fords are sometimes improved by building a submerged concrete floor. In such cases a curb (kerb) is often placed on the downstream side to prevent vehicles slipping off, as growth of algae will often make the slab very slippery. Fords may be also equipped with a post indicating the water depth, so that users may know if the water is too deep to attempt to cross. Some have an adjacent footbridge so that pedestrians may cross dryshod.", "A road running below the water level of a stream or river is often known as a \"watersplash\". It is a common name for a ford or stretch of wet road in some areas, and sometimes also used to describe tidal crossings. They have become a common feature in rallying courses. There are enthusiasts who seek out and drive through these water features, recording details (such as wave created, position and access) on dedicated websites. There are many old fords known as watersplashes in the United Kingdom. Examples are at Brockenhurst in Hampshire, Wookey in Somerset, and Swinbrook in Oxfordshire. Some of these are being replaced by bridges as these are a more reliable form of crossing in adverse weather conditions. The in Kilmarnock, Ayrshire, is mentioned in the deeds of Dean Castle, which was gifted to the local people. The ford has had to be maintained as a property boundary feature, despite several cars a year being washed away. Not just a British phenomenon, some very spectacular versions of the watersplash feature can be found in diverse locations. Australia has the Gulf Savannah, and others may be found in Canada, Italy, South Africa, and Finland. They are also found on some Tennessee backroads, where they are referred to as \"underwater bridges\". In Israel and part of the British areas under the mandate a low water crossing or watersplash had been known as \"Irish bridge\" in reference to the Anglo–Irish war.", "The names of many towns and villages are derived from the word 'ford'. Examples include Oxford (a ford where oxen crossed the river: see the Oxford coat of arms); Hertford, the county town of Hertfordshire (the ford where harts cross or \"deer crossing\"); Ammanford (a ford on the River Amman); Staffort crossing the river Pfinz; and Stratford (a ford on a Roman road). Similarly, the German word \"Furt\" (as in Frankfurt, the ford of the Franks; Ochsenfurt, synonymous to Oxford; Schweinfurt, a ford where swine crossed the river; and Klagenfurt, literally \"ford of complaints\") and the Dutch \"voorde\" (as in Vilvoorde, Coevorden, Zandvoort, or Amersfoort) are cognates with the same meaning, all deriving from Proto-Indo-European \"*pértus\" 'crossing'. This is the source of Brythonic and Gaulish \"ritus\" (modern Welsh \"rhyd\"; the Welsh name of Oxford is \"Rhydychen\" \"ford of oxen\"), which underlies such names as Chambord (from Gaulish \"*Camboritum\" \"ford at the bend\") and Niort (\"Novioritum\" \"new ford\"). Towns such as Maastricht, Dordrecht, and Utrecht also formed at fords. The ending \"tricht, drecht\", or \"trecht\" is derived from the Latin word \"traiectum\", meaning \"crossing\". Thus the name Utrecht, originally the Roman fort of Traiectum, is derived from \"Uut Trecht\", meaning \"downstream crossing\". The Afrikaans form was taken into South African English as \"drift\" and led to place names like Rorke's Drift. Similarly, in Slavic languages, the word brod comes from the linguistic root that means \"river-crossing\" or \"place where a river can be crossed\". Although today \"brod\" in the Croatian language means \"ship\", Slavonski Brod in Croatia, as well as Makedonski Brod in North Macedonia and other place names containing \"Brod\" in Slavic countries, where \"brod\" is still the word for ford, are named after fords.", "Because in historic times a ford was often a strategic military point, many famous battles were fought at or near fords." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Member associations.", "Competitions.", "National teams.", "Clubs.", "Former tournaments.", "International.", "Club.", "Sponsors and supporters.", "Rankings.", "Men's national teams.", "Men's elo rankings.", "Women's national teams.", "Club Competitions Ranking.", "Clubs.", "Men's futsal.", "Beach soccer national teams.", "Controversy.", "Major tournaments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Asian Football Confederation was founded on 8 May 1956Afghanistan, Burma (Myanmar), Republic of China (Chinese Taipei), Hong Kong, Iran, India, Israel, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore and South Vietnam were founding members. The AFC Asian Cup is the second-oldest continental football competition in the world, with four teams taking part in the first edition in the then-British Hong Kong in 1956. The Asian Ladies Football Confederation (ALFC) is the section of the AFC who manage women's football in Asia. The group was independently founded in April 1968 in a meeting involving Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Singapore. In 1986 the ALFC merged with the AFC. The Asian Ladies Football Confederation helped organize the AFC Women's Asian Cup, first held in 1975, as well as the AFC's AFC U-19 Women's Championship and the AFC U-17 Women's Championship.", "The AFC has 47 member associations which split into five regions. Several nations proposed a South West Asian Federation but that will not interfere with AFC zones.", "", "Men's Intersub-continental Women's", "Men's Women's", "National teams Clubs", "The AFC runs the AFC Asian Cup and AFC Women's Asian Cup, which determine the Champions of Asia, as well as the AFC Solidarity Cup. All three competitions are held every four years. The AFC also organises the AFC Futsal Championship, AFC Beach Soccer Championship, various age-level international youth football tournaments and the Asian qualifying tournament for the FIFA World Cup, FIFA Women's World Cup and for football at the Summer Olympics. In addition to the AFC run international tournaments, each AFC regional federation organises its own tournament for national teams: EAFF East Asian Cup, SAFF Championship, AFF Championship, CAFA Championship and WAFF Championship.", "The top-ranked AFC competition is the AFC Champions League, which started in the 2002–03 season (an amalgamation of the Asian Champions Cup and the Asian Cup Winners Cup) and gathers the top 1–4 teams of each country (the number of teams depend on that country's ranking and can be upgraded or downgraded); this competition only gathered teams from top country. A second, lower-ranked competition is the AFC Cup. This competition was launched by AFC in 2004. A third competition, the AFC President's Cup, which had started in 2005, was absorbed into the AFC Cup in 2015. The AFC also runs an annual Asian futsal club competition, the AFC Futsal Club Championship.", "The following are the sponsors of AFC (named \"AFC Partners\")", "", "Rankings are calculated by FIFA. </div> </div> </div>", "Here are the World Football Elo Ratings for AFC members.", "Rankings are calculated by FIFA.", "The AFC Club Competitions Ranking ranks its member associations by results in the AFC competitions. Rankings are calculated by the AFC. Listed here are the top 30 countries.", "Rankings are calculated by the IFFHS. Listed here are the top ten clubs.", "Here is the men's futsal rank per December 2019 a number between brackets is the rank of the previous week.", "Rankings are calculated by Beach Soccer Worldwide (BSWW).", "The AFC has been accused of its political nepotism and corruption within the federation. Hakeem al-Araibi, Bahraini footballer turned political refugee in Australia, was arrested by Thai police on his honeymoon to Thailand in November 2017. He faced extradition charges from the Bahraini government on the false accusation over his involvement in the Bahraini uprising of 2011 that he instigated the attack on a police station. As Thailand did not sign the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, Thai economic interests with Bahrain, and the ruling president of the AFC, Salman bin Ibrahim Al Khalifa, is a member of Bahraini Royal family, fear that the AFC might set up as culprit for the deportation, triggered international outcry. Australia and FIFA eventually intervened and Thai officials would release Hakeem in February 2019, but this highlighted rampant political corruption in the AFC. The AFC Asian Cup is also marked with numerous instances of political interference. One of these was the case of Israel, as the team used to be a member of the AFC but following Yom Kippur War and increasing tensions against the Arab AFC members, Israel was expelled from the AFC in 1974 and had to compete in OFC until being granted UEFA membership in 1990. Meanwhile, similar cases also exist in other AFC tournaments like the one between Saudi Arabia and Iran. Following the 2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran, Saudi Arabia has rejected playing with Iran and even threatens to withdraw if the AFC refuses to follow, and even extended it to international level. Tensions between the two Koreas during the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification had led North Korea to withdraw from hosting the South Korean team and refusing to display the South Korean flag and play their national anthem. As a result, North Korea's home matches were moved to Shanghai. In the 2019 AFC Asian Cup held in the United Arab Emirates, Qatari fans were barred from entering the country as part of the ongoing Qatar diplomatic crisis, despite the earlier slogan \"Bringing Asia Together\", although the Emirati government later announced that it would permit Qatari citizens temporary entry into the country pending approval from Emirati authorities. According to a report, Saoud al-Mohannadi, a Qatari national who is the AFC vice-president and chairman of the organizing committee for the Asian Cup, was unable to enter the UAE two days prior to the tournament's start because Emirati authorities had not yet cleared him. The director of the 2019 AFC Organizing Committee denied reports that Al Mohannadi was refused entry and declared that Al Mohannadi has arrived on Friday morning and was preparing for his meetings. The director stated that there was no evidence that shows he was unable to enter and stated that this news has \"political purposes\". He stated, \"We try to keep sports away from politics.\" Since then, the Qatari team faced imminent discrimination from the host nation, and even in the semi-finals when Qatar faced up host nation, UAE supporters threw bottles and footwear into the match after Qatari players scored their second goal, the latter is considered deeply offensive in the Middle East. One of the Qatari players, Salem Al Hajri, was struck on the head with a shoe after Qatar scored its third goal. This conduct was preceded by booing the Qatari national anthem. The two countries had had a hostile relationship and had cut ties due to the ongoing diplomatic crisis. Qatar won 4–0 despite the situation, reaching their first Asian Cup final and would go on to win the tournament for the first time. Afterwards, the AFC declared that it would conduct an investigation into the proceedings, eventually punished the UAEFA over the incident, fined $150,000 US dollars for the incident and had to play their first 2022 and 2023 qualification game in closed doors. However, on 21 September, AFC had mysteriously lifted the ban just a few weeks before the match has begun. During the 2022 World Cup qualifiers, North Korea reluctantly agreed to host the South Korean team in Pyongyang, the first time North Korea hosted South Korea at home in a competitive match. Enthusiasm thus ran high due to aspiration of reconciliation between two Koreas, only to be later shattered by the North Korean Government banning supporters from entering the stadium, and aggressive performance by the Northern players to the Southern counterparts. The match ended a goalless draw, but as for the result of controversies, South Korea decided to pull out the bid for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, and accused North Korea of political meddling in sports. The AFC was accused of doing little about the case, which led to the AFC to decide the final of the 2019 AFC Cup would not be hosted in North Korea. In 2020 AFC Champions League, the Football Federation Islamic Republic of Iran received a letter from the AFC on 17 January 2020 announcing that teams from Iran would not be allowed to host their home matches in their country due to security concerns. The four AFC Champions League teams from Iran announced on 18 January 2020 that they would withdraw from the tournament if the ban was not reversed. The AFC announced on 23 January 2020 that any group stage matches which the Iranian teams were supposed to host on matchdays 1, 2 and 3 would be switched with the corresponding away matches to allow time to reassess the security concerns in the country. On 9 March 2020, FIFA announced in a statement that matches between Asian qualifiers for World Cup 2022, which were scheduled for March and June, are postponed to a later time. The decision has been made due to the spread of SARS-CoV-2.", "For each tournament, the flag of the host country and the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Types.", "Low-fat.", "Low-carbohydrate.", "Low-calorie.", "Very low-calorie.", "Meals timing.", "Detox.", "Religious.", "Environmentally sustainable diets.", "Nutrition.", "How the body eliminates fat.", "Weight loss groups.", "Food diary.", "Possible weight loss effects of drinking water prior to meals.", "Fasting.", "Crash Dieting.", "Side effects.", "Low carbohydrate versus low fat.", "Low glycemic index.", "Body weight homeostasis.", "Weight loss criticisms.", "Statistics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to Foxcroft, the word diet comes from the Greek \"diaita\", which represents a notion of a whole way healthy lifestyle including both mental and physical health, rather than a narrow weight-loss regimen.", "One of the first dietitians was the English doctor George Cheyne. He himself was tremendously overweight and would constantly eat large quantities of rich food and drink. He began a meatless diet, taking only milk and vegetables, and soon regained his health. He began publicly recommending his diet for everyone suffering from obesity. In 1724, he wrote \"An Essay of Health and Long Life\", in which he advises exercise and fresh air and avoiding luxury foods. The Scottish military surgeon, John Rollo, published \"Notes of a Diabetic Case\" in 1797. It described the benefits of a meat diet for those suffering from diabetes, basing this recommendation on Matthew Dobson's discovery of glycosuria in diabetes mellitus. By means of Dobson's testing procedure (for glucose in the urine) Rollo worked out a diet that had success for what is now called type 2 diabetes. The first popular diet was \"Banting\", named after the English undertaker William Banting. In 1863, he wrote a booklet called \"Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public\", which contained the particular plan for the diet he had successfully followed. His own diet was four meals per day, consisting of meat, greens, fruits, and dry wine. The emphasis was on avoiding sugar, sweet foods, starch, beer, milk and butter. Banting's pamphlet was popular for years to come, and would be used as a model for modern diets. The pamphlet's popularity was such that the question \"Do you bant?\" referred to his method, and eventually to dieting in general. His booklet remains in print as of 2007. The first weight-loss book to promote calorie counting, and the first weight-loss book to become a bestseller, was the 1918 \"Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories\" by American physician and columnist Lulu Hunt Peters. It was estimated that over 1000 weight loss diets have been developed up to 2014.", "", "Low-fat diets involve the reduction of the percentage of fat in one's diet. Calorie consumption is reduced because less fat is consumed. Diets of this type include NCEP Step I and II. A meta-analysis of 16 trials of 2–12 months' duration found that low-fat diets (without intentional restriction of caloric intake) resulted in average weight loss of over habitual eating.", "Low-carbohydrate diets are relatively high in protein and fats. Low-carbohydrate diets are sometimes \"ketogenic\" (i.e., they restrict carbohydrate intake sufficiently to cause ketosis).", "Low-calorie diets usually produce an energy deficit of 500–1,000 calories per day, which can result in a weight loss per week. One of the most commonly used low-calorie diets is Weight Watchers. The National Institutes of Health reviewed 34 randomized controlled trials to determine the effectiveness of low-calorie diets. They found that these diets lowered total body mass by 8% in the short term, over 3–12 months. Women doing low-calorie diets should have at least 1,000 calories per day and men should have approximately 1,200 calories per day. These caloric intake values vary depending on additional factors, such as age and weight.", "Very low calorie diets provide 200–800 calories per day, maintaining protein intake but limiting calories from both fat and carbohydrates. They subject the body to starvation and produce an average loss of per week. \"2-4-6-8\", a popular diet of this variety, follows a four-day cycle in which only 200 calories are consumed the first day, 400 the second day, 600 the third day, 800 the fourth day, and then totally fasting, after which the cycle repeats. These is some evidence that these diets results in considerable weight loss. These diets are not recommended for general use and should be reserved for the management of obesity as they are associated with adverse side effects such as loss of lean muscle mass, increased risks of gout, and electrolyte imbalances. People attempting these diets must be monitored closely by a physician to prevent complications.", "Meals timing schedule is known to be an important factor of any diet. Recent evidence suggest that new scheduling strategies, such as intermittent fasting or skipping meals, and strategically placed snacks before meals, may be recommendable to reduce cardiovascular risks as part of a broader lifestyle and dietary change.", "Detox diets are promoted with unsubstantiated claims that they can eliminate \"toxins\" from the human body. Many of these diets use herbs or celery and other juicy low-calorie vegetables.", "Religious prescription may be a factor in motivating people to adopt a specific restrictive diet. For example, the Biblical Book of Daniel (1:2-20, and 10:2-3) refers to a 10- or 21-day avoidance of foods (Daniel Fast) declared unclean by God in the laws of Moses. In modern versions of the Daniel Fast, food choices may be limited to whole grains, fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts, seeds and oil. The Daniel Fast resembles the vegan diet in that it excludes foods of animal origin. The passages strongly suggest that the Daniel Fast will promote good health and mental performance. Fasting is practiced in various religions. Examples include Lent in Christianity; Yom Kippur, Tisha B'av, Fast of Esther, Tzom Gedalia, the Seventeenth of Tamuz, and the Tenth of Tevet in Judaism. Muslims refrain from eating during the hours of daytime for one month, Ramadan, every year. Details of fasting practices differ. Eastern Orthodox Christians fast during specified fasting seasons of the year, which include not only the better-known Great Lent, but also fasts on every Wednesday and Friday (except on special holidays), together with extended fasting periods before Christmas (the Nativity Fast), after Easter (the Apostles Fast) and in early August (the Dormition Fast). Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) generally fast for 24 hours on the first Sunday of each month. Like Muslims, they refrain from all drinking and eating unless they are children or are physically unable to fast. Fasting is also a feature of ascetic traditions in religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism. Mahayana traditions that follow the Brahma's Net Sutra may recommend that the laity fast \"during the six days of fasting each month and the three months of fasting each year\" [Brahma's Net Sutra, minor precept 30]. Members of the Baha'i Faith observe a Nineteen Day Fast from sunrise to sunset during March each year.", "Another kind of diet focuses not on the dieter's health effects, but on its environment. The One Blue Dot plan of the BDA offers recommendations towards reducing diets' environmental impacts, by:", "Weight loss diets that manipulate the proportion of macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.) have been shown to be no more effective than diets that maintain a typical mix of foods with smaller portions and perhaps some substitutions (e.g. low-fat milk, or less salad dressing). Extreme diets may, in some cases, lead to malnutrition. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans is a set of recommendations about a healthy diet written for policy makers, nutrition scientists, and dieticians and other clinicians, produced by the US Department of Agriculture, in concert with the US Department of Health and Human Services and quintannually-revised. The current guidelines are written for the period 2015 - 2020 and were used to produce the MyPlate recommendations on a healthy diet for the general public. One of the most important things to take into consideration when either trying to lose or put on weight is output versus input. It is important to know the amount of energy your body is using every day, so that your intake fits the needs of one's personal weight goal. Someone wanting to lose weight would want a smaller energy intake than what they put out. There is increasing research-based evidence that low-fat vegetarian diets consistently lead to healthy weight loss and management, a decrease in diabetic symptoms as well as improved cardiac health. Several diets are effective for weight loss of obese individuals with similar results, diet success being most predicted by adherence with little effect of the type or brand of diet.", "When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.", "Some weight loss groups aim to make money, others work as charities. The former include Weight Watchers and Peertrainer. The latter include Overeaters Anonymous, TOPS Club and groups run by local organizations. These organizations' customs and practices differ widely. Some groups are modelled on twelve-step programs, while others are quite informal. Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking.", "A 2008 study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine showed that dieters who kept a daily food diary (or diet journal), lost twice as much weight as those who did not keep a food log, suggesting that if a person records their eating, they are more aware of what they consume and therefore eat fewer calories.", "A 2009 review found limited evidence suggesting that encouraging water consumption and substituting energy-free beverages for energy-containing beverages (i.e., reducing caloric intake) may facilitate weight management. A 2009 article found that drinking 500 ml of water prior to meals for a 12-week period resulted in increased long-term weight reduction. (References given in main article.)", "Fasting is when there is a long time interval between the meals. In dieting, long term (periodic) fasting is not recommended, instead, having small portions of food after small intervals is encouraged. Lengthy fasting can also be dangerous due to the risk of malnutrition and should be carried out only under medical supervision. During prolonged fasting or very low calorie diets the reduction of blood glucose, the preferred energy source of the brain, causes the body to deplete its glycogen stores. Once glycogen is depleted the body begins to fuel the brain using ketones, while also metabolizing body protein (including but not limited to skeletal muscle) to be used to synthesize sugars for use as energy by the rest of the body. Most experts believe that a prolonged fast can lead to muscle wasting, although some dispute this. The use of short-term fasting, or various forms of intermittent fasting, have been used as a form of dieting to circumvent the issues of long fasting.", "The concept of crash dieting is to drastically reduce calories, using a very-low-calorie diet. Crash dieting can be highly dangerous because it can cause various kind of issues for the human body. Crash dieting can produce weight loss but without professional supervision all along, the extreme reduction in calories and potential unbalance in the diet's composition can lead to detrimental effects, including sudden death.", "While there are studies that show the health and medical benefits of weight loss, a study in 2005 of around 3000 Finns over an 18-year period showed that weight loss from dieting can result in increased mortality, while those who maintained their weight fared the best. Similar conclusion is drawn by other studies, and although other studies suggest that intentional weight loss has a small benefit for individuals classified as unhealthy, it is associated with slightly increased mortality for healthy individuals and the slightly overweight but not obese.", "Low-carbohydrate and low-fat diets perform similarly in the long term as weight maintenance depends on calorie intake, not macronutrient ration.", "\"The glycemic index (GI) factor is a ranking of foods based on their overall effect on blood sugar levels. The diet based around this research is called the Low GI diet. Low glycemic index foods, such as lentils, provide a slower, more consistent source of glucose to the bloodstream, thereby stimulating less insulin release than high glycemic index foods, such as white bread.\" The glycemic load is \"the mathematical product of the glycemic index and the carbohydrate amount\". In a randomized controlled trial that compared four diets that varied in carbohydrate amount and glycemic index found complicated results: Diets 2 and 3 lost the most weight and fat mass; however, low density lipoprotein fell in Diet 2 and rose in Diet 3. Thus the authors concluded that the high-carbohydrate, low-glycemic index diet was the most favorable. A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that low glycemic index or low glycemic load diets led to more weight loss and better lipid profiles. \"However\", the Cochrane Collaboration grouped low glycemic index and low glycemic load diets together and did not try to separate the effects of the load versus the index.", "The Set-Point Theory, first introduced in 1953, postulated that each body has a preprogrammed fixed weight, with regulatory mechanisms to compensate. This theory was quickly adopted and used to explain failures in developing effective and sustained weight loss procedures. A 2019 systematic review of multiple weight change procedures, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding but also exercise and overeating, found systematic \"energetic errors\" for all these procedures. This shows that the body cannot precisely compensate for errors in energy/calorie intake, countering the Set-Point Theory and potentially explaining both weight loss and weight gain such as obesity. This review was conducted on short-term studies, therefore such a mechanism cannot be excluded in the long term, as evidence is currently lacking on this timeframe. There is a common figure saying that «95% of dieters regain their weight after a few years», but this is not backed by scientific evidence.", "The view of weight loss as a health goal is criticized by some who propose to rather seek health benefits, such as cardiovascular biomarkers improvements, without necessarily seeking weight loss. This hypothesis and movement is commonly named Health at Every Size, and it argues that weight loss and dieting do not reliably produce positive health outcomes, and that the benefits of lifestyle interventions are real but independent of weight loss. There is however a considerate amount of evidence that overweight is associated with increased all-causes mortality, and significant weight loss (>10%) improves or reverses metabolic syndromes and other health outcomes. A major challenge regarding weight loss and dieting relates to compliance. While dieting can effectively promote weight loss, the intervention is hard to maintain over time and suppresses skeletal muscle thermogenesis. Suppressed thermogenesis accelerates weight regain once the diet stops, unless that phase is accompanied by a well-timed exercise intervention, as described by the Summermatter cycle", "It is estimated that about 1 out of 3 Americans is dieting at any given time. 85% of dieters are women. Approximately, sixty billion dollars are spent every year in USA on diet products, including \"diet foods,\" such as light sodas, gym memberships or specific regimes. 80% of dieters start by themselves, whereas 20% see a professional or join a paid program. The typical dieter attempts 4 tries per year." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Subset WSDL.", "Example WSDL file.", "History.", "Security considerations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The WSDL describes services as collections of network endpoints, or ports. The WSDL specification provides an XML format for documents for this purpose. The abstract definitions of ports and messages are separated from their concrete use or instance, allowing the reuse of these definitions. A port is defined by associating a network address with a reusable binding, and a collection of ports defines a service. Messages are abstract descriptions of the data being exchanged, and port types are abstract collections of supported operations. The concrete protocol and data format specifications for a particular port type constitutes a reusable binding, where the operations and messages are then bound to a concrete network protocol and message format. In this way, WSDL describes the public interface to the Web service. WSDL is often used in combination with SOAP and an XML Schema to provide Web services over the Internet. A client program connecting to a Web service can read the WSDL file to determine what operations are available on the server. Any special datatypes used are embedded in the WSDL file in the form of XML Schema. The client can then use SOAP to actually call one of the operations listed in the WSDL file using for example XML over HTTP. The current version of the specification is 2.0; version 1.1 has not been endorsed by the W3C but version 2.0 is a W3C recommendation. WSDL 1.2 was renamed WSDL 2.0 because of its substantial differences from WSDL 1.1. By accepting binding to all the HTTP request methods (not only GET and POST as in version 1.1), the WSDL 2.0 specification offers better support for RESTful web services, and is much simpler to implement. However support for this specification is still poor in software development kits for Web Services which often offer tools only for WSDL 1.1. For example, the version 2.0 of the Business Process Execution Language (BPEL) only supports WSDL 1.1.", "Subset WSDL (SWSDL) is a WSDL with the subset operations of an original WSDL. A developer can use SWSDL to access Subset Service, thus handle subset of web service code. A Subset WSDL can be used to perform web service testing and top down development. Slicing of a web service can be done using a Subset WSDL to access Subset Service. Subset Service can be categorized into layers using SWSDL. SWSDLs are used for Web service analysis, testing and top down development. AWSCM is the pioneer tool to construct SWSDL's successfully.", "<?xml version=\"1.0\" encoding=\"UTF-8\"?> <description xmlns=\"http://www.w3.org/ns/wsdl\" <documentation> </documentation> <!-- Abstract type --> <!-- Abstract interfaces --> <!-- Concrete Binding Over HTTP --> <!-- Concrete Binding with SOAP--> <!-- Web Service offering endpoints for both bindings--> </description>", "WSDL 1.0 (Sept. 2000) was developed by IBM, Microsoft, and Ariba to describe Web Services for their SOAP toolkit. It was built by combining two service description languages: NASSL (Network Application Service Specification Language) from IBM and SDL (Service Description Language) from Microsoft. WSDL 1.1, published in March 2001, is the formalization of WSDL 1.0. No major changes were introduced between 1.0 and 1.1. WSDL 1.2 (June 2003) was a working draft at W3C, but has become WSDL 2.0. According to W3C: WSDL 1.2 is easier and more flexible for developers than the previous version. WSDL 1.2 attempts to remove non-interoperable features and also defines the HTTP 1.1 binding better. WSDL 1.2 was not supported by most SOAP servers/vendors. WSDL 2.0 became a W3C recommendation on June 2007. WSDL 1.2 was renamed to WSDL 2.0 because it has substantial differences from WSDL 1.1. The changes are the following:", "Since WSDL files are an XML-based specification for describing a web service, WSDL files are susceptible to attack. To mitigate vulnerability of these files, limiting access to generated WSDL files, setting proper access restrictions on WSDL definitions, and avoiding unnecessary definitions in web services is encouraged." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Introduction.", "Probability density function.", "Cumulative distribution function.", "Properties.", "Sum of squares of i.i.d normals minus their mean.", "Additivity.", "Sample mean.", "Entropy.", "Noncentral moments.", "Cumulants.", "Asymptotic properties.", "Related distributions.", "Generalizations.", "Linear combination.", "Chi-square distributions.", "Noncentral chi-square distribution.", "Generalized chi-square distribution.", "Gamma, exponential, and related distributions.", "Occurrence and applications.", "Computational methods.", "Table of \"χ\" values vs \"p\"-values.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "If \"Z\",..., \"Z\" are independent, standard normal random variables, then the sum of their squares, is distributed according to the chi-square distribution with \"k\" degrees of freedom. This is usually denoted as The chi-square distribution has one parameter: a positive integer \"k\" that specifies the number of degrees of freedom (the number of \"Z\" s).", "The chi-square distribution is used primarily in hypothesis testing, and to a lesser extent for confidence intervals for population variance when the underlying distribution is normal. Unlike more widely known distributions such as the normal distribution and the exponential distribution, the chi-square distribution is not as often applied in the direct modeling of natural phenomena. It arises in the following hypothesis tests, among others: It is also a component of the definition of the t-distribution and the F-distribution used in t-tests, analysis of variance, and regression analysis. The primary reason that the chi-square distribution is used extensively in hypothesis testing is its relationship to the normal distribution. Many hypothesis tests use a test statistic, such as the t-statistic in a t-test. For these hypothesis tests, as the sample size, n, increases, the sampling distribution of the test statistic approaches the normal distribution (central limit theorem). Because the test statistic (such as t) is asymptotically normally distributed, provided the sample size is sufficiently large, the distribution used for hypothesis testing may be approximated by a normal distribution. Testing hypotheses using a normal distribution is well understood and relatively easy. The simplest chi-square distribution is the square of a standard normal distribution. So wherever a normal distribution could be used for a hypothesis test, a chi-square distribution could be used. Suppose that formula_3 is a random variable sampled from the standard normal distribution, where the mean equals to formula_4 and the variance equals to formula_5: formula_6. Now, consider the random variable formula_7. The distribution of the random variable formula_8 is an example of a chi-square distribution: formula_9 The subscript 1 indicates that this particular chi-square distribution is constructed from only 1 standard normal distribution. A chi-square distribution constructed by squaring a single standard normal distribution is said to have 1 degree of freedom. Thus, as the sample size for a hypothesis test increases, the distribution of the test statistic approaches a normal distribution. Just as extreme values of the normal distribution have low probability (and give small p-values), extreme values of the chi-square distribution have low probability. An additional reason that the chi-square distribution is widely used is that it turns up as the large sample distribution of generalized likelihood ratio tests (LRT). LRT's have several desirable properties; in particular, simple LRT's commonly provide the highest power to reject the null hypothesis (Neyman–Pearson lemma) and this leads also to optimality properties of generalised LRTs. However, the normal and chi-square approximations are only valid asymptotically. For this reason, it is preferable to use the t distribution rather than the normal approximation or the chi-square approximation for a small sample size. Similarly, in analyses of contingency tables, the chi-square approximation will be poor for a small sample size, and it is preferable to use Fisher's exact test. Ramsey shows that the exact binomial test is always more powerful than the normal approximation. Lancaster shows the connections among the binomial, normal, and chi-square distributions, as follows. De Moivre and Laplace established that a binomial distribution could be approximated by a normal distribution. Specifically they showed the asymptotic normality of the random variable where formula_11 is the observed number of successes in formula_12 trials, where the probability of success is formula_13, and formula_14. Squaring both sides of the equation gives Using formula_16, formula_17, and formula_14, this equation simplifies to The expression on the right is of the form that Karl Pearson would generalize to the form: where In the case of a binomial outcome (flipping a coin), the binomial distribution may be approximated by a normal distribution (for sufficiently large formula_29). Because the square of a standard normal distribution is the chi-square distribution with one degree of freedom, the probability of a result such as 1 heads in 10 trials can be approximated either by using the normal distribution directly, or the chi-square distribution for the normalised, squared difference between observed and expected value. However, many problems involve more than the two possible outcomes of a binomial, and instead require 3 or more categories, which leads to the multinomial distribution. Just as de Moivre and Laplace sought for and found the normal approximation to the binomial, Pearson sought for and found a degenerate multivariate normal approximation to the multinomial distribution (the numbers in each category add up to the total sample size, which is considered fixed). Pearson showed that the chi-square distribution arose from such a multivariate normal approximation to the multinomial distribution, taking careful account of the statistical dependence (negative correlations) between numbers of observations in different categories.", "The probability density function (pdf) of the chi-square distribution is where formula_32 denotes the gamma function, which has closed-form values for integer formula_33. For derivations of the pdf in the cases of one, two and formula_33 degrees of freedom, see Proofs related to chi-square distribution.", "Its cumulative distribution function is: where formula_36 is the lower incomplete gamma function and formula_37 is the regularized gamma function. In a special case of formula_33 = 2 this function has a simple form: and the integer recurrence of the gamma function makes it easy to compute for other small even formula_33. Tables of the chi-square cumulative distribution function are widely available and the function is included in many spreadsheets and all statistical packages. Letting formula_41, Chernoff bounds on the lower and upper tails of the CDF may be obtained. For the cases when formula_42 (which include all of the cases when this CDF is less than half): The tail bound for the cases when formula_44, similarly, is For another approximation for the CDF modeled after the cube of a Gaussian, see under Noncentral chi-square distribution.", "", "If \"Z\",..., \"Z\" are independent, standard normal random variables, then where", "It follows from the definition of the chi-square distribution that the sum of independent chi-square variables is also chi-square distributed. Specifically, if formula_48 are independent chi-square variables with formula_49, formula_50 degrees of freedom, respectively, then formula_51 is chi-square distributed with formula_52 degrees of freedom.", "The sample mean of formula_29 i.i.d. chi-square variables of degree formula_33 is distributed according to a gamma distribution with shape formula_55 and scale formula_56 parameters: Asymptotically, given that for a scale parameter formula_58 going to infinity, a Gamma distribution converges towards a normal distribution with expectation formula_59 and variance formula_60, the sample mean converges towards: Note that we would have obtained the same result invoking instead the central limit theorem, noting that for each chi-square variable of degree formula_33 the expectation is formula_63, and its variance formula_64 (and hence the variance of the sample mean formula_65 being formula_66).", "The differential entropy is given by where \"ψ\"(\"x\") is the Digamma function. The chi-square distribution is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random variate formula_68 for which formula_69 and formula_70 are fixed. Since the chi-square is in the family of gamma distributions, this can be derived by substituting appropriate values in the Expectation of the log moment of gamma. For derivation from more basic principles, see the derivation in moment-generating function of the sufficient statistic.", "The moments about zero of a chi-square distribution with formula_33 degrees of freedom are given by", "The cumulants are readily obtained by a (formal) power series expansion of the logarithm of the characteristic function:", "By the central limit theorem, because the chi-square distribution is the sum of formula_74 independent random variables with finite mean and variance, it converges to a normal distribution for large formula_74. For many practical purposes, for formula_76 the distribution is sufficiently close to a normal distribution for the difference to be ignored. Specifically, if formula_77, then as formula_74 tends to infinity, the distribution of formula_79 tends to a standard normal distribution. However, convergence is slow as the skewness is formula_80 and the excess kurtosis is formula_81. The sampling distribution of formula_82 converges to normality much faster than the sampling distribution of formula_22, as the logarithm removes much of the asymmetry. Other functions of the chi-square distribution converge more rapidly to a normal distribution. Some examples are:", "A chi-square variable with formula_33 degrees of freedom is defined as the sum of the squares of formula_33 independent standard normal random variables. If formula_132 is a formula_33-dimensional Gaussian random vector with mean vector formula_134 and rank formula_33 covariance matrix formula_136, then formula_137 is chi-square distributed with formula_33 degrees of freedom. The sum of squares of statistically independent unit-variance Gaussian variables which do \"not\" have mean zero yields a generalization of the chi-square distribution called the noncentral chi-square distribution. If formula_132 is a vector of formula_33 i.i.d. standard normal random variables and formula_141 is a formula_142 symmetric, idempotent matrix with rank formula_143, then the quadratic form formula_144 is chi-square distributed with formula_143 degrees of freedom. If formula_146 is a formula_147 positive-semidefinite covariance matrix with strictly positive diagonal entries, then for formula_148 and formula_149 a random formula_13-vector independent of formula_68 such that formula_152 and formula_153 it holds that formula_154 The chi-square distribution is also naturally related to other distributions arising from the Gaussian. In particular,", "The chi-square distribution is obtained as the sum of the squares of \"k\" independent, zero-mean, unit-variance Gaussian random variables. Generalizations of this distribution can be obtained by summing the squares of other types of Gaussian random variables. Several such distributions are described below.", "If formula_166 are chi square random variables and formula_167, then a closed expression for the distribution of formula_168 is not known. It may be, however, approximated efficiently using the property of characteristic functions of chi-square random variables.", "", "The noncentral chi-square distribution is obtained from the sum of the squares of independent Gaussian random variables having unit variance and \"nonzero\" means.", "The generalized chi-square distribution is obtained from the quadratic form \"z′Az\" where \"z\" is a zero-mean Gaussian vector having an arbitrary covariance matrix, and \"A\" is an arbitrary matrix.", "The chi-square distribution formula_169 is a special case of the gamma distribution, in that formula_170 using the rate parameterization of the gamma distribution (or formula_171 using the scale parameterization of the gamma distribution) where \"k\" is an integer. Because the exponential distribution is also a special case of the gamma distribution, we also have that if formula_172, then formula_173 is an exponential distribution. The Erlang distribution is also a special case of the gamma distribution and thus we also have that if formula_174 with even formula_74, then formula_176 is Erlang distributed with shape parameter formula_177 and scale parameter formula_178.", "The chi-square distribution has numerous applications in inferential statistics, for instance in chi-square tests and in estimating variances. It enters the problem of estimating the mean of a normally distributed population and the problem of estimating the slope of a regression line via its role in Student's t-distribution. It enters all analysis of variance problems via its role in the F-distribution, which is the distribution of the ratio of two independent chi-squared random variables, each divided by their respective degrees of freedom. Following are some of the most common situations in which the chi-square distribution arises from a Gaussian-distributed sample. The chi-square distribution is also often encountered in magnetic resonance imaging.", "", "The \"p\"-value is the probability of observing a test statistic \"at least\" as extreme in a chi-square distribution. Accordingly, since the cumulative distribution function (CDF) for the appropriate degrees of freedom \"(df)\" gives the probability of having obtained a value \"less extreme\" than this point, subtracting the CDF value from 1 gives the \"p\"-value. A low \"p\"-value, below the chosen significance level, indicates statistical significance, i.e., sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. A significance level of 0.05 is often used as the cutoff between significant and non-significant results. The table below gives a number of \"p\"-values matching to formula_184 for the first 10 degrees of freedom. These values can be calculated evaluating the quantile function (also known as “inverse CDF” or “ICDF”) of the chi-square distribution; e. g., the ICDF for and yields as in the table above.", "This distribution was first described by the German statistician Friedrich Robert Helmert in papers of 1875–6, where he computed the sampling distribution of the sample variance of a normal population. Thus in German this was traditionally known as the \"Helmert'sche\" (\"Helmertian\") or \"Helmert distribution\". The distribution was independently rediscovered by the English mathematician Karl Pearson in the context of goodness of fit, for which he developed his Pearson's chi-square test, published in 1900, with computed table of values published in, collected in. The name \"chi-square\" ultimately derives from Pearson's shorthand for the exponent in a multivariate normal distribution with the Greek letter Chi, writing −1⁄2χ for what would appear in modern notation as −1⁄2xΣx (Σ being the covariance matrix). The idea of a family of \"chi-square distributions\", however, is not due to Pearson but arose as a further development due to Fisher in the 1920s." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "As genre.", "As method.", "Jewish midrashic literature.", "Halakhic midrashim.", "Origins.", "Aggadic midrashim.", "Contemporary Jewish midrash.", "Contemporary views." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Hebrew word \"midrash\" is derived from the root of the verb \"darash\" (), which means \"resort to, seek, seek with care, enquire, require\", forms of which appear frequently in the Bible. The word \"midrash\" occurs twice in the Hebrew Bible: 2 Chronicles 13:22 \"in the \"midrash\" of the prophet Iddo\", and 24:27 \"in the \"midrash\" of the book of the kings\". KJV and ESV translate the word as \"story\" in both instances; the Septuagint translates it as βιβλίον (book) in the first, as γραφή (writing) in the second. The meaning of the Hebrew word in these contexts is uncertain: it has been interpreted as referring to \"a body of authoritative narratives, or interpretations thereof, concerning historically important figures\" and seems to refer to a \"book\", perhaps even a \"book of interpretation\", which might make its use a foreshadowing of the technical sense that the rabbis later gave to the word. Since the early Middle Ages the function of much of midrashic interpretation has been distinguished from that of \"peshat\", straight or direct interpretation aiming at the original literal meaning of a scriptural text.", "A definition of \"midrash\" repeatedly quoted by other scholars is that given by Gary G. Porton in 1981: \"a type of literature, oral or written, which stands in direct relationship to a fixed, canonical text, considered to be the authoritative and revealed word of God by the midrashist and his audience, and in which this canonical text is explicitly cited or clearly alluded to\". Lieve M. Teugels, who would limit midrash to rabbinic literature, offered a definition of midrash as \"rabbinic interpretation of Scripture that bears the lemmatic form\", a definition that, unlike Porton's, has not been adopted by others. While some scholars agree with the limitation of the term \"midrash\" to rabbinic writings, others apply it also to certain Qumran writings, to parts of the New Testament, and of the Hebrew Bible (in particular the superscriptions of the Psalms, Deuteronomy, and Chronicles), and even modern compositions are called midrashim.", "Midrash is now viewed more as method than genre, although the rabbinic midrashim do constitute a distinct literary genre. According to the \"Encyclopaedia Britannica\", \"Midrash was initially a philological method of interpreting the literal meaning of biblical texts. In time it developed into a sophisticated interpretive system that reconciled apparent biblical contradictions, established the scriptural basis of new laws, and enriched biblical content with new meaning. Midrashic creativity reached its peak in the schools of Rabbi Ishmael and Akiba, where two different hermeneutic methods were applied. The first was primarily logically oriented, making inferences based upon similarity of content and analogy. The second rested largely upon textual scrutiny, assuming that words and letters that seem superfluous teach something not openly stated in the text.\" Many different exegetical methods are employed in an effort to derive deeper meaning from a text. This is not limited to the traditional thirteen textual tools attributed to the Tanna Rabbi Ishmael, which are used in the interpretation of \"halakha\" (Jewish law). The presence of words or letters which are seen to be apparently superfluous, and the chronology of events, parallel narratives or what are seen as other textual \"anomalies\" are often used as a springboard for interpretation of segments of Biblical text. In many cases, a handful of lines in the Biblical narrative may become a long philosophical discussion Jacob Neusner distinguishes three midrash processes:", "Numerous Jewish midrashim previously preserved in manuscript form have been published in print, including those denominated as smaller or minor midrashim. Bernard H. Mehlman and Seth M. Limmer deprecate this usage on the grounds that the term \"minor\" seems judgmental and \"small\" is inappropriate for midrashim some of which are lengthy. They propose instead the term \"medieval midrashim\", since the period of their production extended from the twilight of the rabbinic age to the dawn of the Age of Enlightenment. Generally speaking, rabbinic midrashim either focus on religious law and practice (\"halakha\") or interpret biblical narrative in relation to non-legal ethics or theology, creating homilies and parables based on the text. In the latter case they are described as \"aggadic\".", "\"Midrash halakha\" is the name given to a group of tannaitic expositions on the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. These midrashim, written in Mishnahic Hebrew, clearly distinguish between the Biblical texts that they discuss, and the rabbinic interpretation of that text. They often go well beyond simple interpretation and derive or provide support for halakha. This work is based on pre-set assumptions about the sacred and divine nature of the text, and the belief in the legitimacy that accords with rabbinic interpretation. Although this material treats the biblical texts as the authoritative word of God, it is clear that not all of the Hebrew Bible was fixed in its wording at this time, as some verses that are cited differ from the Masoretic, and accord with the Septuagint, or Samaritan Torah instead.", "With the growing canonization of the contents of the Hebrew Bible, both in terms of the books that it contained, and the version of the text in them, and an acceptance that new texts could not be added, there came a need to produce material that would clearly differentiate between that text, and rabbinic interpretation of it. By collecting and compiling these thoughts they could be presented in a manner which helped to refute claims that they were only human interpretations. The argument being that by presenting the various collections of different schools of thought each of which relied upon close study of the text, the growing difference between early biblical law, and its later rabbinic interpretation could be reconciled.", "Midrashim that seek to explain the non-legal portions of the Hebrew Bible are sometimes referred to as \"aggadah\" or \"haggadah\". Aggadic discussions of the non-legal parts of Scripture are characterized by a much greater freedom of exposition than the halakhic midrashim (midrashim on Jewish law). Aggadic expositors availed themselves of various techniques, including sayings of prominent rabbis. These aggadic explanations could be philosophical or mystical disquisitions concerning angels, demons, paradise, hell, the messiah, Satan, feasts and fasts, parables, legends, satirical assaults on those who practice idolatry, etc. Some of these midrashim entail mystical teachings. The presentation is such that the midrash is a simple lesson to the uninitiated, and a direct allusion, or analogy, to a mystical teaching for those educated in this area. An example of a midrashic interpretation:", "A wealth of literature and artwork has been created in the 20th and 21st centuries by people aspiring to create \"contemporary midrash\". Forms include poetry, prose, Bibliodrama (the acting out of Bible stories), murals, masks, and music, among others. The Institute for Contemporary Midrash was formed to facilitate these reinterpretations of sacred texts. The institute hosted several week-long intensives between 1995 and 2004, and published eight issues of \"Living Text: The Journal of Contemporary Midrash\" from 1997 to 2000.", "According to Carol Bakhos, recent studies that use literary-critical tools to concentrate on the cultural and literary aspects of midrash have led to a rediscovery of the importance of these texts for finding insights into the rabbinic culture that created them. Midrash is increasingly seen as a literary and cultural construction, responsive to literary means of analysis. Reverend Wilda C. Gafney has coined and expanded on \"womanist midrash\", a particular practice and method that Gafney defines as: \"[...] A set of interpretive practices, including translation, exegesis, and biblical narratives, that attends to marginalized characters in biblical narratives, specially women and girls, intentionally including and centering on non-Israelite peoples and enslaved persons. Womanist midrash listens to and for their voices in and through the Hebrew Bible, while acknowledging that often the text does not speak, or even intend to speak, to or for them, let alone hear them. In the tradition of rabbinic midrash and contemporary feminist biblical scholarship, womanist midrash offers names for anonymized characters and crafts/listens to/gives voice to those characters.\" Gafney's analysis also draws parallels between midrash as a Jewish exegetical practice and African American Christian practices of biblical interpretation, wherein both practices privilege \"sacred imaginative interrogation,\" or \"sanctified imagination\" as it is referred to in the black preaching tradition, when exegeting and interpreting the text. \"Like classical and contemporary Jewish midrash, the sacred imagination [as practiced in black preaching traditions] tells us the story behind the story, the story between the lines on the page,\" Gafney writes. Frank Kermode has written that midrash is an imaginative way of \"updating, enhancing, augmenting, explaining, and justifying the sacred text\". Because the Tanakh came to be seen as unintelligible or even offensive, midrash could be used as a means of rewriting it in a way that both makes it more acceptable to later ethical standards and renders it less obviously implausible. James L. Kugel, in \"The Bible as It Was\" (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997), examines a number of early Jewish and Christian texts that comment on, expand, or re-interpret passages from the first five books of the Tanakh between the third century BCE and the second century CE. Kugel traces how and why biblical interpreters produced new meanings by the use of exegesis on ambiguities, syntactical details, unusual or awkward vocabulary, repetitions, etc. in the text. As an example, Kugel examines the different ways in which the biblical story that God's instructions are not to be found in heaven (Deut 30:12) has been interpreted. Baruch 3:29-4:1 states that this means that divine wisdom is not available anywhere other than in the Torah. Targum Neophyti (Deut 30:12) and b. Baba Metzia 59b claim that this text means that Torah is no longer hidden away, but has been given to humans who are then responsible for following it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Language.", "Population.", "History.", "Antiquity.", "Medieval period.", "Safavid period.", "Zand period.", "Ottoman period.", "Kurdish nationalism of the 20th century.", "Name.", "Kurdish communities.", "Turkey.", "Iran.", "Iraq.", "Syria.", "Transcaucasus.", "Diaspora.", "Religion.", "Islam.", "Alevism.", "Ahl-i Haqq (Yarsan).", "Yazidism.", "Zoroastrianism.", "Christianity.", "Culture.", "Education.", "Women.", "Folklore.", "Weaving.", "Handicrafts.", "Tattoos.", "Music and dance.", "Cinema.", "Sports.", "Architecture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Kurdish (Kurdish: \"Kurdî\" or کوردی) is a collection of related dialects spoken by the Kurds. It is mainly spoken in those parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey which comprise Kurdistan. Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, and in Armenia as a minority language. Most Kurds are either bilingual or multilingual, speaking the language of their respective nation of origin, such as Arabic, Persian, and Turkish as a second language alongside their native Kurdish, while those in diaspora communities often speak", "The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at close to 30 million, with another one or two million living in diaspora. Kurds comprise anywhere from 18% to 20% of the population in Turkey, possibly as high as 25%; 15 to 20% in Iraq; 10% in Iran; and 9% in Syria. Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, \"viz.\" in Turkish Kurdistan, Iraqi Kurdistan, Iranian Kurdistan and Syrian Kurdistan. The Kurds are the fourth", "", "\"The land of Karda\" is mentioned on a Sumerian clay tablet dated to the 3rd millennium BC. This land was inhabited by \"the people of Su\" who dwelt in the southern regions of Lake Van; The philological connection between \"Kurd\" and \"Karda\" is uncertain but the relationship is considered possible. Other Sumerian clay tablets referred to the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as the Qarduchi (Karduchi, Karduchoi) and the Qurti. Karda/Qardu is etymologically related to the Assyrian term Urartu and the Hebrew term Ararat. However, some modern scholars do not believe that the Qarduchi are connected to Kurds. Qarti", "Early Syriac sources use the terms \"Hurdanaye, Kurdanaye, Kurdaye\" to refer to the Kurds. According to Michael the Syrian, Hurdanaye separated from Tayaye Arabs and sought refuge with the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus. He also mentions the Persian troops who fought against Musa chief of Hurdanaye in the region of Qardu in 841. According to Barhebreaus, a king appeared to the Kurdanaye and they rebelled against the Arabs in 829. Michael the Syrian considered them as pagan, followers of mahdi and adepts of Magianism. Their mahdi called himself Christ and the Holy Ghost. In the early Middle Ages, the Kurds sporadically appear in Arabic sources, though the term was still not being used for a specific people; instead it referred to an amalgam of nomadic western Iranian tribes, who were distinct from Persians. However, in the High Middle Ages, the Kurdish ethnic identity gradually materialized, as one can find clear evidence of the Kurdish ethnic identity and solidarity in texts of the 12th and 13th century, though, the term was also still being used in the social sense. From 11th century onward, the term Kurd", "The Safavid Dynasty, established in 1501, also established its rule over Kurdish-inhabited territories. The paternal line of this family actually had Kurdish roots, tracing back to Firuz-Shah Zarrin-Kolah, a dignitary who moved from Kurdistan to Ardabil in the 11th century. The Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 that culminated in what is nowadays Iran's West Azerbaijan Province, marked the start of the Ottoman-Persian Wars between the Iranian Safavids (and successive Iranian dynasties) and the Ottomans. For the next 300 years, many of the Kurds found themselves living in territories that frequently changed hands between Ottoman Turkey and Iran during the protracted series of Ottoman-Persian Wars. The Safavid king Ismail I (r. 1501-1524) put down a Yezidi rebellion which went on from 1506-1510. A century later, the year-long Battle of Dimdim took place,", "After the fall of the Safavids, Iran fell under the control of the Afsharid Empire ruled by Nader Shah at its peak. After Nader's death, Iran fell into civil war, with multiple leaders trying to gain control over the country. Ultimately, it was Karim Khan, a Laki general of the Zand tribe who would come to power. The country would flourish during Karim Khan's reign; a strong resurgence of the arts would take place, and international ties were strengthened. Karim Khan was portrayed as being a ruler who truly cared about his subjects, thereby gaining the title Vakil e-Ra'aayaa (meaning Representative of the People in Persian). Though not as powerful in its geo-political and military", "When Sultan Selim I, after defeating Shah Ismail I in 1514, annexed Western Armenia and Kurdistan, he entrusted the organisation of the conquered territories to Idris, the historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. He divided the territory into \"sanjaks\" or districts, and, making no attempt to interfere with the principle of heredity, installed the local chiefs as governors. He also resettled the rich pastoral country between Erzerum and Erivan, which had lain in waste since the passage of Timur, with Kurds from the Hakkari and Bohtan districts. For the next centuries, from the Peace of Amasya until the first half of the 19th century, several regions of the wide Kurdish homelands would be contested as well between", "Kurdish nationalism emerged after World War I with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, which had historically successfully integrated (but not assimilated) the Kurds, through use of forced repression of Kurdish movements to gain independence. Revolts did occur sporadically but only in 1880 with the uprising led by Sheik Ubeydullah did the Kurds as an ethnic group or nation make demands. Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II () responded with a campaign of integration by co-opting prominent Kurdish opponents to strengthen Ottoman power with offers of prestigious positions in his government. This strategy appears to have been successful, given the loyalty displayed by the Kurdish Hamidiye regiments during World War I. The Kurdish ethno-nationalist movement that emerged following World War I and the end of the Ottoman Empire in 1922", "The exact origins of the name \"Kurd\" are unclear. The underlying toponym is recorded in Assyrian as \"Qardu\" and in Middle Bronze Age Sumerian as \"Kar-da\". Assyrian \"Qardu\" refers to an area in the upper Tigris basin, and it is presumably reflected in corrupted form in Classical Arabic \"Ǧūdī\", re-adopted in Kurdish as \"Cûdî\". The name would be continued as the first element in the toponym \"Corduene\", mentioned by Xenophon as the tribe who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the mountains north of Mesopotamia in the 4th century BC. There are, however, dissenting views, which do not derive the name of the Kurds from \"Qardu\" and \"Corduene\" but opt for derivation from \"Cyrtii\" (\"Cyrtaei\") instead.", "", "According to CIA Factbook, Kurds formed approximately 18% of the population in Turkey (approximately 14 million) in 2008. One Western source estimates that up to 25% of the Turkish population is Kurdish (approximately 18-19 million people). Kurdish sources claim there are as many as 20 or 25 million Kurds in Turkey. In 1980, Ethnologue estimated the number of Kurdish-speakers in Turkey at around five million, when the country's population stood at 44 million. Kurds form the largest minority group in Turkey, and they have posed the most serious and persistent challenge to the official image of a homogeneous society. This classification was changed to the new euphemism of \"Eastern Turk\" in 1980. Nowadays the Kurds, in Turkey, are still known under the name \"Easterner\" (Doğulu). Several large scale Kurdish revolts in 1925, 1930 and 1938", "The Kurdish region of Iran has been a part of the country since ancient times. Nearly all Kurdistan was part of Persian Empire until its Western part was lost during wars against the Ottoman Empire. Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 Tehran had demanded all lost territories including Turkish Kurdistan, Mosul, and even Diyarbakır, but demands were quickly rejected by Western powers. This area has been divided by modern Turkey, Syria and Iraq. Today, the Kurds inhabit mostly northwestern territories known as Iranian Kurdistan but also the northeastern region of Khorasan, and constitute approximately 7-10% of Iran's overall population (6.5–7.9 million), compared to 10.6% (2 million) in 1956 and 8% (800 thousand) in 1850. Unlike in other Kurdish-populated countries, there are strong ethnolinguistical and cultural ties between Kurds, Persians and others as Iranian peoples. Some modern Iranian dynasties like the Safavids and Zands are considered to be partly of Kurdish origin. Kurdish literature in all of its forms (Kurmanji, Sorani, and Gorani) has been developed within historical Iranian boundaries under strong influence of the Persian language. The", "Kurds constitute approximately 17% of Iraq's population. They are the majority in at least three provinces in northern Iraq which are together known as Iraqi Kurdistan. Kurds also have a presence in Kirkuk, Mosul, Khanaqin, and Baghdad. Around 300,000 Kurds live in the Iraqi capital Baghdad, 50,000 in the city of Mosul and around 100,000 elsewhere in southern Iraq. Kurds led by Mustafa Barzani were engaged in heavy fighting against successive Iraqi regimes from 1960 to 1975. In March 1970, Iraq announced a peace plan providing for Kurdish autonomy. The plan was to be implemented in four years. However, at the", "Kurds account for 9% of Syria's population, a total of around 1.6 million people. This makes them the largest ethnic minority in the country. They are mostly concentrated in the northeast and the north, but there are also significant Kurdish populations in Aleppo and Damascus. Kurds often speak Kurdish in public, unless all those present do not. According to Amnesty International, Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated and persecuted. No political parties are allowed for any group, Kurdish or otherwise. Techniques used to suppress the ethnic identity of Kurds in Syria include various bans on the use of the Kurdish language, refusal to register children with Kurdish names, the replacement of Kurdish place names with new names in Arabic, the prohibition of businesses that do not have Arabic names, the prohibition of Kurdish private schools, and the prohibition of books and other materials written in Kurdish. Having been denied the right to Syrian nationality, around 300,000 Kurds have", "Between the 1930s and 1980s, Armenia was a part of the Soviet Union, within which Kurds, like other ethnic groups, had the status of a protected minority. Armenian Kurds were permitted their own state-sponsored newspaper, radio broadcasts and cultural events. During the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, many non-Yazidi Kurds were forced to leave their homes since both the Azeri", "According to a report by the Council of Europe, approximately 1.3 million Kurds live in Western Europe. The earliest immigrants were Kurds from Turkey, who settled in Germany, Austria, the Benelux countries, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and France during the 1960s. Successive periods of political and social turmoil in the region during the 1980s and 1990s brought new waves of Kurdish refugees, mostly from Iran and Iraq under Saddam Hussein, came to Europe. In recent years, many Kurdish asylum seekers from both Iran and Iraq have settled in the United Kingdom (especially in the town of Dewsbury and in some northern areas of London), which has sometimes caused media controversy over their right to remain. There have been tensions between Kurds and the", "As a whole, the Kurdish people are adherents to various religions and creeds, perhaps constituting the most religiously diverse people of West Asia. Traditionally, Kurds have been known to take great liberties with their practices. This sentiment is reflected in the saying \"Compared to the unbeliever, the Kurd is a Muslim\".", "Today, the majority of Kurds are Sunni Muslim, belonging to the Shafi school. The Kurdish following of the Shafi legal code has caused some tension when pushed up against Sunni Turks and Sunni Arabs who subscribe to the Hanafi legal code. The majority of Sunni Muslim Kurds belonging to the Shafi school speak the Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) dialect. There is also a significant minority of Kurds who are Shia Muslims. A side of sources mention that most of Kurds in Iran are Shias, who primarily living in the Ilam, Kermanshah and Khorasan provinces of Iran; the other Shia Kurds are (often) in eastern Iraq (Feyli Kurds) as well as Shia Kurds who are in Syria and especially in Turkey. Amongst Shia Muslim Kurdish communities, in particular the practitioners of Alevism in Anatolia, the Zaza language is found more commonly. Mystical practices and participation in Sufi orders are also widespread among Kurds, with prominent Kurdish Sufi saints including Piryones.", "The Alevis (usually considered adherents of a branch of Shia Islam with elements of Sufism) are another religious significant minority among the Kurds, living in Eastern Anatolia in Turkey, meanwhile, with somewhere between 10 and 40% of Kurds in Turkey Alevis. Alevism developed out of the teachings of Haji Bektash Veli, a 13th-century mystic from Khorasan. Among the Qizilbash, the militant groups which predate the Alevis and helped establish the Safavid Dynasty, there were numerous Kurdish tribes. The American missionary Stephen van Renssalaer Trowbridge, working at Aintab (present Gaziantep) reported that his Alevi acquaintances considered as their highest spiritual leaders an Ahl-i Haqq sayyid family in the Guran district.", "Ahl-i Haqq or Yarsanism is a syncretic religion founded by Sultan Sahak in the late 14th century in western Iran. Most of its adherents, estimated at around 500,000 or 1,000,000, are found primarily in western Iran and eastern Iraq and are mostly ethnic Goran Kurds, though there are also smaller groups of Persian, Lori, Azeri and Arab adherents. Its central religious text is the Kalâm-e Saranjâm, written in Gurani. In this text,", "Yazidism is another syncretic religion practiced among Kurdish communities, founded by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir, a 12th-century mystic from Lebanon. Their numbers exceed 500,000, with some estimates numbering them at 1.2 million worldwide. Its central religious texts are the Kitêba Cilwe and Meshaf Resh. According to Yazidi beliefs, God created the world but left it in the", "The Iranian religion of Zoroastrianism has had a major influence on the Iranian culture, which Kurds are a part of, and has maintained some effect since the demise of the religion in the Middle Ages. The Iranian philosopher Sohrevardi drew heavily from Zoroastrian teachings. Ascribed to the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster, the faith's Supreme Being is Ahura Mazda.", "Although historically there have been various accounts of Kurdish Christians, most often these were in the form of individuals, and not as communities. However, in the 19th and 20th century various travel logs tell of Kurdish Christian tribes, as well as Kurdish Muslim tribes who had substantial Christian populations living amongst them. A significant number of these were allegedly originally", "Kurdish culture is a legacy from the various ancient peoples who shaped modern Kurds and their society. As most other Middle Eastern populations, a high degree of mutual influences between the Kurds and their neighbouring peoples are apparent. Therefore, in Kurdish culture elements of various other cultures are to be seen. However, on the whole, Kurdish culture is closest to that of other Iranian peoples, in particular those who historically had the closest geographical proximity to the Kurds, such as the Persians and Lurs. Kurds, for instance, also celebrate Newroz (March 21) as New Year's Day.", "A madrasa system was used before", "In general, Kurdish women's rights and equality have improved in the 20th and 21st century due to progressive movements within Kurdish", "The Kurds possess a rich tradition of folklore, which, until recent times, was largely transmitted by speech or song, from one generation to the next. Although some of the Kurdish writers' stories were well known throughout Kurdistan; most of the stories told and sung were only written down in the 20th and 21st century. Many of these are, allegedly, centuries old. Widely varying in purpose and style, among the Kurdish folklore one will find stories about nature, anthropomorphic animals, love, heroes and villains, mythological creatures and everyday life. A number of these mythological figures can be found in other cultures, like the Simurgh and Kaveh the Blacksmith in the broader Iranian Mythology, and stories of Shahmaran throughout Anatolia. Additionally, stories can be purely entertaining, or have an educational or religious aspect. Perhaps the most widely reoccurring element is the fox, which, through cunning and shrewdness triumphs over less intelligent", "Kurdish weaving is renowned throughout the world, with fine specimens of both rugs and bags. The most famous Kurdish rugs are those from the Bijar region, in the Kurdistan Province. Because of the unique way in which the Bijar rugs are woven, they are very stout and durable, hence their appellation as the 'Iron Rugs of Persia'. Exhibiting a wide variety, the Bijar rugs have patterns ranging from floral designs, medallions and animals to other ornaments. They generally have two wefts, and are very colorful in design. With an increased interest in these rugs", "Outside of weaving and clothing, there are many other Kurdish handicrafts, which were traditionally often crafted by nomadic Kurdish tribes. These are especially well known in Iran, most notably the crafts from the Kermanshah and Sanandaj regions. Among these crafts are chess boards, talismans, jewelry, ornaments, weaponry, instruments etc. Kurdish blades include a distinct jambiya, with its characteristic I-shaped hilt, and oblong blade. Generally, these possess double-edged blades, reinforced with a central ridge, a wooden, leather", "Adorning the body with tattoos (\"deq\" in Kurdish) is widespread among the Kurds; even though permanent tattoos are not permissible in Sunni Islam. Therefore, these traditional tattoos are thought to derive from pre-Islamic times. Tattoo ink is made by mixing soot with (breast) milk and the poisonous liquid from the gall bladder of an animal. The design is drawn on the skin using a thin twig and is, by needle, penetrated under", "Traditionally, there are three types of Kurdish classical performers: storytellers (\"çîrokbêj\"), minstrels (\"stranbêj\"), and bards (\"dengbêj\"). No specific music was associated with the Kurdish princely courts. Instead, music performed in night gatherings (\"şevbihêrk\") is considered classical. Several musical forms are found in this genre. Many songs are epic in nature, such as the popular \"Lawiks\", heroic ballads recounting the tales of Kurdish heroes such", "The main themes of Kurdish Cinema are the poverty and hardship which ordinary Kurds have to endure. The first films featuring Kurdish culture were actually shot in Armenia. Zare, released in 1927, produced by Hamo Beknazarian, details the story of Zare and her love for the shepherd Seydo, and the difficulties the two experience by the hand of the village elder. In 1948 and 1959, two documentaries were made concerning the Yezidi Kurds in Armenia. These were joint Armenian-Kurdish productions; with H. Koçaryan and Heciye Cindi teaming up for \"The Kurds of Soviet Armenia\", and Ereb Samilov and C. Jamharyan for \"Kurds of Armenia\". The first critically acclaimed and famous Kurdish films were produced by Yılmaz Güney. Initially a popular, award-winning actor in", "The most popular sport among the Kurds is football. Because the Kurds have no independent state, they have no representative team in FIFA or the AFC; however a team representing Iraqi Kurdistan has been active in the Viva World Cup since 2008. They became runners-up in 2009 and 2010, before ultimately becoming champion in 2012. On a national level, the Kurdish clubs of Iraq have achieved success in recent years as well, winning the Iraqi Premier League four times in the last five years. Prominent clubs", "The traditional Kurdish village has simple houses, made of mud. In most cases with flat, wooden roofs, and, if the village is built on the slope of a mountain, the roof on one house makes for the garden of the house one level higher. However, houses with a beehive-like roof, not unlike those in Harran, are also present. Over the centuries many Kurdish architectural marvels have been erected, with varying styles. Kurdistan boasts many examples from ancient Iranian, Roman, Greek and Semitic origin, most famous of these include Bisotun and Taq-e Bostan in Kermanshah, Takht-e Soleyman near Takab, Mount Nemrud near Adiyaman and the citadels of Erbil and Diyarbakir. The first genuinely Kurdish examples extant were built in the 11th century. Those earliest examples consist of the Marwanid Dicle Bridge in Diyarbakir, the Shadaddid Minuchir Mosque in Ani, and the Hisn al Akrad near Homs. In the 12th and 13th centuries the Ayyubid dynasty constructed many buildings throughout the Middle East, being influenced by their predecessors, the Fatimids, and their rivals, the Crusaders, whilst also developing their" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Standard normal distribution.", "General normal distribution.", "Notation.", "Alternative parameterizations.", "Cumulative distribution function.", "Standard deviation and coverage.", "Quantile function.", "Properties.", "Symmetries and derivatives.", "Moments.", "Fourier transform and characteristic function.", "Moment and cumulant generating functions.", "Stein operator and class.", "Zero-variance limit.", "Maximum entropy.", "Operations on normal deviates.", "Infinite divisibility and Cramér's theorem.", "Bernstein's theorem.", "Other properties.", "Related distributions.", "Central limit theorem.", "Operations on a single random variable.", "Combination of two independent random variables.", "Operations on the density function.", "Extensions.", "Statistical Inference.", "Estimation of parameters.", "Sample mean.", "Sample variance.", "Confidence intervals.", "Normality tests.", "Bayesian analysis of the normal distribution.", "Sum of two quadratics.", "Sum of differences from the mean.", "With known variance.", "With known mean.", "With unknown mean and unknown variance.", "Occurrence and applications.", "Exact normality.", "Approximate normality.", "Assumed normality.", "Produced normality.", "Computational methods.", "Generating values from normal distribution.", "Numerical approximations for the normal CDF.", "History.", "Development.", "Naming." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The simplest case of a normal distribution is known as the \"standard normal distribution\". This is a special case when formula_20 and formula_21, and it is described by this probability density function: The factor formula_23 in this expression ensures that the total area under the curve formula_24 is equal to one. The factor formula_25", "Every normal distribution is a version of the standard normal distribution whose domain has been stretched by a factor formula_18 (the standard deviation) and then translated by formula_3 (the mean value): The probability density must be scaled by formula_37", "The probability density of the standard Gaussian distribution (standard normal distribution) (with zero mean and unit variance) is often denoted with the Greek letter formula_47 (phi). The alternative", "Some authors advocate using the precision formula_55 as the parameter defining the width of the distribution, instead of the deviation formula_18 or the variance formula_6. The precision is normally defined as the reciprocal of the variance, formula_58. The formula for the distribution then becomes This choice is claimed to have advantages in numerical computations when formula_18 is very close to zero and", "The cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the standard normal distribution, usually denoted with the capital Greek letter formula_65 (phi), is the integral The related error function formula_67 gives the probability of a random variable with normal distribution of mean 0 and variance 1/2 falling in the range formula_68; that is These integrals cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions, and are often said to be special functions. However, many numerical approximations are known; see below. The two functions are closely related, namely For a generic normal distribution", "About 68% of values drawn from a normal distribution are within one standard deviation \"σ\" away from the mean; about 95% of the values lie within two standard deviations; and about 99.7%", "The quantile function of a distribution is the inverse of the cumulative distribution function. The quantile function of the standard normal distribution is called the probit function, and can be expressed in terms of the inverse error function: For a normal random variable with mean formula_3 and variance formula_6, the quantile function is The quantile formula_94 of the standard normal distribution is commonly denoted as formula_95. These values are used in hypothesis testing, construction of confidence intervals and Q-Q plots. A normal random variable formula_42 will exceed formula_97 with probability formula_98, and will lie outside the interval formula_99 with probability formula_100. In particular, the quantile formula_101 is 1.96; therefore a normal random variable will lie outside the interval formula_102 in only 5% of cases. The following table gives the quantile formula_95 such that formula_42 will lie in the range formula_99 with a specified probability formula_106. These values are useful to determine tolerance interval for sample averages and other statistical estimators with normal (or asymptotically normal) distributions:. NOTE: the following table shows formula_107, not formula_94 as defined above. For small formula_106, the quantile function has the useful asymptotic expansion formula_110", "The normal distribution is the only distribution whose cumulants beyond the first two (i.e., other than the mean and variance) are zero. It is also the continuous distribution with the maximum entropy for a specified mean and variance. Geary has shown, assuming that the mean and variance are finite, that the normal distribution is the only distribution where the mean and variance calculated from a set of independent draws are independent of each other. The normal distribution is a subclass of the elliptical distributions. The normal distribution is symmetric about its mean, and is non-zero over the entire real line. As such it may not be a suitable model for variables that are inherently positive or strongly skewed, such as the weight of a person or the price of a share. Such variables may be better described by other distributions, such as the log-normal distribution or the Pareto distribution. The value of the normal distribution is practically zero when the value formula_77 lies more than a few standard deviations away from the mean (e.g., a spread of three standard deviations covers all but 0.27% of the total distribution). Therefore, it may not be an appropriate model when one expects a significant fraction of outliers—values that lie many standard deviations away from the mean—and least squares and other statistical inference methods that are optimal for normally distributed variables often become highly unreliable when applied to such data. In those cases, a more heavy-tailed distribution should be assumed and the appropriate robust statistical inference methods applied. The Gaussian distribution belongs to the family of stable distributions which are the attractors of sums of independent, identically distributed distributions whether or not the mean or variance is finite. Except for the Gaussian which is a limiting case, all stable distributions have heavy tails and infinite variance. It is one of the few distributions that are stable and that have probability density functions that can be expressed analytically, the others being the Cauchy distribution and the Lévy distribution.", "The normal distribution with density formula_112 (mean formula_3 and standard deviation formula_114) has the", "The plain and absolute moments of a variable formula_42 are the expected values of formula_135 and formula_136, respectively. If the expected value formula_3 of formula_42 is zero, these parameters are called \"central moments\". Usually we are interested only in moments with integer order formula_139. If formula_42 has a normal distribution, these moments exist and are finite for any formula_106 whose real part is greater than −1. For any non-negative integer formula_106, the plain central moments are: Here formula_144 denotes the double factorial, that is, the product of all numbers from formula_145 to 1 that have the same", "The Fourier transform of a normal density formula_71 with mean formula_3 and standard deviation formula_18 is where formula_170 is the imaginary unit. If the mean formula_20, the first factor is 1, and the Fourier transform is, apart from a constant factor, a normal density on the frequency domain, with mean 0 and standard deviation", "The moment generating function of a real random variable formula_42 is the expected value of formula_181, as a function of the real parameter formula_177. For a normal distribution with density formula_71, mean formula_3", "Within Stein's method the Stein operator and class of a", "In the limit when formula_18 tends to zero, the probability density formula_112 eventually tends to zero at any formula_197, but grows without limit if formula_198, while its integral remains equal to 1. Therefore, the normal", "Of all probability distributions over the reals with a specified mean formula_3 and variance formula_6, the normal distribution formula_49 is the one with maximum entropy. If formula_42 is a continuous random variable with probability density formula_112, then the entropy of formula_42 is defined as where formula_212 is understood to be zero whenever formula_213. This functional can be maximized, subject to the constraints that the distribution is properly normalized and", "The family of normal distributions is closed under linear transformations: if formula_230 is normally distributed with mean formula_3 and standard deviation formula_18, then the variable formula_233, for any real numbers formula_234 and formula_235, is also normally distributed, with mean formula_236 and standard deviation formula_237. Also if formula_238 and formula_239 are two independent normal random variables, with means formula_240, formula_241 and standard deviations formula_242, formula_243, then their sum formula_244 will also be normally distributed, with mean formula_245 and variance formula_246. In particular, if formula_42 and formula_248 are independent normal deviates with zero mean and variance formula_6, then formula_250 and formula_251 are also independent and normally distributed, with zero mean and variance formula_252. This is a special case of the polarization identity. Also, if formula_238, formula_239 are two independent normal deviates with mean formula_3 and deviation formula_18, and formula_234, formula_235 are arbitrary real numbers, then the variable is also normally distributed with mean formula_3 and deviation formula_18. It follows that the normal distribution is stable (with exponent formula_262). More generally, any linear combination of independent normal deviates is a normal deviate.", "For any positive integer formula_263, any normal distribution with mean formula_264 and variance formula_6 is the distribution of the sum of formula_263 independent normal deviates, each with mean formula_267 and variance formula_268. This property is called infinite divisibility. Conversely, if formula_238 and formula_239 are independent random variables", "Bernstein's theorem states that if formula_42 and formula_248 are independent and formula_250 and formula_251 are also independent, then both \"X\" and \"Y\" must necessarily have normal distributions. More generally, if formula_278 are independent random variables, then two distinct linear combinations formula_279 and formula_280will be independent if and only if all formula_281 are normal and formula_282, where formula_283 denotes the variance of formula_281.", "", "", "The central limit theorem states that under certain (fairly common) conditions, the sum of many random variables will have an approximately normal distribution. More specifically, where formula_294 are independent and identically distributed random variables with the same arbitrary distribution, zero mean, and variance formula_6 and formula_38 is their mean scaled by formula_297 Then, as formula_145 increases, the probability distribution of formula_38 will tend to the normal distribution with zero mean and variance formula_6. The theorem can be extended to variables formula_302 that are not independent and/or not identically distributed if certain constraints are placed on the degree of", "If \"X\" is distributed normally", "If formula_238 and formula_239 are two independent", "The split normal distribution is most directly defined in terms of joining scaled sections of the density functions", "The notion of normal distribution, being one of the most important distributions in probability theory, has been extended far beyond the standard framework of the univariate (that is one-dimensional) case (Case 1). All these extensions are also called \"normal\" or \"Gaussian\" laws, so a certain ambiguity in names exists. A random variable \"X\" has a two-piece normal distribution if it has a distribution where \"μ\" is the mean and \"σ\"", "", "It is often the case that we don't know the parameters of the normal distribution, but instead want to estimate them. That is, having a sample formula_345 from a normal formula_346 population we would like to learn the approximate values of parameters formula_3 and formula_6. The standard approach to this problem is the maximum likelihood method, which requires maximization of the \"log-likelihood function\": Taking derivatives with respect to formula_3 and formula_6 and solving the resulting system of first order conditions yields the \"maximum likelihood estimates\":", "Estimator formula_353 is called the \"sample mean\", since it is the arithmetic mean of all observations. The statistic formula_354 is complete and sufficient for formula_3, and therefore by the Lehmann–Scheffé theorem, formula_353 is the uniformly minimum variance unbiased (UMVU) estimator. In finite samples it is distributed normally: The variance of this estimator is equal to the \"μμ\"-element of the inverse Fisher information matrix formula_358. This implies that the estimator is finite-sample efficient.", "The estimator formula_365 is called the \"sample variance\", since it is the variance of the sample (formula_345). In practice, another estimator is often used instead of the formula_365. This other estimator is denoted formula_368, and is also called the \"sample variance\", which represents a certain ambiguity in terminology; its square root formula_369 is called the \"sample standard deviation\". The estimator formula_368 differs from formula_365 by having instead of \"n\" in the denominator (the so-called Bessel's correction): The difference between formula_368 and formula_365 becomes negligibly small for large \"n\"s. In finite samples however, the motivation behind the use of formula_368 is that it is an unbiased estimator of the underlying parameter formula_6,", "By Cochran's theorem, for normal distributions the sample mean formula_353 and the sample variance \"s\" are independent, which means there can be no gain in considering their joint distribution. There is also a converse theorem: if in a sample the sample mean and sample variance are independent, then the sample must have come from the normal distribution. The independence between formula_353 and \"s\" can be employed to construct the so-called \"t-statistic\": This quantity \"t\" has the Student's t-distribution with degrees of freedom, and it is an ancillary statistic (independent of the value of the parameters). Inverting", "Normality tests assess the likelihood that the given data set {\"x\",..., \"x\"} comes from a normal distribution. Typically the null hypothesis \"H\" is that the", "Bayesian analysis of normally distributed data is complicated by the many different possibilities that may be considered: The formulas for the non-linear-regression cases are summarized in the conjugate prior article.", "", "Another useful formula is as follows: where formula_416", "For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size \"n\" where each individual point \"x\" follows formula_417 with known variance σ, the conjugate prior distribution is also normally distributed. This can be shown more easily by rewriting the variance as the precision, i.e. using τ = 1/σ. Then if formula_418 and formula_419 we proceed as follows. First, the likelihood function is (using the formula above for the sum of differences from the mean): Then, we proceed as follows: In the above derivation, we used the formula above for the sum of two quadratics and eliminated all constant factors not involving \"μ\". The result is the kernel of a normal distribution, with mean formula_422 and precision formula_423, i.e. This can be written as a set of Bayesian update equations for the posterior parameters in terms of the prior parameters: That is, to combine \"n\" data points with total precision of", "For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size \"n\" where each individual point \"x\" follows formula_417 with known mean μ, the conjugate prior of the variance has an inverse gamma distribution or a scaled inverse chi-squared distribution. The two are equivalent except for having", "For a set of i.i.d. normally distributed data points X of size \"n\" where each individual point \"x\" follows formula_417 with unknown mean μ and unknown variance σ, a combined (multivariate) conjugate prior is placed over the mean and variance, consisting of a normal-inverse-gamma distribution. Logically, this originates as follows: The priors are normally defined as follows: The update equations can be derived, and look as follows: The respective numbers of pseudo-observations add the number of actual observations to them. The new mean hyperparameter is once again a weighted average, this time weighted by the relative numbers of", "The occurrence of normal distribution in practical problems can be loosely classified into four categories:", "Certain quantities in physics are distributed normally, as", "\"Approximately\" normal distributions occur in many situations, as explained by the central limit theorem. When the outcome is produced by many small effects acting \"additively and independently\", its", "There are statistical methods to empirically", "In regression analysis, lack of normality in residuals simply indicates that the model postulated is inadequate in accounting", "", "In computer simulations, especially in applications of the Monte-Carlo method, it is often desirable to generate values that are normally distributed. The algorithms listed below", "The standard normal CDF is widely used in scientific and statistical computing. The values Φ(\"x\") may be approximated very accurately by a variety of methods, such as numerical integration, Taylor series, asymptotic series and continued fractions. Different approximations are used depending on the desired level of accuracy. Shore (1982) introduced simple approximations that may be incorporated in stochastic optimization models of engineering and operations research, like reliability engineering and inventory analysis. Denoting p=Φ(z), the simplest approximation for the quantile function is: This approximation delivers for \"z\" a maximum absolute", "", "Some authors attribute the credit for the discovery of the normal distribution to de Moivre, who in 1738 published in the second edition of his \"\"The Doctrine of Chances\"\" the study of the coefficients in the binomial expansion of. De Moivre proved that the middle term in this expansion has the approximate magnitude of formula_455, and that \"If \"m\" or 1⁄2\"n\" be a Quantity infinitely great, then the Logarithm of the Ratio, which a Term distant from the middle by the Interval \"l\", has to the middle Term, is formula_456.\" Although this theorem can be interpreted as the first obscure expression for the normal probability law, Stigler points out that de Moivre himself did not interpret his results as anything more than the approximate rule for the binomial coefficients, and in particular de Moivre lacked the concept of the probability density function. In 1809 Gauss published his monograph \"\"Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientium\"\" where among other things he introduces several important statistical concepts, such as the method of least squares, the method of maximum likelihood, and the \"normal distribution\". Gauss used \"M\",, to denote the measurements of some unknown quantity \"V\", and sought the \"most", "Since its introduction, the normal distribution has been known by many different names: the law of error, the law of facility of errors, Laplace's second law, Gaussian law, etc. Gauss himself apparently coined the term with reference to the \"normal equations\" involved in its applications, with normal having its technical meaning of orthogonal rather than \"usual\". However, by the end of the 19th century some authors had started using the name \"normal distribution\", where the word \"normal\" was used as an adjective – the term now being seen as a reflection of the fact that this distribution was seen as typical, common – and thus \"normal\". Peirce (one of those authors) once defined \"normal\" thus: \"...the 'normal' is not the average (or" ] }

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{ "title": [ "WDM systems.", "Coarse WDM.", "CWDM Applications.", "Dense WDM.", "DWDM systems.", "Wavelength-converting transponders.", "Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer (ROADM).", "Optical cross connects (OXCs).", "Enhanced WDM.", "Shortwave WDM.", "Transceivers versus transponders.", "Implementations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the several signals together and a demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of fiber, it is possible to have a device that does both simultaneously and can function as an optical add-drop multiplexer. The optical filtering devices used have conventionally been etalons (stable solid-state single-frequency Fabry–Pérot interferometers in the form of thin-film-coated optical glass). As there are three different WDM types, whereof one is called \"WDM\", the notation \"xWDM\" is normally used when discussing the technology as such. The concept was first published in 1978, and by 1980 WDM systems were being realized in the laboratory. The first WDM systems combined only two signals. Modern systems can handle 160 signals and can thus expand a basic 100 Gbit/s system over a single fiber pair to over 16 Tbit/s. A system of 320 channels is also present (12.5 GHz channel spacing, see below.) WDM systems are popular with telecommunications companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying more fiber. By using WDM and optical amplifiers, they can accommodate several generations of technology development in their optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. Capacity of a given link can be expanded simply by upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end. This is often done by use of optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) translation at the very edge of the transport network, thus permitting interoperation with existing equipment with optical interfaces. Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables which have a core diameter of 9 μm. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables (also known as premises cables) which have core diameters of 50 or 62.5 μm. Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run. However, recent standardization and better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM less expensive to deploy. Optical receivers, in contrast to laser sources, tend to be wideband devices. Therefore, the demultiplexer must provide the wavelength selectivity of the receiver in the WDM system. WDM systems are divided into three different wavelength patterns: normal (WDM), coarse (CWDM) and dense (DWDM). Normal WDM (sometimes called BWDM) uses the two normal wavelengths 1310 and 1550 on one fiber. Coarse WDM provides up to 16 channels across multiple transmission windows of silica fibers. \"Dense WDM\" (DWDM) uses the C-Band (1530 nm-1565 nm) transmission window but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical DWDM system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing. Some technologies are capable of 12.5 GHz spacing (sometimes called ultra dense WDM). New amplification options (Raman amplification) enable the extension of the usable wavelengths to the L-band (1565 nm-1625 nm), more or less doubling these numbers. Coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM), in contrast to DWDM, uses increased channel spacing to allow less-sophisticated and thus cheaper transceiver designs. To provide 16 channels on a single fiber, CWDM uses the entire frequency band spanning the second and third transmission windows (1310/1550 nm respectively) including the critical frequencies where OH scattering may occur. OH-free silica fibers are recommended if the wavelengths between second and third transmission windows is to be used. Avoiding this region, the channels 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61 remain and these are the most commonly used. With OS2 fibers the water peak problem is overcome, and all possible 18 channels can be used. WDM, CWDM and DWDM are based on the same concept of using multiple wavelengths of light on a single fiber but differ in the spacing of the wavelengths, number of channels, and the ability to amplify the multiplexed signals in the optical space. EDFA provide an efficient wideband amplification for the C-band, Raman amplification adds a mechanism for amplification in the L-band. For CWDM, wideband optical amplification is not available, limiting the optical spans to several tens of kilometres.", "Originally, the term \"coarse wavelength division multiplexing\" (CWDM) was fairly generic and described a number of different channel configurations. In general, the choice of channel spacings and frequency in these configurations precluded the use of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs). Prior to the relatively recent ITU standardization of the term, one common definition for CWDM was two or more signals multiplexed onto a single fiber, with one signal in the 1550 nm band and the other in the 1310 nm band. In 2002, the ITU standardized a channel spacing grid for CWDM (ITU-T G.694.2) using the wavelengths from 1270 nm through 1610 nm with a channel spacing of 20 nm. ITU G.694.2 was revised in 2003 to shift the channel centers by 1 nm so, strictly speaking, the center wavelengths are 1271 to 1611 nm. Many CWDM wavelengths below 1470 nm are considered unusable on older G.652 specification fibers, due to the increased attenuation in the 1270–1470 nm bands. Newer fibers which conform to the G.652.C and G.652.D standards, such as Corning SMF-28e and Samsung Widepass, nearly eliminate the \"water peak\" attenuation peak at 1383nm and allow for full operation of all 18 ITU CWDM channels in metropolitan networks. The main characteristic of the recent ITU CWDM standard is that the signals are not spaced appropriately for amplification by EDFAs. This limits the total CWDM optical span to somewhere near 60 km for a 2.5 Gbit/s signal, which is suitable for use in metropolitan applications. The relaxed optical frequency stabilization requirements allow the associated costs of CWDM to approach those of non-WDM optical components.", "CWDM is being used in cable television networks, where different wavelengths are used for the \"downstream\" and \"upstream\" signals. In these systems, the wavelengths used are often widely separated. For example, the downstream signal might be at 1310 nm while the upstream signal is at 1550 nm. Some GBIC and small form factor pluggable (SFP) transceivers utilize standardized CWDM wavelengths. GBIC and SFP CWDM optics allow a legacy switch system to be \"converted\" to enable wavelength multiplexed transport over a fiber by selecting compatible transceiver wavelengths for use with an inexpensive passive optical multiplexing device. The 10GBASE-LX4 10 Gbit/s physical layer standard is an example of a CWDM system in which four wavelengths near 1310 nm, each carrying a 3.125 gigabit-per-second (Gbit/s) data stream, are used to carry 10 Gbit/s of aggregate data. Passive CWDM is an implementation of CWDM that uses no electrical power. It separates the wavelengths using passive optical components such as bandpass filters and prisms. Many manufacturers are promoting passive CWDM to deploy fiber to the home.", "\"Dense wavelength division multiplexing\" (DWDM) refers originally to optical signals multiplexed within the 1550 nm band so as to leverage the capabilities (and cost) of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are effective for wavelengths between approximately 1525–1565 nm (C band), or 1570–1610 nm (L band). EDFAs were originally developed to replace SONET/SDH optical-electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators, which they have made practically obsolete. EDFAs can amplify any optical signal in their operating range, regardless of the modulated bit rate. In terms of multi-wavelength signals, so long as the EDFA has enough pump energy available to it, it can amplify as many optical signals as can be multiplexed into its amplification band (though signal densities are limited by choice of modulation format). EDFAs therefore allow a single-channel optical link to be upgraded in bit rate by replacing only equipment at the ends of the link, while retaining the existing EDFA or series of EDFAs through a long haul route. Furthermore, single-wavelength links using EDFAs can similarly be upgraded to WDM links at reasonable cost. The EDFA's cost is thus leveraged across as many channels as can be multiplexed into the 1550 nm band.", "At this stage, a basic DWDM system contains several main components: The introduction of the ITU-T G.694.1 frequency grid in 2002 has made it easier to integrate WDM with older but more standard SONET/SDH systems. WDM wavelengths are positioned in a grid having exactly 100 GHz (about 0.8 nm) spacing in optical frequency, with a reference frequency fixed at 193.10 THz (1,552.52 nm). The main grid is placed inside the optical fiber amplifier bandwidth, but can be extended to wider bandwidths. The first commercial deployment of DWDM was made by Ciena Corporation on the Sprint network in June 1996. Today's DWDM systems use 50 GHz or even 25 GHz channel spacing for up to 160 channel operation. DWDM systems have to maintain more stable wavelength or frequency than those needed for CWDM because of the closer spacing of the wavelengths. Precision temperature control of laser transmitter is required in DWDM systems to prevent \"drift\" off a very narrow frequency window of the order of a few GHz. In addition, since DWDM provides greater maximum capacity it tends to be used at a higher level in the communications hierarchy than CWDM, for example on the Internet backbone and is therefore associated with higher modulation rates, thus creating a smaller market for DWDM devices with very high performance. These factors of smaller volume and higher performance result in DWDM systems typically being more expensive than CWDM. Recent innovations in DWDM transport systems include pluggable and software-tunable transceiver modules capable of operating on 40 or 80 channels. This dramatically reduces the need for discrete spare pluggable modules, when a handful of pluggable devices can handle the full range of wavelengths.", "At this stage, some details concerning wavelength-converting transponders should be discussed, as this will clarify the role played by current DWDM technology as an additional optical transport layer. It will also serve to outline the evolution of such systems over the last 10 or so years. As stated above, wavelength-converting transponders served originally to translate the transmit wavelength of a client-layer signal into one of the DWDM system's internal wavelengths in the 1,550 nm band (note that even external wavelengths in the 1,550 nm will most likely need to be translated, as they will almost certainly not have the required frequency stability tolerances nor will it have the optical power necessary for the system's EDFA). In the mid-1990s, however, wavelength converting transponders rapidly took on the additional function of signal regeneration. Signal regeneration in transponders quickly evolved through 1R to 2R to 3R and into overhead-monitoring multi-bitrate 3R regenerators. These differences are outlined below:", "As mentioned above, intermediate optical amplification sites in DWDM systems may allow for the dropping and adding of certain wavelength channels. In most systems deployed as of August 2006 this is done infrequently, because adding or dropping wavelengths requires manually inserting or replacing wavelength-selective cards. This is costly, and in some systems requires that all active traffic be removed from the DWDM system, because inserting or removing the wavelength-specific cards interrupts the multi-wavelength optical signal. With a ROADM, network operators can remotely reconfigure the multiplexer by sending soft commands. The architecture of the ROADM is such that dropping or adding wavelengths does not interrupt the \"pass-through\" channels. Numerous technological approaches are utilized for various commercial ROADMs, the tradeoff being between cost, optical power, and flexibility.", "When the network topology is a mesh, where nodes are interconnected by fibers to form an arbitrary graph, an additional fiber interconnection device is needed to route the signals from an input port to the desired output port. These devices are called optical crossconnectors (OXCs). Various categories of OXCs include electronic (\"opaque\"), optical (\"transparent\"), and wavelength selective devices.", "Cisco's Enhanced WDM system combines 1 Gb Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM) connections using SFPs and GBICs with 10 Gb Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) connections using XENPAK, X2 or XFP DWDM modules. These DWDM connections can either be passive or boosted to allow a longer range for the connection. In addition to this, CFP modules deliver 100 Gbit/s Ethernet suitable for high speed Internet backbone connections.", "Shortwave WDM uses vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) transceivers with four wavelengths in the 846 to 953 nm range over single OM5 fiber, or 2-fiber connectivity for OM3/OM4 fiber.", "See also transponders (optical communications) for different functional views on the meaning of optical transponders.", "There are several simulation tools that can be used to design WDM systems." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Early political career.", "Hungarian People's Republic.", "Hungarian Soviet Republic.", "Activity in Crimea.", "The \"March Action\" in Germany.", "Later career.", "Death and legacy.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Béla Kohn, later known as Béla Kun, was born on 20 February 1886 in the village of Lele, located near Szilágycseh, Transylvania, Kingdom of Hungary (today part of Hodod, Romania). His father, Samu Kohn was a lapsed Jewish village notary, while his mother, Róza Goldberger, was a Jewish convert to Protestantism. Despite his parents' secular outlook, he was educated at the Silvania Főgimnázium in Zilah (present-day Silvania National College, Zalău) and a famous Reformed \"kollegium\" (grammar school) in the city of Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca, Romania). At the \"kollegium\" Kun won the prize for best essay on Hungarian literature that allowed him to attend a gymnasium. His essay was on the poet Sándor Petőfi and the concluding paragraphs were: The storming rage of Petőfi's soul... turned against the privileged classes, against the people's oppressor... and confronted them with revolutionary abandon. Petőfi felt that the country would not be saved through moderation, but through the use of the most extreme means available. He detested even the thought of cowardice... Petőfi's vision was correct. There is no room for prudence in revolutions whose fate and eventual success is always decided by boldness and raw courage... this is why Petőfi condemned his compatriots for the sin of opportunism and hesitation when faced with the great problems of their age... Petőfi's works must be regarded as the law of the Hungarian soul... and of the... love of the country\". Béla magyarized his birth surname, \"Kohn,\" to \"Kun\" in 1904, although the almanac of the University of Kolozsvár still referred to him in print by his former name as late as 1909. There is no archival evidence that he took any formal action to change the spelling of his name, although it is clear that from 1904 all those around him referred to him as Béla Kun rather than Kohn, and he likewise used the Magyar variant in his signature. Before World War I, he was a muck-raking journalist with sympathies for the Hungarian Social Democratic Party in Kolozsvár. In addition, Kun served on the Kolozsvár Social Insurance Board, from which he was later to be accused of embezzling. He had a fiery reputation and was involved in duels several times. In May 1913 he married Irén Gál, a music teacher of middle-class background.", "During his early education at Kolozsvár, Kun became friends with the poet Endre Ady, who introduced him to many members of Budapest's left-wing intelligentsia. Kun fought for Austria-Hungary in World War I, and was captured and made a prisoner of war in 1916 by the Russians. He was sent to a POW camp in the Urals, where he was exposed to Communism. The popular revolution in March 1917 and the subsequent Bolshevik coup the following November not only set him free but provided him with unforeseen opportunities. In March 1918, in Moscow, Kun co-founded the Hungarian Group of the Russian Communist Party (the predecessor to the Hungarian Communist Party) with other former Hungarian POWs. He travelled widely, including to Petrograd and Moscow. He came to know Vladimir Lenin there, but inside the party he promoted ultra-radical left-wing political opposition to Lenin and the mainstream Bolsheviks. Kun and his friends (such as the Italian Umberto Terracini and the Hungarian Mátyás Rákosi), aggregated around Grigory Zinoviev or Karl Radek; whereas Lenin advocated making peace with the Central Powers, despite the harsh conditions they imposed, in order to \"save the revolution\", they took the part of Bukharin, who wanted to continue and expand the war to transform it into an international revolutionary struggle to impose Communism on the rest of Europe. Lenin often called them \"kunerists\", and said of Kun, “We can see that this man comes from a country of poets and dreamers.” In the Russian Civil War in 1918, Kun fought for the Bolsheviks. During this time, he first started to make detailed plans for a Communist revolution in Hungary. In November 1918, with at least several hundred other Hungarian Communists and with a large sum of money provided by the Soviets, he returned to Hungary.", "In Hungary, the resources of a shattered government were further strained by refugees from lands lost to the Allies during the war, and which were due to be lost permanently under the Treaty of Trianon. Rampant inflation, housing shortages, mass unemployment, food shortages and coal shortages further weakened the economy and stimulated widespread protests. In October 1918, the Aster Revolution saw the inauguration the Hungarian People's Republic, under an unstable coalition government of Socialists and other radicals. Led by Béla Kun, the inner circle of the freshly established party returned to Budapest from Moscow on 16 November, 1918. On 24 November they created the Party of Communists from Hungary (Hungarian: Kommunisták Magyarországi Pártja). He immediately began a highly energetic propaganda campaign against the government of President Mihály Károlyi, and his Social Democratic allies, accusing them of betraying the working class, of lack of class consciousness, of not wanting to continue the expropriation of large domains and the big capital. His aim was to copy the tactics Lenin had used so successfully, which included pandering to the demands of all the discontented in society: unemployed, pensioners, veterans, employees; relentlessly denouncing the Government and the parties that supported it; as well as infiltrating the trade unions, discrediting their executives, and undermining the Socialist Party by dividing the more moderate leaders from the more extreme ones. His speeches had a considerable impact on his audiences. One who heard such a speech wrote in his diary: Yesterday I heard Kun speak... it was an audacious, hateful, enthusiastic oratory. [...] He knows his audience and rules over them... Factory workers long at odds with the Social Democratic Party leaders, young intellectuals, teachers, doctors, lawyers, clerks who came to his room... meet Kun and Marxism. In addition, the Communists held frequent marches and rallies and organised strikes. Desiring to achieve a revolution in Hungary, he communicated by telegraph with Vladimir Lenin to garner support from the Bolsheviks, which would ultimately not materialise. Despite Kun's efforts, by February 1919 the Communists had fewer than 30,000 members, compared with the 700,000 of the Social Democrats. Kun knew that if the upcoming elections went ahead, they would be a disaster for the Communists. Therefore, the Communist press launched a campaign against a fictitious \"reactionary conspiracy\" which the Károlyi government was either unaware of, or unwilling to crush. On 20 February 1919 the Communists invaded and pillaged the headquarters of the Socialist daily newspaper. The attack left a few dead and many injured, primarily policemen who had tried to stop the Communist aggression. Kun and 67 other Communist leaders were arrested. However, despite the apparent failure of this adventure, there were two factors that worked to Kun's advantage. First the press, even the non-socialist press, claimed that the imprisoned Communists had been mistreated by some members of the police force that supposedly wanted to avenge the death of their colleagues, and also publicised the supposedly courageous attitude of prisoner Béla Kun, a man previously little known outside his circle of followers. This greatly increased the popularity of Kun and sympathy toward the Communists among the general public. Concerned by this unintended shift in public opinion, the government gave orders that while in prison Kun be allowed to carry out any political activity he wished, which meant he was able to continue directing the Hungarian Communist Party from his cell. There were days in which Kun received up to four hundred visitors, mainly far-left Social Democrats who now considered Kun, whose stature was already increased by the prestige of participating in the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, a martyr. The second was that on 19 March 1919, French Lt-Col Fernand Vix presented the \"Vix Note,\" ordering Hungarian forces to be pulled back further from where they were stationed, clearing the areas of Debrecen and Makó. It was assumed that the military lines would be the new frontiers that would be established by the peace conference between Hungary and the Allies. The Vix Note created a massive upsurge of nationalist outrage, and the Hungarians resolved to fight the Allies rather than accept the new national borders. Károlyi resigned, perhaps in order not to link his name to the acceptance of that imposition, and soon after a proclamation was made public in his name stating that he had voluntarily given up his powers to a “new government of the proletariat”, i.e. the Socialists. Later in his life Károlyi denied that he had made such a statement, though he did not disavow it at the time or in the following years during which he remained quietly in Hungary. The Social Democrats approached Kun on the subject of a coalition government, hoping he would be able to use his Soviet connections to bring the Red Army to Hungary's aid. So desperate were they for the Soviet support they believed Kun could provide that it was Kun, a captive, who dictated the terms to his captors. This was despite the Red Army's full involvement in the Russian Civil War and the unlikelihood that it could be of any direct military assistance. Kun proposed the merger of the Social Democrat and Communist parties, the establishment of a Soviet Republic and several other radical measures, which the Social Democrats agreed to.", "On 21 March 1919, the Hungarian Soviet Republic, the second Communist regime in Europe after Russia itself, was proclaimed; the Social Democrats and Communists were merged under the interim name Hungarian Socialist Party, and Béla Kun was released from prison and sworn into office. The nominal head of the Soviet Republic was a Socialist leader, Sándor Garbai, but in practice power rested with Kun, although officially he was only People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs, and from April 1919 also People’s Commissar for Defence. As he told Lenin, \"My personal influence in the Revolutionary Governing Council is such that the dictatorship of the proletariat is firmly established, since the masses are backing me.\" The Social Democrats continued to hold the majority of seats in government. Of the thirty-three People's Commissars of the Revolutionary Governing Council that ruled the Soviet Republic, fourteen were former Communists, seventeen were former Social Democrats and two had no party affiliation. With the exception of Kun, every Commissar was a former Social Democrat and every Deputy Commissar a former Communist. Despite the fact that the Socialists were by far more numerous, they passively accepted the leadership and the programme of the smaller but far more active and determined Communist Party, which claimed to represent the “dictatorship of the proletariat”. In the hope of placating the new Hungarian regime, the victorious Entente express willingness to bring the military demarcation to the line specified by the armistice of Belgrade the previous November, stating however that it would have no relevance to the final clauses of the peace treaty. This gesture was an undeniable success for the Socialist-Communist government which was thus offered some badly needed breathing space. However Kun rejected the proposal, declaring during a rally on 19 April: Comrades, we do not profess the doctrine of territorial integrity, but we want to live, and this is why we did not accept that our freed proletarian brothers living in the neutralised zone be rejected under the yoke of capitalism. To do so would deprive the Hungarian proletariat of the physical means necessary to live. [...] It is a matter, therefore, which concerns the struggle between the international revolution and the international counter-revolution.However he stated in a letter to Lenin a few days later, on 22 April, possibly to exculpate himself from the suspicion of harbouring nationalist sentiment: Whatever happens, all our actions will be dictated by the interests of the world revolution. We do not think even for a moment to sacrifice the interests of the world revolution to those of one of its components. Even if we were obliged to sign a peace ‘à la Brest-Litovsk’, we would do it with the clear conscience which inspired you when you made the Brest-Litovsk peace, concluded against my will and against the will of the Left Communists.Given the disparity in power between Hungary and the Allies, Hungarian chances for victory were slim at best. To buy time, Kun tried to negotiate with the Allies, meeting the British General Jan Smuts at a summit in Budapest in April. Agreement proved impossible, and Hungary was soon at war later in April with the Kingdom of Romania and Czechoslovakia, both aided by France. The “dictatorship of the proletariat” was characterised from almost the beginning by harsh measures not only against the old ruling classes, but also against the peasants.The first action of the new government was the nationalisation of the large majority of private property in Hungary. Despite their promises, Béla Kun's government chose not to redistribute land to the peasantry. Instead, all land was to be converted into collective farms and former estate owners, managers, and bailiffs were to be retained as the new collective farm managers. The Communists remained highly unpopular in the Hungarian countryside, where they had little to no actual authority. Furthermore, the initial measures of the government in the military field included the elimination of \"non-proletarians\" from the new Hungarian Red Army, the abolition of conscription and the introduction of voluntary recruitment. The result was catastrophic: in three weeks only 5,000 “workers” had asked to enlist. Equally ineffective were the social measures, beginning with the reduction of the rental fees and wage increases immediately negated by inflation. The failures of the Communists in economic issues meant that in three weeks they were excluded from economic affairs by the ex-Socialists. The Communists, however, retained control of the political police. They unleashed terror gangs of thugs called the “Lenin boys” who went hunting for “bourgeois” and “counter-revolutionaries”, and committed armed robberies, kidnappings, shootings and hangings. This indiscriminate terror, in which Kun’s friends, Tibor Szamuely and Ottó Korvin proved especially bloodthirsty, attracted protests from the sole representative of the Allied governments in Budapest, Italian lieutenant colonel Guido Romanelli, which Kun rejected. It also had the effect of splitting the government and dividing the Communists themselves, some of whom doubted the usefulness of the atrocities committed. Kun proved unable to control his more extreme followers, particularly Jancsik, Münnich, Szamuely and Rákosi. Members of the governent demanded Kun either stop the atrocities committed by his men, or face the hostility of organised workers and unions. In response Kun sent his friends as political commissars to the front where, however, the situation was not much better. The Romanians had launched an offensive on 17 April 1919 and by the end of the month they were only 60 kilometres from Budapest. On 26 April Kun was forced to admit publicly that he had made a mistake in rejecting Allied Power's proposals, and spoke of resignation. Thee leaders of the trade unions still controlled by ex-Socialists recruited an army of 50,000 men who managed to halt the Romanians and to reoccupy the most important cities which had been lost in Upper Hungary. However this victory was attributed to the People’ Commissar for Defence, Vilmos Böhm and his soldiers, all of the Socialist Party, and not to the Communist political commissars Rákosi and Münnich. In the second half of June, Clemenceau proposed a memorandum that promised a cessation of hostilities by the Entente in return for an immediate evacuation of Upper Hungary by the Hungarian Army, which Kun accepted, though he stated in a speech that “The imperialist peace that we are forced to conclude will not last longer than that of Brest-Litovsk, because of the revolution that will inevitably burst out in other European countries.” One of these \"inevitable\" revolutions was to be the insurrection Hungarian Communist agents were planning in neighbouring Austria. However Austrian police discovered the plot and arrested the organisers the day before the coup was to be carried out. The domestic situation was rapidly worsening as a result of the regime's actions, with not only former army officers and Catholic and Protestant clergy but urban workers, the Communist's primary base of support, becoming increasingly disaffected. On 24 June, an uprising against the regime in Budapest was suppressed after twenty hours of fighting in the streets. At the same time an anarchist conspiracy was uncovered and suppressed (its members shot) in Budapest and other cities. The government retaliated with secret police, revolutionary tribunals and semiregular detachments such as Tibor Szamuely's bodyguards, the Lenin Boys; this renewed campaign of repression became known as the Red Terror. Of those arrested, an estimated 370 to about 600 were killed; others place the number at 590. At the front, the Hungarians had suffered repeated defeats at the hands of the Romanians. In the middle of July 1919, Hungary launched a major counter-offensive against the Romanian invasion. The Allied Commander in the Balkans, the French Marshal Louis Franchet d'Esperey, wrote to Marshal Ferdinand Foch on 21 July 1919: \"We are convinced that the Hungarian offensive will collapse of its own accord... When the Hungarian offensive is launched, we shall retreat to the line of demarcation and launch the counteroffensive from that line. Two Romanian brigades will march from Romania to the front in the coming days, according to General Fertianu's promise. You see, Marshal, we have nothing to fear from the Hungarian army. I can assure you that the Hungarian Soviets will last no more than two or three weeks. And should our offensive not bring the Kun regime down, its untenable internal situation surely will.\" The Soviets promised to invade Romania and link up with Kun and were on the verge of doing so, but military reversals suffered by the Red Army in Ukraine halted the invasion of Romania before it began. When the Romanians crossed the river Tisza at the end of July they met virtually no opposition. However by this point the regime was facing, in Kun's own words, a “crisis of power, economy and morale” and most fatally, of popular support. The former Social Democrats had withdrawn completely from government; the rural peasantry were disillusioned by the unfulfilled promises of land redistribution and by the decision of the regime to pay for agricultural products in a new paper currency they did not trust. Most fatally, the “industrial proletariat” in whose name the dictatorship had been established refused to fight for a cause they no longer considered their own. The only hope for saving the Hungarian Soviet Republic had been \"the military intervention of the Red Army or on a revolution in one or more other European countries.\" Both these hopes had now failed. On the 1st of August, Kun gave his last speech in Hungary, stating: The Hungarian proletariat betrayed not their leaders but itself. [...] If there had been in Hungary a proletariat with the consciousness of the dictatorship of the proletariat it would not collapse in this way [...] I would have liked to see the proletariat fighting on the barricades declaring that it would rather die than give up power. [...] The proletariat which continued to shout in factories, ‘Down with the dictatorship of the proletariat’, will be even less satisfied with any future government.”He fled to Austria a few hours after, and the Romanian Army took Budapest three days later. Historian and former Italian diplomat to Hungary Alberto Indelicato attributed the downfall of the regime not to external military intervention by the allies, but by the regime's own internal flaws, statingWhereas the “dictatorship of the proletariat” could be proclaimed as a result of international political events which weighed heavily on the whole affair, the fall of “the Republic of Councils” did not occur because of the intervention of the reactionary circles of the Entente or of the “White” Hungarian counter- revolution (as a Communist legend maintains and is still affirmed by some partisan historians), but because of its inherent weaknesses, the consequence of its internal, social and economic policies.", "Béla Kun went into exile in Vienna, then controlled by the Social Democratic Party of Austria. He was captured and interned in Austria, but was released in exchange for Austrian prisoners in Russia in July 1920. He never returned to Hungary. Once in Russia, he rejoined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Kun was put in charge of the regional Revolutionary Committee in Crimea, which during the Russian Civil War changed hands numerous times and was for a time a stronghold for the anti-Bolshevik White Army. It was in Crimea that the White Russians led by General Wrangel fell to the Red Army in 1920. About 50,000 prisoners of war and anti-Bolshevik civilians who had surrendered after they had been promised amnesty, were subsequently executed, on Kun and Rosalia Zemlyachka's order, with Lenin's approval. Mass arrests and executions under Kun's administration. Between 60,000 and 70,000 inhabitants of the Crimea were murdered in the process.", "Kun became a leading figure in the Comintern as an ally of Grigory Zinoviev. In March 1921, he was sent to Germany to advise the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and encouraged the KPD to follow the \"Theory of the Offensive\" as supported by Zinoviev, August Thalheimer, Paul Frölich, and others which in the words of Ruth Fischer meant \"\"the working class could be moved only when set in motion by a series of offensive acts.\" On 27 March, leaders of the Communist Party of Germany decided to launch a \"revolutionary offensive\" in support of miners in central Germany. Kun along with Thallheimer were among the driving force behind the attempted revolutionary campaign known as \"Märzaktion\" (\"March Action\"), which ultimately ended in failure. In the end, Lenin blamed himself for appointing Kun and charged him with responsibility for the failure of the German revolution. He was considerably angered by Kun's actions and his failure to secure a general uprising in Germany. In a closed Congress of the Operative Committee — as Victor Serge writes — Lenin called his actions idiotic (\"\"les bêtises de Béla Kun\"\"). But Kun did not lose his membership in the Operative Committee, and the closing document accepted at the end of the sitting formally acknowledged the \"battle spirit\" of the German Communists. Kun was not stripped of his Party offices, but the March Action was the end of the radical opposition and of the theory of \"Permanent Offensive\". Lenin wrote \"The final analysis of things shows that Levi was politically right in many ways. The thesis of Thallheimer and Béla Kun is politically totally false. Phrases and bare attending, playing the radical leftist.\". Throughout the 1920s Kun was a prominent Comintern operative, serving mostly in Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia, but his notoriety ultimately stopped him being useful for undercover work.", "Kun's final undercover assignment ended in 1928 when he was arrested in Vienna by the local police for travelling on a forged passport. Back in Moscow, he spent much of his time feuding with other Hungarian Communist émigrés, several of whom he denounced to the Soviet secret police, the OGPU, which arrested and imprisoned them in the late 1920s and early 1930s. During the Comintern's \"Third Period\" from 1928 to 1935, Kun was a prominent supporter of the Social Fascism line that equated the moderate left as \"social fascism\", an animosity in large part owing to Kun's strained relations with the Hungarian Social Democrats, whom he believed had betrayed him sixteen years earlier. In 1934, Kun was charged with preparing the agenda for the 7th Congress of the Comintern, in which the Social Fascism line was to be abandoned and the Popular Front was to be the new line for Communists all over the world, a policy change that Kun was opposed to. Instead of submitting to party discipline, Kun did his best to sabotage the adoption of the Popular Front policy, which led to him being formally sanctioned for insubordination. In 1935-36, the leadership of the émigré Hungarian Communist Party was thrown into crisis as Kun sought to prevent the adoption of the Popular Front policy, which occasioned a vigorous round of party in-fighting. Beyond policy, there was also a clash of personalities as Kun's abrasive and autocratic leadership style had left him with many enemies, who saw the dispute over whether the Hungarian Communist Party was to adopt the Popular Front strategy as a chance to bring down Kun, whom many Hungarian émigrés deeply hated. Hiss embattled position led Kun to denounce one of his leading enemies in the Comintern, Dmitry Manuilsky who was sympathetic to the anti-Kun faction, to the NKVD as a \"Trotskyite\", who in his turn had also denounced Kun to the NKVD as a \"Trotskyite\".", "During the Great Purge of the late 1930s, Kun was accused of Trotskyism and arrested on 28 June 1937. Little was known about his subsequent fate beyond the fact that he never returned. Even an official Hungarian Communist biographer with official access to the Communist International's archives in Moscow was denied information during the mid-1970s. Only some time after the fall of the Soviet Union and the opening of certain archives in its aftermath did Kun's fate become public: after a brief incarceration and interrogation, he was hauled before a judicial troika on charges of having acted as the leader of a \"counter-revolutionary terrorist organisation.\" Kun was found guilty and sentenced to death at the end of this brief secret trial. The sentence was carried out later the same day at the Kommunarka shooting ground. When Kun was politically rehabilitated in 1956, as part of the de-Stalinization process, the Soviet Communist Party told its Hungarian counterpart that Kun had died in prison on 30 November 1939. In 1989, the Soviet government announced that Kun had actually been executed in the Gulag more than a year earlier than that, on 29 August 1938. After the war the Soviets inaugurated a Communist puppet regime in Hungary under the leadership of Mátyás Rákosi, one of Kun's few surviving colleagues from the 1919 coup.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Processing.", "\"Maocha\" or rough tea.", "Ripe pu'er.", "Pressing.", "Fermentation.", "Classification.", "Shape.", "Process and oxidation.", "Regions.", "Yunnan.", "Other provinces.", "Other regions.", "Cultivation.", "Grade.", "Season.", "Tea factories.", "Recipes.", "Tea packaging.", "Individual cakes.", "Wholesale.", "Aging and storage.", "Raw pu'er.", "Ripe pu'er.", "Vintaging.", "Preparation.", "Judging quality.", "Practices.", "Health.", "Popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Pu'er\" is the pinyin romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of Chinese \"Pu-erh\" is a variant of the Wade-Giles romanization (properly \"p‘u-êrh\")", "Darkening tea leaves to trade with ethnic groups at the borders has a long history in China. These crude teas were of various origins and were meant to be low cost. Darkened tea, or \"hēichá\", is still the major beverage for the ethnic groups in the southwestern borders and, until the early 1990s, was the third major tea category produced by China mainly for this market segment. There had been no standardized processing for the darkening of \"hēichá\" until the postwar years in the 1950s where there was a sudden surge in demand in Hong Kong, perhaps because of the concentration of refugees from the mainland. In the 1970s the improved process was taken back to Yunnan for further development, which has resulted in the various production styles variously referred to as \"wòduī\" today. This new process produced a finished product in a matter of months that many thought tasted similar to teas aged naturally for 10–15 years and so this period saw a demand-driven boom in the production of \"hēichá\" by the artificial ripening method. In recent decades, demand has come full circle and it has become more common again for \"hēichá\", including pu'er, to be sold as the raw product without the artificial accelerated fermentation process. Pu'er tea processing, although straightforward, is complicated by the fact that the tea itself falls into two distinct categories: the", "Pu'er is typically made through two steps. First, all leaves must be roughly processed into \"maocha\" to stop oxidation. From there it may be further processed by fermentation, or directly packaged. Summarising the steps: Both sheng and ripe pu'er can be shaped into cakes or bricks and aged with time.", "The intent of the \"maocha\" stage (青毛茶 or 毛茶; literally, \"light green rough tea\" or \"rough tea\" respectively) is to dry the leaves and keep them from spoiling. It involves minimal processing and there is no fermentation involved. The first step in making raw or ripened pu'er is picking appropriate tender leaves. Plucked leaves are handled gingerly to prevent bruising and unwanted oxidation. It is optional to wilt/wither the leaves after picking and it depends on the tea processor, as drying occurs at various stages of processing. If so, the leaves would be spread out in the sun, weather permitting, or a ventilated space to wilt and remove some of the water content. On overcast or rainy days, the leaves will be wilted by light heating, a slight difference in processing that will affect the quality of the resulting \"maocha\" and pu'er. The leaves are then", "\"Ripened\" Shu Cha (熟茶) tea is pressed \"maocha\" that has been specially processed to imitate aged \"raw\" Sheng Cha tea. Although it is also known in English as cooked pu'er, the process does not actually employ cooking to imitate the aging process. The term may be due to inaccurate translation, as \"shóu\" (熟) means both \"fully cooked\" and \"fully ripened\". The process used to convert \"máochá\" into ripened pu'er manipulates conditions to approximate the result of the aging process by prolonged bacterial and fungal fermentation in a warm humid environment under controlled conditions, a technique called \"Wò Duī\" (渥堆, \"wet piling\" in English), which involves piling, dampening, and turning the tea leaves in a manner much akin to composting. The piling, wetting, and mixing of the piled \"máochá\" ensures even fermentation. The bacterial and fungal cultures found in the fermenting piles were found to vary widely from factory to factory throughout Yunnan, consisting of multiple strains of \"Aspergillus\" spp., \"Penicillium\" spp., yeasts, and a wide range of", "To produce pu'er, many additional steps are needed prior to the actual pressing of the tea. First, a specific quantity of dry \"máochá\" or ripened tea leaves pertaining to the final weight of the \"bingcha\" is weighed out. The dry tea is then lightly steamed in perforated cans to soften and make it more tacky. This will allow it to hold together and not crumble during compression. A ticket, called a \"\"nèi fēi\"\" (内飞) or additional adornments, such as colored ribbons, are placed on or in the midst of the leaves", "Pu'er is a microbially fermented tea obtained through the action of molds, bacteria and yeasts on the harvested leaves of the tea plant. It is thus truly a fermented tea, whereas teas known in the west as black teas (known in China as Red teas) have only undergone large-scale oxidation through naturally occurring tea plant enzymes. Mislabelling the oxidation process as fermentation and thus naming black teas, such as Assam, Darjeeling or Keemun, as fermented teas has long been a source of confusion. Only tea such as pu'er, that has undergone microbial processing, can correctly be called a fermented tea. Pu'er undergoes what is known as a solid-state fermentation", "Aside from vintage year, pu'er tea can be classified in a variety of ways: by shape, processing method, region, cultivation, grade, and season.", "Pu'er is compressed into a variety of shapes. Other lesser seen forms include: stacked \"melon pagodas\", pillars, calabashes, \"yuanbao\", and", "Pu'er teas are often collectively classified in Western tea markets as post-fermentation, and in Eastern markets as black teas, but there is general confusion due to improper use of the terms \"oxidation\" and \"fermentation\". Typically black tea is termed \"fully fermented\", which is incorrect", "", "Pu'er is produced in almost every county and prefecture in the province. Proper pu'er is sometimes considered to be limited to that produced in Pu'er City.", "While Yunnan produces the majority of pu'er, other regions of China, including Hunan and Guangdong, have also produced the tea. The Guangyun Gong cake, for example, although the early productions were composed of pure Yunnan \"máochá\", after the 60's the cakes featured a blend of Yunnan and Guangdong \"máochá\", and the most", "In addition to China, border regions touching Yunnan in Vietnam, Laos, and Burma are also known to produce pu'er tea, though little of this makes its way to the Chinese or international markets.", "Perhaps equally or even more important than region or even grade in classifying pu'er is the method of cultivation. Pu'er tea can come from three different cultivation methods: Determining whether or not a tea is wild is a challenging task, made more difficult through the inconsistent and unclear terminology and labeling in Chinese. Terms like \"yěshēng\" (野生; literally \"wild\" or \"uncultivated\"), \"qiáomù\" (乔木; literally \"tall tree\"), \"yěshēng qiáomù\" (野生乔木; literally \"uncultivated trees\"), and \"gǔshù\" are found on the labels of cakes of both wild and \"wild arbor\" variety, and on blended cakes, which contain leaves from tea plants of various cultivations. These inconsistent and often misleading labels can easily confuse uninitiated tea buyers regardless of their grasp of the Chinese language. As well, the lack of specific information about tea leaf sources in the printed wrappers and identifiers that come with the", "Pu'er can be sorted into ten or more grades. Generally, grades are determined by leaf size and quality, with higher numbered grades meaning older/larger, broken,", "Harvest season also plays an important role in the flavor of pu'er. Spring tea is the most highly valued, followed by fall tea,", "Factories are generally responsible for the production of pu'er teas. While some individuals oversee small-scale production of high-quality tea, such as the Xizihao and Yanqinghao brands, the majority of tea on the market is compressed by factories or tea groups. Until recently factories were all state-owned and under the supervision of the \"China National Native Produce & Animal Byproducts Import & Export Corporation\" (CNNP), Yunnan Tea Branch. Kunming Tea Factory, Menghai Tea Factory, Pu'er Tea Factory and Xiaguan Tea Factory are the most notable of these state-owned factories. While CNNP still operates today, few factories are", "Tea factories, particularly formerly government-owned factories, produce many cakes using recipes for tea blends, indicated by a four-digit \"recipe number\". The first two digits of recipe numbers represent the year the recipe was first produced, the third digit represents the grade of leaves used in the recipe, and the last digit represents the factory. The number 7542, for example, would denote a recipe from 19\"75\" using \"fourth\"-grade tea leaf made by Menghai Tea Factory (represented by \"2\"). Tea of all shapes can be made by numbered recipe. Not all recipes are numbered, and not all cakes are made by", "Pu'er tea is specially packaged for trade, identification, and storage. These attributes are used by tea drinkers and collectors to determine the authenticity of the pu'er tea.", "Pu'er tea cakes, or \"bĭngchá\", are almost always sold with a: Recently, \"nèi fēi\" have become more important in identifying and preventing counterfeits. Menghai Tea Factory in particular has begun microprinting and embossing their tickets in an effort to curb the growth of counterfeit teas found in the marketplace in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Some \"nèi", "When bought in large quantities, pu'er tea is generally sold in stacks, referred to as a \"tǒng\" (筒), which are wrapped in bamboo shoot husks, bamboo stem husks, or coarse paper. Some tongs of vintage pu'er will contain a \"tǒng piào\" (筒票), or tong ticket, but it is less common to find them in productions past the year 2000. The number of", "Pu'er teas of all varieties, shapes, and cultivation can be aged to improve their flavor, but the tea's physical properties will affect the speed of aging as well as its quality. These properties include: Just as important as the tea's properties, environmental factors for the tea's storage also affect how quickly and successfully a tea ages. They include: When preserved as part of a \"tong\", the material of the \"tong\" wrapper, whether it is made of bamboo shoot husks, bamboo leaves, or thick paper, can also affect the quality of the aging process. The packaging methods change the environmental factors and may even contribute to the taste of the tea itself. Further to what has been mentioned it should be stressed that a good well-aged pu'er tea is not evaluated by its age alone. Like all things in life, there will come a time when a pu'er teacake reaches its peak before stumbling into a decline. Due to the many recipes and different processing methods used in the production of different batches of pu'er, the optimal age for each tea will vary. Some may take 10 years while others 20 or 30+ years. It is important to check the status of ageing for your teacakes to know when they have peaked so that proper care can be given to halt the ageing process.", "Over time, raw pu'er acquires an earthy flavor due to slow oxidation and other, possibly microbial processes. However, this oxidation is not analogous to the oxidation that results in green, oolong, or black tea, because the process is not catalyzed by the plant's own enzymes but rather by fungal, bacterial, or autooxidation influences. Pu'er flavors can change dramatically over the course of the aging process, resulting in a brew tasting strongly earthy but clean and smooth, reminiscent of the smell of rich garden soil or an autumn leaf pile, sometimes with roasted or sweet undertones. Because of its ability to age without losing \"quality\", well aged good pu'er gains value over time in the same way that aged roasted oolong does. Raw pu'er can undergo \"wet storage\" (\"shīcāng\", 湿仓) and \"dry storage\" (\"gāncāng\" 干仓), with teas that have undergone the latter ageing more slowly, but thought to show more complexity. Dry storage involves keeping the tea in \"comfortable\" temperature and humidity, thus allowing the tea to age slowly. Wet or \"humid\" storage refers to the storage of pu'er tea", "Since the ripening process was developed to imitate aged raw pu'er, many arguments surround the idea of whether aging ripened pu'er is desirable. Mostly, the issue rests on whether aging ripened pu'er will, better or worse, alter the flavor of the tea. It is often recommended to age ripened pu'er to air out", "The common misconception is that all types of pu'er tea will improve in taste—and therefore gain in value—as they get older. There are many requisite variables for a pu'er tea to age beautifully. Further, the ripe (shu) pu'er will not evolve as dramatically as the raw (sheng) type will", "Preparation of \"pu'erh\" involves first separating a well-sized portion of the compressed tea for brewing. This can be done by flaking off pieces of the cake or by steaming the entire cake until it is soft from heat and hydration. A \"pu'erh knife\", which is similar to an oyster knife or a rigid letter opener, is used to pry large horizontal flakes of tea off the cake to minimize leaf breakage. Smaller cakes such as \"tuocha\" or mushroom \"pu'erh\" are often steamed until they can be rubbed apart and then dried. In both cases, a vertical sampling of the cake should be obtained since the quality of the leaves in a cake usually varies between the surface and the center. \"Pu'erh\" is generally expected to be served Gongfu style, generally in \"Yixing teaware\" or in a type of Chinese teacup called a \"gaiwan\". Optimum temperatures are generally regarded to be around 95 °C for lower quality \"pu'erh\"s and 85–89 °C for good ripened and aged raw \"pu'erh\". The tea is steeped for 12 to 30 seconds in the first few infusions, increasing to 2 to 10 minutes in the last infusions. The prolonged steeping sometimes used in the west can produce dark, bitter, and unpleasant brews. Quality aged \"pu'erh\" can yield many more infusions, with different flavor nuances when brewed in the traditional Gong-Fu method. Because of the prolonged fermentation in ripened \"pu'erh\" and slow oxidization of aged raw \"pu'erh\", these teas often lack the bitter, astringent properties of other teas, and can be brewed much stronger and repeatedly, with some claiming 20 or more infusions of tea from one pot of leaves. On the other hand, young raw \"pu'erh\" is known and expected to be strong and aromatic, yet very bitter and somewhat astringent when brewed, since these characteristics are believed to produce better aged raw \"pu'erh\".", "Quality of the tea can be determined through inspecting the dried leaves, the tea liquor, or the spent tea leaves. The \"true\"", "In Cantonese culture, \"pu'erh\" is known as \"po-lay\" (or \"bo-lay\") tea (). Among the Cantonese long settled in California, it is called \"bo-nay\" or \"po-nay\" tea. It is often drunk during dim sum meals, as it is believed to help with digestion.", "Pu'er tea is widely sold, by itself or in blends, with unsubstantiated claims that it promotes loss of body weight in humans. Unlike pu'er, some Bianxiao brick tea has been found to contain", "In the Japanese manga Dragon Ball, the name of the character Pu'ar is a pun on pu'er tea." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Human anatomy.", "Mammal evolution.", "Morphology.", "Tribosphenic.", "Quadrate.", "Bunodont.", "Hypsodont.", "Brachydont.", "Zalambdodont.", "Dilambdodont.", "Lophodont.", "Selenodont.", "Secodont." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In humans, the molar teeth have either four or five cusps. Adult humans have 12 molars, in four groups of three at the back of the mouth. The third, rearmost molar in each group is called a wisdom tooth. It is the last tooth to appear, breaking through the front of the gum at about the age of 20, although this varies from individual to individual. Race can also affect the age at which this occurs, with statistical variations between groups. In some cases, it may not even erupt at all. The human mouth contains upper (maxillary) and lower (mandibular) molars. They are: maxillary first molar, maxillary second molar, maxillary third molar, mandibular first molar, mandibular second molar, and mandibular third molar.", "In mammals, the crown of the molars and premolars is folded into a wide range of complex shapes. The basic elements of the crown are the more or less conical projections called cusps and the valleys that separate them. The cusps contain both dentine and enamel, whereas minor projections on the crown, called crenulations, are the result of different enamel thickness. Cusps are occasionally joined to form ridges and expanded to form crests. Cingula are often incomplete ridges that pass around the base of the crown. <onlyinclude>Mammalian, multicusped cheek teeth probably evolved from single-cusped teeth in reptilians, although the diversity of therapsid molar patterns and the complexity in the molars of the earliest mammals make determining how this happened impossible. According to the widely accepted \"differentiation theory\", additional cusps have arisen by budding or outgrowth from the crown, while the rivalling \"concrescence theory\" instead proposes that complex teeth evolved by the clustering of originally separate conical teeth. Therian mammals (placentals and marsupials) are generally agreed to have evolved from an ancestor with tribosphenic cheek teeth, with three main cusps arranged in a triangle. </onlyinclude>", "Each major cusp on an upper molar is called a cone and is identified by a prefix dependent on its relative location on the tooth: proto-, para-, meta-, hypo-, and ento-. Suffixes are added to these names: -id is added to cusps on a lower molar (e.g., protoconid); -ule to a minor cusp (e.g., protoconulid). A shelf-like ridge on the lower part of the crown (on an upper molar) is called a cingulum; the same feature on the lower molar a cingulid, and a minor cusp on these, for example, a cingular cuspule or conulid.", "The design that is considered one of the most important characteristics of mammals is a three-cusped shape called a tribosphenic molar. This molar design has two important features: the trigonid, or shearing end, and the talonid, or crushing heel. In modern tribosphenic molars, the trigonid is towards the front of the jaw and the talonid is towards the rear. The tribosphenic tooth is found in insectivores and young platypuses (adults have no teeth). Upper molars look like three-pointed mountain ranges; lowers look like two peaks and a third off to the side. The tribosphenic design appears primitively in all groups of mammals. Some paleontologists believe that it developed independently in monotremes (or australosphenidans), rather than being inherited from an ancestor that they share with marsupials and placentals (or boreosphenidans); but this idea has critics and the debate is still going on. For example, the dentition of the Early Cretaceous monotreme \"Steropodon\" is similar to those of \"Peramus\" and dryolestoids, which suggests that monotremes are related to some pre-tribosphenic therian mammals, but, on the other hand, the status of neither of these two groups is well-established. Some Jurassic mammals, such as \"Shuotherium\" and \"Pseudotribos\", have \"reversed tribosphenic\" molars, in which the talonid is towards the front. This variant is regarded as an example of convergent evolution. From the primitive tribosphenic tooth, molars have diversified into several unique morphologies. In many groups, a fourth cusp, the hypocone (hypoconid), subsequently evolved (see below).", "Quadrate (also called quadritubercular or euthemorphic) molars have an additional fourth cusp on the lingual (tongue) side called the hypocone, located posterior to the protocone. Quadrate molars appeared early in mammal evolution and are present in many species, including hedgehogs, raccoons, and many primates, including humans. There may be a fifth cusp. In many mammals, additional smaller cusps called conules appear between the larger cusps. They are named after their locations, e.g. a paraconule is located between a paracone and a metacone, a hypoconulid is located between a hypoconid and an entoconid.", "In bunodont molars, the cusps are low and rounded hills rather than sharp peaks. They are most common among omnivores such as pigs, bears, and humans. Bunodont molars are effective crushing devices and often basically quadrate in shape.", "Hypsodont dentition is characterized by high-crowned teeth and enamel that extends far past the gum line, which provides extra material for wear and tear. Some examples of animals with hypsodont dentition are cattle and horses, all animals that feed on gritty, fibrous material. Hypsodont molars can continue to grow throughout life, for example in some species of Arvicolinae (herbivorous rodents). Hypsodont molars lack both a crown and a neck. The occlusal surface is rough and mostly flat, adapted for crushing and grinding plant material. The body is covered with cementum both above and below the gingival line, below which is a layer of enamel covering the entire length of the body. The cementum and the enamel invaginate into the thick layer of dentin.", "The opposite condition to hypsodont is called brachydont or brachyodont (from \"brachys\", \"short\"). It is a type of dentition characterized by low-crowned teeth. Human teeth are brachydont. A brachydont tooth has a crown above the gingival line and a neck just below it, and at least one root. A cap of enamel covers the crown and extends down to the neck. Cementum is only found below the gingival line. The occlusal surfaces tend to be pointed, well-suited for holding prey and tearing and shredding.", "Zalambdodont molars have three cusps, one larger on the lingual side and two smaller on the labial side, joined by two crests that form a V- or λ-shape. The larger inner cusp might be homologous with the paracone in a tribosphenic molar, but can also be fused with the metacone. The protocone is typically missing. The two smaller labial cusps are located on an expanded shelf called the stylar shelf. Zalambdodont molars are found in, for example, golden moles and solenodons.", "Like zalambdodont molars, dilambdodont molars have a distinct ectoloph, but are shaped like two lambdas or a W. On the lingual side, at the bottom of the W, are the metacone and paracone, and the stylar shelf is on the labial side. A protocone is present lingual to the ectoloph. Dilambdodont molars are present in shrews, moles, and some insectivorous bats.", "Lophodont teeth are easily identified by the differentiating patterns of ridges or lophs of enamel interconnecting the cusps on the crowns. Present in most herbivores, these patterns of lophs can be a simple, ring-like edge, as in mole rats, or a complex arrangement of series of ridges and cross-ridges, as those in odd-toed ungulates, such as equids. Lophodont molars have hard and elongated enamel ridges called lophs oriented either along or perpendicular to the dental row. Lophodont molars are common in herbivores that grind their food thoroughly. Examples include tapirs, manatees, and many rodents. When two lophs form transverse, often ring-shaped, ridges on a tooth, the arrangement is called bilophodont. This pattern is common in primates, but can also be found in lagomorphs (hares, rabbits, and pikas) and some rodents. Extreme forms of lophodonty in elephants and some rodents (such as \"Otomys\") is known as loxodonty. The African elephant belongs to a genus called \"Loxodonta\" because of this feature.", "In selenodont molars (so-named after moon goddess Selene), the major cusp is elongated into crescent-shaped ridge. Examples include most even-toed ungulates, such as cattle and deer.", "Many carnivorous mammals have enlarged and blade-like teeth especially adapted for slicing and chopping called carnassials. A general term for such blade-like teeth is secodont or plagiaulacoid." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Species distribution and function.", "Fungal steroids.", "Animal steroids.", "Plant steroids.", "Prokaryotes.", "Types.", "By function.", "By structure.", "Intact ring system.", "Cleaved, contracted, and expanded rings.", "Biological significance.", "Biosynthesis and metabolism.", "Mevalonate pathway.", "Steroidogenesis.", "Alternative pathways.", "Catabolism and excretion.", "Isolation, structure determination, and methods of analysis.", "Chemical synthesis.", "Precursors.", "Semisynthesis.", "Total synthesis.", "Research awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Gonane, also known as steran or cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene, the simplest steroid and the nucleus of all steroids and sterols, is composed of seventeen carbon atoms in carbon-carbon bonds forming four fused rings in a three-dimensional shape. The three cyclohexane rings (A, B, and C in the first illustration) form the skeleton of a perhydro derivative of phenanthrene. The D ring has a cyclopentane structure. When the two methyl groups and eight carbon side chains (at C-17, as shown for cholesterol) are present, the steroid is said to have a cholestane framework. The two common 5α and 5β stereoisomeric forms of steroids exist because of differences in the side of the largely planar ring system where the hydrogen (H) atom at carbon-5 is attached, which results in a change in steroid A-ring conformation. Isomerisation at the C-21 side chain produces a parallel series of compounds, referred to as isosteroids. Examples of steroid structures are: In addition to the ring scissions (cleavages), expansions and contractions (cleavage and reclosing to a larger or smaller rings)—all variations in the carbon-carbon bond framework—steroids can also vary: For instance, sterols such as cholesterol and lanosterol have a hydroxyl group attached at position C-3, while testosterone and progesterone have a carbonyl (oxo substituent) at C-3; of these, lanosterol alone has two methyl groups at C-4 and cholesterol (with a C-5 to C-6 double bond) differs from testosterone and progesterone (which have a C-4 to C-5 double bond).", "In eukaryotes, steroids are found in fungi, animals, and plants.", "Fungal steroids include the ergosterols, which are involved in maintaining the integrity of the fungal cellular membrane. Various antifungal drugs, such as amphotericin B and azole antifungals, utilize this information to kill pathogenic fungi. Fungi can alter their ergosterol content (e.g. through loss of function mutations in the enzymes ERG3 or ERG6, inducing depletion of ergosterol, or mutations that decrease the ergosterol content) to develop resistance to drugs that target ergosterol. Ergosterol is analogous to the cholesterol found in the cellular membranes of animals (including humans), or the phytosterols found in the cellular membranes of plants. All mushrooms contain large quantities of ergosterol, in the range of tens to hundreds of milligrams per 100 grams of dry weight. Oxygen is necessary for the synthesis of ergosterol in fungi. Ergosterol is responsible for the vitamin D content found in mushrooms; ergosterol is chemically converted into provitamin D2 by exposure to ultraviolet light. Provitamin D2 spontaneously forms vitamin D2. However, not all fungi utilize ergosterol in their cellular membranes; for example, the pathogenic fungal species \"Pneumocystis jirovecii\" does not, which has important clinical implications (given the mechanism of action of many antifungal drugs). Using the fungus \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" as an example, other major steroids include ergosta‐5,7,22,24(28)‐tetraen‐3β‐ol, zymosterol, and lanosterol. \"S. cerevisiae\" utilizes 5,6‐dihydroergosterol in place of ergosterol in its cell membrane.", "Animal steroids include compounds of vertebrate and insect origin, the latter including ecdysteroids such as ecdysterone (controlling molting in some species). Vertebrate examples include the steroid hormones and cholesterol; the latter is a structural component of cell membranes which helps determine the fluidity of cell membranes and is a principal constituent of plaque (implicated in atherosclerosis). Steroid hormones include:", "Plant steroids include steroidal alkaloids found in Solanaceae and Melanthiaceae (specially the genus Veratrum), cardiac glycosides, the phytosterols and the brassinosteroids (which include several plant hormones).", "In prokaryotes, biosynthetic pathways exist for the tetracyclic steroid framework (e.g. in mycobacteria) – where its origin from eukaryotes is conjectured – and the more-common pentacyclic triterpinoid hopanoid framework.", "", "The major classes of steroid hormones, with prominent members and examples of related functions, are: Additional classes of steroids include: As well as the following class of secosteroids (open-ring steroids):", "", "Steroids can be classified based on their chemical composition. One example of how MeSH performs this classification is available at. Examples of this classification include: The gonane (steroid nucleus) is the parent 17-carbon tetracyclic hydrocarbon molecule with no alkyl sidechains.", "Secosteroids (Latin \"seco\", \"to cut\") are a subclass of steroidal compounds resulting, biosynthetically or conceptually, from scission (cleavage) of parent steroid rings (generally one of the four). Major secosteroid subclasses are defined by the steroid carbon atoms where this scission has taken place. For instance, the prototypical secosteroid cholecalciferol, vitamin D (shown), is in the 9,10-secosteroid subclass and derives from the cleavage of carbon atoms C-9 and C-10 of the steroid B-ring; 5,6-secosteroids and 13,14-steroids are similar. Norsteroids (nor-, L. \"norma\"; \"normal\" in chemistry, indicating carbon removal) and homosteroids (homo-, Greek \"homos\"; \"same\", indicating carbon addition) are structural subclasses of steroids formed from biosynthetic steps. The former involves enzymic ring expansion-contraction reactions, and the latter is accomplished (biomimetically) or (more frequently) through ring closures of acyclic precursors with more (or fewer) ring atoms than the parent steroid framework. Combinations of these ring alterations are known in nature. For instance, ewes who graze on corn lily ingest cyclopamine (shown) and veratramine, two of a sub-family of steroids where the C- and D-rings are contracted and expanded respectively via a biosynthetic migration of the original C-13 atom. Ingestion of these C-nor-D-homosteroids results in birth defects in lambs: cyclopia from cyclopamine and leg deformity from veratramine. A further C-nor-D-homosteroid (nakiterpiosin) is excreted by Okinawan cyanobacteriosponges. e.g., \"Terpios hoshinota\", leading to coral mortality from black coral disease. Nakiterpiosin-type steroids are active against the signaling pathway involving the smoothened and hedgehog proteins, a pathway which is hyperactive in a number of cancers.", "Steroids and their metabolites often function as signalling molecules (the most notable examples are steroid hormones), and steroids and phospholipids are components of cell membranes. Steroids such as cholesterol decrease membrane fluidity. Similar to lipids, steroids are highly concentrated energy stores. However, they are not typically sources of energy; in mammals, they are normally metabolized and excreted. Steroids play critical roles in a number of disorders, including malignancies like prostate cancer, where steroid production inside and outside the tumour promotes cancer cell aggressiveness.", "The hundreds of steroids found in animals, fungi, and plants are made from lanosterol (in animals and fungi; see examples above) or cycloartenol (in plants). Lanosterol and cycloartenol derive from cyclization of the triterpenoid squalene. Steroid biosynthesis is an anabolic pathway which produces steroids from simple precursors. A unique biosynthetic pathway is followed in animals (compared to many other organisms), making the pathway a common target for antibiotics and other anti-infection drugs. Steroid metabolism in humans is also the target of cholesterol-lowering drugs, such as statins. In humans and other animals the biosynthesis of steroids follows the mevalonate pathway, which uses acetyl-CoA as building blocks for dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP). In subsequent steps DMAPP and IPP join to form geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP), which synthesizes the steroid lanosterol. Modifications of lanosterol into other steroids are classified as steroidogenesis transformations.", "The mevalonate pathway (also called HMG-CoA reductase pathway) begins with acetyl-CoA and ends with dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP). DMAPP and IPP donate isoprene units, which are assembled and modified to form terpenes and isoprenoids (a large class of lipids, which include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products. Here, the isoprene units are joined to make squalene and folded into a set of rings to make lanosterol. Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids, such as cholesterol and ergosterol. Two classes of drugs target the mevalonate pathway: statins (like rosuvastatin), which are used to reduce elevated cholesterol levels, and bisphosphonates (like zoledronate), which are used to treat a number of bone-degenerative diseases.", "Steroidogenesis is the biological process by which steroids are generated from cholesterol and changed into other steroids. The pathways of steroidogenesis differ among species. The major classes of steroid hormones, as noted above (with their prominent members and functions), are the Progestogen, Corticosteroids (corticoids), Androgens, and Estrogens. Human steroidogenesis of these classes occurs in a number of locations:", "In plants and bacteria, the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates. During diseases pathways otherwise not significant in healthy humans can become utilized. For example, in one form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia a deficiency in the 21-hydroxylase enzymatic pathway leads to an excess of 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) – this pathological excess of 17-OHP in turn may be converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT, a potent androgen) through among others 17,20 Lyase (a member of the cytochrome P450 family of enzymes), 5α-Reductase and 3α-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase.", "Steroids are primarily oxidized by cytochrome P450 oxidase enzymes, such as CYP3A4. These reactions introduce oxygen into the steroid ring, allowing the cholesterol to be broken up by other enzymes into bile acids. These acids can then be eliminated by secretion from the liver in bile. The expression of the oxidase gene can be upregulated by the steroid sensor PXR when there is a high blood concentration of steroids. Steroid hormones, lacking the side chain of cholesterol and bile acids, are typically hydroxylated at various ring positions or oxidized at the 17 position, conjugated with sulfate or glucuronic acid and excreted in the urine.", "Steroid \"isolation\", depending on context, is the isolation of chemical matter required for chemical structure elucidation, derivitzation or degradation chemistry, biological testing, and other research needs (generally milligrams to grams, but often more or the isolation of \"analytical quantities\" of the substance of interest (where the focus is on identifying and quantifying the substance (for example, in biological tissue or fluid). The amount isolated depends on the analytical method, but is generally less than one microgram. The methods of isolation to achieve the two scales of product are distinct, but include extraction, precipitation, adsorption, chromatography, and crystallization. In both cases, the isolated substance is purified to chemical homogeneity; combined separation and analytical methods, such as LC-MS, are chosen to be \"orthogonal\"—achieving their separations based on distinct modes of interaction between substance and isolating matrix—to detect a single species in the pure sample. \"Structure determination\" refers to the methods to determine the chemical structure of an isolated pure steroid, using an evolving array of chemical and physical methods which have included NMR and small-molecule crystallography. \"Methods of analysis\" overlap both of the above areas, emphasizing analytical methods to determining if a steroid is present in a mixture and determining its quantity.", "Microbial catabolism of phytosterol side chains yields C-19 steroids, C-22 steroids, and 17-ketosteroids (i.e. precursors to adrenocortical hormones and contraceptives). The addition and modification of functional groups is key when producing the wide variety of medications available within this chemical classification. These modifications are performed using conventional organic synthesis and/or biotransformation techniques.", "", "The semisynthesis of steroids often begins from precursors such as cholesterol, phytosterols, or sapogenins. The efforts of Syntex, a company involved in the Mexican barbasco trade, used \"Dioscorea mexicana\" to produce the sapogenin diosgenin in the early days of the synthetic steroid pharmaceutical industry.", "Some steroidal hormones are economically obtained only by total synthesis from petrochemicals (e.g. 13-alkyl steroids). For example, the pharmaceutical Norgestrel begins from Methoxy-1-tetralone, a petrochemical derived from phenol.", "A number of Nobel Prizes have been awarded for steroid research, including:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Domain.", "Signature.", "Interpretation function.", "Examples.", "Induced substructures and closed subsets.", "Examples.", "Homomorphisms and embeddings.", "Homomorphisms.", "Embeddings.", "Example.", "Homomorphism problem.", "Structures and first-order logic.", "Satisfaction relation.", "Definable relations.", "Definability with parameters.", "Implicit definability.", "Many-sorted structures.", "Other generalizations.", "Partial algebras.", "Structures for typed languages.", "Higher-order languages.", "Structures that are proper classes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Formally, a structure can be defined as a triple formula_1 consisting of a domain \"A\", a signature σ, and an interpretation function \"I\" that indicates how the signature is to be interpreted on the domain. To indicate that a structure has a particular signature σ one can refer to it as a σ-structure.", "The domain of a structure is an arbitrary set; it is also called the underlying set of the structure, its carrier (especially in universal algebra), or its universe (especially in model theory). In classical first-order logic, the definition of a structure prohibits the empty domain. Sometimes the notation formula_2 or formula_3 is used for the domain of formula_4, but often no notational distinction is made between a structure and its domain. (I.e. the same symbol formula_4 refers both to the structure and its domain.)", "The signature formula_6 of a structure consists of a set formula_7 of function symbols and relation symbols along with a function formula_8 that ascribes to each symbol \"s\" a natural number formula_9 which is called the arity of \"s\" because it is the arity of the interpretation of \"s\". Since the signatures that arise in algebra often contain only function symbols, a signature with no relation symbols is called an algebraic signature. A structure with such a signature is also called an algebra; this should not be confused with the notion of an algebra over a field.", "The interpretation function \"I\" of formula_4 assigns functions and relations to the symbols of the signature. Each function symbol \"f\" of arity \"n\" is assigned an \"n\"-ary function formula_11 on the domain. Each relation symbol \"R\" of arity \"n\" is assigned an \"n\"-ary relation formula_12 on the domain. A nullary function symbol \"c\" is called a constant symbol, because its interpretation \"I(c)\" can be identified with a constant element of the domain. When a structure (and hence an interpretation function) is given by context, no notational distinction is made between a symbol \"s\" and its interpretation \"I(s)\". For example, if \"f\" is a binary function symbol of formula_4, one simply writes formula_14 rather than formula_15.", "The standard signature σ for fields consists of two binary function symbols + and ×, where additional symbols can be derived, such as a unary function symbol ― (uniquely determined by +) and the two constant symbols 0 and 1 (uniquely determined by + and × respectively). Thus a structure (algebra) for this signature consists of a set of elements \"A\" together with two binary functions, that can be enhanced with a unary function, and two distinguished elements; but there is no requirement that it satisfy any of the field axioms. The rational numbers \"Q\", the real numbers \"R\" and the complex numbers \"C\", like any other field, can be regarded as σ-structures in an obvious way: In all three cases we have the standard signature given by with Interpretation functions: and formula_27 and formula_28 are similarly defined. But the ring \"Z\" of integers, which is not a field, is also a σ-structure in the same way. In fact, there is no requirement that \"any\" of the field axioms hold in a σ-structure. A signature for ordered fields needs an additional binary relation such as < or ≤, and therefore structures for such a signature are not algebras, even though they are of course algebraic structures in the usual, loose sense of the word. The ordinary signature for set theory includes a single binary relation ∈. A structure for this signature consists of a set of elements and an interpretation of the ∈ relation as a binary relation on these elements.", "formula_4 is called an (induced) substructure of formula_30 if The usual notation for this relation is formula_38. A subset formula_39 of the domain of a structure formula_4 is called closed if it is closed under the functions of formula_4, i.e. if the following condition is satisfied: for every natural number \"n\", every \"n\"-ary function symbol \"f\" (in the signature of formula_4) and all elements formula_43, the result of applying \"f\" to the \"n\"-tuple formula_44 is again an element of \"B\": formula_45. For every subset formula_39 there is a smallest closed subset of formula_3 that contains \"B\". It is called the closed subset generated by \"B\", or the hull of \"B\", and denoted by formula_48 or formula_49. The operator formula_50 is a finitary closure operator on the set of subsets of formula_3. If formula_52 and formula_53 is a closed subset, then formula_54 is an induced substructure of formula_4, where formula_56 assigns to every symbol of σ the restriction to \"B\" of its interpretation in formula_4. Conversely, the domain of an induced substructure is a closed subset. The closed subsets (or induced substructures) of a structure form a lattice. The meet of two subsets is their intersection. The join of two subsets is the closed subset generated by their union. Universal algebra studies the lattice of substructures of a structure in detail.", "Let σ = {+, ×, −, 0, 1} be again the standard signature for fields. When regarded as σ-structures in the natural way, the rational numbers form a substructure of the real numbers, and the real numbers form a substructure of the complex numbers. The rational numbers are the smallest substructure of the real (or complex) numbers that also satisfies the field axioms. The set of integers gives an even smaller substructure of the real numbers which is not a field. Indeed, the integers are the substructure of the real numbers generated by the empty set, using this signature. The notion in abstract algebra that corresponds to a substructure of a field, in this signature, is that of a subring, rather than that of a subfield. The most obvious way to define a graph is a structure with a signature σ consisting of a single binary relation symbol \"E\". The vertices of the graph form the domain of the structure, and for two vertices \"a\" and \"b\", formula_58 means that \"a\" and \"b\" are connected by an edge. In this encoding, the notion of induced substructure is more restrictive than the notion of subgraph. For example, let \"G\" be a graph consisting of two vertices connected by an edge, and let \"H\" be the graph consisting of the same vertices but no edges. \"H\" is a subgraph of \"G\", but not an induced substructure. The notion in graph theory that corresponds to induced substructures is that of induced subgraphs.", "", "Given two structures formula_4 and formula_30 of the same signature σ, a (σ-)homomorphism from formula_4 to formula_30 is a map formula_63 that preserves the functions and relations. More precisely: The notation for a homomorphism \"h\" from formula_4 to formula_30 is formula_70. For every signature σ there is a concrete category σ-Hom which has σ-structures as objects and σ-homomorphisms as morphisms. A homomorphism formula_70 is sometimes called strong if for every \"n\"-ary relation symbol \"R\" and any elements formula_72 such that formula_73, there are formula_64 such that formula_75 and formula_76 The strong homomorphisms give rise to a subcategory of σ-Hom.", "A (σ-)homomorphism formula_77 is called a (σ-)embedding if it is one-to-one and Thus an embedding is the same thing as a strong homomorphism which is one-to-one. The category σ-Emb of σ-structures and σ-embeddings is a concrete subcategory of σ-Hom. Induced substructures correspond to subobjects in σ-Emb. If σ has only function symbols, σ-Emb is the subcategory of monomorphisms of σ-Hom. In this case induced substructures also correspond to subobjects in σ-Hom.", "As seen above, in the standard encoding of graphs as structures the induced substructures are precisely the induced subgraphs. However, a homomorphism between graphs is the same thing as a homomorphism between the two structures coding the graph. In the example of the previous section, even though the subgraph \"H\" of \"G\" is not induced, the identity map id: \"H\" → \"G\" is a homomorphism. This map is in fact a monomorphism in the category σ-Hom, and therefore \"H\" is a subobject of \"G\" which is not an induced substructure.", "The following problem is known as the \"homomorphism problem\": Every constraint satisfaction problem (CSP) has a translation into the homomorphism problem. Therefore, the complexity of CSP can be studied using the methods of finite model theory. Another application is in database theory, where a relational model of a database is essentially the same thing as a relational structure. It turns out that a conjunctive query on a database can be described by another structure in the same signature as the database model. A homomorphism from the relational model to the structure representing the query is the same thing as a solution to the query. This shows that the conjunctive query problem is also equivalent to the homomorphism problem.", "Structures are sometimes referred to as \"first-order structures\". This is misleading, as nothing in their definition ties them to any specific logic, and in fact they are suitable as semantic objects both for very restricted fragments of first-order logic such as that used in universal algebra, and for second-order logic. In connection with first-order logic and model theory, structures are often called models, even when the question \"models of what?\" has no obvious answer.", "Each first-order structure formula_83 has a satisfaction relation formula_84 defined for all formulas formula_85 in the language consisting of the language of formula_83 together with a constant symbol for each element of \"M\", which is interpreted as that element. This relation is defined inductively using Tarski's T-schema. A structure formula_83 is said to be a model of a theory \"T\" if the language of formula_83 is the same as the language of \"T\" and every sentence in \"T\" is satisfied by formula_83. Thus, for example, a \"ring\" is a structure for the language of rings that satisfies each of the ring axioms, and a model of ZFC set theory is a structure in the language of set theory that satisfies each of the ZFC axioms.", "An \"n\"-ary relation \"R\" on the universe \"M\" of a structure formula_83 is said to be definable (or explicitly definable, or formula_91-definable) if there is a formula φ(\"x\"...,\"x\") such that In other words, \"R\" is definable if and only if there is a formula φ such that is correct. An important special case is the definability of specific elements. An element \"m\" of \"M\" is definable in formula_83 if and only if there is a formula φ(\"x\") such that", "A relation \"R\" is said to be definable with parameters (or formula_96-definable) if there is a formula φ with parameters from formula_83 such that \"R\" is definable using φ. Every element of a structure is definable using the element itself as a parameter. Some authors use \"definable\" to mean \"definable without parameters\", while other authors mean \"definable with parameters\". Broadly speaking, the convention that \"definable\" means \"definable without parameters\" is more common amongst set theorists, while the opposite convention is more common amongst model theorists.", "Recall from above that an \"n\"-ary relation \"R\" on the universe \"M\" of a structure formula_83 is explicitly definable if there is a formula φ(\"x\"...,\"x\") such that Here the formula φ used to define a relation \"R\" must be over the signature of formula_83 and so φ may not mention \"R\" itself, since \"R\" is not in the signature of formula_83. If there is a formula φ in the extended language containing the language of formula_83 and a new symbol \"R\", and the relation \"R\" is the only relation on formula_83 such that formula_104, then \"R\" is said to be implicitly definable over formula_83. By Beth's theorem, every implicitly definable relation is explicitly definable.", "Structures as defined above are sometimes called s to distinguish them from the more general s. A many-sorted structure can have an arbitrary number of domains. The sorts are part of the signature, and they play the role of names for the different domains. Many-sorted signatures also prescribe on which sorts the functions and relations of a many-sorted structure are defined. Therefore, the arities of function symbols or relation symbols must be more complicated objects such as tuples of sorts rather than natural numbers. Vector spaces, for example, can be regarded as two-sorted structures in the following way. The two-sorted signature of vector spaces consists of two sorts \"V\" (for vectors) and \"S\" (for scalars) and the following function symbols: If \"V\" is a vector space over a field \"F\", the corresponding two-sorted structure formula_106 consists of the vector domain formula_107, the scalar domain formula_108, and the obvious functions, such as the vector zero formula_109, the scalar zero formula_110, or scalar multiplication formula_111. Many-sorted structures are often used as a convenient tool even when they could be avoided with a little effort. But they are rarely defined in a rigorous way, because it is straightforward and tedious (hence unrewarding) to carry out the generalization explicitly. In most mathematical endeavours, not much attention is paid to the sorts. A many-sorted logic however naturally leads to a type theory. As Bart Jacobs puts it: \"A logic is always a logic over a type theory.\" This emphasis in turn leads to categorical logic because a logic over a type theory categorically corresponds to one (\"total\") category, capturing the logic, being fibred over another (\"base\") category, capturing the type theory.", "", "Both universal algebra and model theory study classes of (structures or) algebras that are defined by a signature and a set of axioms. In the case of model theory these axioms have the form of first-order sentences. The formalism of universal algebra is much more restrictive; essentially it only allows first-order sentences that have the form of universally quantified equations between terms, e.g. \"x\" \"y\" (\"x\" + \"y\" = \"y\" + \"x\"). One consequence is that the choice of a signature is more significant in universal algebra than it is in model theory. For example, the class of groups, in the signature consisting of the binary function symbol × and the constant symbol 1, is an elementary class, but it is not a variety. Universal algebra solves this problem by adding a unary function symbol. In the case of fields this strategy works only for addition. For multiplication it fails because 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse. An ad hoc attempt to deal with this would be to define 0 = 0. (This attempt fails, essentially because with this definition 0 × 0 = 1 is not true.) Therefore, one is naturally led to allow partial functions, i.e., functions that are defined only on a subset of their domain. However, there are several obvious ways to generalize notions such as substructure, homomorphism and identity.", "In type theory, there are many sorts of variables, each of which has a type. Types are inductively defined; given two types δ and σ there is also a type σ → δ that represents functions from objects of type σ to objects of type δ. A structure for a typed language (in the ordinary first-order semantics) must include a separate set of objects of each type, and for a function type the structure must have complete information about the function represented by each object of that type.", "There is more than one possible semantics for higher-order logic, as discussed in the article on second-order logic. When using full higher-order semantics, a structure need only have a universe for objects of type 0, and the T-schema is extended so that a quantifier over a higher-order type is satisfied by the model if and only if it is disquotationally true. When using first-order semantics, an additional sort is added for each higher-order type, as in the case of a many sorted first order language.", "In the study of set theory and category theory, it is sometimes useful to consider structures in which the domain of discourse is a proper class instead of a set. These structures are sometimes called class models to distinguish them from the \"set models\" discussed above. When the domain is a proper class, each function and relation symbol may also be represented by a proper class. In Bertrand Russell's \"Principia Mathematica\", structures were also allowed to have a proper class as their domain." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Writing.", "WordFire Press.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Kevin J. Anderson was born March 27, 1962 in Racine, Wisconsin, and grew up in Oregon, Wisconsin. According to Anderson, \"The War of the Worlds\" greatly influenced him. He wrote his first story at eight years old entitled \"Injection\". At ten, he bought a typewriter and has written ever since. In his freshman year in high school, he submitted his first short story to a magazine, but it took two more years before one of his manuscripts was accepted. When it was accepted, they paid him in copies of the magazine. In his senior year, he sold his first story for money for $12.50. For 12 years Anderson worked at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, where he met fellow writers Rebecca Moesta and Doug Beason. Anderson would later marry Moesta, and frequently coauthors novels with both her and Beason.", "Anderson's first novel, \"Resurrection, Inc.\", was published in 1988 and nominated for a Bram Stoker Award for Best First Novel. His 1993 collaboration with Beason, \"Assemblers of Infinity\", was nominated for both a Nebula and Locus Award. Anderson wrote \"The X-Files\" novels \"Ground Zero\" (1995), \"Ruins\" (1996) and \"Antibodies\" (1997). \"Ground Zero\" reached #1 on the \"London Sunday Times\" Best Seller List and \"Ruins\" made the \"New York Times\" Best Seller list. Contracted to write novels in the \"Star Wars\" expanded universe, Anderson published the \"Jedi Academy\" trilogy in 1994, followed by the 1996 novel \"Darksaber\". He and Moesta also wrote the 14-volume \"Young Jedi Knights\" series from 1995 to 1998. As a noted \"Star Wars\" novelist, Anderson was a participant in the FidoNet \"Star Wars\" Echo, a 1990s bulletin board system forum cited as one of the earliest influential forms of \"Star Wars\" on-line fandom. In 1997, Anderson and Brian Herbert signed a $3 million deal with Bantam Books to coauthor a prequel trilogy to the 1965 novel \"Dune\" and its five sequels (1969-1985) by Herbert's deceased father, Frank Herbert. Starting with 1999's \"\", the ongoing \"Dune\" prequel series has expanded to ten novels to date. In 2011 \"Publishers Weekly\" called the series \"a sprawling edifice that Frank Herbert’s son and Anderson have built on the foundation of the original \"Dune\" novels.\" Anderson and Brian Herbert have also published \"Hunters of Dune\" (2006) and \"Sandworms of Dune\" (2007), sequels to Frank Herbert's final novel \"\" (1985) which complete the chronological progression of his original series and wrap up storylines that began with his \"Heretics of Dune\" (1984). Between 2011 and 2014, Anderson and Herbert also released their \"Hellhole\" trilogy of novels unrelated to \"Dune\". In 2002, Anderson released the steampunk/adventure novel \"\", and was subsequently asked to write \"The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen\" (2003), a novelization of the film of the same name. The following year he also wrote the novelization for the 2004 film \"Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow\". In 2005, Anderson co-wrote, along with Dean Koontz, the first book in the Frankenstein series called \"Frankenstein, Prodigal Son\". Between 2002 and 2008, Anderson published a seven novel original space opera series called \"The Saga of Seven Suns\". In 2014 he began publishing a sequel trilogy called \"The Saga of Shadows\". Anderson published four novels and two short stories in his \"Dan Shamble, Zombie P.I.\" series between 2012 and 2014. In 2012, Anderson penned a novelization of \"Clockwork Angels\", an album by the Canadian rock band Rush.", "In 2011, Anderson and Moesta founded their own publishing imprint, WordFire Press, to reissue some of their out-of-print books in paperback and/or e-book formats. They have subsequently published and reprinted works in various genres, including several out-of-print or previously unpublished novels by Frank Herbert. In 2013, WordFire acquired the reprint rights to the works of Allen Drury, including his 1959 Pulitzer Prize-winning political novel \"Advise and Consent\". That novel, out of print for nearly 15 years, ranked #27 on the 2013 BookFinder.com list of the Top 100 Most Searched for Out of Print Books before WordFire reissued it in February 2014. The company also reprinted \"Advise and Consent\" five sequels — \"A Shade of Difference\" (1962), \"Capable of Honor\" (1966), \"Preserve and Protect\" (1968), \"Come Nineveh, Come Tyre\" (1973), and \"The Promise of Joy\" (1975) — as well as Drury's later novels \"Mark Coffin, U.S.S.\" (1979) and \"Decision\" (1983). WordFire released four previously unpublished novels by Frank Herbert, who died in 1986: \"High-Opp\" (2012), \"Angels' Fall\" (2013), \"A Game of Authors\" (2013), and \"A Thorn in the Bush\" (2014). Anderson announced these in his blog. WordFire also reissued several of Herbert's unavailable titles: \"\" (1966), \"The Heaven Makers\" (1968), \"Soul Catcher\" (1972), \"The Godmakers\" (1972), and \"Direct Descent\" (1980) — as well as \"Man of Two Worlds\" (1986), an out-of-print novel cowritten by Herbert and his son Brian. WordFire also possesses non-US/Canadian e-book rights to some of Anderson's own collaborations with Brian Herbert, the \"Prelude to Dune\" trilogy (1999-2001), as well as Anderson's \"Dan Shamble, Zombie P.I.\" series of novels.", "Anderson has published over 120 books, over 50 of which have been on US and international bestseller lists, and he has more than 23 million books in print worldwide." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Cult worship.", "Bacchanalia.", "Priestesses of Dionysus.", "Myths.", "Nurses and nymphs.", "Resisters to the new religion.", "Voluntary revelers.", "Art.", "Later culture.", "Books and comics.", "Opera and television.", "Real life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Cultist rites associated with worship of the Greek god of wine, Dionysus (or Bacchus in Roman mythology), were allegedly characterized by maniacal dancing to the sound of loud music and crashing cymbals, in which the revelers, called Bacchantes, whirled, screamed, became drunk and incited one another to greater and greater ecstasy. The goal was to achieve a state of enthusiasm in which the celebrants’ souls were temporarily freed from their earthly bodies and were able to commune with Bacchus/Dionysus and gain a glimpse of and a preparation for what they would someday experience in eternity. The rite climaxed in a performance of frenzied feats of strength and madness, such as uprooting trees, tearing a bull (the symbol of Dionysus) apart with their bare hands, an act called \"sparagmos\", and eating its flesh raw, an act called \"omophagia\". This latter rite was a sacrament akin to communion in which the participants assumed the strength and character of the god by symbolically eating the raw flesh and drinking the blood of his symbolic incarnation. Having symbolically eaten his body and drunk his blood, the celebrants became possessed by Dionysus.", "\"Maenads\" are found in later references as priestesses of the Dionysian cult. In the third century BC, when an Asia Minor city wanted to create a maenadic cult of Dionysus, the Delphic Oracle bid them to send to Thebes for both instruction and three professional maenads, stating, \"Go to the holy plain of Thebes so that you may get maenads who are from the family of Ino, daughter of Cadmus. They will give to you both the rites and good practices and they will establish dance groups (thiasoi) of Bacchus in your city.\"", "Dionysus came to his birthplace, Thebes, where neither Pentheus, his cousin who was now king, nor Pentheus’ mother Agave, Dionysus’ aunt (Semele's sister) acknowledged his divinity. Dionysus punished Agave by driving her insane, and in that condition, she killed her son and tore him to pieces. From Thebes, Dionysus went to Argos where all the women except the daughters of King Proetus joined in his worship. Dionysus punished them by driving them mad, and they killed the infants who were nursing at their breasts. He did the same to the daughters of Minyas, King of Orchomenos in Boetia, and then turned them into bats. According to Opian, Dionysus delighted, as a child, in tearing kids into pieces and bringing them back to life again. He is characterized as \"the raging one\" and \"the mad one\" and the nature of the maenads, from which they get their name, is, therefore, his nature. Once during a war in the middle of the third century BC, the entranced Thyiades (maenads) lost their way and arrived in Amphissa, a city near Delphi. There they sank down exhausted in the market place and were overpowered by a deep sleep. The women of Amphissa formed a protective ring around them and when they awoke arranged for them to return home unmolested. On another occasion, the Thyiades were snowed in on Parnassos and it was necessary to send a rescue party. The clothing of the men who took part in the rescue froze solid. It is unlikely that the Thyiades, even if they wore deerskins over their shoulders, were ever dressed more warmly than the men.", "In the realm of the supernatural is the category of nymphs who nurse and care for the young Dionysus, and continue in his worship as he comes of age. The god Hermes is said to have carried the young Dionysus to the nymphs of Nysa. In another myth, when his mother, Semele, is killed, the care of young Dionysus falls into the hands of his sisters, Ino, Agave, and Autonoe, who later are depicted as participating in the rites and taking a leadership role among the other maenads.", "The term \"maenads\" also refers to women in mythology who resisted the worship of Dionysus and were driven mad by him, forced against their will to participate in often horrific rites. The doubting women of Thebes, the prototypical maenads or \"mad women\", left their homes to live in the wilds of the nearby mountain Cithaeron. When they discovered Pentheus spying on them, dressed as a maenad, they tore him limb from limb. This also occurs with the three daughters of Minyas, who reject Dionysus and remain true to their household duties, becoming startled by invisible drums, flutes, cymbals, and seeing ivy hanging down from their looms. As punishment for their resistance, they become madwomen, choosing the child of one of their number by lot and tearing it to pieces, as the women on the mountain did to young animals. A similar story with a tragic end is told of the daughters of Proetus.", "Not all women were inclined to resist the call of Dionysus, however. Maenads, possessed by the spirit of Dionysus, traveled with him from Thrace to mainland Greece in his quest for the recognition of his divinity. Dionysus was said to have danced down from Parnassos accompanied by Delphic virgins, and it is known that even as young girls the women in Boeotia practiced not only the closed rites but also the bearing of the thyrsus and the dances. The foundation myth is believed to have been reenacted every other year during the Agrionia. Here the women of Thebes were organized into three dance groups and rushed off to Mount Cithaeron with ritual cries of \"to the mountain!\" As \"mad women,\" they pursued and killed, perhaps by dismemberment (sparagmos), the 'king', possibly represented by a goat. The maenads may have eaten the meat of the goat raw (omophagia) or sacrificed it to Dionysus. Eventually the women would be freed from the madness and return to Thebes and their usual lives, but for the time of the festival they would have had an intense ecstatic experience. The Agrionia was celebrated in several Greek cities, but especially in Boeotia. Each Boeotian city had its own distinct foundation myth for it, but the pattern was much the same: the arrival of Dionysus, resistance to him, flight of the women to a mountain, the killing of Dionysus’ persecutor, and eventual reconciliation with the god.", "Maenads have been depicted in art as erratic and frenzied women enveloped in a drunken rapture, the most obvious example being that of Euripides’ play \"The Bacchae\". His play, however, is not a study of the cult of Dionysus or the effects of this religious hysteria of these women. The maenads have often been interpreted in art in this way. To understand the play of Euripides one must only know about the religious ecstasy called Dionysiac, the most common moment maenads are displayed in art. In Euripides' play and other art forms and works, the Dionysiac only needs to be understood as the frenzied dances of the god which are direct manifestations of euphoric possession and that these worshipers, sometimes by eating the flesh of a man or animal who has temporarily incarnated the god, come to partake of his divinity. In addition to Euripides' \"The Bacchae\", depictions of maenads are often found on both red and black figure Greek pottery, statues, and jewelry. Also, fragments of reliefs of female worshipers of Dionysus have been discovered at Corinth. Mark W. Edwards in his paper \"Representation of Maenads on Archaic Red-Figure Vases\" traces the evolution of maenad depictions on red figure vases. Edwards distinguishes between \"nymphs\" which appear earlier on Greek pottery and \"maenads\" which are identified by their characteristic fawnskin or \"nebris\" and often carry snakes in their hands. However, Edwards does not consider the actions of the figures on the pottery to be a distinguishing characteristic for differentiation between maenads and nymphs. Rather, the differences or similarities in their actions are more striking when comparing black figure and red figure pottery, as opposed to maenads and nymphs.", "", "A maenad appears in Percy Bysshe Shelley's poem \"Ode to the West Wind\". In Ivan Turgenev's novella \"First Love\", Bacchantes are used symbolically in a dream of Princess Zinaida. Maenads, along with Bacchus and Silenus, appear in C. S. Lewis' \"Prince Caspian\". They are portrayed as wild, fierce girls who dance and perform somersaults. Maenadism is referenced by the 2013 winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature, Canadian Alice Munro, in her collection of short stories titled Runaway (2004). No explanation is offered for the significance of this reference, but the independence and power of this cultist group of women, would seem to be a metaphor for the autonomy needed by women in the modern age, to better stake out a claim against an oppressive patriarchy; a claim many women seem to be all too willing to forgo. Poul Anderson's \"Goat Song\" depicts a far-future utopia where all human activity has been \"optimized\" by the artificial intelligence SUM. To placate their fear of dying, citizens of this utopia are promised resurrection using DNA and memory records collected by bracelets that everyone wears. Rebelling against nonhuman control, one citizen called Harper (identified with Orpheus) awakens atavism in a group of women who spend holidays in the wild living as maenads. The short story \"Las Ménades\" by Julio Cortázar, originally published in \"Final del juego\" in 1956, describes a concert in which the narrator does not react emotionally to the music, but a number of women are overwhelmed with emotion and surge onto the stage, overtaking the conductor and musicians. In Piers Anthony's Xanth series, the maenads are depicted as women frenzied with bloodlust. The maenads were temporarily quelled by Magician Grey as his talent is nullification of magic. In combination with a large python protecting the Oracle's Cave, the maenads presence is to protect Mount Parnassus (see \"Man from Mundania\"). In \"\", the seventh volume of Neil Gaiman's comic series \"The Sandman\", the maenads feature in the story \"Orpheus\", in which they gruesomely murder the titular character after he refuses to cavort with them (echoing the events of the actual Greek myth of Orpheus). In the horror novel \"Dominion\" by Bentley Little, maenads are eventually revealed as the main antagonists for the first half of the story, during which they tear their victims to shreds and conspire to reawaken Dionysus. The \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" novel \"\" depicts maenads as corrupted human beings in service of the ancient and powerful Greek vampire Kakistos. The maenads appear in Rick Riordan's \"The Demigod Diaries\" where they are the principal enemies in the story \"Leo Valdez and the Quest for Buford\". While looking for the automaton table, Buford, Leo, Jason, and Piper run into the maenads, who are searching for Dionysus. They chase Leo and Piper into Bunker 9 and are subsequently captured in a golden net. In \"Sailor Moon\", the two priestesses guarding the shrine of Elysium deep within the Earth (the most sacred place of the Golden Kingdom) are called maenads. However, they have nothing in common with the mythological maenads: they are not frenzied or dangerous, their number is stable, don't travel (in fact they seem to be forbidden from leaving), and are not in anyway connected with Dionysus/Bacchus (no reference to this god is ever made in the entire franchise). They are instead connected with a character named after the Greek personification of the sun (Helios). The short story \"Last Call\" of Jim Butcher's \"The Dresden Files\" features a maenad as a primary antagonist.", "\"The Bassarids\" (composed 1964–65, premiered 1966), to a libretto by W. H. Auden and Chester Kallman, is the most famous opera composed by Hans Werner Henze. Charlaine Harris' \"The Southern Vampire Mysteries\" novels and its television adaptation, HBO's \"True Blood\" (2nd season, aired in summer 2009), feature maenads in the characters of Callisto and Maryann, respectively. In the show, Maryann wishes to sacrifice Sam Merlotte in hopes of summoning her god, Dionysus. Maryann is portrayed by Michelle Forbes. Maenads appear in \"A Girl By Any Other Name\", an episode of \"Atlantis\". They also appear in season 4 of \"The Magicians\", where they party alongside Bacchus and nurse him through his magical ailments.", "Maenads are the adopted symbol of Tetovo in North Macedonia, depicted prominently of the city's coat of arms. The inclusion of maenad imagery dates to 1932 when a small statuette of a maenad, dating to the 6th century BC, was found in the city. The \"Tetovo Maenad\" was featured on the reverse of a Macedonian 5000 denar banknote issued in 1996. The Japanese cosmetics company Nippon Menard Cosmetic Co. is named after them." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Internal and external sandhi.", "Tone sandhi.", "Examples.", "Japanese." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Sandhi can be either It may be extremely common in speech, but sandhi (especially external) is typically ignored in spelling, as is the case in English (exceptions:the distinction between \"a\" and \"an\"; the prefixes \"syn-\", \"in-\", \"en-\", and \"con-\"). Sandhi is, however, reflected in the orthography of Sanskrit, Telugu, Marathi, Pali and some other Indian languages, as with Italian in the case of compound words with lexicalised syntactic gemination. External sandhi effects can sometimes become morphologised (apply only in certain morphological and syntactic environments) as in Tamil and, over time, turn into consonant mutations.", "Most tonal languages have tone sandhi in which the tones of words alter according to certain rules. An example is the behavior of Mandarin Chinese. When in isolation, tone 3 is often pronounced as a falling-rising tone. When a tone 3 occurs before another tone 3, however, it changes into tone 2 (a rising tone), and when it occurs before any of the other tones, it is pronounced as a low falling tone, with no rise at the end. A simple example occurs in the common greeting \"nǐ hǎo\" (with two words containing underlying tone 3), normally pronounced \"ní hǎo\".", "", "In Japanese phonology, sandhi is primarily exhibited in rendaku (consonant mutation from unvoiced to voiced when not word-initial, in some contexts) and conversion of or (\"tsu\", \"ku\") to a geminate consonant (orthographically, the sokuon ), both of which are reflected in spelling – indeed, the symbol for gemination is morphosyntactically derived from, and voicing is indicated by adding two dots as in \"ka\", \"ga\", making the relation clear. It also occurs much less often in, where, most commonly, a terminal on one morpheme results in an (or ) being added to the start of the next morpheme, as in (\"ten\" + \"ō\" = \"tennō\"); that is also shown in the spelling (the kanji do not change, but the kana, which specify pronunciation, change)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Evolutionary roots.", "In non-human animals.", "In humans.", "Females.", "Males." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Charles Darwin hypothesized that sexual selection, or competition within a species for mates, can explain observed differences between sexes in many species. Ronald Fisher, the English biologist developed a number of ideas concerning secondary characteristics in his 1930 book \"The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection\", including the concept of Fisherian runaway which postulates that the desire for a characteristic in females combined with that characteristic in males can create a positive feedback loop or runaway where the feature becomes hugely amplified. The 1975 handicap principle extends this idea, stating that a peacock's tail, for instance, displays fitness by being a useless impediment that is very hard to fake. Another of Fisher's ideas is the sexy son hypothesis, whereby females will desire to have sons that possess the characteristic that they find sexy in order to maximize the number of grandchildren they produce. An alternative hypothesis is that some of the genes that enable males to develop impressive ornaments or fighting ability may be correlated with fitness markers such as disease resistance or a more efficient metabolism. This idea is known as the good genes hypothesis.", "Secondary sex characteristics in non-human animals include manes of male lions and long feathers of male peafowl, the tusks of male narwhals, enlarged proboscises in male elephant seals and proboscis monkeys, the bright facial and rump coloration of male mandrills, and horns in many goats and antelopes. Biologists today distinguish between \"male-to-male combat\" and \"mate choice\", usually female choice of male mates. Sexual characteristics due to combat are such things as antlers, horns, and greater size. Characteristics due to mate choice, often referred to as \"ornaments\", include brighter plumage, coloration, and other features that have no immediate purpose for survival or combat. Male jumping spiders have visual patches of UV reflectance, which are ornamentations used to attract females.", "Sexual differentiation begins during gestation, when the gonads are formed. The general structure and shape of the body and face, as well as sex hormone levels, are similar in preadolescent boys and girls. As puberty begins and sex hormone levels rise, differences appear, though some changes are similar in males and females. Male levels of testosterone directly induce the growth of the genitals, and indirectly (via dihydrotestosterone (DHT)) the prostate. Estradiol and other hormones cause breasts to develop in females. However, fetal or neonatal androgens may modulate later breast development by reducing the capacity of breast tissue to respond to later estrogen. Underarm hair and pubic hair are usually considered secondary sex characteristics, but they may also be considered non-secondary sex characteristics because they are features of both sexes following puberty.", "In females, breasts are a manifestation of higher levels of estrogen; estrogen also widens the pelvis and increases the amount of body fat in hips, thighs, buttocks, and breasts. Estrogen also induces growth of the uterus, proliferation of the endometrium, and menstruation. Female secondary sex characteristics include:", "The increased secretion of testosterone from the testes during puberty causes the male secondary sexual characteristics to be manifested. In males, testosterone directly increases size and mass of muscles, vocal cords, and bones, deepening the voice, and changing the shape of the face and skeleton. Converted into DHT in the skin, it accelerates growth of androgen-responsive facial and body hair but may slow and eventually stop the growth of head hair. Taller stature is largely a result of later puberty and slower epiphyseal fusion. Male secondary sex characteristics include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Single-player.", "Multiplayer.", "Plot.", "History.", "Development.", "Release.", "Source-code release.", "Critical reception.", "PC.", "Xbox." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "As a first and third-person shooter set in the \"Star Wars\" expanded universe, \"Jedi Academy\" puts the player into combat wielding a variety of firearms from that universe, as well as lightsabers and Force powers. The player can choose perspective for every weapon except for the lightsaber, which must be wielded in a third person view. The shooter aspects of the game are standard, including a variety of projectile and energy weapons and explosives. Players have a health meter and a shield meter, which are replenished separately. In both single-player and multiplayer, the player character is a Force-user, who has access to a variety of Force powers in addition to their lightsaber(s). Powers include Push, Pull, Jump, Heal, Lightning, and other abilities from the \"Star Wars\" universe. Force powers are categorized into core, Light (defensive) and Dark (offensive), and each Force power has three ranks, with the power increasing in effectiveness with each rank. In both single-player and multiplayer, players choose how to rank up their powers, adding a layer of customization. During gameplay, the player has a \"Force meter\" which is depleted when powers are used, and recharges when no powers are in use. \"Jedi Academy\" places a heavy emphasis on lightsaber combat. The player can create a custom lightsaber by selecting a hilt and one of five blade colors. Later in the game, the player can choose to wield a single saber, one saber in each hand, or a \"saber staff\" similar to the double ended lightsaber Darth Maul used in \"\" which also adds a kicking ability unavailable with any other lightsaber. The different sabers each have unique styles and special moves. When using a single saber, the player can choose between three stances which affect the speed and power of attacks; if using dual sabers, the player can switch off the second saber and use the \"Fast\"-style single-saber stance, or if using a saber staff, the player can switch the staff into a single-bladed saber that uses the \"Medium\"-style saber stance.", "The player initially chooses the character's species and gender, and begins the game with a single lightsaber. Midway through the game, the player can choose to use dual sabers or a saber staff if desired. The campaign alternates between linear plot driven missions and user-selected missions. For user-selected missions, the player is given a list of five missions, and chooses the order in which to complete them. The player is only required to complete four of the missions before advancing, but is given the option of completing all five. Between missions the player can choose one of their Force skills to upgrade. This will increase the impact of that Force power, thus making the character more powerful as the game progresses. The game also introduces player-controllable vehicles and vehicle-based levels.", "In multiplayer mode, one can play online or via a local area network (LAN) with other players, as well as computer-controlled bots. The player can create their avatar using a series of options, similar to the character creation in single-player. Alternatively the player can choose to play as one of almost all of the characters from \"Jedi Outcast\" and \"Jedi Academy\". Before a match begins, the server specifies the Force ranking to be used; this controls how many points the players have to invest in different Force powers. Players can then customize their powers for the match. The server can also disable normal weapons to create a lightsaber-only game. There are different multiplayer modes such as \"Capture the flag\", \"Power Duel\" and \"Siege\". Depending on the mode, players can play on their own or as part of a team. In comparison with the singleplayer gameplay, multiplayer requires a high level of skill and can have a steep learning curve, as stated by many. Players achieve levels way beyond any of the enemies present ingame, as the timing - oriented lightsaber combat system is very complex and it is not used properly to the full extent by the NPCs. There are six multiplayer modes in total, but the most popular and most willingly modified is the \"Free For All\". Since 2011 the online community has started to slowly decline. As of May 2019, there were around 250 active players, but a third of them online at one time. There is a number of multiplayer modifications, the most popular being Movie Battles, JA+ and Lugormod.", "The player takes the role of Jaden Korr (whose species and gender is chosen by the player - canonically Jaden is a human male), a Jedi Padawan and new student at the Jedi Academy on Yavin IV. On the way to the Academy, Jaden meets and quickly befriends fellow student Rosh Penin, before the students' shuttle is suddenly shot down by an unknown enemy. After Jaden and Rosh make their way to the Academy on foot, the former sees a woman using a staff to drain energy from the Jedi Temple, but is detected and knocked unconscious by the beam. Awakening, Jaden is met by Jedi Masters Kyle Katarn and Luke Skywalker. The students are formally welcomed to the Academy, and Jaden and Rosh are apprenticed to Kyle; however, in their first training session, Rosh's over-competitiveness endangers Jaden, much to his frustration. After the training session is complete, all the students are dispatched on various peace-keeping missions across the galaxy. During this time, Rosh becomes jealous of Jaden and begins to believe the Jedi Masters are trying to hold them back. After several missions, Luke tells the students that he has identified the Dark Jedi who attacked the Temple as members of a Sith cult called the Disciples of Ragnos. A member of the cult, a Twi'lek named Alora, was able to infiltrate the Academy during the attack and stole Luke's journal, allowing them to find numerous places strong with the Force and drain the energy there. The students are then sent out to investigate the locations mentioned in Luke's journal and attempt to foil the cult's plan. Jaden is sent to Hoth to investigate the Rebel Alliance's old Echo Base, where he encounters numerous Imperials and Dark Jedi, including Alora. Jaden briefly fights her, before Alora flees, having found all the information she needed. Afterwards, Jaden returns to the Academy and is informed that Rosh never returned from his mission to Byss. As Jaden is assigned more missions, some related to the Disciples of Ragnos, Luke informs the students that the cult have collected Force energy from all the places mentioned in his journal, as well as some that he deliberately left out, before sending them to investigate the remaining locations strong with Force and see if the Disciples have found them already. Jaden accompanies Kyle to Darth Vader's old fortress on Vjun, and the pair fight their way through the castle, before getting seprated. Jaden eventually finds Rosh, who had fallen to the dark side and joined the Disciples of Rangons to avoid being killed after being captured. Jaden defeats Rosh, before the cult's leader shows up, revealing herself as Tavion Axmis – the former apprentice of Kyle's old nemesis – and explains that she retrieved an ancient Sith artifact called the \"Scepter of Ragnos\", which can absorb and release Force energy. Tavion then uses the scepter to destroy the room's ceiling, causing it to cave-in on Jaden and Kyle and destroying the former's lightsaber in the process, whilist she flees with Rosh. Kyle and Jaden narrowly escape and return to the Academy, where Jaden is honored by Kyle and Luke for his actions and is promoted to the rank of Jedi Knight. After building a new lightsaber, Jaden continues his investigation on the Disciples of Ragnos as he completes more missions. Luke soon comes to conclude that Tavion plans to restore the Sith to power by using the stolen Force energy to resurrect the ancient Sith Lord Marka Ragnos. As the Jedi prepare to battle Tavion and her followers on the Sith homeworld of Korriban, Kyle informs Jaden of a distress signal he received from Rosh. Though skeptical, Jaden agrees to accompany Kyle to a mining facility on Taspir III, where he eventually finds Rosh, who asks for help and claims to have seen the error of his ways. Gripped by anger, Jaden is goaded by Alora to kill Rosh and join Tavion, but Kyle senses Jaden's anger and tries to telepathically dissuade him, leaving him with two possible options: if he chooses to forgive Rosh, the pair are attacked by Alora, who severs Rosh's left arm; otherwise, Jaden kills Rosh, turning to the dark side, but refuses to join Tavion. Either way, Jaden then kills Alora and heads to Korriban to stop Tavion or claim the Scepter of Ragnos' power for himself. Fighting his way through numerous Dark Jedi and, optionally, Jedi students, Jaden arrives at Ragnos' tomb, defeating Tavion. If Jaden is light-sided, Tavion uses the scepter to invoke Ragnos's spirit, who possesses her body. Jaden defeats Ragnos and destroys the scepter, banishing Ragnos' spirit back into its tomb and killing Tavion in the process. Back at the Academy, Jaden reunites with Rosh and is honored by Luke, Kyle and the rest of the Jedi Order. If Jaden is dark-sided, he executes Tavion and steals the scepter, before being confronted by Kyle. Jaden defeats Kyle, trapping him under some debris, and escapes with the scepter. Kyle is rescued by Luke, and laments losing both Rosh and Jaden, vowing to hunt the latter down. Luke wishes Kyle good luck, and notes that although Jaden has turned to the dark side, there is always hope and Jaden may not be beyond redemption. Jaden is then seen on the bridge of a Star Destroyer, now in charge of the Imperial fleet, preparing to initiate a campaign of conquest.", "", "After \"Jedi Outcast\" was completed, LucasArts immediately approached Raven Software to develop a sequel. Production began and Raven was given a one-year development cycle. Like \"Jedi Outcast\", \"Jedi Academy\" uses a heavily modified \"Quake III: Team Arena\" game engine, and the development team was made up of people who worked on \"Jedi Outcast\", as well as \"\". An early decision made during development was whether or not to have Kyle Katarn as the playable character. This was due to the character already being a powerful Jedi Knight, and, as such, starting off with the Force skills would affect the gameplay. To resolve this issue, Raven chose to make the playable character a student in the Jedi Academy. By using a completely new character, the developers were able to insert features that allowed the player to customize the character, including race and gender, as well as the lightsaber color, hilt, and type. The Kyle Katarn character was then made an instructor in the academy so as to remain integral to the plot, to ensure \"Jedi Academy\" built upon the existing \"Jedi Knight\" series storyline. Raven extended the customization further as the game progresses by allowing the player to choose specific Force powers to train upon completion of missions. This was done with the intention of giving freedom to choose the way and style the game is played. Another decision made early on was to include locations and aspects from the \"Star Wars\" movies. The designers wanted to use locations such as Tatooine (seen in The Prequel Trilogy, \"A New Hope\" and \"Return of the Jedi\") and Hoth (seen in \"The Empire Strikes Back\"), as well as the Rancor creature. To develop the map for Hoth, the designers obtained as much source material from \"The Empire Strikes Back\" as possible so to create an authentic reproduction. Level Designer Justin Negrete says that Hoth was one of the most challenging areas to design. The general level design process started by planning out the level on paper. These ideas were then \"fleshed out\" to get the size and flow of the level. Once this had been done, features of the \"Quake III\" engine were used to add more detail such as lighting effects. The final stage of level design was adding aspects that improved the gameplay and fun of the level. The mission based format of \"Jedi Academy\" was used by Raven to reduce the linearity of the game, allowing the player to progress through levels mostly in the order they desire. The reduction in linearity was also achieved by requiring 80% of levels to be completed before the plot can move on. Raven provided modding tools with \"Jedi Academy\", but the company specified that such tools are unsupported by customer support, so to avoid receiving calls on the subject. Brett Tosti, a producer for LucasArts, stated that the customization of the player that is provided by the game out of the box will mean that people are less likely to need to create their own \"skins\".", "The game was published and distributed within North America by LucasArts. Activision took control of publishing and distributing the game in all other territories worldwide. The game was released for Microsoft Windows and OS X (published by Aspyr) on September 17, 2003 and for Xbox (developed by Vicarious Visions) in November 2003, and received positive reviews. In September 2009, the game was re-released with the other \"\" games (\"\", \"\", \"\" and \"\") through the digital distributor Steam and Direct2Drive. On January 29, 2019, Major Nelson announced that \"Jedi Academy\" would be released on February 16, as part of Xbox's Games with Gold program. On September 19, 2019, it was announced that \"Jedi Academy\" would be re released on PS4 and Nintendo Switch in \"early\" 2020, to coincide with the re release of \"Jedi Outcast\", which was re released in December of 2019, for multiple platforms. On March 26, 2020, \"Jedi Academy\" was re released on PS4 Consoles with updated controls for modern hardware, and a fully functional multiplayer component directly mirroring the original's.", "Following Disney's decision to close LucasArts on April 3, 2013, the developers at Raven Software released the source code for the game on SourceForge under GNU GPLv2 licensing. A few days after release, the source code disappeared from SourceForge without explanation. SourceForge later explained to media outlet Kotaku that Raven Software had requested its removal. Kotaku speculated this was due to the presence of licensed code, such as for the Bink Video format from Rad Game Tools, that was not intended to be made public. Based on the source release from Raven, \"Jedi Academy\" is maintained by the JACoders group as OpenJK.", "Both the PC and Xbox versions of the game were well received. The PC version holds an aggregate score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on thirty-five reviews, and 80.18% on GameRankings, based on fifty-one reviews. The Xbox version holds aggregate scores of 76 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on thirty reviews, and 75.22% on GameRankings, based on forty-five reviews.", "Positive reviews praised the fact that, unlike in \"Dark Forces II\" and \"Jedi Outcast\", players could use a lightsaber from the beginning. Game Over Online scored the game 92% and commented that \"You start instantly with your lightsaber, rather than wading through six painfully bland FPS levels to get your lightsaber as you did in \"Jedi Outcast\"\". Critics lauded the lightsaber interface and player customization options. Ernie Halal of Gaming Age gave the game an A-, writing, \"You choose not only the gender and race of your character, but also which powers and fighting styles to develop [...] Third person adventure games rarely offer that much customization.\" Critics noted that, despite its age, the \"Quake III\" engine was used well. \"PC Gamer UK\", who scored the game 70 out of 100, wrote \"the engine, which although hardly groundbreaking any more, perfectly evokes the glow of the lightsaber and the grimy, metallic backgrounds of the films.\" Some critics did, however, note that the engine was starting to look dated. The multiplayer, in particular the objective-based Siege mode, was well received. The music, sound effects, and voice acting also received acclaim, although some critics found it odd that all aliens spoke English. The story and level design received mixed reactions. Some critics commended the levels as varied (both in terms of length and content). GameZone scored the game 9 out of 10, writing \"Some are a fast blast that can be beat in ten or so minutes. Others [...] can take as long as hours [...] The change of pace is very refreshing.\" The story was described as \"great\" by GameZone and as \"strong\" by Gaming Age. IGN's Steve Butts, however, disliked the plot, feeling that \"\"Jedi Outcast\" was more satisfying in terms of involvement with the story. \"Jedi Academy\" dishes out more action sooner but fails to put it in as solid a context as the previous game.\" Game Over Online was critical of the mission structure, writing \"This kind of free-form mission assignment [...] only serves to weaken the plotline. It also leads to a disjointedness to the missions [...] it seems more like roaming than any actual story advancement.\" GameSpot's Craig Beers, however, praised the mission structure; \"\"Jedi Academy\" does an excellent job of balancing its missions.\" IGN also defended the system; \"It's nice that the game offers a series of fairly short, relatively unconnected missions at the start. It's a great way to get your feet wet and ease you in to the environments and the saber fighting before the challenge level ramps up.\" The AI was criticized by \"PC Gamer UK\" as \"laughable\"; \"Every encounter you have is filled with people too stupid to realise that running away or taking some sort of cover would be the best option. [\"Jedi Academy\"] requires little to no skill to play through.\" This opinion was echoed by GameSpot: \"Stormtroopers usually just stand there shooting away at you [...] Dark Jedi rush at you, even after watching four of their brethren plummet to a horrible death. Occasionally, you'll see an enemy accidentally commit suicide by falling off a cliff or falling into lava, enemies will not even dive for cover or try and throw it back if you throw an uncooked thermal detonator at them.\" Despite his criticism of the AI, GameSpot's Craig Beers scored the game 8.4 out of 10, writing \"It manages to take all the fun parts from its predecessor and greatly expands them to create an engaging, new action game in its own right.\" IGN's Steve Butts scored the game 8.8 out of 10, giving it an \"Editor's Choice Award\" and writing \"If you like \"Star Wars\" and think flipping around chopping up Stormtroopers and flinging Dark Jedi off of conveniently placed precipices is fun, then this game is definitely for you.\" Eurogamer's Kristan Reed was less impressed, scoring the game 7 out of 10, writing \"The harsh reality is, for all the plentiful additions, there's much work to be done before LucasArts can boast it has created the ultimate \"Star Wars\" FPS. Sure, it's the best one yet, but with some often laughable AI and creaking tech underpinning it, the flaws are there for all to see.\"", "Kevin Gifford of 1UP.com scored the Xbox version a B-. He lauded the addition of Xbox Live support and the ability to use a lightsaber from the opening, two of biggest criticisms of \"Jedi Outcast\". However, he called the graphics \"worryingly out of date by current Xbox standards\", saying that when playing in first-person mode \"the game looks more like a two-year-old PC shooter than a modern \"Star Wars\" game.\" He concluded that \"The Xbox Live games make \"Jedi Academy\" worth at least a rental to online players, but otherwise, this game's worth it to \"Star Wars\" fans only.\" Eurogamer's Kristan Reed was also somewhat unimpressed, scoring the game 6 out of 10 and criticizing the controls; \"In common with the PC version, you still find yourself going into battle and fumbling furiously through cyclical menus while numerous baddies are busy blasting seven shades out of you.\" She was also critical of the AI and the graphics, concluding that \"It's good to see Live make the package this time around, but we're disappointed that after all these years LucasArts is still scratching around abusing the \"Star Wars\" brand in this way. There are some good ideas here that haven't been realised, and we're once again left waiting for the definitive \"Star Wars\" FPS to appear.\" IGN were more impressed, scoring the game 8 out of 10. Although they were critical of the graphics and frame rate, and found the game to be inferior to \"Jedi Outcast\", reviewer Steve Butts concluded \"For the 15 or so hours that it lasted, I enjoyed \"Jedi Academy\".\" GameSpot's Craig Beers scored the game 8.1 out of 10. He praised the mapping of the PC version's controls to the Xbox Controller and the implementation of Xbox Live, but like IGN, he was critical of the frame rates. He concluded that \"The game may not look great, but it translates well to the Xbox--for those who would prefer to play it on a console. It even caters to those who aren't familiar with the \"Star Wars\" universe and just want pure action. In general, \"Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy\" is highly recommendable.\" GameZone's Nick Valentino scored the game 8.2 out of 10 and was especially impressed with the use of Xbox live; \"the biggest draw--and the one that has me playing this one very often--is the fact that the multiplayer modes can also be played online using the Xbox Live service. That's right, you read it correctly. You can duel against other Xbox gamers out there using any of the seven multiplayer modes and even talk trash using your Xbox Communicator. Here's your chance to see if you're truly good with the lightsaber.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Operation.", "History.", "Common applications.", "Modern gauges." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid. Water enters the device by the bottom pipe (far end of the tube, see picture), and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer. Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide, of which about 950 have provided updates to the global data center since January 2010. At some places records cover centuries, for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available. When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture, new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data. Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis. The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level. Using this method, sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected. A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise, although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful.", "Sea-level measurements were made using simple measuring poles or \"tide staffs\" until around 1830, when self-recording gauges with mechanical floats and stilling wells were introduced. Tidal poles and float gauges were the primary means of sea-level measurement for over 150 years and continue to operate at some locations today. While still part of modern-day tide gauge instrumentation, these technologies have since been superseded by pressure gauges, acoustic/ultrasonic gauges, and radar gauges. The following types of tide gauges have been used historically:", "Tide gauges have a practical application in the shipping and fishing industries where low or high tide levels can hinder or prohibit access to shallow bays or locations with bridges. An example is the Cascais tide gauge in Portugal, which was originally installed because of the sand bar in the River Tagus that causes difficulties for shipping entering Lisbon port. Because of similar problems many industries have installed private tide gauges in ports around the world, and also rely on government agencies (such as NOAA). Data collected from tide gauges is also of interest to scientists measuring global weather patterns, the mean sea water level, and trends - notably those potentially associated with global warming.", "In recent years new technologies have developed allowing for real-time, remote tide information to be published online via a solar powered wireless connection to a tide sensor. Acoustic/ultrasonic sensors have already been deployed to great effect and the data is regularly broadcast via Twitter and also displayed online." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Science.", "Taxonomy and evolution.", "Morphology and flight.", "Distribution and range at sea.", "Diet.", "Breeding and dancing.", "Albatrosses and humans.", "Etymology.", "In culture.", "Non-European mythologies.", "Birdwatching.", "Threats and conservation.", "Species." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The \"albatross\" designation comprises between 13 and 24 species (the number is still a matter of some debate, 21 being the most commonly accepted number) in four genera. These genera are the great albatrosses (\"Diomedea\"), the mollymawks (\"Thalassarche\"), the North Pacific albatrosses (\"Phoebastria\"), and the sooty albatrosses or sooties (\"Phoebetria\"). The North Pacific albatrosses are considered to be a sister taxon to the great albatrosses, while the sooty albatrosses are considered closer to the mollymawks. The taxonomy of the albatross group has been a source of much debate. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy places seabirds, birds of prey, and many others in a greatly enlarged order, the Ciconiiformes, whereas the ornithological organisations in North America, Europe, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand retain the more traditional order Procellariiformes. The albatrosses can be separated from the other Procellariiformes both genetically and through morphological characteristics, size, their legs, and the arrangement of their nasal tubes (see below: Morphology and flight). Within the family, the assignment of genera has been debated for over 100 years. Originally", "The albatrosses are a group of large to very large birds; they are the largest of the Procellariiformes. The bill is large, strong, and sharp-edged, with the upper mandible terminating in a large hook. This bill is composed of several horny plates, and along the sides are the two \"tubes\", long nostrils that give the order its former name. The tubes of all albatrosses are along the sides of the bill, unlike the rest of the Procellariiformes, where the tubes run along the top of the bill. These tubes allow the albatrosses to measure the exact airspeed in flight; the nostrils are analogous to the pitot tubes in modern aircraft. The albatross needs accurate airspeed measurement in order to perform dynamic soaring. Like other Procellariiformes, they use their uniquely developed sense of smell to locate potential food sources, whereas most birds depend", "Most albatrosses range in the Southern Hemisphere from Antarctica to Australia, South Africa and South America. The exceptions to this are the four North Pacific albatrosses, of which three occur exclusively in the North Pacific, from Hawaii to Japan, California, and Alaska; and one, the waved albatross, breeds in the Galápagos Islands and feeds off the coast of South America. The need for wind to enable gliding is the reason albatrosses are for the most part confined to higher latitudes: being unsuited to sustained flapping flight makes crossing the doldrums extremely difficult. The exception, the waved albatross, is able to live in the equatorial waters around the Galápagos Islands because of the cool waters of the Humboldt Current and the resulting winds. It is not known for certain why the albatrosses became extinct in the North Atlantic, although rising sea levels due to an interglacial warming period are thought to have submerged the site of a short-tailed albatross colony that has been", "The albatross diet is predominantly cephalopods, fish, crustaceans, and offal (organ meat), although they will also scavenge carrion and feed on other zooplankton. For most species a comprehensive understanding of diet is known for only the breeding season, when the albatrosses regularly return to land and study is possible. The importance of each of these food sources varies from species to species, and even from population to population; some concentrate on squid alone, others take more krill or fish. Of the two albatross species found in Hawaii, one, the black-footed albatross, takes mostly fish while the Laysan feeds on squid. The use of data loggers at sea that record ingestion of water against time (providing a likely time of feeding) suggests that albatrosses predominantly feed during the day. Analysis of the squid beaks regurgitated by albatrosses has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive, and include mid-water species likely to be", "Albatrosses are colonial, usually nesting on isolated islands; where colonies are on larger landmasses, they are found on exposed headlands with good approaches from the sea in several directions, like the colony on the Otago Peninsula in Dunedin, New Zealand. Many Buller's albatrosses and black-footed albatrosses nest under trees in open forest. Colonies vary from the very dense aggregations favoured by the mollymawks (black-browed albatross colonies on the Falkland Islands have densities of 70 nests per 100 m) to the much looser groups and widely spaced individual nests favoured by the sooty and great albatrosses. All albatross colonies are on islands that historically were free of land mammals. Albatrosses are highly philopatric, meaning they usually return to their natal colony to breed. This tendency is so strong that a study of Laysan albatrosses showed that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was. Albatrosses live much longer than", "", "The name \"albatross\" is derived from the Arabic \"al-qādūs\" or \"al-ḡaṭṭās\" (a pelican; literally, \"the diver\"), which travelled to English via the Portuguese form \"alcatraz\" (\"gannet\"), which is also the origin of the name of the former prison, Alcatraz. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" notes that the word alcatraz was originally applied to the frigatebird; the modification to albatross was perhaps influenced by Latin \"albus\", meaning \"white\", in contrast to frigatebirds, which are", "Albatrosses have been described as \"the most legendary of all birds\". An albatross is the central emblem in \"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner\" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, representing the innocence and beauty of God's creation. The albatross metaphor is derived from this poem; someone bearing a burden or facing an obstacle is said to have \"an albatross around his neck\", the punishment given to the mariner who killed the albatross. A widespread myth holds that sailors believe shooting or harming an albatross is disastrous, due in part to the poem; in truth, sailors regularly killed and ate them, as reported by James Cook in 1772. However, other sailors reportedly caught the birds but let them free again, possibly believing", "The Maori used the wing bones of the albatross to carve flutes. In Hawaiian mythology, Laysan albatrosses are considered \"aumakua\", being a sacred manifestation of the ancestors, and quite possibly also the sacred bird of Kāne. Japanese mythology, by contrast, refers to the short-tailed albatross as \"aho-dori\", \"idiot bird\", due to its insular habitat making it disregard terrestrial predators, and it was considered an excellent target for consumption.", "Albatrosses are popular birds for birdwatchers, and their colonies are popular destinations for ecotourists. Regular birdwatching trips are taken out of many coastal towns and cities, such as Monterey, Dunedin, Kaikoura, Wollongong, Sydney, Port Fairy, Hobart, and Cape Town,", "In spite of often being accorded legendary status, albatrosses have not escaped either indirect or direct pressure from humans. Early encounters with albatrosses by Polynesians and Aleuts resulted in hunting and in some cases extirpation from some islands (such as Easter Island). As Europeans began sailing the world, they, too, began to hunt albatross, \"fishing\" for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport. This sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for Australia, and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from, and regulations forbade the discharge of weapons for safety reasons. In the 19th century, albatross colonies, particularly those in the North Pacific, were harvested for the feather trade, leading to the near-extinction of the short-tailed albatross. Of the 21 albatross species recognised by IUCN on", "Current thinking divides the albatrosses into four genera. The number of species is a matter of debate. The IUCN and BirdLife International recognise 22 extant species (listed below), ITIS recognise 21 (the 22 below minus \"T. steadi\"), and one recent paper proposed a reduction to 13 (indicated in parentheses below), comprising the traditional 14 species minus \"D. amsterdamensis\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Pearson moments.", "Interpretation.", "Moors' interpretation.", "Excess kurtosis.", "Mesokurtic.", "Leptokurtic.", "Platykurtic.", "Graphical examples.", "The Pearson type VII family.", "Other well-known distributions.", "Sample kurtosis.", "Definition.", "Upper bound.", "Variance under normality.", "Estimators of population kurtosis.", "Applications.", "Kurtosis convergence.", "Other measures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The kurtosis is the fourth standardized moment, defined as where \"μ\" is the fourth central moment and σ is the standard deviation. Several letters are used in the literature to denote the kurtosis. A very common choice is \"κ\", which is fine as long as it is clear that it does not refer to a cumulant. Other choices include \"γ\", to be similar to the notation for skewness, although sometimes this is instead reserved for the excess kurtosis. The kurtosis is bounded below by the squared skewness plus 1: where \"μ\" is the third central moment. The lower bound is realized by the Bernoulli distribution. There is no upper limit to the kurtosis of a general probability distribution, and it may be infinite. A reason why some authors favor the excess kurtosis is that cumulants are extensive. Formulea related to the extensive property are more naturally expressed in terms of the excess kurtosis. For example, let \"X\",..., \"X\" be independent random variables for which the fourth moment exists, and let \"Y\" be the random variable defined by the sum of the \"X\". The excess kurtosis of \"Y\" is where formula_4 is the standard deviation of formula_5. In particular if all of the \"X\" have the same variance, then this simplifies to The reason not to subtract off 3 is that the bare fourth moment better generalizes to multivariate distributions, especially when independence is not assumed. The cokurtosis between pairs of variables is an order four tensor. For a bivariate normal distribution, the cokurtosis tensor has off-diagonal terms that are neither 0 nor 3 in general, so attempting to \"correct\" for an excess becomes confusing. It is true, however, that the joint cumulants of degree greater than two for any multivariate normal distribution are zero. For two random variables, \"X\" and \"Y\", not necessarily independent, the kurtosis of the sum, \"X\" + \"Y\", is Note that the binomial coefficients appear in the above equation.", "The exact interpretation of the Pearson measure of kurtosis (or excess kurtosis) used to be disputed, but is now settled. As Westfall notes in 2014, \"\"...its only unambiguous interpretation is in terms of tail extremity; i.e., either existing outliers (for the sample kurtosis) or propensity to produce outliers (for the kurtosis of a probability distribution).\"\" The logic is simple: Kurtosis is the average (or expected value) of the standardized data raised to the fourth power. Any standardized values that are less than 1 (i.e., data within one standard deviation of the mean, where the \"peak\" would be), contribute virtually nothing to kurtosis, since raising a number that is less than 1 to the fourth power makes it closer to zero. The only data values (observed or observable) that contribute to kurtosis in any meaningful way are those outside the region of the peak; i.e., the outliers. Therefore, kurtosis measures outliers only; it measures nothing about the \"peak\". Many incorrect interpretations of kurtosis that involve notions of peakedness have been given. One is that kurtosis measures both the \"peakedness\" of the distribution and the heaviness of its tail. Various other incorrect interpretations have been suggested, such as \"lack of shoulders\" (where the \"shoulder\" is defined vaguely as the area between the peak and the tail, or more specifically as the area about one standard deviation from the mean) or \"bimodality\". Balanda and MacGillivray assert that the standard definition of kurtosis \"is a poor measure of the kurtosis, peakedness, or tail weight of a distribution\" and instead propose to \"define kurtosis vaguely as the location- and scale-free movement of probability mass from the shoulders of a distribution into its center and tails\".", "In 1986 Moors gave an interpretation of kurtosis. Let where \"X\" is a random variable, \"μ\" is the mean and \"σ\" is the standard deviation. Now by definition of the kurtosis formula_9, and by the well-known identity formula_10 The kurtosis can now be seen as a measure of the dispersion of \"Z\" around its expectation. Alternatively it can be seen to be a measure of the dispersion of \"Z\" around +1 and −1. \"κ\" attains its minimal value in a symmetric two-point distribution. In terms of the original variable \"X\", the kurtosis is a measure of the dispersion of \"X\" around the two values \"μ\" ± \"σ\". High values of \"κ\" arise in two circumstances:", "The \"excess kurtosis\" is defined as kurtosis minus 3. There are 3 distinct regimes as described below.", "Distributions with zero excess kurtosis are called mesokurtic, or mesokurtotic. The most prominent example of a mesokurtic distribution is the normal distribution family, regardless of the values of its parameters. A few other well-known distributions can be mesokurtic, depending on parameter values: for example, the binomial distribution is mesokurtic for formula_12.", "A distribution with positive excess kurtosis is called leptokurtic, or leptokurtotic. \"Lepto-\" means \"slender\". In terms of shape, a leptokurtic distribution has \"fatter tails\". Examples of leptokurtic distributions include the Student's t-distribution, Rayleigh distribution, Laplace distribution, exponential distribution, Poisson distribution and the logistic distribution. Such distributions are sometimes termed \"super-Gaussian\".", "A distribution with negative excess kurtosis is called platykurtic, or platykurtotic. \"Platy-\" means \"broad\". In terms of shape, a platykurtic distribution has \"thinner tails\". Examples of platykurtic distributions include the continuous and discrete uniform distributions, and the raised cosine distribution. The most platykurtic distribution of all is the Bernoulli distribution with \"p\" = 1/2 (for example the number of times one obtains \"heads\" when flipping a coin once, a coin toss), for which the excess kurtosis is −2. Such distributions are sometimes termed \"sub-Gaussian distribution\", originally proposed by Jean-Pierre Kahane and further described by Buldygin and Kozachenko.", "", "The effects of kurtosis are illustrated using a parametric family of distributions whose kurtosis can be adjusted while their lower-order moments and cumulants remain constant. Consider the Pearson type VII family, which is a special case of the Pearson type IV family restricted to symmetric densities. The probability density function is given by where \"a\" is a scale parameter and \"m\" is a shape parameter. All densities in this family are symmetric. The \"k\"th moment exists provided \"m\" > (\"k\" + 1)/2. For the kurtosis to exist, we require \"m\" > 5/2. Then the mean and skewness exist and are both identically zero. Setting \"a\" = 2\"m\" − 3 makes the variance equal to unity. Then the only free parameter is \"m\", which controls the fourth moment (and cumulant) and hence the kurtosis. One can reparameterize with formula_14, where formula_15 is the excess kurtosis as defined above. This yields a one-parameter leptokurtic family with zero mean, unit variance, zero skewness, and arbitrary non-negative excess kurtosis. The reparameterized density is In the limit as formula_17 one obtains the density which is shown as the red curve in the images on the right. In the other direction as formula_19 one obtains the standard normal density as the limiting distribution, shown as the black curve. In the images on the right, the blue curve represents the density formula_20 with excess kurtosis of 2. The top image shows that leptokurtic densities in this family have a higher peak than the mesokurtic normal density, although this conclusion is only valid for this select family of distributions. The comparatively fatter tails of the leptokurtic densities are illustrated in the second image, which plots the natural logarithm of the Pearson type VII densities: the black curve is the logarithm of the standard normal density, which is a parabola. One can see that the normal density allocates little probability mass to the regions far from the mean (\"has thin tails\"), compared with the blue curve of the leptokurtic Pearson type VII density with excess kurtosis of 2. Between the blue curve and the black are other Pearson type VII densities with \"γ\" = 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, and 1/16. The red curve again shows the upper limit of the Pearson type VII family, with formula_21 (which, strictly speaking, means that the fourth moment does not exist). The red curve decreases the slowest as one moves outward from the origin (\"has fat tails\").", "Several well-known, unimodal and symmetric distributions from different parametric families are compared here. Each has a mean and skewness of zero. The parameters have been chosen to result in a variance equal to 1 in each case. The images on the right show curves for the following seven densities, on a linear scale and logarithmic scale: Note that in these cases the platykurtic densities have bounded support, whereas the densities with positive or zero excess kurtosis are supported on the whole real line. One cannot infer that high or low kurtosis distributions have the characteristics indicated by these examples. There exist platykurtic densities with infinite support, and there exist leptokurtic densities with finite support. Also, there exist platykurtic densities with infinite peakedness, and there exist leptokurtic densities that appear flat-topped,", "", "For a sample of \"n\" values the sample excess kurtosis is where \"m\" is the fourth sample moment about the mean, \"m\" is the second sample moment about the mean (that is, the sample variance), \"x\" is the \"i\" value, and formula_23 is the sample mean. This formula has the simpler representation, where the formula_25 values are the standardized data values using the standard deviation defined using \"n\" rather than \"n\" − 1 in the denominator. For example, suppose the data values are 0, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 1, 3, 2, 0, 2, 2, 3, 2, 5, 2, 3, 999. Then the formula_25 values are −0.239, −0.225, −0.221, −0.234, −0.230, −0.225, −0.239, −0.230, −0.234, −0.225, −0.230, −0.239, −0.230, −0.230, −0.225, −0.230, −0.216, −0.230, −0.225, 4.359 and the formula_27 values are 0.003, 0.003, 0.002, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.003, 0.002, 0.003, 0.003, 360.976. The average of these values is 18.05 and the excess kurtosis is thus 18.05 − 3 = 15.05. This example makes it clear that data near the \"middle\" or \"peak\" of the distribution do not contribute to the kurtosis statistic, hence kurtosis does not measure \"peakedness\". It is simply a measure of the outlier, 999 in this example.", "An upper bound for the sample kurtosis of \"n\" (\"n\" > 2) real numbers is where formula_29 is the sample skewness formula_30.", "The variance of the sample kurtosis of a sample of size \"n\" from the normal distribution is Stated differently, under the assumption that the underlying random variable formula_32 is normally distributed, it can be shown that formula_33.", "Given a sub-set of samples from a population, the sample excess kurtosis above is a biased estimator of the population excess kurtosis. An alternative estimator of the population excess kurtosis is defined as follows: where \"k\" is the unique symmetric unbiased estimator of the fourth cumulant, \"k\" is the unbiased estimate of the second cumulant (identical to the unbiased estimate of the sample variance), \"m\" is the fourth sample moment about the mean, \"m\" is the second sample moment about the mean, \"x\" is the \"i\" value, and formula_35 is the sample mean. Unfortunately, formula_36 is itself generally biased. For the normal distribution it is unbiased.", "The sample kurtosis is a useful measure of whether there is a problem with outliers in a data set. Larger kurtosis indicates a more serious outlier problem, and may lead the researcher to choose alternative statistical methods. D'Agostino's K-squared test is a goodness-of-fit normality test based on a combination of the sample skewness and sample kurtosis, as is the Jarque–Bera test for normality. For non-normal samples, the variance of the sample variance depends on the kurtosis; for details, please see variance. Pearson's definition of kurtosis is used as an indicator of intermittency in turbulence. A concrete example is the following lemma by, He, Zhang and Zhang: Assume a random variable formula_32 has expectation formula_38, variance formula_39 and kurtosis formula_40. Assume we sample formula_41 many independent copies. Then This shows that with formula_43 many samples, we will see one that is above the expectation with probability at least formula_44. In other words: If the kurtosis is large, we might see a lot values either all below or above the mean.", "Applying band-pass filters to digital images, kurtosis values tend to be uniform, independent of the range of the filter. This behavior, termed \"kurtosis convergence\", can be used to detect image splicing in forensic analysis.", "A different measure of \"kurtosis\" is provided by using L-moments instead of the ordinary moments." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Definition.", "Development.", "Philosophy.", "Policy regime.", "History.", "First International era and origins in the socialist movement (1863–1889).", "Second International era and reform or revolution dispute (1889–1914).", "World War I, revolutions and counter-revolutions (1914–1929).", "Great Depression era and World War II (1929–1945).", "Cold War era and post-war consensus (1945–1973).", "Response to neoliberalism and Third Way (1973–2007).", "Decline and rejection of the Third Way (2007–present).", "Legacy.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Social democracy is defined as one of many socialist traditions. As a political movement, it aims to achieve socialism through gradual and democratic means. This definition goes back to the influence of both the reformist socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle as well as the internationalist revolutionary socialism advanced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, from whom social democracy was influenced. As an international political movement and ideology, social democracy has undergone various major forms throughout its history. Whereas in the 19th century it was \"organized Marxism\", social democracy became \"organized reformism\" by the 20th century. In contemporary usage, social democracy as a policy regime generally means support for a mixed economy and ameliorative measures to benefit the working class within the framework of capitalism. In political science, \"democratic socialism\" and \"social democracy\" are largely seen as synonyms while they are distinguished in journalistic use. Under this democratic socialist definition, social democracy is an ideology seeking to gradually build an alternative socialist economy through the institutions of liberal democracy. Starting in the post-war period, social democracy was defined as a policy regime advocating reformation of capitalism to align it with the ethical ideals of social justice. In the 19th century, it encompassed a wide variety of non-revolutionary and revolutionary currents of socialism which excluded anarchism. In the early 20th century, social democracy came to refer to support for a gradual process of developing socialism through existing political structures and an opposition to revolutionary means of achieving socialism in favor of reformism. In the 19th century, \"social democrat\" was a broad catch-all for international socialists owing their basic ideological allegiance to Lassalle or Marx, in contrast to those advocating various forms of utopian socialism. In one of the first scholarly works on European socialism written for an American audience, Richard T. Ely's 1883 book \"French and German Socialism in Modern Times\", social democrats were characterized as \"the extreme wing of the socialists\" who were \"inclined to lay so much stress on equality of enjoyment, regardless of the value of one's labor, that they might, perhaps, more properly be called communists\". Many parties in this era described themselves as \"Social Democrat\", including the General German Workers' Association and the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany which merged to form the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the British Social Democratic Federation and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. \"Social Democrat\" continued to be used in this context up to the time of the Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917, at which time \"Communist\" came into vogue for individuals and organizations espousing a revolutionary road to socialism. According to Ely: As a label or term, \"social democracy\" or \"social democratic\" remains controversial", "During the late 19th century and the early 20th century, social democracy was a broad labour movement within socialism that aimed to replace private ownership with social ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange, taking influence from both Marxism and the supporters of Ferdinand Lassalle. By 1868–1869, the socialism associated with Karl Marx had become the official theoretical basis of the first social-democratic party established in Europe, the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany. By the early 20th century, the German social-democratic politician Eduard Bernstein rejected the ideas in orthodox Marxism that proposed specific historical progression and revolution as a means to achieve social", "Philosophically and etymologically overlapping with democratic socialism, social democracy is a form of reformist democratic socialism. Social democracy rejects the either/or polarization interpretation of capitalism versus socialism. It claims that fostering a progressive evolution of capitalism will gradually result in the evolution of capitalist economy into socialist economy. Social democracy argues that all citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights. These are made up of universal access to public services such as education, health care, workers' compensation and other services including child care and care for the elderly. Social democracy also advocates freedom from discrimination based on differences of ability/disability, age, ethnicity, gender, language, race, religion, sexual orientation and social class. Later in their life, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels came to argue that in some countries workers might be able to achieve their aims through peaceful means. In this sense, Engels argued that socialists were evolutionists, although both Marx and Engels remained committed to social revolution. In developing social democracy, Marxist revisionist Eduard Bernstein rejected the revolutionary and materialist foundations of orthodox Marxism. Rather than class conflict and socialist revolution, Bernstein believed that socialism could be achieved through cooperation between people regardless of class. Nonetheless, Bernstein paid deference to Marx, describing him as the father of social democracy, but declaring that it was necessary to revise Marx's thought in lieu of changing conditions. Influenced by the gradualist platform favoured by the British Fabian movement, Bernstein came to advocate a similar evolutionary approach to socialist politics that he termed \"evolutionary socialism\". Evolutionary means include representative democracy and cooperation between people regardless of class. Bernstein accepted the Marxist analysis that the creation of socialism is interconnected with the evolution of capitalism. August Bebel, Bernstein, Engels, Wilhelm Liebknecht, Marx and Carl Wilhelm Tölcke are all considered founding fathers of social democracy in Germany, but it is especially Bernstein and Lassalle,", "As a policy regime, it has become commonplace to reference social democracy as the European social democracies, i.e the actually-existing states in Northern and Western European countries, usually in reference to their model of welfare state and corporatist system of collective bargaining. This has been accepted or adopted across the political spectrum, including conservatives (Christian democrats), liberals (social liberals) and socialists (social democrats). European social democracies represents a socioeconomic order that has been variously described as starting in either the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s and ending in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Henning Meyer and Jonathan Rutherford associate social democracy with the socio-economic order that existed in Europe from the post-war period up until the early 1990s. Social democracy influenced the development of social corporatism, a form of economic tripartite corporatism based upon a social partnership between the interests of capital and labour, involving collective bargaining between representatives of employers and of labour mediated by the government at the national level. During the post-war consensus, this form of social democracy has been a major component of the Nordic model and to a lesser degree the West European social market economies. The development of social corporatism began in Norway and Sweden in the 1930s and was consolidated in the 1960s and 1970s. The system was based upon the dual compromise of capital and the", "", "The concept of social democracy goes back to the French Revolution and the bourgeois-democratic Revolutions of 1848, with historians such as Albert Mathiez seeing the French Constitution of 1793 as an example and inspiration whilst labelling Maximilien Robespierre as the founding father of social democracy. The origins of social democracy as a working-class movement have been traced to the 1860s, with the rise of the first major working-class party in Europe, the General German Workers' Association (ADAV) founded in 1863 by Ferdinand Lassalle. The 1860s saw the concept of social democracy deliberately distinguishing itself from that of liberal democracy. As Theodore Draper explains in \"The Roots of American Communism\", there were two competing social-democratic versions of socialism in 19th-century Europe, especially in Germany, where there was a rivalry over political influence between the Lassalleans and the Marxists. Although the latter theoretically won out by the late 1960s and Lassalle had died early in 1864, in practice the Lassallians won out as their national-style social democracy and reformist socialism influenced the revisionist development of the 1880s and 1910s. The year 1864 saw the founding of the International Workingmen's Association, also known as the First International. It brought together socialists of various stances and initially caused a conflict between Karl Marx and the anarchists, who were led by Mikhail Bakunin, over the role of the state in socialism, with Bakunin rejecting any role for the state. Another issue in the First International was the question of reformism and its role within socialism. Although Lassalle was not a", "The social-democratic movement came into being through a division within the socialist movement. Starting in the 1880s and culminating in the 1910s and 1920s, there was a division within the socialist movement between those who insisted upon political revolution as a precondition for the achievement of socialist goals and those who maintained that a gradual or evolutionary path to socialism was both possible and desirable. German social democracy as exemplified by the SPD was the model for the world social-democratic movement. The influence of the Fabian Society in Britain grew in the British socialist movement in the 1890s, especially within the Independent Labour Party (ILP) founded in 1893. Important ILP members were affiliated with the Fabian Society, including Keir Hardie and Ramsay MacDonald—the future British Prime Minister. Fabian influence in British government affairs also emerged such as Fabian member Sidney Webb being chosen to take part in writing what became the Minority Report of the Royal Commission on Labour. While he was nominally a member of the Fabian Society, Hardie had close relations with certain Fabians such as Shaw while he was antagonistic to others such as the Webbs. As ILP leader, Hardie rejected revolutionary politics while declaring that he believed the party's tactics should be \"as constitutional as the Fabians\". Another important Fabian figure who joined the ILP was Robert Blatchford who wrote the work \"Merrie England\" (1894) that endorsed municipal socialism. \"Merrie England\" was a major publication that sold 750,000 copies within one year. In \"Merrie England\", Blatchford distinguished two types of socialism, namely an ideal socialism and a practical socialism. Blatchford's practical socialism was a state socialism that identified existing state enterprise such as the Post Office run by the municipalities as a demonstration of practical socialism in action while he claimed that practical socialism should involve the extension of state enterprise to the means of production as common property of the people. While endorsing state socialism, Blatchford's \"Merrie England\" and his other writings were nonetheless influenced by anarcho-communist William Morris—as Blatchford himself attested to—and Morris' anarcho-communist themes are present in \"Merrie England\". Shaw published the \"Report on Fabian Policy\" (1896) that declared: \"The Fabian Society does not suggest that the State should monopolize industry as against private enterprise or individual initiative\". Major developments in social democracy as a whole emerged with the ascendance of Eduard Bernstein as a proponent of reformist socialism and an adherent of Marxism. Bernstein had resided in Britain in the 1880s at the time when Fabianism was arising and is believed to have been strongly influenced by Fabianism.", "As tensions between Europe's Great Powers escalated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Bernstein feared that Germany's arms race with other powers was increasing the possibility of a major European war. Bernstein's fears were ultimately proven to be prophetic when the outbreak of World War I occurred on 27 July 1914, just a month prior the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Immediately after the outbreak of World War I, Bernstein travelled from Germany to Britain to meet with Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald. While Bernstein regarded the outbreak of the war with great dismay and although the two countries were at war with one another, he was honoured at the meeting. In spite of Bernstein's and other social democrats' attempts to secure the unity of the Second International, with national tensions increasing between the countries at war, the Second International collapsed in 1914. Anti-war members of the SPD refused to support finances being given to the German government to support the war. However, a nationalist-revisionist faction of SPD members led by Friedrich Ebert, Gustav Noske and Philipp Scheidemann supported the war, arguing that Germany had the \"right to its territorial defense\" from the \"destruction of Tsarist despotism\". The SPD's decision to support the war, including Bernstein's decision to support it, was heavily influenced by the fact that the German government lied to the German people as it claimed that the only reason Germany had declared war on Russia was because Russia was preparing to invade East Prussia when in fact this was not the case. Jaurès opposed France's intervention in the war and took a pacifist stance, but he was soon assassinated on 31 July 1914 by French nationalist Raoul Villain. Bernstein soon resented the war and by October 1914 was convinced of the German government's war guilt and contacted the orthodox Marxists of the SPD to unite to push the SPD to take an anti-war stance. Kautsky attempted to put aside his differences with Bernstein and join forces in opposing the war and Kautsky", "The stock market crash of 1929 that began an economic crisis in the United States that globally spread and became the Great Depression profoundly affected economic policy-making. The collapse of the gold standard and the emergence of mass unemployment resulted in multiple governments recognizing the need for macroeconomic state intervention to reduce unemployment as well as economic intervention to stabilize prices, a proto-Keynesianism that John Maynard Keynes himself would soon publicly endorse. Multiple social-democratic parties declared the need for substantial investment in economic infrastructure projects to respond to unemployment and creating social control over currency flow. Furthermore, social-democratic parties declared that the Great Depression demonstrated the need for substantial macroeconomic planning by the state while their free market opponents staunchly opposed this. Attempts by social-democratic governments to achieve this were unsuccessful due to the ensuing political instability in their countries caused by the depression. The British Labour Party became internally split over said policies while Germany's SPD government did not have the time to implement such policies as Germany's politics degenerated into violent civil unrest pitting the left against the right in which the Nazi Party rose to power in January 1933 and violently dismantled parliamentary democracy for the next twelve years. Hjalmar Branting, leader of the Swedish Social Democratic Party (SAP) from its founding to his death in 1925, asserted: \"I believe that one benefits the workers so much more by forcing through reforms which alleviate and strengthen their position, than by saying that only a revolution can help them\". A major development for social democracy was the victory of several social-democratic parties in Scandinavia, particularly the SAP in the 1920 general election. Elected to a minority government, the SAP created a Socialization Committee that supported a mixed economy combining the best of private initiative with social ownership or control, supporting a substantial socialization \"of all necessary natural resources, industrial enterprises, credit institutions, transportation and communication routes\" that would be gradually transferred to the state. It permitted private ownership of the means of production outside of these areas. In 1922, Ramsay MacDonald returned to the leadership of the Labour Party after his brief tenure in the Independent Labour Party. In the 1924 general election, the Labour Party won a plurality of seats and was elected as a minority government, but required assistance from the Liberal Party to achieve a majority in parliament. Opponents of Labour falsely accused the party of Bolshevik sympathies. Prime minister MacDonald responded to these allegations by stressing the party's commitment to reformist gradualism and openly opposing the radical wing in the party. MacDonald emphasized that the Labour minority government's first and foremost commitment was to uphold democratic and responsible government over all other policies. MacDonald emphasized this because he knew that any attempt to pass major socialist legislation in a minority government would endanger the new government as it would be opposed and blocked by the Conservatives and the Liberals, who together held a majority of seats. Labour", "After World War II, a new international organization called the Socialist International was formed in 1951 to represent social democracy and a democratic socialism in opposition to Soviet-style socialism. In the founding Frankfurt Declaration on 3 July, its \"Aims and Tasks of Democratic Socialism: Declaration of the Socialist International\" denounced both capitalism and Bolshevism, better known as Marxism–Leninism and referred to as Communism—criticizing the latter in articles 7, 8, 9 and 10. The rise of Keynesianism in the Western world during the Cold War influenced the development of social democracy. The attitude of social democrats towards capitalism changed as a result of the rise of Keynesianism. Capitalism was acceptable to social democrats only if capitalism's typical crises could be prevented and if mass unemployment could be averted, therefore Keynesianism was believed to be able to provide this. Social democrats came to accept the market for reasons of efficiency and endorsed Keynesianism as that was expected to reconcile democracy and capitalism. According to Michael Harrington, this represented a compromise between capitalism and socialism. While the post-war period of social democracy saw several social-democratic parties renouncing orthodox Marxism, they did not lose their revisionist Marxist character, nor did they stop looking at Marx for inspiration such as in the form of Marxist humanism. However, Marxism was associated with the Marxism–Leninism as practized in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc which social democracy rejected and regarded as \"falsely claim[ing] a share in the Socialist tradition. In fact it has distorted that tradition beyond recognition\". Rather than a close or dogmatic Marxism, social democracy favours an open and \"critical spirit of Marxism\". For Harrington, social democracy believes that capitalism be reformed from within and that gradually a socialist economy will be created. The \"social democratic compromise\" involving Keynesianism led to a capitalism under socialist governments that would generate such growth that the surplus would make possible \"an endless improvement of the quality of social life\". According to Harrington, the socialists had become the \"normal party of government\" in Europe while their \"conservative opponents were forced to accept measures they", "The economic crisis in the Western world in the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis during the mid- to late 1970s resulted in the rise of neoliberalism and several politicians were elected on neoliberal platforms such as British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and United States president Ronald Reagan. The rise in support for neoliberalism raised questions over the political viability of social democracy, with sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf predicting the \"end of the social democratic century\". In 1985, an agreement was made between several social-democratic parties in the Western Bloc countries of Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands and with the communist parties of the Eastern Bloc countries of Bulgaria, East Germany and Hungary to have multilateral discussions on trade, nuclear disarmament and other issues. In 1989, the Socialist International adopted its present Declaration of Principles which addressed issues concerning the internationalization of the economy and defined its interpretation of the nature of socialism. The Declaration of Principles stated that socialist values and vision include \"a peaceful and democratic world society combining freedom, justice and solidarity\" while arguing that [n]either private nor State ownership by themselves guarantee either economic efficiency or social justice\". The Socialist International defined the rights and freedoms it supported as follows: \"Socialists protect the inalienable right to life and to physical safety, to freedom of belief and free expression of opinion, to freedom of association and to protection from torture and degradation. Socialists are committed to achieve freedom from hunger and want, genuine social security, and the right to work\". It also clarified that it did not promote any fixed and permanent definition for socialism, arguing: \"Socialists do not claim to possess the blueprint for some final and fixed society which cannot be changed, reformed or further developed. In a movement committed to democratic self-determination there will always be room for creativity since each people and every generation must set its own goals\". By the 1980s, with the rise of conservative neoliberal politicians such as Ronald Reagan in the United States, Margaret Thatcher in Britain, Brian Mulroney in Canada and Augusto Pinochet in Chile, the Western welfare state was attacked from within, but state support for the corporate sector was maintained. The 1989 Socialist International congress was politically significant in that members of the Communist Party of", "Beginning in the 2000s, with the global economic crisis in the late 2000s and early 2010s, the social-democratic parties that had dominated some of the post-World War II political landscape in Western Europe were under pressure in some countries to the extent that a commentator in \"Foreign Affairs\" called it an \"implosion of the centre-left\". The Israeli Labor Party went into gradual decline in the early 2000s following the October 2000 riots and the violence of the al-Aqsa Intifada. The first European country that saw a similar development was Greece in the aftermath of the Great Recession and the ongoing Greek government-debt crisis. Support for the Greek social-democratic party PASOK declined from 43.9% in the 2009 Greek legislative election to 4.68% in the January 2015 Greek legislative election. The decline subsequently proved to not be isolated to Greece as it spread to a number of countries in Europe, a phenomenon many observers described as Pasokification. In 2017, support for social-democratic parties in other countries such as Denmark and Portugal was relatively strong in polls. Moreover, the decline of the social-democratic parties in some countries was accompanied by a surge in the support for other centre-left or left-wing parties such as Syriza in Greece, the Left-Green Movement in Iceland and Podemos in Spain. Several explanations for the European decline have been proposed. Some commentators highlight that the social-democratic support of national fragmentation and labour market deregulation had become less popular among potential voters.", "Social-democratic policies were first adopted in the German Empire between the 1880s and 1890s, when the conservative Chancellor Otto von Bismarck put in place many social welfare proposals initially suggested by the Social Democrats to hinder their electoral success after he instituted the Anti-Socialist Laws, laying the ground of the first modern welfare state. Those policies were dubbed as State Socialism by the liberal opposition, but the term was later accepted and re-appropriated by Bismarck. It was a set of social programs implemented in Germany that were initiated by Bismarck in 1883 as remedial measures to appease the working class and reduce support for socialism and the Social Democrats following earlier attempts to achieve the same objective through Bismarck's Anti-Socialist Laws. This did not prevent the Social Democrats to become the biggest party in parliament by 1912. Similar policies were later adopted in most of Western Europe, including France and the United Kingdom (the latter in the form of the Liberal welfare reforms), with both socialist and liberal parties adopting those policies. In the United States, the progressive movement, a similar social-democratic movement predominantly influenced more by social liberalism than socialism, supported progressive liberals such as Democratic presidents Woodrow Wilson and Franklin D. Roosevelt, whose New Freedom and New Deal programmes adopted many social-democratic policies. With the Great Depression, economic interventionism and nationalizations became more common worldwide and the post-war consensus until the 1970s saw Keynesian social-democratic and mixed economy policies put in place, leading to the post-World War II boom in which the United States, the Soviet Union, the Western European and East Asian countries experienced", "Social democracy is criticized by other socialists because it serves to devise new means to strengthen the capitalist system which conflicts with the socialist goal of replacing capitalism with a socialist system. According to this view, social democracy fails to address the systemic issues inherent in capitalism. The American democratic socialist philosopher David Schweickart contrasts social democracy with democratic socialism by defining the former as an attempt to strengthen the welfare state and the latter as an alternative economic system to capitalism. According to Schweickart, the democratic socialist critique of social democracy is that capitalism can never be sufficiently humanised and that any attempt to suppress its economic contradictions will only cause them to emerge elsewhere. He gives the example that attempts to reduce unemployment too much would result in inflation and too much job security would erode labour discipline. In contrast to social democracy's mixed economy, democratic socialists advocate a post-capitalist economic system based on either a market economy combined with workers' self-management, or on some form of participatory, decentralized planning of the economy. Marxian socialists argue that social-democratic welfare policies cannot resolve the fundamental structural issues of capitalism such as cyclical fluctuations, exploitation and alienation. Accordingly, social democratic programs intended to ameliorate living conditions in capitalism—such as unemployment benefits and taxation on profits—creates further contradictions by further limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system by reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production. The welfare state only serves to legitimize and prolong the exploitative and contradiction-laden system of capitalism to society's detriment. Critics of contemporary social democracy such as Jonas Hinnfors argue that when social democracy abandoned Marxism, it also abandoned socialism and became a liberal capitalist movement, effectively making social democrats similar to non-socialist parties like the Democratic Party in the United States. Market socialism is also critical of social-democratic welfare states. While one common goal of both concepts is to achieve greater social and economic equality, market socialism does so by changes in enterprise ownership and management whereas social democracy attempts to do so by subsidies and taxes on privately owned enterprises to finance welfare programs. Franklin Delano Roosevelt III (grandson of United States president Franklin D. Roosevelt) and David Belkin criticize social democracy for maintaining a property-owning capitalist class which has an active interest in reversing social-democratic welfare policies and a disproportionate amount of power as a class to influence government policy. The economists John Roemer and Pranab Bardhan point out that social democracy requires a strong labour movement to sustain its heavy redistribution through taxes and that it is idealistic to think such redistribution can be accomplished in other countries with weaker labour movements, noting that social democracy in Scandinavian countries has been in decline as the labour movement weakened. Some critics claim that social democracy abandoned socialism in the 1930s by endorsing Keynesian welfare capitalism. The democratic socialist political theorist Michael Harrington argues that social democracy historically supported Keynesianism as part of a \"social democratic compromise\" between capitalism and socialism. While this compromise did not allow for the immediate creation of socialism, it created welfare states and \"recognized noncapitalist, and even anticapitalist, principles of human need over and above the imperatives of profit\". Social democrats in favour of the Third Way have been accused of having endorsed capitalism, including by anti-Third Way social democrats who have accused Third Way proponents such as Anthony Giddens of being anti-social democratic and anti-socialist in practice. Social democracy's reformism has been criticized from both the left and right, for if the left was to govern a capitalist economy, it would have to do so according to capitalist, not socialist, logic. This argument was previously echoed by Joseph Schumpeter in \"Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy\" (1942), writing: \"Socialists had to govern in an essentially capitalist world [...], a social and economic system that would not function except on capitalist lines. [...] If they were to run it, they would have to run it according to its own logic. They would have to \"administer\" capitalism\". Similarly, Irving Kristol argued: \"Democratic socialism turns out to be an inherently unstable compound, a contradiction in terms. Every social-democratic party, once in power, soon finds itself choosing, at one point after another, between the socialist society it aspires to and the liberal society that lathered it\". Joseph Stalin was a vocal critic of reformist social democrats, later coining the term \"social fascism\" to describe social democracy in the 1930s because in this period it embraced a similar corporatist economic model to the model supported by fascism. This view was adopted by the Communist International which argued that capitalist society had entered the Third Period in which a proletarian revolution was imminent, but that it could be prevented by social democrats and other fascist forces." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Colonial and post-colonial history.", "Incorporation as borough.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Neighborhoods.", "Demographics.", "2010 U.S. Census.", "2018 estimates.", "Ethnic groups.", "Culture.", "Languages.", "Food.", "Religion.", "Government.", "Economy.", "Sports.", "Transportation.", "Airports.", "Public transportation.", "Water transit.", "Roads.", "Highways.", "Streets.", "Bridges and tunnels.", "Education.", "Elementary and secondary education.", "Queens Public Library.", "Notable people." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "European colonization brought Dutch and English settlers, as a part of the New Netherland colony. First settlements occurred in 1635 followed by early colonizations at Maspeth in 1642 (ultimately unsuccessful), and Vlissingen (now Flushing) in 1645. Other early settlements included Newtown (now Elmhurst) in 1652 and Jamaica in 1655. However, these towns were mostly inhabited by English settlers from New England via eastern Long Island (Suffolk County) subject to Dutch law. After the capture of the colony by the English and its renaming as \"New York\" in 1664, the area (and all of Long Island) became known as Yorkshire. The Flushing Remonstrance signed by colonists in 1657 is considered a precursor to the United States Constitution's provision on freedom of religion in the Bill of", "The New York City Borough of Queens was authorized on May 4, 1897, by a vote of the New York State Legislature after an 1894 referendum on consolidation. The eastern of Queens that became Nassau County was partitioned on January 1, 1899. Queens Borough was established on January 1, 1898. \"The city of Long Island City, the towns of Newtown, Flushing and Jamaica, and that part of the town of Hempstead, in the county of Queens, which is westerly of a straight line drawn through the middle of the channel between Rockaway Beach and Shelter Island, in the county of Queens, to the Atlantic Ocean\" was annexed to New York City, dissolving all former municipal governments (Long Island City, the county government, all towns, and all villages) within the new borough. The areas of Queens County that were not part of the consolidation plan, consisting of the towns of North Hempstead and Oyster Bay, and the major remaining portion of the Town of Hempstead, remained part of Queens County until they seceded to form", "Queens is located on the far western portion of geographic Long Island and includes a few smaller islands, most of which are in Jamaica Bay, forming part of the Gateway National Recreation Area, which in turn is one of the National Parks of New York Harbor. According to the United States Census Bureau, Queens County has a total area of, of which is land and (39%) is water. Brooklyn, the only other New York City borough on geographic Long Island, lies just south and west of Queens, with Newtown Creek, an estuary that flows into the East River, forming part of the border. To the west and north is the East River, across which is Manhattan to the west and The Bronx to the north. Nassau County is east of Queens on Long Island. Staten Island is southwest of Brooklyn, and shares only a 3-mile-long water border (in the Outer Bay) with Queens. North of Queens are Flushing Bay and the Flushing River, connecting to the East River. The East River opens into Long Island Sound. The midsection of Queens is crossed by the Long Island straddling terminal moraine created by the Wisconsin Glacier. The Rockaway Peninsula, the southernmost part of all of Queens, sits between Jamaica Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, featuring of beaches.", "Under the Köppen climate classification, using the coldest month (January) isotherm, Queens and the rest of New York City have a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with partial shielding from the Appalachian Mountains and moderating influences from the Atlantic Ocean. Queens receives precipitation throughout the year, with an average of per year. In an average year, there will be 44 days with either moderate or heavy rain. An average winter will have 22 days with some snowfall, of which 9 days have at least of snowfall. Summer is typically hot, humid, and wet. An average year will have 17 days with a high temperature of or warmer. In an", "Four United States Postal Service postal zones serve Queens, based roughly on those serving the towns in existence at the consolidation of the five boroughs into New York City: Long Island City (ZIP codes starting with 111), Jamaica (114), Flushing (113), and Far Rockaway (116). Also, the Floral Park post office (110), based in Nassau County, serves a small part of northeastern Queens. Each of these main", "", "In the 2010 United States Census, Queens recorded a population of 2,230,722. There were 780,117 households enumerated, with an average of 2.82 persons per household. The population density was 20,465.3 inhabitants per square mile (7,966.9/km). There were 835,127 housing units at an average density of 7,661.7 per square mile (2,982.6/km). The racial makeup of the county was 39.7% White, 19.1% Black or African American, 0.7% Native American, 22.9% Asian,", "As of 2018, the population of Queens was estimated by the United States Census Bureau to have increased to 2,278,906, a rise of 2.2%. Queens' estimated population represented 27.1% of New York City's population of 8,398,748; 29.6% of Long Island's population of 7,701,172; and 11.7% of New York State's population of", "According to a 2001 Claritas study, Queens was the most diverse county in the United States among counties of 100,000+ population. A 2014 analysis by \"The Atlantic\" found Queens County to be the 3rd most racially diverse county-equivalent in the United States—behind Aleutians West Census Area and Aleutians East Borough in Alaska—as well as the most diverse county in New York. Meanwhile, a 2017 study by Axios found that, although numerous smaller counties in the United States had higher rates of diversity, Queens was the United States' most diverse populous county. In Queens, approximately 48.5% of the population was foreign born as of 2010. Within the foreign born population, 49.5% were born in Latin America, 33.5% in Asia, 14.8% in Europe, 1.8% in Africa,", "Queens has been the center of a major artistic movement in the form of punk rock with The Ramones originating out of Forest Hills, it has also been the home of such notable artists as Tony Bennett, Francis Ford Coppola, Paul Simon, and Robert Mapplethorpe. The current poet laureate of Queens is Paolo Javier. Queens has notably fostered African-American culture, with establishments such as The Afrikan Poetry Theatre and the Black Spectrum Theater Company catering specifically to African Americans in Queens. In the 1940s, Queens was an important center of jazz; such jazz luminaries as Louis Armstrong, Charlie Parker, and Ella Fitzgerald took up residence in Queens, seeking refuge from the segregation they found elsewhere in New York. Additionally, many notable hip-hop acts hail from Queens, including Nas, Run-D.M.C., Kool G Rap, A Tribe Called Quest, LL Cool J, MC Shan, Mobb Deep, 50 Cent, Nicki Minaj, Tony Yayo, Tragedy Khadafi, N.O.R.E., Capone (rapper), Ja Rule, Heems of Das Racist and Action Bronson. Queens hosts various museums and cultural institutions that serve its diverse communities. They range from the historical (such as the John Bowne House) to the scientific (such as the New York Hall of Science), from conventional art galleries (such as the Noguchi Museum) to unique graffiti exhibits (such as 5 Pointz). Queens's cultural institutions include, but are not limited to: The travel magazine \"Lonely Planet\" also named Queens the top destination in the country for 2015 for its cultural and culinary diversity. Stating that Queens is \"quickly becoming its hippest\" but that \"most travelers haven’t clued in... yet,\" the \"Lonely Planet\" stated that \"nowhere is the image of New York as the global melting pot truer than Queens.\"", "Queens is the most linguistically diverse place on Earth, according to the Endangered Language Alliance. According to the office of the New York State Comptroller, there are 138 languages spoken in the borough. As of 2010, 43.84% (905,890) of Queens residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, while 23.88% (493,462) spoke Spanish, 8.06% (166,570) Chinese, 3.44%", "The cuisine available in Queens reflects its vast cultural diversity. The cuisine of a particular neighborhood often represents its demographics;", "In 2010 statistics, the largest religious group in Queens was the Diocese of Brooklyn, with 677,520 Catholics worshipping at 100 parishes, followed by an estimated 81,456 Muslims with 57 congregations, 80,000 Orthodox Jews with 110 congregations, 33,325 non-denominational adherents with 129 congregations, 28,085 AME Methodists with 14", "Since New York City's consolidation in 1898, Queens has been governed by the New York City Charter that provides for a strong mayor–council system. The centralized New York City government is responsible for public education, correctional institutions, public safety, recreational facilities, sanitation, water supply, and welfare services in Queens. The Queens Library is governed by a 19-member Board of Trustees, who are appointed by the Mayor of New York City and the Borough President of Queens. Since 1990 the Borough President has acted as an advocate for the borough at the mayoral agencies, the City Council, the New York state government, and corporations. Queens' Borough President is Melinda Katz, elected in November 2013 as a Democrat with 80.3% of the vote. Queens Borough Hall is the seat of government and is located in Kew Gardens. The Democratic Party holds most public offices. Sixty-three percent of registered Queens voters are Democrats. Local party platforms center on affordable housing, education, and economic development. Controversial political issues in Queens include development, noise, and the cost of housing. Each of the city's five counties has its criminal court system and District Attorney, the chief public prosecutor who is directly elected by popular vote. Richard A. Brown, who ran on both the Republican and Democratic Party tickets, was the District Attorney of Queens County from 1991–2018. The new DA as of January 2020 is Melinda Katz. Queens has 12 seats on the New York City Council, the second-largest number among the five boroughs. It is divided into 14 community districts, each served by a local Community Board. Community Boards are representative bodies that field complaints and serve as advocates for residents. Although Queens is heavily Democratic, it is considered a swing county in New York politics. Republican political candidates who do well in Queens usually win citywide or statewide elections. Republicans such as former Mayors Rudolph Giuliani and Michael Bloomberg won majorities in Queens. Republican State Senator Serphin Maltese represented a district in central and southern Queens for twenty years until his defeat in 2008 by Democratic City Councilman Joseph Addabbo. In 2002, Queens voted against incumbent Republican Governor of New York George Pataki in favor of his Democratic opponent, Carl McCall by a slim margin. On the national level, Queens has not voted for a Republican candidate in a presidential election since 1972, when Queens voters chose Richard Nixon over George McGovern. Since the 1996 presidential election, Democratic presidential candidates have received over 70% of the popular vote in Queens. Since the election of Donald Trump, Queens has become known in the United States for its surge in progressive politics and grassroots campaigning.", "Queens has the second-largest economy of New York City's five boroughs, following Manhattan. In 2004, Queens had 15.2% (440,310) of all private-sector jobs in New York City and 8.8% of private-sector wages. Queens has the most diversified economy of the five boroughs, with occupations spread relatively evenly across the health care, retail trade, manufacturing, construction, transportation, and film and television production sectors, such that no single sector is overwhelmingly dominant. The diversification in Queens' economy is reflected in a large amount of employment in the export-oriented portions of its economy—such as transportation, manufacturing, and business services—that serve customers outside the region. This accounts for more than 27% of all Queens jobs and offers an average salary of $43,727, 14% greater than that of jobs in the locally oriented sector. The borough's largest employment sector—trade, transportation, and utilities—accounted for nearly 30% of all jobs in 2004. Queens is home to two of the three major", "Citi Field is a 41,922-seat stadium opened in April 2009 in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park that is the home ballpark of the New York Mets of Major League Baseball. Shea Stadium, the former home of the Mets and the New York Jets of the National Football League, as well as the temporary home of the New York Yankees and the New York Giants Football Team stood where Citi Field's parking lot is now located, operating from 1964 to", "According to the 2010 Census, 36% of all Queens households did not own a car; the citywide rate is 53%. Therefore, mass transit is also used.", "Queens has crucial importance in international and interstate air traffic, with two of the New York metropolitan area's three major airports located there. John F. Kennedy International Airport, with 27.4 million international passengers in 2014 (of 53.2 million passengers, overall), is the busiest airport in the United States by international passenger traffic. Owned by the City of New York and managed since 1947 by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the airport's runways and six terminals cover an", "Twelve New York City Subway routes traverse Queens, serving 81 stations on seven main lines. The A, G, J/Z, and M routes connect Queens to Brooklyn without going through Manhattan first. The F, M, N, and R trains connect Queens and Brooklyn via Manhattan, while the E, W, and 7/<7> trains connect Queens to Manhattan only. Trains on the M service go through Queens twice in the same trip; both of its full-length termini, in Middle Village and Forest Hills, are in Queens. A commuter train system, the Long Island Rail Road, operates 22 stations in Queens with service to Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Long Island. Jamaica station is a hub station where all the lines in the system but one (the Port Washington Branch) converge. It is the busiest commuter rail hub in the United States. There are also several stations", "New York Water Taxi operates service across the East River from Hunters Point in Long Island City to Manhattan at 34th Street and south to Pier 11 at Wall Street. In 2007, limited weekday service was begun between Breezy Point, the westernmost point in the Rockaways, to Pier 11 via the Brooklyn Army Terminal. Summertime weekend service provides service from Lower Manhattan and southwest Brooklyn to the peninsula's Gateway beaches. In the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012, ferry operator SeaStreak began running a city-subsidized ferry service between a makeshift ferry slip at Beach 108th Street and Beach Channel Drive in Rockaway Park and piers in Manhattan and Brooklyn. The service was extended multiple times. finally ending on October 31, 2014. In February 2015, Mayor Bill de Blasio announced that the city government would begin a citywide ferry service called NYC Ferry to extend ferry transportation to communities in the city that have been traditionally undeserved by public transit. The ferry opened in May 2017, with the Queens neighborhoods of Rockaway and Astoria served by their eponymous routes. A third route, the East River Ferry, serves Hunter's Point South.", "", "Queens is traversed by three trunk east–west highways. The Long Island Expressway (Interstate 495) runs from the Queens Midtown Tunnel on the west through the borough to Nassau County on the east. The Grand Central Parkway, whose western terminus is the Triborough Bridge, extends east to the Queens/Nassau border, where its name changed to the Northern State Parkway. The Belt Parkway begins at the Gowanus Expressway in Brooklyn, and extends east into Queens, past Aqueduct Racetrack and JFK Airport. On its eastern end at the Queens/Nassau border, it", "The streets of Queens are laid out in a semi-grid system, with a numerical system of street names (similar to Manhattan and the Bronx). Nearly all roadways oriented north–south are \"Streets\", while east–west roadways are \"Avenues\", beginning with the number 1 in the west for Streets and the north for Avenues. In some parts of the borough, several consecutive streets may share numbers (for instance, 72nd Street followed by 72nd Place and 72nd Lane, or 52nd Avenue followed by 52nd Road, 52nd Drive, and 52nd Court), often confusing non-residents. Also, incongruous alignments of street grids, unusual street paths due to geography, or other circumstances often", "Queens is connected to the Bronx by the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge, the Throgs Neck Bridge, the Triborough Bridge (also known as the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge), and the Hell Gate Bridge. Queens is connected to Manhattan Island by the Triborough Bridge, the Queensboro Bridge, and the Queens–Midtown Tunnel, as well as to Roosevelt Island by the Roosevelt Island Bridge. While most of the Queens/Brooklyn border is on land, the Kosciuszko Bridge crosses the Newtown Creek connecting Maspeth to Greenpoint, Brooklyn. The Pulaski Bridge connects McGuinness Boulevard in Greenpoint to 11th Street, Jackson Avenue, and Hunters Point Avenue in Long Island", "", "Elementary and secondary school education in Queens is provided by a vast number of public and private institutions. Public schools in the borough are managed by the New York City Department of Education, the largest public school system in the United States. Most private schools are affiliated with or identify themselves with the Roman Catholic or Jewish religious communities. Townsend Harris High School is a Queens public magnet high school", "The Queens Public Library is the public library system for the borough and one of three library systems serving New York City. Dating back to the foundation of the first Queens library in Flushing in 1858, the Queens Public Library is one of the largest public library systems in the United States. Separate from the New York Public", "Many public figures have grown up or lived in Queens. Musicians who were raised in the borough include Nas, LL Cool J, A Tribe Called Quest, Mobb Deep, Onyx, Ja Rule, 50 Cent, Lloyd Banks, Tony Yayo, Run–D.M.C., Nicki Minaj, Lil Tecca, Rich The Kid, Tony Yayo, Action Bronson, Nadia Ali and Tony Bennett. Jazz greats Louis Armstrong and Norman Mapp both resided in Corona, as well as rock duo Simon & Garfunkel and guitarists Scott Ian and Johnny Ramone. K-pop rapper Mark Lee from the boy group NCT grew up in Queens before moving to Canada. Actors such as Adrien Brody, and Lucy Liu and Idina Menzel have been born and/or raised in Queens. Actress Mae West also lived in Queens. Writers from Queens include John Guare (\"The House of Blue Leaves\") and Laura Z. Hobson (\"Gentleman's Agreement\"). Physician Joshua Prager was born in Whitestone. Mafia boss John Gotti lived in Queens for many years. Richard Feynman, a scientist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, was born in Queens and grew up in Far Rockaway. Lee \"Q\" O'Denat, founder of WorldStarHipHop was from Hollis, Queens. Donald Trump, a businessman who became the 45th President of the United States, was born in Jamaica Hospital Medical Center and raised at 81-15 Wareham Place in Jamaica Estates, later moving to Midland Parkway. He was preceded in the White House by former First Ladies Nancy Reagan, who lived in Flushing as a child and Barbara Bush, who was born at Booth Memorial Hospital in Flushing. Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th President, lived at Sagamore Hill in Oyster Bay from the mid-1880s until he died; the area was considered part of Queens until the formation of neighboring Nassau County in 1899. Queens has also been home to athletes such as professional basketball player Rafer Alston Basketball players Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Metta World Peace were both born in Queens, as was Olympic athlete Bob Beamon. Tennis star John McEnroe was born in Douglaston. Hall of Fame baseball pitcher Whitey Ford grew up in Astoria. Journalist Marie Colvin was a native of Queens. Queens has also served as a setting for fictional characters, one of the more famous being Peter Parker/Spider-Man from Marvel Comics. The character grew up in Forest Hills with his Aunt May and Uncle Ben." ] }

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{ "title": [ "1999 season.", "Chassis, transmission and engine specs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Early in the season the car showed huge performance with Irvine winning the opening round in Australia while Schumacher collected podiums along with wins at Imola and Monaco, thereby making Ferrari a serious threat to the McLaren duo of Mika Häkkinen and David Coulthard throughout much of the 1999 season. While Irvine would also go on to win back-to-back victories at Austria and Germany along with the inaugural Malaysian Grand Prix, Häkkinen and McLaren had shown great consistency over the season despite 4 retirements over the course of the season. Ferrari's championship aspirations also took a beating after Schumacher had broken his leg at Silverstone, resulting in Ferrari briefly replacing him with Mika Salo during the midway point of the season. Salo performed well, handing victory to Irvine in Germany and finishing third at Monza. The team were briefly excluded from Malaysia after the stewards found out that their bargeboards were illegal, meaning that Häkkinen and McLaren were effectively handed their respective championships by default. However, Ferrari managed to appeal against the FIA's decision in court and both of their drivers were subsequently reinstated. After the season had ended, Häkkinen had claimed the driver's title by two points from Irvine while Ferrari claimed the constructor's title by four points from McLaren.", "The chassis of the Ferrari F399 was almost identical to its predecessor, the F300. It had a reinforced carbon-fibre and honeycomb monocoque structure that could protect the driver from most accidents. The engine was an MR(Mid-engine, Rear wheel drive) layout. Changes from the F300 was that front wing was slightly modified, the sidepods were waisted, and the exhaust was improved in order so that Ferrari could push harder in their fight with McLaren. The suspension for the front and rear areas of the car were the pushrod/double wishbone suspension systems that still exist today in Formula 1. The car also has wheel tethers on each wheel to prevent the tires from hitting the driver's head, a regulation that is still used by Formula One to this day. The engine is an 750 BHP (552 KW), 80-degree 3.0 litre V10 engine manufactured by Ferrari called the Tipo048/B/C. It also bears a 7-shift transmission that was in all Formula One cars until the teams started using 8-shift transmission gearboxes since the 2014 season began. The car also used Shell fuel to power its engine while the tyres, which were designed by Bridgestone, now had 4 grooves on all 4 tyres instead of 3 grooves on the front tyres. The new tyres with four grooves were a new rule change for the 1999 season and onward in the V10 era of the sport." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early research.", "Invention.", "Standards and commercialization.", "Functions.", "Forms.", "Multi-antenna types.", "Multi-user types.", "Applications.", "Mathematical description.", "Testing.", "Literature.", "Principal researchers.", "Diversity-multiplexing tradeoff.", "Other applications.", "Sampling theory in MIMO systems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "MIMO is often traced back to 1970s research papers concerning multi-channel digital transmission systems and interference (crosstalk) between wire pairs in a cable bundle: AR Kaye and DA George (1970), Branderburg and Wyner (1974), and W. van Etten (1975, 1976). Although these are not examples of exploiting multipath propagation to send multiple information streams, some of the mathematical techniques for dealing with mutual interference proved useful to MIMO development. In the mid-1980s Jack Salz at Bell Laboratories took this research a step further, investigating multi-user systems operating over \"mutually cross-coupled linear networks with additive noise sources\" such as time-division multiplexing and dually-polarized radio systems. Methods were developed to improve the performance of cellular radio networks and enable more aggressive frequency reuse in the early 1990s. Space-division multiple access (SDMA) uses directional or smart antennas to communicate on the same frequency with users in different locations within range of the same base station. An SDMA system was proposed by Richard Roy and Björn Ottersten, researchers at ArrayComm, in 1991. Their US patent (No. 5515378 issued in 1996) describes a method for increasing capacity using \"an array of receiving antennas at the base station\" with a \"plurality of remote users.\"", "Arogyaswami Paulraj and Thomas Kailath proposed an SDMA-based inverse multiplexing technique in 1993. Their US patent (No. 5,345,599 issued in 1994) described a method of broadcasting at high data rates by splitting a high-rate signal \"into several low-rate signals\" to be transmitted from \"spatially separated transmitters\" and recovered by the receive antenna array based on differences in \"directions-of-arrival.\" Paulraj was awarded the prestigious Marconi Prize in 2014 for \"his pioneering contributions to developing the theory and applications of MIMO antennas.... His idea for using multiple antennas at both the transmitting and receiving stations – which is at the heart of the current high speed WiFi and 4G mobile systems – has revolutionized high speed wireless.\" In an April 1996 paper and subsequent patent, Greg Raleigh proposed that natural multipath propagation can be exploited to transmit multiple, independent information streams using co-located antennas and multi-dimensional signal processing. The paper also identified practical solutions for modulation (MIMO-OFDM), coding, synchronization, and channel estimation. Later that year (September 1996) Gerard J. Foschini submitted a paper that also suggested it is possible to multiply the capacity of a wireless link using what the author described as \"layered space-time architecture.\" Greg Raleigh, V. K. Jones, and Michael Pollack founded Clarity Wireless in 1996, and built and field-tested a prototype MIMO system. Cisco Systems acquired Clarity Wireless in 1998. Bell Labs built a laboratory prototype demonstrating its V-BLAST (Vertical-Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time) technology in 1998. Arogyaswami Paulraj founded Iospan Wireless in late 1998 to develop MIMO-OFDM products. Iospan was acquired by Intel in 2003. V-BLAST was never commercialized, and neither Clarity Wireless nor Iospan Wireless shipped MIMO-OFDM products before being acquired.", "MIMO technology has been standardized for wireless LANs, 3G mobile phone networks, and 4G mobile phone networks and is now in widespread commercial use. Greg Raleigh and V. K. Jones founded Airgo Networks in 2001 to develop MIMO-OFDM chipsets for wireless LANs. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created a task group in late 2003 to develop a wireless LAN standard delivering at least 100 Mbit/s of user data throughput. There were two major competing proposals: TGn Sync was backed by companies including Intel and Philips, and WWiSE was supported by companies including Airgo Networks, Broadcom, and Texas Instruments. Both groups agreed that the 802.11n standard would be based on MIMO-OFDM with 20 MHz and 40 MHz channel options. TGn Sync, WWiSE, and a third proposal (MITMOT, backed by Motorola and Mitsubishi) were merged to create what was called the Joint Proposal. In 2004, Airgo became the first company to ship MIMO-OFDM products. Qualcomm acquired Airgo Networks in late 2006. The final 802.11n standard supported speeds up to 600 Mbit/s (using four simultaneous data streams) and was published in late 2009. Surendra Babu Mandava and Arogyaswami Paulraj founded Beceem Communications in 2004 to produce MIMO-OFDM chipsets for WiMAX. The company was acquired by Broadcom in 2010. WiMAX was developed as an alternative to cellular standards, is based on the 802.16e standard, and uses MIMO-OFDM to deliver speeds up to 138 Mbit/s. The more advanced 802.16m standard enables download speeds up to 1 Gbit/s. A nationwide WiMAX network was built in the United States by Clearwire, a subsidiary of Sprint-Nextel, covering 130 million points of presence (PoP) by mid-2012. Sprint subsequently announced plans to deploy LTE (the cellular 4G standard) covering 31 cities by mid-2013 and to shut down its WiMAX network by the end of 2015. The first 4G cellular standard was proposed by NTT DoCoMo in 2004. Long term evolution (LTE) is based on MIMO-OFDM and continues to be developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). LTE specifies downlink rates up to 300 Mbit/s, uplink rates up to 75 Mbit/s, and quality of service parameters such as low latency. LTE Advanced adds support for picocells, femtocells, and multi-carrier channels up to 100 MHz wide. LTE has been embraced by both GSM/UMTS and CDMA operators. The first LTE services were launched in Oslo and Stockholm by TeliaSonera in 2009. There are currently more than 360 LTE networks in 123 countries operational with approximately 373 million connections (devices).", "MIMO can be sub-divided into three main categories: precoding, spatial multiplexing (SM), and diversity coding. Precoding is multi-stream beamforming, in the narrowest definition. In more general terms, it is considered to be all spatial processing that occurs at the transmitter. In (single-stream) beamforming, the same signal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas with appropriate phase and gain weighting such that the signal power is maximized at the receiver input. The benefits of beamforming are to increase the received signal gain – by making signals emitted from different antennas add up constructively – and to reduce the multipath fading effect. In line-of-sight propagation, beamforming results in a well-defined directional pattern. However, conventional beams are not a good analogy in cellular networks, which are mainly characterized by multipath propagation. When the receiver has multiple antennas, the transmit beamforming cannot simultaneously maximize the signal level at all of the receive antennas, and precoding with multiple streams is often beneficial. Note that precoding requires knowledge of channel state information (CSI) at the transmitter and the receiver. Spatial multiplexing requires MIMO antenna configuration. In spatial multiplexing, a high-rate signal is split into multiple lower-rate streams and each stream is transmitted from a different transmit antenna in the same frequency channel. If these signals arrive at the receiver antenna array with sufficiently different spatial signatures and the receiver has accurate CSI, it can separate these streams into (almost) parallel channels. Spatial multiplexing is a very powerful technique for increasing channel capacity at higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). The maximum number of spatial streams is limited by the lesser of the number of antennas at the transmitter or receiver. Spatial multiplexing can be used without CSI at the transmitter, but can be combined with precoding if CSI is available. Spatial multiplexing can also be used for simultaneous transmission to multiple receivers, known as space-division multiple access or multi-user MIMO, in which case CSI is required at the transmitter. The scheduling of receivers with different spatial signatures allows good separability. Diversity coding techniques are used when there is no channel knowledge at the transmitter. In diversity methods, a single stream (unlike multiple streams in spatial multiplexing) is transmitted, but the signal is coded using techniques called space-time coding. The signal is emitted from each of the transmit antennas with full or near orthogonal coding. Diversity coding exploits the independent fading in the multiple antenna links to enhance signal diversity. Because there is no channel knowledge, there is no beamforming or array gain from diversity coding. Diversity coding can be combined with spatial multiplexing when some channel knowledge is available at the receiver.", "", "Multi-antenna MIMO (or Single user MIMO) technology has been developed and implemented in some standards, e.g., 802.11n products.", "Recently, results of research on multi-user MIMO technology have been emerging. While full multi-user MIMO (or network MIMO) can have a higher potential, practically, the research on (partial) multi-user MIMO (or multi-user and multi-antenna MIMO) technology is more active.", "Spatial multiplexing techniques make the receivers very complex, and therefore they are typically combined with Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) or with Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) modulation, where the problems created by a multi-path channel are handled efficiently. The IEEE 802.16e standard incorporates MIMO-OFDMA. The IEEE 802.11n standard, released in October 2009, recommends MIMO-OFDM. MIMO is also planned to be used in Mobile radio telephone standards such as recent 3GPP and 3GPP2. In 3GPP, High-Speed Packet Access plus (HSPA+) and Long Term Evolution (LTE) standards take MIMO into account. Moreover, to fully support cellular environments, MIMO research consortia including IST-MASCOT propose to develop advanced MIMO techniques, e.g., multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO). MIMO technology can be used in non-wireless communications systems. One example is the home networking standard ITU-T G.9963, which defines a powerline communications system that uses MIMO techniques to transmit multiple signals over multiple AC wires (phase, neutral and ground).", "In MIMO systems, a transmitter sends multiple streams by multiple transmit antennas. The transmit streams go through a matrix channel which consists of all formula_1 paths between the formula_2 transmit antennas at the transmitter and formula_3 receive antennas at the receiver. Then, the receiver gets the received signal vectors by the multiple receive antennas and decodes the received signal vectors into the original information. A narrowband flat fading MIMO system is modelled as: where formula_5 and formula_6 are the receive and transmit vectors, respectively, and formula_7 and formula_8 are the channel matrix and the noise vector, respectively. Referring to information theory, the ergodic channel capacity of MIMO systems where both the transmitter and the receiver have perfect instantaneous channel state information is where formula_10 denotes Hermitian transpose and formula_11 is the ratio between transmit power and noise power (i.e., transmit SNR). The optimal signal covariance formula_12 is achieved through singular value decomposition of the channel matrix formula_13 and an optimal diagonal power allocation matrix formula_14. The optimal power allocation is achieved through waterfilling, that is where formula_16 are the diagonal elements of formula_17, formula_18 is zero if its argument is negative, and formula_19 is selected such that formula_20. If the transmitter has only statistical channel state information, then the ergodic channel capacity will decrease as the signal covariance formula_21 can only be optimized in terms of the average mutual information as The spatial correlation of the channel has a strong impact on the ergodic channel capacity with statistical information. If the transmitter has no channel state information it can select the signal covariance formula_21 to maximize channel capacity under worst-case statistics, which means formula_24 and accordingly Depending on the statistical properties of the channel, the ergodic capacity is no greater than formula_26 times larger than that of a SISO system.", "MIMO signal testing focuses first on the transmitter/receiver system. The random phases of the sub-carrier signals can produce instantaneous power levels that cause the amplifier to compress, momentarily causing distortion and ultimately symbol errors. Signals with a high PAR (peak-to-average ratio) can cause amplifiers to compress unpredictably during transmission. OFDM signals are very dynamic and compression problems can be hard to detect because of their noise-like nature. Knowing the quality of the signal channel is also critical. A channel emulator can simulate how a device performs at the cell edge, can add noise or can simulate what the channel looks like at speed. To fully qualify the performance of a receiver, a calibrated transmitter, such as a vector signal generator (VSG), and channel emulator can be used to test the receiver under a variety of different conditions. Conversely, the transmitter's performance under a number of different conditions can be verified using a channel emulator and a calibrated receiver, such as a vector signal analyzer (VSA). Understanding the channel allows for manipulation of the phase and amplitude of each transmitter in order to form a beam. To correctly form a beam, the transmitter needs to understand the characteristics of the channel. This process is called \"channel sounding\" or channel estimation. A known signal is sent to the mobile device that enables it to build a picture of the channel environment. The mobile device sends back the channel characteristics to the transmitter. The transmitter can then apply the correct phase and amplitude adjustments to form a beam directed at the mobile device. This is called a closed-loop MIMO system. For beamforming, it is required to adjust the phases and amplitude of each transmitter. In a beamformer optimized for spatial diversity or spatial multiplexing, each antenna element simultaneously transmits a weighted combination of two data symbols.", "", "Papers by Gerard J. Foschini and Michael J. Gans, Foschini and Emre Telatar have shown that the channel capacity (a theoretical upper bound on system throughput) for a MIMO system is increased as the number of antennas is increased, proportional to the smaller of the number of transmit antennas and the number of receive antennas. This is known as the multiplexing gain and this basic finding in information theory is what led to a spurt of research in this area. Despite the simple propagation models used in the aforementioned seminal works, the multiplexing gain is a fundamental property that can be proved under almost any physical channel propagation model and with practical hardware that is prone to transceiver impairments. Papers by Dr. Fernando Rosas and Dr. Christian Oberli have shown that the entire MIMO SVD link can be approximated by the average of the SER of Nakagami-m channels. This leads to characterise the eigenchannels of N × N MIMO channels with N larger than 14, showing that the smallest eigenchannel distributes as a Rayleigh channel, the next four eigenchannels closely distributes as Nakagami-m channels with m = 4, 9, 25 and 36, and the N – 5 remaining eigenchannels have statistics similar to an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel within 1 dB signal-to-noise ratio. It is also shown that 75% of the total mean power gain of the MIMO SVD channel goes to the top third of all the eigenchannels. A textbook by A. Paulraj, R. Nabar and D. Gore has published an introduction to this area. There are many other principal textbooks available as well.", "There exists a fundamental tradeoff between transmit diversity and spatial multiplexing gains in a MIMO system (Zheng and Tse, 2003). In particular, achieving high spatial multiplexing gains is of profound importance in modern wireless systems.", "Given the nature of MIMO, it is not limited to wireless communication. It can be used for wire line communication as well. For example, a new type of DSL technology (gigabit DSL) has been proposed based on binder MIMO channels.", "An important question which attracts the attention of engineers and mathematicians is how to use the multi-output signals at the receiver to recover the multi-input signals at the transmitter. In Shang, Sun and Zhou (2007), sufficient and necessary conditions are established to guarantee the complete recovery of the multi-input signals." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Communication.", "Psychology of communication.", "Communication process.", "Opinion leaders and opinion formers.", "Adjusted model of communications.", "Mass media.", "Television.", "Radio.", "Print.", "Decline.", "Communication platforms.", "Guerrilla marketing.", "Touch points.", "Multiplier effect.", "Co-creation.", "The internet.", "Interactivity.", "Individualisation.", "Industry restructuring.", "Social media.", "Email.", "In-product communication.", "Direct marketing.", "Direct mail.", "Telemarketing.", "Mail order.", "Direct-response advertising.", "Cellular marketing.", "CD/DVD technology.", "Integrated marketing communications.", "History.", "Meaning of integration.", "Functional integration.", "Message integration.", "Media integration.", "Integration of timing.", "Other types of integration.", "Criticisms.", "Marketing communications framework.", "Integrated Marketing Communications planning approaches.", "Inside–out approach.", "Outside–in approach.", "Cross-functional planning approach.", "Barriers to implementation.", "4C's.", "Communication-based relationship marketing.", "Branding.", "Focus.", "Customer-focused versus customer-centric." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Marketing communications includes advertising, promotions, sales, branding, campaigning, and online promotion. The process allows the public to know or understand a brand. With growing technology and techniques, the direct participation of customers is made. This is done by including their ideas and creations, in product development and brand promotion. Successful branding involves targeting audiences who appreciate the organization's marketing program. Advertising is a small but important part of marketing communications; the marketing communications mix is a set of tools that can be used to deliver a clear and consistent message to target audiences. It is also commonly called the promotional mix. Crosier", "Communication is one important aspect of the marketing mix. Marketing communication is often the largest component of communication within a company, which may be to present company values, objectives or specific products and services to investors, customers or the general public. In the 21st century, communications objectives focus on more customized messages, targeting customer groups or individuals to create high responses and greater brand interaction. As business becomes increasingly global with greater access to Internet, mobile phones and social media, new challenges exist to inform people in targeted foreign markets. Shifts in the global economy and access to new markets lead also to greater demands for product shipping and associated services. To be effective, communication strategies must converge with marketing objectives while also accounting for local languages, dialects and cultural norms. External communications might involve market research questionnaires, office website, guarantees, company annual report and presentations for investors. Internal communication can be the marketing materials, price list, product catalogues, sales presentations and management communications. On the other hand, each market demands different types of communications. For example, the industrial market demands a more personal communication but the consumer market demands non-personal communication. There are also 4 different fundamental types of communication. One-to-one is more immediate, while the many-to-may channels tend to be less urgent but with greater longevity.", "One of the primary goals of a marketing communication is to persuade consumers or businesses, by either changing their perception of a brand, product or service, or persuading them to purchase (or feel motivated / tempted to purchase) a product or service. The \"Elaboration Likelihood Model\" is used to demonstrate how persuasion occurs. When a marketing communication message is sent out, first it must be acknowledged and attended by the receiver. By giving their attention to the marketing communication, consumers will begin to process and comprehend the message. There are two routes to persuasion: Central and peripheral.", "Communication can be defined as process of using, word, sound or visual cues to supply information to one or more people. A communication process is defined as information that is shared with the intent that the receiver understands the message that the business intended to send. The communication process was once thought of as having the source of the message, which is then encoded, put through the chosen communication channel, which is then decoded by the recipient and then received. Throughout the middle of the channel there is the potential for noise to distort the message being sent. Once the receiver has the message they then give feedback to the original source, where they then find out whether the campaign has been successful or not. With the prevalent use of technology, customers are seeking out information about brands, products and businesses prior to purchase. This means that there is a need for an additional channel within the communication process, so it is a more accurate representation of the current business environment. Businesses are now having to take into consideration that both opinion leaders and opinion formers who have a great influence over today's society and their perceptions. So they have to be included into the communication process before the recipient of the message receives it. This model is more effective when there is common ground between the senders and receivers so they can communicate effectively. Choosing the appropriate source helps develop the message and appeal to the targeted audience. The source will be more effective if they are relatable to the target audience. This realm of understanding is represented by the overlapping circles. The more knowledge the source has about who they are targeting, the better they can understand how the receiver may interpret or react to the message. The components of the transactional model are:", "Opinion leaders are consumers who have large influence over the purchasing behaviour of other consumers. These can be peers or celebrities, and often represent a \"desired state\" in the eye of the influenced consumer. By following the consumption patterns of opinion leaders, consumers aspire to achieve a similar status or lifestyle, and project a similar image. Because of this, opinion leaders are powerful factors in marketing communications. Having opinion leaders endorse a brand can increase brand awareness and sales. Due to this, large companies pay highly influential celebrities to endorse their products. You can receive the opinion leaders' thoughts or feeling towards the product/service through paid advertising, social media, blogs, or any other form of written media. These can be direct, or indirect influences. Opinion Formers are consumers who are regarded by their peers", "The core model of communication has been criticized for its linearity – sender, message, receiver and its absence of structural perception. Since then an adjusted model of communication has developed. The adjusted model of communication", "", "Television has since its inception dominated the advertising media scene, due to its combination of visual and aural stimulation, allowing for greater attention grabbing and more effective transmission of messages than other forms of media. It has a few disadvantages: television commercials suffer from being \"zipped\" and zapped\". \"Zipping\" is the term given to fast forwarding commercial break sessions during the pre-recording of programs. Often viewers will record programs purely so they can be viewed without the commercial", "Radio by definition is the broadcasting of sound programmes to the public and today can be live streamed through a broadband connection or digitally transmitted into people's cars or homes. Despite being the oldest form of media transmission still being used, marketing via radio remains a popular and effective choice due to its relatively lower cost and convenience (radio exposure can occur during transit, at work, and during recreational activities). Due to the lack of a visual aspect, radio advertising attempts to create imagery in the consumers mind. Radio advertising is also extremely effective at reinforcing messages encountered in other channels (such as television). A familiar jingle or voice associated with a brand enhances brand and", "Printed media is the most basic form of media advertising. It is the most challenging to create strong imagery with, due to its lack of sensory stimulation, but can be effective in efficient, clear information communication and message delivery. Where a consumer may miss a message in video or audio (perhaps a loud noise interrupts, or someone blocks their view) in print the message remains visible indefinitely. Aspects such as size, colour and style can be used to increase effectiveness relative to other print advertisements, which is important as despite being a", "Traditional media is gradually losing effectiveness. This change is driven by two key factors: audience fragmentation and ability to choose commercial content. Television, radio, magazines, and newspapers are becoming more fragmented and reaching smaller and more selective audiences. The rapid growth of communication due to interactive media, particularly the internet", "Communication platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, Skype, or other types of media have become extremely important means of communication. Although there are other methods of communications that aren't just related to social media, people can also be hugely influenced by their peers, this process is known as social mediation. Marketing Communication Platforms are a powerful capability for personalizing and expending marketing contents in an automated fashion based on the profile of the recipients. A platform by simplest definition is a raised floor or stage. It functions as a similar principle in marketing communications, providing awareness and information about a specific brand or product. Strategic selection of various communication platforms is known as a media strategy which aims to engage an audience in a meaningful conversation and, as a result, create a lasting relationship. Modern technology has expanded the use of platforms and ways in which consumers and the brand can interact. As", "Due to the rise in advertising clutter, there has been a push for non-traditional media such as guerrilla marketing. Guerrilla Marketing is usually a low-cost way of generating buzz through creative or unexpected communication platforms. Outdoor settings provide potential ground to gain attention from a large audience. An example is", "Every point of contact is a form of communication and it is, therefore, necessary to consider touch points as a communication platform. Touch points can be either physical or a human interaction between a brand and the consumer which influence customer decision-making process during pre-purchase, purchase and post-purchase. There are many ways in which a customer may interact with a business. Interactions occur through direct customer service exchanges, a company website, the point of purchase environment and", "While boarding a United Airlines flight, Dave Carroll saw baggage handlers on the tarmac damage his Taylor guitar. After failed attempts to solve the issue through customer service, Carroll uploaded a humorous YouTube video titled \"United breaks guitars\", which experienced over 15 million views. Carroll's YouTube video is an example of the multiplier effect, and how consumer experiences are shared through user-generated content (UGC) networks and word of mouth communication. Research shows customer are more likely to pass on negative experiences, and therefore, such interactive platforms have a significant impact on purchase", "Co-creation takes place when customers not only buy company's products but also help in designing and developing them. Nike built an example of co-creation and customer empowerment through earned and shared media. Nike ID is an online application that allows customers to design their shoe and therefore \"Just do it online\". Market-generated media remain an important communication platform and information source. Consumers tend to consider both market-generated and UGC when making a purchase decision, particularly, for higher involvement product like vinyl record albums. The transition from traditional media to various forms of online and UGC marketing is increasing. Academics recognize that marketing communication is an open system and customers are influenced by multiple communication platforms. Ultimately positive brand encounters manifest brand supporters who contribute to positive earned and shared media, through product recommendations online and offline.", "The Internet features both non-personal and personal forms of communication. It has become one of the most dominant sources of information for most consumers. Belch & Belch explained that the internet is mostly a non-personal form of communication as consumers absorb information online with no personal contact between the consumer and the organizations that are providing the information on their websites. However, as the internet develops, it is including personal communication as consumers interact with marketers online as well as communicate and share information with one another through the use of social media. The Internet allows multimedia documents to be shared among its users. approximately 30 million websites have been registered worldwide and 650 million were connected to the Internet. The Internet as a marketing tool can be used to reach and inform customers directly, create brand loyalty, and build relationships. Online advertising includes elements such as: graphic images as website banners, pop-up advertisements, homepage restyling and anchor deals (co-operation between two organizations ).", "Interactivity is a characteristic feature of the Internet that was described in 1996 by John Deighton. He argued that in the then-new Internet business environment, clients rather than the marketers usually start the interaction, by actively looking for the information that they need. Moreover, personal responses of customers will be collected by corporations and their individual demands will be met according to their desires. On one hand, traditional media are \"push\" formats where", "Compared with the traditional media where the same information is received by all consumers, Internet media can send information \"tailored\" to the need of a specific consumer. This is another advantage of two-way interaction of the Internet media. One of the first and most prominent examples is the personalized service provided by Amazon in which consumers are called by their names and \"tailored\" recommendations are provided according to their previous purchase records. Furthermore, besides \"tailored\" individual service, with the accumulation of consumers' information on the", "Restructuring followed by disintermediation and reintermediation is one of the essential features of the transition from traditional to Internet marketing communications. The Internet may force traditional distributors or retailers out of business simply because Internet transactions are less costly. JD.com significantly impacted the distribution channels for personal computers in China as of 2009 by allowing consumers to order different parts of the computers, that were then assembled by the online business, leaving tens of thousands of retailers in that field out of their jobs. In 2015, JD.com accounted for 22.9%", "Social media's market penetration is rising thanks to services like YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest and Snapchat. Companies are using these external social media platforms to personally engage with existing and future customers, reinforce brand", "Email marketing is directly marketing a commercial message to a group of people using email. In its broadest sense, every email sent to a potential or current customer could be considered email marketing. It usually involves using email to send ads, request business, or solicit sales or donations, and is meant to", "Another channel for direct digital marketing is in-product communication (or in-product marketing), which delivers marketing content directly to a user's internet-connected device or software application. In-product marketing content is often very similar to that of email marketing campaigns, but the segmentation and delivery is more", "In direct marketing the producer communicates directly with potential customers, instead of through third party media. Individual customer's responses and transactions are recorded. Direct marketing is a growing form of marketing communication. It is designed to build the relationship between the customer and the brand, known as customer relationship management (CRM). Organizations use customer accounts in order to monitor and understand their needs. They manage detailed information about the customer's touch points with the objective to maximize satisfaction and loyalty. The communication can be in person, by telephone, mail, email or website. The interaction between the organization and the customer is usually a two-way communication. Direct marketing relies on CRM databases which contain valuable customer information. Good quality databases can provide a competitive advantage and increase profitability. Treating the customer database as an expense rather than an investment, or not continuously maintaining or updating them can be detrimental.", "Direct mail is a letter, card, catalogue, or sample sent through post, email, fax, or courier. This communication is most effective when the recipient has shown", "Telemarketing is marketing communication via telephone. There are two types of telemarketing: outbound and inbound. Outbound telemarketing is used by organizations to reach out to potential customers, generate sales, make appointments with salespeople and introduce new products. Inbound telemarketing is where people call the organization to complain or inquire about products.", "Mail order marketing is a catalogue of products that customers can order to receive in the mail. This form of direct marketing dates back over 100 years. Home shopping, online shopping and teleshopping now", "Direct-response advertising is partially direct marketing. It is a message transmitted through traditional communications media that requires the reader, viewer, listener or customer to respond directly to the organization. The audience may respond to receive more information or to purchase a product. A common example of direct response advertising is in television \"home shopping immediately to receive a particular deal or discount. Disadvantages are that focus can be lost because of the medium of communication and the targeting can be less narrow compared to direct mail. Organizational messages can get cluttered and crowded.", "Cellular marketing uses audience's mobile phone and SMS to promote a product or brand. Advantages are a high level of flexibility and easy integration through computer systems using the Internet to send", "CD and DVD discs can be used as part of e-communications. Entire marketing presentations, catalogues, brochures and price lists can be stored on a CD. CDs are small and simple to hand out to target audiences and most modern computers have CD drive readers, however most of the same information can be presented on a website or email.", "Integrated marketing communications (IMC) is the use of marketing strategies to optimise the communication of a consistent message of the company's brands to stakeholders. Coupling methods together improves communication as it harnesses the benefits of each channel, which when combined together builds a clearer and vaster impact than if used individually. IMC requires marketers to identify the boundaries around the promotional mix elements and to consider the effectiveness of the campaign's message. In the mid to late 1980s, the marketing environment was undergoing profound environmental changes with implications for marketing communications. Media proliferation, audience fragmentation, globalisation of markets, the advent of new communications technologies, the widespread use of databases meant that the old methods, and practices used in mass marketing were no longer relevant. In particular, the rise of digital and interactive media meant that marketers were relying less on advertising as the dominant form of marketing communications. Amongst practitioners and scholars, there was an increasing recognition that new approaches to marketing communications were required. That new approach would become known as \"integrated marketing communications.\" A number of empirical studies, carried out in the early 1990s, found that the new IMC was far from a \"short-lived managerial fad,\" but rather was a very clear reaction by advertisers and marketers to the changing external environment. Integrated marketing communications is a holistic planning process that focuses on integrating messages across communications disciplines, creative executions, media, timing and stakeholders. An integrated approach has emerged as the dominant approach used by companies to plan and execute their marketing communication programs and has been described as a \"paradigm shift.\" IMC unifies and coordinates an organization's marketing communications to promote a consistent brand message. Coordinating a brand's communications makes the brand seem more trustworthy and sound, as it is seen as a 'whole' rather than a mixture of different messages being sent out. The IMC perspective looks at the 'big picture' in marketing, advertising and promotions.", "The impetus to rethink marketing communications came from a number of environmental changes that were becoming increasingly apparent throughout the mid to late 1980s. Media was proliferating and at the same time converging, audiences were fragmenting and many new communications disciplines were emerging. Few advertising agencies provided the full suite of services in terms of the varied communications disciplines. Companies were reliant on a multiplicity of service providers for assistance with advertising, public-relations, branding, packaging, sales promotion, event organisers and other promotional activities. Each of these communications disciplines was treated as a \"silo\"; with little thought to the synergies between them,with the result that many different stakeholders involved in presenting the company's external image throughout the breadth and length of a campaign. In that environment, both practitioners and theorists recognised the potential for confusing or inconsistent brand images to develop across media and across different communications disciplines. The fragmentation of audiences presented marketers with particular challenges. No longer were they", "Within the literature there is no absolute agreement about the meaning of \"integration\" in the concept, \"integrated marketing communications\". The concept of IMC has evolved during its brief history, and with that different ideas around the meaning of integration have been advanced. The diverse views surrounding IMC and its meaning can be explained by the early state of theoretical development and research on IMC which gives rise to a mulplicity of different perspectives. As the discipline matures, these different views are expected to converge. The marketing and advertising literature identifies many different types of integration:", "Functional integration refers to the capacity of the different promotional tools to complement each other and deliver a unified, coherent message. Each of the communications disciplines (advertising, PR, personal selling, sales promotion etc.) has its own strengths and weaknesses. For instance, it is generally recognised that straight advertising is very effective at creating brand awareness, but much less effective at", "Message integration is also known as \"image integration\" or \"creative integration\". A key task for IMC is ensuring consistency in executions within and across the different types of marketing communications, as well as over time. Everything connected with an IMC campaign should have a similar 'look and feel', irrespective of the medium or tool. Message integration does not imply that messages need to be identical. Rather it means that every piece of promotion – from advertising to direct mail to collateral materials to packaging to posters to corporate vehicles to business cards and office stationery – should be", "Much IMC planning is concerned with co-ordinating different media channels to optimize the effectiveness of marketing communications programmes. If brand communications \"reflect implied brand values and imagery that are consistent throughout differing media channels, then clearly these channels act in a mutually reinforcing way with each successive consumer engagement.\" Certain messages may not translate into other media. For instance, messages containing'sex appeals' may work well on TV because movement", "Integration of timing refers to the timing messages so that they operate to support each other and", "Other types of integration include:", "Both practitioners and scholars agree that IMC makes practical \"good sense\". Consequently, the discipline has", "The marketing communications planning framework (MCPF) is a model for the creation of an ICM plan.", "", "An “inside-out” approach is the traditional planning approach to marketing communication. Planning begins \"inside\" the organisation by identifying the goals and objectives which are often based around what has always been done. Communication's task then becomes a process of \"selling\" the organisation's message to the \"outside\" or external stakeholders.. The inside–out approach", "The outside–in approach of integrated marketing communications seeks to understand the needs and wants of the consumer. In addition to the previous category, this approach establishes significant progression. Organisations can gain in-depth knowledge based on consumers and therefore can accommodate the way they approach to fulfil their requirements. Relationship marketing aids in building", "Cross-functional planning approach of integrated marketing communications diverges away from the other two categories, it does not centre around the concept of marketing promotional elements, instead the focus has shifted toward restructuring the organisation to increase a customer-centric environment. This approach recognises that messages do not just come from the marketing department, but can come from virtually any department within the organisation. Investing for the reorganisation sparks change where all departments interconnect to work cohesively toward managing and planning all stages of brand relationship. As a unified organisation, the cross-functional process is a competitive advantage as they can achieve profitable relationships", "The barriers to implementation have been cited as one of the main reasons for the failure to adopt holistic approaches to IMC. The key barriers cited in the literature are: No support from senior management It is vital for an organization who implements integrated marketing communications to have the commitment from all levels of employees, including senior management. The union between both marketing and corporate goals should coincide and support simultaneously. The lack of involvement from senior management could lead to IMC being deprived of resources which prevent the full potential IMC can deliver for the organization to benefit from. Higher levels of the business need to coincide with the efforts of staff in the strategic planning to grasp that IMC's program is valuable. Clients are confused about the concept Some companies such as advertising agencies could possibly take advantage of the integrated marketing communications model, due to the stress they receive from clients and budgets being reduced. The introduction of new", "Originally, marketing was focused around the 4P's (product, price, place and promotion) which concentrated on companies' internal concepts. The idea of integrated marketing communications was first raised in 1993 by Don E. Schultz, who changed the 4P's concept into the 4C's model. The four parts include consumer, communication, convenience and cost, taking into consideration the needs and wants of consumers. Integrated marketing communications accomplished synergy when each", "Expanding from this, Tom Duncan and Sandra E. Moriarty formed the concept of communication-based relationship marketing. This model diverged from the concept of the general one way, business influencing consumers what to believe scenario. However, Duncan and Moriarty argued that communication between business and consumers was the key to developing strong establishment for consumer orientated marketing endeavours.", "Branding goes beyond having a logo; it is how businesses communicate on behalf of their company, verbally and visually. A brand is a conversation it is how people talk about your company when you are not in the room. Consumers are constantly interacting and meeting with brands. This can be through television or other media advertisements such as event sponsorships, personal selling and product packaging. Brand exposure such as this is known as a brand touch point or brand contact", "Marketing communications are focused on the product/service as opposed to corporate communications where the focus of communications work", "A recent revelation in integrated marketing communication is the change in the role of the customer within the business world. Due to the fast-paced growth of technology, customers are rapidly gaining more power through forums such as word of mouth; now with capabilities of reaching a much wider audience through the use of social media. Recognizing this power shift, organizations have begun to re-evaluate their typical marketing strategies and customer approaches from the traditional customer-focused attitude to the wide-spreading customer-centric method in order to develop a more integrated strategy. A customer-focused approach can be defined as \"when an organization learns more about the habits of the customer so that they can identify opportunities for cross-selling etc\" (Laurie & Mortimer, 2011). While this type of approach can be viewed as entirely satisfactory, Kliatchko (2008) introduced a contrasting concept which concentrates on \"working from the outside in\" and promotes a different perspective on organizations. When an organization adopts a customer-centric technique, they forgo the view that customers are only passive receivers of marketing techniques and focus on listening to what their needs are and striving to satisfy them; integrating the customer into the process (Laurie & Mortimer, 2011). Many organizations are yet to relinquish such control, as shown by research conducted by \"Campaign\" magazine, which can only be suspected to be due to the fear that it could potentially diminish the marketing profession (Laurie & Mortimer, 2011). This view, however, is rebutted by Saihtiri et al. (2014) who claims that \"achieving superiority in customer-centric performance is then rewarded through stronger brand performance in the marketplace\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "The Theses.", "Effects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The February Revolution had resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, the collapse of Imperial Russia, and the establishment of the liberal Provisional Government under Georgy Lvov and later Alexander Kerensky. The Provisional Government was dominated mainly by liberals and moderate socialists who wanted to instigate political reform, creating a democracy with elections for an executive and a constituent assembly. After the February Revolution, Lenin sought to return to Russia as soon as possible. This was problematic because he was isolated in neutral Switzerland as World War I continued to be fought in neighbouring states. The Swiss communist Fritz Platten managed to negotiate with the German government for the safe passage of Lenin and his company through Germany by rail on the so-called \"sealed train\". The German government clearly hoped Lenin's return would create political unrest in Russia, which would lead to the capitulation of Russia and the end of Russian participation of the war on the Entente side, ending the war on the Eastern Front and allowing German forces to concentrate their fight against France, Britain, and allied forces on the Western Front. (Indeed, after the October Revolution resulted in the Bolshevik rise to power, this did occur with the Decree on Peace and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.) Once through Germany, Lenin continued by ferry to Sweden, and the remainder of the journey through Scandinavia was subsequently arranged by Swedish communists Otto Grimlund and Ture Nerman. On 16 April (3 April according to the old Russian Calendar) 1917, Lenin arrived by train to a tumultuous reception at Finland Station in Petrograd.", "The April Theses were first announced in a speech in two meetings on 17 April 1917 (4 April according to the old Russian Calendar). Some believe he based this on Trotsky's Theory of Permanent Revolution. They were subsequently published in the Bolshevik newspaper \"Pravda\". In the Theses, Lenin:", "After the February Revolution, Bolshevik leaders returning from exile (such as Lev Kamenev) were arguing a much more moderate line, that Russian involvement in the war could be justified and that there should be cooperation with the liberals in the Provisional Government. However, Lenin's arguments reflected those made by the leading Bolsheviks in Petrograd at the time of the February Revolution, such as Alexander Shlyapnikov. Lenin succeeded in persuading the Bolsheviks of his arguments as laid out in the April Theses and they provided much of the ideological groundwork that later led to the October Revolution." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Range of tools.", "Concepts.", "Translation memory software.", "Language search-engine software.", "Terminology management software.", "Alignment software.", "Interactive machine translation.", "Augmented translation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Computer-assisted translation is a broad and imprecise term covering a range of tools. These can include:", "", "Translation memory programs store previously translated source texts and their equivalent target texts in a database and retrieve related segments during the translation of new texts. Such programs split the source text into manageable units known as \"segments\". A source-text sentence or sentence-like unit (headings, titles or elements in a list) may be considered a segment. Texts may also be segmented into larger units such as paragraphs or small ones, such as clauses. As the translator works through a document, the software displays each source segment in turn, and provides a previous translation for re-use if it finds a matching source segment in its database. If it does not, the program allows the translator to enter a translation for the new segment. After the translation for a segment is completed, the program stores the new translation and moves on to the next segment. In the dominant paradigm, the translation memory is, in principle, a simple database of fields containing the source language segment, the translation of the segment, and other information such as segment creation date, last access, translator name, and so on. Another translation memory approach does not involve the creation of a database, relying on aligned reference documents instead. Some translation memory programs function as standalone environments, while others function as an add-on or macro for commercially available word-processing or other business software programs. Add-on programs allow source documents from other formats, such as desktop publishing files, spreadsheets, or HTML code, to be handled using the TM program.", "New to the translation industry, Language search-engine software is typically an Internet-based system that works similarly to Internet search engines. Rather than searching the Internet, however, a language search engine searches a large repository of Translation Memories to find previously translated sentence fragments, phrases, whole sentences, even complete paragraphs that match source document segments. Language search engines are designed to leverage modern search technology to conduct searches based on the source words in context to ensure that the search results match the meaning of the source segments. Like traditional TM tools, the value of a language search engine rests heavily on the Translation Memory repository it searches against.", "Terminology management software provides the translator a means of automatically searching a given terminology database for terms appearing in a document, either by automatically displaying terms in the translation memory software interface window or through the use of hot keys to view the entry in the terminology database. Some programs have other hotkey combinations allowing the translator to add new terminology pairs to the terminology database on the fly during translation. Some of the more advanced systems enable translators to check, either interactively or in batch mode, if the correct source/target term combination has been used within and across the translation memory segments in a given project. Independent terminology management systems also exist that can provide workflow functionality, visual taxonomy, work as a type of term checker (similar to spell checker, terms that have not been used correctly are flagged) and can support other types of multilingual term facet classifications such as pictures, videos, or sound.", "Alignment programs take completed translations, divide both source and target texts into segments, and attempt to determine which segments belong together in order to build a translation memory or other reference resource with the content. Many alignment programs allow translators to manually realign mismatched segments. The resulting bitext (also known as parallel text) alignment can then be imported into a translation memory program for future translations or used as a reference document.", "Interactive machine translation is a paradigm in which the automatic system attempts to predict the translation the human translator is going to produce by suggesting translation hypotheses. These hypotheses may either be the complete sentence, or the part of the sentence that is yet to be translated.", "Augmented translation is a form of human translation carried out within an integrated technology environment that provides translators access to subsegment adaptive machine translation (MT) and translation memory (TM), terminology lookup (CAT), and automatic content enrichment (ACE) to aid their work, and that automates project management, file handling, and other ancillary tasks. Based on the concept of augmented reality, augmented translation seeks to make translators more productive by providing them with relevant information on an as-needed basis. This information adapts to the habits and style of individual translators in order to accelerate their work and increase productivity. It differs from classical postediting of MT, which has linguists revise entire texts translated by machines, in that it provides machine translation and information as suggestions that can be adopted in their entirety, edited, or ignored, as appropriate. Augmented translation extends principles first developed in the 1980s that made their way into CAT tools. However, it integrates several functions that have previously been discrete into one environment. For example, translators historically have had to leave their translation environments to do terminology research, but in an augmented environment, an ACE component would automatically provide links to information about terms and concepts found in the text directly within the environment. As of May 2017, no full implementations of an augmented translation environment exist, although individual developers have created partial systems." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Corporate history.", "Data privacy issues.", "Software.", "Development history.", "Features.", "Browser versions.", "Version 1.x.", "Version 2.x.", "Version 3.x.", "Maxthon Cloud Browser.", "MXNitro.", "Version 5.x.", "For Mac.", "Maxthon Mobile.", "For Android.", "For iOS.", "For Windows Phone." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Maxthon is a Chinese company known mainly for producing web browsers for Windows. It is headquartered in Beijing, with offices in Shanghai, Hong Kong, and San Francisco, US. Most of Maxthon's engineers are based in the corporate headquarters in Beijing, which develops and maintains versions of the Maxthon browser for Windows, macOS, Android, iOS, and Windows Phone. Maxthon has also created other products including a Chinese language news and information portal \"i.maxthon.cn\", a Chinese language casual gaming portal and humor website, a ‘Kid Safe’ web browser for Android and iOS, a free online account system named \"Maxthon Passport\", and an English language news and information web portal i.maxthon.com.", "In 1999, current CEO Ming Jie \"Jeff\" Chen () founded Hong Kong-based Mysoft International Limited to distribute the MyIE browser. In 2005, the firm received seed funding from venture capital firm WI Harper Group and Morten Lund, the first Skype investor, and Chen moved the company to Beijing. In 2006, Maxthon received further investment from the US-based venture capital firm Charles River Ventures. On April 10, 2007, \"TechCrunch\" reported that Google had invested at least US$1 million in Maxthon; this was denied the following day by Chen. However, in an interview with the Chinese web portal Sina.com, Chen did not rule out future \"cooperation\" between the two businesses. Maxthon won CNET WebWare 100 Awards in 2008 and 2009, and was #97 in \"PCWorld\"s list of the 100 Best Products of 2011. Maxthon was one of the twelve browsers Microsoft presented in 2010 at BrowserChoice.eu, a website allowing users of Windows residing in the European Economic Area to choose which default web browser to use on their computer. In late 2010, Maxthon began releasing new compatibilities, including browsers for Android Mac, iPhone and iPad. As of August 2012, Maxthon is still in the first tier of browsers in BrowserChoice.eu after the removal of Apple Safari. The Maxthon Cloud Browser was released on December 10, 2012.", "In 2016, computer security researchers from \"Fidelis Cybersecurity\" and \"Exatel\" discovered the browser surreptitiously sending sensitive browsing and system data, such as ad blocker status, websites visited, searches conducted, and applications installed with their version numbers, to remote servers located in Beijing, China. According to Maxthon, the data is sent as part of the firm's 'User Experience Improvement Program' and it is \"voluntary and totally anonymous.\" However, researchers found the data still being collected and sent to remote servers even after users explicitly opt out of the program. The researchers further found the data being sent over an unencrypted connection (HTTP), leaving users vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks. Fidelis' Chief Security Officer, Justin Harvey, noted the data \"contains almost everything you would want in conducting a reconnaissance operation to know exactly where to attack. Knowing the exact operating system and installed applications, and browsing habits it would be trivial to send a perfectly crafted spear phish to the victim or perhaps set up a watering hole attack on one of their most frequented websites.\" Maxthon CEO Jeff Chen claimed that this was due to a bug that was fixed as soon as Maxthon was made aware of the issue; however, Exatel had notified Maxthon of the issue without getting any response.", "", "According to Maxthon International CEO Ming Jie \"Jeff\" Chen, Maxthon was based on MyIE, a popular modification created by Chinese programmer Changyou to customize Internet Explorer web browser. Changyou posted most of the source code for MyIE on his Bulletin board system before leaving the project in 2000. Chen then continued independently developing MyIE and in 2002 released a new version, MyIE2. Users around the world were quite active in contributing to MyIE2's development, adding many plug-ins, skins and assisting with debugging. MyIE2 was renamed Maxthon in 2003. Maxthon 2 was introduced in July 2007, and Maxthon 3 was released in September 2010. Later that year, Maxthon began introducing browsers for portable devices. In December, Maxthon for Android was released. On July 7, 2012, Maxthon for Mac was released, with Maxthon for iPhone and iPad released in August 2012. On December 10, 2012, Maxthon Cloud Browser, also named Maxthon 4, was released.", "The current version of Maxthon, Maxthon 5, introduced these features:", "", "Maxthon version 1, which continued version 0 of MyIE2, was an Internet Explorer shell that implemented a tabbed browser using the Trident web browser engine which Microsoft introduced with Internet Explorer 4. As such, version 1 was compatible with every version of Windows from Windows 95 to Windows 7. Development of version 1 stopped in 2010 with the so-called Maxthon (Classic), version 1.6.7.35; earlier releases are available from Maxthon, and version 1.6.7.35, which fixed a bug in selecting the default search engine, is still available at other download sites. There are many add-ons available for Maxthon Classic, and more are available through discussion forums. Specific threads may provide direct download links also. Some add-ons are build-specific, but in that case, a clear indication of compatibility can often be found. Maxthon 1.3.1 brought cloud-based service for online syncing bookmarks (favorites) in 2005.", "Maxthon Browser 2 is a multi-tab browser released in July 2007. A later modification in 2008 was the first browser on the market to offer cloud-based services for syncing bookmarks and history. Version 2.x also blocks malicious plug-ins to prevent pop-ups and floating ads, and supports a variety of plug-in tools and IE extensions. It also supports a wide variety of skins and is customizable. New features included:", "Maxthon 3 was released in the fall of 2010, after a beta period of 8 months. It has two layout engines: WebKit and Trident. New features included:", "Also named Maxthon Cloud, Maxthon 4 was released on December 10, 2012. At the same time it released Passport and its cloud features. Maxthon Passport allowed users to sign-in and register for free membership, and their avatar remains in that space for future visits. Registering also gives users access to cloud syncing services like online favorites. New features include:", "On September 15, 2014, Maxthon released a beta version for a Windows web browser made for those with slow computers or internet connections. The browser fetched pages 3 times faster than other browsers. The browser had a clutter-free, intuitive look and feel designed expressly to make new users feel comfortable on first use. The browser never came out of beta.", "Maxthon 5 (also known as MX5) was released on October, 2016. In the 5.2.x versions, the core of the browser is updated to the Chromium 61 branch point which suggests that the core is using Blink, a fork of WebKit. Aside from a series of new added and improved features, Maxthon 5 also introduces a few major built in functions, such as Maxnote as \"your collecting button for the web\", Passkeeper as \"your smart password manager\", and UUMail as \"the guardian of your inbox\". Through this new version, Maxthon 5 is aiming to become an information assistant for users. New features included:", "In July 2012, Maxthon Cloud Browser for macOS was released. It allows Mac users with a Maxthon Passport account to keep all user data in sync across different devices and operating systems. New features include: It is downloadable free of charge from the Mac App Store.", "", "Maxthon Mobile for Android, a version for Android phones, was first released in 2010, followed in 2011 by a version optimized for 10 inch tablets. New features in 2012 included:", "Maxthon Mobile for iOS was launched in July 2012, for iPhone, iPad, and iOS universal. Maxthon Cloud Browser for iOS saves and syncs key settings, content and features for users across multiple platforms and other devices. Mouse gestures can control the opening and switching between tabs. New features include:", "Maxthon Mobile for Windows Phone was launched in October 2013. The features that were included in this version were:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "State capital.", "1900–present.", "Geography.", "Cityscape.", "Neighborhoods.", "Urban planning and expansion.", "Sprawl and compact growth.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Languages.", "Law, government and politics.", "Politics.", "Structure of city government.", "Federal representation and offices.", "Consolidation.", "Flag.", "Education.", "Primary and secondary.", "Higher education.", "Florida State University.", "Florida A&M University.", "Tallahassee Community College.", "Economy.", "Top employers.", "Arts and culture.", "Entertainment and performing arts.", "Museums.", "Sports.", "Florida State Seminoles.", "Other.", "Public safety.", "Sister cities.", "Notable people." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Indigenous peoples occupied this area for thousands of years before European encounter. Around AD 1200, the large and complex Mississippian culture had built earthwork mounds near Lake Jackson which survive today; they are preserved in the Lake Jackson Archaeological State Park. The Spanish Empire established their first colonial settlement at St. Augustine. During the 17th century they established several missions in Apalachee territory in order to procure food and labor to support their settlement, as well as to convert the natives to Roman Catholicism. The largest, Mission San Luis de Apalachee in Tallahassee, has been partially reconstructed by the state of Florida. The expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez encountered the Apalachee people, although it did not reach the site of Tallahassee. Hernando de Soto and his mid-16th century expedition occupied the Apalachee town of Anhaica (at what is now Tallahassee) in the winter of 1538–1539. Based on archaeological excavations, this Anhaica site is now known to have been about east of the present Florida State Capitol. The De Soto encampment is believed to be the first place Christmas was celebrated in the continental United States although there is no historical documentation to back this claim. The name \"\"Tallahassee\"\" is a Muskogean language word often translated as \"old fields\" or \"old town\". It was likely an expression of the Creek people who migrated from Georgia and Alabama to this region in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, under pressure from European-American encroachment on their territory. They found large areas of cleared land previously occupied by the Apalachee tribe. (The Creek and later refugees who joined them developed as the Seminole Indians of Florida.) During the First Seminole War, General Andrew Jackson fought two separate skirmishes in and around Tallahassee, which was then Spanish territory. The first battle took place on November 12, 1817. After Chief Neamathla, of the village of Fowltown just west of present-day Tallahassee, refused Jackson's orders to relocate. Jackson entered the village, burnt it to the ground, and drove off its occupants. The Indians retaliated, killing 50 soldiers and civilians. Jackson reentered Florida in March 1818. According to Jackson's adjutant, Colonel Robert Butler, they \"advanced on the Indian village called Tallahasse (sic) [where] two of the enemy were made prisoner.\"", "Florida became an American territory in September 1821, in accordance with the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. The first session of the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida met on July 22, 1822, at Pensacola, the former capital of West Florida. Members from St. Augustine, the former capital of East Florida, traveled 59 days by water to attend. The second session was in St. Augustine, and western delegates needed 28 days to travel perilously around the peninsula to reach St. Augustine. During this session, delegates decided to hold future meetings at a halfway point. Two appointed commissioners selected Tallahassee, at that point an Apalachee settlement", "Until World War II, Tallahassee remained a small southern town The main economic drivers were the colleges and state government, where politicians met to discuss spending money on grand public improvement projects to accommodate growth in places such as Miami and Tampa Bay, hundreds of miles away from the capital. Tallahassee was also active in protest during the civil rights era. The Tallahassee bus boycott was a citywide boycott in Tallahassee, Florida that sought to end racial segregation in the employment and seating arrangements of city buses. On May 26, 1956, Wilhemina Jakes and Carrie Patterson, two Florida A&M University students, were arrested by the Tallahassee Police Department for \"placing themselves in a position to incite a riot\". Robert Saunders, representing the NAACP, and Rev. C. K. Steele began talks with city authorities while the local African-American community started boycotting the city's buses. The Inter-Civic Council ended the boycott on December 22, 1956. On January 7, 1957, the City Commission repealed the bus-franchise segregation clause because of the United State Supreme Court ruling Browder v. Gayle (1956). In the 1960s there was a movement to", "Tallahassee has an area of, of which is land and (2.59%) is water. Tallahassee's terrain is hilly by Florida standards, being at the southern end of the Red Hills Region, just above the Cody Scarp. The elevation varies from near sea level to just over, with the state capitol on one of the highest hills in the city. The city includes two large lake basins, Lake Jackson and Lake Lafayette, and borders the northern end of the Apalachicola National Forest. The flora and fauna are similar to those found in the mid-south and low country regions of South Carolina and Georgia. The palm trees are the more cold-hardy varieties like the state tree, the \"Sabal palmetto\". Pines, magnolias, hickories, and a variety of oaks are the dominant trees. The Southern Live Oak is perhaps the most emblematic of the city.", "", "Tallahassee has many neighborhoods inside the city limits. Some of the most known and defined include All Saints, Apalachee Ridge, Betton Hills, Buck Lake, Callen, Frenchtown (the oldest historically black neighborhood in the state), Killearn Estates, Killearn Lakes Plantation, Lafayette Park, Levy Park, Los Robles, Midtown, Holly Hills, Jake Gaither/University Park, Indian Head Acres, Myers Park, Smokey Hollow, SouthWood, Seminole Manor and Woodland Drives. Tallahassee is also home to some gated communities, including Golden Eagle, Ox Bottom, Lafayette Oaks and The Preserve at San Luis; the Tallahassee Ranch Club is to the southeast of the city.", "The first plan for the Capitol Center was the 1947 Taylor Plan, which consolidated several government buildings in one downtown area. In 1974, the Capitol Center Planning Commission for the City of Tallahassee, Florida responded to growth of its urban center with a conceptual plan for the expansion of its Capitol Center. Hisham Ashkouri, working for The Architects' Collaborative,", "The Tallahassee-Leon County Planning Department implements policies aimed at promoting compact growth and development, including the establishment and maintenance of an Urban Service Area. The intent of the Urban Service Area is to \"have Tallahassee and Leon County grow in a responsible", "Tallahassee has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen \"Cfa\"), with long summers and short, mild winters, as well as drier springs and autumns. Summer maxima here are hotter than in the Florida peninsula and it is one of the few cities in the state to occasionally record temperatures above, averaging 2.4 days annually. The record high of was set on June 15, 2011. Summer is characterized by brief intense showers and thunderstorms that form along the afternoon sea breeze from the", "As of the 2010 census, the population of Tallahassee was estimated to be 181,376. There were 74,815 households, 21.3% of which had children under 18 living in them. 27.7% were married couples living together, 14.4% had a female householder with no husband, and 53.7% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals living alone and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.88. Children under the age of 5 were 5.5% of the population, persons under 18 were 17.2%, and persons 65 years or older were 8.1%. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.7 males. 57.4% of the population was White, 35.0% Black, 3.7% Asian, 0.2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.3% some other race, and 2.3% two or more races. 6.3% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, and 53.3% were non-Hispanic White. For 2009–2013, the estimated median household income was $39,524, and the per capita income was $23,778. The percentage of persons below the poverty level was estimated at 30.2%. Educationally, the population of Leon County is the most highly educated population in Florida with 54.4% of the residents over the age of 25 with a Bachelor's, Master's, professional or doctorate degree. The Florida average is 37.4% and the national average is 33.4%.", ", 91.99% of residents spoke English as their first language, while 4.11% spoke Spanish, 0.63%", "", "Tallahassee has traditionally been a Democratic city, but the party has been supported by different ethnic groups over time, with a major shift in the late 20th century. Leon County has voted Democratic in 24 of the past 29 presidential elections since 1904. But until the late 1960s, most African Americans were disenfranchised from the political system, dating from a new constitution and other laws passed by conservative Democratic whites in Florida (and in all other Southern states) at the turn of the century. At that time, most African Americans were affiliated with the Republican Party, and their disenfranchisement resulted in that party being non-competitive in the region for decades.", "Tallahassee has a form of government with an elected mayor", "Tallahassee is split between Florida's 2nd congressional district and Florida's 5th congressional district. The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Tallahassee. The Tallahassee Main Post Office is at 2800 South Adams Street. Other post offices in the city limits include Centerville Station, Leon Station, Park Avenue Station, and Westside Station. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration maintains a National Weather", "Voters of Leon County have gone to the polls four times to vote on consolidation of Tallahassee and Leon County governments into one jurisdiction combining police and other city services with already shared (consolidated) Tallahassee Fire Department and Leon County Emergency Medical Services. Tallahassee's city limits would increase from to. Roughly 36 percent", "The former flag of Tallahassee was vaguely similar to the flag of Florida, a white saltire on a blue field, with the city's coat of arms, featuring the cupola of the old capitol building, at the center. The flag is an homage to the", "", "Tallahassee anchors the Leon County School District. As of the 2009 school year Leon County Schools had an estimated 32,796 students, 2209 teachers and 2100 administrative and support personnel. The superintendent of schools is Rocky Hanna. Leon County public school enrollment continues to grow steadily (up approximately 1% per year since the 1990-91 school year). The dropout rate for grades 9-12 improved to 2.2% in the 2007–2008 school year, the third time in the past", "", "Florida State University (commonly referred to as Florida State or FSU) is an American public space-grant and sea-grant research university. Florida State is on a 1,391.54-acre (5.631 km2) campus in the state capital of Tallahassee, Florida, United States. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida. Founded in 1851, it is on the oldest continuous site of higher education in the state of Florida. The university is classified as a Research University with Very High Research by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The university comprises 16 separate colleges and more than 110 centers, facilities, labs and institutes that offer more than 360 programs of study, including professional school programs. The university has an annual budget of over $1.7 billion. Florida State is home to Florida's only National Laboratory – the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory and is the birthplace of the commercially viable anti-cancer drug Taxol. Florida State University also operates The", "Founded on October 3, 1887, Florida A&M University (commonly referred to as FAMU) is a public, historically black university and land-grant university that is part of the State University System of Florida and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. FAMU's main campus comprises 156 buildings spread over on top of the highest geographic hill of Tallahassee. The university also has several satellite campuses, including a site in Orlando", "Tallahassee Community College (TCC) is a member of the Florida College System. Tallahassee Community College is accredited by the Florida Department of Education and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Its primary campus is on a 270-acre (1.092 km2) campus in Tallahassee. The institution was founded in 1966 by the Florida Legislature. TCC offers Bachelor's of Science, Associate of Arts, Associate of Science, and Associate of Applied Sciences degrees. In 2013, Tallahassee Community College was listed 1st in the nation in graduating students with A.A. degrees. TCC is also the #1 transfer school in the nation to Florida State University and Florida A&M University. As of Fall 2015, TCC reported 38,017 students. In partnership with Florida State University, and Florida A&M University Tallahassee Community College offers the \"TCC2FSU\", and \"TCC2FAMU\" program. This program provides guaranteed admission into Florida State University and Florida A&M University for TCC Associate in Arts degree graduates.", "Companies based in Tallahassee include: Citizens Property Insurance Corporation, the Municipal Code Corporation, the State Board of Administration of Florida (SBA), the Mainline Information Systems, and United Solutions Company.", "According to Tallahassee's 2015 Comprehensive Annual", "", "Tallahassee is home to many entertainment venues, theaters, museums, parks and performing arts centers. A major source of entertainment and art is the Railroad Square Art Park. The Railroad Square Art Park is an arts, culture and entertainment district of Tallahassee, Florida, off Railroad Avenue, filled with a variety of metal art sculptures and stores", "Tallahassee is known for its many museums. It is home to the Museum of Fine Arts", "", "Tallahassee is home to one of the most competitive collegiate athletics programs in the nation, the Florida State Seminoles of Florida State University. The Seminoles compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. The university funds 20 varsity teams, consisting of 9 male and 11 female. They have collectively won 19 team national championships, and over 100 team conference championships, as well as numerous individual national and conference titles. The program", "Tallahassee is home to Tallahassee SC, a soccer club that began play in 2019 as part of the", "Established in 1826, the Tallahassee Police Department once claimed to be the oldest police department in the Southern United States, and the second-oldest in the U.S., preceded only by the Philadelphia Police Department (established in 1758). The Boston Police Department was established in 1838 and larger East Coast cities followed with New York City and Baltimore in 1845. However, this is proven incorrect. Pensacola, Florida, for example, had a municipal police force as early as 1821. There are over 800 sworn law enforcement officers in Tallahassee. Law enforcement services are provided by the Tallahassee Police Department, the Leon County Sheriff's Office, the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, Florida Capitol Police, Florida State University Police", "Tallahassee has 6", "This is a list of notable people from Tallahassee, in alphabetical order by last name:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins and organization.", "Uniforms and insignia.", "Ranks.", "Training and impact.", "Battle for Berlin.", "Final phase.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The new \"Volkssturm\" drew inspiration from the old Prussian \"Landsturm\" of 1813–1815, that fought in the liberation wars against Napoleon, mainly as guerrilla forces. Plans to form a \"Landsturm\" national militia in eastern Germany as a last resort to boost fighting strength were first proposed in 1944 by General Heinz Guderian, chief of the General Staff. The Army did not have enough men to resist the Soviet onslaught. So, additional categories of men were called into service, including those in non-essential jobs, those previously deemed unfit, over-age, or under-age, and those recovering from wounds. The \"Volkssturm\" had existed, on paper, since around 1925, but it was only after Hitler ordered Martin Bormann to recruit six million men for this militia that the group became a physical reality. The intended strength of \"six million\" was never attained. Joseph Goebbels and other propagandists depicted the \"Volkssturm\" as an outburst of enthusiasm and the will to resist. While it had some marginal effect on morale, it was undermined by the recruits' visible lack of uniforms and weaponry. Nazi themes of death, transcendence, and commemoration were given full play to encourage the fight. Many German civilians realized that this was a desperate attempt to turn the course of the war. Sardonic old men would remark, \"We old monkeys are the Führer’s newest weapon\" (in German this rhymes: \"Wir alten Affen sind des Führers neue Waffen\"). A popular joke about the \"Volkssturm\" went \"Why is the Volkssturm Germany's most precious resource? Because its members have silver in their hair, gold in their mouths, and lead in their bones.\" For these militia units to be effective, they needed not only strength in numbers, but also fanaticism. During the early stages of \"Volkssturm\" planning, it became apparent that units lacking morale would lack combat effectiveness. To generate fanaticism, \"Volkssturm\" units were placed under direct command of the local Nazi party officials, the \"Gauleiter\" and \"Kreisleiter\". The new \"Volkssturm\" was also to become a nationwide organization, with Heinrich Himmler, as Replacement Army commander, responsible for armament and training. Though nominally under party control, \"Volkssturm\" units were placed under \"Wehrmacht\" command when engaged in action. Aware that a \"people's army\" would not be able to withstand the onslaught of the modern army wielded by the Allies, Hitler issued the following order towards the end of 1944: With the Nazi Party in charge of organizing the \"Volkssturm\", each \"Gauleiter\", or Nazi Party District Leader, was charged with the leadership, enrollment, and organization of the \"Volkssturm\" in their district. The largest \"Volkssturm\" unit seems to have corresponded to the next smaller territorial subdivision of the Nazi Party organization—the \"Kreis\". The basic unit was a battalion of 642 men. Units were mostly composed of members of the Hitler Youth, invalids, the elderly, or men who had previously been considered unfit for military service. On 12 February 1945, the Nazis conscripted German women and girls into the auxiliaries of the \"Volkssturm\". Correspondingly, girls as young as 14 years were trained in the use of small arms, panzerfaust, machine guns, and hand grenades from December 1944 through May 1945. Municipal organization: Each \"Gauleiter\" and \"Kreisleiter\" had a \"Volkssturm\" Chief of Staff. From the militia's inception until the spring of 1945, Himmler and Bormann engaged in a power-struggle over the jurisdictional control over the \"Volkssturm\" regarding security and police powers in Germany and the occupied territories; a contest which Himmler and his SS more or less won on one level (police and security), but lost to Bormann on another (mobilizing reserve forces). Historian David Yelton described the situation as two ranking officers at the helm of a sinking ship fighting over command.", "The \"Volkssturm\" \"uniform\" was only a black armband with the German words \"Deutscher Volkssturm Wehrmacht\". Some variants of the above-mentioned armband worn by Volkssturm members were simply red or yellow cloth-bands with \"Deutscher Volkssturm Wehrmacht\" printed in black on them. On top of the identification armbands, there were black rank-patches, either with or without silver pips, worn on the collar of the Volkssturm members' uniform. These were characteristically derived from the rank insignia of the various paramilitary organizations of the Nazi Party, which had control over them, and not of the regular \"Wehrmacht\". The German government tried to issue as many of its members as possible with military uniforms of all sorts, ranging from field-gray to camouflage types. Most members of the \"Volkssturm\", especially elderly members, had no uniform and were not supplied, so they generally wore either work-attire (including railway workers, policemen and firemen) or their civilian clothing and usually carried with them their own personal rucksacks, blankets and cooking-equipment, etc.", "The simple paramilitary insignia of the \"Volkssturm\" were as follows:", "Typically, members of the \"Volkssturm\" received only very basic military training. It included a brief indoctrination and training on the use of basic weapons such as the Karabiner 98k rifle and \"Panzerfaust\". Because of continuous fighting and weapon shortages, weapon training was often minimal. There was also a lack of instructors, meaning that weapons training was sometimes done by World War I veterans drafted into service themselves. Often \"Volkssturm\" members were only able to familiarize themselves with their weapons when in actual combat. There was no standardization of any kind and units were issued only what equipment was available. This was true of every form of equipment—\"Volkssturm\" members were required to bring their own uniforms and culinary equipment etc. This resulted in the units looking very ragged and, instead of boosting civilian morale, it often reminded people of Germany's desperate state. Armament was equally haphazard: though some Karabiner 98ks were on hand, members were also issued older Gewehr 98s and 19th-century Gewehr 71s and Steyr-Mannlicher M1888s, as well as Dreyse M1907 pistols. In addition there was a plethora of Soviet, British, Belgian, French, Italian, and other weapons that had been captured by German forces during the war. The Germans had also developed cheap but reasonably effective \"Volkssturm\" weapons, such as MP 3008 machine pistols and Volkssturmgewehr rifles. These were completely stamped and machine-pressed constructions (in the 1940s, industrial processes were much cruder than today, so a firearm needed great amounts of semi-artisanal work to be actually reliable). The \"Volkssturm\" troops were nominally supplied when and where possible by both the \"Wehrmacht\" and the SS. When units had completed their training and received armament, members took a customary oath to Hitler and were then dispatched into combat. Unlike most English-speaking countries, Germany had universal military service for all young men for several generations, so many of the older members would have had at least basic military training from when they served in the German Army and many would have been veterans of the First World War. \"Volkssturm\" units were supposed to be used only in their own districts, but many were sent directly to the front lines. Ultimately, it was their charge to confront the overwhelming power of the British, Canadian, Soviet, American, and French armies alongside \"Wehrmacht\" forces to either turn the tide of the war or set a shining example for future generations of Germans and expunge the defeat of 1918 by fighting to the last, dying before surrendering. It was an apocalyptic goal which some of those assigned to the \"Volkssturm\" took to heart. Unremittingly fanatical members of the \"Volkssturm\" refused to abandon the Nazi ethos unto the dying days of Nazi Germany, and in a number of instances took brutal \"police actions\" against German civilians deemed defeatists or cowards. On some occasions, members of the \"Volkssturm\" showed tremendous courage and a determined will to resist, more so even than soldiers in the \"Wehrmacht\". The \"Volkssturm\" battalion 25/235 for instance, started out with 400 men but fought on until there were only 10 men remaining. Fighting at Küstrin between 30 January to 29 March 1945, militia units made up mostly of the \"Volkssturm\" resisted for nearly two months. Losses were upwards of 60 percent for the \"Volkssturm\" at Kolberg, roughly 1900 of them died at Breslau, and during the Battle of Königsberg (Kaliningrad), another 2400 members of the \"Volkssturm\" were killed. At other times along the western front particularly, \"Volkssturm\" troops would cast their arms aside and disappear into the chaos. Youthful ardor and fanaticism among Hitler Youth members fighting with the \"Volkssturm\" or an insatiable sense of duty from old men proved tragic sometimes. An example shared by historian Stephen Fritz is instructive in this case: Not every \"Volkssturm\" unit was suicidal or apocalyptic in outlook as the war drew closer to its end. Many of them lost their enthusiasm for the fight when it became clear that the Allies had won, prompting them to lay down their weapons and surrender – they also feared being captured by Allied forces and tortured or executed as partisans. Duty to their communities and sparing them from horrors like at Bad Windsheim also played a part in their capitulation, as did self-preservation. Their most extensive use was during the Battle of Berlin, where \"Volkssturm\" units fought in many parts of the city. This battle was particularly devastating to its formations, however; many members fought to the death out of fear of being captured by the Soviets, holding out to the very end, which was in keeping with their covenant. Nonetheless, a force of over 2.5 million Soviet troops, equipped with 6,250 tanks and over 40,000 artillery pieces were assigned to capture the city, and the diminished remnants of the \"Wehrmacht\" were no match for them. Meanwhile, Hitler denounced every perceived \"betrayal\" to the inhabitants of the \"Führerbunker\". Not eager to die what was thought to be a pointless death, many older members of the \"Volkssturm\" looked for places to hide from the approaching Soviet Army. Juxtaposed against the tragic image of Berlin holding out against all odds was the frequent exodus and capitulation of \"Wehrmacht\" soldiers and members of the \"Volkssturm\" in southern and western Germany.", "In the Battle for Berlin, \"Volkssturm\" units were used by the German high command as a last-ditch attempt to defend Berlin. The \"Volkssturm\" had a strength of about 60,000 in the Berlin area formed into 92 battalions, of which about 30 battalions of \"Volkssturm I\" (those with some weapons) were sent to forward positions, while those of \"Volkssturm II\" (those without weapons) remained in the inner city. One of the few substantive fighting units left to defend Berlin was the LVI Panzer Corps, which occupied the southeastern sector of the town, whereas the remaining parts of the city were being defended by what remained of the SS, the \"Volkssturm\", and the Hitler Youth formations. One notable and unusual \"Volkssturm\" unit in the Battle for Berlin was the 3/115 Siemensstadt Battalion. It comprised 770 men, mainly First World War veterans in their 50s who were reasonably fit factory workers, with experienced officers. Unlike most \"Volkssturm\" units it was quite well equipped and trained. It was formed into three rifle companies, a support company (with two infantry support guns, four infantry mortars and heavy machine guns), and a heavy weapons company (with four Soviet M-20 howitzers and a French De Bange 220 mm mortar). The battalion first engaged Soviet troops at Friedrichsfelde on 21 April and saw the heaviest fighting over the following two days. It held out until 2 May, by which time it was down to just 50 rifles and two light machine guns. The survivors fell back to join other \"Volkssturm\" units. 26 men from the battalion were awarded the Iron Cross. Allied bombing had reduced Berlin to rubble; meanwhile the final stand in Berlin dwindled to fighting against highly trained, battle-hardened Soviet troops on the brink of final victory, who viewed resistance fighters like the \"Volkssturm\" as terrorists in much the same way the Wehrmacht once had viewed potential partisans during Operation Barbarossa. Red Army soldiers called the Hitler Youth formations and members of the \"Volkssturm\" still fighting to the end in Berlin \"totals\" for being part of Germany's total mobilization effort.", "While Iron Crosses were being handed out in places like Berlin, other cities and towns like Parchim and Mecklenburg witnessed old elites, acting as military commandants over the Hitler Youth and \"Volkssturm\", asserting themselves and demanding that the defensive fighting stop so as to spare lives and property. Despite their efforts, the last four months of the war were an exercise in futility for the \"Volkssturm\", and the Nazi leadership's insistence to continue the fight to the bitter end contributed to an additional 1.23 million (approximated) deaths, half of them German military personnel and the other half from the \"Volkssturm\". The figure historian Stephen Fritz puts forward does not match the observations of Richard J. Evans, who reported 175,000 \"Volkssturm\" members killed fighting the professional armies of the western Allies and Soviet Union. Evans' figures are based on the card-indexed members listed, who were officially reported as killed, but Martin Sorge points out that this figure does not include the 30,000 listed as presumed missing or dead from a 1963 report. Interrogated members of the \"Volkssturm\"—when questioned as to where the regular forces had gone—revealed that German soldiers surrendered to the Americans and British instead of the Red Army for fear of reprisals related to the atrocities they had committed in the Soviet Union.", "Other nations:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Culture and education.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Achinsk is one of the oldest known inhabited places in the area. Paleontological study has shown that people lived here as early as 28,000–20,000 BCE. Some of these ancient caves are located east of the city. The modern city, however, was founded on July 25, 1641 as an \"ostrog\" on the Bely Iyus River. After the fire of 1683, it was moved to the Chulym River (a tributary of the Ob); hence, the official foundation date of the city is considered to be July 25, 1683. The name of the location derives from the Turkic tribal group Achi or Achigi. The first fort in 1683 was built with the high stockade square shaped walls. In the corners were placed watch towers. Initially the garrison had fifteen Cossacks patrolling it. In 1710, a new wooden fort on the right bank of the Achinki River was created, at its confluence with the Chulym. In 1782, it was granted status of an uyezd town. In the late 19th century, the town became linked on the Trans-Siberian Railway. Since 1990, Achinsk has been included in the official list of cities in Russia with historical and cultural value of nationwide significance. On August 2019 a massive explosion in a military base () occurred some 20km south of the town, next to the village of Kamenka.", "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Achinsk serves as the administrative center of Achinsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is, together with one urban-type settlement (Mazulsky), incorporated separately as the krai city of Achinsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the krai city of Achinsk is incorporated as Achinsk Urban Okrug.", "Achinsk grew rapidly in the 20th century: from a population of 32,000 in 1939, to 85,000 in 1969, to 121,572 in the 1989 Census. The population declined slightly in the early 21st century: 118,744 (2002 Census) and 109,155 (2010 Census).", "The economy of Achinsk is based around heavy industry and contains a refinery and also produces construction materials, including wood, asphalt, cement. Mechanical, wax, brick and electrical plants are also present. It is also involved with the food industry and contains dairy factories and a meat processing plant as well as footwear and furniture factories. The largest enterprise of the city, the Achinsk Alumina Plant, belongs to the \"Rusal\" group. In addition, the city operates a cement plant which produces about two million tons of cement per year.", "The city operates buses, trams, and taxis, and is served by the Achinsk Airport.", "As of 2006, Achinsk has eleven health facilities and over twenty schools. Notable landmarks include the Achinsk Drama Theater, Achinsk National History Museum, Achinsk Museum and Exhibition Center, and the Kazan Cathedral.", "Achinsk has a chilly continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\") or a slightly warmer subarctic climate (borderline \"Dfc\"), just like its neighbouring cities in southern Krasnoyarsk Krai. Winter is moderately cold, just like Siberia, however some ludicrous temperatures of almost minus sixty has been recorded in January 1931. Summer is mildly hot, maybe a little chilly." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Propulsion.", "Refits." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Arcadia\" was ordered by Holland America Line in 2000 as their fifth vessel. In 2003 she was allocated to Cunard Line to become their. Shortly before her launch the decision was made to transfer the ship to the P&O Cruises fleet. As a result, \"Arcadia\" has a Cunard-style mast similar to those found on and. She also sports a modified \"Queen Elizabeth 2\"-style funnel, with cowling removed instead of the traditional P&O style funnel found on the purpose-built and. \"Arcadia\" along with \"Aurora\" are adult only ships.", "\"Arcadia\" uses the ABB Azipod system which is an azimuthing electric propulsion drive where the propulsion motor is installed inside a submerged azimuthing (unlimited 360 degrees) pod and coupled directly to an extremely short propeller shaft. The variable speed electric (AC/AC) drive produces smooth torque over the entire speed range including zero speed. The Azipod propulsion system gives the ship excellent manoeuvring capabilities. It allows full turns at high speed with a radius of less than a ship length. Almost equal speed can be achieved ahead and astern. Rudders as well as stern thrusters are obsolete if an Azipod propulsion is installed astern as it is capable of providing full thrust in all directions by setting the unit's direction angle simply with the vessel's steering control. The Azipod unit has no mechanical propulsion coupling as electric power is provided by a cable connection only, from the diesel-electric generators to the electric motor installed in the gondola directly behind the propeller. \"Arcadia\" has two ABB \"AMZ 1250ZM12 LAEZ\" Azipod units, with a motor power of 17.6MW.", "\"Arcadia\" underwent a scheduled, 24-day refit at Lloyd Werft shipyard in Bremerhaven, Germany in 2008. She underwent a major refit to the stern, with 34 cabins added. \"Arcadia\" was again refitted at Lloyd Werft in 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Taiwan Province and Taiwan Area (PRC Perspective).", "Boundary changes since 1949.", "Other territories administered by the ROC.", "Territories claimed to be part of Taiwan Province by both the ROC and PRC.", "Legislative representation in PRC.", "Names used for ROC government, officials, and institutions.", "Proposal under hypothetical reunification.", "\"Taiwan, Province of China\" or \"Taiwan, China\".", "Demographic data.", "Naming disputes.", "Name change." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949. While by 1950 it had obtained control over most of the territories previously administered by the ROC, it never gained control of an area made up of Taiwan Province and some other islands (together called the \"Taiwan Area\"). Instead, the Taiwan Area had been administered by the ROC (now commonly known as \"Taiwan\") since the end of World War II in 1945, continuing through the Chinese Civil War and past the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Despite the PRC's claim over Taiwan, the PRC has no provisional nor shadow provincial government or provincial governor for Taiwan. The Taiwan Affairs Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China is the part of the PRC government that has responsibility over Taiwan-related matters, but it is neither tasked with, nor presented as, a shadow administration for Taiwan. Instead, the ROC government, which actually controls Taiwan Province, is referred to by the PRC as the \"Taiwan authorities\".", "Despite formal status of a province, the term \"Taiwan Province\" is now only used in the most formal circumstances such as National People's Congress. In domestic contexts that excludes Hong Kong and Macau, the number of provinces (including autonomous regions, municipalities) is always stated as 31 (Taiwan is discounted). In statistics actually involves Taiwan, \"Taiwan Area\" is widely used instead. Note however \"Taiwan Area\" (as used by PRC) is different from Taiwan Province (as used by PRC): Taiwan Province only includes Taiwan and associated islands such as Penghu and Diaoyu, but \"Taiwan Area\" (the same as \"Taiwan Area\" as used by ROC, a.k.a. Free Area of the Republic of China) is all area administered by Taipei includes Fujian islands such as Jinmen, Mazu, as well as (at least in principle) Dongsha (assigned to Kaoshiung by ROC, Guangdong by PRC) and Taiping Islands (assigned to Kaoshiung by ROC, Sansha, Hainan by PRC). The \"Taiwan Area\" is treated together with SARs rather than other provinces in statistics.", "Until recently, the ROC adopted an analogous practice of depicting mainland administrative boundaries in maps the way they were in 1949, to demonstrate that the ROC did not recognise the PRC government - or any boundary changes enacted by them since 1949 - as legitimate. In 2017 Xinhua News Agency issued guidelines mandating no scare quotes for all members of local governments of Taiwan authorities (except Fujian and Lianjiang). Even before this, the practice of not recognizing any boundary changes made to Taiwan is ended. For example, New Taipei is accepted instead of Taipei County, and the merging of Kaohsiung City and Kaohsiung County is accepted on all maps published by PRC entities. Maps published in PRC do not treat borders between Taiwan Province (Republic of China) and Special Municipalities as provincial borders, but county borders, and often do not mandate a capital for Taiwan at all. The borders between Kinmen and Matsu and rest of Fujian Province are never denoted as provincial borders let alone international. The official databases of PRC do not show any internal divisions of Taiwan, all of them showing \"data not yet available\" (this no longer applies to Hong Kong and Macau). As of 2018, PRC official map service Tianditu treats all six special municipalities as prefecture-level cities, all three provincial cities as county-level cities directly administered by the province, and all 14 county-administered cities as subdistricts under each individual county's jurisdiction.", "Taiwan Province (whether disregarding the ROC's post-1949 boundary changes or not) does not include all the territory under the Republic of China's administration. PRC maps show the islands of Kinmen and Wuqiu, and the Matsu Islands as part of Fujian Province; the Pratas Islands as part of Guangdong Province, and Taiping Island as part of Hainan province. The ROC administered Kinmen, Wuqiu and the Matsu Islands as part of its alternative Fujian Province (now disbanded), and Pratas Islands and Taiping Island under Kaohsiung municipality.", "Both the PRC and the ROC claim the Senkaku Islands, called Diaoyu Islands or Diaoyutai Islands via Mandarin Chinese, which are administered by Japan, as a part of Taiwan Province.", "Although Taiwan Province is not under PRC control, thirteen delegates are elected to represent Taiwan Province to the National People's Congress. The election of these delegates for Taiwan Province is done in accordance with the Decision (from time to time made) of the relevant Session of relevant National People's Congress of the PRC on the number of deputies to the National People's Congress and the election of the deputies. For example, in 2002 that Decision was as follows: Having regard to the relevant Decision, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress adopts a \"Plan for the Consultative Election of Deputies of Taiwan Province to the National People's Congress\". The Plan typically provides that \"the deputies will be elected in Beijing through consultation from among representatives sent by Taiwan compatriots in these provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government and in the Chinese People's Liberation Army.\" In the case of the 2002 election, the Standing Committee noted that there were more than 36,000 \"Taiwan compatriots\" in the 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government and the central Party, government and army institutions. It was decided that 122 representatives would participate in the conference for election through consultation. The number of representatives was allocated on the basis of the geographic distribution of Taiwan compatriots on the mainland and the standing committees of the people's congresses of the provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government were responsible for making arrangements for the election of the representatives through consultation. The Standing Committee's Plan also provided that the election should be \"conducted in a democratic manner\". After the latest election at the 13th National People's Congress, 13 of the Taiwan representatives for the National People's Congress are:", "Since the PRC does not recognise the ROC as legitimate, PRC government and media refers to some ROC government offices and institutions using generic description which does not imply endorsement of the ROC's claim to be a legitimate government of either Taiwan or China. The precise replacements used are not officially designated, so the politically-designated names for Taiwan have small variations across different source from within the PRC. For some cases, where the name does not significantly imply sovereignty, the name remains the same, such as for the \"Mainland Affairs Council\", \"County\" and \"Mayor\".", "The PRC's current policy proposal for a potential future reunification with Taiwan includes a proposal for Taiwan to become a Special Administrative Region (analogous to Hong Kong and Macau today), rather than a province.", "In deference to the PRC's position, the United Nations Secretary General has referred to the Taiwan Area as \"Taiwan, Province of China\". \"Taiwan, Province of China\" appears as a disputed name in the ISO 3166-1 list of two letter country codes. A variant of this name \"Taiwan, China\", is seen in other contexts. The FAQ for the ISO list attributes the provincial styling of the area’s name to the UN Bulletin list of country names, which lists the names of countries in the official languages in use by the UN. The UN bulletin does not in fact contain any name for Taiwan, Formosa, or the TW code. The ISO country code for the area is “TW” under ISO 3166-1. Along with Hong Kong and Macao, Taiwan is also included as subdivisions of China in as \"CN-TW\".", "While demographic data for Taiwan Province published by the PRC government respects the census figures published by the ROC government for the territory, the PRC government does not recognise the ethnic classifications of Taiwanese Aborigines adopted by the ROC. Instead, the PRC government classifies all Taiwanese Aboriginese as \"Gaoshan\" people, one of the 56 recognized ethnicities of China.", "In July 2017, Taiwanese crew members of the Malaysian airline AirAsia X were required to change their citizenship from Taiwan (TWN) to China (CHN) for any flight flying to and from Mainland China.", "In 2017 Xinhua News Agency issued guidelines abolishing the term Taiwan Province, People's Republic of China. Although Taiwan would be a traditional province of China, considering the circumstances, Taiwan Area is used instead. This apparently does not include Kinmen and Matsu, which are expressly forbidden to denote as part of Taiwan as being simply incorrect." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Titles.", "Games.", "Spin-offs.", "Cancelled games.", "Common elements.", "Lara Croft.", "Continuity.", "Gameplay.", "History and development.", "Origins and development.", "At Core Design (1994–2003).", "At Crystal Dynamics (2004–present).", "Music.", "Technology.", "Cultural impact.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The first six \"Tomb Raider\" games were developed by Core Design, a British video game development company owned by Eidos Interactive. After the sixth game in the series released to a lukewarm reception in 2003, development was transferred to American studio Crystal Dynamics, who have handled the main series since. Since 2001, other developers have contributed either to ports of mainline games or with the development of spin-off titles.", "The first entry in the series \"Tomb Raider\" was released in 1996 for personal computers (PC), PlayStation and Sega Saturn consoles. The Saturn and PlayStation versions were released in Japan in 1997. Its sequel, \"Tomb Raider II\", launched in 1997, again for Microsoft Windows and PlayStation. A month before release, Eidos finalised a deal with Sony Computer Entertainment to keep the console version of \"Tomb Raider II\" and future games exclusive to PlayStation until the year 2000. The PlayStation version was released in Japan in 1998. \"Tomb Raider III\" launched in 1998. As with \"Tomb Raider II\", the PlayStation version released in Japan the following year. The fourth consecutive title in the series, \"\", released in 1999. In 2000, with the end of the PlayStation exclusivity deal, the game also released on the Dreamcast. In Japan, both console versions released the following year. \"Tomb Raider Chronicles\" released in 2000 on the same platforms as \"The Last Revelation\", with the PlayStation version's Japanese release as before coming the following year. After a three-year gap, \"\" was released on the Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 2 (PS2) in 2003. The PlayStation 2 version was released in Japan that same year. The next entry, \"Tomb Raider Legend\", was released worldwide in 2006 for the Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation Portable (PSP), GameCube, Game Boy Advance (GBA) and Nintendo DS. The Xbox 360, PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable versions were released in Japan the same year. A year later, a remake of the first game titled \"\" was released worldwide in 2007 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Xbox, Xbox 360 and the Wii. The next entry, \"\", was released in 2008 on the Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 (PS3), PlayStation 2, Xbox 360, Wii and DS. The PlayStation 3, PlayStation 2, Xbox 360 and Wii versions were released in Japan in 2009. In 2011, \"The Tomb Raider Trilogy\" was released for PlayStation 3 as a compilation release that included \"Anniversary\" and \"Legend\" remastered in HD resolution, along with the PlayStation 3 version of \"Underworld\". The disc includes avatars for PlayStation Home, a Theme Pack, new Trophies, Developer's Diary videos for the three games, and trailers for \"Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light\" as bonus content. A reboot of the series, titled \"Tomb Raider\", was released worldwide in 2013 for the Microsoft, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. Its sequel, \"Rise of the Tomb Raider\", was released in 2015 on the Xbox 360 and Xbox One. The game was part of a timed exclusivity deal with Microsoft. Versions for the PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows were released in 2016. In November 2017, Square Enix announced that \"Shadow of the Tomb Raider\" would be revealed in 2018. In March 2018, \"Shadow of the Tomb Raider\" was confirmed by Square Enix. It was released worldwide on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows on 14 September 2018. An arcade game based on this incarnation was announced in 2018, to be released by Bandai Namco Amusements.", "The first spin-off title in the series was a game for the Game Boy Color (GBC) titled \"Tomb Raider\", developed by Core Design and released in 2000. Its sequel, \"\", was released in 2001 for the GBC. In 2002, a new game for the Game Boy Advance called \"\", was developed by Ubi Soft Milan and published by Ubi Soft. In 2003, four \"Tomb Raider\" titles for mobile phones were released. A platform-puzzler for mobile devices, \"Lara Croft Go\", was released in 2015. Beginning in 2010, a subseries titled \"Lara Croft\" was in development, with different gameplay than the main series and existing in its own continuity. The first game, \"Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light\", was released in 2010 as a downloadable title for PC, PS3 and Xbox 360. It was followed by \"Lara Croft and the Temple of Osiris\", released for retail and download in 2014 for PC, PS4 and Xbox One. An entry for mobile devices, an endless runner platformer titled \"\", was released in 2015.", "\"The Angel of Darkness\" was originally the first game in a trilogy, with its sequel titled \"The Lost Dominion\". While \"The Lost Dominion\" was undergoing preliminary development, the negative reception of \"The Angel of Darkness\" caused the trilogy to be scrapped. With Eidos' approval, Core Design began development of an updated edition of the first game for the PSP called \"Tomb Raider: The Anniversary Edition\" in late 2005, with a projected release date of Christmas 2006. Development continued while Core Design staff were working on the platformer \"Free Running\". When Core Design was sold to Rebellion Developments, Eidos requested the project's cancellation. It was suggested by staff that Eidos did not want to let outside developers handle the franchise.", "", "Lara Croft is the main protagonist and playable character of the series: she travels the world in search of forgotten artifacts and locations, frequently connected to supernatural powers. While her biography has changed throughout the series, her shared traits are her origins as the only daughter and heir of the aristocratic Croft family. She is portrayed as intelligent, athletic, elegant, fluent in multiple languages, and determined to fulfill her own goals at any cost. She has brown eyes and brown hair worn in a braid or ponytail. The character's classic outfit consists of a turquoise singlet, light brown shorts, calf-high boots, and tall white socks. Recurring accessories include fingerless gloves, a backpack, a utility belt with holsters on either side, and twin pistols. Later games have multiple new outfits for her. Lara Croft has been voiced by five actresses in the video game series: Shelley Blond, Judith Gibbens, Jonell Elliot, Keeley Hawes, and Camilla Luddington. In other media, Croft was voiced by Minnie Driver in the animated series and portrayed by Angelina Jolie and Alicia Vikander in feature films. Multiple models and body doubles have portrayed Croft in promotional material up until the reboot in 2013. Eight different real-life models have portrayed her at promotional events.", "The circumstances of her first adventures, along with the drive behind her adventures, differ depending on the continuity. In the original continuities, she is on a plane that crashes in the Himalayas: her journey back to civilization against the odds help to begin her journey towards her adult life as an adventuress and treasure hunter. In the original continuity, after her ordeal in the Himalayas, she left behind her privileged life and made a living writing about her exploits as an adventurer, mercenary, and cat burglar. Shortly after these books she was disowned by her family. In \"The Last Revelation\", Lara was caught in a collapsing pyramid at the game's end, leaving her fate unknown: this was because the staff, exhausted from four years of non-stop development, wanted to move on from the character. \"Chronicles\" was told through a series of flashbacks at a wake for Lara, while \"The Angel of Darkness\" was set an unspecified time after \"The Last Revelation\", with Lara revealed to have survived. The circumstances of her survival were originally part of the game, but were cut due to time constraints and the pushing of the publisher Eidos. In the \"Legends\" continuity, her mother Amelia was involved in the crash, and she is partially driven by the need to discover the truth behind her mother's disappearance and vindicate her father's theories about Amelia's disappearance. This obsession with the truth is present in \"Anniversary\", and ends up bringing the world to the brink of destruction during the events of \"Underworld\". Her father is referred to as Lord Henshingly Croft in the original games and Lord Richard Croft in the \"Legends\" continuity. The \"Lara Croft\" subseries take place within their own separate continuity, devoting itself to adventures similar to earlier games while the main series goes in a different stylistic direction. In the 2013 reboot continuity, Lara's mother vanished at an early age, and her father became obsessed with finding the secrets of immortality, eventually resulting in an apparent suicide. Lara distanced herself from her father's memory, believing like many others that his obsession had caused him to go mad. After studying at university, Lara gets an opportunity to work on an archaeology program, in the search for the mythic kingdom of Yamatai. The voyage to find the kingdom results in a shipwreck on an island, which is later discovered to be Yamatai, however the island is also home to savage bandits, who were victims of previous wrecks. Lara's attempts to find a way off the island lead her to discover that the island itself is stopping them from leaving, which she discovered is linked to the still living soul of the Sun Queen Himiko. Lara must find a way to banish the spirit of the sun queen in order to get home. The aftermath of the events of the game causes Lara to see that her father was right, and that she had needlessly distanced herself from him. She decides to finish his work, and uncover the mysteries of the world.", "The gameplay of \"Tomb Raider\" is primarily based around an action-adventure framework, with Lara navigating environments and solving mechanical and environmental puzzles, in addition to fighting enemies and avoiding traps. These puzzles, primarily set within ancient tombs and temples, can extend across multiple rooms and areas within a level. Lara can swim through water, a rarity in games at the time that has continued through the series. According to original software engineer and later studio manager Gavin Rummery, the original set-up of interlinking rooms was inspired by Egyptian multi-roomed tombs, particularly the tomb of Tutankhamun. The feel of the gameplay was intended to evoke that of the 1989 video game \"Prince of Persia\". In the original games, Lara utilised a \"bulldozer\" steering set-up, with two buttons pushing her forward and back and two buttons steering her left and right, and in combat Lara automatically locked onto enemies when they came within range. The camera automatically adjusts depending on Lara's action, but defaults to a third-person perspective in most instances. This basic formula remained unchanged through the first series of games. \"Angel of Darkness\" added stealth elements. For \"Legend\", the control scheme and character movement was redesigned to provide a smooth and fluid experience. One of the key elements present was how buttons for different actions cleanly transitioned into different actions, along with these moves being incorporated into combat to create effects such as stunning or knocking down enemies. Quick-time events were added into certain segments within each level, and many of the puzzles were based around sophisticated in-game physics. \"Anniversary\", while going through the same locales of the original game, was rebuilt using the gameplay and environmental puzzles of \"Legend\". For \"Underworld\", the gameplay was redesigned around a phrase the staff had put to themselves: \"What Could Lara Do?\". Using this set-up, they created a greater variety of moves and greater interaction with the environment, along with expanding and improving combat. The gameplay underwent another major change for the 2013 reboot. Gameplay altered from progression through linear levels to navigating an open world, with hunting for supplies and upgrading equipment and weapons becoming a key part of gameplay, yet tombs were mostly optional and platforming was less present in comparison to combat. The combat was redesigned to be similar to the \"Uncharted\" series: the previous reticle-based lock-on mechanics were replaced by a free-roaming aim. \"Rise of the Tomb Raider\" built on the 2013 reboot's foundation, adding dynamic weather systems, reintroducing swimming, and increasing the prevalence of non-optional tombs with more platforming elements.", "", "", "The concept for \"Tomb Raider\" originated in 1994 at Core Design, a British game development studio. One of the people involved in its creation was Toby Gard, who was mostly responsible for creating the character of Lara Croft. Gard originally envisioned the character as a man: company co-founder Jeremy Heath-Smith was worried the character would be seen as derivative of Indiana Jones, so Gard changed the character's gender. Her design underwent multiple revisions and redrafts during early development. The game proved an unexpected commercial success, reversing Eidos' then-bleak financial situation. After the success of \"Tomb Raider\", work began on a sequel. Gard was no longer given full creative control, and it was stated by development staff that he was both saddened and disappointed by the use of Lara Croft's sex appeal in marketing. Gard left Core Design in 1997 to found his own gaming company Confounding Factor, and was replaced by Stuart Atkinson. \"Tomb Raider II\" proved a larger commercial success than the original. Over the next three years, Core Design was committed to delivering a \"Tomb Raider\" game annually, putting considerable strain on staff. For this reason, and the feeling that they had exhausted the series' potential, the developers tried to kill the character off. This did not work, and while a fifth game was created, the team stated that they were not fully invested in its development. During development on the fifth game, the team split into two divisions, with one division working on the next-generation sequel \"The Angel of Darkness\". During this period, multiple handheld titles were developed by both Core Design and third-party developers. The production of \"The Angel of Darkness\" was beset by problems from an early stage, with the team wanting to create a grander game to compete with contemporary action-adventure games. Under pressure from Eidos, key sections of the game needed to be cut, and it was released before the team felt it was ready. The game received negative reactions from critics, and was cited by Paramount as the reason for the second \"Tomb Raider\" film underperforming.", "After the critical backlash of \"The Angel of Darkness\", Eidos decided to take production of the \"Tomb Raider\" series out of Core Design's hands and give it to another subsidiary studio. Production of the next game was given to Crystal Dynamics, a studio that had made its name with the \"Legacy of Kain\" series. Eidos CEO Ian Livingstone stated that while the critical failure of \"The Angel of Darkness\" was a major reason for taking the series away from Core Design, the decision was motivated by their inordinate struggles with developing for the PlayStation 2, and by how many members of the Core team had complained that they were \"burnt out\" on \"Tomb Raider\". He added that \"For a UK company, moving the development of its prized asset from Derby to California was a big decision to make but, as it turned out, absolutely the right one to make.\" One of the main priorities for both Eidos and Crystal Dynamics was to regain the fanbase's trust in the brand, along with helping the series reclaim the status and selling power it had before \"The Angel of Darkness\" release. Their main goal was to put Lara back inside tombs, with their physics-based engine enabling more intricate puzzles. After \"Legend\" was finished, the team decided to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the series by remaking the original game, rebuilding the environments and redesigning the story to fit in with the events and gameplay of \"Legend\". Alongside the development of \"Anniversary\", an entry for seventh-generation hardware was in development, although it used established gaming architecture from \"Legend\" and this caused problems for the development team. In 2009, the year after the release of \"Underworld\", Eidos was bought by Square Enix and later renamed Square Enix Europe, giving Square Enix ownership of the \"Tomb Raider\" franchise. Alongside \"Underworld\", the team decided to create a new subseries that featured the character of Lara Croft while not using the \"Tomb Raider\" moniker and using the aesthetics of the \"Legend\" continuity. During this period, a second development team was working on a second reboot of the series and character, which would put emphasis on a darker and gritter interpretation of the character. Another priority was presenting Lara as a more human character, putting her in vulnerable situations, and showing how she begins her journey to becoming a \"tomb raider\" through both narrative and gameplay. A sequel, eventually revealed as \"Rise of the Tomb Raider\", was confirmed as being in development a few months after the reboot's release. In response to criticisms about a lack of classic tombs, more optional and story-based tombs were incorporated into the game. It continued the team's new portrayal of Lara, showing more sides to her character and her growing obsession with discovering the truth. In addition to this, the \"Lara Croft\" subseries was continued in multiple titles: the console game \"Temple of Osiris\", and mobile title \"Relic Run\". In addition, the mobile puzzle game \"Lara Croft Go\" was created to both give a different gameplay experience and evoke classic \"Tomb Raider\" games.", "The original \"Tomb Raider\" theme was composed by Nathan McCree. He created the original theme music after having discussions with Gard about the character of Lara Croft. Having decided to use Classical English music as an inspiration, he decided to create something simple for the theme song. Its simplicity made rearrangements and orchestrations easy. For his work on the first three \"Tomb Raider\" games, he was given fairly minimal briefs, and for \"Tomb Raider III\" he was working on the game as a freelancer as he had left the company. For \"The Last Revelation\", Peter Connelly replaced Nathan McCree as the main composer, using McCree's music as a basis for his work. He composed the opening theme for \"The Last Revelation\", saying that the opening melody came to him out of the blue, and added Egyptian motifs to fit in with the game's setting. \"Chronicles\" was originally going to have a sizeable original opening theme, but due to time constraints the majority of it ended up being discarded, much to Connelly's later regret. Only the opening segment survived. The music for \"Angel of Darkness\", composed by Connelly and Martin Iveson, was the one element of production that did not encounter problems, as recording was finished before the major content cuts happened. Scored using a full orchestra as opposed to the synthesised instruments of previous titles, it was performed by the London Symphony Orchestra. For \"Legend\", Troels Brun Folmann composed the music and managed the sound effects. Alongside composing a large amount of music for the game, he created micro-scores for small segments within gameplay. Folmann returned to score \"Anniversary\", doing re-orchestrations of the original score, along with expanding them. For \"Underworld\", Folmann handled the main theme while Colin O'Malley handled the rest of the soundtrack, which featured far less looping music than \"Legend\". The 2013 reboot was scored by Jason Graves, who had become known through his work on the \"Dead Space\" franchise. Along with his orchestral style, he created a special instrument to create discordant sounds within the music, and musical elements from around the globe to represent the inhabitants of the game's island location. For \"Rise of the Tomb Raider\", the composer was Bobby Tahouri, who had previously worked as assistant composer on video games and theatrical films. \"Guardian of Light\" used no original music, instead using extracts from the music of \"Legend\", \"Anniversary\" and \"Underworld\". The music for \"Temple of Osiris\" was written by Will Roget II, who had originally worked on licensed video games including \"\". \"Temple of Osiris\" was the first title in the \"Lara Croft\" subseries to have an original score, using Egyptian and Middle Eastern musical elements while creating a new main theme that could be used in future \"Lara Croft\" games.", "The first \"Tomb Raider\" used a custom-built game engine, as other equivalent engines available to Core Design at the time were not versatile enough to realise the team's vision. The engine was designed by Paul Douglas, who handled the game's artificial intelligence (AI) and the three-dimensional (3D) graphics. The choice of a 3D game was influenced by the team's opinion that the game type was under-represented when compared to first-person shooters such as \"Doom\". Its 3D style meant multiple elements were difficult to implement, including the AI and camera control. Another noted aspect was the multi-layered levels, as compared to equivalent 3D action-adventure games of the time which were limited to a flat-floor system. Lara's movements were hand-animated and coordinated rather than created using motion capture. The reason for this was that the team wanted uniformity in her movement, which was not possible with motion capture technology of the time. For \"Tomb Raider II\", minor upgrades were made to the engine, with the main improvements being to the AI and smoothing out Lara's model. \"Tomb Raider III\" underwent major revisions, including rewrites to the graphics engine and improvements in the lighting and AI systems. The engine was given a major overhaul for \"The Last Revelation\". The first five games make use of full-motion video cutscenes. For the first three games, they were primarily used as transitional periods depicting Lara moving from one level to another or one location to another. For \"Chronicles\", fairly minor revisions were made. For \"Angel of Darkness\", a new engine was built from scratch, but due to being unfamiliar and unused to the technology of the PS2, the team encountered multiple problems such as needing to remove areas and characters due to polygon restrictions. Due to the deadlines imposed, the team were forced to cut corners, meaning that the game reached store shelves in a poor condition. For \"Legend\", the staff at Crystal Dynamics created a proprietary engine from the ground up, named the Crystal Engine. The engine and the game's content were developed in parallel, leading to scheduling and workload difficulties. \"Anniversary\" used the same engine as \"Legend\". \"Underworld\" used a new engine built specifically for the game, although its basic codebase was shared with \"Legend\". In \"Underworld\", Lara's movements were animated using full motion capture, with Olympic gymnast Heidi Moneymaker providing the character's animations. For the 2013 reboot, a new engine called Foundation was created for the game. Motion capture was again used for the 2013 reboot. An updated version of the Foundation engine was used again for \"Rise of the Tomb Raider\". For both games in the new reboot, Lara's hair movements were made more realistic using a technology called TressFX in \"Tomb Raider\" and PureHair \"Rise of the Tomb Raider\".", "Both the character of Lara Croft and the concepts behind the \"Tomb Raider\" franchise have evolved thematically and in popularity since the first game's release in 1996. The success of the game series led to several commercial tie-ins that further catapulted to cultural icon status, including feature spin-off games, feature films, and comics.", "Upon release, \"Tomb Raider\" became an unexpected success, reaching the top of sales charts and remaining for a time. It went on to sell over 7 million units worldwide. \"Tomb Raider II\" was a greater commercial success, with debut sales higher than the first game and total worldwide sales of 8 million units. Despite varying critical receptions, series sales continued to be strong until the release of \"Chronicles\", which sold 1.5 million units. While \"The Angel of Darkness\" met with initial strong sales, it failed to meet expectations. Since the release of \"Legend\", the series has picked up in sales and popularity. The 2013 reboot sold 11 million units, becoming the most commercially successful \"Tomb Raider\" title to date. As of 2019, the series has sold over 75 million units worldwide. In addition to the games' success, the grossed $275 million, making it the highest-grossing video game adaptation until being overtaken in 2010 by \"\". Additionally, the first \"Tomb Raider\" comic book issue was the best-selling comic book of 1999 and the 2001 film adaptation had the biggest opening weekend (US$47.7m) for an action film with a female lead since \"Aliens\" in 1986. Multiple video game journalists, including \"Electronic Gaming Monthly\"s Crispin Boyer in 1997 and Eurogamer's Martyn Carroll in 2008, have cited the series as a pioneer in the medium, both laying the foundations for and popularising action-adventure and platforming games. Carrol credited the series for bringing video gaming out into the cultural mainstream. In a different article, Eurogamer cited \"The Angel of Darkness\" as a pioneer of mixing different video game genres. The public's reactions to the series over the years have conversely had a profound effect upon the series' direction and identity, as noted in a 2008 review of the series' history by \"Develop\". In 2006, \"Tomb Raider\" was voted one of Britain's top 10 designs in the Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum. The game appeared in a list of British design icons which included Concorde, Mini, World Wide Web, \"Grand Theft Auto\", K2 telephone box, London tube map, AEC Routemaster bus, and the Supermarine Spitfire. The character of Lara Croft has similarly enjoyed popularity, standing out during her initial appearance in the male-dominated video game market, and continuing to stand out throughout the series' history. After her debut in 1996, Lara Croft was featured on the front cover of British culture magazine \"The Face\", a position previously held by real-life celebrities. She similarly was featured in Irish rock band U2's PopMart Tour. The character was inducted onto the Walk of Game in 2006, and earned multiple mentions in the \"Guinness World Records\": she was recognised as the \"most successful human video game heroine\" in 2006, and earned six awards in 2010. As part of the latter honours, \"Guinness World Records\" editor Gaz Deaves said that the character \"epitomises all that's great about video gaming\". In an article for 1UP.com, Jeremy Parish said that Lara's sex appeal was the main draw for early fans, a facet Eidos exploited for marketing and attempted to emulate in other products. He cited other writers' statements that her popularity stemmed from player empathy with her ability to survive tough situations, alongside contrasting against weaker female characters such as Princess Peach. However, alongside this praise, she has divided opinion as to her character design and consequent sexuality: particularly among feminist critics, she is both hailed as an empowering figure for women, and a negative role model due to her improbable proportions. Later, apparently more \"realistic\" redesigns lessened these criticisms to a degree." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Variations." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "In French or Belgian cuisine, \"pâté\" may be baked in a crust as pie or loaf, in which case it is called \"pâté en croûte\", or baked in a terrine (or other mold), in which case it is known as \"pâté en terrine\". Traditionally, a forcemeat mixture cooked and served in a terrine is also called a terrine. The most famous pâté is probably \"pâté de foie gras\", made from the livers of fattened geese. \"Pâté en croûte\" is baked with the insertion of \"chimneys\" on top: small tubes or funnels that allow steam to escape, thus keeping the pastry crust from turning damp or soggy. Baked \"pâté en croûte\" usually develops an air bubble under the crust top as the meat mixture shrinks during baking; this is traditionally dealt with by infusing semi-liquid aspic in the hollow space before chilling. In the Netherlands, Finland, Germany, Romania, Hungary, Sweden, Denmark and Austria, some liver pâtés are shaped as a soft, often spreadable sausage, called \"leverworst\" (Dutch), \"pate\" or \"lebăr\" (Romanian), \"májpástétom/májkrém\" (Hungarian), or \"Leberwurst\" (German). In the United States these are sometimes called \"liverwurst\" (mixing English and German), or \"braunschweiger\". Some liverwursts can be sliced. In the US, sliced liverwurst is used as a sandwich filler. Others are spreadable as are most French or Belgian \"pâté\"; these types are more popular in the United Kingdom. In Scandinavia, \"leverpostej\" (in the Netherlands: \"leverpastei\") is a popular baked \"pâté\" similar to the French \"pâté en terrine\", usually made of lard and pork liver. In Poland, \"pasztet\" is made from poultry, fish, venison, ham, or pork with eggs, flour, bread crumbs, and a varied range of additions, such as pepper, tomato sauce, mushrooms, spices, vegetables, ginger, nutmeg, cheese, or sugar. In Russia and Ukraine, the dish is mostly prepared with beef, goose or chicken liver and thus is commonly known as \"pechyonochniy pashtet\" (, \"liver pâté\"), however other meats also can be used. Unlike the Western European method the liver is first cooked (boiled or fried) and mixed with butter or fat and seasoning such as fresh or fried onion, carrots, spices and herbs. It can be further cooked (usually baked), but most often is used without any other preparation. In Russia, the pâté is served on a plate or in a bowl, and is often molded into the shapes of animals, such as hedgehogs. A similar recipe is known as chopped liver in Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine, where schmaltz is used instead of butter and hard-boiled eggs are usually added. Another common type of pâté in Jewish cuisine, also popular in Russia and Ukraine, is \"vorschmack\" or \"gehakte herring\" (chopped herring). In the former Yugoslavia, \"pašteta\" or \"паштета\" (a thinly pureed pâté) is a very popular bread spread usually made from chicken, beef, turkey or less commonly tuna or salmon. In Vietnamese cuisine, pâté is commonly used on \"bánh mì\" \"baguette\" type sandwiches. Pâté of this type is more commonly made from liver." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Tuzex vouchers.", "Goods." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Czechoslovak koruna (crown) was a soft currency, that is, not exchangeable for other currencies outside the country. In 1948 shops were established under the name Darex to sell goods to foreigners for foreign (hard) currency only (based on the earlier Torgsin shops in the Soviet Union). Later, these became open to ordinary citizens, but not for crowns. In 1950, to speed up transactions and limit fraud, foreign currency was first converted into Darex vouchers in values of crowns. In 1957 the PZO (Foreign Trade Enterprise) Tuzex (a contraction of \"tuzemský export\" [domestic export]) was founded in order to get convertible foreign currency into the country. This currency came directly from foreigners visiting the country, but also from relatives or citizens working abroad, who could send currency to friends and family to buy items in Tuzex, with Tuzex vouchers instead of Darex ones. The vouchers could not be re-exchanged for foreign currency and were valid for a limited time. (The state would convert unused vouchers back to normal currency at a rate of 2 crowns per Tuzex crown, a fraction of their effective purchasing power.) The first shop was established in Prague on Rytířská street, and the next in Bratislava. In 1961 there were 14 shops, rising to 170 in 1988. However, the fact that otherwise unavailable luxuries could be purchased led to an unofficial or grey market (technically illegal but tolerated) buying Tuzex vouchers with Czechoslovak currency at a high premium, typically 5 to 1. The Darex and Tuzex vouchers were colloquially known as \"bony\". The hustlers or spivs who would offer sell them on the street (close to Tuxex shop) were known as \"veksláci\" (from german \"wechsel\" - exchange) A 1987 film with title: \"Bony a klid\" (\"vouchers and tranquility\" as a reference to Bonnie and Clyde) reflects the daily lives of petty criminals dealing with the vouchers. Following the Velvet Revolution in 1989 and the reformation of the country, citizens were able to travel abroad more freely and to legally deal with other currencies. In addition, improved domestic economy and more imports meant that Tuzex sales declined. The sale of Tuzex vouchers ceased on 30 June 1992. As well as running the shops, the Tuzex corporation had activities in various countries in order to trade Czechoslovak goods and obtain supplies for the shops. This continued for a while after the closure of the shops in 1992 to complete contracts and for liquidation of the assets.", "Tuzex vouchers were originally issued in values of 0.50, 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 crowns and later 500 crowns. However, from 1958 there was a voucher of 71.50 crowns, being issued in exchange for US$10. Tuzex also issued vouchers to foreigners to buy motor fuel. In 1988 the first payment card in Czechoslovakia was introduced to allow cashless purchases at Tuzex stores.", "Initially Tuzex stocked export-quality Czechoslovak products (e.g. fine chocolate, alcohol) at what would be a good price for foreigners, and Western products such as cigarettes. Better quality/style clothing became important, with Tuzex clothes becoming an indicator of success for some people. The clothes selection eventually included jeans (the first being the Italian brand Rifle in 1968) as the epitome of western or \"Texas\" clothing, white goods, and motor cars. The advantage in many cases was that such goods were available immediately instead of a long wait of possibly years. In 1988 Tuzex had 170 shops which sold $250 million worth of goods, two-thirds western imports, and one-third export-quality items from Czechoslovakia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "General.", "City districts.", "Climate.", "History.", "Origin of the name.", "Early history.", "8th–12th centuries.", "13th–17th centuries.", "Thirty Years' War.", "Industrialisation.", "First World War.", "Occupation of the Ruhr.", "Phase of the Nazi seizure of power in 1933–34.", "1938 November Pogrom.", "Forced labor camps and concentration camps.", "Second World War.", "Under British occupation.", "Twenty-first century.", "Politics.", "Historical development.", "City council.", "Coat of arms.", "International relations.", "Industry and infrastructure.", "Economy.", "Fairs.", "Media.", "Education.", "Medicine.", "Transport.", "Streets and motorways.", "Public transport.", "Aviation.", "Landmarks.", "Zollverein Industrial Complex.", "Essen Minster and treasury.", "Old Synagogue.", "Villa Hügel.", "Kettwig and Werden.", "Notable people.", "Honorary citizens.", "Sport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Essen is located in the centre of the Ruhr area, one of the largest urban areas in Europe (see also: megalopolis), comprising eleven independent cities and four districts with some 5.3 million inhabitants. The city limits of Essen itself are long and border ten cities, five independent and five \"kreisangehörig\" (i.e., belonging to a district), with a total population of approximately 1.4 million. The city extends over from north to south and from west to east, mainly north of the River Ruhr. The Ruhr forms the \"Lake Baldeney\" reservoir in the boroughs of Fischlaken, Kupferdreh, Heisingen and Werden. The lake, a popular recreational area, dates from 1931 to 1933, when some thousands of unemployed coal", "Essen comprises fifty boroughs which in turn are grouped into nine suburban districts (called \"Stadtbezirke\") often named after the most important boroughs. Each Stadtbezirk is assigned a Roman numeral and has a local body of nineteen members with limited authority. Most of the boroughs were originally independent municipalities but were gradually annexed from 1901 to 1975.", "Essen has a typical oceanic climate (Köppen: \"Cfb\") with cool winters and warm summers (different of Berlin or Stuttgart). Without large mountains and the presence of inland seas, it ends up extending a predominantly marine climate is found in Essen, usually a little more", "", "In German-speaking countries, the name of the city Essen often causes confusion as to its origins, because it is commonly known as the German infinitive of the verb for \"eating\" (written as lowercase \"essen\"), and/or the German noun for food (which is always capitalized as \"Essen\", adding to the confusion). Although scholars still dispute the interpretation of the name, there remain a", "The oldest archaeological find, the \"Vogelheimer Klinge\", dates back to 280,000 – 250,000 BC. It is a blade found in the borough of in the northern part of the city during the construction of the Rhine–Herne Canal in 1926. Other artifacts from the Stone Age have also been found, although these are not overly numerous. Land utilization was very high – especially due to mining activities during the Industrial Age – and any more", "Around 845, Saint Altfrid (around 800–874), the later Bishop of Hildesheim, founded an abbey for women (\"coenobium Astnide\") in the centre of present-day Essen. The first abbess was Altfrid's relative Gerswit (see also: Essen Abbey). In 799, Saint Liudger had already founded Benedictine Werden Abbey on its own grounds a few kilometers south. The region was sparsely populated with only a few smallholdings and an old and probably abandoned castle. Whereas Werden Abbey sought to support Liudger's missionary work in the Harz region (Helmstedt/Halberstadt), Essen Abbey was meant to care for women of the higher Saxon nobility. This abbey was not an abbey in the ordinary sense, but rather intended as a residence and educational institution for the daughters and widows of the higher nobility; led by an abbess, the members other than the abbess herself were not obliged to take vows of chastity. Around 852, construction of the collegiate church of the", "In 1216, the abbey, which had only been an important landowner until then, gained the status of a princely residence when Emperor Frederick II called abbess Elisabeth I \"Reichsfürstin\" (\"Princess of the Empire\") in an official letter. In 1244, 28 years later, Essen received its town charter and seal when Konrad von Hochstaden, the Archbishop of Cologne, marched into the city and erected a city wall together with the population. This proved a temporary emancipation of the population of the city from the princess-abbesses, but this lasted only until 1290. That year, King Rudolph I restored the princess-abbesses to full sovereignty over the city, much", "During the Thirty Years' War, the Protestant city and the Catholic abbey opposed each other. In 1623, princess-abbess Maria Clara von Spaur, Pflaum und Valör, managed to direct Catholic Spaniards against the city in order to initiate a Counter-Reformation. In 1624, a \"re-Catholicization\" law was enacted, and churchgoing was strictly controlled. In 1628, the", "The first historic evidence of the important mining tradition of Essen date back to the 14th century, when the princess-abbess was granted mining rights. The first silver mine opened in 1354, but the indisputably more important coal was not mentioned until 1371, and coal mining only began in 1450. At the end of the 16th century, many coal mines had opened in Essen, and the city earned a name as a centre of the weapons industry. Around 1570, gunsmiths made high profits and in 1620, they produced 14,000 rifles and pistols a year. The", "Riots broke out in February 1917 following a breakdown", "On 11 January 1923 the Occupation of the Ruhr was carried out by the invasion of French and Belgian troops into the Ruhr. The French Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré was convinced that Germany failed to comply", "Heinrich Maria Martin Schäfer was appointed mayor of Essen on 21 December 1932. After the", "On the night of 10 November 1938, the synagogue was sacked,", "Tens of thousands of forced laborers arrived in the Nazi era in 350 Essen camps, forced to Forced labour under German rule during", "As a major industrial centre, Essen was a target for allied bombing, the Royal Air Force (RAF) dropping a total of 36,429 long tons of bombs on the city. Over 270 air raids were launched against the city, destroying 90% of the centre and 60% of the suburbs. On 5 March 1943 Essen was subjected to one of the heaviest air-raids of the war.", "After the successful invasion of Germany by the allies, Essen was assigned to the British Zone", "Although weaponry is no longer produced in Essen, old industrial enterprises such as ThyssenKrupp and RWE remain large employers in the city. Foundations such as the", "", "The administration of Essen had for a long time been in the hands of the princess-abbesses as heads of the Imperial Abbey of Essen. However, from the 14th century onwards, the city council increasingly grew in importance. In 1335, it started choosing two burgomasters, one of whom was placed in charge of the treasury. In 1377, Essen was granted imperial immediacy but had to abandon this privilege later on. Between the early 15th and 20th centuries, the political system of Essen underwent several changes, most importantly the introduction of the Protestant Reformation in 1563, the annexation of 1802 by Prussia, and the subsequent secularization of the principality in 1803. The territory was made part of the", "The last local elections took place on 27 September 2015. Thomas Kufen (CDU) was elected Lord", "The coat of arms of the city of Essen is a heraldic peculiarity. Granted in 1886, it is a so-called \"Allianzwappen\" (arms of alliance) and consists of two separate shields under a single crown. Most other coats of arms of cities show a wall instead of a crown. The crown, however, does not refer to the city of Essen itself, but instead to the secularized ecclesiastical principality of Essen under the", "Essen is twinned with: The City of Monessen, Pennsylvania, situated along the", "", "Essen is home to several large companies, among them the ThyssenKrupp industrial conglomerate which is also registered in Duisburg and originates from a 1999 merger between Duisburg-based \"Thyssen AG\" and Essen-based Friedrich Krupp AG Hoesch-Krupp. The largest company registered only in Essen is Germany's second-largest electric utility RWE AG. Essen hosts parts of the corporate headquarters of Schenker AG, the logistics division of Deutsche Bahn. Other major companies include Germany's", "The city's exhibition centre, Messe Essen, hosts some 50 trade fairs each year. With around 530.000 visitors each year, Essen Motor Show is by far the largest event held there. It has been described as \"the showcase event of the year for the tuning community\" and as the German version", "The Westdeutscher Rundfunk has a studio in Essen, which is responsible for the central Ruhr area. Each day, it produces a 30-minute regional evening news magazine (called \"Lokalzeit Ruhr\"), a 5-minute afternoon news programme, and several radio news programmes. A local broadcasting station went on air in the late 1990s. The WAZ Media Group", "One renowned educational institution in Essen is the Folkwang University, a university of the arts founded in 1927, which is headquartered in Essen and has additional facilities in Duisburg, Bochum and Dortmund. Since 1927, its traditional main location has been in the former Werden Abbey in Essen in the Ruhr Area, with additional facilities in Duisburg, Bochum, and Dortmund, and, since 2010, at the Zeche Zollverein, a World Heritage Site also in Essen. The Folkwang University is home to the international dance company \"Folkwang Tanz Studio\" (FTS). In 1963 the Folkwang school", "Essen offers a highly diversified health care system with more than 1,350 resident doctors and almost 6,000 beds in 13 hospitals, including a university hospital. The university hospital dates back to 1909, when the city council established", "", "The road network of Essen consists of over 3,200 streets, which in total have a length of roughly. Three \"Autobahnen\" touch Essen territory, most importantly the Ruhrschnellweg (Ruhr expressway, A 40), which runs directly through the city, dividing it roughly in half. In a west-eastern direction, the A 40 connects the Dutch city of Venlo with Dortmund, running through the whole Ruhr area. It is one of the arterial roads of the Ruhr area (> 140,000 vehicles/day) and suffers from heavy congestion during rush hours, which is why many people in the area nicknamed it \"Ruhrschleichweg\" (Ruhr crawling way). A tunnel was built in the 1970s, when the then-Bundesstraße was upgraded to motorway standards, so that the A 40 is hidden from", "As with most communes in the Ruhr area, local transport is carried out by a local, publicly owned company for transport within the city, the DB Regio subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn for regional transport and Deutsche Bahn itself for long-distance journeys. The local carrier, Ruhrbahn, is a member of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Ruhr (VRR) association of public transport companies in the Ruhr area, which provides a uniform fare structure in the whole region. Within the VRR region, tickets are valid on lines of all members as well as DB's railway lines (except the high-speed InterCity and Intercity-Express networks) and can be bought at ticket machines and service centres of Ruhrbahn, all other members of VRR, and DB. , Ruhrbahn operates 3 U-Stadtbahn lines of the Essen Stadtbahn network, 7 Straßenbahn (tram) lines and 57 bus lines (16 of these serving as \"Nacht Express\" late-night lines only). The Stadtbahn and Straßenbahn operate on total route lengths of and, respectively. One tram line and a few bus lines coming from neighboring cities are operated by these cities' respective carriers. The U-Stadtbahn, which partly runs on used Docklands Light Railway stock, is a mixture of tram and full underground systems with 20", "Together with the neighbouring city of Mülheim an der Ruhr and the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Essen maintains Essen/Mülheim Airport (IATA: ESS, ICAO: EDLE). While the first flights had already arrived in 1919, it was officially opened on 25 August 1925. Significantly expanded in 1935, Essen/Mülheim became the central airport of the Ruhr area until the end of the Second World War, providing an asphalted runway of, another unsurfaced runway for gliding and destinations to most major European cities. It was heavily damaged during the war, yet partly reconstructed and used by the Allies as a secondary airport since visibility is less often obscured than at Düsseldorf Airport. The latter then developed into the large civil airport that it is now, while Essen/Mülheim now mainly serves occasional air traffic (some 33,000 passengers each year), the base of a fleet of airships and Germany's oldest public flight training company. Residents of the region around Essen typically use Düsseldorf Airport (~ 20 driving minutes) and occasionally Dortmund Airport (~ 30 driving minutes) for both domestic and international flights.", "", "The Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex is the city's most famous landmark. For decades, the coal mine (current form mainly from 1932, closed in 1986) and the coking plant (closed in 1993) ranked among the largest of their kinds in Europe. Shaft XII, built in Bauhaus style, with its characteristic winding tower, which over the years has become a symbol for the whole Ruhr area, is considered an architectural and technical masterpiece, earning it a reputation as the \"most beautiful coal mine in the world\". After UNESCO had declared it a World Heritage Site in 2001,", "The former collegiate church of Essen Abbey and nowadays cathedral of the Bishop of Essen is a Gothic hall church made from light sandstone. The first church on the premises dates back to between 845 and 870; the current church was constructed after a former church had burnt down in 1275. However, the important westwork and crypt have survived from Ottonian times. The cathedral is located in the centre of the city which evolved", "Opened in 1913, the then-New Synagogue served as the central meeting place of Essen's pre-war Jewish community. The building ranks as one of the largest and", "Built in 1873 by industrial magnate Alfred Krupp, Villa Hügel, the 269-room mansion () and the surrounding park of served as the Krupp family's representative seat. The city's land register solely lists the property, which at times had a staff of up to 640 people, as a single-family home. At the time of its construction, the villa featured some technical novelties and peculiarities, such as a central hot air heating system, own water- and", "In the south of the city, the boroughs of Kettwig and Werden exceptionally stand for towns once of their own, which have been annexed in 1929 (Werden) and 1975 (Kettwig), respectively, and which have largely preserved their pre-annexation character. While most of the northern boroughs were heavily damaged during the Second World War and often lost their historic town centres; the more southern parts got off more lightly. In", "", "The city of Essen has been awarding honorary citizenships since 1879 but has (coincidentally) discontinued this tradition after the foundation of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. A notable exception was made in 2007, when Berthold Beitz, the president of the Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Foundation received", "The biggest association football clubs in Essen are Rot-Weiss Essen (Red-White Essen) and Schwarz-Weiß Essen (Black-White Essen). Stadion Essen, its home stadium, is located in the north of Essen. Rot-Weiss Essen is playing in the fourth tier of the German football league system, Regionalliga West, and Schwarz-Weiß Essen in the fifth tier, Oberliga Nordrhein-Westfalen. Other football clubs are BV Altenessen are TuS Helene Altenessen. In women's football, SGS Essen are members of top division Frauen-Bundesliga. The city's main basketball team is ETB Essen, currently called the ETB Wohnbau Baskets for sponsorship reasons. The team is one of the main teams in Germany's second division ProA and has attempted to move up to Germany's elite league Basketball Bundesliga. The Baskets play their home games at the Sportpark am Hallo. Essen hosted the 1955 nine-pin bowling World Championships and the final round of the FIBA EuroBasket 1971. The city is also home to the VV Humann Essen volleyball team." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Script.", "Novelization.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Music.", "Release and reception.", "Accolades." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "A Drax Industries Moonraker (a VTHL spaceplane based on the NASA Space Shuttle orbiter) on loan to the United Kingdom is hijacked in midair while on a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, which is destroyed, but no wreckage of the Shuttle is found. M, head of MI6, assigns James Bond, Agent 007, to investigate. En route to England, Bond is attacked and pushed out of an airplane by the mercenary assassin Jaws (whom he previously met in \"The Spy Who Loved Me\"). He survives by stealing a parachute from the pilot, whilst Jaws lands on a trapeze net within a circus tent. At the Drax Industries spaceplane-manufacturing complex in California, Bond meets the owner of the company, Hugo Drax, and his henchman Chang. Bond also meets Dr. Holly Goodhead, an astronaut, and survives an assassination attempt while inside a centrifuge chamber. Drax's personal pilot, Corinne Dufour, sleeps with Bond and then helps Bond find blueprints for a glass vial made in Venice; Drax discovers her involvement and has her killed by his pet dogs. Bond again encounters Goodhead in Venice and observes her snooping around a door near the glass factory. Then he is chased through the canals by Drax's henchmen. He returns to the factory at night to check the door out, and discovers a secret biological laboratory, and learns that the glass vials are to hold a nerve gas deadly to humans, but harmless to animals. Chang attacks Bond, but Bond hurls him through the stained glass clockface of the Saint Mark's clocktower, killing him; during the fight, Bond finds evidence that Drax is moving his operation to Rio de Janeiro. Rejoining Goodhead, he deduces that she is a CIA agent spying on Drax and sleeps with her. Bond has saved one of the vials he found earlier, as the only evidence of the now-empty laboratory; he gives it to M for analysis, who permits him to go to Rio de Janeiro under the pretense of being on leave. Bond survives attacks by Jaws, whom Drax previously hired as Chang's replacement, during Rio Carnival and on the Sugarloaf Cable Car. After Jaws' cable car crashes, he is rescued from the rubble by Dolly, a young woman, and the two fall in love. Drax's forces capture Goodhead, but Bond escapes; he learns that the toxin comes from a rare orchid indigenous to the Amazon jungle. Bond travels the Amazon River and comes under attack from Drax's forces, before eventually locating his base. Captured by Jaws, Bond is taken to Drax and witnesses four Moonrakers lifting off. Drax explains that he stole back the loaned Shuttle because another in his fleet had developed a fault during assembly. Bond and Goodhead are encaged by Jaws in a fake meeting room under the launch platform, and narrowly escape being burned alive by the exhausts of \"Moonraker 5\", which is carrying Drax, and pose as pilots on \"Moonraker 6\". The shuttles dock with a huge, city-like space station, hidden from radar by a cloaking device. Bond and Goodhead disable the radar jamming cloaking device; the United States sends a platoon of Marines aboard another shuttle to intercept the now-visible space station. Jaws captures Bond and Goodhead, to whom Drax reveals his plan to destroy human life by launching 50 globes that would dispense the nerve gas into Earth's atmosphere. Drax had transported several dozen genetically perfect young men and women of varying races to the space station in the shuttles. They would live there until Earth was safe again for human life; their descendants would be the seed for a \"new master race\". Bond persuades Jaws to switch his allegiance by getting Drax to admit that anyone not measuring up to his physical standards, including him and Dolly, would be exterminated. Jaws attacks Drax's guards, and a laser battle ensues between Drax's forces and Bond, Jaws, and the Marines (attacking on MMUs). Drax's forces are defeated as the station is destroyed, while Bond shoots and ejects Drax into space. Bond and Goodhead use Drax's laser-armed \"Moonraker 5\" to destroy the three launched globes and return to Earth. It is revealed that Jaws and Dolly, who ejected themselves in one of Drax's escape pods, after toasting with a bottle of champagne, are being recovered by the Marines. Bond's superiors get a video feed of \"Moonraker 5\" and are bemused to see Bond and Goodhead making love in zero gravity.", "The end credits for the previous Bond film, \"The Spy Who Loved Me\", said, \"James Bond will return in \"For Your Eyes Only\"\"; however, the producers chose the novel \"Moonraker\" as the basis for the next film, following the box office success of the 1977 space-themed film \"Star Wars\". \"For Your Eyes Only\" was subsequently delayed and ended up following \"Moonraker\" in 1981.", "Ian Fleming had originally intended the novel, published in 1955, to be made into a film even before he began writing it. A part of the novel was thus based on an original idea for a screenplay which had been on his mind for years. In 1955, American actor John Payne offered $1,000 for a nine-month option to \"Moonraker\", plus $10,000 if production eventually took off. The negotiations broke up the following year due to disagreements regarding Payne's ownership of the other Bond novels. Fleming eventually settled with Rank Organisation, a British company who owned Pinewood Studios. Rank wound up not developing the film, even after Fleming contributed his own script trying to push production forward, and Fleming purchased the rights back in 1959. \"Moonraker\" ended up being the last James Bond novel to receive a screen adaptation. However, as with several previous Bond films, the story from Fleming's novel is almost entirely dispensed with, and little more than the idea of Hugo Drax as an industrialist who makes rockets was used in the film. Drax has a plan for a master race in the film, but in the novel actually had been a Nazi (unbeknownst to the English). The dramatic scene of Bond and his female companion being trapped in an exhaust duct under a rocket where they are nearly burned to death also appears in the film. Otherwise the film is more in keeping with contemporary trends in science fiction. The 2002 Bond film \"Die Another Day\" makes further use of some ideas and character names from the novel. Tom Mankiewicz wrote a short outline for \"Moonraker\" that was mostly discarded. According to Mankiewicz, footage shot at Drax's lairs was considerably more detailed than the edited result in the final version. The crew had shot a scene with Drax meeting his co-financiers in his jungle lair and they used the same chamber room below the space shuttle launch pad from which Bond and Goodhead eventually escape. This scene was shot, but later cut. Another scene involving Bond and Goodhead in a meditation room aboard Drax's space station was shot but never used in the final film. However, press stills were released of the scene, which was featured on Topps trading cards in 1979, as was a cinema trailer which featured a close-up of Jaws' reaction after Bond punches him in the face aboard the space station, neither of which appeared in the complete film. Some scenes from Mankiewicz's script were used in subsequent films, including the Acrostar Jet sequence, used in the pre-credit sequence for \"Octopussy\", and the Eiffel Tower scene in \"A View to a Kill\". In March 2004 rumours surfaced about a lost 1956 version of \"Moonraker\" by Orson Welles, and a James Bond web site repeated it on April Fool's Day in 2004 as a hoax. Supposedly, this recently discovered lost film consisted of 40 minutes of raw footage with Dirk Bogarde as Bond, Welles as Drax, and Peter Lorre as Drax's henchman.", "The screenplay of \"Moonraker\" differed so much from Ian Fleming's novel that Eon Productions authorised the film's screenwriter Christopher Wood to write a novelisation, his second (after \"James Bond, The Spy Who Loved Me\"). It was named \"James Bond and Moonraker\" to avoid confusion with Fleming's original novel \"Moonraker\". It was published in 1979, with the film's release.", "Initially, the chief villain, Hugo Drax, was to be played by British actor James Mason, but once the decision was made that the film would be an Anglo-French co-production under the 1965–1979 film treaty, French actor Michael Lonsdale was cast as Drax and Corinne Cléry was chosen for the part of Corinne Dufour, to comply with qualifying criteria of the agreement. Stewart Granger and Louis Jourdan were considered also for the role of Drax. Jourdan later portrayed prince Kamal Khan, chief villain of \"Octopussy\". American actress Lois Chiles had originally been offered the role of Anya Amasova in \"The Spy Who Loved Me\" (1977), but had turned down the part when she decided to take temporary retirement. Chiles was cast as Holly Goodhead by chance, when she was given the seat next to Lewis Gilbert on a flight and he believed she would be ideal for the role as the CIA scientist. Jaclyn Smith was originally offered the role of Holly Goodhead but had to turn it down due to scheduling conflicts with \"Charlie's Angels\". Drax's henchman Chang was played by Japanese aikido instructor Toshiro Suga; he was recommended for the role by executive producer Michael G. Wilson, who was one of his pupils. Wilson, continuing a tradition he started in the film \"Goldfinger\", has a small cameo role in \"Moonraker\": he appears twice, first as a tourist outside the Venini Glass shop and museum in Venice, then at the end of the film as a technician in the US Navy control room. The Jaws character, played by Richard Kiel, makes a return, although in \"Moonraker\" the role is played more for comedic effect than in \"The Spy Who Loved Me\". Jaws was intended to be a villain against Bond to the bitter end, but director Lewis Gilbert stated on the DVD documentary that he received so much fan mail from small children saying \"Why can't Jaws be a goodie not a baddie\", that as a result he was persuaded to gradually transform Jaws into Bond's ally by the end of the film. Diminutive French actress Blanche Ravalec, who had recently begun her career with minor roles in French films such as Michel Lang's \"Holiday Hotel\" (1978) and Claude Sautet's Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film nominee, \"A Simple Story\" (1978), was cast as the bespectacled Dolly, the girlfriend of Jaws. Originally, the producers were dubious about whether the audience would accept the height difference between them, and only made their decision once they were informed by Richard Kiel that his real-life wife was of the same height. Lois Maxwell's 22-year-old daughter, Melinda Maxwell, was also cast as one of the \"perfect\" human specimens from Drax's master race.", "Production began on 14 August 1978. The main shooting was switched from the usual 007 Stage at the Pinewood Studios to France, due to high taxation in England at the time. Only the cable car interiors and space battle exteriors were filmed at Pinewood. The massive sets designed by Ken Adam were the largest ever constructed in France and required more than 222,000 man-hours to construct (roughly 1000 hours by each of the crew on average). They were shot at three of France's largest film studios in Épinay and Boulogne-Billancourt. The 220 technicians used 100 tonnes of metal, two tonnes of nails and 10,000 board feet of wood to build the three-story space station set at Épinay Studios. The elaborate space set for \"Moonraker\" holds the world record for having the largest number of zero gravity wires in one scene. The Venetian glass museum and fight between Bond and Chang was shot at Boulogne Studios in a building which had once been a World War II Luftwaffe aircraft factory during Germany's occupation of France. The scene in the Venice glass museum and warehouse holds the record for the largest amount of break-away sugar glass used in a single scene. Drax's mansion, set in California, was actually filmed at the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte, about southeast of Paris, for the exteriors and Grand Salon. The remaining interiors, including some of the scenes with Corinne Defour and the drawing room, were filmed at the Château de Guermantes. Much of the film was shot in the cities of London, Paris, Venice, Palmdale, California, Port St. Lucie, Florida, and Rio de Janeiro. The production team had considered India and Nepal as locations, but after scouting trips these were rejected as impractical to work into the script, particularly considering the time constraints. They decided on Rio de Janeiro relatively early on, a city that Cubby Broccoli had visited on holiday, and a team was sent there in early 1978 to capture initial footage from the Carnival, which featured in the film. At the Rio de Janeiro location, many months later, Roger Moore arrived several days later than scheduled for shooting due to recurrent health problems and an attack of kidney stones that he had suffered while in France. Upon arrival, Moore was immediately whisked off the plane for hair and make-up work before reboarding the plane to film the sequence with him arriving as James Bond in the film. Sugarloaf Mountain was a prominent location in the film, and during filming of the midair cable car sequence in which Bond and Goodhead are attacked by Jaws, stuntman Richard Graydon slipped and narrowly avoided falling to his death. For the scene in which Jaws bites into the steel tramway cable with his teeth, the cable was actually made of liquorice, although Kiel was still required to use his steel dentures. Iguazu Falls, in the south of Brazil, was used in the film, although as Q notes, the falls were supposedly somewhere in the upper basin of the Amazon River. The second unit had originally planned on sending an actual boat over the falls. However, on attempting to release it, the boat became firmly embedded on rocks near the edge. Despite a dangerous attempt by helicopter and rope ladder to retrieve it, the plan had to be abandoned, forcing the second unit to use a miniature at Pinewood instead. The exterior of Drax's pyramid headquarters in the Amazon rain forest near the falls was actually filmed at the Tikal Mayan ruins in Guatemala. The interior of the pyramid, however, was designed by Ken Adam at a French studio, in which he purposefully used a shiny coating to make the walls look plastic and false. All of the space centre scenes were shot at the Vehicle Assembly Building of the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, although some of the earlier scenes of the Moonraker assembly plant had been filmed on location at the Rockwell International manufacturing plant in Palmdale, California. The early scene in which Jaws pushes Bond out of the aircraft without a parachute took weeks of planning and preparation. The skydiving sequence was coordinated by Don Calvedt under the supervision of second unit director John Glen and was shot above Lake Berryessa in northern California. As Calvedt and skydiving champion B.J. Worth developed the equipment for the scene, which included a parachute pack that could be concealed beneath the suit to give the impression of the missing parachute, and equipment to prevent the freefalling cameraman from suffering whiplash while opening his parachute, they brought in stuntman Jake Lombard to test it all. Lombard eventually played Bond in the scene, with Worth as the pilot from whom Bond takes a parachute, and Ron Luginbill as Jaws. Both Lombard and Worth became regular members of the stunt team for aerial sequences in later Bond films. When the stuntmen opened their parachutes at the end of every shoot, custom-sewn velcro costume seams separated to allow the hidden parachutes to open. The skydiver cinematographer used a lightweight Panavision experimental plastic anamorphic lens, bought from an old pawn shop in Paris, which he had adapted, and attached to his helmet to shoot the entire sequence. The scene took a total of 88 skydives by the stuntmen to be completed. The only scenes shot in studio were close-ups of Roger Moore and Richard Kiel. Since NASA's Space Shuttle program had not been launched, Derek Meddings and his miniatures team had to create the rocket launch footage without any reference. Shuttle models attached to bottle rockets and signal flares were used for take-off, and the smoke trail was created with salt that fell from the models. The space scenes were done by rewinding the camera after an element was shot, enabling other elements to be superimposed in the film stock, with the space battle needing up to forty rewinds to incorporate everything. The climactic scenes of the space station disintegrating were created by Meddings and other members of the special effects team shooting the miniature model with shotguns. For the scene involving the opening of the musical electronic laboratory door lock in Venice, producer Albert R. Broccoli requested special permission from director Steven Spielberg to use the five-note melody from his film \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\" (1977). In 1985, Broccoli returned the favour by fulfilling Spielberg's request to use the James Bond theme music for a scene in his film, \"The Goonies\" (1985). As James Bond is arriving at the scene of the pheasant shoot, a trumpet is sounded playing the first three brass notes from \"Also sprach Zarathustra\", referencing the film \"\" (1968).", "\"Moonraker\" was the third of three Bond films for which the theme song was performed by Shirley Bassey (following \"Goldfinger\" and \"Diamonds Are Forever\"). Frank Sinatra was originally considered for the vocals, and Kate Bush was asked, but she declined. Johnny Mathis was approached and offered the opportunity. However, Mathis—despite having started recording with Barry—was unable to complete the project, leaving producers to offer the song to Bassey just weeks before the premiere date in England. Bassey made the recordings with very short notice and as a result, she never regarded the song 'as her own' as she had never had the chance to perform it in full or promote it first. The film uses two versions of the title theme song, a ballad version heard over the main titles, and a disco version over the closing titles. Confusingly, the United Artists single release labelled the tracks on the 7-inch single as \"Moonraker (Main Title)\" for the version used to close the film and \"Moonraker (End Title)\" for the track that opened the film. The song made little impact on the charts, reaching #159, partly attributed to Bassey's failure to promote the single, given the last-minute decision to quickly record it to meet the schedule. In 2005, Bassey sang the song for the first time outside James Bond on stage as part of a medley of her three Bond title songs. An instrumental strings version of the title theme was used in 2007 tourism commercials for the Dominican Republic. The soundtrack of \"Moonraker\" was composed by John Barry and recorded in Paris, again, as with production, marking a turning point away from the prior studio, CTS Studios in London. The score also marked a turning point in John Barry's output, abandoning the Kentonesque brass of his earlier Bond scores in favor of slow, rich string passages – a trend which Barry would continue in the 1980s with scores such as \"Out of Africa\" and \"Somewhere in Time\". For \"Moonraker\", for the first time since \"Diamonds Are Forever\" (1971), Barry used a piece of music called \"007\" (on track 7), and \"Bond smells a rat\", the secondary Bond theme composed by Barry and introduced in \"From Russia with Love\" during Bond's escape with the Lektor; some classical music pieces were also included in the film. For the scene where Bond visits Drax in his chateau, Drax plays Frédéric Chopin's Prelude no. 15 in D-flat major (op. 28), \"Raindrop\", on his grand piano (although he plays in the key of D major). Tritsch-Tratsch-Polka by Johann Strauss II was used during the hovercraft scene on the Piazza San Marco in Venice, and Tchaikovsky's \"Romeo and Juliet Overture\" plays when Jaws meets Dolly following his accident. Other passages pay homage to earlier films, including Richard Strauss's \"Also sprach Zarathustra\" (op. 30), associated with \"2001: A Space Odyssey\", with the hunting horn playing its distinctive first three notes, Elmer Bernstein's theme from \"The Magnificent Seven\" when Bond appears on horseback in gaucho clothing at MI6 headquarters in Brazil, and the alien-contacting theme from \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\" as the key-code for a security door as mentioned previously. The Italian aria \"Vesti la giubba\" from Ruggero Leoncavallo's opera \"I Pagliacci\", was sung in Venice before one of the henchmen falls to his death from a building, landing inside a piano.", "\"Moonraker\" premiered on 26 June 1979, in the Odeon Leicester Square, United Kingdom. Three days after the UK release, it went on general release in the US, opening in 788 theatres with 900 prints made, United Artists' widest opening at the time. It grossed $14,744,718 in its first week from 900 bookings. On the mainland of Europe, the most common month of release was in August 1979, opening in the Nordic countries of Denmark, Finland, Norway, Iceland and Sweden between 13 and 18 August. Given that the film was produced largely in France, and it involved some notable French actors, the French premiere for the film was relatively late, released in that country on 10 October 1979. \"Moonraker\" grossed a worldwide total of $210,300,000. \"Moonraker\" received a mixed reception by critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 63% approval rating based on 48 reviews, with an average rating of 5.67/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Featuring one of the series' more ludicrous plots but outfitted with primo gadgets and spectacular sets, \"Moonraker\" is both silly and entertaining.\" \"The New York Times\" film critic Vincent Canby called \"Moonraker\" \"one of the most buoyant Bond films of all. Almost everyone connected with the movie is in top form, even Mr. Moore. Here he's as ageless, resourceful, and graceful as the character he inhabits.\" Canby subsequently said the film was, alongside \"Goldfinger\", the best of the series. \"The Globe and Mail\" critic Jay Scott said \"Moonraker\" was second only to \"Goldfinger\". \"In the first few minutes – before the credits – it offers more thrills than most escapist movies provide in two hours.\" During the title sequence, \"the excitement has gone all the way up to giddy and never comes down.\" Scott admired the film's theme song and cited with approval the film's location work. He also singled out Ken Adam's sets, dubbing them \"high-tech Piranesi.\" Frank Rich of \"Time\" felt \"The result is a film that is irresistibly entertaining as only truly mindless spectacle can be. Those who have held out on Bond movies over 17 years may not be convinced by \"Moonraker\", but everyone else will be.\" Reviewers such as James Berardinelli praised the visual effects and stunts, and film scholar James Monaco designated the film a \"minor masterpiece\" and declared it the best Bond film of them all. However, most critics consider \"Moonraker\" one of the lesser films in the series, largely due to the extent and absurdity of the plot which takes James Bond into space, some of the ploys used in the film for comedic effect, and its extended dialogue. In November 2006, \"Entertainment Weekly\" ranked \"Moonraker\" fourteenth among the Bond films, describing it as \"by far the campiest of all 007 movies\" with \"one of the worst theme songs\"; while IGN listed it as eleventh, calling it outlandish and saying that despite the actors \"trying what they can to ground the film in reality, the laser gun/space station finale pretty much undercuts their efforts\"; and Norman Wilner of MSN chose it as the fourth worst film of the series, considering that the film \"just flat-out sucks\". Critic Nicholas Sylvain said \"\"Moonraker\" seems to have more than its share of little flaws and annoyances which begin right from the opening pre-credit sequence. The sheer idiocy (and impossibility) of having a fully fueled shuttle on the back of the Boeing during the trans-Atlantic crossing should be evident, and later in the film, the whole Jaws-falls-in-love and becomes a 'good guy' routine leaves me rather cold, and provides far too much cheesy comedy moments, as does the gondola driving through the square scene.\" In his review of \"Moonraker\" in 1979, the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" film critic Roger Ebert, while clearly expressing his approval of the advanced special effects and Ken Adam's extravagant production sets, criticised the pace in which the locations of the film evolved, remarking, \"it's so jammed with faraway places and science fiction special effects that Bond has to move at a trot just to make it into all the scenes\". Christopher Null of Filmcritic.com said of the film: \"Most rational observers agree that \"Moonraker\" is without a doubt the most absurd James Bond movie, definitely of the Roger Moore era and possibly of all time\". However, while he criticised the extravagance of the plot and action sequences, he believed that this added to the enjoyment of the film, and particularly approved of the remark \"I think he's attempting re-entry!\" by \"Q\" during Bond and Goodhead's orbiting of the Earth which he described as \"featuring what might be the best double entendre ever\". Reviewing \"Moonraker\", film critic Danny Peary wrote, \"The worst James Bond film to date has Roger Moore walking through the paces for his hefty paycheck and giving way to his double for a series of unimaginative action scenes and 'humorous' chases. There's little suspense and the humor falls flat. Not only is Jaws so pacified by love that he becomes a good guy, but the filmmakers also have the gall to set the finale in outer space and stage a battle right out of \"Star Wars\".\" The exaggerated nature of the plot and space station sequence has seen the film parodied on numerous occasions. Of note is the Austin Powers spoof film \"\" (1999) which whilst a parody of other James Bond films, pays reference to \"Moonraker\" by Dr. Evil's lair in space. The scene in which Drax is shot by the cyanide dart and ousted into space is parodied by Powers' ejection of Dr. Evil's clone Mini-Me into outer space in the same way. In 1992 English dance-pop duo London Boys released a song called Moonraker inspired by the movie. Sean Connery, who had played James Bond in six of the first seven films in the series, stated in an interview that: \"I went in London to see \"Moonraker\" with Roger and I think it's departed so much from any sort of credence from the reality that we had [in my six films].\" He also criticized the film for: \"such a dependence on the effects and there's no substance.\"", "Derek Meddings, Paul Wilson and John Evans were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, and the film was nominated for three Saturn Awards, Best Science Fiction Film, Best Special Effects, and Best Supporting Actor (Richard Kiel)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Demography.", "Education.", "Economy.", "Municipalities.", "Climate.", "Media.", "Twinning and covenants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nuevo León was founded by conquistador Alberto del Canto, although frequent raids by Chichimecas, the natives of the north, prevented the establishment of almost any permanent settlements. Subsequent to the failure of del Canto to populate the area, Luis Carvajal y de la Cueva, at the head of a group of Portuguese and Spanish settlers who were of Jewish descent, requested permission from the Spanish King to attempt to settle the area which would be called the New Kingdom of León and would fail as well. It wasn't until 1596 under the leadership of Diego de Montemayor the colony became permanent. Nuevo Leon eventually became (along with the provinces of Coahuila, Nuevo Santander and Texas) one of the Eastern Internal Provinces in Northern New Spain. The capital of Nuevo León is Monterrey, the third largest city in Mexico with over four million residents. Monterrey is a modern and affluent city, and Nuevo León has long been one of Mexico's most industrialized states.", "Nuevo León has an extreme climate, and there is very little rainfall throughout the year. The territory covers, and can be divided into three regions: a hot, dry region in the north, a temperate region in the mountains, and a semi-arid region in the south. The Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range affects in an important way the lay of the land forming the Galeana and Doctor Arroyo plateaus, the Iguana, Picachos, Papagayos, and Santa Clara mountain ranges, and the Pilón, Ascensión, and Río Blanco valleys. As for hydrography, the San Juan River supplies the El Cuchillo dam, which provides water for Monterrey and the metropolitan area. There are also the Cerro Prieto, La Boca, Vaquerías, Nogalitos, and Agualeguas dams. Laguna de Labradores is a major lake in Nuevo León, and Pozo del Gavilán is a natural well. Both are located in the Galeana municipality. The flora of the region includes brush and pastures in the low regions, and pine and oak trees in the mountains. The fauna includes black bears, mountain lions, javelinas, prairie dogs, foxes, coyotes, and white-tailed deer, along with smaller species.", "As of 2015, Nuevo León's population was about 5.119 million. Of these over 90%, or about 4.7 million, of the state's population resides within the Monterrey Metropolitan area, making it the third largest metropolitan area in the country. Life expectancy in the state is high, being 73 years for men and 79 years for women. Ninety-four percent of the total population occupy urban areas, one million of which are home-owners, and 98% have all utilities (running water, sewer systems and electric power). The remaining 2% is mostly the small indigenous population which is isolated and lives in the mountain regions. Following the nation's tendency, a majority of the population identifies as being Roman Catholic.", "The high quality of life that prevails across the state is reflected on statistical rates such as education, as the entity reports an almost perfect record for finished secondary education, and 13 in 100 inhabitants earn a professional degree. In the same line, illiteracy rates for the state are within the lowest in the nation at 2.8%, just behind the Distrito Federal which still leads the country in this regard. Institutions of higher education include:", "Highly industrialized, Nuevo León possesses a standard of living similar to that of countries such as Croatia, Slovakia or Poland. In 2007, the per capita GDP of the state was similar to that of the Asian Tiger of South Korea and even higher than that of some European Union states such as Slovakia and Hungary. At about $27,000, it was the highest GDP per capita (PPP) of any Mexican state (not counting the Federal District, which also has a very high per capita), and was therefore higher than the Mexican national average (2013 GDP per capita (PPP) national average was $15,700). One of its municipalities, San Pedro Garza García, is among the richest in the country in terms of per capita income. It is also home of powerful conglomerates, such as Cemex (one of the largest construction materials firms in the world), Bimbo (bakery and pastry), Maseca (food and grains), Banorte (the only high-street bank in Mexico wholly owned by Mexicans), ALFA (Sigma, Alestra, Nemak, Alpek and Hylsa (recently bought by Ternium), i-service (HelpDesk), Vitro SA (glass), FEMSA (Coca-Cola in Latin America), and Cervecería Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma (brewers of \"Sol\", \"Tecate\", \"XX\", \"Bohemia\", \"Indio\" and \"Nochebuena\"). Nuevo León also boasts a rich agricultural core, called the \"orange belt\", which comprises the municipalities of Allende, Montemorelos, Hualahuises, General Terán and Linares. Small but productive investments have been transforming traditional harvests (mainly based on orange and cereals) into agroindustrial developments that are producing increasing revenues for the local economy. In contrast with the relative wealth of industrial Nuevo León and the orange belt, the Southern part of the state (municipalities of Galeana, Aramberri, Zaragoza, Doctor Arroyo and Mier y Noriega) remains rural and less productive. Most of The South of the state is at the mercy of a very dry weather that represents a major hurdle for agriculture and livestock. As of 2010, Nuevo León's economy represents 11.4% of Mexico's total gross domestic product or US$165 billion. Nuevo León's economy has a strong focus on export oriented manufacturing (i.e. maquiladora / INMEX). As of 2005, 431,551 people are employed in the manufacturing sector. Foreign direct investment in Nuevo León was 1,213.1 million USD for 2005. In recent years, the state government has been making efforts in attracting significant investments in aeronautics, biotechnology, mechatronics, information and communication technologies fields with the creation of the Research and Technology Innovation Park PIIT (Parque de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica), a technology park oriented in the development, innovation and research of sciences. The project is one of the key strategies within the Monterrey, City of Knowledge program. The park is located in the municipality of Apodaca, part of Greater Monterrey at the 10 km of the highway to Monterrey's International Airport. It consists of a total surface area of 70 Ha (172 acres), half of it already committed to R&D centers. The other 35 Ha (86 acres) are available for research and development centers, and for businesses that meet the Park's objectives.", "Nuevo León is divided into 51 municipalities \"(municipios)\". See municipalities of Nuevo León.", "Nuevo León has many biomes, which is why it has different climates. Some areas in the mountains are very cold in winter and temperate in summer. In the northern part of the state the climate is arid as a result of the proximity to the Chihuahuan desert. Extreme high temperatures of 47 °C or more occur on the desert areas while winters are short and mild. In Monterrey the climate is hot semi-arid with extreme hot summers and mild winters. There is very little rainfall throughout the year, usually about 500 mm or less.", "Newspapers and news websites of Nuevo León include: \"ABC Noticias\", \"Biznews\", \"El Gráfico de Nuevo León\", \"El Norte\", \"El Porvenir\", \"La Última Palabra\", \"Medios Universitarios Diretec\", \"Metro de Monterrey\", \"Milenio Diario de Monterrey\", \"Plataforma Mty. la ciudad que queremos\", \"Publimetro, edición Monterrey\", \"Regio.com\", \"Reporte Indigo\", \"Sòlo Ofertas.\"", "The state has agreements with other states, provinces, regions and autonomous communities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Worship.", "Differences in worship.", "Other worshiped forms.", "Snake.", "Dragon.", "Relation to women's positions in early Japanese society." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Records of the worship of Amaterasu are found from the c. 712 CE \"Kojiki\" and c. 720 CE \"Nihon Shoki\", the oldest records of Japanese history. In Japanese mythology, Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, is the sister of Susanoo, the god of storms and the sea, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. It was written that Amaterasu had painted the landscape with her siblings while she created ancient Japan. Amaterasu was said to have been created by the divine couple Izanagi and Izanami, who were themselves created by, or grew from, the originator of the universe, Amenominakanushi. All three deities were born from Izanagi when he was purifying himself upon entering Yomi, the underworld, after breaking the promise not to see dead Izanami and he was chased by her and, surrounding rotten Izanami. Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susanoo from the washing of the nose. Amaterasu became the ruler of the sun and the heavens along with her brother, Tsukuyomi as the ruler of the night, and Susanoo as the ruler of the seas. Originally, Amaterasu shared the sky with Tsukuyomi, her husband and younger brother until, out of disgust, he killed the goddess of food, Uke Mochi, when she pulled \"food from her rectum, nose, and mouth\". This killing upset Amaterasu causing her to label Tsukuyomi an evil god and split away from him; separating night from day. The texts also tell of a long-standing rivalry between Amaterasu and her other brother, Susanoo. Susanoo is said to have insulted Amaterasu, claiming she had no power over the higher realm. When Izanagi ordered him to leave Heaven, he went to bid his sister goodbye. Amaterasu was suspicious, but when Susanoo proposed a challenge to prove his sincerity, she accepted. Each of them took an object belonging to the other and from it, birthed deities. Amaterasu birthed three female deities from Susanoo's sword while he birthed five male deities from her necklace. Claiming the gods were hers because they were born of her necklace, and the goddesses were his, she decided that she had won the challenge, as his item produced women. After Susanoo's defeat he went on a rampage destroying much of the heavenly and earthly realm, including Amaterasu's rice fields; he also hurled a flayed pony at her loom, and killed one of her beloved attendants in a fit of rage. Amaterasu, who was in fury and grief, hid inside the Ama-no-Iwato (\"heavenly rock cave\"), plunging the earth into darkness and chaos. Eventually, she was persuaded to leave the cave. Initially, Omoikane threw a party outside of the Ama-no-Iwato to lure Amaterasu out but it was not until the Goddess Ame-no-Uzume danced promiscuously outside of the cave that Amaterasu came out. Susanoo was punished by being banished from heaven. Both later amended their conflict when Susanoo gave her the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi sword as a reconciliation gift. According to legend, Amaterasu, who was responsible from keeping balance and harmony within the earthly realm, bequeathed to her descendant Ninigi: the mirror, Yata no Kagami; the jewel, Yasakani no Magatama; and the sword, Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi. Collectively, the sacred mirror, jewel, and sword became the three Imperial Regalia of Japan.", "The Ise Grand Shrine ( \"Ise Jingū\") located in Ise, Mie Prefecture, Japan, houses the inner shrine, Naiku, dedicated to Amaterasu. Her sacred mirror, Yata no Kagami, is said to be kept at this shrine as one of the Imperial regalia objects. A ceremony known as Shikinen Sengū () is held every twenty years at this shrine to honor the many deities enshrined, which is formed by 125 shrines altogether. New shrine buildings are built at a location adjacent to the site first. After the transfer of the object of worship, new clothing and treasure and offering food to the goddess the old buildings are taken apart. The building materials taken apart are given to many other shrines and buildings to renovate. This practice is a part of the Shinto faith and has been practiced since the year 690 CE, but is not only for Amaterasu but also for many other deities enshrined in Ise Grand Shrine. Additionally, from the late 7th century to the 14th century, an unmarried princess of the Imperial Family, called \"Saiō\" () or \"itsuki no miko\" (), served as the sacred priestess of Amaterasu at the Ise Shrine upon every new dynasty. The in Takachiho, Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan is also dedicated to Amaterasu and sits above the gorge containing Ama-no-Iwato. The worship of Amaterasu to the exclusion of other \"kami\" has been described as \"the cult of the sun.\" This phrase may also refer to the early pre-archipelagoan worship of the sun. According to the \"Engishiki\" () and \"Sandai Jitsuroku\" () of the Heian period, the sun goddess had many shrines named \"Amateru\" or \"Amateru-mitama\", which were mostly located in the Kinki area. However, there have also been records of a shrine on Tsushima Island, coined as either \"Teruhi Gongen\" or the \"Shining Sun Deity\" during medieval times. It was later found that such a shrine was meant for a male sun deity named Ameno-himitama. Amaterasu was also once worshiped at Hinokuma shrines. The Hinokuma shrines were used to worship the goddess by the Ama people in the Kii Provinces. Because the Ama people were believed to have been fishermen, researchers have conjectured that the goddess was also worshiped for a possible connection to the sea.", "Amaterasu, while primarily being the goddess of the sun, is also sometimes worshiped as having connections with other aspects and forms of nature. Amaterasu can also be considered a goddess of the wind and typhoons alongside her brother, and even possibly death. There are many connections between local legends in the Ise region with other goddesses of nature, such as a nameless goddess of the underworld and sea. It's possible that Amaterasu's name became associated with these legends in the Shinto religion as it grew throughout Japan. In contrast, Amaterasu, while enshrined at other locations, also can be seen as the goddess that represents Japan and its ethnicity. The many differences in Shinto religion and mythology can be due to how different local gods and beliefs clashed. In the Meiji Era, the belief in Amaterasu fought against the Izumo belief in Okininushi for spiritual control over the land of Japan. During this time, the religious nature of Okininushi may have been changed to be included in Shinto mythology. Osagawara Shouzo built shrines in other countries to mainly spread Japan's culture and Shinto religion. It, however, was usually seen as the worshiping of Japan itself, rather than Amaterasu. Most of these colonial and oversea shrines were destroyed after WWII.", "", "Outside of being worshiped as a sun goddess, some have argued that Amaterasu was once related to snakes. There was a legend circulating among the Ise Priests that essentially described an encounter of Amaterasu sleeping with the Saiō every night in the form of a snake or lizard, evidenced by fallen scales in the priestess' bed. This was recorded by a medieval monk in his diary, which stated that \"in ancient times Amaterasu was regarded as a snake deity or as a sun deity.\" In the Ise kanjō, the god's snake form is considered an embodiment of the \"three poisons\", namely greed, anger, and ignorance. Amaterasu is also linked to a snake cult, which is also tied to the theory that the initial gender of the goddess was male.", "In general, some of these Amaterasu-dragon associations have been in reference to Japanese plays. One example has been within the Chikubushima tradition in which the dragon goddess Benzaiten was the emanation of Amaterasu. Following that, in the Japanese epic, Taiheki, one of the characters, Nitta Yoshisada (), made comparisons with Amaterasu and a dragon with the quote: “I have heard that the Sun Goddess of Ise... conceals her true being in the august image of Vairocana, and that she has appeared in this world in the guise of a dragon god of the blue ocean.” Another tradition of the Heavenly Cave story depicts Amaterasu as a \"dragon-fox\" (\"shinko\" or \"tatsugitsune\") during her descent to the famed cave because it is a type of animal/kami that emits light from its entire body.", "Because Amaterasu has the highest position among the Shinto deities, there has been debate on her influence and relation to women's positions in early Japanese society. Some scholars have argued that the goddess' presence and high stature within the \"kami\" system could suggest that early rulers in Japan were female. Others have argued the goddess' presence implies strong influences female priests had in Japanese politics and religion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Shinto belief.", "Ceremonies and festivals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Kami\" is the Japanese word for a god, deity, divinity, or spirit. It has been used to describe mind (心霊), God (ゴッド), supreme being (至上者), one of the Shinto deities, an effigy, a principle, and anything that is worshipped. Although \"deity\" is the common interpretation of \"kami\", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term. The wide variety of usage of the word \"kami\" can be compared to the Sanskrit \"Deva\" and the Hebrew \"Elohim\", which also refer to God, gods, angels, or spirits. Some etymological suggestions are: Because Japanese does not normally distinguish grammatical number in nouns (the singular and plural forms of nouns in Japanese are the same), it is sometimes unclear whether \"kami\" refers to a single or multiple entities. When a singular concept is needed, is used as a suffix. The reduplicated term generally used to refer to multiple kami is kamigami. Gender is also not implied in the word \"kami\", and as such, it can be used to refer to either male or female.", "While Shinto has no founder, no overarching doctrine, and no religious texts, the \"Kojiki\" (Records of Ancient Matters), written in 712 CE, and the \"Nihon Shoki \"(Chronicles of Japan), written in 720 CE, contain the earliest record of Japanese creation myths. The \"Kojiki\" also includes descriptions of various kami. In the ancient traditions there were five defining characteristics of kami: Kami are an ever-changing concept, but their presence in Japanese life has remained constant. The kami's earliest roles were as earth-based spirits, assisting the early hunter-gatherer groups in their daily lives. They were worshipped as gods of the earth (mountains) and sea. As the cultivation of rice became increasingly important and predominant in Japan, the kami's identity shifted to more sustaining roles that were directly involved in the growth of crops; roles such as rain, earth, and rice. This relationship between early Japanese people and the kami was manifested in rituals and ceremonies meant to entreat the kami to grow and protect the harvest. These rituals also became a symbol of power and strength for the early Emperors. (See.) There is a strong tradition of myth-histories in the Shinto faith; one such myth details the appearance of the first emperor, grandson of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. In this myth, when Amaterasu sent her grandson to earth to rule, she gave him five rice grains, which had been grown in the fields of heaven (Takamagahara). This rice made it possible for him to transform the \"wilderness\". Social and political strife have played a key role in the development of new sorts of kami, specifically the goryō-shin (the sacred spirit kami). Goryō are the vengeful spirits of the dead whose lives were cut short, but they were calmed by the devotion of Shinto followers and are now believed to punish those who do not honor the kami. The pantheon of kami, like the kami themselves, is forever changing in definition and scope. As the needs of the people have shifted, so too have the domains and roles of the various kami. Some examples of this are related to health, such as the kami of smallpox whose role was expanded to include all contagious diseases, or the kami of boils and growths who has also come to preside over cancers and cancer treatments. In the ancient animistic religions, kami were understood as simply the divine forces of nature. Worshippers in ancient Japan revered creations of nature which exhibited a particular beauty and power such as waterfalls, mountains, boulders, animals, trees, grasses, and even rice paddies. They strongly believed the spirits or resident kami deserved respect. In 927 CE, the was promulgated in fifty volumes. This, the first formal codification of Shinto rites and \"norito\" (liturgies and prayers) to survive, became the basis for all subsequent Shinto liturgical practice and efforts. It listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined kami. The number of kami has grown and far exceeded this figure through the following generations as there are over 2,446,000 individual kami enshrined in Tokyo's Yasukuni Shrine alone.", "Kami are the central objects of worship for the Shinto belief. The ancient animistic spirituality of Japan was the beginning of modern Shinto, which became a formal spiritual institution later, in an effort to preserve the traditional beliefs from the encroachment of imported religious ideas. As a result, the nature of what can be called kami is very general and encompasses many different concepts and phenomena. Some of the objects or phenomena designated as kami are qualities of growth, fertility, and production; natural phenomena like wind and thunder; natural objects like the sun, mountains, rivers, trees, and rocks; some animals; and ancestral spirits. Included within the designation of ancestral spirits are spirits of the ancestors of the Imperial House of Japan, but also ancestors of noble families as well as the spirits of the ancestors of all people, which when they died were believed to be the guardians of their descendants. There are other spirits designated as kami as well. For example, the guardian spirits of the land, occupations, and skills; spirits of Japanese heroes, men of outstanding deeds or virtues, and those who have contributed to civilization, culture, and human welfare; those who have died for the state or the community; and the pitiable dead. Not only spirits superior to man can be considered kami; spirits that are considered pitiable or weak have also been considered kami in Shinto. The concept of kami has been changed and refined since ancient times, although anything that was considered to be kami by ancient people will still be considered kami in modern Shinto. Even within modern Shinto, there are no clearly defined criteria for what should or should not be worshipped as kami. The difference between modern Shinto and the ancient animistic religions is mainly a refinement of the kami-concept, rather than a difference in definitions. Although the ancient designations are still adhered to, in modern Shinto many priests also consider kami to be anthropomorphic spirits, with nobility and authority. One such example is the mythological figure Amaterasu-ōmikami, the sun goddess of the Shinto pantheon. Although these kami can be considered deities, they are not necessarily considered omnipotent or omniscient, and like the Greek Gods, they had flawed personalities and were quite capable of ignoble acts. In the myths of Amaterasu, for example, she could see the events of the human world, but had to use divination rituals to see the future. There are considered to be three main variations of kami:,, and. (\"\" literally means eight million, but idiomatically it expresses \"uncountably many\" and \"all-around\"—like many East Asian cultures, the Japanese often use the number 8, representing the cardinal and ordinal directions, to symbolize ubiquity.) These classifications of kami are not considered strictly divided, due to the fluid and shifting nature of kami, but are instead held as guidelines for grouping them. The ancestors of a particular family can also be worshipped as kami. In this sense, these kami are worshipped not because of their godly powers, but because of a distinctive quality or virtue. These kami are celebrated regionally, and several miniature shrines (\"hokora\") have been built in their honor. In many cases, people who once lived are thus revered; an example of this is Tenjin, who was Sugawara no Michizane (845-903 CE) in life. Within Shinto it is believed that the nature of life is sacred because the kami began human life. Yet people cannot perceive this divine nature, which the kami created, on their own; therefore, magokoro, or purification, is necessary in order to see the divine nature. This purification can only be granted by the kami. In order to please the kami and earn magokoro, Shinto followers are taught to uphold the four affirmations of Shinto. The first affirmation is to hold fast to tradition and the family. Family is seen as the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved. For instance, in marriage or birth, tradition is potentially observed and passed onto future generations. The second affirmation is to have a love of nature. Nature objects are worshipped as sacred because the kami inhabit them. Therefore, to be in contact with nature means to be in contact with the gods. The third affirmation is to maintain physical cleanliness. Followers of Shinto take baths, wash their hands, and rinse out their mouths often. The last affirmation is to practice matsuri, which is the worship and honor given to the kami and ancestral spirits. Shinto followers also believe that the kami are the ones who can either grant blessings or curses to a person. Shinto believers desire to appease the evil kami to \"stay on their good side\", and also to please the good kami. In addition to practicing the four affirmations daily, Shinto believers also wear \"omamori\" to aid them in remaining pure and protected. Mamori are charms that keep the evil kami from striking a human with sickness or causing disaster to befall them. The kami are both worshipped and respected within the religion of Shinto. The goal of life to Shinto believers is to obtain \"magokoro\", a pure sincere heart, which can only be granted by the kami. As a result, Shinto followers are taught that humankind should venerate both the living and the nonliving, because both possess a divine superior spirit within: the kami.", "One of the first recorded rituals we know of is, the ceremony in which the Emperor offers newly harvested rice to the kami to secure their blessing for a bountiful harvest. A yearly festival, Niiname-sai is also performed when a new Emperor comes to power, in which case it is called. In the ceremony, the Emperor offers crops from the new harvest to the kami, including rice, fish, fruits, soup, and stew. The Emperor first feasts with the deities, then the guests. The feast could go on for some time; for example, Emperor Shōwa's feast spanned two days. Visitors to a Shinto shrine follow a purification ritual before presenting themselves to the kami. This ritual begins with hand washing and swallowing and later spitting a small amount of water in front of the shrine to purify the body, heart, and mind. Once this is complete they turn their focus to gaining the kami's attention. The traditional method of doing this is to bow twice, clap twice and bow again, alerting the kami to their presence and desire to commune with them. During the last bow, the supplicant offers words of gratitude and praise to the kami; if they are offering a prayer for aid they will also state their name and address. After the prayer and/or worship they repeat the two bows, two claps and a final bow in conclusion. Shinto practitioners also worship at home. This is done at a \"kamidana\" (household shrine), on which an \"ofuda\" with the name of their protector or ancestral kami is positioned. Their protector kami is determined by their or their ancestors' relationship to the kami. Ascetic practices, shrine rituals and ceremonies, and Japanese festivals are the most public ways that Shinto devotees celebrate and offer adoration for the kami. Kami are celebrated during their distinct festivals that usually take place at the shrines dedicated to their worship. Many festivals involve believers, who are usually intoxicated, parading, sometimes running, toward the shrine while carrying mikoshi (portable shrines) as the community gathers for the festival ceremony. Yamamoto Guji, the high priest at the Tsubaki Grand Shrine, explains that this practice honors the kami because \"it is in the festival, the matsuri, the greatest celebration of life can be seen in the world of Shinto and it is the people of the community who attend festivals as groups, as a whole village who are seeking to unlock the human potential as children of kami.\" During the New Year Festival, families purify and clean their houses in preparation for the upcoming year. Offerings are also made to the ancestors so that they will bless the family in the future year. Shinto ceremonies are so long and complex that in some shrines it can take ten years for the priests to learn them. The priesthood was traditionally hereditary. Some shrines have drawn their priests from the same families for over a hundred generations. It is not uncommon for the clergy to be female priestesses. The priests (\"kannushi\") may be assisted by \"miko\", young unmarried women acting as shrine maidens. Neither priests nor priestesses live as ascetics; in fact, it is common for them to be married, and they are not traditionally expected to meditate. Rather, they are considered specialists in the arts of maintaining the connection between the kami and the people. In addition to these festivals, ceremonies marking rites of passage are also performed within the shrines. Two such ceremonies are the birth of a child and the Shichi-Go-San. When a child is born they are brought to a shrine so that they can be initiated as a new believer and the kami can bless them and their future life. The Shichi-Go-San (the Seven-Five-Three) is a rite of passage for five-year-old boys and three- or seven-year-old girls. It is a time for these young children to personally offer thanks for the kami's protection and to pray for continued health. Many other rites of passage are practiced by Shinto believers, and there are also many other festivals. The main reason for these ceremonies is so that Shinto followers can appease the kami in order to reach magokoro. Magokoro can only be received through the kami. Ceremonies and festivals are long and complex because they need to be perfect to satisfy the kami. If the kami are not pleased with these ceremonies, they will not grant a Shinto believer magokoro." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Several findings were unearthed near Waremme containing remnants of Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements. The main Roman road linking Bavai to Cologne passed right through the territory. Tumuli and Roman villas were found nearby. Romans have also left a horse burial. The medieval hamlet of \"Woromia\" was cited for the first time in 965. On February 5, 1078, \"Woromia\" was ceded to the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, together with its castle, five mills, and six breweries. By 1215, with its 815 inhabitants, it had grown to town size. Its frontier position near the Duchy of Brabant, however, attracted several raids from the duke, causing it to be burnt to the ground and rebuilt at least a couple of times. In the 14th century, the town built a market place and a hospital, slowly becoming an important regional center, where coins were issued and important meetings held. During his conquest of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, Charles the Bold burnt the city once more in 1468. In the 16th century, the town became one of the 21 \"bonnes villes\" (main cities) of the prince-bishopric. In 1748, a quarter of the city was again destroyed by fire, this time accidentally. In 1792, the French Revolutionary troops entered the city and closed the convents. Three years later, the Prince-Bishopric of Liège was dissolved and the city became French. The 19th century was prosperous, thanks to the advent of the railways linking Mechelen to Ans, and the construction of two sugar refineries and several schools. In 1904, Guillaume Moës established his engine and locomotive company Ateliers Moës-Freres in Waremme; they continued manufacturing in the town until October 2013. World War I did not bring any destruction to the city, except for that of the old surrounding walls. World War II, however, was a lot worse as half of the city was destroyed by air raids, only days before Liberation Day. The city then counted about 5,000 inhabitants.", "Waremme is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Military career.", "Military establishes dictatorship.", "Promoting infrastructure.", "National Assembly.", "Fall from power.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Miguel Primo de Rivera was born into a landowning military family of Jerez de la Frontera. His father was a retired colonel. His uncle, Fernando, was Captain General in Madrid and the soon-to-be first marquess of Estella. Fernando later participated in the plot to restore the constitutional monarchy in 1875, ending the tumultuous First Republic. His great-grandfather was Bértrand Primo de Rivera (1741–1813), 21st Count of Sobremonte, a general and hero of the Spanish Resistance against Napoleon Bonaparte. The young Miguel grew up as part of what Gerald Brenan called \"a hard-drinking, whoring, horse-loving aristocracy\" that ruled \"over the most starved and down-trodden race of agricultural labourers in Europe.\" Studying history and engineering before deciding upon a military career, he won admission to the newly created General Academy in Toledo, and graduated in 1884.", "His army career gave him a role as junior officer in the colonial wars in Morocco, Cuba and the Philippines. He then held several important military posts including the captain-generalship of Valencia, Madrid and Barcelona. He showed courage and initiative in battles against the Berbers of the Rif region in northern Morocco, and promotions and decorations came steadily. Primo de Rivera became convinced that Spain probably could not hold on to its North African colony. For many years, the government had tried without success to crush the Berber rebels, wasting lives and money. He concluded Spain must withdraw from what was called Spanish Morocco if it could not dominate the colony. He was familiar with Cuba and the Philippines with the latter as an aide-de-camp during the Philippine Revolution against Emilio Aguinaldo and became a hostage along with Filipino exiles in Hong Kong after the Pact of Biak na Bato. in 1898 he watched the humiliating defeat in the Spanish–American War, bringing a close to his nation's once-great empire. That loss frustrated many Spaniards, Primo de Rivera included. They criticized the politicians and the parliamentary system which could not maintain order or foster economic development at home, nor preserve the vestiges of Spain's imperial glory. Primo de Rivera went to Madrid to serve in the Ministry of War with his uncle. Renowned for his amorous conquests, he reverted to the carefree days of his youth in Jerez. Then in 1902, he married a young Hispano-Cuban, Casilda Sáenz de Heredia. Their marriage was happy, and Casilda bore six children before her death in 1908, following the birth of Fernando. He later was sent on a military mission to France, Switzerland, and Italy in 1909. The British historian Hugh Thomas says: \"He would work enormously hard for weeks on end and then disappear for a \" juerga \" of dancing, drinking and love-making with gypsies. He would be observed almost alone in the streets of Madrid, swathed in an opera cloak, making his way from one café to another, and on returning home would issue a garrulous and sometimes even intoxicated communiqué -- which he would often have to cancel in the morning.\" Between 1909 and 1923, Primo de Rivera's career blossomed, but he became increasingly discouraged with the fortunes of his country. Having returned to Spanish Morocco, he was promoted to brigadier general in 1911, the first graduate of the General Academy to receive such a promotion. Yet social revolution had flared briefly in Barcelona, during the Tragic Week of 1909. After the army had called up conscripts to fight in the Second Rif War in Morocco, Radical republicans and anarchists in Catalonia had proclaimed a general strike. Violence had erupted when the government declared martial law. Anticlerical rioters had burned churches and convents, and tensions grew as socialists and anarchists pressed for radical changes in Spain. The government proved unable to reform itself or the nation and frustration mounted. After 1918, post-World War I economic difficulties heightened social unrest in Spain. The Cortes (Spanish parliament) under the constitutional monarchy seemed to have no solution to Spain's unemployment, labor strikes, and poverty. In 1921, the Spanish army suffered a stunning defeat in Morocco at the Battle of Annual, which discredited the military's North African policies. By 1923, deputies of the Cortes called for an investigation into the responsibility of King Alfonso XIII and the armed forces for the debacle. Rumors of corruption in the army became rampant.", "On 13 September 1923, the indignant military, headed by Captain General Miguel Primo de Rivera in Barcelona, overthrew the parliamentary government, upon which Primo de Rivera established himself as dictator. In his typically florid prose, he issued a Manifesto explaining the coup to the people. Resentful of the parliamentarians' attacks against him, King Alfonso tried to give Primo de Rivera legitimacy by naming him prime minister. In justifying his \"coup d'état\", Primo de Rivera announced: \"Our aim is to open a brief parenthesis in the constitutional life of Spain and to re-establish it as soon as the country offers us men uncontaminated with the vices of political organization.\" In other words, he believed that the old class of politicians had ruined Spain, that they sought only their own interests rather than patriotism and nationalism. Although many leftists opposed the dictatorship, some of the public supported Primo de Rivera. Those Spaniards were tired of the turmoil and economic problems and hoped a strong leader, backed by the military, could put their country on the right track. Others were enraged that the parliament had been brushed aside. As he travelled through Spain, his emotional speeches left no doubt that he was a Spanish patriot. He proposed to keep the dictatorship in place long enough to sweep away the mess created by the politicians. In the meantime, he would use the state to modernize the economy and alleviate the problems of the working class. Primo de Rivera began by appointing a supreme Directory of eight military men, with himself as president. He then decreed martial law and fired civilian politicians in the provinces, replacing them with middle-ranking officers. When members of the Cortes complained to the king, Alfonso dismissed them, and Primo de Rivera suspended the constitution and dissolved the legislative body. He also moved to repress separatists, who wanted to make the Basque provinces and Catalonia independent from Spain. Despite some reservations, the great Spanish philosopher and intellectual, José Ortega y Gasset, wrote: Nevertheless, other intellectuals such as Miguel de Unamuno and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez criticized the regime and were exiled. The dictator enjoyed several successes in the early years of his regime. Chief among them was Morocco, which had been festering since the start of the 20th century. Primo de Rivera talked of abandoning the colony altogether, unless sufficient resources were available to defeat the rebellion, and began withdrawing Spanish forces. But when the Moroccans attacked the French sector, they drove the French and Spanish to unite to crush the defiance in 1925. He went to Africa to help lead the troops in person, and 1927 brought victory to the Franco-Spanish forces. Grateful Spaniards rejoiced to think that decades of North African bloodletting and recriminations were over.", "Primo de Rivera also worked to build infrastructure for his economically backward country. Spain had few cars when he came to power; by 1930, and Rivera aimed to expand this. The Barcelona Metro, started many years earlier, opened in 1924. His economic planners built dams to harness the hydroelectric power of rivers, especially the Duero and the Ebro, and to provide water for irrigation. For the first time, electricity reached some of Spain's rural regions. The regime upgraded Spain's railroads, and this helped the Spanish iron and steel industry prosper. Between 1923 and 1927, foreign trade increased 300%. Overall, his government intervened to protect national producers from foreign competition. Such economic nationalism was largely the brainchild of Primo de Rivera's finance minister, José Calvo Sotelo. Spain benefited from the European post-World War I boom, but largely benefitted the wealthy. The tranquility was, in part, due to the dictatorship's ways of accommodating the interests of Spanish workers. Imitating the example of Benito Mussolini in Italy, Primo de Rivera forced management and labor to cooperate by organizing 27 corporations (committees) representing different industries and professions. Within each corporation, government arbitrators mediated disputes over wages, hours, and working conditions. This gave Spanish labor more influence than ever before and this might be the reason why the Spanish Socialist Party and UGT were quick to cooperate with the government and its leaders affiliated themselves with the committees mentioned before. Individual workers also benefited because the regime undertook massive public works. The government financed such projects with huge public loans, which Calvo Sotelo argued would be repaid by the increased taxes resulting from economic expansion. Unemployment largely disappeared. But Primo de Rivera brought order to Spain with a price: his regime was a dictatorship. He censored the press. When intellectuals criticized the government, he closed El Ateneo, the country's most famous political and literary club. The largely anarchist CNT was decreed illegal and, without the support of the Socialist Party, the general strikes organised by the organisation were dismantled violently by the army. To suppress the separatist fever in Barcelona, the regime tried to expunge Catalan culture. It was illegal to use Catalan in church services or to dance the sardana. Furthermore, many of the dictator's economic reforms did not actually help the poor as huge public spending led to inflation, which the rich could cope with more easily. This led to a huge income disparity between the wealthy and working classes in Spain at the time. Despite his paternalistic conservatism, Primo de Rivera was enough of a reformer and his policies were radical enough to threaten the interests of the traditional power elite. According to British historian Gerald Brenan, \"Spain needed radical reforms and he could only govern by the permission of the two most reactionary forces in the country—the Army and the Church.\" Primo de Rivera dared not tackle what was seen as Spain's most pressing problem, agrarian reform, because it would have provoked the great landholding elite. Writes historian Richard Herr, \"Primo was not one to waken sleeping dogs, especially if they were big.\" Primo de Rivera chiefly failed because he did not create a viable, legitimate political system to preserve and continue his reforms. He seems to have sincerely wanted the dictatorship to be as brief as possible and initially hoped that Spain could live with the Constitution of 1876 and a new group of politicians. The problem was to find new civilian leadership to take the place of the military. In 1923, he began to create a new \"apolitical\" party, the Patriotic Union (UP), which was formally organized the following year. Primo de Rivera liked to claim that members of the UP were above the squabbling and corruption of petty politics, that they placed the nation's interests above their own. He thought it would bring ideal democracy to Spain by representing true public opinion. But the UP quite obviously was a political party, despite the dictator's naive protestations. Furthermore, it failed to attract enthusiastic support or even many members. On 3 December 1925 he moved to restore legitimate government by dismissing the military Directory and replacing it with civilians. Still, the constitution remained suspended, and criticisms of the regime grew. By summer 1926, former politicians, led by conservative José Sánchez Guerra, pressed the king to remove Primo de Rivera and restore constitutional government. To demonstrate his public support, Primo de Rivera ordered the UP to conduct a plebiscite in September. Voters could endorse the regime or abstain. About a third of those able to vote declined to go to the polls.", "Nevertheless, buoyed by his victory, Primo de Rivera decided to promote a body tasked with the elaboration of a constitutional draft. On 10 October 1927, with the king in attendance, he opened a National Assembly. Although they met in the Cortes chamber, members of the regime-appointed assembly could only advise Primo de Rivera. They had no legislative power. In 1929, following guidance from the dictator, the assembly finally produced a new constitution draft. Among its provisions, it gave women the vote because Primo de Rivera believed their political views less susceptible to political radicalism. He intended to have the nation accept the new constitution in another plebiscite, to be held in 1930.", "As Spaniards tired of the dictatorship, the economic boom ended. The value of the peseta fell against foreign currencies, 1929 brought a bad harvest, and Spain's imports far outstripped the worth of its exports. Conservative critics blamed rising inflation on the government's spending for public works projects. Although no one recognized it at the time, the final months of the year brought the international economic slump which turned into the Great Depression of the 1930s. When Primo de Rivera lost the support of the king and the armed forces, his dictatorship was doomed. The Spanish military had never unanimously backed his seizure of power, although it had tolerated his rule. But when Primo de Rivera began to inject politics into promotions for the artillery corps, it provoked hostility and opposition. Troubled by the regime's failure to legitimize itself or to solve the country's woes, the king also began to draw away. Alfonso, who had sponsored the establishment of Madrid's University City, watched with dismay as the country's students took to the streets to protest the dictatorship and the king's support for it. A clandestine pamphlet portrayed Alfonso as Primo de Rivera's dancing partner. Yet the king did not have to remove Primo de Rivera. On 26 January 1930, the dictator asked the military leaders if he still had their support. Their lukewarm responses, and his recognition that the king no longer backed him, persuaded him to resign two days later. Primo de Rivera retired to Paris, where he died a month and a half later at the age of 60 from fever and diabetes on 16 March 1930.", "In the early 1930s, as most of the western world, Spain fell into economic and political chaos. Alfonso XIII appointed General Dámaso Berenguer, one of Primo de Rivera's opponents, to govern. This government promptly failed in its attempt to return to ordinary constitutional order. Different presidential candidates attempted to restore the legitimacy of the monarch, who had discredited himself by siding with the dictatorship. Eventually, municipal elections were called for on 12th April 1931. While monarchist parties won in the overall polls, republican candidates commanded the majority in urban centres, winning the elections in 41 provincial capitals including Madrid and Barcelona. In April 1931, General José Sanjurjo informed the King that he could not count on the loyalty of the armed forces. Alfonso XIII went into exile on 14 April 1931, not formally abdicating until he did so in 1941 in favour of his son, Juan de Borbón. The act ushered in the Second Republic. Two years later Primo de Rivera's eldest son, José Antonio, founded the Falange, a Spanish fascist party. Both José Antonio and his brother Fernando were arrested in March 1936 by the republic, and were executed in Alicante prison by Republican forces once the Spanish Civil War began in July 1936. The Nationalists led by Francisco Franco won the Civil War and established a far more authoritarian regime. By that time, many Spaniards regarded Primo de Rivera's relatively mild regime and its economic optimism with greater fondness." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ancient world.", "Medieval Japan.", "Mesoamerica.", "Medieval and early-modern Europe.", "Modern era.", "Therapeutic bathing.", "Public baths.", "Hot public baths.", "Soap promoted for personal cleanliness.", "Purpose.", "Types of baths.", "Sponge bath.", "Ladling water from a container.", "Clothing.", "Bathing babies.", "Japanese bathing culture.", "Private baths.", "Public baths.", "Art motif." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Throughout history, societies devised systems to enable water to be brought to population centres. The oldest accountable daily ritual of bathing can be traced to the ancient Indians. They used elaborate practices for personal hygiene with three daily baths and washing. These are recorded in the works called grihya sutras and are in practice today in some communities. Ancient Greece utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest findings of baths date from the mid-2nd millennium BC in the palace complex at Knossos, Crete, and the luxurious alabaster bathtubs excavated in Akrotiri, Santorini. A word for bathtub \"asaminthos\" ἀσάμινθος occurs eleven times in Homer. As a legitimate Mycenaean word (a-sa-mi-to) for a kind of vessel that could be found in any Mycenaean palace, this Linear B term derives from an Aegean suffix \"-inth-\" being appended to an Akkadian loan word with the root \"namsû\" (\"washbowl, washing tub\"). This luxurious item of the Mycenaean palace culture, therefore, was clearly borrowed from the Near East. Later Greeks established public baths and showers within gymnasiums for relaxation and personal hygiene. The word \"gymnasium\" (γυμνάσιον) comes from the Greek word \"gymnos\" (γυμνός), meaning \"naked.\" Ancient Rome developed a network of aqueducts to supply water to all large towns and population centres and had indoor plumbing, with pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells and fountains. The Roman public baths were called thermae. The thermae were not simply baths, but important public works that provided facilities for many kinds of physical exercise and ablutions, with cold, warm, and hot baths, rooms for instruction and debate, and usually one Greek and one Latin library. They were provided for the public by a benefactor, usually the Emperor. Other empires of the time didn't show such an affinity for public works, but this Roman practice spread their culture to places where there may have been more resistance to foreign mores. Unusually for the time, the thermae were not class-stratified, being available to all for no charge or a small fee. With the fall of the Roman Empire, the aqueduct system fell into disrepair and disuse. But even before that, during the Christianization of the Empire, changing ideas about public morals led the baths into disfavor.", "Before the 7th century, the Japanese likely bathed in the many springs in the open, as there is no evidence of closed rooms. In the 6th to 8th centuries (in the Asuka and Nara periods) the Japanese absorbed the religion of Buddhism from China, which had a strong impact on the culture of the entire country. Buddhist temples traditionally included a bathhouse (\"yuya\") for the monks. Due to the principle of purity espoused by Buddhism these baths were eventually opened to the public. Only the wealthy had private baths. The first public bathhouse was mentioned in 1266. In Edo (modern Tokyo), the first \"sentō\" was established in 1591. The early steam baths were called \"iwaburo\" ( \"rock pools\") or \"kamaburo\" ( \"furnace baths\"). These were built into natural caves or stone vaults. In \"iwaburo\" along the coast, the rocks were heated by burning wood, then sea water was poured over the rocks, producing steam. The entrances to these \"bath houses\" were very small, possibly to slow the escape of the heat and steam. There were no windows, so it was very dark inside and the user constantly coughed or cleared their throats in order to signal to new entrants which seats were already occupied. The darkness could be also used to cover sexual contact. Because there was no gender distinction, these baths came into disrepute. They were finally abolished in 1870 on hygienic and moral grounds. Author John Gallagher says bathing \"was segregated in the 1870s as a concession to outraged Western tourists\". At the beginning of the Edo period (1603–1868) there were two different types of baths. In Edo, hot-water baths (' ') were common, while in Osaka, steam baths ( ') were common. At that time shared bathrooms for men and women were the rule. These bathhouses were very popular, especially for men. \"Bathing girls\" ( \"\") were employed to scrub the guests' backs and wash their hair, etc. In 1841, the employment of \"yuna\" was generally prohibited, as well as mixed bathing. The segregation of the sexes, however, was often ignored by operators of bathhouses, or areas for men and women were separated only by a symbolic line. Today, \"sento\" baths have separate rooms for men and women.", "Spanish chronicles describe the bathing habits of the peoples of Mesoamerica during and after the conquest. Bernal Díaz del Castillo describes Moctezuma (the Mexica, or Aztec, king at the arrival of Cortés) in his \"Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España\" as being \"...Very neat and cleanly, bathing every day each afternoon...\". Bathing was not restricted to the elite, but was practised by all people; the chronicler Tomás López Medel wrote after a journey to Central America that \"Bathing and the custom of washing oneself is so quotidian (common) amongst the Indians, both of cold and hot lands, as is eating, and this is done in fountains and rivers and other water to which they have access, without anything other than pure water...\" The Mesoamerican bath, known as \"temazcal\" in Spanish, from the Nahuatl word \"temazcalli\", a compound of \"temaz\" (\"steam\") and \"calli\" (\"house\"), consists of a room, often in the form of a small dome, with an exterior firebox known as \"texictle\" (teʃict͜ɬe) that heats a small portion of the room's wall made of volcanic rocks; after this wall has been heated, water is poured on it to produce steam, an action known as \"tlasas\". As the steam accumulates in the upper part of the room a person in charge uses a bough to direct the steam to the bathers who are lying on the ground, with which he later gives them a massage, then the bathers scrub themselves with a small flat river stone and finally the person in charge introduces buckets with water with soap and grass used to rinse. This bath had also ritual importance, and was vinculated to the goddess Toci; it is also therapeutic when medicinal herbs are used in the water for the \"tlasas\". It is still used in Mexico.", "Christianity has always placed a strong emphasis on hygiene. Despite the denunciation of the mixed bathing style of Roman pools by early Christian clergy, as well as the pagan custom of women bathing naked in front of men, this did not stop the Church from urging its followers to go to public baths for bathing, which contributed to hygiene and good health according to the Church Father, Clement of Alexandria. The Church also built public bathing facilities that were separate for both sexes near monasteries and pilgrimage sites; also, the popes situated baths within church basilicas and monasteries since the early Middle Ages. Pope Gregory the Great urged his followers on value of bathing as a bodily need. In the Middle Ages, bathing commonly took place in public bathhouses. Public baths were also havens for prostitution, which created some opposition to them. Rich people bathed at home, most likely in their bedroom, as 'bath' rooms were not common. Bathing was done in large, wooden tubs with a linen cloth laid in it to protect the bather from splinters. Additionally, during the Renaissance and Protestant Reformation, the quality and condition of the clothing (as opposed to the actual cleanliness of the body itself) were thought to reflect the soul of an individual. Clean clothing also reflected one's social status; clothes made the man or woman. Furthermore, from the late Middle Ages through to the end of the 18th century, etiquette and medical manuals advised people to only wash the parts of the body that were visible to the public; for example, the ears, hands, feet, and face and neck. This did away with the public baths and left the cleaning of oneself to the privacy of one's home. The switch from woolen to linen clothing by the 16th century also accompanied the decline in bathing. Linen clothing is much easier to clean and maintain – and such clothing was becoming commonplace at the time in Western Europe. Clean linen shirts or blouses allowed people who had not bathed to appear clean and well groomed. The possession of a large quantity of clean linen clothing was a sign of social status. Thus, appearance became more important than personal hygiene. Contemporary medical opinion also supported this claim. Physicians of the period believed that odors, or miasma, such as that which would be found in soiled linens, caused disease. A person could therefore change one's shirt every few days, but avoid baths – which might let the \"bad air\" into the body through the pores. Consequently, in an age in which there were very few personal bathtubs, laundry was an important and weekly chore which was commonly undertaken by laundresses of the time.", "", "Public opinion about bathing began to shift in the middle and late 18th century, when writers argued that frequent bathing might lead to better health. Two English works on the medical uses of water were published in the 18th century that inaugurated the new fashion for therapeutic bathing. One of these was by Sir John Floyer, a physician of Lichfield, who, struck by the remedial use of certain springs by the neighbouring peasantry, investigated the history of cold bathing and published a book on the subject in 1702. The other work was a 1797 publication by Dr James Currie of Liverpool on the use of hot and cold water in the treatment of fever and other illness, with a fourth edition published not long before his death in 1805. It was also translated into German by Michaelis (1801) and Hegewisch (1807). It was highly popular and first placed the subject on a scientific basis. Hahn's writings had meanwhile created much enthusiasm among his countrymen, societies having been everywhere formed to promote the medicinal and dietetic use of water; and in 1804 Professor E.F.C. Oertel of Anspach republished them and quickened the popular movement by unqualified commendation of water drinking as a remedy for all diseases. A popular revival followed the application of hydrotherapy around 1829, by Vincenz Priessnitz, a peasant farmer in Gräfenberg, then part of the Austrian Empire. Captain R. T. Claridge was responsible for introducing and promoting hydropathy in Britain, first in London in 1842, then with lecture tours in Ireland and Scotland in 1843. His 10-week tour in Ireland included Limerick, Cork, Wexford, Dublin and Belfast, over June, July and August 1843, with two subsequent lectures in Glasgow.", "Large public baths such as those found in the ancient world and the Ottoman Empire were revived during the 19th century. The first modern public baths were opened in Liverpool in 1829. The first known warm fresh-water public wash house was opened in May 1842. The popularity of wash-houses was spurred by the newspaper interest in Kitty Wilkinson, an Irish immigrant \"wife of a labourer\" who became known as the \"Saint of the Slums\". In 1832, during a cholera epidemic, Wilkinson took the initiative to offer the use of her house and yard to neighbours to wash their clothes, at a charge of a penny per week, and showed them how to use a chloride of lime (bleach) to get them clean. She was supported by the District Provident Society and William Rathbone. In 1842 Wilkinson was appointed baths superintendent. In Birmingham, around ten private baths were available in the 1830s. Whilst the dimensions of the baths were small, they provided a range of services. A major proprietor of bath houses in Birmingham was a Mr. Monro who had had premises in Lady Well and Snow Hill. Private baths were advertised as having healing qualities and being able to cure people of diabetes, gout and all skin diseases, amongst others. On 19 November 1844, it was decided that the working class members of society should have the opportunity to access baths, in an attempt to address the health problems of the public. On 22 April and 23 April 1845, two lectures were delivered in the town hall urging the provision of public baths in Birmingham and other towns and cities. After a period of campaigning by many committees, the Public Baths and Wash-houses Act received royal assent on 26 August 1846. The Act empowered local authorities across the country to incur expenditure in constructing public swimming baths out of its own funds. The first London public baths was opened at Goulston Square, Whitechapel, in 1847 with the Prince consort laying the foundation stone.", "Traditional Turkish baths (a variant of the Roman bath) were introduced to Britain by David Urquhart, diplomat and sometime Member of Parliament for Stafford, who for political and personal reasons wished to popularize Turkish culture. In 1850 he wrote \"The Pillars of Hercules\", a book about his travels in 1848 through Spain and Morocco. He described the system of dry hot-air baths used there and in the Ottoman Empire which had changed little since Roman times. In 1856 Richard Barter read Urquhart's book and worked with him to construct a bath. They opened the first modern hot water bath at St Ann's Hydropathic Establishment near Blarney, County Cork, Ireland. The following year, the first public bath of its type to be built in mainland Britain since Roman times was opened in Manchester, and the idea spread rapidly. It reached London in July 1860, when Roger Evans, a member of one of Urquhart's Foreign Affairs Committees, opened a Turkish bath at 5 Bell Street, near Marble Arch. During the following 150 years, over 600 Turkish baths opened in Britain, including those built by municipal authorities as part of swimming pool complexes, taking advantage of the fact that water-heating boilers were already on site. Similar baths opened in other parts of the British Empire. Dr. John Le Gay Brereton opened a Turkish bath in Sydney, Australia in 1859, Canada had one by 1869, and the first in New Zealand was opened in 1874. Urquhart's influence was also felt outside the Empire when in 1861, Dr Charles H Shepard opened the first Turkish baths in the United States at 63 Columbia Street, Brooklyn Heights, New York, most probably on 3 October 1863.", "By the mid-19th century, the English urbanised middle classes had formed an ideology of cleanliness that ranked alongside typical Victorian concepts, such as Christianity, respectability and social progress. The cleanliness of the individual became associated with his or her moral and social standing within the community and domestic life became increasingly regulated by concerns regarding the presentation of domestic sobriety and cleanliness. The industry of soapmaking began on a small scale in the 1780s, with the establishment of a soap manufactory at Tipton by James Keir and the marketing of high-quality, transparent soap in 1789 by Andrew Pears of London. It was in the mid-19th century, though, that the large-scale consumption of soap by the middle classes, anxious to prove their social standing, drove forward the mass production and marketing of soap. William Gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap from the 1850s. William Hesketh Lever and his brother, James, bought a small soap works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers and now called Unilever. These soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns. Before the late 19th century, water to individual places of residence was rare. Many countries in Europe developed a water collection and distribution network. London water supply infrastructure developed through major 19th-century treatment works built in response to cholera threats, to modern large-scale reservoirs. By the end of the century, private baths with running hot water were increasingly common in affluent homes in America and Britain. At the beginning of the 20th century, a weekly Saturday night bath had become common custom for most of the population. A half day's work on Saturday for factory workers allowed them some leisure to prepare for the Sunday day of rest. The half day off allowed time for the considerable labor of drawing, carrying, and heating water, filling the bath and then afterward emptying it. To economize, bath water was shared by all family members. Indoor plumbing became more common in the 20th century and commercial advertising campaigns pushing new bath products began to influence public ideas about cleanliness, promoting the idea of a daily shower or bath. In the twenty-first century challenges to the need for soap to effect such everyday cleanliness and whether soap is needed to avoid body odor, appeared in media.", "One purpose of bathing is for personal hygiene. It is a means of achieving cleanliness by washing away dead skin cells, dirt, and soil and as a preventative measure to reduce the incidence and spread of disease. It also may reduce body odors, however, some people note that may not be so necessary as commonly thought. Bathing creates a feeling of well-being and the physical appearance of cleanliness. Bathing may also be practised for religious ritual or therapeutic purposes or as a recreational activity. Bathing may be used to cool or to warm the body of an individual. Therapeutic use of bathing includes hydrotherapy, healing, rehabilitation from injury or addiction, and relaxation. The use of a bath in religious ritual or ceremonial rites include immersion during baptism in Christianity and to achieve a state of ritual cleanliness in a \"mikvah\" in Judaism. It is referred to as \"Ghusl\" in Arabic to attain ceremonial purity (\"Taahir\") in Islam. All major religions place an emphasis on ceremonial purity, and bathing is one of the primary means of attaining outward purity. In Hindu households, any acts of defilement are countered by undergoing a bath and Hindus also immerse in Sarovar as part of religious rites. In the Sikh religion, there is a place at Golden Temple where the leprosy of Rajni's husband was cured by immersion into the holy sacred pool, and many pilgrims bathe in the sacred pool believing it will cure their illness as well.", "Where bathing is for personal hygiene, bathing in a bathtub or shower is the most common form of bathing in Western, and many Eastern, countries. Bathrooms usually have a tap, and a shower if it is a modern home, and a huge water heating pot. People take water from the tap or the water-heating pot into a large bucket and use a mug to pour water on themselves. A soap and loofah is used to clean the body after, and then rinsed again using the mug. People most commonly bathe in their home or use a private bath in a public bathhouse. In some societies, bathing can take place in rivers, creeks, lakes or water holes, or any other place where there is an adequate pool of water. The quality of water used for bathing purposes varies considerably. Normally bathing involves use of soap or a soap-like substance, such as shower gel. In southern India people more commonly use aromatic oil and other home-made body scrubs. Bathing occasions can also be occasions of social interactions, such as in public, Turkish, banya, sauna or whirlpool baths.", "When water is in short supply or a person is not fit to have a standing bath, a wet cloth or sponge can be used, or the person can wash by splashing water over their body. A sponge bath is usually conducted in hospitals, which involves one person washing another with a sponge, while the person being washed remains lying in bed.", "This method involves using a small container to scoop water out of a large container and pour water over the body, in such a way that this water does not go back into the large container. In Indonesia and Malaysia, this is a traditional method referred to as \"mandi\". In the Indonesian language, \"mandi\" is the verb for this process; \"bak mandi\" is the large container, and \"kamar mandi\" is the place in which this is done. Travel guides often use the word \"mandi\" on its own or in various ways such as for the large container and for the process of bathing. In the Philippines, \"timba\" (pail) and \"tabo\" (dipper) are two essentials in every bathroom.", "When bathing for cleanliness, normally, people bathe completely naked, so as to make cleaning every part of their body possible. This is the case in private baths, whether in one's home or a private bath in a public bathhouse. In public bathing situations, the social norms of the community are followed, and some people wear a swimsuit or underwear. For example, when a shower is provided in a non-sex segregated area of a public swimming pool, users of the shower commonly wear their swimsuit. The customs can vary depending on the age of a person, and whether the bathing is in a sex segregated situation. In some societies, some communal bathing is also done without clothing. When swimming, not wearing clothing is sometimes called skinny dipping.", "Babies can be washed in a kitchen sink or a small plastic baby bath, instead of using a standard bath which offers little control of the infant's movements and requires the parent to lean awkwardly or kneel. Bathing infants too often has been linked to the development of asthma or severe eczema according to some researchers, including Michael Welch, chair of the American Academy of Pediatrics' section on allergy and immunology. A safe temperature for the bathwater is generally held to be.", "", "Today, most homes in Japan have a bathroom (\"ofuro\"), which was often not the case about 30 years ago. Bath water in Japan is much hotter than what is usual in Central Europe. The temperature is usually well above 40 °C. In medical literature, 47 °C is considered bearable. The heat is considered a prerequisite for complete relaxation. The custom is to thoroughly clean oneself with soap and rinse before entering the tub, so as not to contaminate the bath water. Until the 19th century, the Japanese did not use soap, but rubbed the skin with certain herbs, or rice bran, which was also a natural exfoliant.", "In public baths, there is a distinction between those with natural hot springs called, \"onsen\" (hot), and the other, the \"sento\". Since Japan is located in a volcanically active region, there are many hot springs, of which about 2000 are swimming pools. Most \"onsen\" are in the open countryside, but they are also found in cities. In Tokyo, for example, there are about 25 \"onsen\" baths. Locations of known mineral springs spas are on the Western model. An \"onsen\", consists mostly of outdoor pools (\"rotenburo\"), which are sometimes at different temperatures. Extremely hot springs, where even experienced or frequent hot-spring bathers can only stay a few minutes, are called \"jigoku\" (hell). Many \"onsen\" also have saunas, spa treatments and therapy centers. The same rules apply in public baths as in private baths, with bathers required to wash and clean themselves before entering the water. In general, the Japanese bathe naked in bathhouses; bathing suits are not permissible. A newborn's skin is soft and delicate. Proper skin care and bathing can help maintain the health and texture of the baby's skin.", "Bathing scenes were already in the Middle Ages a popular subject of painters. Most of the subjects were women shown nude, but the interest was probably less to the bathing itself rather than to provide the context for representing the nude figure. From the Middle Ages, illustrated books of the time contained such bathing scenes. Biblical and mythological themes which featured bathing were depicted by numerous painters. Especially popular themes included Bathsheba in the bath, in which she is observed by King David, and Susanna in the sight of lecherous old men. In the High Middle Ages, public baths were a popular subject of painting, with rather clear depictions of sexual advances, which probably were not based on actual observations. During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the gods and nymphs of Greek mythology were depicted bathing in allegorical paintings by artists such as Titian and François Boucher, both of whom painted the goddess Diana bathing. Artists continued to paint Biblical characters bathing, and also sometimes depicted contemporary women bathing in the river, an example being Rembrandt's \"Woman Bathing\". In the 19th century, the use of the bathing scene reached its high point in classicism, realism and impressionism. Oriental themes and harem and turkish baths scenes became popular. These scenes were based on the artists' imagination, because access by men to Islamic women was not generally permitted. In the second half of the century, artists increasingly eschewed the pretexts of mythology and exoticism, and painted contemporary western women bathing. Edgar Degas, for example, painted over 100 paintings with a bathing theme. The subject of Bathers remained popular in avant-garde circles at the outset of the 20th century. Notable artists who have represented bathing scenes:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo.", "Name.", "Globalization.", "Formats and technologies.", "Video recording.", "Audio recording.", "Audio encoding.", "Optical storage.", "Disk storage.", "Flash memory.", "Business units.", "Electronics.", "Sony Corporation.", "Audio.", "Computing.", "Photography and videography.", "Video.", "Semiconductor and components.", "Healthcare and biotechnology.", "Sony Mobile Communications.", "Sony Interactive Entertainment.", "Electric vehicles and batteries.", "Entertainment.", "Sony Pictures Entertainment.", "Sony Music Group.", "Finance.", "Financial services.", "Mobile payments.", "Corporate information.", "Shareholders.", "Finances.", "Environmental record.", "Community engagement.", "EYE SEE project.", "South Africa Mobile Library Project.", "The Sony Canada Charitable Foundation.", "Sony Foundation and You Can.", "Open Planet Ideas Crowdsourcing Project.", "Street Football Stadium Project." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "Sony began in the wake of World War II. In 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a department store building in Tokyo. The company started with a capital", "When \"Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo\" was looking for a romanized name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials, TTK. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TTK. The company occasionally used the acronym \"Totsuko\" in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was \"Tokyo Teletech\" until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name. The name \"Sony\" was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words: one was the Latin", "According to Schiffer, Sony's TR-63 radio \"cracked open the U.S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics.\" By the mid-1950s, American teens had begun buying portable transistor radios in huge numbers, helping to propel the fledgling industry from an estimated 100,000 units in 1955 to 5 million units by the end of 1968. Sony co-founder Akio Morita founded Sony Corporation of America in 1960. In the process, he was struck by the mobility of employees between American companies, which was unheard of in Japan at that time. When he returned to Japan, he encouraged experienced, middle-aged employees of other companies to reevaluate their careers and consider joining Sony. The company filled many positions in this manner, and inspired other Japanese companies to do the same. Moreover, Sony played a major role in the development of Japan as a powerful exporter during the 1960s,", "Sony has historically been notable for creating its own in-house standards for new recording and storage technologies, instead of adopting those of other manufacturers and standards bodies. Sony (either alone or with partners) has introduced several of the most popular recording formats, including the floppy disk, Compact Disc and Blu-ray Disc.", "The company launched the Betamax videocassette recording format in 1975. Sony was involved in the videotape format war of the early 1980s, when they were marketing the Betamax system for video cassette recorders against the VHS format developed by JVC. In the end, VHS gained critical mass in the marketbase and became the worldwide standard for consumer VCRs. Betamax", "In 1979, the Walkman brand was introduced, in the form of the world's first portable music player using the compact cassette format. Sony introduced the MiniDisc format in 1992 as an alternative to Philips DCC or Digital Compact Cassette and as a successor to the compact cassette. Since the introduction of MiniDisc, Sony has attempted to promote its own", "In 1993, Sony challenged the industry standard Dolby Digital 5.1 surround sound format with a newer and more advanced proprietary motion picture digital audio format called SDDS (Sony Dynamic Digital Sound). This format employed eight channels (7.1) of audio opposed to just six used in Dolby Digital 5.1 at the time. Ultimately, SDDS has been vastly overshadowed by the preferred DTS (Digital Theatre System)", "In 1983, Sony followed their counterpart Philips to the compact disc (CD). In addition to developing consumer-based recording media, after the launch of the CD Sony began development of commercially based recording media. In 1986 they launched Write-Once optical discs (WO) and in 1988 launched Magneto-optical discs which were around 125MB size for the specific use of archival data storage. In 1984, Sony launched the Discman series which extended their Walkman brand to portable CD products. In the early", "In 1983, Sony introduced 90 mm micro diskettes (better known as floppy disks), which it had developed at a time when there were 4\" floppy disks,", "Sony launched in 1998, their Memory Stick format, flash memory cards for use in Sony lines of digital cameras and portable music players. It", "Sony offers products in a variety of product lines around the world. Sony has developed a music playing robot called Rolly, dog-shaped robots called AIBO and a humanoid robot called QRIO. As of 1 April 2016, Sony is organized into the following business segments: Game & Network Services (G&NS), Music, Pictures, Electronics Products & Solutions (EP&S), Imaging & Sensing Solutions (I&SS), Financial Services, and Others The network and medical businesses are included in the G&NS and EP&S, respectively.", "", "Sony Corporation is the electronics business unit and the parent company of the Sony Group. It primarily conducts strategic business planning of the group, research and development (R&D), planning, designing and marketing for electronics products. Its subsidiaries such as Sony Global Manufacturing & Operations Corporation (SGMO; 4 plants in Japan),", "Sony produced the world's first portable music player, the Walkman in 1979. This line fostered a fundamental change in music listening habits by allowing people to carry music with them and listen to music through lightweight headphones.", "Sony produced computers (MSX home computers and NEWS workstations) during the 1980s. The company withdrew from the computer business around 1990. Sony entered again into the global computer market under the new VAIO brand, began in 1996. Short for \"Video Audio Integrated Operation\", the line was the first computer brand to highlight visual-audio features. Sony faced considerable controversy when some of its laptop batteries exploded and caught", "Sony offers a wide range of digital cameras. Point-and-shoot models adopt the Cyber-shot name, while digital single-lens reflex models are branded using Alpha. The first Cyber-shot was introduced in 1996. At the time, digital cameras were a relative novelty. Sony's market share of the digital camera", "In 1968, Sony introduced the Trinitron brand name for its lines of aperture grille cathode ray tube televisions and (later) computer monitors. Sony stopped production of Trinitron for most markets, but continued producing sets for markets such as Pakistan, Bangladesh and China. Sony discontinued its series of Trinitron computer monitors in 2005. The company discontinued the last Trinitron-based television set in the US in early 2007. The end of Trinitron marked the end of Sony's analog television sets and monitors. Sony used the LCD WEGA name for its LCD TVs until summer 2005. The company then introduced the BRAVIA name. BRAVIA is an in house brand owned by Sony which produces high-definition LCD televisions, projection", "Sony produces a wide range of semiconductors and electronic components including image sensors (Exmor), image processor (BIONZ), laser diodes, system LSIs, mixed-signal LSIs, OLED panels, etc. The company has a strong presence in the image sensor market. Sony-manufactured CMOS image", "Sony has targeted medical, healthcare and biotechnology business as a growth sector in the future. The company acquired iCyt Mission Technology, Inc. (renamed Sony Biotechnology Inc. in 2012), a manufacturer of flow cytometers, in 2010 and Micronics, Inc., a developer of microfluidics-based diagnostic tools, in 2011. In 2012, Sony announced that it will acquire all shares of So-net Entertainment Corporation, which is", "Sony Mobile Communications Inc. (formerly Sony Ericsson) is a multinational mobile phone manufacturing company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan and a wholly owned subsidiary of Sony Corporation. In 2001, Sony entered into a joint venture with Swedish telecommunications company Ericsson, forming Sony Ericsson. Initial sales were rocky, and the company posted losses in 2001 and 2002. However, SMC reached a profit in 2003. Sony Ericsson distinguished itself with multimedia-capable mobile phones, which included features such as cameras. These were unusual", "Sony Interactive Entertainment (formerly Sony Computer Entertainment) is best known for producing the popular line of PlayStation consoles. The line grew out of a failed partnership with Nintendo. Originally, Nintendo requested Sony to develop an add-on for its console that would play Compact Discs. In 1991 Sony announced the add-on, as well as a dedicated console known as the \"Play Station\". However, a disagreement over software licensing for the console caused the partnership to fall through. Sony then continued the project independently. Launched in 1994, the first PlayStation gained 61% of global console sales and broke Nintendo's long-standing lead in the market. Sony followed up with the PlayStation 2 in 2000, which was even more successful. The console has become the most successful of all time, selling over 150 million units. Sony released the PlayStation 3, a high-definition console, in 2006. It was the first console to use the Blu-ray format, and was considerably more expensive than competitors Xbox 360 and Wii due to a Cell processor. Early on, poor sales performance resulted in significant losses for the company, pushing", "In 2014, Sony participated within NRG Energy eVgo Ready for Electric Vehicle (REV) program, for EV charging parking lots. Sony is in the business of electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries; on 28 July 2016, Sony announced that the company will sell its battery business to Murata Manufacturing. IT giants such as Google (driverless car) and Apple (iCar/Project Titan) are working", "Sony Entertainment has two divisions: Sony Pictures Entertainment, Sony Music Group (Sony Music Entertainment, Sony/ATV Music Publishing). Sony USA also previously owned and operated Sony Trans Com: a technology business that provided in-flight entertainment programming as well as video and audio playback equipment for the airline industry. Sony had purchased the business from Sundstrand Corp. in 1989 and subsequently sold it to Rockwell Collins in 2000.", "Sony Pictures Entertainment Inc. (SPE) is the television and film production/distribution unit of Sony. With 12.5% box office market share in 2011, the company was ranked third among movie studios. Its group sales in 2010 were US$7.2 billion. The company has produced many notable movie franchises, including \"Spider-Man\", \"The Karate Kid\" and \"Men in Black\". It has also produced the popular television game shows \"Jeopardy!\" and \"Wheel of Fortune\". Sony entered the television and film production market when it acquired Columbia Pictures Entertainment in 1989 for $3.4 billion. Columbia lives on in the Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group, a division of SPE which in turn owns Columbia Pictures and TriStar Pictures among other film", "Sony Music Entertainment (also known as SME or Sony Music) is the second-largest global recorded music company of the \"big three\" record companies and is controlled by Sony Corporation of America, the United States subsidiary of Japan's \"Sony\". In one of its largest-ever acquisitions, Sony purchased CBS Record Group in 1988 for US$2 billion. In the process, Sony partnered and gained the rights to the ATV catalogue of Michael Jackson, considered by the \"Guinness Book of World Records\" to be the most successful entertainer of all time. The acquisition of CBS Records provided the foundation for the formation of Sony Music Entertainment, which Sony established in 1991. In 2004, Sony entered into a joint venture with Bertelsmann AG, merging Sony Music Entertainment with Bertelsmann Music Group to create Sony BMG. In 2005, Sony BMG faced a copy protection scandal, because its music CDs had installed malware on users' computers", "", "Sony Financial Holdings is a holding company for Sony's financial services business. It owns and oversees the operation of Sony Life (in Japan and the Philippines), Sony Assurance, Sony Bank and Sony Bank", "Sony wants to contend with Apple and Samsung on mobile payments in Asia. Sony plans to use its contact-less payment technology to make ground in the public transportation industry across Asia. The system, known as FeliCa, relies on two forms of technologies to make it viable, either chips embedded in smartphones or plastic cards with chips embedded in them. Sony plans to implement this technology in train systems in Indonesia as early as Spring 2016.", "", "Sony is a \"kabushiki gaisha\" registered to the Tokyo Stock Exchange in Japan and the New York Stock", "Sony is one of Japan's largest corporations by revenue. It had revenues of ¥6.493 trillion in 2012. It also maintains large reserves of cash, with ¥895 billion on hand as of 2012. In May 2012, Sony's Market Capitalization were valued at about $15 billion. The company was immensely profitable throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, in part because of the success of its new PlayStation line. The company encountered financial difficulty in the mid- to late-2000s due to a number of factors: the global financial crisis, increased competition for PlayStation, and the devastating Japanese earthquake of 2011. The company faced three consecutive years of losses leading up to 2011. While noting the negative effects of intervening circumstances such as natural disasters and fluctuating currency exchange rates, the \"Financial Times\" criticized the company for its \"lack of resilience\" and \"inability to gauge the economy.\" The newspaper voiced skepticism about Sony's revitalization efforts, given a lack of tangible results. In September 2000 Sony had a market capitalization of $100 billion; but by December 2011 it had plunged to $18 billion, reflecting falling prospects for Sony but also reflecting grossly inflated share prices of the 'Dot-com bubble' years. Net worth, as measured by stockholder equity, has steadily grown", "In November 2011, Sony was ranked 9th (jointly with Panasonic) in Greenpeace's Guide to Greener Electronics. This chart grades major electronics companies on their environmental work. The company scored 3.6/10, incurring a penalty point for comments it has made in opposition to energy efficiency standards in California. It also risks a further penalty point in future editions for being a member of trade associations that have commented against energy efficiency standards. Together with Philips, Sony receives the highest score for energy policy advocacy after calling on the EU to adopt an unconditional 30% reduction target for greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. Meanwhile, it receives full marks for the efficiency of its products. In June 2007, Sony ranked 14th on the Greenpeace guide. Sony fell from its earlier 11th-place ranking due to Greenpeace's claims that Sony had double", "", "Sony Corporation is actively involved in the EYE SEE project conducted by UNICEF. EYE", "Sony assists The South Africa Primary Education Support Initiative (SAPESI)", "The Sony Canada Charitable Foundation (SCCF) is a non-profit organization which supports", "After the 2011 Queensland floods and Victorian bushfires, Sony Music released benefit", "Sony launched its Open Planet Ideas Crowdsourcing Project,", "On the occasion of the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, Sony partnered with and launched the Street Football Stadium Project to support football-based educational programmes in local communities across Latin America and Brazil. More than 25 Street Stadiums were developed since the project's inception." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Musical career.", "Early career.", "Inside Out.", "Rage Against the Machine.", "Solo career.", "Rage Against the Machine reunion.", "One Day as a Lion.", "Other projects.", "Activism.", "Discography.", "Hard Stance.", "Inside Out.", "Rage Against the Machine.", "One Day as a Lion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Zacharias Manuel de la Rocha was born in Long Beach, California, on January 12, 1970, to a Mexican-American father (the artist Robert \"Beto\" de la Rocha, born 1937) and a mother of German and Irish origin, Olivia Lorryne Carter (born 1941). Beto was a muralist and a member of Los Four, the first Chicano art collective to be exhibited at a museum (LACMA, 1973). De la Rocha's paternal grandfather, Isaac de la Rocha Beltrán (19101985), was a Mexican revolutionary who fought in the Mexican Revolution and worked as an agricultural laborer in the U.S. De la Rocha would later see the hardships his grandfather endured reflected in the struggles of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation. De la Rocha's parents divorced when he was six years old, and he moved from East Los Angeles to Irvine with his mother, who attended the University of California at Irvine and ultimately earned a PhD in anthropology. De la Rocha later described Irvine as \"one of the most racist cities imaginable\" and said that \"if you were a Mexican in Irvine, you were there because you had a broom or a hammer in your left hand\".", "", "De la Rocha met Tim Commerford in elementary school, and in junior high school, they both played guitar in a band called Juvenile Expression. De la Rocha's interest in punk rock bands like The Clash, The Misfits, Sex Pistols, and Bad Religion turned into an appreciation for other bands like Minor Threat, Bad Brains, and The Teen Idles. In 1987, he joined the straight edge band Hard Stance. In 2018, Indecision Records officially released Hard Stance's entire discography.", "By 1988, Ernst had departed from Hard Stance, leading to Rocha taking on the role of lead vocals. Now lacking a guitarist, the remaining members contacted Vic DiCara, whom some knew from a previous band they were in that never made it past rehearsals. This act, now named Inside Out, began writing music heavily inspired by acts like Minor Threat and the Bad Brains, and soon were associated with the youth crew movement. Their sole release was the 1990 EP No Spiritual Surrender, issued through Revelation Records. Towards the end of the band's lifetime, DiCara and Rocha's writing styles began to fracture. Rocha wished to push the groups into a more political and hip hop-inspired direction, particularly influenced by Run-DMC, whereas DiCara wished for the band to write more music inspired by Hare Krishna. While Rocha's influence was prevalent on performed yet unreleased Inside Out tracks like \"Darkness of Greed\" and \"Rage Against the Machine\", the band broke up because of this conflict in 1991. De la Rocha later said that the band was \"about completely detaching ourselves from society to see ourselves as... as spirits, and not bowing down to a system that sees you as just another pebble on a beach. I channeled all my anger out through that band.\" The band had a brief reunion in 1993, performing in a number of locations in Salt Lake City.", "Following the dissolution of Inside Out in 1991, de la Rocha embraced hip hop and began freestyling at local clubs, at one of which he was approached by former Lock Up guitarist Tom Morello, who was impressed by de la Rocha's lyrics, and convinced him to form a band. Morello recruited former Greta drummer Brad Wilk–who had previously auditioned for Lock Up before that band's dissolution earlier that same year–and de la Rocha recruited his former Juvenile Expression bandmate, Tim Commerford, to play bass. The band was named after an unreleased Inside Out record, \"Rage Against the Machine\". Rage Against the Machine released their debut album in 1992 to critical and commercial success. The band was on the main stage at Lollapalooza by 1993 and was one of the most politically charged bands ever to receive extensive airplay from radio and MTV. Rage's second and third albums peaked at number one in the United States, but did not result in the political action de la Rocha had hoped for. He became increasingly restless and undertook collaborations with artists such as KRS-One, Chuck D, and Public Enemy. He left Rage Against the Machine in October 2000, citing \"creative differences,\" at which time he issued a statement saying: \"it was necessary to leave Rage because our decision-making process has completely failed\", in reference to the disagreement over the release of \"Renegades\". The other members of the band sought out separate management and secured the immediate release of \"Renegades\". After searching for a replacement for de la Rocha, the other members of Rage joined Chris Cornell of Soundgarden to form Audioslave.", "Following the disbandment of Rage Against the Machine, de la Rocha worked on a solo album he had been recording since before the band's dissolution, working with DJ Shadow, El-P, Muggs, Dan The Automator, Roni Size, DJ Premier and Questlove with production partner James Poyser. The album never came to fruition, and de la Rocha started a new collaboration with Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails, in which around 20 tracks were produced. Reznor thought the work was \"excellent\", but said the songs will likely never be released as de la Rocha was not \"ready to make a record\" at that time. On working with DJ Shadow and Reznor, de la Rocha admitted in a 2008 interview that: In 2000, de la Rocha appeared on the song \"Centre of the Storm\", from the Roni Size/Reprazent album \"In The Mode\", while in 2002, he appeared in a minor role in the first part of the Blackalicious song \"Release\" on the album \"Blazing Arrow\". A new collaboration between de la Rocha and DJ Shadow, the song \"March of Death\" was released for free online in 2003 in protest against the imminent invasion of Iraq. As part of the collaboration de la Rocha released a statement which included the following: The 2004 soundtrack \"Songs and Artists that Inspired Fahrenheit 9/11\" included one of the collaborations with Reznor, \"We Want It All\". This album also contained \"No One Left\", the debut recording by former Rage Against the Machine guitarist Tom Morello as The Nightwatchman. On October 7, 2005, de la Rocha returned to the stage with new material, performing with Son Jarocho band Son de Madera. He later spoke as MC and again performed with Son de Madera at the November 22 Concert at the Farm, a benefit concert for the South Central Farmers. He sang and played the jarana with the band, and performed his own new original material, including the song \"Sea of Dead Hands\". On September 8, 2016, it was reported that de la Rocha's first solo album was complete and would be released in early 2017. The news came with a new song, produced by El-P, called \"Digging for Windows\" that was released on YouTube and BitTorrent. However, to date, the album remains unreleased with no further announcements made.", "Rumors that Rage Against the Machine could reunite at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival were circulating in mid-January 2007 and were confirmed on January 22. The band was confirmed to be headlining the final day of Coachella 2007. Rage Against the Machine, as a full band, headlined the final day of the 2007 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival on April 29. The band played in front of a Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) backdrop to the largest crowds of the festival. The performance was initially thought to be a one-off, but this turned out not to be the case. The band played 7 more shows in the United States in 2007, and in January 2008, they played their first shows outside the US as part of the Big Day Out Festival in Australia and New Zealand. The band continued to tour around the world, headlining many large festivals in Europe and the United States, including Lollapalooza in Chicago and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. In a 2008 interview, de la Rocha said this of the relationship between him, Commerford, Wilk and Morello: Later in 2011, de la Rocha and the rest of Rage Against the Machine reunited for one final show, headlining, LA Rising July 30, 2011. The show filled the LA Coliseum. A second reunion tour was announced for the spring of 2020. The band is scheduled to perform 52 shows (39 in the United States, 5 in Canada, and 8 in Europe) from March 26 to September 12.", "In 2008, de la Rocha and former Mars Volta drummer Jon Theodore formed One Day as a Lion. They later added Joey Karam of The Locust on keyboards for their live shows. The group combines rock drumming, electro keyboards, and hip-hop vocals. De la Rocha played keyboards as well as providing vocals, with Theodore on the drums for their self-titled EP. The band's name derives from a black and white graffiti photograph taken by Chicano photographer George Rodriguez in 1970 with a caption reading: \"It's better to live one day as a lion, than a thousand years as a lamb\". This comes from a minatory slogan popular during the 1930s in Fascist Italy, \"Better one day as a lion than a hundred days as a sheep.\" They released their debut EP, \"One Day as a Lion\", on July 22, 2008.", "For a brief period in 1988, Rocha played drums for hardcore punk band No For An Answer, even playing on their debut EP \"You Laugh\". In 1989, Rocha formed Farside, playing guitar in the group until 1991. In 1991, Rocha formed a band with John Porcelly based at the Revelation Records headquarters in Huntington Beach, California, in which Rocha was the vocalist and Porcelly played guitar. Although the group never officially had a name, at one point in time, Rocha proposed the name \"Rage Against the Machine\", however Porcelly believed the name to be too long, leading to Rocha using it as the name for his other band at the time. The band's music merged elements of hardcore punk and hip hop.", "De la Rocha advocates in favor of Leonard Peltier, Mumia Abu-Jamal, and the Zapatista (EZLN) movement in Mexico. He spoke on the floor of the UN, testifying against the United States and its treatment of Abu-Jamal. De la Rocha has been particularly outspoken on the cause of the EZLN. Zack's Chicano identity informed his band's commitment to the struggles of immigrants, people of color, and the Zapatistas. He renamed the People's Resource Center in Highland Park to the Centro de Regeneracion. There, many of the same artists and activists who had participated in the struggle over the Peace and Justice Center maintained their commitment to providing youth a space for cultural expression and training. Along with music workshops and the development of Radio Clandestina, Centro members also organized graffiti workshops and youth film festivals. Although the Centro lasted only two years, it was an important space in the ongoing institutionalization of the community politics, cultural practices, and social networks of the Eastside scene in the nineties. The EZLN and de la Rocha's experiences with them inspired the songs \"People of the Sun\", \"Wind Below\" and \"Without a Face\" from \"Evil Empire\", and \"War Within a Breath\" from \"The Battle of Los Angeles\". Zack de la Rocha asked their record label, Epic Records, for $30,000 to donate to the EZLN. It is not known if they complied. The EZLN flag has been used as a stage backdrop at all of the band's shows since their reunion in April 2007. On his post-Rage political music, de la Rocha admitted that it was near impossible for him to draw the line between politics and music. On April 14, 2007, Morello and de la Rocha reunited on-stage early to perform a brief acoustic set at House of Blues in Chicago at the rally for fair food with the Coalition of Immokalee Workers (CIW). Morello described the event as \"very exciting for everybody in the room, myself included\". At Rage's first reunion show, de la Rocha made a speech during \"Wake Up\" in which de la Rocha called numerous American presidents war criminals, citing a statement by Noam Chomsky regarding the Nuremberg Principles.", "", "De la Rocha played guitar on the following albums:", "De la Rocha credited for vocals:", "De la Rocha credited for vocals:", "De la Rocha credited for vocals and keyboards:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Surrounding cities and metropolitan area.", "Geology and geomorphology.", "Parks.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Human development.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Educational institutions.", "Transport.", "Airports.", "Highways.", "Bus system.", "Railways.", "Belo Horizonte Public Transportation statistics.", "Culture.", "Theatre and dance.", "Music.", "Museums.", "Architecture.", "Food and drink.", "Sport.", "Football.", "Tennis.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The metropolis was once a small village, founded by João Leite da Silva Ortiz, a bandeirante explorer from São Paulo. The explorer settled in the region in 1701, leaving a gold rush expedition. He then established a farm called \"Curral d'el Rey\", archaic Portuguese for the \"King's Corral\", which in modern Portuguese would be spelled \"Curral do Rei\". The farm's wealth and success encouraged people from surrounding places to move into the region, and Curral del Rey became a village surrounded by farms. Another important factor contributing to the growth of the village was immigration from the São Francisco River region, who had to pass through Curral d'el Rey to reach southern parts of Brazil. Travelers usually visited a small wooden chapel, where they prayed for a safe trip. Due to this fact, the chapel was named Capela da Nossa Senhora da Boa Viagem, which means \"Chapel of Our Lady of the Good Journey.\" After the construction of Belo Horizonte, the old baroque chapel was replaced by a neo-gothic church that became the city's cathedral. The previous capital of Minas Gerais, Ouro Preto (meaning \"black gold\", due to dark rocks with gold inside found on the region), originally called \"Vila Rica\" (\"wealthy village\"), was a symbol of both the monarchic Brazilian Empire and the period when most of Brazilian income was due to mining. That never pleased the members of the Inconfidência Mineira, republican intellectuals who conspired against the Portuguese dominion of Brazil. In 1889, Brazil became a republic, and it was agreed that a new state capital,", "", "The term \"Grande BH\" (\"Greater Belo Horizonte\") denotes any of various definitions for the metropolitan area of Belo Horizonte. The legally defined \"Metropolitan Region of Belo Horizonte\" consists of 34 municipalities in total, and a population of around five million inhabitants (, according to IBGE). The intense process of urbanization that is taking place in the metropolitan region has", "Belo Horizonte lies on a region of contact between different geological series of the Proterozoic. The geology largely comprises crystalline rocks, which give rise to the varied morphology of the landscape. It is located in a large geological unit known as the craton of San Francisco, referring to extensive crustal nucleus of central-eastern Brazil, tectonically stable at the end of the Paleoproterozoic and bordering areas that suffered the regeneration at the Neoproterozoic. The archean rocks members of Belo Horizonte complex and supracrustal sequences of the Paleoproterozoic is predominant. The area of Belo Horizonte complex includes the", "A centre for conservation and preservation of animals and plants it has also developed environmental education projects. The Zoo, which encompasses a total area of 1.4 million square meters, is located at the Foundation's headquarters and is regarded as one of the most complete in Latin America. It has a collection of close to 900 animals representing 200 species, from", "Belo Horizonte's latitude at 19'55\"South places it in the tropical zone. Yearly temperatures average between. The Köppen climate classification of the region is tropical savanna climate (\"Aw\"), milder due to the elevation, with humid/warm summers and dry/mild winters. Belo Horizonte is located about from the sea. Even though inter-seasonal differences are not as pronounced as they are in temperate", "According to the 2010 IBGE Census, there were 2,258,096 people residing in the city of Belo Horizonte. The census revealed the following numbers: 1,110,034 White people (46.7%), 995,167 Pardo (Multiracial) people (41.9%), 241,155 Black people (10.2%), 25,270 Asian people (1.1%), 3,477 Amerindian people (0.1%). In 2010, the city had 428,893 opposite-sex couples and 1,090 same-sex couples. The population of Belo Horizonte was 53.1% female and 46.9% male. The Metropolitan Region of Belo Horizonte, called Greater Belo Horizonte, is the 3rd most populous of Brazil, after only Greater São Paulo (with 19,672,582 people, first in Brazil and 5th in the world) and Greater Rio de Janeiro (with 14,387,000 people). The city is the 6th most populous of the country. During the 18th century, Minas Gerais received many Portuguese immigrants, mainly from Northern Portugal as well as many enslaved Africans. Belo Horizonte has a notable Italian influence; around 30% of the city's population have some Italian origin. The Italian culture is present in the cuisine, dance, and language. People of German, Spanish, and Syrian-Lebanese ancestries also make up sizeable groups.", "\"Source: IBGE", "The human development of Belo Horizonte varies greatly by locality, reflecting the city's spatial social inequality and vast socioeconomic inequalities. There are neighborhoods that had very high human development indexes in 2000 (equal to or greater than the indexes of some Scandinavian countries), but those in the lower range (in line with, for example, North Africa). Carmo/Sion (0.973): greater than Iceland - 0.968; Cruzeiro/Anchieta/Funcionários (0.970): greater than Iceland - 0.968; Grajau/Gutierrez (0.965): greater than Australia - 0.962; Belvedere/Mangabeiras/Comiteco (0.964): greater than Australia – 0.962; Serra/São Lucas (0.953): equal to Japan, Netherlands – 0.953. In 1993, under mayor Patrus Ananias de Souza, the city started a series of innovations based on its citizens having the \"right to food\". These include, for example, creating farmers' markets in the town to enable direct sales and regularly surveying market prices and posting the results across", "Belo Horizonte receives large numbers of visitors, as it is in the Brazilian main economic axis, exerting influence even on other states. Multinational and Brazilian companies, such as Google and Oi, maintain offices in the city. The service sector plays a very important role in the economy of Belo Horizonte, being responsible for 85% of the city's gross domestic product (GDP), with the industry making up for most of the remaining 15%. Belo Horizonte has a developed industrial sector, being traditionally a hub of the Brazilian siderurgical and metallurgical industries, as the state of Minas Gerais has always been very rich in minerals, specifically iron ore. Belo Horizonte is the distribution and processing centre of a rich agricultural and mining region and the nucleus of a burgeoning industrial complex. Production is centred on steel, steel products, automobiles, and textiles. Gold, manganese, and gemstones mined in the surrounding region are processed in the city. The main industrial district of the city was set during the 1940s in Contagem, a part of greater Belo Horizonte. Multinational companies like FIAT (which opened its plant in Betim in 1974), Arcelor, and Toshiba have subsidiaries in the region, along with other textile like Group Rachelle Textil, Ematex and Cedro Textil, cosmetic, food, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, furnishing and refractory companies.", "", "Several higher education institutions", "", "Belo Horizonte is", "The city is connected to the rest of Minas Gerais state and the country by a number of roadways. Minas Gerais has the country's largest federal highway network. The city is also served by other minor roads such as state highways MG-020, MG-050, MG-030, and MG-433. There is also an East-West Express Way, which", "The bus system has a large number of bus lines going through all parts in the city, and is administrated by \"BHTRANS\". Among the upcoming projects are the expansion", "Belo Horizonte Metro or MetroBH started operating at the end of the 1970s. There is one line, with 19 stations, from Vilarinho to Eldorado Station, in Contagem, transporting over 160,000 people daily. The current projects of expansion include Line 2, linking the existing Calafate", "The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Belo Horizonte, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 85 min. 26% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day.", "", "Every two years, FIT BH, The International Theater Festival of Belo Horizonte, takes place in the city. This attracts artists from all over Brazil and worldwide. With the merger of two projects that would happen separately in 1994, one stage based, organized by the Francisco Nunes Theater, and the other street based, idealized by Grupo Galpão, came FIT-BH Palco & Rua. Produced every two years, under responsibility from the Belo Horizonte City Hall, through the Municipal Culture Office and the Association Movimento Teatro de Grupo of Minas Gerais, in the program there are street and stage shows, and also", "Clube da Esquina is one of the most important musical movements in the musical history of Brazil. It originated in the mid-1960s, and since then its members have been hugely influential in Brazilian and even international music, some like Milton Nascimento and Toninho Horta achieving worldwide acclaim. Other people involved in the movement include musicians, songwriters, composers, conductors and lyricists, such as Tavinho Moura, Wagner Tiso, Andersen Viana, Milton Nascimento, Lô Borges, Beto Guedes, Flávio Venturini, Toninho Horta, Márcio Borges and Fernando Brant, among others. The band Uakti – known for performing with self-built musical instruments – originated in Belo Horizonte under", "Belo Horizonte features a number of museums including the Mineiro Museum, the Abílio Barreto Historic Museum, Arts and Workmanship Museum, a Natural History Museum and the UFMG Botanic Gardens, a telephone museum, the Pampulha Art Museum, the Professor Taylor Gramke Mineralogy Museum, and the UFMG Conservatory. The puppet theatre group Giramundo was established here in 1970, and continues to maintain a puppetry museum hosting a collection of their creations. The Circuito Cultural Praça da Liberdade, located in the central region of Belo Horizonte, is the largest cultural circuit in Brazil. In all, there are eleven functioning museums and cultural spaces: Arquivo Público Mineiro (Minas Gerais Public Archive), Biblioteca Pública Estadual Luiz de Bessa (Luiz de Bessa State Public Library), Cefar Liberdade, Centro de Arte Popular Cemig (Cemig Center of Popular Art), Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil", "Belo Horizonte has several significant cultural landmarks, many of them situated in the Pampulha district, where there are notable examples of Brazilian contemporary architecture. Under the leadership of the then mayor of city, Juscelino Kubitschek, architects and artists such as Oscar Niemeyer, landscaper Burle Marx, and painter Candido Portinari, started a type of modern architecture and art here that was greatly developed later with the construction of Brazil's new capital, Brasilia, also led by the now president Juscelino (aka JK). It is at the Pampulha complex that one can see the routes of this new architecture movement. The", "The regional Minas Gerais' food and the now internationally known drink of cachaça are very popular and highly rated in the capital. Belo Horizonte is internationally known as the \"capital of neighborhood bars.\" Every year, the city hosts the Comida di Buteco festival (\"Pub Foods\", in an approximate translation), in which", "", "As in the rest of Brazil, football is the most popular sport. The city's major teams are Atlético Mineiro, Cruzeiro and América Mineiro. The city also has one of the biggest football stadiums in the world, the Mineirão, which opened in 1965. The older Independência Stadium was the site of the FIFA World Cup 1950 game, when the United States beat England in a 1–0 win. Mineirão, officially called Estádio Governador Magalhães Pinto, was built to provide the city of Belo Horizonte with a larger alternative for Independência Stadium, then the prime venue of the city. The stadium was meant to become the most modern stadium of Brazil and the new home of Atlético Mineiro and Cruzeiro. Construction took almost five years, and on September 5, 1965 Mineirão officially opened. Mineirão hardly changed in the following decades, and in the 1990s", "Belo Horizonte is home to 2015 French Open men's doubles champion and former World", "Belo Horizonte is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Causes.", "Risk factors.", "Mechanism.", "Freezing.", "Rewarming.", "Non-freezing cold injury.", "Pathophysiology.", "Diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Treatment.", "Rewarming.", "Medications.", "Surgery.", "Prognosis.", "Grades.", "Epidemiology.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Research directions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Areas that are usually affected include cheeks, ears, nose and fingers and toes. Frostbite is often preceded by frostnip. The symptoms of frostbite progress with prolonged exposure to cold. Historically, frostbite has been classified by degrees according to skin and sensation changes, similar to burn classifications. However, the degrees do not correspond to the amount of long term damage. A simplification of this system of classification is superficial (first or second degree) or deep injury (third or fourth degree).", "", "The major risk factor for frostbite is exposure to cold through geography, occupation and/or recreation. Inadequate clothing and shelter are major risk factors. Frostbite is more likely when the body's ability to produce or retain heat is impaired. Physical, behavioral, and environmental factors can all contribute to the development of frostbite. Immobility and physical stress (such as malnutrition or dehydration) are also risk factors. Disorders and substances that impair circulation contribute, including diabetes, Raynaud's phenomenon, tobacco and alcohol use. Homeless individuals and individuals with some mental illnesses may be at higher risk.", "", "In frostbite, cooling of the body causes narrowing of the blood vessels (vasoconstriction). Temperatures below are required to form ice crystals in the tissues. The process of freezing causes ice crystals to form in the tissue, which in turn causes damage at the cellular level. Ice crystals can damage cell membranes directly. In addition, ice crystals can damage small blood vessels at the site of injury. Scar tissue forms when fibroblasts replace the dead cells.", "Rewarming causes tissue damage through reperfusion injury, which involves vasodilation, swelling (edema), and poor blood flow (stasis). Platelet aggregation is another possible mechanism of injury. Blisters and spasm of blood vessels (vasospasm) can develop after rewarming.", "The process of frostbite differs from the process of non-freezing cold injury (NFCI). In NFCI, temperature in the tissue decreases gradually. This slower temperature decrease allows the body to try to compensate through alternating cycles of closing and opening blood vessels (vasoconstriction and vasodilation). If this process continues, inflammatory mast cells act in the area. Small clots (microthrombi) form and can cut off blood to the affected area (known as ischemia) and damage nerve fibers. Rewarming causes a series of inflammatory chemicals such as prostaglandins to increase localized clotting.", "The pathological mechanism by which frostbite causes body tissue injury can be characterized by four stages: Prefreeze, freeze-thaw, vascular stasis, and the late ischemic stage.", "Frostbite is diagnosed based on signs and symptoms as described above, and by patient history. Other conditions that can have a similar appearance or occur at the same time include: People who have hypothermia often have frostbite as well. Since hypothermia is life-threatening this should be treated first. Technetium-99 or MR scans are not required for diagnosis, but might be useful for prognostic purposes.", "The Wilderness Medical Society recommends covering the skin and scalp, taking in adequate nutrition, avoiding constrictive footwear and clothing, and remaining active without causing exhaustion. Supplemental oxygen might also be of use at high elevations. Repeated exposure to cold water makes people more susceptible to frostbite. Additional measures to prevent frostbite include:", "Individuals with frostbite or potential frostbite should go to a protected environment and get warm fluids. If there is no risk of re-freezing, the extremity can be exposed and warmed in the groin or underarm of a companion. If the area is allowed to refreeze, there can be worse tissue damage. If the area cannot be reliably kept warm, the person should be brought to a medical facility without rewarming the area. Rubbing the affected area can also increase tissue damage. Aspirin and ibuprofen can be given in the field to prevent clotting and inflammation. Ibuprofen is often preferred to aspirin because aspirin may block a subset of prostaglandins that are important in injury repair. The first priority in people with frostbite should be to assess for hypothermia and other life-threatening complications of cold exposure. Before treating frostbite, the core temperature should be raised above 35 °C. Oral or intravenous (IV) fluids should be given. Other considerations for standard hospital management include:", "If the area is still partially or fully frozen, it should be rewarmed in the hospital with a warm bath with povidone iodine or chlorhexidine antiseptic. Active rewarming seeks to warm the injured tissue as quickly as possible without burning. The faster tissue is thawed, the less tissue damage occurs. According to Handford and colleagues, \"The Wilderness Medical Society and State of Alaska Cold Injury Guidelines recommend a temperature of 37–39 °C, which decreases the pain experienced by the patient whilst only slightly slowing rewarming time.\" Warming takes 15 minutes to 1 hour. Rewarming can be very painful, so pain management is important.", "People with potential for large amputations and who present within 24 hours of injury can be given TPA with heparin. These medications should be withheld if there are any contraindications. Bone scans or CT angiography can be done to assess damage. Blood vessel dilating medications such as iloprost may prevent blood vessel blockage. This treatment might be appropriate in grades 2–4 frostbite, when people get treatment within 48 hours. In addition to vasodilators, sympatholytic drugs can be used to counteract the detrimental peripheral vasoconstriction that occurs during frostbite.", "Various types of surgery might be indicated in frostbite injury, depending on the type and extent of damage. Debridement or amputation of necrotic tissue is usually delayed unless there is gangrene or systemic infection (sepsis). This has led to the adage \"Frozen in January, amputate in July\". If symptoms of compartment syndrome develop, fasciotomy can be done to attempt to preserve blood flow.", "Tissue loss and autoamputation are potential consequences of frostbite. Permanent nerve damage including loss of feeling can occur. It can take several weeks to know what parts of the tissue will survive. Time of exposure to cold is more predictive of lasting injury than temperature the individual was exposed to. The classification system of grades, based on the tissue response to initial rewarming and other factors is designed to predict degree of longterm recovery.", "Grade 1: if there is no initial lesion on the area, no amputation or lasting effects are expected Grade 2: if there is a lesion on the distal body part, tissue and fingernails can be destroyed Grade 3: if there is a lesion on the intermediate or near body part, autoamputation and loss of function can occur Grade 4: if there is a lesion very near the body (such as the carpals of the hand), the limb can be lost. Sepsis and/or other systemic problems are expected. A number of long term sequelae can occur after frostbite. These include transient or permanent changes in sensation, paresthesia, increased sweating, cancers, and bone destruction/arthritis in the area affected.", "There is a lack of comprehensive statistics about the epidemiology of frostbite. In the United States, frostbite is more common in northern states. In Finland, annual incidence was 2.5 per 100,000 among civilians, compared with 3.2 per 100,000 in Montreal. Research suggests that men aged 30–49 are at highest risk, possibly due to occupational or recreational exposures to cold.", "Frostbite has been described in military history for millennia. The Greeks encountered and discussed the problem of frostbite as early as 400 BCE. Researchers have found evidence of frostbite in humans dating back 5,000 years, in an Andean mummy. Napoleon's Army was the first documented instance of mass cold injury in the early 1800s. According to Zafren, nearly 1 million combatants fell victim to frostbite in the First and Second World Wars, and the Korean War.", "Several notable cases of frostbite include: Captain Lawrence Oates, an English army captain and Antarctic explorer who in 1912 died of complications of frostbite; noted American rock climber Hugh Herr, who in 1982 lost both legs below the knee to frostbite after being stranded on Mount Washington (New Hampshire) in a blizzard; Beck Weathers, a survivor of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster who lost his nose and hands to frostbite; Scottish mountaineer Jamie Andrew, who in 1999 had all four limbs amputated due to sepsis from frostbite sustained climbing the Mont Blanc massif.", "Evidence is insufficient to determine whether or not hyperbaric oxygen therapy as an adjunctive treatment can assist in tissue salvage. Cases have been reported, but no randomized control trial has been performed on humans. Medical sympathectomy using intravenous reserpine has also been attempted with limited success. Studies have suggested that administration of tissue plasminogen activator (tPa) either intravenously or intra-arterially may decrease the likelihood of eventual need for amputation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Operational limitations.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Until the advent of nuclear power, submarines were designed to operate on the surface most of the time and submerge only for evasion or for daylight attacks. Until the widespread use of radar after 1940, at night a submarine was safer on the surface than submerged, because sonar could detect boats underwater but was almost useless against a surface vessel. However, with continued radar improvement as the war progressed, submarines (notably, the German U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic) were forced to spend more time underwater, running on electric motors that gave speeds of only a few knots and very limited range. An early submarine snorkel was designed by James Richardson, an Assistant Manager at Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, Greenock, Scotland as early as 1916, during World War I. Although the company received a British patent for the design, no further use was made of it—the British Admiralty did not accept it for use in the Royal Navy. In November 1926 Capt. Pericle Ferretti of the technical corps of the Italian Navy ran tests with a ventilation pipe installed on the submarine \"H 3\". The tests were largely successful, and a similar system was designed for the \"Sirena\" class, but was eventually scrapped; subsequent snorkel systems were not based on Ferretti's design. Germany defeated the Netherlands in 1940; their capture of \"O-25\" and \"O-26\" was a stroke of luck for the German Navy, the \"Kriegsmarine\". The Dutch \"O-21 class\" were equipped with a device named a \"snuiver\" (\"sniffer\"). The Royal Netherlands Navy had been experimenting as early as 1938 with a simple pipe system on the submarines \"O-19\" and \"O-20\" that enabled diesel propulsion at periscope depth, while also charging the batteries. The system was designed by the Dutchman Jan Jacob Wichers. The Kriegsmarine first viewed the snorkel as a means to take fresh air into the boats but saw no need to run the diesel engines under water. However, by 1943 more U-boats were being lost, so the snorkel was retrofitted to the VIIC and IXC classes and designed into the new XXI and XXIII types. The first Kriegsmarine boat to be fitted with a snorkel was \"U-58\", which experimented with the equipment in the Baltic Sea during the summer of 1943. Operational use began in early 1944, and by June 1944 about half of the boats stationed in the French bases had snorkels fitted. On Type VII U-boats the snorkel folded forward and was stored in a recess on the port side of the hull, while on the IX Types the recess was on the starboard side. The XXI and XXIII types both had telescopic masts that rose vertically through the conning tower close to the periscope.", "Although snorkels allowed submarines to use their diesel engines while submerged, their use had limitations and problems. U-boats with their snorkels raised were limited to six knots to avoid damaging or breaking the tube. The \"Gruppenhorchgerät\" (the boat's hydrophone array) was useless while running diesel engines submerged. However, the most dramatic effect caused by the use of snorkels was their ability to create partial vacuums within the submarine. Early snorkels had automatic ballcock valves fitted (to prevent seawater from waves being sucked into the diesel engines) that could slam shut in rough weather, forcing the engines to rapidly draw air from within the boat itself. The sudden reduction in pressure would cause the crew to experience extreme pain in their ears, occasionally causing ruptured eardrums. Atmospheric pressure would then hold the ballcock valve firmly shut, forcing the boat to shut down its diesel engines and surface. The engineering problem still exists in modern submarines; however, the effect is mitigated with the use of high-vacuum cut-off sensors that shut down the submerged boat's engines when any sudden pressure drop is detected. Likewise, modern snorkels have a fail-safe design. An electrical circuit controls a compressed air system that holds a \"head valve\" open against the pull of a powerful spring. When waves wash over exposed contacts, the control circuit breaks, venting the compressed air, causing the head valve to slam shut. The valve is immediately reopened by compressed air when the contacts are again clear of the water. As snorkels were designed to draw in and vent gases, a submarine's diesel exhaust could be seen on the surface up to a distance of about. Also \"periscope feather\" (the wave created by the snorkel or periscope moving through the water) can be spotted in calm seas. During the early months of the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II, British ships using the radar set Model 271 were able detect the periscope of a submerged submarine at a distance of during tests in 1940.", "Notes Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Health.", "Production.", "Polymer preparation.", "Spinning.", "Other types of aramids.", "Aramid fiber characteristics.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Aromatic polyamides were first introduced in commercial applications in the early 1960s, with a meta-aramid fiber produced by DuPont as HT-1 and then under the trade name Nomex. This fiber, which handles similarly to normal textile apparel fibers, is characterized by its excellent resistance to heat, as it neither melts nor ignites in normal levels of oxygen. It is used extensively in the production of protective apparel, air filtration, thermal and electrical insulation, as well as a substitute for asbestos. Meta-aramid is also produced in the Netherlands and Japan by Teijin Aramid under the trade name Teijinconex, in Korea by Toray under the trade name Arawin, in China by Yantai Tayho under the trade name New Star, by SRO Group (China) under the trade name X-Fiper, and a variant of meta-aramid in France by Kermel under the trade name Kermel. Based on earlier research by Monsanto Company and Bayer, para-aramid fiber with much higher tenacity and elastic modulus was also developed in the 1960s and 1970s by DuPont and AkzoNobel, both profiting from their knowledge of rayon, polyester and nylon processing. In 1973 DuPont was the first company to introduce a para-aramid fiber, which it called Kevlar, to the market; this remains one of the best-known para-aramids and/or aramids. In 1978, Akzo introduced a similar fiber with roughly the same chemical structure, which it called Twaron. Due to earlier patents on the production process, Akzo and DuPont engaged in a patent dispute in the 1980s. Twaron subsequently came under the ownership of the Teijin Company. In 2011, Yantai Tayho introduced similar fiber which is called Taparan in China (see Production). Para-aramids are used in many high-tech applications, such as aerospace and military applications, for \"bullet-proof\" body armor fabric. Both meta-aramid and para-aramid fiber can be used to make aramid paper. Aramid paper can be used as electrical insulation materials and construction materials to make honeycomb core. Dupont made aramid paper in 1960s, which is called Nomex paper. Yantai Metastar Special Paper introduced aramid paper in 2007, which is called metastar paper. Both Dupont and Yantai Metastar can make meta-aramid and para-aramid paper. The Federal Trade Commission definition for aramid fiber is: A manufactured fiber in which the fiber-forming substance is a long-chain synthetic polyamide in which at least 85% of the amide linkages, (−CO−NH−) are attached directly to two aromatic rings.", "During the 1990s, an \"in vitro\" test of aramid fibers showed they exhibited \"many of the same effects on epithelial cells as did asbestos, including increased radiolabeled nucleotide incorporation into DNA and induction of ODC (ornithine decarboxylase) enzyme activity\", raising the possibility of carcinogenic implications. However, in 2009, it was shown that inhaled aramid fibrils are shortened and quickly cleared from the body and pose little risk. A declaration of interest correction was later provided by the author of the study stating that \"This review was commissioned and funded by DuPont and Teijin Aramid, but the author alone was responsible for the content and writing of the paper.\"", "World capacity of para-aramid production was estimated at about 41,000 tonnes per year in 2002 and increases each year by 5–10%. In 2007 this means a total production capacity of around 55,000 tonnes per year.", "Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide group. Simple AB homopolymers may look like The most well-known aramids (Kevlar, Twaron, Nomex, New Star and Teijinconex) are AABB polymers. Nomex, Teijinconex and New Star contain predominantly the meta-linkage and are poly-\"metaphenylene isophthalamide\"s (MPIA). Kevlar and Twaron are both \"p\"-phenylene terephthalamides (PPTA), the simplest form of the AABB para-polyaramide. PPTA is a product of \"p\"-phenylene diamine (PPD) and terephthaloyl dichloride (TDC or TCl). Production of PPTA relies on a co-solvent with an ionic component (calcium chloride, CaCl) to occupy the hydrogen bonds of the amide groups, and an organic component (N-methyl pyrrolidone, NMP) to dissolve the aromatic polymer. This process was invented by Leo Vollbracht, who worked at the Dutch chemical firm Akzo. Apart from the carcinogenic hexamethylphosphorous triamide (HMPT), still no practical alternative of dissolving the polymer is known. The use of the NMP/CaCl system led to an extended patent dispute between Akzo and DuPont.", "After production of the polymer, the aramid fiber is produced by spinning the dissolved polymer to a solid fiber from a liquid chemical blend. Polymer solvent for spinning PPTA is generally 100% anhydrous sulfuric acid (HSO).", "Besides meta-aramids like Nomex, other variations belong to the aramid fiber range. These are mainly of the copolyamide type, best known under the brand name Technora, as developed by Teijin and introduced in 1976. The manufacturing process of Technora reacts PPD and 3,4'-diaminodiphenylether (3,4'-ODA) with terephthaloyl chloride (TCl). This relatively simple process uses only one amide solvent, and therefore spinning can be done directly after the polymer production.", "Aramids share a high degree of orientation with other fibers such as ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene, a characteristic that dominates their properties.", "Para-aramid Meta-aramid Others" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Agricultural meadows.", "Transitional meadows.", "Perpetual meadows.", "Urban Meadow.", "Human intervention.", "Impact of Tourism.", "Meadows and climate change.", "Ecological consequences.", "Effects of higher temperatures.", "Effects of changing precipitation patterns.", "Effects of reduced snowpacks.", "Effects on ecological communities.", "Phenological Reassembly.", "Extreme weather.", "Meadow restorations.", "Carbon storage in meadows.", "Grassland degradations.", "Cap-and-trade." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "In agriculture, a meadow is grassland which is not regularly grazed by domestic livestock, but rather allowed to grow unchecked in order to produce hay. Their roots go way back to the Iron Age when appropriate tools for the hay harvest emerged. The ability to produce livestock fodder on meadows had a significant advantage for livestock production, as animals could be kept in enclosures, simplifying the control over breeding. Surpluses in biomass production during the summer could be stored for the winter, preventing damages to forests and grasslands as there was no longer the need for livestock grazing during the winter. Especially in the United Kingdom and Ireland, the term meadow is commonly used in its original sense to mean a hay meadow, signifying grassland mown annually in the summer for making hay. Agricultural meadows are typically lowland or upland fields upon which hay or pasture grasses grow from self-sown or hand-sown seed. Traditional hay meadows were once common in rural Britain, but are now in decline. Ecologist Professor John Rodwell states that over the past century, England and Wales have lost about 97% of their hay meadows. Fewer than 15,000 hectares of lowland meadows remain in the UK and most sites are relatively small and fragmented. 25% of the UK's meadows are found in Worcestershire, with Foster's Green Meadow managed by the Worcestershire Wildlife Trust being a major site. A similar concept to the hay meadow is the pasture, which differs from the meadow in that it is grazed through the summer, rather than being allowed to grow out and periodically be cut for hay. A pasture can also refer to any land used for grazing, and in this wider sense the term refers not only to grass pasture but also to non-grassland habitats such as heathland, moorland and wood pasture. The term, grassland, is used to describe both hay meadows and grass pastures. The specific agricultural practices in relation to the meadow can take on various expressions. As mentioned, this could be hay production or providing food for grazing cattle and livestock but also to give room for orchards or honey production. Meadows are embedded and dependent on a complex web of socio-cultural conditions for their maintenance. Historically, they emerged to increase agricultural efficiency when the necessary tools became available. Today, agricultural practices have shifted and meadows have largely lost their original purpose. Yet, they are appreciated today for their aesthetics and ecological functions. Consequently, the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy subsidizes their management, mostly through grazing.", "A transitional meadow occurs when a field, pasture, farmland, or other cleared land is no longer cut or grazed and starts to display luxuriant growth, extending to the flowering and self-seeding of its grass and wildflower species. The condition is however only temporary, because the grasses eventually become shaded out when scrub and woody plants become well-established, being the forerunners of the return to a fully wooded state. A transitional state can be artificially-maintained through a double-field system, in which cultivated soil and meadows are alternated for a period of 10 to 12 years each. In North America prior to European colonization, Algonquians, Iroquois and other Native Americans peoples regularly cleared areas of forest to create transitional meadows where deer and game could find food and be hunted. For example, some of today's meadows originated thousands of years ago, due to regular burnings by Native Americans.", "A perpetual meadow, also called a natural meadow, is one in which environmental factors, such as climatic and soil conditions, are favorable to perennial grasses and restrict the growth of woody plants indefinitely. Types of perpetual meadows may include:", "Recently, urban areas have been thought of as potential biodiversity conservation sites. The shift from urban lawns, that are widely spread habitats in cities, to urban meadows is thought to promote greater refuges for plant and animal communities. Urban lawns require intensive management that puts the life there at risk of losing their habitat, especially due to the mowing frequency. Cutting that mowing frequency has demonstrated to induce a clear positive effect on the plant community's diversity, which allows the switch from urban lawns to urban meadows. Due to increased urbanization, the EU Biodiversity Strategy 2017 decreed that there is a need to protect all ecosystems due to climate change. The majority of the people that live in the urban regions of any country usually get their plant knowledge from visiting parks and or public green infrastructure. Local authorities have the duty of providing the green spaces for the public, but these departments are constantly suffering major budget cuts, making it more difficult for people to admire natural wildlife in the urban sectors and also impairing the local ecosystem. In line with the increasing acceptance of a \"messier urban aesthetic\", the perennial meadows can be seen as a more realistic alternative to the classic urban lawns as they would also be more cost-efficient to maintain. Factors that managers of urban spaces list as important to regard are:", "Artificially or culturally conceived meadows emerge from and continually require human intervention to persist and flourish. In many places, the natural, pristine populations of free-roaming large grazers are either extinct or very limited due to human activities. This reduces or removes their natural influence on the surrounding ecology and results in meadows only being created or maintained by human intervention. Existing meadows could potentially and gradually decline, if unmaintained by agricultural practices. Humankind has influenced the ecology and the landscape for millennia in many parts of the world, so it can sometimes be difficult to discern what is natural and what is cultural. Meadows are one example. However, meadows seem to have been sustained historically by naturally occurring large grazers, which kept plant growth in checked and maintained the cleared space. As extensive farming like grazing is diminishing in some parts of the world, the meadow is endangered as a habitat. A number of research projects attempt to restore natural meadow habitats by reintroducing natural, large grazers. These includes deer, elk, goat, wild horse, etc. depending on the location. A more exotic example with a wider scope is the European Tauros Programme. Some environmental organization recommend converting lawns to meadows by stopping or reducing mowing. They claim that meadows can better preserve biodiversity, water, reduce the use of fertilizers. For example, in 2018 environmental organizations with the support of the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs of England, concerned by the decline in the number of bees worldwide, in the first day of Bees' Needs Week 2018 (9-15 July) give some recommendation how to preserve bees. The recommendations include 1) growing flowers, shrubs, and trees, 2) letting the garden grow wild, 3) cutting grass less often, 4) leaving insect nest and hibernation spots alone, and 5) using careful consideration with pesticides.", "The impact of human activity has been noted to increase degradation of meadow soil. E.g due to skiing activities and urbanization, the meadows of the town of Zakopane, Poland, were noted to have altered soil compositions. The soil's organic material had faded away and was affected due to the chemicals from the artificial melting water from the snow and skiing machinery.", "", "Climate changes impact temperature precipitation patterns worldwide. The effects are regionally very different but generally, temperatures tend to increase, snowpacks tend to melt earlier and many places tend to become drier. Many species respond to these changes by slowly moving their habitat upwards. The increased elevation decreases mean temperatures and thus allows for species to largely maintain their original habitat. Another common response to changed environmental conditions are \"phenological adaptations.\" These include shifts in the timing of germination or blossoming. Other examples include for example changing migration patterns of birds of passage. These adaptations are primarily influenced by three drivers:", "In response to temperature changes, flowering plants can respond through either spatial or temporal shifts. Spatial shifts refers to the migration towards colder areas, often on higher altitudes. A temporal shift means that a plant may alter its phenology to blossom at a different time of the year. By moving towards the early spring or late autumn they can restore their previous temperature conditions. These adaptations are limited through. Spatial shifts may be difficult if the areas are already inhabited by other species, or when the plant is reliant on specific hydrology or soil type. Other authors have shown that higher temperatures can increase total biomass, but temperature shocks and instability seem to have negative impacts on biodiversity. This even appears to be the case for multiyear species, which were previously considered to have a buffering effect on extreme weather events.", "There is a variety of hydrological regimes for meadows, ranging from dry to humid, each yielding different plant communities adapted to the respective provider of water. A shift in precipitation patterns has very different effects, depending on the type of meadow. Meadows that are either dry or wet appear to be rather resilient to change, as a moderate increase or decrease in precipitation does not radically alter their character. Meanwhile, mesic meadows, with a moderate supply of water do change their character as it is easier to tip them into a different regime. Dry meadows in particular are threatened by the invasion of shrubs and other woody plants and a decreasing prevalence of flowering forbs, whereas hydric sites tend to lose woody species. Due to the dryer upper soil layers, forbs with shallow roots have difficulties obtaining enough water. Woody plants in contrast with their lower-reaching root systems can still extract water stored in lower soil layers and are able to sustain themselves through longer drought periods with their stored water reserves. In the longer term, changing hydrologic regimes may also facilitate the establishment of invasive species that may be better adapted to the new conditions. The effects are already quite visible, an example is the substitution of Alpine meadows in the southern Himalayas through shrubland. Climate change appears to be an important driver of this process. Wetter winters in contrast might increase total biomass, but favour already competitive species. By harming specialised plants and promoting the prevalence of more generalist species, more unstable precipitation patterns could also reduce ecological biodiversity.", "Snow covers are directly related to changes in temperature, precipitation and cloud cover. Still, changes in the timing of the snowmelt seem to be, particularly in alpine regions, an important determinant for phenological responses. There is even data suggesting that the impact of snowmelt is even higher than the warming alone. Earlier are not uniformly positive for plants though, as moisture injected through snow-melt might be missing later in the year. Additionally, it might allow for longer periods of seed predation. Problematic is also the lack of the insulating snow cover, springtime frost events might have a larger negative impact.", "All the drivers mentioned above give rise to complex, non-linear community responses. These responses can be disentangled by looking at multiple climate drivers and species together. As different species show varying degrees of phenological responses, the consequence is a so-called phenological reassembly, where the structure of the ecosystem changes fundamentally. Phenological responses in blossoming periods of certain plants may not coincide with the phenological shifts of their pollinators or growing periods of plant communities relying on each other may start to diverge. A study of meadows in the Rocky Mountains revealed the emergence of a mid-season period with little floral activity. Specifically, the study identified that the typical mid-summer floral peak was composed out of several consecutive peaks in dry, mesic and wet meadow systems. Phenological responses to climate change let these distinct peaks diverge, leading to a gap during mid-summer. This poses a threat to pollinators relying on a continuous supply of floral resources. As ecological communities are often highly adapted to local circumstances which can not be reproduced at higher elevations, Debinski et al. describe the short-term changes observed on meadows \"as a shift in the mosaic of the landscape composition\". Therefore, it is important to monitor not only how specific species respond to climate change, but to also investigate them in the context of different habitats they occur in.", "Animals as well as plants are changing rapidly to the anthropogenic global warming, and the number of individuals, habitat occupancy, changing reproductive cycles are the strategies to adapt to this sever and unpredictable environment alterations. The different types of meadows all around the planet are different communities of plants (perennial and annual plants) that constantly are interacting with each other to stay alive and reproduce. Timing and duration of flowering is one of the phenological reassembly driven by many different factors like snow melt, temperature and soil moisture to mention a few. All of the changes that a plant or an animal may go through are depending in habitat’s topography, altitude, and latitude of a specific organism. It is important to monitored properly the plants because they are one of the best bioindicators of how climate changes is affecting the planet. Flowering phenology is one of the most important features of plant in order to survive any type of adversity. Thanks to different modern techniques and constant monitoring we can assure which ecological strategy the plants are using in order to multiply their specie. In alpine meadow of the eastern Tibet notorious variances and similarities were observed between annual and perennial plants. Where perennial plants flowering peak date was directly proportional to the duration and inversely proportional in annuals plants. This are just a limited quantity of many relationships on phenology and functional traits interacting with the environment to survive.", "Climate change is increasing temperatures all over the world, and boreal regions are more susceptible to suffer noticeable changes. An experiment was conducted to monitor the reaction of alpine arctic meadow plants to different patterns of increased temperatures. This experiment was based on vascular plants that live in arctic and subarctic environments within three different levels of vegetation: canopy layer, bottom layer and functional groups. It is crucial to keep on mind that these plants are usually sharing the space and constantly interacting with bryophytes, lichens, arthropods, animals and many other organisms. The result was a clear adaptation of a constant pattern that plants recognized and had time to reach thermal acclimation meaning that they got a net carbon gain by intensifying photosynthesis and slightly increasing respiration thanks to a warmer climate for a reasonable time period. However plants that suffer changes of any kind ( not only temperature rising and falling) in a short period of time are more likely to die because they did not have enough time to reach thermal acclimation.", "", "Meadows can act as substantial sinks and sources of organic carbon, holding vast quantities of it in the soil. The fluxes of carbon depend mainly on the natural cycle of carbon uptake and efflux, which interplays with seasonal variations (e.g non-growing vs growing season). The wide range of meadow subtypes have in turn differing attributes (like plant configurations) affecting the area's ability to act as sinks; seagrass meadows are for instant identified as some of the more important sinks in the global carbon cycle. In the instance of seagrass meadows, enhanced production of other greenhouse gases (CH and NO) does occur but the estimated overall effect results in an offset of the total emission. Meanwhile, a usual driver of meadow loss (except for direct alterations due to human development) is climate change, consequently increasing carbon emissions and bringing up the topic of restoration projects which in some cases have prompted initiated meadow restorations (e.g \"Zostera marina\" meadow in Virginia U.S.A).", "Where grassland degradation has occurred, significant alterations to the carbon dioxide efflux during the non-growing season may take place. Both climate change and overgrazing factor into the degradation. As exemplified by the alpine wetland meadow on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, there is the potential of being a moderate source of CO and a carbon sink, due to high soil organic content and low decomposition. The more the dynamics have been quantified, however, the effects of degradation become more tangible. A strong connection between grassland degradation and soil carbon loss has been seen, pinpointing that carbon dioxide release is being stimulated by this event. This subsequently indicates a climate change mitigation potential by restoring degraded grassland.", "Being a market-based regulation of emissions, the cap-and-trade system can in some instances be found incorporating restoration projects for climate mitigation. For example, the cap-and-trade program in California is looking at how meadow restorations can be incorporated into their system of reducing carbon emissions. The preliminary studies are, as depicted by Audubon, pointing at the potential of storing a substantially increased amount of soil carbon compared to degraded meadows, while boosting the local biodiversity. Most recently though, during the COVID-19 pandemic, difficulties with restoration are beginning to show: During the first years, areas under restoration are vulnerable to outside disruption, like meadow management put on hold when the ecosystem is most sensitive, for example to invasive species." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Ingredients and preparation.", "Variations.", "Garnishes and sides.", "History.", "Origin.", "Diversification.", "Novel ingredients.", "Spread.", "In culture.", "As a ritual dish.", "As an ethnic dish." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The name derives from the word ('), which is common to East Slavic languages, such as Ukrainian or Russian. Together with cognates in other Slavic languages, it comes from Proto-Slavic \"*bŭrščǐ\" 'hogweed' and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European \"*bhr̥sti-\" <", "Typical Ukrainian borscht is traditionally made from meat or bone stock, sautéed vegetables, and beet sour (i.e., fermented beetroot juice). Depending on the recipe, some of these components may be omitted or substituted for. The stock is typically made by boiling meat, bones, or both. Beef, pork or a combination of both are most commonly used, with brisket, ribs, shank and chuck considered to give the most flavorful results, especially if cooked on a high flame. Marrow bones are considered best for the bone stock. Meat stock is usually cooked for about two hours, whereas bone stock takes four to six hours to prepare. Meat and bones are usually removed afterwards and the meat is only added back into the soup about 10–15 minutes before the borscht is done. Some recipes call for smoked meats, resulting in a distinctively smoky borscht, while others use poultry or mutton stock. Fasting varieties are typically made with fish stock to avoid the use of meat, while purely vegetarian recipes often substitute forest mushroom broth for the stock. The vegetables most commonly added to borscht are beetroots, white cabbage, carrots, parsley root, potatoes, onions and tomatoes. Some recipes may also call for beans, tart apples, turnip, swede, celeriac, zucchini or bell peppers. Parsnip may be used as a substitute for parsley root, and tomato paste is often used as well as or instead of fresh tomatoes. The traditional technique of preparing the soup is to precook the vegetables – by sautéing, braising, boiling or baking – separately from the meat and only then to combine them with the stock. This distinctive feature of borscht derives from the practice of slow cooking in the Russian oven (traditional masonry stove, used for both cooking and heating), wherein the differences in cooking times of individual ingredients had to be taken into account in order to ensure that all components reach doneness at the same time. The", "As the home country of beetroot borscht, Ukraine boasts great diversity of the soup's regional variants, with virtually every province having its own recipe. Differences between particular varieties may regard the type of stock used (meat, bone, or both), the kind of meat (beef, pork, poultry, etc.), the choice of vegetables and the method of cutting and cooking them. For example, although the typical recipe calls for beef and pork, the Kiev variant uses mutton or lamb as well as beef, while in the Poltava region, the stock for borscht is cooked on poultry meat, that is, chicken, duck or goose. The use of zucchini, beans and apples is characteristic of the Chernihiv borscht; in this variant, beetroots are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard, and the sour taste comes solely from tomatoes and tart apples. The Lviv borscht is based on bone stock and is served with chunks of Vienna sausages. Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine. Examples include the Moscow borscht, served with pieces of beef, ham and Vienna sausages; Siberian borscht with meatballs; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes. Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht (\"), the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond-shaped chunks rather than julienned. As well as the thick borschts described above, Polish cuisine offers a ruby-colored beetroot bouillon known as ', or clear red borscht. It is made by combining strained meat-and-vegetable stock with wild mushroom broth and beet sour. In some versions, smoked meat may be used for the stock and the tartness may be obtained or enhanced by adding lemon juice, dill pickle brine, or dry red wine. It may be served either in a soup bowl or – especially at dinner parties – as a hot beverage in a twin-handled cup, with a croquette or a filled pastry on the side. Unlike other types of borscht, it is not whitened with sour cream. ', or Christmas Eve borscht, is a variant of the clear borscht that is traditionally served during the Polish Christmas Eve supper. In this version, meat stock is either omitted or replaced with fish broth, usually made by boiling the heads cut off from fish used in other Christmas Eve dishes. The mushrooms used for cooking the mushroom broth are reserved for \" (small filled dumplings), which are then served with the borscht. Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe adopted beetroot borscht from their Slavic neighbors and adapted it to their taste and religious requirements. As combining meat with milk is proscribed by kosher dietary laws, Jews have developed two variants of the soup: meat (') and dairy ('). The meat variant is typically made from beef brisket (pork is never used) and cabbage, while the dairy one is vegetarian, blended with sour cream or a mixture of milk and egg yolks. Both variants typically contain beetroots and onions, and are flavored with beet sour, vinegar or citric acid for tartness and beet sugar for sweetness. Galician Jews traditionally liked their borscht particularly sweet. Jewish borscht may be served either hot or cold, typically with a hot boiled potato on the side. In prewar Eastern Europe it was traditionally put up to ferment around Purim so that it would be ready four weeks later for the Passover holiday.", "The diversity of borscht styles is matched by the wide choice of garnishes and side dishes with which various kinds of borscht may be served. Most often, borscht is served with sour cream, the East European version of which, known as \", is runnier than its American counterpart. The sour cream may be served in a separate pitcher for the diners to add the desired amount themselves or the borscht may come already \"whitened\", that is, blended with sour cream. Sometimes the cream is thickened with flour before being added to the soup. Yogurt and a mixture of milk and yolks are possible substitutes. Chopped herbs are often sprinkled on the surface of the soup; dill is most common, but parsley, chives or scallion are often added as well. Individual helpings may be spiced up with minced hot peppers or garlic. Many kinds of borscht are served over halves or quarters of hard-boiled chicken or quail eggs. Navy beans, broad beans or string beans are also a common addition. Meat, removed from the stock on which the borscht was based, may be cut into smaller chunks and either added back into the soup or served on the side with horseradish or mustard. Bacon and sausages are also commonly used as borscht garnishes. Borscht based on bone stock", "", "Borscht derives from a soup originally made by the Slavs from common hogweed (\", also known as cow parsnip), which lent the dish its Slavic name. Growing commonly in damp meadows throughout the north temperate zone, hogweed was used not only as fodder (as its English names suggest), but also for human consumption – from Eastern Europe to Siberia, to northwestern North America. The Slavs collected hogweed in May and used its roots for stewing with meat, while the stems, leaves and umbels were chopped, covered with water and left in a warm place to ferment. After a few days, lactic and alcoholic fermentation produced a mixture described as \"something between beer and sauerkraut\". This concoction was then used for cooking a soup characterized by a mouth-puckering sour taste and pungent smell. As the Polish ethnographer wrote in 1830, \"Poles have been always partial to tart dishes, which are somewhat peculiar to their homeland and vital to their health.\" The earliest written reference to the Slavic hogweed soup can be found in \"\" (\"Domestic", "With time, other ingredients were added to the soup, eventually replacing hogweed altogether, and the names'or'became generic terms for any sour-tasting soup. In 19th-century rural Poland, this term included soups made from barberries, currants, gooseberries, cranberries, celery or plums. When describing the uses of common hogweed, John Gerard, a 17th-century English botanist, observed that \"the people of [Poland] and Lithuania [used] to make [a] drink with the decoction of this herb and leaven or some other thing made of meal, which is", "Beet ('), a plant native to the Mediterranean Basin, was already grown in antiquity. Only the leaves were of culinary use, as the tapered, tough, whitish and bitter-tasting root was considered unfit for human consumption. It is likely that beet greens were used in variants of green borscht long before the invention of the beetroot-based red borscht. Beet varieties with round, red, sweet taproots, known as beetroots, were not reliably reported until the 12th century and did not spread to Eastern Europe before the 16th century., a Polish Renaissance poet and moralist, included the earliest known Polish recipe for pickled beetroots in his 1568 book, \"Life of an Honest Man\". It would later evolve into ', or \", a beet-and-horseradish relish popular in Polish and Jewish cuisines. also recommended the \"very tasty brine\" left over from beetroot pickling, which was an early version of beet sour. The sour found some applications in Polish folk medicine as a cure for hangover and – mixed with honey – as a sore throat remedy. It may never be known who", "Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, borscht's popularity spread beyond its Slavic homeland, largely due to such factors as territorial expansion of the Russian Empire, Russia's growing political clout and cultural stature, and waves of emigration out of the country. As Russia grew to cover most of northern and central Eurasia, borscht was introduced to the cuisines of various peoples inhabiting the territories both within and adjacent to the empire, from Finland to the Caucasus and Iran, to Central Asia and China, to Alaska (Russian America). Borscht's westward expansion was less successful; Germans used to scoff at the soup along with other East European fare. What helped familiarize Western Europe with borscht was the practice of Russian emperors, as well as Russian and Polish aristocrats, to employ celebrated French chefs, who later presented their own versions of the dish as a foreign", "", "Borscht is often associated with its role in religious traditions of various denominations (Eastern Orthodox, Greek and Roman Catholic, and Jewish) that are common in Eastern Europe. In East Slavic countries, \"memorial borscht\" is served as the first course at a post-funeral wake. According to a traditional belief, the soul of the departed either feeds on or is carried up to heaven by puffs of steam rising from bowls of borscht and other hot dishes, such as blini, porridge, boiled potatoes or freshly baked bread. In the region of Polesye, straddling the Belarusian-Ukrainian border, the same steaming-hot dishes, including borscht, are given as an offering to the souls of deceased ancestors during the annual semi-pagan remembrance ceremony known as \" or Forefathers' Night. In Poland and Ukraine, borscht is usually one of the dishes served at a Christmas Eve dinner. Celebrated after the first star has appeared in the sky on December 24 (Roman Catholic) or January 6 (Greek Catholic), it is a meal which is at the same time festive and fasting, a multicourse affair (traditionally, with twelve distinct dishes) that excludes ingredients of land-animal origin. Christmas Eve borscht is, therefore, either vegetarian or based on fish stock and is not typically mixed", "In its currently most popular, beet-based version, borscht most likely originated in what is now Ukraine. Borscht's role as a staple of everyday Ukrainian diet is reflected in the Ukrainian saying, \"borscht and porridge are our food\" (compare the equivalent Russian saying, where borscht is replaced with \"\"). The hearty soup in which the beetroot is just one of sundry vegetables, as opposed to the typically Polish clear beet broth, is still known in Poland as \"Ukrainian borscht\". Borscht is associated with and claimed by several ethnic groups, especially Ukrainians, Russians, Poles, Lithuanians and Ashkenazi Jews, as their own national or ethnic dish and cultural icon. Such claims are not necessarily mutually exclusive, as the soup's history predates the emergence in Eastern Europe of modern nation states with their ever-shifting borders. Borscht, in the words of Burlakoff, \"is perfectly suited to a global culture.\" He describes it as \"a global phenomenon\", in which \"local variants are so numerous and diverse that it is hard sometimes for a non-specialist to grasp that any single example of it is something that is part of a unified tradition.\" In his view, borscht \"is an almost perfect example of... 'glocalization' – a phenomenon that is global in distribution but reflective of local needs and ways in its variants and adaptation;... a highly localized product that became globalized, and in the process adapted to conditions other than the original" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Opheltes of Nemea.", "Other characters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Opheltes (also known as Archemoros ()) was the infant son of the Nemean king Lycurgus and Queen Eurydice. When their son was born, Lycurgus consulted the oracle at Delphi in order to find out how he might insure the health and happiness of his child, and was instructed that the child must not touch the ground until he had learned to walk. One day his nursemaid, Hypsipyle, was walking with the young Opheltes in her arms. She met the Seven Argive generals marching against Thebes, who asked her where the nearest wellspring was. Hypsipyle put Opheltes on the ground in a bed of wild celery and walked away with them, to show them where it was. While she was away, a drakon strangled Opheltes. Amphiaraus, the seer, interpreted this as signifying that the campaign against Thebes would be unsuccessful. After this incident the generals held a funeral celebration for Opheltes and they arranged sport games to honor him: such was the beginning of the famous Nemean Games. The child was posthumously renamed Archemoros (\"the forerunner of death\") in accordance with Amphiaraus' prophecy. According to John Tzetzes, there were two mountains on Euboea, one of which was named after Opheltes, and the other after Zarex. The University of California at Berkeley's excavations at Nemea, begun in 1973, uncovered the likely site of the shrine of Opheltes in 1979, an open air structure rebuilt several times since the 6th century BC.", "\"Opheltes\" is not to be confused with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and family.", "Career.", "1991–1997: Early work.", "1998–2000: Breakthrough.", "2001–2004: Mainstream recognition.", "2005–2010: Commercial success.", "2011–present: Professional expansion.", "Humanitarian work.", "UNHCR ambassadorship.", "Conservation and community development.", "Child immigration and education.", "Human rights and women's rights.", "Recognition and honors.", "Personal life.", "Relationships and marriages.", "Children.", "Cancer prevention treatment.", "In the media.", "Public image.", "Appearance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born Angelina Jolie Voight in Los Angeles, California, she is the daughter of actors Jon Voight and Marcheline Bertrand. She is the sister of actor James Haven, and the niece of singer-songwriter Chip Taylor and geologist and volcanologist Barry Voight. Her godparents are actors Jacqueline Bisset and Maximilian Schell. On her father's side, Jolie is of German and Slovak descent, and on her mother's side, she is of primarily French Canadian, Dutch, and German ancestry. Like her mother, Jolie has stated that she is part Iroquois, although her only known indigenous ancestors were 17th-century Hurons. After her parents' separation in 1976, Jolie and her brother lived with their mother, who had abandoned her acting ambitions to focus on raising her children. Her mother raised her Catholic but did not require her to go to church. As a child, she often watched films with her mother and it was this, rather than her father's successful career, that inspired her interest in acting, though at age five she had a bit part in Voight's \"Lookin' to Get Out\" (1982). When Jolie was six years old, Bertrand and her live-in partner, filmmaker Bill Day, moved the family to Palisades, New York; they returned to Los Angeles five years later. Jolie then decided she wanted to act and enrolled at the Lee Strasberg Theatre Institute, where she trained for two years and appeared in several stage productions. Jolie first attended Beverly Hills High School, where she felt isolated among the children of some of the area's affluent families because her mother survived on a more modest income. She was teased by other students, who targeted her for being extremely thin and for wearing glasses and braces. Her early", "", "Jolie committed to acting professionally at the age of 16, but initially found it difficult to pass auditions, often being told that her demeanor was \"too dark.\" She appeared in five of her brother's student films, made while he attended the USC School of Cinema-Television, as well as in several music videos, namely Lenny Kravitz's \"Stand by My Woman\" (1991), Antonello Venditti's \"Alta Marea\" (1991), The Lemonheads's \"It's About Time\" (1993), and Meat Loaf's \"Rock and Roll Dreams Come Through\" (1993).", "Jolie's career prospects began to improve after she won a Golden Globe Award for her performance in TNT's \"George Wallace\" (1997), about the life of the segregationist Alabama Governor and presidential candidate George Wallace, played by Gary Sinise. Jolie portrayed Wallace's second wife, Cornelia, a performance Lee Winfrey of \"The Philadelphia Inquirer\" considered a highlight of the film. \"George Wallace\" was very well received by critics and won, among other awards, the Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film. Jolie also received a nomination for an Emmy Award for her performance. Jolie's first breakthrough came when she portrayed supermodel Gia Carangi in HBO's \"Gia\" (1998). The film chronicles the destruction of Carangi's life and career as a result of", "Although highly regarded for her acting abilities, Jolie had rarely found films that appealed to a wide audience, but \"Lara Croft: Tomb Raider\" (2001) made her an international superstar. An adaptation of the popular \"Tomb Raider\" videogames, the film required her to learn an English accent and undergo extensive martial arts training to play the archaeologist-adventurer Lara Croft. Although the film generated mostly negative reviews, Jolie was generally praised for her physical performance; \"Newsday\"s John Anderson commented, \"Jolie makes the title character a virtual icon of female competence and", "In 2005, Jolie returned to major box office success with the action-comedy \"Mr. & Mrs. Smith\", in which she starred opposite Brad Pitt as a bored married couple who find out that they are both secret assassins. The film received mixed reviews, but was generally lauded for the chemistry between the two leads; \"Star Tribune\" critic Colin Covert noted, \"While the story feels haphazard, the movie gets by on gregarious charm, galloping energy and the stars' thermonuclear screen chemistry.\" With box office takings of $478.2 million worldwide, \"Mr. & Mrs. Smith\" was the seventh-highest grossing picture of the year and remained Jolie's highest-grossing live-action film for the next decade. Following a supporting role as the neglected wife of a CIA", "After directing the documentary \"A Place in Time\" (2007), which was distributed through the National Education Association, Jolie made her feature directorial debut with \"In the Land of Blood and Honey\" (2011), a love story between a Serb soldier and a Bosniak prisoner, set during the 1992–95 Bosnian War. She conceived the film to rekindle attention for the survivors, after twice visiting Bosnia and Herzegovina in her role as a UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador. To ensure authenticity, she cast only actors from the former Yugoslavia—including stars Goran Kostić and Zana Marjanović—and incorporated their wartime experiences into her screenplay. Upon release, the film received mixed reviews; Todd McCarthy of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" wrote, \"Jolie deserves significant credit for creating such a powerfully oppressive atmosphere and staging the ghastly events so credibly, even if it is these", "", "Jolie first witnessed the effects of a humanitarian crisis while filming \"Lara Croft: Tomb Raider\" (2001) in war-torn Cambodia, an experience she later credited with having brought her a greater understanding of the world. Upon her return home, Jolie contacted the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for information on international trouble spots. To learn more about the conditions in these areas, she began visiting refugee camps around the world. In February 2001, she went on her first field visit, an 18-day mission to", "In an effort to connect her Cambodian-born adopted son with his heritage, Jolie purchased a house in his country of birth in 2003. The traditional home sat on 39 hectares in the northwestern province Battambang, adjacent to Samlout national park in the Cardamom mountains, which had become infiltrated with poachers who threatened endangered species. She purchased the park's 60,000 hectares and turned the area into a wildlife reserve named for her son, the Maddox Jolie Project. In recognition of her conservation efforts, King Norodom Sihamoni awarded her Cambodian citizenship on July 31, 2005. In November 2006, Jolie expanded the scope of the project—renamed the Maddox Jolie-Pitt Foundation (MJP)—to create Asia's first Millennium Village, in accordance with UN development goals. She was inspired by a meeting with the founder of Millennium Promise, noted economist Jeffrey Sachs, at the World Economic Forum", "Jolie has pushed for legislation to aid child immigrants and other vulnerable children in both the U.S. and developing nations, including the \"Unaccompanied Alien Child Protection Act of 2005.\" She began lobbying humanitarian interests in the U.S. capital from 2003 onwards, explaining, \"As much as I would love to never have to visit Washington, that's the way to move the ball.\" Since October 2008, she has co-chaired Kids in Need of Defense (KIND), a network of leading U.S. law firms that provide free legal aid to unaccompanied minors in immigration proceedings across the U.S. Founded in a collaboration between Jolie and the Microsoft Corporation, by 2013, KIND had become the principal provider of pro bono lawyers for immigrant children. Jolie had previously, from 2005 to 2007, funded the launch of a similar initiative, the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants' National Center for Refugee and Immigrant Children. Jolie has also advocated for children's education. Since its founding at the Clinton Global Initiative's annual meeting in September 2007, she has co-chaired the Education Partnership for Children of Conflict, which provides policy and funding to education programs for children in conflict-affected regions. In its first year,", "After Jolie joined the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) in June 2007, she hosted a symposium on international law and justice at CFR headquarters and funded several CFR special reports, including \"Intervention to Stop Genocide and Mass Atrocities.\" In January 2011, she established the Jolie Legal Fellowship, a network of lawyers and attorneys who are sponsored to advocate the development of human rights in their countries. Its member attorneys, called Jolie Legal Fellows, have facilitated child protection efforts in Haiti in the wake of the 2010 earthquake and promoted the development of an inclusive democratic process in Libya following the 2011 revolution. Jolie has fronted a campaign against sexual violence in military conflict zones by the UK government, which made the issue a priority of its 2013 G8 presidency. In May 2012, she launched", "Jolie has received wide recognition for her humanitarian work. In August 2002, she received the inaugural Humanitarian Award from the Church World Service's Immigration and Refugee Program, and in October 2003, she was the first recipient of the Citizen of the World Award by the United Nations Correspondents Association. She was awarded the Global Humanitarian Award by the UNA-USA in October 2005, and she received the Freedom Award from the International Rescue Committee in November 2007. In", "", "Jolie had a serious boyfriend for two years from the age of 14. Her mother allowed them to live together in her home, of which Jolie later said, \"I was either going to be reckless on the streets with my boyfriend or he was going to be with me in my bedroom with my mom in the next room. She made the choice, and because of it, I continued to go to school every morning and explored my first relationship in a safe way.\" She has compared the relationship to a marriage in its emotional intensity, and said that the breakup compelled her to dedicate herself to her acting career at the age of 16. During filming of \"Hackers\" (1995), Jolie", "Jolie has six children: three sons and three daughters. Of the children, three were adopted internationally, while three are biological. On March 10, 2002, Jolie adopted her first child, seven-month-old Maddox Chivan, from an orphanage in Battambang, Cambodia. He was born as Rath Vibol on August 5, 2001, in a local village. After twice visiting Cambodia, while filming \"Lara Croft: Tomb Raider\" (2001) and on a UNHCR field mission, Jolie returned in November 2001 with her husband, Billy Bob Thornton, where they met Maddox and subsequently applied to adopt him. The adoption process was halted the following month when", "On February 16, 2013, at age 37, Jolie underwent a preventive double mastectomy after learning she had an 87% risk of developing breast cancer due to a defective BRCA1 gene. Her maternal family history warranted genetic testing for BRCA mutations: her mother, actress Marcheline Bertrand, had breast cancer and died from ovarian cancer, while her grandmother died from ovarian cancer. Her aunt, who had the same BRCA1 defect, died from breast cancer three months after Jolie's operation. Following the mastectomy, which lowered her chances of developing breast cancer to under 5 percent, Jolie had reconstructive surgery involving implants and allografts. Two years later, in March 2015, after annual test results indicated possible signs of early ovarian cancer, she underwent a preventive salpingo-oophorectomy, as she had a 50% risk of developing ovarian cancer due to the same genetic anomaly. Despite hormone replacement therapy, the surgery brought on premature menopause. After completing each operation, Jolie discussed her mastectomy and oophorectomy", "", "As the daughter of actor Jon Voight, Jolie appeared in the media from an early age. After embarking on her own career, she earned a reputation as a \"wild child\", which contributed to her early success in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Celebrity profiles routinely covered her fascination with blood and knives, experiences with drugs, and her sex life, particularly her bisexuality and interest in sadomasochism. In 2000, when asked about her outspokenness, she stated, \"I say things that other people might go through. That's what artists should do—throw things out there and not be perfect and not have answers for anything and see if people understand.\" Another contributing factor of her controversial image were tabloid rumors of incest that started when Jolie, upon winning her Oscar, kissed her brother on the lips and said, \"I'm so in love with my brother right now.\" She dismissed the rumors, saying, \"It was disappointing that something so beautiful and pure could be turned into a circus,\" and explained that, as children of divorce, she and James relied on one another for emotional support. Jolie's reputation began to change positively after she, at age 26, became a Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, later commenting,", "Jolie's public image is strongly tied to her perceived beauty and sex appeal. Many media outlets, including \"Vogue\", \"People\", and \"Vanity Fair\", have cited her as the world's most beautiful woman, while others such as \"Esquire\", \"FHM\", and \"Empire\" have named her the sexiest woman alive; both titles have often been based on public polls in which Jolie places far ahead of other celebrity women. Her most recognizable physical features are her many tattoos, eyes, and in particular her full lips, which \"The New York Times\" considered as defining a feature as Kirk Douglas's chin or Bette Davis' eyes. Among her estimated 20 tattoos are the Latin proverb \"quod me nutrit me destruit\" (\"what nourishes me destroys me\"), the Tennessee Williams quote \"A prayer for the wild at heart, kept in cages\", four Buddhist Sanskrit prayers of protection, a twelve-inch tiger, and geographical coordinates of where she first met her adopted children. Over time, she has covered or lasered several of her tattoos, including \"Billy Bob\", the name of her second husband. Professionally, Jolie's status as a sex symbol has been considered both an asset and a hindrance. Some of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basics.", "Principles.", "Adaptation through exercise.", "Neuroplasticity.", "Motor redundancy.", "Scope of practice.", "Licensing and regulation.", "Canada.", "History of kinesiology.", "Technology in kinesiology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kinesiology is the study of human and nonhuman animal-body movements, performance, and function by applying the sciences of biomechanics, anatomy, physiology, psychology, and neuroscience. Applications of kinesiology in human-health include physical education teacher, rehabilitation, health and safety, health promotion, workplaces, sport and exercise industries. A bachelor's degree in kinesiology can provide strong preparation for graduate study in biomedical research, as well as in professional programs, such as medicine. Whereas the term \"kinesiologist\" is neither a licensed nor professional designation in the United States nor most countries (with the exception of Canada), individuals with training in this area can teach physical education, provide consulting services, conduct research and develop policies related to rehabilitation, human motor performance, ergonomics, and occupational health and safety. In North America, kinesiologists may study to earn a Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, or Doctorate of Philosophy degree in Kinesiology or a Bachelor of Kinesiology degree, while in Australia or New Zealand, they are often conferred an Applied Science (Human Movement) degree (or higher). Many doctoral level faculty in North American kinesiology programs received their doctoral training in related disciplines, such as neuroscience, mechanical engineering, psychology, and physiology. The world's first kinesiology department was launched in 1967 at the University of Waterloo, Canada.", "", "Adaptation through exercise is a key principle of kinesiology that relates to improved fitness in athletes as well as health and wellness in clinical populations. Exercise is a simple and established intervention for many movement disorders and musculoskeletal conditions due to the neuroplasticity of the brain and the adaptability of the musculoskeletal system. Therapeutic exercise has been shown to improve neuromotor control and motor capabilities in both normal and pathological populations. There are many different types of exercise interventions that can be applied in kinesiology to athletic, normal, and clinical populations. Aerobic exercise interventions help to improve cardiovascular endurance. Anaerobic strength training programs can increase muscular strength, power, and lean body mass. Decreased risk of falls and increased neuromuscular control can be attributed to balance intervention programs. Flexibility programs can increase functional range of motion and reduce the risk of injury. As a whole, exercise programs can reduce symptoms of depression and risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Additionally, they can help to improve quality of life, sleeping habits, immune system function, and body composition. The study of the physiological responses to physical exercise and their therapeutic applications is known as exercise physiology, which is an important area of research within kinesiology.", "Neuroplasticity is also a key scientific principle used in kinesiology to describe how movement and changes in the brain are related. The human brain adapts and acquires new motor skills based on this principle, which includes both adaptive and maladaptive brain changes. Adaptive plasticity Recent empirical evidence indicates the significant impact of physical activity on brain function; for example, greater amounts of physical activity are associated with enhanced cognitive function in older adults. The effects of physical activity can be distributed throughout the whole brain, such as higher gray matter density and white matter integrity after exercise training, and/or on specific brain areas, such as greater activation in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Neuroplasticity is also the underlying mechanism of skill acquisition. For example, after long-term training, pianists showed greater gray matter density in sensorimotor cortex and white matter integrity in the internal capsule compared to non-musicians. Maladaptive plasticity Maladaptive plasticity is defined as neuroplasticity with negative effects or detrimental consequences in behavior. Movement abnormalities may occur among individuals with and without brain injuries due to abnormal remodeling in central nervous system. Learned non-use is an example commonly seen among patients with brain damage, such as stroke. Patients with stroke learned to suppress paretic limb movement after unsuccessful experience in paretic hand use; this may cause decreased neuronal activation at adjacent areas of the infarcted motor cortex. There are many types of therapies that are designed to overcome maladaptive plasticity in clinic and research, such as constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT), body weight support treadmill training (BWSTT) and virtual reality therapy. These interventions are shown to enhance motor function in paretic limbs and stimulate cortical reorganization in patients with brain damage.", "Motor redundancy is a widely used concept in kinesiology and motor control which states that, for any task the human body can perform, there are effectively an unlimited number of ways the nervous system could achieve that task. This redundancy appears at multiple levels in the chain of motor execution: The concept of motor redundancy is explored in numerous studies, usually with the goal of describing the relative contribution of a set of motor elements (e.g. muscles) in various human movements, and how these contributions can be predicted from a comprehensive theory. Two distinct (but not incompatible) theories have emerged for how the nervous system coordinates redundant elements: simplification and optimization. In the simplification theory, complex movements and muscle actions are constructed from simpler ones, often known as primitives or synergies, resulting in a simpler system for the brain to control. In the optimization theory, motor actions arise from the minimization of a control parameter, such as the energetic cost of movement or errors in movement performance.", "In Canada, kinesiology is a professional designation as well as an area of study. In the province of Ontario the scope has been officially defined as, \"the assessment of human movement and performance and its rehabilitation and management to maintain, rehabilitate or enhance movement and performance\" Kinesiologists work in a variety of roles as health professionals. They work as rehabilitation providers in hospitals, clinics and private settings working with populations needing care for musculoskeletal, cardiac and neurological conditions. They provide rehabilitation to persons injured at work and in vehicular accidents. Kinesiologists also work as functional assessment specialists, exercise therapists, ergonomists, return to work specialists, case managers and medical legal evaluators. They can be found in hospital, long-term care, clinic, work, and community settings. Additionally, kinesiology is applied in areas of health and fitness for all levels of athletes, but more often found with training of elite athletes.", "", "In Canada, kinesiology has been designated a regulated health profession in Ontario. Kinesiology was granted the right to regulate in the province of Ontario in the summer of 2007 and similar proposals have been made for other provinces. The College of Kinesiologists of Ontario achieved proclamation on April 1, 2013, at which time the professional title \"Kinesiologist\" became protected by law. In Ontario only members of the college may call themselves a Registered Kinesiologist. Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments. They also work in cardiac rehabilitation, health and safety, hospital and long-term care facilities and community health centers just to name a few.", "Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics () G.C.I. was founded 1813 in Stockholm, Sweden by Pehr Henrik Ling. It was the first Physiotherapy school in the world, training hundreds of medical gymnasts who spread the Swedish physical therapy around the entire world. In 1887, Sweden was the first country in the world to give a national state licence to physiotherapists/physical therapists. The Swedish medical gymnast and kinesiologist Carl August Georgii (), Professor at the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute GCI in Stockholm, was the one who created and coined the new international word Kinesiology in 1854.<br> The term \"Kinesiology\" is a literal translation to Greek+English from the original Swedish word \"Rörelselära\", meaning \"Movement Science\". It was the foundation of the Medical Gymnastics, the original Physiotherapy and Physical Therapy, developed for over 100 years in Sweden (starting 1813). The new medical therapy created in Sweden was originally called Rörelselära (), and later in 1854 translated to the new and invented international word \"Kinesiology\". The Kinesiology consisted of nearly 2,000 physical movements and 50 different types of massage therapy techniques. They were all used to affect various dysfunctions and even illnesses, not only in the movement apparatus, but also into the internal physiology of man. Thus, the original classical and Traditional Kinesiology was not only a system of rehabilitation for the body, or biomechanics like in modern Academic Kinesiology, but also a new therapy for relieving and curing diseases, by affecting the autonomic nervous system, organs and glands in the body., In 1886, the Swedish Medical Gymnast Nils Posse (1862-1895) introduced the term kinesiology in the U.S. Nils Posse was a graduate of the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm, Sweden and founder of the Posse Gymnasium in Boston, MA. He was teaching at Boston Normal School of Gymnastics BNSG. \"The Special Kinesiology Of Educational Gymnastics\" was the first book ever written in the world with the word \"Kinesiology\" in the title of the book. It was written by Nils Posse and published in Boston, 1894–1895.", "Motion capture technology has application in measuring human movement, and thus kinesiology. Historically, motion capture labs have recorded high fidelity data. While accurate and credible, these systems can come at high capital and operational costs. Modern-day systems have increased accessibility to mocap technology." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Architecture.", "Design.", "Construction.", "Stravinsky Fountain.", "Place Georges Pompidou.", "Attendance.", "Exhibitions.", "Expansion.", "Regional branches.", "International expansion.", "Europe.", "Asia.", "North America.", "South America.", "Management.", "Funding.", "Use in film and television." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The idea for a multicultural complex, bringing together in one place different forms of art and literature, developed, in part, from the ideas of France's first Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux, a western proponent of the decentralisation of art and culture by impulse of the political power. In the 1960s, city planners decided to move the foodmarkets of Les Halles, historically significant structures long prized by Parisians, with the idea that some of the cultural institutes be built in the former market area. Hoping to renew the idea of Paris as a leading city of culture and art, it was proposed to move the Musée d'Art Moderne to this new location. Paris also needed a large, free public library, as one did not exist at this time. At first the debate concerned Les Halles, but as the controversy settled, in 1968, President Charles de Gaulle announced the Plateau Beaubourg as the new site for the library. A year later in 1969, the new president adopted the Beaubourg project and decided it to be the location of both the new library and a centre for the contemporary arts. In the process of developing the project, the IRCAM (Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique) was also housed in the complex. The Rogers and Piano design was chosen among 681 competition entries. World-renowned architects Oscar Niemeyer, Jean Prouvé and Philip Johnson made up the jury. It was the first time in France that international architects were allowed to participate. The selection was announced in 1971 at a \"memorable press conference\" where the contrast between the sharply-dressed Pompidou and \"hairy young crew\" of architects represented a \"grand bargain between radical architecture and establishment politics.\"", "", "It was the first major example of an 'inside-out' building in architectural history, with its structural system, mechanical systems, and circulation exposed on the exterior of the building. Initially, all of the functional structural elements of the building were colour-coded: green pipes are plumbing, blue ducts are for climate control, electrical wires are encased in yellow, and circulation elements and devices for safety (e.g., fire extinguishers) are red. According to Piano, the design was meant to be “not a building but a town where you find everything – lunch, great art, a library, great music”. \"National Geographic\" described the reaction to the design as \"love at second sight.\" An article in \"Le Figaro\" declared \"Paris has its own monster, just like the one in Loch Ness.\" But two decades later, while reporting on Rogers' winning the Pritzker Prize in 2007, \"The New York Times\" noted that the design of the Centre \"turned the architecture world upside down\" and that \"Mr. Rogers earned a reputation as a high-tech iconoclast with the completion of the 1977 Pompidou Centre, with its exposed skeleton of brightly coloured tubes for mechanical systems. The Pritzker jury said the Pompidou \"revolutionised museums, transforming what had once been elite monuments into popular places of social and cultural exchange, woven into the heart of the city.\"", "The Centre was built by GTM and completed in 1977. The building cost 993 million French francs. Renovation work conducted from October 1996 to January 2000 was completed on a budget of 576 million francs. The principle engineer was the renowned Peter Rice, responsible for amongst other things the.", "The nearby Stravinsky Fountain (also called the \"Fontaine des automates\"), on Place Stravinsky, features 16 whimsical moving and water-spraying sculptures by Jean Tinguely and Niki de Saint-Phalle, which represent themes and works by composer Igor Stravinsky. The black-painted mechanical sculptures are by Tinguely, the coloured works by de Saint-Phalle. The fountain opened in 1983. Video footage of the fountain appeared frequently throughout the French language telecourse, \"French in Action\".", "The Place Georges Pompidou in front of the museum is noted for the presence of street performers, such as mimes and jugglers. In the spring, miniature carnivals are installed temporarily into the place in front with a wide variety of attractions: bands, caricature and sketch artists, tables set up for evening dining, and even skateboarding competitions.", "By the mid-1980s, the Centre Pompidou was becoming the victim of its huge and unexpected popularity, its many activities, and a complex administrative structure. When Dominique Bozo returned to the Centre in 1981 as Director of the Musée National d'Art Moderne, he re-installed the museum, bringing out the full range of its collections and displayed the many major acquisitions that had been made. By 1992, the Centre de Création Industrielle was incorporated into the Centre Pompidou. The Centre Pompidou was intended to handle 8,000 visitors a day. In its first two decades it attracted more than 145 million visitors, more than five times the number first predicted., more than 180 million people have visited the centre since its opening in 1977. However, until the 1997-2000 renovation, 20 percent of the centre's eight million annual visitors—predominantly foreign tourists—rode the escalators up the outside of the building to the platform for the sights. Since re-opening in 2000 after a three-year renovation, the Centre Pompidou has improved accessibility for visitors. Now they can only access the escalators if they pay to enter the museum. Since 2006, the global attendance of the centre is no longer calculated at the main entrance, but only the one of the Musée National d'Art Moderne and of the public library (5,209,678 visitors for both in 2013), but without the other visitors of the building (929,431 in 2004 or 928,380 in 2006, for only the \"panorama\" tickets or cinemas, festivals, lectures, bookshops, workshops, restaurants, etc.). In 2017, the museum had 3.37 million visitors. The public library had 1.37 million. The Musée National d'Art Moderne itself saw an increase in attendance from 3.1 million (2010) to 3.6 million visitors in 2011 and 3.75 million in 2013. The 2013 retrospective \"Dalí\" broke the museum's daily attendance record: 7,364 people a day went to see the artist's work (790,000 in total).", "Several major exhibitions are organised each year on either the first or sixth floors. Among them, many monographs:", "", "In 2010, the Centre Georges Pompidou opened a regional branch, the Centre Pompidou-Metz, in Metz a city 250 kilometres east of Paris. The new museum is part of an effort to expand the display of contemporary arts beyond Paris's large museums. The new museum's building was designed by the architect Shigeru Ban with a curving and asymmetrical pagoda-like roof topped by a spire and punctured by upper galleries. The 77 metre central spire is a nod to the year the Centre Georges Pompidou of Paris was built – 1977. The Centre Pompidou-Metz displays unique, temporary exhibitions from the collection of the Musée National d'Art Moderne, which is not on display at the main Parisian museum. Since its inauguration, the institution has become the most visited cultural venue in France outside Paris, accommodating 550,000 visitors/year. Launched in 2011 in Chaumont, the museum for the first time went on the road to the French regions with a selection of works from the permanent collection. To do this, it designed and constructed a mobile gallery, which, in the spirit of a circus, will make camp for a few months at a time in towns throughout the country. However, in 2013, the Centre Pompidou halted its mobile-museum project because of the cost. In 2014, plans were released for a temporary satellite of the Centre Pompidou in the northern French town of Maubeuge close to the Belgian border. The 3,000 square metre outpost, to be designed by the architects Pierre Hebbelinck and Pierre de Wit, is said to be located at the 17th-century Maubeuge Arsenal for four years. The cost of the project is €5.8 million. In 2015, the city authorities in Libourne, a town in south-western France, proposed a Pompidou branch housed in a former military base called Esog. In 2019, the Centre Pompidou announced plans to open a conservation, exhibition and storage space in Massy (Essonne) by 2025. Project backers include the Région Ile-de-France and the French state.", "", "\"Málaga\" In 2015, approximately 70 works from the Centre Pompidou's collection went on show in a temporary glass-and-steel structure called \"The Cube\" (\"El Cubo\") in Málaga. According to the Spanish newspaper \"El País\", the annual €1 million cost of the five-year project will be funded by the city council. The partnership with Málaga was announced by the city's mayor but was not confirmed by Pompidou Centre president Alain Seban until 24 April 2014. Approximately 100 works from the Pompidou's 20th and 21st century collection will be installed in the space for two years, while a smaller area will be used for temporary exhibitions. Portraiture and the influence of Picasso will be among the subjects explored in the permanent display, organised by the Pompidou's deputy director Brigitte Leal. Highlights will include works by Alberto Giacometti, René Magritte, Alexander Calder and Constantin Brancusi, and contemporary works by Sophie Calle, Bruce Nauman and Orlan. The city of Málaga also commissioned Daniel Buren to create a large-scale installation within \"El Cubo\". The city of Málaga will pay the Centre Pompidou €1 million a year for the brand and the use of the collection. \"Brussels\" In March 2018, the Centre Pompidou announced plans to open an offshoot branch in Brussels, under the name Kanal-Centre Pompidou. Housed in a former Citroën garage which was transformed by a team comprising ces noAarchitecten (Brussels), EM2N (Zurich) and Sergison Bates architects (London), the new centre brings together the Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art, an architecture centre (CIVA Foundation) and public spaces devoted to culture, education and leisure. The Brussels-Capital region — which acquired the Art Deco-style building in October 2015 — is the main funder project, with the conversion costing €122 million.", "In a joint proposal with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum presented in 2005, the Centre Pompidou planned to build a museum of modern and contemporary art, design and the media arts in Hong Kong's West Kowloon Cultural District. In 2007, the then president Bruno Racine announced plans to open a museum carrying the Pompidou's name in Shanghai, with its programming to be determined by the Pompidou. The location chosen for the new museum was a former fire station in the Luwan district's Huaihai Park. However, the scheme did not materialize for several years, reportedly due to the lack of a legal framework for a non-profit foreign institution to operate in China. In 2019, the Centre Pompidou x West Bund Museum opened to the public, based in a wing of the West Bund Art Museum designed by David Chipperfield. Other projects include the Pompidou's joint venture with the King Abdulaziz Centre for World Culture, an arts complex incorporating a museum in Dhahran, the building of which has stalled.", "In April 2014, Pompidou president Alain Seban confirmed that after Malaga (Spain), Mexico will be the next site for a pop-up Pompidou Centre.", "There have been rumours of a pop-up Pompidou satellite museum in Brazil since Alain Seban announced the plan for these temporary locations back in 2012. At a talk on satellite museums at the Guggenheim on 24 April 2014, Alain Seban suggested that Brazil may be the third country to host a temporary satellite museum, after Spain and Mexico.", "", "As a national museum, the Centre Pompidou is government-owned and subsidised by the Ministry of Culture (64.2% of its budget in 2012 : 82.8 on 129 million €), essentially for its staff. The Culture Ministry appoints its directors and controls its gestion, which is nevertheless independent, as \"Etablissement public à caractère administratif\" since its creation. In 2011, the museum earned $1.9 million from travelling exhibitions. Established in 1977 as the institution's US philanthropic arm, the Georges Pompidou Art and Culture Foundation acquires and encourages major gifts of art and design for exhibition at the museum. Since 2006, the non-profit support group has brought in donations of 28 works, collectively valued at more than $14 million, and purchased many others. In 2013, New York-based art collectors Thea Westreich Wagner and Ethan Wagner announced their intention to donate about 300 works by 27 European and international artists to the Centre Pompidou, thereby making one of the largest gifts in the institution's history.", "Touche pas à la Femme Blanche Catherine Deneuve (Actor), Marcello Mastroianni (Actor), Marco Ferreri (Director)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Following the end of the Second World War, Poland was politically dominated by the neighbouring Soviet Union; as a consequence, the Polish aviation industry underwent vast changes at the behest of the Soviets. According to aviation author Jerzy K. Cynk, the immediate post-war decade was a period of frustrated efforts and disappointments, by early 1951, all of the nation's design offices had been dissolved and the entirety of indigenous projects were terminated. Instead, Poland's aircraft factories were assigned to produce mainly Russian-sourced military-orientated equipment to meet the requirements of the Soviet war machine, such as the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 fighter aircraft. Shortly following the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, military orders were drastically cut, leading to Polish aircraft plants falling idle and some being permanently closing down. While the nation's design offices had been liquidated, some former members had joined Poland's Aviation Institute (1L) and performed some limited work on various original projects, even though such efforts were initially officially discouraged. As such, it was at IL that the effort to design would become the first jet aircraft to be developed in Poland originated; however, during the late 1950s, responsibility for the design work on the program was transferred to aircraft manufacturer PZL-Mielec at an early stage in order that IL could resume its primary mission of scientific and technological research. Much of the design work on the program was produced in response to the specified needs of a requirement issued by the Polish Air Force for a capable jet-propelled trainer aircraft, which was seeking a replacement for the piston-engined PZL TS-8 Bies at the time. Polish government officials came to openly regard the project as being of considerable importance to the nation's aviation industry, thus vigorous efforts were made to support the development of the TS-11. The main designer was Polish aeronautical engineer Tadeusz Sołtyk; his initials was the source for part of the type's official designation \"TS-11\". Early on, it was decided to adopt a foreign-sourced turbojet engine to power the aircraft. Quickly, the British Armstrong Siddeley Viper had emerged as the company's favoured option; however, reportedly, negotiations for its acquisition eventually broken down; accordingly, work on the project was delayed until a suitable domestically-built powerplant had reached an advanced stage of development. On 5 February 1960, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight, powered by an imported Viper 8 engine, capable of producing up to 7.80 kN (1,750 lb) of thrust. On 11 September 1960, the aircraft's existence was publicly revealed during an aerial display held over Lodz. The next pair of prototypes, which performed their first flights during March and July 1961 respectively, were instead powered by a Polish copy of the Viper engine, designated as the WSK HO-10. The flight test program that the three prototypes were subjected to had both demonstrated the capabilities of the new aircraft and its suitability for satisfying the Polish Air Force's stated requirements for a trainer jet; as such, it was soon accepted by the Polish Air Force. During 1963, the first production model of the type, designated as the \"TS-11 Iskra bis A\", commenced delivery to the service. From about 1966, new-build aircraft were furnished with a newer Polish-designed turbojet engine, designated as the WSK SO-1, which was capable of producing up to 9.80 kN (2,200 lb) of thrust and reportedly gave the TS-11 a top speed of 497 mph. From 1969 onwards, the improved WSK SO-3 engine became available, offering considerably longer times between overhauls; this engine was later improved into the WSK SO-3W, which was able to generate 10.80 kN (2,425 lb) of thrust.", "The PZL TS-11 Iskra is an all-metal jet-propelled trainer aircraft. It is relatively conventional in layout, featuring a trapezoid-shaped mid-wing arrangement. These wings, which only had a gentle angle of sweep along the leading edge, feature air intakes embedded into the wing root. The TS-11's single turbojet engine is accommodated with the main fuselage, its exhaust is located beneath the boom-mounted tail fin, which provides the aircraft with a fairly unusual silhouette. Both of the crew, typically being the student in the front and instructor in the back, are provided with ejector seats for emergency egress. Some models of the TS-11 can be armed; armaments have consisted of a single nose-mounted Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 cannon with 80 rounds, along with a total of four underwing hardpoints that were compatible with a variety of different weapons, including bombs and rockets. Most models of the aircraft lack a radar set; however, the specialised \"TS-11R\" reconnaissance variant is provided with such equipment. The TS-11 can also be outfitted with various cameras for the purpose of performing aerial photography missions. Poland is currently developing the new TS-11S Iskra (Spark) as a future jet trainer. It will be equipped with new avionics, strengthened structures and a more powerful engine.", "During 1964, the TS-11 prototype broke four separate world records in its class, including a speed record, having been recorded as having attained a top speed of 839 km/h (524 mph) during one flight. From 1969 onwards, various TS-11s have been used by the Polish Air Force's aerobatics display team, which was initially called \"Rombik\" and is currently named \"Biało-Czerwone Iskry\" (Translates to English as \"White-and-Red Sparks\"). Unusually for an Eastern European aircraft of the era, the TS-11 never received a NATO reporting name (for jet trainers, a two-syllable word starting with letter M) for the type. During the 1960s, the Iskra competed to be selected as the standard jet trainer for the Warsaw Pact, the Soviet Union had given Poland a promise to support its aviation industry and to favour the procurement of suitable aircraft for this purpose from Polish manufacturers. However, the Iskra was not selected for this role, it had lost out to the Czechoslovak Aero L-29 Delfín, another newly-designed jet-propelled trainer aircraft; according to aviation author John C. Fredrikson, this outcome had been highly unexpected and surprising to several observers. Largely as a result of this decision, Poland became the only Warsaw Pact member to adopt the Iskra while most others adopting the rival Delfin instead. During 1975, an initial batch of 50 \"Iskra bis D\" trainer aircraft were exported to India, the type's sole export customer; during the 1990s, a further 26 aircraft were delivered to the Indian Air Force. During its Indian service, a total of seven aircraft were reportedly lost, killing four crew. During December 2004, the Indian Air Force officially withdrew the last of its Iskra trainers. By 1987, a total of 424 aircraft had reportedly been constructed, after which point production of the type was terminated due to a lack of demand. During 2002, the Polish Air Force reportedly still operated a fleet of 110 TS-11s, including 5 TS-11R reconnaissance aircraft. The Iskra became the first and so far the only Polish jet trainer to reach serial production – the programme intended to produce a successor, the PZL I-22 Iryda (later designated as the \"M-93 Iryda\"), failed for several reasons and only a few were completed during the 1990s before the program was aborted. In its place, the TS-11 has been considered for upgrades to better enable its continued service; however, during 2010, the Polish Air Force issued a tender for a new advanced jet pilot training system to eventually replace the TS-11. By 2013, Poland was stated to have a total of 30 (total number of school aircraft: TS-11, PZL-130) operational Iskras still in service. During 2016, Poland took delivery of its first few Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Masters, a modern trainer aircraft which, in conjunction with ground-based training equipment such as flight simulators, shall progressively take on the Polish Air Force's training needs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design.", "Operational history.", "Early operations.", "Spain.", "Spanish aces.", "Second World War.", "North Africa.", "East Africa.", "Mediterranean.", "International use.", "China.", "Austria.", "Hungary.", "South America.", "Variants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Fiat CR.32 was designed by the noted aeronautical engineer Celestino Rosatelli. It was derived from the earlier Fiat CR.30. The CR.30, being a relatively fast and maneuverable aircraft in its time, had received limited production orders for the type from the \"Regia Aeronautica\" but, within the space of 12 months, it had been superseded by the newer CR.32. In comparison to the CR.30, the CR.32 featured a more streamlined and smaller fuselage, resulting in a more compact aircraft overall. According to aviation author Gianni Cattaneo, the type was the product of a decade-old formula developed not only by Rosatelli but by his predecessors as well. On 28 April 1933, the prototype CR.32, which was designated as the \"MM.201\", performed its maiden flight from the Fiat company airstrip at Turin. By the end of the year, the first production examples were already arriving with front line units of the Regia Aeronautica. Mass production of the type would proceed over the following years. Between 1933 and 1938, a total of four distinct variants of the CR.32 were developed: the standard, \"bis\", \"ter\", and \"quater\". The CR.32 \"bis\" was provided with a more powerful Fiat A.30R V12 engine as well as two additional machine guns, while the \"ter\" and the \"quater\" retained the original armament arrangement, differing by the adoption of improved sights and instrumentation. By 1938, the CR.32 had been rendered obsolete by advances in the field of aviation, including the arrival of a new generation of monoplane fighters, which were capable of superior performance. The CR.32 was directly succeeded by the Fiat CR.42, which was a further advancement of the biplane platform, having been derived from the CR.32 itself. During the development of this improved derivative, a total of four CR.32s were converted to serve as prototypes, an act which highlighted the strong connection between the two fighters.", "The Fiat CR.32 was a highly manoeuvrable biplane fighter aircraft; its agility was a major quality of the design. Its fuselage shared the same structure as the earlier CR.30, utilizing aluminium and steel tubes covered by duraluminium on the nose up to the cockpit, on the back, in the lower section under the tail, while a fabric covering was used on the sides and belly. According to Cattaneo, the fuselage was very robust for the time. The CR.32 was fitted with a fixed undercarriage arrangement, which incorporated two main legs, furnished with independent wheels housed within fairings and hydraulic shock absorbers; braking was achieved via a pneumatic system. The wings and tail used a mixed composition, similar to the fuselage, composed of a pair of aluminium alloy tubular spars and square tubes, which were covered by fabric. According to Cattaneo, the atypical wing strut arrangement of the CR.32 had been first used on the Ansaldo SVA of 1917. Another notable feature was that the lower wing was shorter than the upper wing, making the fighter a sesquiplane. Ailerons were only present upon the upper wings, which were balanced via out-rigged tabs mounted upon steel struts. The empennage, which was largely composed of aluminium tubes, featured a variable incidence tailplane and a dynamically-balanced elevator. The cockpit of the CR.32 normally seated only a single pilot, who was provisioned with an adjustable seat and a parachute, the latter of which being stored within the squab. Although this was considered to be fully instrumented from the era, the RA.80-1 radio set was only an optional piece of equipment. Other equipment included a fire extinguisher, gun camera, an oxygen system for the pilot; both an optical gunsight and survey camera could also be installed as optional item. The armament initially included a pair of 7.7 mm (.030 in) Breda-SAFAT machine guns (which was later substituted for a pair of 12.7 mm (.5 in) Breda-SAFAT guns), which were fitted on top of the engine cowling; each gun had an ammo capacity of 350 rounds each. Later examples were also furnished with a pair of hard points, which could accommodate up to 12 5lb bombs, a pair of 100lb bombs, or a single 200lb bomb. The CR.32 was powered by a single water-cooled Fiat A.30 R.A. V12 engine. Designed in 1930, it was a 60° V 12, producing up to 447 kW (600 hp) at 2,600 rpm, reportedly inspired by the American Curtiss D-12. It drove a 2.82 meter (9 ft 4 in) two-blade metal propeller with pitch only adjustable on the ground, not in flight. The engine did not use the usual aviation gasoline, but instead ran on a mixture of petrol (55%), alcohol (23%) and benzol (22%). The main fuel tank, which was located between the engine and cockpit, carried 325 litres (85.9 US gal). There was another small 25 liter (6.6 US gal) auxiliary tank positioned in a streamlined \"torpedo\" fairing in the center of the upper wing.", "", "The new biplane proved to be an instant success. After a brief period of testing, the first production orders for the CR.32 were received during March 1934. Within a short amount of time, the type soon equipped the 1°, 3° and 4° \"Stormi\" of the \"Regia Aeronautica\". The CR.32 was commonly well liked by its crews, being very maneuverable and benefitting from a relatively strong fuselage structure. The Fiat biplanes were used for many aerobatic shows, in Italy and abroad. When foreign statesmen visited the Holy City, the 4° \"Stormo\", \"Regia Aeronautica\" élite unit, based in Rome, put on impressive displays with formations of five or ten aircraft. During 1936, air shows were organized above various other European capitals and major cities, and, during the following year, in South America. When the team returned, a brilliant display was put on over the skies of Berlin. Further overseas tours by Italian display teams, such as a South American expedition in 1938, were performed using the type. According to Cattaneo, various aspects of the CR.32's design, including its favourable control arrangement, a tight turning circle, and excellent handling made the type ideal for executing aerobatic displays. According to Cattaneo, the stand-out feature of the CR.32 was its remarkable manoeuvrability; he speculated that its outstanding performance and popularity amongst its pilots were responsible for a continued attitude within many officials of the Regia Aeronautica that the biplane platform remained a viable concept for further development and deployment even in the face of a new generation of monoplane fighters.", "During 1938, Spain acquired a license to build the CR.32. Spanish manufacturer Hispano Aviación established a production line and constructed at least 100 examples, which were locally known under the designation HA-132-L Chirri. Some of these aircraft remained in military service as C.1 aerobatic trainers up until as late as 1953. The Fiat CR.32 was used extensively in the Spanish Civil War on the side of the Fascist military rebellion against the Spanish Republic. At least 380 examples took part in the air battles fought over Spain, proving formidable adversaries to the Soviet Polikarpov I-15 biplane and Polikarpov I-16 monoplane that formed the backbone of the Spanish Republican Air Force. During 1936, the type had its baptism of fire. On 18 August, the first 12 CR.32s arrived in Spain and formed the\" Squadriglia Gamba di Ferro\", \"Cucaracha\", and \"Asso di Bastoni\" of 3° \"Stormo\"; three days later \"Tenente\" Vittorino Ceccherelli, a Gold Medal of Military Valor winner, shot down the first enemy aircraft, a Nieuport 52, over Cordoba. In total, the Italian government dispatched between 365 and 405 C.R.32s to Spain while between 127 and 131 were delivered directly to Nationalist aviation units. During the conflict, six aircraft were captured by Republican forces, according to Nico, one of these was shipped to the Soviet Union, where it underwent a detailed evaluation. Thanks to the agile CR.32, the Italians managed to achieved air superiority over their \"Fuerzas Aéreas de la República Española\" opponents, who flew a motley collection of very different and often obsolete aircraft. The Fiat biplane proved to be effective in the theatre, the \"Aviazione Legionaria\" claiming 60 (48 confirmed) modern Russian Tupolev SB bombers, which were once believed to be impossible to intercept, as well as 242 Polikarpov I-15 biplane fighters, and 240 Polikarpov I-16 monoplane fighters, plus another hundred aircraft that were not confirmed. In exchange, C.R.32 losses were reportedly only 73. According to other sources, of the 376 Fiat shipped to Spain, 175 (43 Spanish operated and 132 Italian) were lost, including 99 (26 Spanish and 73 Italian) shot down, while, by January 1939, the number of I-15s shot down was just 88.", "The top scoring CR.32 ace was Spaniard Joaquín García Morato y Castaño, who was the leading Nationalist fighter pilot of the Spanish Civil War. He achieved 36 of his 40 victories while flying the Fiat biplane. He used the same aircraft, which carried the number \"3-51\" on the fuselage, until his death. During April 1939, shortly after the war had finished, Morato fatally crashed his faithful \"3-51\" while performing low aerobatics. Another Nationalist CR.32 ace was \"Capitán\" Manuel Vázquez Sagastizábal, who claimed 21 victories with \"Grupo 2-G-3\", before he was shot down and killed on 23 January 1939. \"Comandante\" Angel Salas Larrazabal, after one kill flying a Nieuport-Delage 52, flew multiple CR.32s, shooting down, on 29 October 1936, the first of the fast Soviet monoplane Tupolev SB-2 bombers to fall to Nationalist fighters. He shot down four more aircraft with the CR.32 before moving to a Heinkel He 51 unit. After two more victories, he joined the new \"Grupo 2-G-3\". With this unit, again flying CR.32s, he raised his score to 16, including three SB-2s and an I-16 in a single sortie on 2 September 1938. \"Capitán\" Miguel Guerrero Garcia achieved nine of his 13 victories flying the Fiat biplane: four I-15s, three \"Papagayos\" (R-5s and Polikarpov-RZs assault bombers), and two I-16s.", "The aerobatic characteristics of the CR.32 and its success in Spain misled the Italian air ministry, which was convinced that a biplane fighter still had potential as a weapon of war. Consequently, during May 1939, prior to Italy entering the Second World War, large numbers of CR.32 fighters, in \"bis\", \"ter\", and \"quater\" versions, represented two-thirds of all fighters in the \"Regia Aeronautica\". A total of 288 were based in Italy and North Africa, while 24 were stationed in East Africa.", "When Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940, 36 CR.32s together with 51 Fiat CR.42s formed the operational fighter force of the Regia Aeronautica in Libya. The first combat between CR.32s and British aircraft came the following day. Six CR.32s intercepted a formation of Bristol Blenheim bombers attacking the airfield at El Adem, claiming two Blenheims shot down and the remaining four damaged (compared with actual British losses of two Blenheims lost and two damaged), for no losses. According to Cattaneo, instead of focusing on air-to-air dogfighting, CR.32 pilots typically engaged in strafing ground targets, acting as light attack aircraft instead; he stated these activities to have been of \"limited effectiveness\" in the campaign.", "Aviation author David Mondey has claimed that the greatest wartime successes to be achieved by CR.32s were accomplished in Italian East Africa. Here, 410 and 411 \"Squadriglia\" CR.32s (which represented half of all the fighters operational in the Italian colony) destroyed a number of British and South African aircraft. In the hands of a skillful pilot, the CR.32 could be capable of defeating the faster, more powerful, and better-armed monoplanes, like the Hurricanes and the Blenheims. The Fiats received their baptism of fire on 17 June, when CR. 32s of 411 \"Squadriglia\" flown by \"Tenente\" Aldo Meoli and \"Maresciallo\" Bossi attacked three South African Air Force Junkers Ju 86 bombers bound for Yavello, escorted by two Hurricanes of 1 SAAF Squadron. The Fiat CR.32s shot down one of the Ju 86s and then pounced on the Hurricanes, shooting down the one flown by 2/Lt B.L. Griffiths, who was killed in the crash. On the 7th of July, three CR.32s, escorting as many Caproni Ca.133s, intercepted three Hawker Hartebeests, and shot down the plane flown by Lt N.K. Rankin, killing the pilot and his gunner, Air Sgt D.H. Hughes. On 23 February 1941, while in the process of attacking the airfield at Makale, Maj Laurie Wilmot, who was flying a Hurricane, was bounced by Italian ace Alberto Veronese in a Fiat biplane. Wilmot was forced to crash-land, becoming a prisoner of war (PoW). Soon after, Capt Andrew Duncan hit Veronese, who was wounded and bailed out. The CR.32s obtained other kills, despite having to face an ever increasing number of more modern aircraft. The 410 \"Squadriglia\" alone managed to shoot down 14 enemy aircraft, before being disbanded. But the impossibility of obtaining replacements and spare parts from the motherland caused the gradual thinning of the rows of CR.32s. If on 10 January 1941 there were still 22 CR.32s in service, on 31 January there were 14, on 10 February 11 and on 5 March just eight. The last CR.32 survived until mid-April 1941.", "Fourteen CR.32s of 160° \"Gruppo\" and nine of 2° \"Gruppo\" from 6° \"Stormo\" saw action against Greece in the first weeks after the attack of 28 October 1940. Eight more from 163a \"Squadriglia\", based at Gadurrà airport on Rhodes, took part in the invasion of Crete. CR.32s of 3° \"Gruppo\" operated in Sardinia, but in the period of July–December 1940 their number fell from 28 to seven serviceable aircraft. Cattaneo observed that ground crews lacked the fuel, ammunition, and spare components to properly maintain their aircraft, often resulting to improvisation due to the poor supply situation, which severely impacted the fighter's operational effectiveness. The last front line CR.32 survived until mid-April 1941 when they were sent to the \"Scuola Caccia\" (Schools for fighter pilots). By 1942, the type was relegated to only night missions as newer fighters were put into service.", "", "The first international operator of the CR.32 was Chiang Kai-shek's for China, which ordered 16 (according to other sources 24) CR.32s of the first series in 1933. The aircraft mounted Vickers 7.7 mm machine guns instead of the Breda-SAFAT, electric headlights, and the cooling fins on the oil tank in the nose were removed. Additionally, some were equipped with radios. They were based at Nangahang airport, near Shanghai. Some officers of the Chinese high command disliked the Fiat, but Chinese pilots appreciated that the Italian biplanes in comparative tests proved superior to the American Curtiss Hawk and Boeing P-26. The Chinese Government did not order more CR.32s as it was difficult to import alcohol and benzole to mix with petrol for the engines. In May 1936, only six CR.32s were still operational. In August 1937, the remaining CR.32s were used with some initial success in Shanghai against the invading Japanese. By late 1937, when the Chinese capital at Nanjing fell, all CR.32s had been lost.", "In spring 1936, 45 CR.32s were ordered by Austria to equip \"Jagdgeschwader\" II at Wiener Neustadt. In March 1938, following the Anschluss with neighbouring Nazi Germany, the Austrian units were absorbed into the Luftwaffe, and, after a brief period, the 36 remaining aircraft were handed over to Hungary.", "The Magyar Királyi Honvéd Légierő, the Royal Hungarian Air Force (MKHL), acquired a total of 76 CR.32s during 1935 and 1936. MKHL Fiat biplanes had their baptism of fire in 1939, during the short conflict with the newly-formed state of Slovakia. The CR.32s, which were emblazoned with the red/white/green chevrons insignia, easily gained air superiority over the fledgling Slovak Air Force, which lost a few Avia B.534s and Letov S-328s during this action. During the short conflict against Yugoslavia, fought in April 1941, the MKHL lost three CR.32s and, on 6 May 1941, the Hungarian Air Force still had 69 Fiat CR.32s on line. In June 1941, when the kingdom of Hungary declared war on the Soviet Union, the CR.32 fighter equipped two of the units that supported the Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front: 1./I Group of 1st Fighter Wing, based in Szolnok, and 2./I Group, of 2nd Fighter Wing, based at Nyíregyháza. On 29 June, the first aerial combat over Hungary took place, when seven Tupolev SB-2 bombers attacked the railway station at Csap and were intercepted by the Fiat CR.32s from 2/3 Fighter squadron. The Fiat biplanes shot down three of the raiders while incurring no loss to themselves. Following the acquisition of newer fighters, including the Fiat CR.42 and Reggiane Re.2000, the remaining Hungarian CR.32s were relegated being used for training missions only.", "In 1938, Venezuela acquired nine CR.32\"quater\"s (according to other sources, 10 aircraft.) Modifications included a larger radiator to assist engine cooling in tropical climate conditions. The aircraft were delivered to Maracay in the second half of 1938 and equipped the 1° \"Regimiento de Aviación Militar del Venezuela\". With five CR.32s still serviceable, the aircraft were struck off charge in 1943. A small number, estimated at four, went to Paraguay in 1938. Five CR.32\"quater\" fighters (registered 1-1, 1-3, 1-5, 1-7 and 1-9) were assigned to 1.a \"Escuadrilla de Caza\" of the Fuerzas Aéreas del Ejército Nacional del Paraguay. They did not arrive in time for military operations against Bolivia, but were in service for several years.", "The \"Regia Aeronautica\" ordered 1,080 CR.32s (including the two prototypes and 23 aircraft rebuilt by SCA factory in Guidonia, near Rome, plus 52 without military registry numbers for Hungary). With 100 more CR.32quaters licence-built in Spain (as the Hispano Ha. 132L \"Chirri\"), the total CR.32 production numbers range from 1,306 to 1,332 examples." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Imperial China.", "Qing Dynasty.", "Republic of China.", "Government.", "Subdivisions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Han dynasty collapsed at the end of the 2nd century AD, paving the way for the Three Kingdoms era. Sun Quan, the founder of the Kingdom of Wu, spent nearly twenty years subduing the Shan Yue people, the branch of the Yue living in mountains. The first wave of immigration of the noble class arrived in the province in the early 4th century when the Western Jin dynasty collapsed and the north was torn apart by invasions by nomadic peoples from the north, as well as civil war. These immigrants were primarily from eight families in central China: Lin (林), Huang (黃), Chen (陳), Zheng (鄭), Zhan (詹), Qiu (邱), He (何), and Hu (胡). The first four remain as the major surnames of modern Fujian. Nevertheless, isolation from nearby areas owing to rugged terrain contributed to Fujian's relatively backward economy and level of development, despite major population boost from northern China during the \"barbarian\" invasions. Population density in Fujian remained low compared to the rest of China. Only two commanderies and sixteen counties were established by the Western Jin dynasty. Like other southern provinces such as Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan, Fujian often served as a destination for exiled prisoners and dissidents at that time. During the Southern and Northern Dynasties era, the Southern Dynasties reigned south of the Yangtze River, including Fujian. The Tang dynasty (618–907) oversaw the next golden age of China. As the Tang dynasty ended, China was torn apart in the period of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. During this time, a second major wave of immigration arrived in the safe haven of Fujian, led by general Wang, who set up an independent Kingdom of Min with its capital in Fuzhou. After the death of the founding king, however, the kingdom suffered from internal strife, and was soon swallowed up by Southern Tang, another southern kingdom. Quanzhou was blooming into a seaport under the reign of the Min Kingdom, and is the largest seaport in the world. Its population is also greater than Fuzhou. Due to the Ispah Rebellion, Quanzhou was severely damaged. In the early Ming dynasty, Quanzhou was the staging area and supply depot of Zheng He's naval expeditions. Further development was severely hampered by the sea trade ban of the Ming dynasty, and the area was superseded by nearby ports of Guangzhou, Hangzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai despite the lifting of the ban in 1550. Large scale piracy by Wokou (Japanese pirates) was eventually wiped out by Chinese military and Japanese authority of Toyotomi Hideyoshi.", "Late Ming and early Qing dynasty symbolized an era of large influx of refugees and another 20 years of sea trade ban under the Kangxi Emperor, a measure intended to counter the refuge Ming government of Koxinga in Taiwan. Incoming refugees, however, did not translate into a major labor force owing to their re-migration into prosperous regions of Guangdong. In 1683, the Qing dynasty conquered Taiwan and annexed it into Fujian province, as Taiwan Prefecture. Settlement of Taiwan by Han Chinese followed, and the majority of people in Taiwan are descendants of Hoklo people from Southern Fujian. Fujian arrived at its present extent after Taiwan was split as its own province in 1885. Just ten more years later, Taiwan Province would be lost to Japan due to the Qing losing the First Sino-Japanese War which ended in 1895.", "The Xinhai Revolution deposed the Qing dynasty brought the province into the rule of the Republic of China. Fujian briefly gained independence from China again under the Fujian People's Government until it was recontrolled by the ROC during the Warlord Era. It came under Japanese sea blockade during Second Sino-Japanese War. During the Chinese Civil War, the ROC lost control of mainland China, including most of Fujian province, and was forced to relocate to Taiwan, while the victorious Chinese Communist forces established the PRC in 1949, subsequently the capital of Fujian was also moved from Foochow to Jincheng. In the Battle of Guningtou, however, ROC forces were able to defend the island of Quemoy (Kinmen) just off the coast of Fujian from communist attack. As a result, the ROC has been able to hold on to a number of offshore islands of Fujian, and has continued to maintain a separate Fujian Provincial Government to govern these islands, parallel to the province of Fujian in mainland China. In 1956, due to heightened potential for military conflict with the PRC, the ROC central government moved the Fujian provincial government out of Fujian to within Taiwan Province in Xindian (now part of New Taipei), and the islands were placed under an extraordinarily tight military administration due to their extreme proximity to mainland China. This was an unusual situation where the government of a province was located and operating in a different province. With the easing of cross-strait relations between the PRC and ROC and the democratization of the ROC in the 1990s, the islands were returned to civilian government in 1992. On January 15, 1996, the provincial government moved back to Kinmen, on Fujian soil. Recently, the ROC has significantly diluted the powers of the two provinces it governs, namely Taiwan and Fujian. Most of the authority at the Fujian province level has been delegated to the two county governments of Kinmen and Lienchiang.", "The Governor of Fujian Province was the head of the Fujian Provincial Government, the governor was also titled the \"Chairperson of the Fujian Provincial Government\". According to the Additional Articles of the Constitution, the governor is appointed by the central government. The Fujian Provincial Government was located in Jincheng, Kinmen between January 1996 and 2018. In July 2018, the Executive Yuan decided to transfer the duties and functionalities of the provincial government to other branches under the Executive Yuan, including Kinmen-Matsu Joint Services Center and National Development Council The transformations were scheduled to be done by the end of year 2018.", "Fujian province nominally comprises two counties: Kinmen County and Lienchiang County. These islands have a total area of and a total population of 71,000 (2001). The following are the islands of Fujian under the administration of the ROC, given by county: The PRC claims Kinmen as a county of Quanzhou, Fujian and the Matsu Islands as a township of Lianjiang County, Fuzhou, Fujian (with some islands claimed as parts of other areas)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification of casualties.", "Human losses by country.", "Soviet Union.", "Holocaust deaths.", "Jewish deaths.", "Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces.", "German war crimes.", "Japanese war crimes.", "Oppression in the Soviet Union.", "Military casualties by branch of service.", "Commonwealth military casualties.", "Footnotes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Compiling or estimating the numbers of deaths and wounded caused during wars and other violent conflicts is a controversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II. The authors of the \"Oxford Companion to World War II\" maintain that \"casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable.\" The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures include battle deaths (KIA) and personnel missing in action (MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity. Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust victims, German war crimes, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet Union, Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine and disease. The sources for the casualties of the individual nations do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare and collateral damage is not always clear-cut. For nations that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only the total estimated population loss caused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity, crimes against humanity and war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, and India that are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties. The footnotes give a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available.", "", "The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead The source of the figures is Vadim Erlikman. \"Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik\". Moscow, 2004.. pp. 21–35. Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates.", "Included in the figures of total war dead for each nation are victims of the Holocaust.", "The Holocaust is the term generally used to describe the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II. Martin Gilbert estimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German occupied Europe were Holocaust victims. Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews. Statistical breakdown of Jewish dead: The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are from \"The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust\". The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added.", "Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include the other victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis. The following figures are from \"The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust\", the authors maintain that \"statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates\".", "Nazi Germany ordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these is the Holocaust in which millions of Jews, Poles, and Romani were systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions. While the Nazi Party's own SS forces (in particular the \"SS-Totenkopfverbände\", \"Einsatzgruppen\" and Waffen-SS) of Nazi Germany was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of the Holocaust, the regular armed forces represented by the \"Wehrmacht\" committed war crimes of their own, particularly on the Eastern Front in the war against the Soviet Union.", "Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes.", "The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 million victims of Stalin's regime. The number of deaths in the Gulag labor camps increased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages. The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal. Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons. The Russian scholar Viktor Zemskov puts the death toll from 1941–1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives. The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991. J. Arch Getty and Stephen G. Wheatcroft maintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era. Robert Conquest and Steven Rosefielde have disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll. Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modern KGB. Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of the Katyn massacre. Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941–1945. Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps. In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation. Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets. In 2005 Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000. The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to the Soviet occupation in 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the U.S.S.R., 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45. The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives: Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629. Deported to special settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war). Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842. In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets. Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including: Soviet Germans 1,209,000; Finns 9,000; Karachays 69,000; Kalmyks 92,000; Chechens and Ingush 479,000; Balkars 37,000; Crimean Tatars 191,014; Meskhetian Turks 91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; Ukrainian OUN members 100,000; Poles 30,000. A total of 2,230,500 persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948. Russian sources list Axis prisoner of war deaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069). However some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million.", "Germany USSR British Commonwealth U.S.", "The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015 is the source of the military dead for the British Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947.", "Albania Australia Austria Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada China Sources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below. Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Dutch East Indies Egypt Estonia Ethiopia Finland France French Indochina Germany The following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented in German casualties in World War II. German population Total German war dead German military casualties Civilian Casualties Civilian casualties in air raids <poem>*(1945–47) The United States Strategic Bombing Survey gave three different figures for German air raid deaths. Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution Expulsion and flight of ethnic Germans The following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in the flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950), the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union' and the Demographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958. German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000. English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s. German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by the German Federal Archive. Post war increase in natural deaths Greece Guam Hungary Iceland India Bengal famine of 1943 Iran Iraq Ireland Italy <poem> Military war dead </poem> Japan Military dead Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease. In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80% in the Philippines and a staggering 97% in New Guinea. <poem> Civilian Dead 1-Summary Report (July 1946) Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities. 2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947) The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing. 3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947) Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war. 4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese morale Based on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30%. 5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki The most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate. Korea Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya and Singapore Malta 1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during the Siege of Malta (World War II) Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission Mexico Mongolia Nauru Nepal Netherlands <poem> Military deaths 6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany. </poem> Newfoundland New Zealand Norway <poem> Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces) 2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air). </poem> Papua New Guinea Philippines Poland Total Polish war dead Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941) Polish military casualties Timor Romania Ruanda Urundi South Africa South Pacific Mandate The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented in World War II casualties of the Soviet Union Spain Sweden Switzerland Thailand Turkey United Kingdom and Colonies <poem> Total war dead of 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606); Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service (624); </poem> United States<br> American military dead# American civilian dead # Yugoslavia The losses of Yugoslav collaborators The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as follows A. Military operations between the occupying German military forces and their \"Quislings and collaborators\" against the Yugoslav resistance. B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a special vengeance against the Serbs, who were considered Untermensch. One of the worst one-day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was the Kragujevac massacre. C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, many Ustaše and Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of the Bleiburg repatriations. D. The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims were Serbs. According to Yad Vashem, \"During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatia's Jews, 20,000 Gypsies, and many thousands of their political enemies.\" According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum \"The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau\". Some 40,000 Roma were murdered. Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122. E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease. F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities were Podgorica, Leskovac, Zadar and Belgrade. G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties. Other Nations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features.", "Capacity.", "Journaling.", "Allocation groups.", "Striped allocation.", "Extent based allocation.", "Variable block sizes.", "Delayed allocation.", "Sparse files.", "Extended attributes.", "Direct I/O.", "Guaranteed-rate I/O.", "DMAPI.", "Snapshots.", "Online defragmentation.", "Online resizing.", "Native backup/restore utilities.", "Atomic disk quotas.", "Performance.", "Disadvantages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Silicon Graphics began development of XFS ('X' was meant to be filled in later but never was) in 1993. The primary XFS design goal was scalability and high performance for large memory, high cpu count servers while also being an acceptable filesystem for desktop systems. The secondary goal was to provide APIs for backup utilities that were sufficient and performant enough that they could be used in place of scanning the disks directly. This allowed the on-disk format to be changed easily and often to support new features and higher performance without disrupting third-party backup applications. XFS first shipped in a separate version of IRIX 5.3 in 1994 (5.3-xfs), a separate version of 64-bit IRIX in 1995 (6.0.1-xfs), shipped as part of IRIX 6.1 in 1995 and became the default SGI filesystem in IRIX 6.2 which shipped in 1996. The file system was released under the GNU General Public License (GPL) in May 2000. A team led by Steve Lord at SGI ported it to Linux, and first support by a Linux distribution came in 2001. This support gradually became available in almost all Linux distributions. Initial support for XFS in the Linux kernel came through patches from SGI. It merged into the Linux kernel mainline for the 2.6 series, and separately merged in February 2004 into the 2.4 series in version 2.4.25, making XFS almost universally available on Linux systems. Gentoo Linux became the first Linux distribution to introduce an option for XFS as the default filesystem in mid-2002. FreeBSD added read-only support for XFS in December 2005, and in June 2006 introduced experimental write support. However, this was intended only as an aid in migration from Linux, not as a \"main\" file system. FreeBSD 10 removed support for XFS. In 2009, version 5.4 of 64-bit Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) Linux distribution contained the necessary kernel support for the creation and usage of XFS file systems, but lacked the corresponding command-line tools. The tools available from CentOS could operate for that purpose, and Red Hat also provided them to RHEL customers on request. RHEL 6.0, released in 2010, includes XFS support for a fee as part of Red Hat's \"scalable file system add-on\". Oracle Linux 6, released in 2011, also includes an option for using XFS. RHEL 7.0, released in June 2014, uses XFS as its default file system, including support for using XFS for the /boot partition, which previously was not practical due to bugs in the GRUB bootloader. Linux kernel 4.8 in August 2016 added a new feature, \"reverse mapping\". This is the foundation for a large set of planned features: snapshots, copy-on-write (COW) data, data deduplication, reflink copies, online data and metadata scrubbing, highly accurate reporting of data loss or bad sectors, and significantly improved reconstruction of damaged or corrupted filesystems. This work required changes to XFS's on-disk format.", "", "XFS is a 64-bit file system and supports a maximum file system size of 8 exbibytes minus one byte (2 − 1 bytes), but limitations imposed by the host operating system can decrease this limit. 32-bit Linux systems limit the size of both the file and file system to 16 tebibytes.", "In modern computing, journaling is a capability which ensures consistency of data in the file system, despite any power outages or system crash that may occur. XFS provides journaling for file system metadata, where file system updates are first written to a serial journal before the actual disk blocks are updated. The journal is a circular buffer of disk blocks that is not read in normal file system operation. The XFS journal can be stored within the data section of the file system (as an internal log), or on a separate device to minimize disk contention. In XFS, the journal primarily contains entries that describe the portions of the disk blocks changed by filesystem operations. Journal updates are performed asynchronously to avoid a decrease in performance speed. In the event of a system crash, file system operations which occurred immediately prior to the crash can be reapplied and completed as recorded in the journal, which is how data stored in XFS file systems remain consistent. Recovery is performed automatically the first time the file system is mounted after the crash. The speed of recovery is independent of the size of the file system, instead depending on the amount of file system operations to be reapplied.", "XFS file systems are internally partitioned into \"allocation groups\", which are equally sized linear regions within the file system. Files and directories can span allocation groups. Each allocation group manages its own inodes and free space separately, providing scalability and parallelism so multiple threads and processes can perform I/O operations on the same file system simultaneously. This architecture helps to optimize parallel I/O performance on systems with multiple processors and/or cores, as metadata updates can also be parallelized. The internal partitioning provided by allocation groups can be especially beneficial when the file system spans multiple physical devices, allowing optimal usage of throughput of the underlying storage components.", "If an XFS file system is to be created on a striped RAID array, a \"stripe unit\" can be specified when the file system is created. This maximizes throughput by ensuring that data allocations, inode allocations and the internal log (the journal) are aligned with the stripe unit.", "Blocks used in files stored on XFS file systems are managed with variable length extents where one extent describes one or more contiguous blocks. This can shorten the list of blocks considerably, compared to file systems that list all blocks used by a file individually. Block-oriented file systems manage space allocation with one or more block-oriented bitmaps; in XFS, these structures are replaced with an extent oriented structure consisting of a pair of B+ trees for each file system allocation group. One of the B+ trees is indexed by the length of the free extents, while the other is indexed by the starting block of the free extents. This dual indexing scheme allows for the highly efficient allocation of free extents for file system operations.", "The file system block size represents the minimum allocation unit. XFS allows file systems to be created with block sizes ranging between 512 bytes and 64 KB, allowing the file system to be tuned for the expected degree of usage. When many small files are expected, a small block size would typically maximize capacity, but for a system dealing mainly with large files, a larger block size can provide a performance efficiency advantage.", "XFS makes use of lazy evaluation techniques for file allocation. When a file is written to the buffer cache, rather than allocating extents for the data, XFS simply reserves the appropriate number of file system blocks for the data held in memory. The actual block allocation occurs only when the data is finally flushed to disk. This improves the chance that the file will be written in a contiguous group of blocks, reducing fragmentation problems and increasing performance.", "XFS provides a 64-bit sparse address space for each file, which allows both for very large file sizes, and for \"holes\" within files in which no disk space is allocated. As the file system uses an extent map for each file, the file allocation map size is kept small. Where the size of the allocation map is too large for it to be stored within the inode, the map is moved into a B+ tree which allows for rapid access to data anywhere in the 64-bit address space provided for the file.", "XFS provides multiple data streams for files; this is made possible by its implementation of extended attributes. These allow the storage of a number of name/value pairs attached to a file. Names are nul-terminated printable character strings which are up to 256 bytes in length, while their associated values can contain up to 64 KB of binary data. They are further subdivided into two namespaces: codice_1 and codice_2. Extended attributes stored in the root namespace can be modified only by the superuser, while attributes in the user namespace can be modified by any user with permission to write to the file. Extended attributes can be attached to any kind of XFS inode, including symbolic links, device nodes, directories, etc. The codice_3 utility can be used to manipulate extended attributes from the command line, and the codice_4 and codice_5 utilities are aware of extended attributes, and will back up and restore their contents. Most other backup systems do not support working with extended attributes.", "For applications requiring high throughput to disk, XFS provides a direct I/O implementation that allows non-cached I/O operations to be applied directly to the userspace. Data is transferred between the buffer of the application and the disk using DMA, which allows access to the full I/O bandwidth of the underlying disk devices.", "The XFS guaranteed-rate I/O system provides an API that allows applications to reserve bandwidth to the filesystem. XFS dynamically calculates the performance available from the underlying storage devices, and will reserve bandwidth sufficient to meet the requested performance for a specified time. This is a feature unique to the XFS file system. Guaranteed rates can be \"hard\" or \"soft\", representing a trade off between reliability and performance; however, XFS will only allow \"hard\" guarantees if the underlying storage subsystem supports it. This facility is used mostly for real-time applications, such as video streaming. Guaranteed-rate I/O was only supported under IRIX, and required special hardware for that purpose.", "XFS implemented the DMAPI interface to support Hierarchical Storage Management in IRIX. As of October 2010, the Linux implementation of XFS supported the required on-disk metadata for DMAPI implementation, but the kernel support was reportedly not usable. For some time, SGI hosted a kernel tree which included the DMAPI hooks, but this support has not been adequately maintained, although kernel developers have stated an intention to bring this support up to date.", "XFS does not yet provide direct support for snapshots, as it currently expects the snapshot process to be implemented by the volume manager. Taking a snapshot of an XFS filesystem involves temporarily halting I/O to the filesystem using the codice_6 utility, having the volume manager perform the actual snapshot, and then resuming I/O to continue with normal operations. The snapshot can then be mounted read-only for backup purposes. Releases of XFS in IRIX incorporated an integrated volume manager called XLV. This volume manager has not been ported to Linux, and XFS works with standard LVM in Linux systems instead. In recent Linux kernels, the codice_6 functionality is implemented in the VFS layer, and is executed automatically when the Volume Manager's snapshot functionality is invoked. This was once a valuable advantage as the ext3 file system could not be suspended and the volume manager was unable to create a consistent \"hot\" snapshot to back up a heavily busy database. Fortunately this is no longer the case. Since Linux 2.6.29, the file systems ext3, ext4, GFS2 and JFS have the freeze feature as well.", "Although the extent-based nature of XFS and the delayed allocation strategy it uses significantly improves the file system's resistance to fragmentation problems, XFS provides a filesystem defragmentation utility (codice_8, short for XFS filesystem reorganizer) that can defragment the files on a mounted and active XFS filesystem.", "XFS provides the codice_9 utility to perform online resizing of XFS file systems. XFS filesystems can be grown so long as there is remaining unallocated space on the device holding the filesystem. This feature is typically used in conjunction with volume management, as otherwise the partition holding the filesystem will need enlarging separately. XFS partitions cannot () be shrunk in place, although several possible workarounds have been discussed.", "XFS provides the codice_4 and codice_5 utilities to aid in the backup of data stored in XFS file systems. The codice_4 utility backs up an XFS filesystem in inode order, and in contrast to traditional UNIX file systems which must be unmounted before dumping to guarantee a consistent dump image, XFS file systems can be dumped while the file system is in use. This is not the same as a snapshot, since files are not frozen during the dump. XFS dumps and restores are also resumable and can be interrupted without difficulty. The multi-threaded operation of codice_4 provides high performance of backup operations by splitting the dump into multiple streams, which can be sent to different dump destinations. The multi-stream capabilities have not been fully ported to Linux yet, however.", "Quotas for XFS filesystems are turned on when initially mounted; this fixes a race window that is present with most other filesystems that first require to be mounted and where no quotas are enforced until quotaon(8) is called.", "XFS filesystems mount with \"write barriers\" enabled by default. This feature will cause the write-back cache of the underlying storage device to be flushed at appropriate times, particularly on write operations to the XFS log. This feature is intended to assure filesystem consistency, and its implementation is device-specific because not all underlying hardware will support cache flush requests. When an XFS filesystem is used on a logical device provided by a hardware RAID controller with battery-backed cache, this feature can slow performance significantly, as the filesystem code is not aware that the cache is nonvolatile, and if the controller honors the flush requests, data will be written to the disk more often than is necessary. To avoid this problem, areas wherein the data in the device cache is protected from power failure or other host problems, the filesystem can be mounted with the \"nobarrier\" option. By default, XFS filesystems are created with an \"internal\" log, which places the filesystem journal on the same block device as the filesystem data. Filesystem writes are preceded by metadata updates to the journal, which can be a cause of disk contention. Under most workloads, the level of contention caused is too low to impact performance, but heavy random-write workloads, such as those seen on busy database servers, can suffer from less than optimal performance as a result of this I/O contention. An additional factor that may increase the severity of this problem is that writes to the journal are committed synchronously because they must complete successfully before the associated write operation can begin. Where optimal filesystem performance is required, XFS provides the option of placing the log on a separate physical device, with its own I/O path. This requires little physical space, and if a low-latency path can be provided for synchronous writes, it can greatly improve performance in the operation of the filesystem. The required performance characteristics make this a suitable candidate for the use of a solid-state drive (SSD) device or a RAID system with write-back cache, though the latter can reduce data safety in the event of power interruptions. The use of an external log requires the filesystem to be mounted with the codice_14 option, indicating a suitable journal device.", "Given the XFS design goals and target market, a number of features were not addressed and have not yet been added: Metadata operations in XFS were slower compared to journaling file systems implemented later and designed to work with much larger logs resulting in, for example, slower performance with operations such as deletions of large numbers of files. However, a new XFS feature implemented by John Nelson and called \"delayed logging\", available since version 2.6.39 of the Linux kernel mainline, is said to resolve this; performance benchmarks done by the developer in 2010 revealed performance levels to be similar to ext4 at low thread counts, and superior at high thread counts." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Eligibility.", "History.", "Fees.", "Internationalized country code top-level domain.", "Other uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Operations and Analysis Centre under the President of the Republic of Belarus allows for anyone (not only for those who resides in Belarus) to register a second level domain such as something.by. However, third-level domains.gov.by and.mil.by are reserved for government use only. The names chosen for second-level domains must not conflict with those already registered or with well-known brand names. The names also must have two or more Latin characters and they cannot either start or finish with a hyphen (-). Second-level names that might have words or phrases that are deemed to be vulgar or illegal can also be rejected by the Administrator of ccTLD BY.", "At the very beginning there was only one company in Belarus which carried out the registration of domains.by – Open Contact Ltd. In October 2006 two other Belarusian companies got the licence to provide technical protection of information, including its execution by cryptographic means, and comprising the usage of a digital signature. Those were Reliable Software Inc. and Business Network JV. The former one has started to receive inquiries and carry out domain registration since 27 March 2007. On 3 September 2007 the licence was granted also to Extmedia and on 29 June - to Active Technologies. At present each of the five companies carries out domain registration officially. Since 1994 the only Technical Administrator of the.by domain has been Open Contact Ltd. According to the results of the competition conducted in September 2010 by the Operations and Analysis Centre (OAC) - the authorised government body for the purposes of security of the Internet - the.by domain was redelegated to Reliable Software Inc. (hoster.by). On 7 February 2012 ICANN approved the candidacy of the company unequivocally. In 2007 while Open Contact Ltd. was the Technical Administrator of the.by domain it announced the reduction of price on national domains from 190,000 Belarusian rubles (US$88) to 130,000 ($60). This measure triggered the process of transmission of Belarusian web-sites from generic top-level domains to the national one. Since 2012, when Reliable Software Inc. (hoster.by) became the Technical Administrator of the.by domain, several changes have been adopted: the assessment of inquiries in the Operations and Analysis Centre (OAC) and a free 30-day reservation of a domain name have been eliminated and WHOIS-service has started to work.", "Since 2011 due to changes in currency exchange rate the price has decreased. The costs to use a.by domain is a US$12 fee for the first year and second payment of $12 to maintain the domain. The renewal of the domain occurs yearly. The maximum upfront payment is 1 years. The payment of the fees occur by bank transfer, WebMoney, credit card or cash depending on the registrar.", "Belarus applied for the Cyrillic top-level domain.бел, intended to be used with subdomains in the same script, which was approved by the ICANN in 2015.", "The.by code is used for domain hack by institutions from the German state of Bavaria (German: \"Bayern\"), such as bayern.by, the Bavarian Tourism Agency. Since \"\" means \"town\" or \"city\" in Norwegian, it's also used by some newspapers, such as osl.by for an Oslo newspaper, and trd.by for a Trondheim newspaper." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Sources.", "Tributaries.", "Krishna Basin.", "Places and temples.", "Flora and fauna.", "Waterfalls.", "Bridges.", "Floods.", "Interstate water sharing.", "Dams.", "Hydroelectric power stations.", "Mineral deposits.", "Pollution.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Krishna river originates in the Western Ghats near Mahabaleshwar at an elevation of about, in the state of Maharashtra in central India. It is one of the longest rivers in India. The Krishna river is around in length ( in Maharashtra). It is one of the most suitable arable basin as 75.6 % area of the Krishna basin is under cultivation because of availability of water. The river's source is at Mahabaleshwar near Jor village in the extreme north of Wai Taluka, Satara District, Maharashtra in the west and empties into the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi (near Koduru) in Andhra Pradesh, on the east coast. It flows through the state of Karnataka before entering Telangana State. The delta of this river is one of the most fertile regions in India and was the home to ancient Satavahana and Ikshvaku Sun Dynasty kings. Vijayawada is the largest city on the Krishna. It causes heavy soil erosion during the monsoon floods. It flows fast and furious, often reaching depths of over. Ironically, there is a saying in Marathi: \"\"Santh vaahate Krishnamaai\"\"(संथ वाहते कृष्णामाई) which means \"quiet and slow flows Krishna\". This term is used to describe that a person should be as quiet as Krishna. In Karnataka state it also called Krishne (ಕೃಷ್ಣೆ) In Telugu speaking states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, \"Krishnaveni\" is a common name given to a girl child, referring to the Krishna river.", "The largest tributary of the Krishna River is the Tungabhadra River with a drainage basin measuring, running for about, but the longest tributary is the Bhima River, which makes a total run of and has an equally large drainage area of. Three tributaries Panchganga, Warna and Yerla meet Krishna river near Sangli. These places are considered very holy. It is said that Lord Dattatreya spent some of his days at Audumber on the banks of river Krishna. Kudalasangama (also written as Kudala Sangama is located about from the Almatti Dam in Bagalkot district of Karnataka state. The Krishna and Malaprabha River rivers merge here. The \"Aikya Mantapa\" or the holy \"Samādhi\" of Basavanna, the founder of the Lingayat sect of Hindu religion along with Linga, which is believed to be self-born (\"Swayambhu\"), is here and river flow east towards Srisailam (another pilgrim center) Andhra Pradesh. Sangameswaram of Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh is a famous pilgrim center for Hindus where Tungabhadra and Bhavanasi rivers join the Krishna river. The Sangameswaram temple is now drowned in the Srisailam reservoir, and visible for devotees only during summer when the reservoir's water level comes down.", "Krishna Basin extends over an area of which is nearly 8% of the total geographical area of the country. This large basin lies in the states of Karnataka (113,271 km), Telangana, Andhra Pradesh (76,252 km) and Maharashtra (69,425 km). The Krishna river rises in the Western Ghats, at an elevation of about just north of Mahabaleshwar, about from the Arabian Sea. It flows for about and outfalls into the Bay of Bengal. The principal tributaries joining Krishna are the Ghataprabha River, Malaprabha River, Bhima River, Tungabhadra River and Musi River. Most of this basin comprises rolling and undulating country, except for the western border, which is formed by an unbroken line of the Western Ghats. The important soil types found in the basin are black soils, red soils, laterite and lateritic soils, alluvium, mixed soils, red and black soils and saline and alkaline soils. An average annual surface water potential of 78.1 km has been assessed in this basin. Out of this, 58.0 km is utilizable water. Culturable area in the basin is about, which is 10.4% of the total cultivable area of the country. As the water availability in the Krishna river was becoming inadequate to meet the water demand, Godavari River is linked to the Krishna river by commissioning the Polavaram right bank canal with the help of Pattiseema lift scheme in the year 2015 to augment water availability to the Prakasam Barrage in Andhra Pradesh. The irrigation canals of Prakasam Barrage form part of National Waterway 4.", "This river is revered by Hindus as sacred. The river is also believed to remove all sins of people by taking a bath in this river. The centre of attraction is the Krishna Pushkaram fair which is held once in twelve years on the banks of the Krishna river. There are many pilgrimage places in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh on the course of the river. The first holy place on the river Krishna is at Wai, known for the Mahaganpati Mandir and Kashivishweshwar temple. It has seven ghats along the river. Temples like Dattadeva temple, which is revered by the people of Maharashtra, are located on the banks of Krishna at Narsobawadi and Audumbar near Sangli. Yadur is one of the important holy places in Karnataka which is located on the bank of Krishna. Veerabhadra temple is a famous temple. Many devotees visit this place from Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Also, located on the banks of the river Krishna is the Sangameshwar Shiva temple at Haripur. Some of the other temples are the Kanaka Durga Temple in Vijayawada, Ramling temple near Sangli, Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga (Srisailam), Amareshwara Swamy Temple (Amaravati (state capital)), Dattadeva temple, and Sangameshwara Shiva temples at Alampur & Gadwal in Telangana.", "Wide spread area near to the Krishna river holds the rich flora and fauna. The last surviving Mangrove forests in the Krishna estuary have been declared as the Krishna Wildlife Sanctuary. The sanctuary is the home to the large number of resident and migratory birds. Fishing cat, otter, Estuarine crocodile, spotted deer, sambar, black buck, snake, lizards and jackal can also be spotted in the sanctuary. The sanctuary also supports rich vegetation with plants like Rhizophora, Avicennia, and Aegiceros. The following are few other wildlife sanctuaries located in the krishna basin.", "The following are few other waterfalls located in the river basin", "The Krishna River is spanned by several bridges along its course, some of which are listed below.", "In October 2009, heavy floods occurred, isolating 350 villages and leaving millions homeless, which is believed to be first occurrence in 1000 years. The flood resulted in heavy damage to Kurnool, Mahabubnagar, Guntur, Krishna and Nalagonda Districts. The entire city of Kurnool was immersed in approximately water for nearly 3 days. Water inflow of was recorded at the Prakasam Barriage, which surpassed the previous record of recorded in the year 1903. Krishna river is the second largest east flowing river of the peninsula. The flood waters of Krishna and Godavari rivers can be fully utilized by exporting water to other east flowing peninsular rivers up to Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu by constructing a coastal reservoir on the Bay of Bengal sea area.", "At present, the award of Bachawat tribunal dated 31 May 1976 is applicable for sharing the water available in the river among the riparian states. The Brijesh Kumar tribunal award given on 29 November 2013 is challenged by Andhra Pradesh in the Supreme Court and the case pending since then. The newly created state of Telangana also approached Supreme Court demanding a fresh tribunal hearing to secure its water needs on equitable basis. Even though the river does not flow through Tamil Nadu, the Telugu Ganga Project is a canal system that brings Krishna river water to that state's capital city of Chennai,", "There are many dams constructed across the Krishna river.", "Krishna river is one of the rivers whose water energy is harnessed to a large extent by various hydro electric power stations in India. The following is the list of hydro electric power stations excluding small and medium installations.", "Krishna river basin is endowed with rich mineral deposits such as oil & gas, coal, iron, limestone, dolomite, gold, granite, laterite, uranium, diamonds, etc. The following are the few noted deposits:", "Most of the years, the river water is not joining the sea due to full utilisation of water mainly in agriculture. Closed river basin of Krishna means that the river ecosystem is on the verge of death. The river receives the waste from the large number of cities and the river basin population has increased to 80 million enhancing pollution load many folds into the river. Adequate average and minimum continuous environmental flows to the sea are not taking place in most of the years constricting salt export and leading to formation of saline and sodic alkaline soils in the lower reaches of the river basin. High alkalinity water is discharged from the ash dump areas of many coal fired power stations into the river which further increases the alkalinity of the river water whose water is naturally of high alkalinity since the river basin is draining vast area of basalt rock formations. The following are the few coal fired power stations located in the river basin", "21. Refer 'theertha prabhanda'(sanskrit)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Status.", "Origins.", "Structural features.", "Classification disputes.", "Common vocabulary.", "Loanwords.", "Numbers.", "Finno-Ugric Swadesh lists.", "People.", "Population genetics.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The validity of Finno-Ugric as a genetic grouping is under challenge, with some feeling that the Finno-Permic languages are as distinct from the Ugric languages as they are from the Samoyedic languages spoken in Siberia, or even that none of the Finno-Ugric, Finno-Permic, or Ugric branches has been established. Received opinion has been that the easternmost (and last-discovered) Samoyed had separated first and the branching into Ugric and Finno-Permic took place later, but this reconstruction does not have strong support in the linguistic data.", "Attempts at reconstructing a Proto-Finno-Ugric proto-language, a common ancestor of all Uralic languages except for the Samoyedic languages, are largely indistinguishable from Proto-Uralic, suggesting that Finno-Ugric might not be a historical grouping but a geographical one, with Samoyedic being distinct by lexical borrowing rather than actually being historically divergent. It has been proposed that the area in which Proto-Finno-Ugric was spoken reached between the Baltic Sea and the Ural Mountains. Traditionally, the main set of evidence for the genetic proposal of Proto-Finno-Ugric has come from vocabulary. A large amount of vocabulary (e.g. the numerals \"one\", \"three\", \"four\" and \"six\"; the body-part terms \"hand\", \"head\") is only reconstructed up to the Proto-Finno-Ugric level, and only words with a Samoyedic equivalent have been reconstructed for Proto-Uralic. That methodology has been criticised, as no coherent explanation other than inheritance has been presented for the origin of most of the Finno-Ugric vocabulary (though a small number has been explained as old loanwords from Proto-Indo-European or its immediate successors). The Samoyedic group has undergone a longer period of independent development, and its divergent vocabulary could be caused by mechanisms of replacement such as language contact. (The Finno-Ugric group is usually dated to approximately 4,000 years ago, the Samoyedic a little over 2,000.) Proponents of the traditional binary division note, however, that the invocation of extensive contact influence on vocabulary is at odds with the grammatical conservatism of Samoyedic. The consonant \"*š\" (voiceless postalveolar fricative, ) has not been conclusively shown to occur in the traditional Proto-Uralic lexicon, but it is attested in some of the Proto-Finno-Ugric material. Another feature attested in the Finno-Ugric vocabulary is that \"*i\" now behaves as a neutral vowel with respect to front-back vowel harmony, and thus there are roots such as \"*niwa-\" \"to remove the hair from hides\". Regular sound changes proposed for this stage are few and remain open to interpretation. Sammallahti (1988) proposes five, following Janhunen's (1981) reconstruction of Proto-Finno-Permic: Sammallahti (1988) further reconstructs sound changes \"*oo\", \"*ee\" → \"*a\", \"*ä\" (merging with original \"*a\", \"*ä\") for the development from Proto-Finno-Ugric to Proto-Ugric. Similar sound laws are required for other languages as well. Thus, the origin and raising of long vowels may actually belong at a later stage, and the development of these words from Proto-Uralic to Proto-Ugric can be summarized as simple loss of \"*x\" (if it existed in the first place at all; vowel length only surfaces consistently in the Baltic-Finnic languages.) The proposed raising of \"*o\" has been alternately interpreted instead as a lowering \"*u\" → \"*o\" in Samoyedic (PU *\"lumi\" → \"*lomə\" → Proto-Samoyedic \"*jom\"). Janhunen (2007, 2009) notes a number of derivational innovations in Finno-Ugric, including \"*ńoma\" \"hare\" → \"*ńoma-la\", (vs. Samoyedic \"*ńomå\"), \"*pexli\" \"side\" → \"*peel-ka\" → \"*pelka\" \"thumb\", though involving Proto-Uralic derivational elements.", "The Finno-Ugric group is not typologically distinct from Uralic as a whole: the most widespread structural features among the group all extend to the Samoyedic languages as well.", "Modern linguistic research has shown that Volgaic languages is a geographical classification rather than a linguistic one, because the Mordvinic languages are more closely related to the Finno-Lappic languages than the Mari languages. The relation of the Finno-Permic and the Ugric groups is adjudged remote by some scholars. On the other hand, with a projected time depth of only 3,000 to 4,000 years, the traditionally accepted Finno-Ugric grouping would be far younger than many major families such as Indo-European or Semitic, and would be about the same age as, for instance, the Eastern subfamily of Nilotic. But the grouping is far from transparent or securely established. The absence of early records is a major obstacle. As for the Finno-Ugric Urheimat, most of what has been said about it is speculation. Some linguists criticizing the Finno-Ugric genetic proposal also question the validity of the entire Uralic family, instead proposing a Ural–Altaic hypothesis, within which they believe Finno-Permic may be as distant from Ugric as from Turkic. However, this approach has been rejected by nearly all other specialists in Uralic linguistics.", "", "One argument in favor of the Finno-Ugric grouping has come from loanwords. Several loans from the Indo-European languages are present in most or all of the Finno-Ugric languages, while being absent from Samoyedic; many others also must be for phonological reasons dated as quite old. According to Häkkinen (1983) the alleged Proto-Finno-Ugric loanwords are disproportionally well-represented in Hungarian and the Permic languages, and disproportionally poorly represented in the Ob-Ugric languages; hence it is possible that such words have been acquired by the languages only after the initial dissolution of the Uralic family into individual dialects, and that the scarcity of loanwords in Samoyedic results from its peripheric location.", "The number systems among the Finno-Ugric languages are particularly distinct from the Samoyedic languages: only the numerals \"2\" and \"5\" have cognates in Samoyedic, while also the numerals, \"1\", \"3\", \"4\", \"6\", \"10\" are shared by all or most Finno-Ugric languages. Below are the numbers 1 to 10 in several Finno-Ugric languages. Forms in \"italic\" do not descend from the reconstructed forms. The number '2' descends in Ugric from a front-vocalic variant *kektä. The numbers '9' and '8' in Finnic through Mari are considered to be derived from the numbers '1' and '2' as '10–1' and '10–2'. One reconstruction is *\"yk+teksa\" and *\"kak+teksa\", respectively, where *\"teksa\" cf. \"deka\" is an Indo-European loan; notice that the difference between /t/ and /d/ is not phonemic, unlike in Indo-European. Another analysis is *\"ykt-e-ksa\", *\"kakt-e-ksa\", with *\"e\" being the negative verb.", "100-word Swadesh lists for certain Finno-Ugric languages can be compared and contrasted at the Rosetta Project website: Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian, Erzya.", "The four largest groups that speak Finno-Ugric languages are Hungarians (14.5 million), Finns (6.5 million), Estonians (1.1 million), and Mordvins (0.85 million). Three (Hungarians, Finns, and Estonians) inhabit independent nation-states, Hungary, Finland, and Estonia, while the Mordvins have an autonomous Mordovian Republic within Russia. The traditional area of the indigenous Sámi people is in Northern Fenno-Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula in Northwest Russia and is known as Sápmi. Some other Finno-Ugric peoples have autonomous republics in Russia: Karelians (Republic of Karelia), Komi (Komi Republic), Udmurts (Udmurt Republic), Mari (Mari El Republic), and Mordvins (Moksha and Erzya; Republic of Mordovia). Khanty and Mansi peoples live in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug of Russia, while Komi-Permyaks live in Komi-Permyak Okrug, which used to be an autonomous okrug of Russia, but today is a territory with special status within Perm Krai.", "The linguistic reconstruction of the Finno-Ugric language family has led to the postulation that the ancient Proto-Finno-Ugric people were ethnically related, and that even the modern Finno-Ugric-speaking peoples are ethnically related. Such hypotheses are based on the assumption that heredity can be traced through linguistic relatedness, although it must be kept in mind that language shift and ethnic admixture, a relatively frequent and common occurrence both in recorded history and most likely also in prehistory, confuses the picture and there is no straightforward relationship, if at all, between linguistic and genetic affiliation. Still, the premise that the limited community of speakers of a proto-language must have been ethnically homogeneous remains accepted. Modern genetic studies have shown that the Y-chromosome haplogroup N3, and sometimes N2, is almost specific though certainly not restricted to Uralic- or Finno-Ugric-speaking populations, especially as high frequency or primary paternal haplogroup. These haplogroups branched from haplogroup N, which probably spread north, then west and east from Northern China about 12,000–14,000 years before present from father haplogroup NO (haplogroup O being the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup in Southeast Asia). Some of the ethnicities speaking Finno-Ugric languages are:", "Notes Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Location.", "Administrative position.", "Climate.", "Transport.", "History.", "Environment.", "Sport and culture.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The municipality is situated a short distance to the north-east of Junction 41 on the A4 Highway. It lies in the Silesian Highlands, in the historical region of Lesser Poland, and since its foundation until 1975, it was administratively tied with Lesser Poland's capital, Kraków. Until 1795, it belonged to Kraków Voivodeship, then, together with Kraków, was seized by the Habsburg Empire in the Partitions of Poland. In 1815–1846 it belonged to the Free City of Kraków, which was annexed by Austria and merged with Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. In 1918 Jaworzno returned to Poland. The name of the city comes from the \"jawor\" trees (sycamore maple), which in the past were abundant in this area.", "Jaworzno was placed into the Silesian Voivodeship (province) effective January 1, 1999 under the Local Government Reorganization Act. Previously, it was attached to the Katowice Voivodeship (1975–1998) and before that to the Kraków Voivodeship. Jaworzno lies in the east of the largest metropolis in Poland and is one of the largest in the European Union, numbering about 3,5 million. This urban expansion bloomed in the 19th century thanks to the rapid development of the mining and metallurgical industries. In the year 2006 Jaworzno and 14 neighboring cities formed the multimunicipal structure, the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union. Its population is 2 million and its area is.", "The climate of the area is continental humid. The annual average temperature is (January average and July average °C). Yearly rainfall averages at, the most rainy month being July. The area's characteristic weak winds blow at about 2 m/s from the west (Moravian Gate). Jaworzno is located at the intersection of a number of road routes such as:", "A4 motorway (part of European route E40) S1 expressway (part of European route E75) Gdańsk – Cieszyn, national road No. 79 Warsaw – Bytom, provincial road No. 903 Jaworzno 79 – Jaworzno 4 Public transport is provided by PKM Jaworzno (Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacji Miejskiej w Jaworznie – public transport company in Jaworzno) not belonging to the KZK GOP. PKM Jaworzno was one of the first public transport companies in Poland which introduced the magnetic card called Jaworznicka Karta miejska (Jaworzno Urban Card) instead of paper tickets. Currently PKM Jaworzno is one of the most modern public transport companies in Poland. The PKM Jaworzno's fleet is based 40% on electric vehicles.", "In the Middle Ages, a gord was established on the \"Grodzisko\" hill, traces of which can still be found. First known mention of Jaworzno comes from the year 1229, and in 1335, a parish church of St. Wojciech existed here. Jaworzno remained a small village, located in western Lesser Poland, near much larger and more important town of Chrzanow. Since 1179, the nearby Przemsza river marked the border between Lesser Poland and Silesia. It also remained a state border of Poland until 1922. The area of Jaworzno was originally under the rule of the bishops of Kraków. After Austria seized Silesia at the end of the 17th century, several coal mines were developed near Jaworzno. In the 18th century, deposits of silver, lead, iron and zinc were found here. In 1767, first coal mine in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was opened in Szczakowa. After the Partitions of Poland Jaworzno belonged to the Habsburg Empire. In 1809 – 1815 it was part of the Duchy of Warsaw, and in 1815–1846, it belonged to the Free City of Krakow, which in 1846 was annexed by the Austrian Empire. Jaworzno remained in Austrian Galicia until November 1918. In the 19th century, the village became famous for the so-called Three Emperors' Corner, where borders of three powers met (German Empire, Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary). In 1847, Jaworzno's district of Szczakowa received first rail connection, on a line from Prussian Upper Silesia to Kraków. The village became one of centers of industrialization. A power plant was opened in 1898, and Jaworzno's coal mines extracted 84% of Galician coal. Several new factories were established here in the late 19th and early 20th century. As a result, on September 21, 1901, Emperor Franz Joseph I granted town charter to Jaworzno. In the Second Polish Republic, Jaworzno belonged to Krakow Voivodeship, in which it also remained after the war, until 1975. During the Second World War \"SS-Lager Dachsgrube\", a branch of the German concentration camp of Auschwitz, was established there. This was converted into Central Labour Camp Jaworzno after the war. It was also a location of several POW camps for the Western Allies. In the People's Republic of Poland Jaworzno developed as an important center of industry. Its population quickly grew, when thousands of migrants came here in search of work at coal mines, power plants and other factories. Furthermore, several villages were annexed by Jaworzno. As a result, Jaworzno's area reaches. In 1975 the city became part of Katowice Voivodeship. Despite the fact that most towns of pre-1975 Chrzanow County returned to Lesser Poland, Jaworzno was attached to the Silesian Voivodeship (1999).", "Greens, forests, and undeveloped land constitute 60 percent of the town's area. Jaworzno has environmentally valuable areas which as a group present a diversity of landscapes and vegetation as well as a richness of flora and fauna. These include the Dolina Zabnika nature reserve, the Dobra Wilkoszyn landscape protection area, the Sasanka natural surface monument, Grodzisko hill, and Sosina lake. Within Jaworzno's boundaries there are 41 plant species under strict protection and 11 under partial protection.", "The city of Jaworzno has many sporting facilities at the Europe-wide level and offers a rich variety of educational and cultural activities. The city major arena, the \"Hala Widowiskowo-Sportowa\", can seat 2,500 spectators. The \"Sosina\" water sports centre is the venue for the annual Polish water-skiing championships.", "Jaworzno is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Religion.", "Language.", "Lemkos in fiction.", "Location." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Lemko\" derives from the common expression \"Lem (Лeм)\", which means \"only\" in the \"Lemko\" dialect, and began to be widely used only since the 19th century. This word is commonly used in many dialects mainly around eastern Slovakia, Polish and Ukrainian border, and is one distinction between the languages. \"Lemko\" came into use as an endonym after having been used as an exonym by the neighboring Lyshaks, Boykos and Hutsuls, who do not use that term in their respective dialects. The term in Slovak dialects would be Lemko, in Rusyn dialect it is Lemkiv, in Polish Lemkwich. Prior to this name, the Lemkos and the Lyshaks described themselves as \"Rusnaks\" (, translit. \"Rusnaky\") or Rusyns (, translit. \"Rusyny\")(Ruthenians), as did the rest of the inhabitants of present-day Western Ukraine in the 19th century and first part of the 20th century. In the late 19th and continuing into the early 20th century, in order to differentiate themselves from ethnic Russians, Ruthenians/Rusyns began to use the ethnonym Ukrainians (, translit. \"Ukrayintsi\"). Some Lemkos have accepted the ethnonym, but many consider themselves to be a distinct ethnicity, while some continue to identify themselves as Rusyns.", "Several hypotheses account for the origin of the Hutsuls, however, like all the Rusyns, they most probably have a diverse ethnogenetic origin. The Lemkos (and other Carpatho-Rusyns) are considered to be descendants of the medieval White Croats, and a Vlach/Romanian migration in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lemkivshchyna became part of Poland in medieval Piast times. Lemkos became an ethnic minority as part of the Austria province of Galicia in 1772. Mass emigration from this territory to the Western hemisphere for economic reasons began in the late 19th century. After World War I, Lemkos founded two short-lived republics, the Lemko-Rusyn Republic in the west of Galicia, which had a russophile orientation, and the Komancza Republic, with a Ukrainophilic orientation. It is estimated that about 130,000 to 140,000 Lemkos were living in the Polish part of Lemkivshchyna in 1939. Additional depopulation of these lands occurred during the forced resettlement, initially to the Soviet Union (about 90,000 people) and later to Poland's newly acquired western lands (about 35,000) in the Operation Vistula campaign of the late 1940s. This action was a state ordered removal of the civilian population, in a counter-insurgency operation to remove potential support for guerrilla war being waged by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in south-eastern Poland. While a small number of Lemkos returned (some 5,000 Lemko families returned to their home regions in Poland between 1957–1958, (they were officially granted the right to return in 1956), the Lemko population in the Polish section of Lemkivschyna only numbers around 10,000–15,000 today. Some 50,000 Lemkos live in the western and northern parts of Poland, where they were sent to populate former German villages in areas ceded to Poland. Among those, 5,863 people identified themselves as Lemko in the 2002 census. However, 60,000 ethnic Lemkos may reside in Poland today. Within Lemkivshchyna, Lemkos live in the villages of Łosie, Krynica-Zdrój, Nowica, Zdynia, Gładyszów, Hańczowa, Zyndranowa, Uście Gorlickie, Bartne, Binczarowa and Bielanka. Additional populations can be found in Mokre, Szczawne, Kulaszne, Rzepedź, Turzańsk, Komańcza, Sanok, Nowy Sącz, and Gorlice. In 1968 an was opened in Zyndranowa. Additionally, a is held annually in Zdynia.", "An important aspect of Lemko culture is their deep commitment to Eastern Christianity which was introduced to the Eastern Slavs from Byzantium via Moravia through the efforts of Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. Originally the Lemkos adhered to Orthodoxy, but in order to avoid latinization directly entered into union with Rome in the 17th century. Most Lemkos today are Eastern rite or Byzantine-rite Catholics. In Poland they belong to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church with a Roman Catholic minority, or to the Ruthenian Catholic Church (see also Slovak Greek Catholic Church) in Slovakia. A substantial number belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church. Through the efforts of the martyred priest Fr. Maxim Sandovich (canonized by the Polish Orthodox Church in the 1990s), in the early 20th century, Eastern Orthodoxy was reintroduced to many Lemko areas which had accepted the Union of Brest centuries before. The distinctive wooden architectural style of the Lemko churches (as opposed to their neighbouring sub-ethnic groups such as the Boikos) is to place the highest cupola of the church building at the entrance to the church, with the roof sloping downward toward the sanctuary.", "The Lemkos' language is considered by Ukrainian linguists to be the most western of Ukrainian dialects. The homeland occupied by the Lemkos has been influenced greatly by the languages spoken by neighboring or ruling peoples, so much so that some consider it a separate entity. Some scholars state that Lemko is the western-most dialect of the Rusyn language, which in turn is considered by many Ukrainians to be a dialect of Ukrainian. Lemko speech includes some patterns matching those of the surrounding Polish and Slovak languages, leading some to refer to it as a transitional dialect between Polish and Slovak (some even consider the dialect in Eastern Slovakia to be a dialect of the Slovak language). Metodyj Trochanovskij developed a Lemko Primer (\"Bukvar: Perša knyžečka dlja narodnŷch škol\", 1935) and a First Reader (\"Druha knyžečka dlja narodnŷch škol\", 1936) for use in schools in the Lemko-speaking area of Poland. In 1934, Lemko was introduced as the language of instruction in schools in the Lemko region. The pupils were taught from textbooks prepared by Trochanovskij and published by the State Publishing House. However, shortly before the outbreak of World War II Polish authorities replaced them with Ukrainian texts. Important fieldwork on the Lemko dialect was carried out by the Polish linguist Zdzisław Stieber before their dispersal. According to the Central Statistical Office of Poland, in the school year 2010–2011, Lemko was taught as a first language in twenty primary schools and interschool groups, and ten schools and interschool groups at junior high level, with 188 students attending classes. In the late 20th century, some Lemkos/Rusyns, mainly emigres from the region of the southern slopes of the Carpathians in modern-day Slovakia, began codifying a standard grammar for the Lemko dialect, which was presented on the 27 January 1995 in Prešov, Slovakia. In 2013 the famous novel \"The Little Prince\" was translated into Lemko by Petro Krynyckij. Slovakia has more than 1,000,000 users of local dialects which would commonly use the word \"lem\".", "Nikolai Gogol's short story \"The Terrible Vengeance\" ends at Kriváň, now in Slovakia and pictured on the Slovakian euro, in the heart of Lemkivshchyna in the Prešov Region. Avram Davidson makes several references to the Lemko people in his stories. Anna Bibko, mother-in-law of the protagonist of \"All Shall Be Well; and All Shall Be Well; and All Manner of Things Shall Be Well\", is a Lemko \"guided by her senses of traditionalism and grievance, not necessarily in that order\". In the critically acclaimed movie \"The Deer Hunter\" the wedding reception scene was filmed in Lemko Hall in the Tremont neighborhood of Cleveland, Ohio, which had a significant immigrant population of Lemkos at one time. The three main character's surnames, however, appear to be Russian (Michael \"Mike\" Vronsky, Steven Pushkov, and Nikonar \"Nick\" Chevotarevich) and the wedding took place in St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral which is also located in Tremont.", "The Lemkos' homeland is commonly referred to as \"Lemkivshchyna\" (, Lemko: \"Lemkovyna\" (Лeмкoвина), ). Up until 1945, this included the area from the Poprad River in the west to the valley of Oslawa River in the east, areas situated primarily in present-day Poland, in the Lesser Poland and Subcarpathian Voivodeships (provinces). This part of the Carpathian mountains is mostly deforested, which allowed for an agrarian economy, alongside such traditional occupations as ox grazing and sheep herding. The Lemko region became part of Poland in medieval Piast times. Lemkos were made part of the Austria province of Galicia in 1772. This area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its dissolution in 1918, at which point the Lemko-Rusyn Republic (\"Ruska Lemkivska\") declared its independence. Independence did not last long however, and the republic was incorporated into Poland in 1920. As a result of the forcible deportation of Ukrainians from Poland to the Soviet Union after World War II, the majority of Lemkos in Poland were either resettled from their historic homeland to the prеviously German territories in the North-Western region of Poland or to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Only those Lemkos living the Prešov Region in present-day Slovakia continue to live on their ancestral lands, with the exception of some Lemkos who resettled in their homeland in the late 1950s and afterward. Lemkos are/were neighbours with Slovaks, Carpathian Germans and \"Lachy sądeckie\" (Poles) to the west, Pogorzans (Poles) and \"Dolinians\" (a Rusyn subgroup) to the north, Ukrainians to the east, and Slovaks to the south." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Origins.", "Design.", "Variants and experiments.", "Operational history.", "France.", "Foreign service." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Performance in early aircraft designs was largely dependent on engines. In February 1915, Swiss designer Marc Birkigt had created an overhead cam aviation powerplant based on his Hispano-Suiza V8 automobile engine, resulting in a 330 lb engine capable of producing 140 hp at 1,400 rpm. Further refinement of the engine brought the power to 150 hp by July 1915. Given the engine's potential, French officials ordered that production be set up as soon as possible and called upon aircraft designers to create a new high-performance fighter around the engine, called the Hispano-Suiza 8A. Louis Béchereau, chief designer of the SPAD company, quickly produced drawings for a prototype fighter equipped with the new engine. The SPAD V was basically a smaller version of the SPAD S.A two-seat \"pulpit fighter\", although as a single seater it dispensed with the so-called \"pulpit\" which carried the observer in front of the propeller.", "One of many common design feature between the new SPAD V and the S.A-2 was the use of a single-bay biplane wing with additional light struts mounted mid-bay at the point of junction of the flying and landing wires. This design simplified rigging and reduced flying wire vibration, reducing drag. The fuselage was of the standard construction for the time, consisting of a wooden frame covered with fabric, while the forward part was covered with metal sheeting. A.303 Vickers machine gun was installed above the engine, synchronized to fire through the propeller arc. The prototype was also fitted with a large spinner, to be abandoned later. Another common design feature of both the \"pulpit fighters\" and the S.VII - also shared with the S.XIII - was an all-pushrod aileron control linkage, which used a pair of exposed, 90o bellcranks protruding from the lower wing panels to operate vertical pushrods, going up to forward-projecting aileron control horns. SPAD test pilot Bequet flew the SPAD V for the first time in April 1916. Flight testing revealed excellent maximum speed (192 km/h, 119 mph) and climb rate (4.5 min to 2,000 m or 6,500 ft). The airframe's sound construction also enabled remarkable diving performance. In comparison, the Nieuport sesquiplane fighters that equipped a large part of the fighter units could occasionally shed their lower wings in a steep power-on dive, a result of the single-spar lower wing design. The combination of high speed and good diving ability promised to give Allied pilots the initiative to engage or leave combat. If the new fighter was a rugged and stable shooting platform, some pilots regretted its lack of maneuverability, especially when compared to lighter types such as the Nieuport 17. In the face of such performance, an initial production contract was made on 10 May 1916, calling for 268 machines, to be designated SPAD VII C.1 (C.1, from \"avion de chasse\" in French, indicating the aircraft was a fighter, while the 1 indicated it was a single seater). Early production aircraft suffered from a number of defects which took some time to solve and limited the delivery rate to units. While a few SPADs arrived to frontline units as early as August 1916, large numbers only began to appear in the first months of 1917. In hot weather, the engine was prone to overheating. In cold weather, the engine would not warm up. Various field modifications were used to counter the problem, including cutting extra holes in the metal sheeting to provide more air flow over the engine. On the production lines, the cowling opening was first enlarged and eventually redesigned with vertical shutters to solve both problems. The engine mount also proved too weak and reinforcements were designed to counter that. Early production aircraft also had two ammunition drums: one for the loaded canvas cartridge belt, one to hold the empty belt after the rounds were stripped from it and fired (dealing with the loose fabric belt as it worked out of the gun was a significant problem on early fighter aircraft, until the disintegrating belt link was invented) This system was prone to jamming and was only solved when Prideaux disintegrating ammo links were introduced. With the initial teething problems solved, several subcontractors began producing the SPAD VII under license in order to supply frontline units with the fighter. The subcontractors were the firms Grémont, Janoir, Kellner et Fils, de Marçay, Société d'Etudes Aéronautiques, Régy and Sommer. It was not, however, until February 1917 that the initial batch of 268 aircraft was delivered. In early 1917, an improved version of the engine developing 180 hp, the Hispano-Suiza 8Ab, was made available. This new powerplant provided the SPAD VII with even better performance, the top speed increasing from 192 km/h (119 mph) to 208 km/h (129 mph). The new engine gradually became the standard powerplant for the SPAD VII and by April 1917, all newly produced aircraft were equipped with it.", "Numerous experiments were made with new equipment or engines in the hope of further improving the SPAD VII's performance. A Renault V8 150 hp powerplant was tested but required some major redesign and the resulting performance was not considered worthwhile. A supercharged Hispano-Suiza engine was also tested, and also failed to improve performance by any significant degree. Different wing profiles appear to have been tested but were not incorporated in production models. One field modification was applied in Czechoslovakia after the war when the undercarriage struts of one S.VII were faired over in an attempt to reduce drag to increase maximum speed. Very early in the development of the S.VII, the British RFC and RNAS had shown an interest in the new fighter. An initial order for 30 aircraft was made but difficulties in early production were such that the delivery rate was very low, production being barely enough for French units alone. As the RFC was encountering an increasing opposition over the Front, measures were taken to set up production of the S.VII in the United Kingdom. Blériot & SPAD Aircraft Works and Mann, Egerton & Co. Ltd. were supplied with plans and sample aircraft and ordered to initiate production as soon as possible. The first British-built S.VII was flown and tested in April 1917, and the first aircraft was reported to have performance equal to that of French models. There were however differences between the two types. The British were worried about the light armament of the S.VII: most German fighters were now carrying two guns and experiments were made to fit an extra machine gun on the S.VII. One aircraft was fitted with a Lewis machine gun on the top wing and tested at Martlesham Heath in May 1917, while front line units also made field modifications with Foster mounts as used on the S.E.5. The resulting drop in performance was considered too drastic for the installation to become standard, and most SPAD S.VIIs continued to fly with a single Vickers. Other distinguishing features of the British-built S.VIIs included a gun fairing and a solid cowling access panel. The gun fairing partially covered the gun and extended rearwards, replacing the windshield. This, however, seriously limited pilot vision to the front and, although retained on training aircraft, it was ordered removed on aircraft destined for front line units in France. The bulged engine access panel located under the exhaust pipe on British models was made of a solid sheet of metal, in place of the louvered panel fitted on French production models. Some British SPADs were also fitted with small spinners on the prop hub. It quickly became apparent that the British production lines of the S.VII had lower quality standards than their French counterparts, resulting in aircraft with degraded performances and handling. Poor fabric sewing, fragile tailskids and radiators of insufficient effectiveness plagued the British SPADs. Photographic evidence shows that a number of British SPADs had the cylinder banks fairings, or even the entire upper engine cowling, cut out to compensate for the ill-functioning radiators. Most British S.VIIs were used for training purposes, front line units being equipped with French-built models. After some 220 aircraft had been produced, British production of the S.VII was halted in favour of better British types that were becoming available. In a similar fashion, Russia produced approximately 100 S.VIIs under license in 1917 at the Dux factory in Moscow, with engines supplied by France. It would appear the engines were often used and/or of lower quality, and that Dux used lower-grade material in building the airframes. This combination of extra weight and weaker powerplant resulted in aircraft with significantly reduced performance. The total number of aircraft produced seems uncertain, sources varying from 3,825 to some 5,600 SPAD S.VIIs built in France, 220 in the United Kingdom and approximately 100 in Russia. The SPAD XII began as a development of the S.VII, equipped with a 37 mm cannon. However, it underwent a major redesign and was a distinct type rather than a variant of the S.VII. the S.VII can be distinguished from both the S.XII and the later and larger S.XIII by having unraked cabane struts, connecting the top wing to the fuselage, as well as differences in armament.", "", "The French \"Aviation Militaire\" had been sufficiently impressed by the performance of the SPAD V prototype to order a batch of 268 aircraft on 10 May 1916. However, teething problems soon appeared and it would be several months before the SPAD VII would serve in significant numbers on the front, the last aircraft of the initial batch only being delivered in February 1917. In spite of these delays, some aircraft were delivered to frontline units as early as August 1916, complementing the Nieuport fighters. By this date, the Nieuport 11 that had ended the infamous \"Fokker scourge\" episode had been largely replaced by later types such as the Nieuport 17 but these were now being bested by a new generation of German fighters by the second half of 1916 that threatened to give Germany mastery of the skies again. At the same time, the rotary engines that had powered most Allied fighters until then were proving difficult to scale further, while the heavier inline engines were steadily getting more powerful. In this context, it was hoped the new Hispano-Suiza 8-powered SPAD VII would be able to fight the latest German fighters on better terms. The first aircraft delivered to a frontline unit was S.112 flown by Lt Sauvage of N.65, followed by S.113, assigned to Georges Guynemer of N.3. Guynemer was already credited with 15 victories at the time, but it was Armand Pinsard of N.26 who was the first to score an aerial victory on 26 August. The introduction of the SPAD VII was not enough to change the balance of the air war but it allowed both pilots and mechanics to familiarize themselves with the new fighter. Many pilots found the SPAD lacked maneuverability and some even returned to the nimbler Nieuports. New tactics based on speed were developed to take advantage of the SPAD's power, and to compensate for its lack of maneuverability. The aircraft's capacity to dive safely up to 400 km/h (249 mph) permitted the pilot to break from combat when the situation demanded it. With early problems solved and production shared between several manufacturers, the SPAD VII was finally available in large numbers at the front in early 1917. By mid 1917, some 500 were in front-line service, having largely replaced the Nieuport. It gained a reputation for being stronger than its predecessors. Its principal shortcoming was its one machine gun armament at a time when the opposing Albatros D.III fighters were equipped with two. The SPAD VII was gradually replaced by the improved SPAD XIII in front line units but remained in use as a trainer aircraft with Aviation Militaire throughout the war and it remained as the standard pilot certification test aircraft until 1928.", "Allied air services were also equipped with the new fighter. The Royal Flying Corps was the first foreign service to receive the SPAD VII, although only two squadrons (19 and 23 Squadrons) used it on the Western Front. In addition, fighter schools in the United-Kingdom and 30 Squadron in Mesopotamia also received SPADs. British-built SPADs were generally used in the training units and in the Middle East, while fighting units in France used superior French-built models. The SPAD VII was replaced by the Sopwith Dolphin in 19 Squadron in January 1918 – with No. 23 Squadron in April (becoming perhaps the last squadron to use S.VIIs in France). Russia received a batch of 43 in spring 1917 which were supplemented by approximately 100 SPAD VII manufactured by the Dux factory under license. Another early user of the SPAD VII was Germany. Several were captured intact and were reportedly used both in combat and for training. Rudolph Windisch of Jasta 66 flew a SPAD VII in combat with German markings although it is not known if any aerial victories were achieved. Belgium equipped the \"5e Escadrille\" (later renamed \"10e Escadrille\") with the S.VII. Edmond Thieffry was probably the most famous Belgian pilot to fly the type, most other aces preferring the Hanriot HD.1. Italy began using the SPAD VII in March 1917 where nine \"Squadriglia\" were equipped with it. As was the case in other air services, pilots accustomed to more maneuverable mounts disliked the new fighter, and again some reverted to the Nieuport 27 or the Hanriot HD.1, which eventually became the standard Italian Fighter. Francesco Baracca, Italy's leading ace, was delighted with the new model and his personal aircraft is preserved in Italy. When the United States entered the war in 1917, an order for 189 SPAD VIIs was placed for the United States Army Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force. The first aircraft were delivered in December 1917. Most were used as advanced trainers to prepare the American pilots for the SPAD XIII. After the war, surplus SPAD VIIs were used into the late 1920s by numerous countries, including Brazil, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Greece, Japan, the Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Siam, the United States and Yugoslavia. Postwar" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal definition.", "Alternative definitions.", "Relational definition.", "Fixpoint definition.", "Game theoretical definition.", "Coalgebraic definition.", "Variants of bisimulation.", "Bisimulation and modal logic.", "Algorithm." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Given a labelled state transition system (formula_1, formula_2, →), where formula_1 is a set of states, formula_2 is a set of labels and → is a set of labelled transitions (i.e., a subset of formula_1 × formula_2 × formula_1), a \"bisimulation\" relation is a binary relation formula_8 over formula_1 (i.e., formula_8 ⊆ formula_1 × formula_1) such that both formula_8 and its converse formula_14 are simulations. Equivalently formula_8 is a bisimulation if for every pair of elements formula_16 in formula_1 with formula_18 in formula_8, for all α in formula_2: for all formula_21 in formula_1, and, symmetrically, for all formula_24 in formula_1 Given two states formula_35 and formula_36 in formula_1, formula_35 is bisimilar to formula_36, written formula_40, if there is a bisimulation formula_8 such that formula_42 is in formula_8. The bisimilarity relation formula_44 is an equivalence relation. Furthermore, it is the largest bisimulation relation over a given transition system. Note that it is not always the case that if formula_35 simulates formula_36 and formula_36 simulates formula_35 then they are bisimilar. For formula_35 and formula_36 to be bisimilar, the simulation between formula_35 and formula_36 must be the converse of the simulation between formula_36 and formula_35. Counter-example (in CCS, describing a coffee machine) : formula_55 and formula_56 simulate each other but are not bisimilar.", "", "Bisimulation can be defined in terms of composition of relations as follows. Given a labelled state transition system formula_57, a \"bisimulation\" relation is a binary relation formula_8 over formula_1 (i.e., formula_8 ⊆ formula_1 × formula_1) such that formula_63 From the monotonicity and continuity of relation composition, it follows immediately that the set of the bisimulations is closed under unions (joins in the poset of relations), and a simple algebraic calculation shows that the relation of bisimilarity—the join of all bisimulations—is an equivalence relation. This definition, and the associated treatment of bisimilarity, can be interpreted in any involutive quantale.", "Bisimilarity can also be defined in order theoretical fashion, in terms of fixpoint theory, more precisely as the greatest fixed point of a certain function defined below. Given a labelled state transition system (formula_1, Λ, →), define formula_67 to be a function from binary relations over formula_1 to binary relations over formula_1, as follows: Let formula_8 be any binary relation over formula_1. formula_72 is defined to be the set of all pairs formula_18 in formula_1 × formula_1 such that: and Bisimilarity is then defined to be the greatest fixed point of formula_78.", "Bisimulation can also be thought of in terms of a game between two players: attacker and defender. \"Attacker\" goes first and may choose any valid transition, formula_79, from formula_18. I.e.: formula_81 or formula_82 The \"Defender\" must then attempt to match that transition, formula_79 from either formula_84 or formula_85 depending on the attacker's move. I.e., they must find an formula_79 such that: formula_87 or formula_88 Attacker and defender continue to take alternating turns until: By the above definition the system is a bisimulation if and only if there exists a winning strategy for the defender.", "A bisimulation for state transition systems is a special case of coalgebraic bisimulation for the type of covariant powerset functor. Note that every state transition system formula_57 is bijectively a function formula_92 from formula_1 to the powerset of formula_1 indexed by formula_2 written as formula_96, defined by Let formula_98 be formula_99-th projection mapping formula_42 to formula_35 and formula_36 respectively for formula_103; and formula_104 the forward image of formula_105 defined by dropping the third component where formula_107 is a subset of formula_108. Similarly for formula_109. Using the above notations, a relation formula_110 is a bisimulation on a transition system formula_57 if and only if there exists a transition system formula_112 on the relation formula_8 such that the diagram commutes, i.e. for formula_103, the equations hold where formula_116 is the functional representation of formula_57.", "In special contexts the notion of bisimulation is sometimes refined by adding additional requirements or constraints. For example, if the state transition system includes a notion of \"silent\" (or \"internal\") action, often denoted with formula_118, i.e. actions that are not visible by external observers, then bisimulation can be relaxed to be \"weak bisimulation\", in which if two states formula_35 and formula_36 are bisimilar and there is some number of internal actions leading from formula_35 to some state formula_21 then there must exist state formula_24 such that there is some number (possibly zero) of internal actions leading from formula_36 to formula_24. A relation formula_126 on processes is a weak bisimulation if the following holds (with formula_127, and formula_128 being an observable and mute transition respectively): formula_129 formula_130 This is closely related to bisimulation up to a relation. Typically, if the state transition system gives the operational semantics of a programming language, then the precise definition of bisimulation will be specific to the restrictions of the programming language. Therefore, in general, there may be more than one kind of bisimulation, (bisimilarity resp.) relationship depending on the context.", "Since Kripke models are a special case of (labelled) state transition systems, bisimulation is also a topic in modal logic. In fact, modal logic is the fragment of first-order logic invariant under bisimulation (van Benthem's theorem).", "Checking that two finite transition systems are bisimilar can be done in polynomial time (Cor. 7.45 in)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Clothing fashions.", "Fashion industry.", "Fashion trend.", "Political influences.", "Technology influences.", "Social influences.", "Economic influences.", "Circular economy.", "China's domestic spending.", "Marketing.", "Market research.", "Symbolic consumption.", "Media.", "Public relations and social media.", "Anthropological perspective.", "Intellectual property.", "Political activism.", "African-Americans in Fashion.", "Modern Day Fashion.", "Early American Fashion.", "Movements using Fashion.", "Civil Rights Movement.", "Black Panther Party.", "Colorism in Fashion.", "Statistics.", "Tokenism.", "Cultural Appropriation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Early Western travelers, traveling to India, Persia, Turkey, or China, would frequently remark on the absence of change in fashion in those countries. The Japanese \"shōgun\"s secretary bragged (not completely accurately) to a Spanish visitor in 1609 that Japanese clothing had not changed in over a thousand years. However, there is considerable evidence in Ming China of rapidly changing fashions in Chinese clothing. Changes in costume often took place at times of economic or social change, as occurred in ancient Rome and the medieval Caliphate, followed by a long period without significant changes. In 8th-century Moorish Spain, the musician Ziryab introduced to Córdoba sophisticated clothing-styles based on seasonal and daily fashions from his native Baghdad, modified by his inspiration. Similar changes in fashion occurred in the 11th century in the Middle East following the arrival of the Turks, who introduced clothing styles from Central Asia and the Far East. Additionally, there is a long history of fashion in West Africa. The Cloth was used as a form of currency in trade with the Portuguese and Dutch as early as the 16th Century. Locally produced cloth and cheaper European imports were assembled into new styles to accommodate the growing elite class of West Africans and resident gold and slave traders. There was an exceptionally strong tradition of cloth-weaving in Oyo and the areas inhabited by the Igbo people. The beginning in Europe of continual and increasingly rapid change in clothing styles can be fairly reliably dated. Historians, including James Laver and Fernand Braudel, date the start of Western fashion in clothing to the middle of the 14th century, though they tend to rely heavily on contemporary imagery and illuminated manuscripts were not common before the fourteenth century. The most dramatic early change in fashion was a sudden drastic shortening and tightening of the male over-garment from calf-length to barely covering the buttocks, sometimes accompanied with stuffing in the chest to make it look bigger. This created the distinctive Western outline of a tailored top worn over leggings or trousers. The pace of change accelerated considerably in the following century, and women's and men's fashion, especially in the dressing and adorning of the hair, became equally complex. Art historians are, therefore, able to use fashion with confidence and precision to date images, often to within five years, particularly in the case of images from the 15th century. Initially, changes in fashion led to a fragmentation across the upper classes of Europe of what had previously been a very similar style of dressing and the subsequent development of distinctive national styles. These national styles remained very different until a counter-movement in the 17th to 18th centuries imposed similar styles once again, mostly originating from Ancien Régime France. Though the rich usually led fashion, the increasing affluence of early modern Europe led to the bourgeoisie and even peasants following trends at a distance, but still uncomfortably close for the elites – a factor that Fernand Braudel regards as one of the main motors of changing fashion. In the 16th century, national differences were at their most pronounced. Ten 16th century portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats. Albrecht Dürer illustrated", "The notion of the global fashion industry is a product of the modern age. Before the mid-19th century, most clothing was custom-made. It was handmade for individuals, either as home production or on order from dressmakers and tailors. By the beginning of the 20th century—with the rise of new technologies such as the sewing machine, the rise of global capitalism and the development of the factory system of production, and the proliferation of retail outlets such as department stores—clothing had increasingly come to be mass-produced in standard sizes and sold at fixed prices. Although the fashion industry developed first in Europe and America,, it is an international and highly globalized industry, with clothing often designed in one country, manufactured in another, and sold worldwide.", "Fashion trends influenced by several factors, including cinema, celebrities, climate, creative explorations, political, economic, social, and technological. Examining these factors is called a PEST analysis. Fashion forecasters can use this information to help determine the growth or decline of a particular trend.", "Politics has played a central role in the development of fashion. For example, First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was a fashionable icon of the early 1960s who led the formal dressing trend. By wearing a Chanel suit, a structural Givenchy shift dress, or a soft color Cassini coat with large buttons, it created her elegant look and led a delicate trend. Furthermore, the political revolution also made much impact on the fashion trend. For example, during the 1960s, the economy had become wealthier, the divorce rate was increasing,", "Technology plays a significant role in most aspects of today's society. Technological influences are growing more apparent in the fashion industry. Advances and new developments are shaping and creating current and future trends. Developments such as wearable technology have become an essential trend in fashion. They will continue with advances such as clothing constructed with solar panels that charge devices and smart fabrics that enhance wearer comfort by changing color or texture based on environmental changes. The fashion industry is seeing how 3D printing technology has influenced designers such as Iris Van Herpen and Kimberly Ovitz. These designers have been heavily experimenting and developing 3D printed couture pieces. As the technology grows, the 3D printers will become more accessible to designers and eventually, consumers, which could potentially shape the fashion", "Fashion relates to social and cultural context of an environment. According to Matika, \"Elements of popular culture become fused when a person's trend is associated with a preference for a genre of music...like music, news or literature, fashion has been fused into everyday lives.\" Fashion is not only seen as pure aesthetic values; fashion is also a medium for performers to create an overall atmosphere and express their opinions altogether through music video. The latest music video ‘Formation’ by Beyoncé, according to Carlos, \"The pop star pays homage to her Creole root... tracing the roots of the Louisiana cultural nerve center from the post-abolition era to present day, Beyoncé catalogs the evolution of the", "", "With increasing environmental awareness, the economic imperative to \"Spend now, think later\" is getting increasingly scrutinized. Today's consumer tends to be more mindful about consumption, looking for just enough and better, more durable options. People have also become more conscious of the impact their everyday consumption has on the environment and society, and these initiatives are often described as a move towards sustainable fashion, yet critics argue a circular economy based on growth is an oxymoron, or an increasing spiral of consumption, rather than a utopian cradle-to-cradle circular solution. In today's linear economical system, manufacturers extract resources from the earth to make products that will soon be discarded in landfills,", "Consumption as a share of gross domestic product in China has fallen for six decades, from 76 percent in 1952 to 28 percent in 2011. China plans to reduce tariffs on a number of consumer goods and expand its 72-hour transit visa plan to more cities in an effort to stimulate domestic consumption. The announcement of import tax reductions follows changes in June 2015, when the government cut the tariffs on clothing, cosmetics and various other goods by half. Among the changes — easier tax refunds for overseas shoppers and accelerated openings of more duty-free shops in cities covered by", "", "Consumers of different groups have varying needs and demands. Factors taken into consideration when thinking of consumers' needs include key demographics. To understand consumers' needs and predict fashion trends, fashion companies have to do market research There are two research methods: primary and secondary. Secondary methods are taking other information that has already been collected, for example using a book or an article for research. Primary research is collecting data through surveys, interviews, observation, and/or focus groups. Primary research often focuses on large sample sizes to determine customer's motivations to shop. Benefits of primary research is specific information about a fashion brand's consumer is explored. Surveys are helpful tools; questions can be open-ended or closed-ended. A negative factor surveys and interviews present is that the answers can", "Consumption is driven not only by need, the symbolic meaning for consumers is also a factor. Consumers engaging in symbolic consumption may develop a sense of self over an extended period of time as various objects are collected as part of the process of establishing their identity and, when the symbolic meaning is shared in a social group, to communicate their identity to others. For teenagers consumption plays a role in distinguishing the child self from the adult. Researchers have found that the fashion choices of teenagers are used for self-expression and also to recognize other teens who wear similar clothes. The symbolic association of clothing items can link individuals personality and interests, with music as a prominent factor influencing fashion decisions.", "The media plays a significant role when it comes to fashion. For instance, an important part of fashion is fashion journalism. Editorial critique, guidelines, and commentary can be found on television and in magazines, newspapers, fashion websites, social networks, and fashion blogs. In recent years, fashion blogging and YouTube videos have become a major outlet for spreading trends and fashion tips, creating an online culture of sharing one's style on a website or Instagram account. Through these media outlets readers and viewers all over the world can learn about fashion, making it very accessible. In addition to fashion journalism, another media platform that is important in fashion industry is advertisement. Advertisements provide information to audiences and promote the sales of products and services. Fashion industry utilizes advertisements to attract consumers and promote its products to generate sales. Few decades ago when technology was still underdeveloped, advertisements heavily relied on radio, magazines, billboards, and newspapers. These days, there are more various ways in advertisements such as television ads, online-based ads using internet websites, and posts, videos, and live streaming in social media platforms. At the beginning of the 20th century, fashion magazines began to include photographs of various fashion designs and became even more influential than in the past. In cities throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought after and had a profound effect on public taste in clothing. Talented illustrators drew exquisite fashion plates for the publications which covered the most recent developments in fashion and beauty. Perhaps the most famous of these magazines was \"La Gazette du Bon Ton\", which was founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel and regularly published until 1925 (with the exception of the war years). \"Vogue\", founded in the United States in 1892, has been the longest-lasting and most successful of the hundreds of fashion magazines that have come and gone. Increasing affluence after World War II and, most importantly, the advent of cheap color printing in the 1960s, led to a huge boost in its sales and heavy coverage of fashion in mainstream women's magazines, followed by men's magazines in the 1990s. One such example of \"Vogue\"'s popularity is the younger version, \"Teen Vogue\", which covers clothing and trends that are targeted more toward the \"fashionista on a budget\". Haute couture designers followed the trend by starting ready-to-wear and perfume lines which are heavily advertised in the magazines and now dwarf their original couture businesses. A recent development within fashion print media is the rise of text-based and critical magazines which aim to prove that fashion is not superficial, by creating a dialogue between fashion academia and the industry. Examples of this trend are: \"Fashion Theory\" (1997) and \"Vestoj\" (2009). Television coverage began in the 1950s with small fashion features. In the 1960s and 1970s, fashion segments on various entertainment shows became more frequent, and by the 1980s, dedicated fashion shows such as \"Fashion Television\" started to appear. \"FashionTV\" was the pioneer in this undertaking and has since grown to become the leader in both Fashion Television and new media channels. The Fashion Industry is beginning to promote their styles through Bloggers on social media's. Vogue specified Chiara Ferragni as \"blogger of the moment\" due to the rises of followers through her Fashion Blog, that became popular. A few days after the 2010 Fall Fashion Week in New York City came to a close, \"The New Islander\"'s Fashion Editor, Genevieve Tax, criticized the fashion industry for running on a seasonal schedule of its own, largely at the expense of real-world consumers. \"Because designers release their fall collections in the spring and their spring collections in the fall, fashion magazines such as \"Vogue\" always and only look forward to the upcoming season, promoting parkas come September while issuing reviews on shorts in January\", she writes. \"Savvy shoppers, consequently, have been conditioned to be extremely, perhaps impractically, farsighted with their buying.\" The fashion industry has been the subject of numerous films and television shows, including the reality show \"Project Runway\" and the drama series \"Ugly Betty\". Specific fashion brands have been featured in film, not only as product placement opportunities, but as bespoke items that have subsequently led to trends in fashion. Videos in general have been very useful in promoting the fashion industry. This is evident not only from television shows directly spotlighting the fashion industry, but also movies, events and music videos which showcase fashion statements as well as promote specific brands through product placements.", "Fashion public relations involves being in touch with a company's audiences and creating strong relationships with them, reaching out to media and initiating messages that project positive images of the company. Social media plays an important role in modern-day fashion public relations; enabling practitioners to reach a wide range of consumers through various platforms. Building brand awareness and credibility is a key implication of good public relations. In some cases, great hype is built about new designers' collections before they are released into the market, due to the immense exposure generated by practitioners. Social media, such as blogs, micro blogs, podcasts, photo and video sharing sites have all become increasingly important to fashion public relations. The interactive nature of these platforms allows practitioners to engage and communicate with the", "Anthropology, the study of culture and human societies, studies fashion by asking why certain styles are deemed socially appropriate and others are not. A certain way is chosen and that becomes the fashion as defined by a certain people as a whole, so if a particular style has a meaning in an already occurring set of beliefs that style will become fashion. According to Ted Polhemus and Lynn Procter, fashion can be described as adornment, of which there are two types: fashion and anti-fashion. Through the capitalization and commoditisation of clothing, accessories, and shoes, etc., what once constituted anti-fashion becomes part of fashion as the lines between fashion and anti-fashion are blurred. The definition of fashion and anti-fashion is as follows: Anti-fashion is fixed and changes little over time. Anti-fashion is different depending on the cultural or social group one is associated with or where one lives, but within that group or locality the style changes little. Fashion is the exact opposite of anti-fashion. Fashion changes very quickly and is not affiliated with one group or area of the world but is spread out throughout the world wherever people can communicate easily with each other. For example, Queen Elizabeth II's 1953 coronation gown is an example of anti-fashion because it is traditional and does not change over any period whereas a gown from fashion designer Dior's collection of 1953 is fashion because the style will change every season as Dior comes up with a new gown to replace the old one. In the Dior gown the length, cut, fabric, and embroidery of the gown change from season to season. Anti-fashion is concerned with maintaining the status quo while fashion is concerned with social mobility. Time is expressed in terms of continuity in anti-fashion and as change in fashion. Fashion has changing modes of adornment while anti-fashion has fixed modes of adornment. Indigenous and peasant modes of adornment are an example of anti-fashion. Change in fashion is part of the larger system and is structured to be a deliberate change in style. Today, people in rich countries are linked to people in poor countries through the commoditization and consumption of what is called fashion. People work long hours in one area of the globe", "In the fashion industry, intellectual property is not enforced as it is within the film industry and music industry. Robert Glariston, an intellectual property expert, mentioned in a fashion seminar held in LA that \"Copyright law regarding clothing is a current hot-button issue in the industry. We often have to draw the line between designers being inspired by a design and those outright stealing it in different places.\" To take inspiration from others' designs contributes to the fashion industry's ability to establish clothing trends. For the past few years, WGSN has been a dominant source of fashion news and forecasts in encouraging fashion brands worldwide to be inspired by one another. Enticing consumers to buy clothing by establishing", "There has been great debate about politics' place in fashion and traditionally, the fashion industry has maintained a rather apolitical stance. Considering the U.S.'s political climate in the surrounding months of the 2016 presidential election, during 2017 fashion weeks in London, Milan, New York, Paris and São Paulo amongst others, many designers took the opportunity to take political stances leveraging their platforms and influence to reach the masses. Aiming to \"amplify a greater message of unity, inclusion, diversity, and feminism in a fashion space\", Mara Hoffman invited the founders of the \"Women's March on Washington\" to open her show which featured modern silhouettes of utilitarian wear, described by critics as \"Made", "African-Americans have used fashion through the years, to express themselves and their ideas. It has grown and developed with time. African-American influencers often have been known to start trends though modern day social media, and even in past years they have been able to reach others with their fashion and style.", "Celebrities like Rihanna, Lupita Nyong'o, Zendaya, and Michelle Obama have been a few of the many fashion idols in the black female community. For men, Pharrell Williams, Kanye West, and Ice Cube have also helped define modern", "In the mid to end of the 1900s, African American style changed and developed with the times. Around the 1950s is really when the black community was able to create their own distinct styles. The term \"Sunday attire\" was coined, communities emphasized \"Correct\" dress, it was especially important when \"stepping out\" for social occasions with community", "", "Black activists and supporters used fashion to express their solidarity and support of this civil rights movement. Supporters adorned symbolic clothing, accessories and hairstyles, usually native to Africa. Politics and fashion were fused together during this time and the use of these symbolic fashion statements sent a message to America and the rest of the world that African Americans were proud of their heritage. They aimed", "The Black Panther Party (BPP) was an essential piece of the Black Power movement that allowed members that were involved advocate for the African American race in different subjects like equality and politics. The BPP members wore a very distinctive uniform: a black leather jacket, black pants, light blue shirts, a black beret, an afro, dark sunglasses, and usually a fist in the air. Their image gave off a very militant like feel to it. This notable uniform was established in 1996, but a different uniform was still in place before; just the sunglasses and leather jackets. Each member wore this uniform at events, rallies, and in their day-today life. Very few members changed the essential parts of the outfit, but some added personal touches such as necklaces or other jewelry that was usually were a part of African culture. The Black Panther uniform did succeeded in intimidating enemies and onlookers and clearly sent a message of black pride and power even though the initial intention of this party was to communicate solidarity among the Black Panther Party members.", "Since the 1970s, fashion models of color, especially black men and women, have experienced an increase in discrimination in the fashion industry. In the years from 1970 to 1990, black designers and models were very successful, but as the 1990s came to an end, the fashion aesthetic changed and it did not include black models or designers. In today's fashion, black models, influencers, and designers account for one of the smallest percentages of the industry. There are many theories about this lack of diversity, that it can be attributed to the economic differences usually associated with race and class, or it can reflect the differences in arts schooling given to mostly black populated schools, and also blatant racism.", "A report from New York Fashion (Spring 2015) week found that while 79.69% of models on the runway were white, only 9.75% of models were black, 7.67% were Asian, and 2.12% were Latina. The lack of diversity also accounts for not only designers but models too, out of four hundred and seventy members of The Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) only twelve", "Many fashion designers have come under fire over the years for what is known as tokenism. Designer or editors will add one or two members", "There are many examples of cultural appropriation in fashion. In many instances, designers can be found using aspects of culture inappropriately, in most cases taking traditional clothing from middle eastern, African, and Hispanic culture and adding it to their runway fashion. Some examples are in a 2018 Gucci runway show, white models wore Sikh headdresses, causing a lot of backlash. Victoria's secret was also under fire for putting traditional native headdresses on their models during a lingerie runway show. Marc Jacobs sent down models sporting dreadlocks in his spring 2017 New York Fashion Week show, also facing immense criticism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal definition.", "Relation between labelled and unlabelled transition system.", "Comparison with abstract rewriting systems.", "Extensions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Formally, a transition system is a pair (\"S\", →) where \"S\" is a set of states and → is a relation of state transitions (i.e., a subset of \"S\" × \"S\"). A transition from state \"p\" to state \"q\", i.e. (\"p\", \"q\") ∈ →, is written as \"p\" → \"q\". A labelled transition system is a tuple (\"S\", Λ, →) where \"S\" is a set of states, Λ is a set of labels and → is a relation of labelled transitions (i.e., a subset of \"S\" × Λ × \"S\"). (\"p\",α,\"q\") ∈ → is written as and represents a transition from state \"p\" to state \"q\" with label α. Labels can represent different things depending on the language of interest. Typical uses of labels include representing input expected, conditions that must be true to trigger the transition, or actions performed during the transition. Labelled transitions systems were originally introduced as \"named\" transition systems. If, for any given \"p\" and α, there exists only a single tuple (\"p\",α,\"q\") in →, then one says that α is \"deterministic\" (for \"p\"). If, for any given \"p\" and α, there exists at least one tuple (\"p\",α,\"q\") in →, then one says that α is \"executable\" (for \"p\"). This can be rephrased in terms of category theory. Every labelled state transition system formula_2 is bijectively a function formula_3 from formula_4 to the powerset of formula_4 indexed by formula_6 written as formula_7, defined by Therefore a labelled state transition system is a F-coalgebra for the functor formula_9.", "There are many relations between these concepts. Some are simple, such as observing that a labelled transition system where the set of labels consists of only one element is equivalent to an unlabelled transition system. However, not all these relations are equally trivial.", "As a mathematical object, an unlabeled transition system is identical with an (unindexed) abstract rewriting system. If we consider the rewriting relation as an indexed set of relations, as some authors do, then a labeled transition system is equivalent to an abstract rewriting system with the indices being the labels. The focus of the study and the terminology are different however. In a transition system one is interested in interpreting the labels as actions, whereas in an abstract rewriting system the focus is on how objects may be transformed (rewritten) into others.", "In model checking, a transition system is sometimes defined to include an additional labeling function for the states as well, resulting in a notion that encompasses that of Kripke structure. Action languages are extensions of transition systems, adding a set of \"fluents\" \"F\", a set of values \"V\", and a function that maps \"F\" × \"S\" to \"V\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Formula One.", "Sauber (1994–1996).", "Williams (1997–1998).", "Jordan (1999–mid 2001) and Prost (mid 2001).", "Arrows (2002) and Sauber (2003).", "DTM.", "Later career.", "Driving style and appraisal.", "Racing record.", "Complete International Formula 3000 results.", "Complete Formula One results.", "Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft/Masters results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Frentzen was born on 18 May 1967 in the West German city of Mönchengladbach (North Rhine-Westphalia) to Heinrich-Harald Frentzen, a German entrepreneur and his Spanish wife Angela Lladosa. He has two sisters (Sylvia, a theologian, Sonja, a teacher) and two half-sisters (Samantha, a former student, and Nicole-Nadine). His family was connected to motorsport; his father raced between 1950 and 1957. Frentzen's parents divorced when he was eight years old and his father subsequently married Mexican-born Arazelli while Angela returned to Spain. Frentzen began karting at the age of twelve, after his father brought him his first kart, and made an extraordinarily successful start. In 1981, aged fourteen, Frentzen won the German Junior Kart Championship. Two years later, Frentzen entered the CIK Asia Pacific Championships in Australia driving a Dino although he did not finish. In 1984, he finished runner-up in the 100cc class. He was funded and supported by his father—a funeral director—who also acted as both team boss and head mechanic. In 1985, Frentzen moved into car racing by entering the German Formula Ford 2000 series. After two seasons in Formula Ford he was runner-up in the 1987 series, despite not participating in all races. Frentzen progressed to German Formula Opel Lotus in 1988 in the Junior Team of former Formula One driver Jochen Mass, who had been impressed by Frentzen's performances in Formula Ford. Frentzen was champion of the German series in his first year and his teammate Marco Werner finished third in the championship. He also participated in the Formula Opel Lotus Euroseries, where he finished 6th in the championship, scoring 56 points. The next step was the German Formula 3 Championship in 1989, where Frentzen competed against many future stars including Michael Schumacher and Karl Wendlinger. At the time, there was a big push by Bernie Ecclestone to have a German driver in the Formula One World Championship, so the ONS (the German National Motorsports committee) decided to support both Frentzen and Schumacher. The ONS put up the reward of a Formula One test to the driver who first would take a victory in a Formula 3 race. This ultimately ended up being Schumacher, in a controversial race at Zeltweg, Austria in which Frentzen claimed Schumacher had forced him off the track. However, Schumacher did not get the Formula One test drive anyway; Karl Wendlinger won the German Formula 3 Championship and Frentzen became joint runner-up with Schumacher (the two finishing on identical points totals). In 1990, Frentzen entered the International Formula 3000 series driving for Eddie Jordan Racing and was partnered by Eddie Irvine. Frentzen finished the season 16th in the championship, scoring 3 points. In the same year, he also participated in the World Sports Prototype Championship driving a Mercedes-Benz C11 scoring one podium and six points. In 1991, Frentzen continued to drive in International Formula 3000, moving to Vortex Motorsport and scored five points in that year's series.", "", "In 1994 Frentzen was given a Formula One drive by Peter Sauber in a Mercedes powered car, as teammate to Wendlinger. His driving impressed Frank Williams, who asked him to replace Ayrton Senna at Williams after the Brazilian's death, but Frentzen chose to remain with Sauber, and his performances helped to maintain the team's momentum after Karl Wendlinger was seriously injured at Monaco. The following year in the now Ford-powered Sauber he got his first podium finish at the Italian Grand Prix and ended the year 9th in the Drivers Championship. However, the 1996 Sauber was unreliable, with many races ending in retirements and Frentzen dropping down the order, though he was one of only four drivers running at the end of that year's chaotic, rain-soaked Monaco Grand Prix. The race was won by Olivier Panis.", "For the 1997 season, Frentzen replaced Damon Hill at the Williams-Renault team, which had won the drivers' championship three times since 1992. At the first race of the season, the Australian Grand Prix, Frentzen took the lead at the first corner and remained there until his first pit stop. He was running second late in the race when a brake disc exploded, throwing him off the circuit and into retirement. He took his first win at San Marino but the season was disappointing for him; after the family atmosphere at Sauber, Frentzen found life at Williams difficult, in particular having a troubled relationship with Patrick Head. Despite qualifying for many races on the front row he had a tendency to drift back in the race, usually finishing well behind teammate Jacques Villeneuve. However, because of Michael Schumacher's disqualification from the driver's championship Frentzen ended up second in the championship with 42 points to teammate Villeneuve's 81, having scored one win to Villeneuve's seven. The next year Williams lost the works Renault engine, instead using a rebranded version called Mecachrome. Williams also lost chief designer Adrian Newey to McLaren. Consequently the team suffered a loss of form. Nevertheless, Frentzen finished third in the season opening 1998 Australian Grand Prix. However, McLaren and Ferrari dominated the season, and Williams struggled to keep pace. The race in Australia was the highlight of Frentzen's year as the Williams lost pace. He ended up with 17 points, with his teammate on 23 points. Frentzen and Villeneuve were replaced by Alessandro Zanardi and Ralf Schumacher for 1999.", "In 1999 Frentzen moved to Jordan in a straight swap with Ralf Schumacher and enjoyed success in the Mugen-Honda powered car, with two race wins and scoring points in the majority of races. Frentzen finished third in the Driver Championship and was regarded by many as the driver of the year. After the strong season Frentzen was considered as a favourite to challenge for the championship in 2000. 2000 and 2001 were critical years as Honda also began to supply the BAR team, resulting in a race between the teams as to who would secure the regular engine supply. In 2000 Frentzen managed two podiums, which were the best results for the team, but Jordan still finished down the grid and, crucially, behind BAR. After some low points finishes, injury, disagreements about the technical direction of the team (Frentzen reportedly offered to pay for the changes to fix the car, out of his own pocket) and then a string of retirements halfway through the 2001 season, Jordan sacked Frentzen and replaced him with Jean Alesi. Eight years later Eddie Jordan revealed that the termination of Frentzen's contract was a move to appease Honda and sign the Japanese driver Takuma Sato to race for the team. Frentzen subsequently took Alesi's place at the struggling Prost team, and managed to qualify fourth at Spa, before the outfit collapsed financially at the end of the season.", "2002 saw Frentzen drive for the Arrows team. He scored points on two occasions and outpaced both the Jaguars who ran the same engine. But the team went bankrupt in August and Frentzen was released from his contract. Back with Sauber for 2003, after a one-off drive replacing Felipe Massa at the 2002 United States Grand Prix, Frentzen was evenly matched with his highly rated teammate Nick Heidfeld and scored a podium finish in the penultimate race of the year in the United States.", "For 2004, Frentzen moved to the German Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters saloon car series to drive for Opel, encouraged by the success achieved in the series by fellow F1 refugee Jean Alesi. However, his Opel Vectra was not a competitive car, and he was regularly outpaced by not only the Audi and Mercedes drivers but also by his Opel teammates, eventually finishing the season 14th in the championship standings. However he remained in the DTM with Opel for the 2005 season and finished the year in 8th as best-placed Opel driver, with his best result a 3rd place from pole position at Brno in the Czech Republic. After Opel withdrew after the 2005 season, Frentzen joined Audi for 2006. He would finish 3rd at the first race of the season at Hockenheim and again at the 8th race of the season at Barcelona. Frentzen finished the season 7th in the final standings and quit the team stating he had \"no support from the team\".", "In April 2008, Frentzen drove the Bahrain race in the Speedcar Series of the 2007/2008 season and later on joined the Speedcar Series for the complete 2008/2009 season. He competed in the 24 Hours of Le Mans for Aston Martin Racing driving one of the two factory Aston Martin DBR9s with Karl Wendlinger and Andrea Piccini in the GT1 class. His team finished 4th in class and 16th overall. Also in 2008, Frentzen built the HHF Hybrid Concept Car which he entered in the 24 Hours Nürburgring with his own Team. The chassis was a bought Gumpert Apollo road car with a 3.3 litre V8 bi-turbo with 520 hp and an electric motor with approximately 136 hp. Frentzen finished the race but was not classified due to two conventional gearbox failures. In 2011, Frentzen won a special one-off 'ROC Legends' race against Hans-Joachim Stuck, Marc Duez and Stig Blomqvist as part of the 2011 Race of Champions. In 2012, Frentzen competed in the ADAC GT Masters season with a Callaway Competition Corvette Z06, and returned to the series in 2014 with a HTP Motorsport Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG GT3.", "Frentzen has been described as a \"loyal\" driver. The monthly magazine F1 Racing noted that the key issue for Frentzen was finding the appropriate settings for his car which was done by himself. In his autobiography \"An Independent Man\", Eddie Jordan said that Frentzen did a \"great job\" at driving the Jordan 199. After leaving Sauber at the end of 2003, BBC Sport described Frentzen as a driver who \"never quite made the most of a brilliant natural talent.\" However, Sauber team principal Peter Sauber said in 2005 that Frentzen was the most important driver for his team but admitted that the driver need to work in a specific atmosphere and referred to his time at Williams where he was in conflict with technical director Patrick Head.", "", "() (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in \"italics\" indicate fastest lap)", "Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.", "A non-championship one-off race was held in 2004 at the streets of Shanghai, China." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ecology.", "Morphology.", "Golden tench.", "Economic significance.", "Angling." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The tench is most often found in still waters with a clay or muddy substrate and abundant vegetation. This species is rare in clear waters across stony substrate, and is absent altogether from fast-flowing streams. It tolerates water with a low oxygen concentration, being found in waters where even the carp cannot survive. Tench feed mostly at night with a preference for animals, such as chironomids, on the bottom of eutrophic waters and snails and pea clams in well-vegetated waters. Breeding takes place in shallow water usually among aquatic plants where the sticky green eggs can be deposited. Spawning usually occurs in summer, and as many as 300,000 eggs may be produced. Growth is rapid, and fish may reach a weight of 0.11 kg (0.25 lb) within the first year.", "Tench have a stocky, carp-like shape and olive-green skin, darker above and almost golden below. The tail fin is square in shape. The other fins are distinctly rounded in shape. The mouth is rather narrow and provided at each corner with a very small barbel. Maximum size is 70 cm, though most specimens are much smaller. A record fish caught in 2001 in England had a weight of 15 lb 3 oz (6.89 kg). The eyes are small and red-orange in colour. Sexual dimorphism is absent or weak, limited to the adult females having a more convex ventral profile when compared with males. Males may also possess a very thick and flattened outer ray to the ventral fins. Males are generally smaller than females, but can be recognised by having more curved lower fins and noticeable muscles around the base of the fins generally absent in female. The tench has very small scales, which are deeply embedded in a thick skin, making it as slippery as an eel. Folklore has it that this slime cured any sick fish that rubbed against it, and from this belief arose the name doctor fish.", "An artificially bred variety of tench called the golden tench is a popular ornamental fish for ponds. This form varies in colour from pale gold through to dark red, and some fish have black or red spots on the flanks and fins. Though somewhat similar to the goldfish, because these fish have such small scales, their quality is rather different.", "Tench are edible, working well in recipes that would otherwise call for carp, but are rarely eaten these days. They are shoaling fish that are popular quarries for coarse angling in rivers, lakes and canals. Tench, particularly golden tench, are also kept as ornamental fish in ponds as they are bottom feeders that help to keep the waterways clean and healthy.", "Large tench may be found in gravel pits or deep, slow-moving waters with a clayey or silty bottom and copious aquatic vegetation. The best methods and bait to catch tench are float fishing and legering with a swim feeder using maggots, sweetcorn, pellets, bread, and worms. Fish over 1 kg (2 lb) in weight are very strong fighters when caught on a rod." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The square.", "The Spanish Steps." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the middle of the square is the famous Fontana della Barcaccia, dating to the beginning of the baroque period, sculpted by Pietro Bernini and his son, the more famous Gian Lorenzo Bernini. At the right corner of the Spanish Steps rises the house of the English poet John Keats, who lived there until his death in 1821: nowadays it has been changed into a museum dedicated to him and his friend Percy Bysshe Shelley, displaying books and memorabilia of English romanticism. At the left corner there is the Babington's tea room, founded in 1893. The side near Via Frattina is overlooked by the two façades (the main one, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, and the side one created by Francesco Borromini) of the Palazzo di Propaganda Fide, a property of the Holy See. In front of it, actually in a lengthening of Piazza di Spagna named Piazza Mignanelli, rises the Column of the Immaculate Conception, erected in 1856, two years after the proclamation of the dogma.", "The imposing 135-step staircase was inaugurated by Pope Benedict XIII during the 1725 Jubilee; it was released (thanks to French loans granted in 1721–1725) in order to connect the Bourbon Spanish embassy (from which the square takes its name) to the Church of Trinità dei Monti. It was designed by Alessandro Specchi and Francesco De Sanctis after generations of long and glowing discussions about how to urbanize the steep slope on the side of the Pincian Hill in order to connect it to the church. The final key was the one proposed by Francesco De Sanctis: a great staircase decorated with many garden-terraces, splendidly adorned with flowers in spring and summer. The sumptuous, aristocratic staircase, at the summit of a straight sequence of streets leading down to the Tiber, was designed so that the scenic effects increase more and more while approaching to it. In effect, the creation of long, deep perspectives culminating in monumental wings or backdrops was typical of the great baroque architecture. The Spanish Steps were restored in 1995." ] }