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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Location.", "Language.", "Deleted scenes.", "Release.", "Previews.", "Scaled-back U.S. release.", "Theatrical release.", "Reception.", "Critical response.", "Box office.", "Awards and nominations.", "Top-Ten Lists.", "Retirement of Borat character.", "Controversies.", "Participants' responses.", "Legal action by participants.", "Reception in Kazakhstan.", "Accidental use of its parody national anthem.", "Accusations of ethnic defamation.", "Censorship in the Arab world.", "Soundtrack.", "Home media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "At the behest of the Kazakh Ministry of Information, reporter Borat Sagdiyev leaves Kazakhstan for the United States, the \"Greatest Country in the World\", to make a documentary. He leaves behind his wife, Oksana; his companions are his producer, Azamat Bagatov, and a pet hen. In New York City, Borat sees an episode of \"Baywatch\" on TV and immediately falls in love with Pamela Anderson's character, C. J. Parker. While interviewing and mocking a panel of feminists, he learns of the actress's name and her residence in California. Borat is then informed by telegram that Oksana has been killed by a bear. Delighted, he resolves to travel to California and make Anderson his new wife. Azamat is afraid of flying because of the September 11, 2001, attacks, which he believes were the work of Jews. Borat takes driving lessons and buys a dilapidated ice-cream truck for the journey. During the trip, Borat acquires a \"Baywatch\" booklet and continues gathering footage for his documentary. He meets gay pride parade participants, politicians Alan Keyes and Bob Barr, and African American youths. Borat is also interviewed on local television station and proceeds to disrupt the weather report. Visiting a rodeo, Borat excites the crowd with jingoistic remarks, but then sings a fictional Kazakhstani national anthem to the tune of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", receiving a strong negative reaction. Staying at a bed-and-breakfast, Borat and Azamat are stunned to learn their hosts are Jewish. The two escape after throwing money at two woodlice, believing they are their hosts transformed. Borat attempts to buy a handgun to defend himself, but is", "Except for Borat, Azamat, Luenell, and Pamela Anderson, none of the characters are portrayed by actors. Most scenes in the film were unscripted, although the end credits do credit a \"Naked Fight Coordinator\". In most cases, the film's participants were given no warning on what they would be taking part in except for being asked to sign release forms agreeing not to take legal action against the film's producers. Principal photography was already underway in January 2005, when Baron Cohen caused a near riot in what would ultimately be the rodeo scene in the final cut of the film. An interview with Baron Cohen by \"Rolling Stone\" indicated that more than 400 hours of footage had been shot for the film.", "The \"Kazakhstan\" depicted in the film has little or no relationship with the actual country, and the producers explicitly deny attempting to \"convey the actual beliefs, practices or behaviour of anyone", "No Kazakh language is heard in the film. Borat's neighbours in Kazakhstan were portrayed by Romani people, who were unaware of the film's subject. Sacha Baron Cohen (Borat) commonly speaks Hebrew (due to his mother being Israeli and being fluent in the language) throughout the movie and not Kazakh. The Cyrillic alphabet used in the film is the Russian form, not the Kazakh one, although most of the words written in it (especially the geographical names) are either misspelled or make no sense at all. The", "The DVD included several deleted scenes from the film, including Borat being questioned by police at a traffic stop, visiting an animal shelter to adopt a dog that could protect him from Jews, getting a massage at a hotel, and visiting an American doctor. There is also a montage of scenes cut from the film, including Borat taking a job at Krystal and taking part in an American Civil War reenactment. The deleted scenes menu also includes an intentionally tedious supermarket sequence with an unusually patient supermarket owner (Borat repeatedly asks about each product in the cheese section of the store and the owner", "", "\"Borat\" was previewed at the 2006 Comic-Con International in San Diego, California, on 21 July 2006. Its first screening to a paying audience was during the 2006 Traverse City Film Festival, where it won the Excellence in Filmmaking Award. The film's official debut was in Toronto on 7 September 2006, at the Ryerson University Theatre during the Toronto International Film Festival.", "The film opened at No. 1 in the box office, maintaining first place for two", "\"Borat\" had its public release on 1 November 2006 in Belgium. By 3 November 2006, it had opened in the United States and Canada, as well as in 14 European countries. Upon its release, it was a massive hit, taking in US$26.4 million in its opening weekend, the highest", "", "\"Borat\" received widespread critical acclaim. The review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 91% based on 219 reviews from critics, and a weighted average of 8.01/10. The website's consensus for the film reads, \"Part satire, part shockumentary, \"Borat\" gets high-fives almost all-around for being offensive in the funniest possible way. Jagshemash!\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 89 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Ty Burr spoke positively about the film in his review for \"The Boston Globe\", calling it \"silliness at its most trenchant\" and declaring it the funniest film of the year. Michael Medved gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars, calling it", "American audiences embraced the film, which played to sold-out crowds at many showings on its opening, despite having been shown on only 837 screens. \"Borat\" debuted at No. 1 on its opening weekend, with a total gross of $26.4 million, beating its competitors \"Flushed Away\" and \"\". The film's opening weekend's", "\"Borat\" received a nomination at the 79th Academy Awards for Best Adapted Screenplay, although the award ultimately went to \"The Departed\". It was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award under the category of Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy, but lost to \"Dreamgirls\". The Broadcast Film Critics Association named it the Best Comedy Movie of 2006, and it was nominated for", "\"Borat\" has been featured in", "A third film by Baron Cohen was released in 2009, and was based on another of his characters: Brüno, a gay Austrian fashion reporter. Universal Studios is reported to have produced the film with a budget of $42 million. Rupert Murdoch announced in early February 2007 that Baron Cohen had signed on to do another Borat film with Fox. However, this was contradicted by an interview with Baron Cohen himself in which Baron Cohen stated that Borat was to be discontinued, as he was now too well known to avoid detection as he did in the", "", "After the film's release, Dharma Arthur, a news producer for WAPT in Jackson, Mississippi, wrote a letter to \"Newsweek\" saying that Borat's appearance on the station had led to her losing her job: \"Because of him, my boss lost faith in my abilities and second-guessed everything I did thereafter... How upsetting that a man who leaves so much harm in his path is lauded as a comedic genius.\" Although Arthur has said she was fired from the show, she told the Associated Press that she resigned from the station. She said that she checked a public relations website that Borat's producers gave her before booking him. In news coverage that aired in January 2005 of the filming of the rodeo scene, Bobby Rowe, producer of the Salem, Virginia rodeo depicted in the film, provided background on how he had become the victim of a hoax. He said that \"months\" prior to the appearance, he had been approached by someone from \"One America, a California-based film company that was reportedly doing a documentary on a Russian immigrant\"; he agreed to permit the \"immigrant\" to sing the U.S.", "The villagers of Glod, Romania, took legal action against the producers of \"Borat\", complaining that they were lied to about the nature of the filming and they were portrayed as incestuous and ignorant. Some said they were paid only three lei (about US$1.28 in 2004) each, while others stated they were paid between $70 and $100 each, which did not cover their expenses. They residents asked for $38 million in damages. One lawsuit was thrown out by U.S. District Judge Loretta Preska in a hearing in early December 2006", "The government of Kazakhstan at first denounced \"Borat\". In 2005, following Borat's appearance at the MTV Movie Awards, the country's Foreign Ministry threatened to sue Sacha Baron Cohen, and Borat's \"Kazakh-based\" website, www.borat.kz, was taken down. Kazakhstan also launched a multi-million dollar \"Heart of Eurasia\" campaign to counter the Borat effect; Baron Cohen replied by denouncing the campaign at an in-character press conference in front of the White House as the propaganda of the \"evil nitwits\" of Uzbekistan. Uzbekistan is, throughout the film, referred", "In March 2012, the parody national anthem from the film's soundtrack, which acclaims Kazakhstan for its high-quality potassium exports and having the second cleanest prostitutes in the region, was mistakenly played", "The European Center for Antiziganism Research, which works against negative attitudes toward Romani people, filed a complaint with German prosecutors on 18 October 2006, based on Borat's references to Gypsies in his film. The complaint accuses him of defamation and inciting violence against an ethnic group. As a consequence, 20th Century Fox declared that it would remove all parts referring", "The film was banned in the entire Arab world except for Lebanon and the United Arab Emirates (which released the film heavily censored). Yousuf Abdul Hamid, a film censor for Dubai in", "The soundtrack for \"Borat\" was released on the iTunes Store on 24 October 2006, and in shops on 31 October 2006. The album included music from the film, five tracks entitled \"Dialoguing excerpt from moviefilm\", as well as the controversial anti-Semitic song \"In My Country There Is Problem\"", "The Region 2 DVD was released 5 March 2007, with the Region 1 release the following day. Special features include deleted scenes, faux advertisements for the soundtrack album, and a complete Russian language translation audio track using a professional dubbing cast, along with the English, French, and Spanish language tracks common on Region 1. There is also a choice of Hebrew, but this is merely a joke; choosing the Hebrew language option results in a warning screen reading \"You have been trapped, Jew!\" which warns the viewer not to change his shape and to keep his claws where they can be seen, again playing on the anti-Semitism supposedly prevalent in Borat's version of Kazakhstan. It also includes footage of Borat's publicity tour for the film, with Baron Cohen in character as Borat on \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\", \"Late Night with Conan O'Brien\", the Toronto International Film Festival, and \"Saturday Night Live\". The bonus features conclude with a news segment from a Virginia TV station about Borat's night at the rodeo, complete with an interview with rodeo owner Bobby Rowe. As a play on the copyright infringement common in the former Soviet Union, the packaging of the Region 1 (United States/Canada), 2 (Europe/Japan/South Africa/Middle East), and 4 (Latin America/Oceania) editions mimics a foreign bootleg DVD. The slipcover is in English but the case itself has all-Cyrillic text (a majority of which is in legitimate Russian, not faux Cyrillic) and is made to look poorly photocopied. The disc itself is made to look like a \"Demorez\" DVD-R with the slogan \"Is life? No. Demorez.\", a parody on \"Is it live, or is it Memorex?\" ad campaign, and the word \"BOЯAT\" appearing to be crudely written in marker with the \"R\" written backwards. The UMD version is similar to the DVD, even being labelled a \"UMD-R\" (which do not exist). Even the Fox in-cover advertising is written in broken English that appears poorly printed, indicating that there are \"More movie discs available from US&A\" and \"Also legal to own in Kazakhstan\". There are further jokes within the DVD itself. The menus are styled as a worn, static-laden film on an erratically functioning projector, with more Cyrillic writing accompanied by translations in broken English. The DVD is described as a \"prerecorded moviedisc for purpose domestic viewing of moviefilm\", and the viewer is warned that \"selling piratings of this moviedisc will result in punishment by crushing\". The DVD's collection of trailers promises that the depicted films are \"coming Kazakhstan in 2028\". By April 2007, the DVD had sold over 3.5 million copies, totaling more than $55 million in sales. \"Borat\" was released on Blu-Ray in the US on 9 November 2009 as a region free disc." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physical overview.", "Mechanism.", "Radioactive decay.", "Nuclear reaction.", "Energetics.", "Input.", "Output.", "Product nuclei and binding energy.", "Origin of the active energy and the curve of binding energy.", "Chain reactions.", "Fission reactors.", "Fission bombs.", "History.", "Discovery of nuclear fission.", "Fission chain reaction realized.", "Manhattan Project and beyond.", "Natural fission chain-reactors on Earth." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "", "Nuclear fission can occur without neutron bombardment as a type of", "In engineered nuclear devices, essentially all nuclear fission occurs as a \"nuclear reaction\" — a bombardment-driven process that results from the collision of two subatomic particles. In nuclear reactions, a subatomic particle collides with an atomic nucleus and causes changes to it. Nuclear reactions are thus driven by the mechanics of bombardment, not by the relatively constant exponential decay and half-life characteristic of spontaneous radioactive processes. Many types of nuclear reactions are currently known. Nuclear fission differs importantly from other types of nuclear reactions, in that it can be amplified and sometimes controlled via a nuclear chain reaction (one type of general chain reaction). In such a reaction, free neutrons released by each fission event can trigger yet more events, which in turn release more neutrons and cause more fission. The chemical element isotopes that can sustain a fission chain reaction are called nuclear fuels, and are said to be \"fissile\". The most common nuclear fuels are U (the isotope of uranium with mass number 235 and of use in nuclear reactors) and Pu (the isotope of plutonium with mass number 239). These fuels break apart into a bimodal range of chemical elements with atomic masses centering near 95 and 135 u (fission products). Most nuclear fuels undergo spontaneous fission only very slowly, decaying instead mainly via an alpha-beta decay chain over periods of millennia to eons. In a nuclear reactor or nuclear weapon, the overwhelming majority of fission events are induced by bombardment with", "", "The fission of a heavy nucleus requires a total input energy of about 7 to 8 million electron volts (MeV) to initially overcome the nuclear force which holds the nucleus into a spherical or nearly spherical shape, and from there, deform it into a two-lobed (\"peanut\") shape in which the lobes are able to continue to separate from each other, pushed by their mutual positive charge, in the most common process of binary fission (two positively charged fission products + neutrons). Once the nuclear lobes have been pushed to", "Typical fission events release about two hundred million eV (200 MeV) of energy, the equivalent of roughly >2 trillion Kelvin, for each fission event. The exact isotope which is fissioned, and whether or not it is fissionable or fissile, has only a small impact on the amount of energy released. This can be easily seen by examining the curve of binding energy (image below), and noting that the average binding energy of the actinide nuclides beginning with uranium is around 7.6 MeV per nucleon. Looking further left on the curve of binding energy, where the fission products cluster, it is easily observed that the binding energy of the fission products tends to center around 8.5 MeV per nucleon. Thus, in any fission event of an isotope in the actinide's range of mass, roughly 0.9 MeV is released per nucleon of the starting element. The fission of U235 by a slow neutron yields nearly identical energy to the fission of U238 by a fast neutron. This energy release profile holds true for thorium and the various minor actinides as well. By contrast, most chemical oxidation reactions (such as burning coal or TNT) release at most a few eV per event. So, nuclear fuel contains at least ten million times more usable energy per unit mass than does chemical fuel. The energy of nuclear fission is released as kinetic energy of the fission products and fragments, and as electromagnetic radiation in the form of gamma rays; in a nuclear reactor, the energy is converted to heat as the particles and gamma rays collide with the atoms that make up the reactor and its working fluid, usually water or occasionally heavy water or molten salts. When a uranium nucleus fissions into two daughter nuclei fragments, about 0.1 percent of the mass of the uranium nucleus appears as the fission energy of ~200 MeV. For uranium-235 (total mean fission energy 202.79 MeV), typically ~169 MeV appears as the kinetic energy of the daughter nuclei, which fly apart at about 3% of the speed of light, due to Coulomb repulsion. Also, an average of 2.5 neutrons are emitted, with a mean kinetic energy per neutron of ~2 MeV (total of 4.8 MeV). The fission reaction also releases ~7 MeV in prompt gamma ray photons. The latter figure means that a nuclear fission explosion or criticality accident emits about 3.5% of its energy as gamma rays, less than 2.5% of its energy as fast neutrons (total of both types of radiation ~ 6%), and the rest as kinetic energy of fission fragments (this appears almost immediately when the fragments impact surrounding matter, as simple heat). In an atomic bomb, this heat may serve to raise the temperature of the bomb core to 100 million kelvin and cause secondary emission of soft X-rays, which convert some of this energy to ionizing radiation. However, in nuclear reactors,", "In fission there is a preference to yield fragments with even proton numbers, which is called the odd-even effect on the fragments' charge distribution. However, no odd-even effect is observed on fragment mass number distribution. This result is attributed to nucleon pair breaking. In nuclear fission events the nuclei may break into any combination of lighter nuclei, but the most common event is not fission to equal mass nuclei of about mass 120; the most", "Nuclear fission of heavy elements produces exploitable energy because the specific binding energy (binding energy per mass) of intermediate-mass nuclei with atomic numbers and atomic masses close to Ni and Fe is greater than the nucleon-specific binding energy of very heavy nuclei, so that energy is released when heavy nuclei are broken apart. The total rest masses of the fission products (Mp) from a single reaction is less than the mass of the original fuel nucleus (M). The excess mass Δm = M – Mp is the invariant mass of the energy that is released as photons (gamma rays) and kinetic energy of the fission fragments, according to the mass-energy equivalence formula \"E\" = \"mc\". The variation in specific binding energy with atomic number is due to the interplay of the two fundamental forces acting on the component nucleons (protons and neutrons) that make up the nucleus. Nuclei are bound by an attractive nuclear force between nucleons, which overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between protons. However, the nuclear force acts only over relatively short ranges (a few nucleon diameters), since it follows an exponentially", "Several heavy elements, such as uranium, thorium, and plutonium, undergo both spontaneous fission, a form of radioactive decay and \"induced fission\", a form of nuclear reaction. Elemental isotopes that undergo induced fission when struck by a free neutron are called fissionable; isotopes that undergo fission when struck by a slow-moving thermal neutron are also called fissile. A few particularly fissile and readily obtainable isotopes (notably U, U and Pu) are called nuclear fuels because they can sustain a chain reaction and can be obtained in large enough quantities to be useful. All fissionable and fissile isotopes undergo a small amount of spontaneous fission which releases a", "Critical fission reactors are the most common type of nuclear reactor. In a critical fission reactor, neutrons produced by fission of fuel atoms are used to induce yet more fissions, to sustain a controllable amount of energy release. Devices that produce engineered but non-self-sustaining fission reactions are subcritical fission reactors. Such devices use radioactive decay or particle accelerators to trigger fissions. Critical fission reactors are built for three primary purposes, which typically involve different engineering trade-offs to take advantage of either the heat or the neutrons produced by the fission chain reaction: While, in principle, all fission reactors can act in all three capacities, in practice the tasks", "One class of nuclear weapon, a \"fission bomb\" (not to be confused with the \"fusion bomb\"), otherwise known as an \"atomic bomb\" or \"atom bomb\", is a fission reactor designed to liberate as much energy as possible as rapidly as possible, before the released energy causes the reactor to explode (and the chain reaction to stop). Development of nuclear weapons was the motivation behind early research into nuclear fission which the Manhattan Project during World War II (September 1, 1939 – September", "", "The discovery of nuclear fission occurred in 1938 in the buildings of Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Chemistry, today part of the Free University of Berlin, following over four decades of work on the science of radioactivity and the elaboration of new nuclear physics that described the components of atoms. In 1911, Ernest Rutherford proposed a model of the atom in which a very small, dense and positively charged nucleus of protons was surrounded by orbiting, negatively charged electrons (the Rutherford model). Niels Bohr improved upon this in 1913 by reconciling the quantum behavior of electrons (the Bohr model). Work by Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, Pierre Curie, and Rutherford further elaborated that the nucleus, though tightly bound, could undergo different forms of radioactive decay, and thereby transmute into other elements. (For example, by alpha decay: the emission of an alpha particle—two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus.) Some work in nuclear transmutation had been done. In 1917, Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p. This was the first observation of a nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues Ernest Walton and John Cockcroft, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split this nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as \"splitting the atom\", and would win them the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics for \"\"Transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles\"\", although it was not the nuclear fission reaction later discovered in heavy elements. After English physicist James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, Enrico Fermi and his colleagues in Rome studied the results of bombarding uranium with neutrons in 1934. Fermi concluded that his experiments had created new elements with 93 and 94 protons, which the group dubbed ausonium and hesperium. However, not all were convinced by Fermi's analysis of his results, though he would win the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his \"demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for", "During this period the Hungarian physicist Leó Szilárd, who was residing in the United States at the time, realized that the neutron-driven fission of heavy atoms could be used to create a nuclear chain reaction. Such a reaction using neutrons was an idea he had first formulated in 1933, upon reading Rutherford's disparaging remarks about generating power from his team's 1932 experiment using protons to split lithium. However, Szilárd had not been able to achieve a neutron-driven chain reaction with neutron-rich light atoms. In theory, if in a neutron-driven chain reaction the number of secondary neutrons produced was greater than one, then each such reaction could trigger multiple additional reactions, producing an exponentially increasing number of reactions. It was thus a possibility that the fission of uranium could yield vast amounts of energy for civilian or military purposes (i.e., electric power generation or atomic bombs). Szilard now urged Fermi (in New York) and Frédéric Joliot-Curie (in Paris) to refrain from publishing on the possibility of a chain reaction, lest the Nazi government become aware of the possibilities on the eve of what would later be known as World War II. With some hesitation Fermi agreed to self-censor. But Joliot-Curie did not, and in April 1939 his team in Paris, including Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, reported in the journal \"Nature\" that the number of neutrons emitted with nuclear fission of U was then reported at 3.5 per fission. (They later corrected this to 2.6 per fission.) Simultaneous work by Szilard and Walter Zinn confirmed these results. The results suggested the possibility of building nuclear reactors (first called \"neutronic reactors\" by Szilard and Fermi) and even nuclear bombs. However, much was still unknown about fission and chain reaction systems. Chain reactions at that time were a known phenomenon in \"chemistry\", but the analogous process in nuclear physics, using neutrons, had been foreseen as early as 1933 by Szilárd, although Szilárd at that time had no idea with what materials the process might be initiated. Szilárd considered that neutrons would be ideal for such a situation, since they lacked an electrostatic charge. With the news of fission neutrons from uranium fission, Szilárd immediately understood the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction using uranium. In the summer, Fermi and Szilard proposed the idea of a nuclear reactor (pile) to mediate this process. The pile would use natural uranium as fuel. Fermi had shown much earlier that neutrons were far more effectively captured by atoms if they were of low energy (so-called \"slow\" or \"thermal\" neutrons), because for quantum reasons it made the atoms look like much larger targets to the neutrons. Thus to slow down the secondary neutrons released by the fissioning uranium nuclei, Fermi and Szilard proposed a graphite \"moderator\", against which the fast, high-energy secondary neutrons would collide, effectively slowing them down. With enough uranium, and with pure-enough graphite, their \"pile\" could theoretically sustain a slow-neutron chain reaction. This would result in the production of heat, as well as the creation of radioactive fission products. In August 1939, Szilard and fellow Hungarian refugee physicists Teller and Wigner thought that the Germans might make use of the fission chain reaction and were spurred to attempt to attract the attention of the United States government to the issue. Towards this, they persuaded German-Jewish refugee Albert Einstein to lend his name to a letter directed to President Franklin Roosevelt. The Einstein–Szilárd letter suggested the possibility of a uranium bomb deliverable by ship, which would destroy \"an entire harbor and much of the surrounding countryside.\" The President received the letter on 11 October 1939 — shortly after World War II began in Europe, but two years before U.S. entry into it. Roosevelt", "In the United States, an all-out effort for making atomic weapons was begun in late 1942. This work was taken over by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1943, and known as the Manhattan Engineer District. The top-secret Manhattan Project, as it was colloquially known, was led by General Leslie R. Groves. Among the project's dozens of sites were: Hanford Site in Washington, which had the first industrial-scale nuclear reactors and produced plutonium; Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which was primarily concerned with uranium enrichment; and Los Alamos, in New Mexico, which was the scientific hub for", "Criticality in nature is uncommon. At three ore deposits at Oklo in Gabon, sixteen sites (the so-called Oklo Fossil Reactors) have been discovered at which self-sustaining nuclear fission took place approximately 2 billion years ago. Unknown until 1972 (but postulated by Paul Kuroda in 1956), when French physicist Francis Perrin discovered the Oklo Fossil Reactors, it" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Regulations and labelling.", "Legal definition.", "Labelling.", "History.", "Economic effects.", "Ownership of distilleries.", "Independent bottlers.", "Types.", "Single malt.", "Single grain.", "Blended malt.", "Blended.", "Sensory characteristics.", "Flavour and aroma.", "Screening for potential adulteration.", "Regions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "As of 23 November 2009, the Scotch Whisky Regulations 2009 (SWR) define and regulate the production, labelling, packaging as well as the advertising of Scotch whisky in the United Kingdom. They replace previous regulations that focussed solely on production, including the Scotch Whisky Act 1988. Since the previous act focussed primarily on production standards, it was repealed and superseded by the 2009 Regulations. The SWR includes broader definitions and requirements for the crafting, bottling, labelling, branding, and selling of \"Scotch Whisky\". International trade agreements have the effect of making some provisions of the SWR apply in various other countries as well as in the UK. The SWR define \"Scotch whisky\" as whisky that is:", "A Scotch whisky label comprises several elements that indicate aspects of production, age, bottling, and ownership. Some of these elements are regulated by the SWR, and some reflect tradition and marketing. The spelling of the term \"whisky\" is often debated by journalists and consumers. Scottish, English, Welsh, Australian and Canadian whiskies use \"whisky\", Irish whiskies use \"whiskey\", while American and other styles vary in their spelling of the term. The label always features a declaration of the malt or grain whiskies used. A single malt Scotch whisky is one that is entirely produced from malt in one distillery. One may also encounter the term \"single cask\", signifying the bottling comes entirely from one cask. The term \"blended malt\" signifies that single malt whisky from different distilleries are blended in the bottle. The Cardhu distillery also began using the term \"pure malt\" for the same purpose, causing a controversy in the process over clarity in labelling—the Glenfiddich distillery was using the term to describe some single malt bottlings. As a result, the Scotch Whisky Association declared that a mixture of single malt whiskies must be labelled a \"blended malt\". The use of the former terms \"vatted malt\" and \"pure malt\" is prohibited. The term \"blended malt\" is still debated, as some bottlers maintain that consumers confuse the term with \"blended Scotch whisky\", which contains some proportion of grain whisky. The brand name featured on the label is usually the same as the distillery name (for example, the Talisker distillery labels its whiskies with the Talisker name). Indeed, the SWR prohibit bottlers from using a distillery name when the whisky was not made there. A bottler name may also be listed, sometimes independent of the distillery. In addition to requiring that Scotch whisky be distilled in Scotland, the SWR require that it also be bottled and labelled in Scotland. Labels may also indicate the region of the distillery (for example, Islay or Speyside). Alcoholic strength is expressed on the label with \"Alcohol By Volume\" (\"ABV\") or sometimes simply \"Vol\". Typically, bottled whisky is between 40% and 46% ABV. Whisky is considerably stronger when first emerging from the cask—normally 60–63% ABV. Water is then added to create the desired bottling strength. If the whisky is not diluted before bottling, it can be labelled as cask strength. A whisky's age may be listed on the bottle providing a guarantee of the youngest whisky used. An age statement on the bottle, in the form of a number, must reflect the age of the youngest whisky used to produce that product. A whisky with an age statement is known as guaranteed age whisky. Scotch whisky without an age statement may, by law, be as young as three years old. In the early 21st century, such \"No age statement\" whiskies have become more common, as distilleries respond to the depletion of aged stocks caused by improved sales. A label may carry a distillation date or a bottling date. Whisky does not mature once bottled, so if no age statement is provided, one may calculate the age of the whisky if both the distillation date and bottling date are given. Labels may also carry various declarations of filtration techniques or final maturation processes. A Scotch whisky labelled as \"natural\" or \"non-chill-filtered\" has not been through a filtration process during bottling that removes compounds that some consumers see as desirable. Whisky is aged in various types of casks—and often in used sherry or port casks—during distinct portions of the maturation process, and will take on characteristics, flavour and aromas from such casks. Special casks are sometimes used at the end of the maturation process, and such whiskies may be labelled as \"wood finished\", \"sherry/port finished\", and so on.", "According to the Scotch Whisky Association, the word whisky comes from the Gaelic \"uisge beatha\" or \"usquebaugh\", which means \"water of life\". The earliest record of distillation in Scotland occurred as long ago as 1494 at Lindores Abbey a monastery in Fife, as documented in the \"Exchequer Rolls\", which were records of royal income and expenditure. The quote above records eight bolls of malt given to Friar John Cor wherewith to make aqua vitae (Latin for \"water of life,\" = \"uisge beatha\") over the previous year. This would be enough for 1,500 bottles, which suggests that distillation was well-established by the late 15th century. Aqua vitae (in the form of wine or spirits) was used when making gunpowder to moisten the slurry of saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur. As a drink, Scotch whisky was a favourite of King James IV of Scotland but after he was defeated in 1513, the monasteries were dissolved by King Henry VIII of England. Some monks with distillery experience moved to other locations where they continued producing the spirit. At the time, that endeavour was considered to be illegal under British rule. Nonetheless, the Crown imposed a tax on malt in the early 1700s in order to generate income. Whisky production was first taxed in 1644, causing a rise in illicit whisky distilling in the country. Between the 1760s and the 1830s a substantial unlicensed trade originated from the Highlands, forming a significant part of the region's export economy. In 1782, more than 1,000 illegal stills were seized in the Highlands: these can only have been a fraction of those in operation. The Lowland distillers, who had no opportunity to avoid taxation, complained that un-taxed Highland whisky made up more than half the market. The heavy taxation during the Napoleonic Wars gave the illicit trade a big advantage, but their product was also considered better quality, commanding a higher price in the Lowlands. This was due to the method of taxation: malt was subject to tax (at a rate that climbed substantially between the 1790s and 1822). The licensed distillers therefore used more raw grain in an effort to reduce their tax bill. The Highland magistrates, themselves members of the landowning classes, had a lenient attitude to unlicensed distillers—all of whom would be tenants in the local area. They understood that the trade supported the rents paid. Imprisoned tenants would not be able to pay any rent. In 1823, Parliament eased restrictions on licensed distilleries with the \"Excise Act\", while at the same time making it harder for the illegal stills to operate. Magistrates found counsel for the Crown appearing in their courts, so forcing the maximum penalties to be applied, with some cases removed to the Court of Exchequer in Edinburgh for tougher sentences. Highland landowners were now happy to remove tenants who were distillers in clearances on their estates. These changes ushered in the modern era of Scotch production: in 1823 2,232,000 gallons of whisky had duty paid on it; in 1824 this increased to 4,350,000 gallons. A farmer, George Smith, working under landlord the Duke of Gordon, was the first person in Scotland to take out a licence for a distillery under the new Act, founding the Glenlivet Distillery in 1824, to make single malt Scotch. Some of the distilleries which started legal operations in the next few years included Bowmore, Strathisla, Balblair, and Glenmorangie; all remain in business today. Two events helped to increase whisky's popularity: first, the introduction in 1831 of the column still. Aeneas Coffey patented a refined version of a design originally created by Robert Stein, based on early innovations by Sir Anthony Perrier, for the new type of still which produced whisky much more efficiently than the traditional pot stills. The column still allowed for continuous distillation, without the need for cleaning after each batch was made. This process made manufacturing more affordable by performing the equivalent of multiple distillation steps. The new still dramatically increased production; the whisky was less intense and smoother making it more popular. Second, there was a shortage of wine, brandy and cognac in France, significant by 1880, due to the \"phylloxera\" bug, a parasitic insect, destroying many of the wine vines; that shortage increased the demand for whisky. By the 1890s, almost forty new distilleries had opened in Scotland. The boom years continued until the industry was significantly affected by World War I and later, by the Great Depression; many of the companies closed and never re-opened.", "The Scotch Whisky Association estimated that Scotland's whisky industry supported 40,000 jobs and accounted for £4.37 billion in exports in 2017. Of that total, single malt Scotch accounted for £1.17 billion in exports, a 14% increase over 2016. The industry's contribution to the economy of the UK was estimated as £5.5 billion in 2018; the industry provided £3.8 billion in direct GVA (gross value added) to Scotland. Whisky tourism has also become significant and accounts for £68.3 million per year. One factor negatively affected sales, an extra 3.9% duty on spirits imposed by the UK in 2017. (The effect of the 25% increase in tariffs imposed by the U.S. in October 2019 would not be apparent until 2020.) Nonetheless, by year-end 2017, exports had reached a record-breaking amount. In November 2019, the Association announced that the government of the UK had agreed to consider revising the alcohol taxation system, hopefully producing a new plan that was simplified and \"fairer\". Exports in 2018 again increased 7.8% by value, and 3.6% in number of bottles, in spite of the duty imposed in 2017; exports grew to a record level, £4.7 billion. The US imported Scotch whisky with a value of just over £1 billion while the European Union was the second largest importer, taking 30% of global value. This was a boom year with a record high in exports, but the Scotch Whisky Association expressed concern for the future, particularly \"the challenges posed by Brexit and by tensions in the global trading system.\" Scotch whisky tourism has developed around the industry, with distilleries being the third most visited attractions in Scotland; roughly 2 million visits were recorded in 2018. Some 68 distilleries operate visitors' centres in Scotland and another eight accept visits by appointment. Hotels, restaurants and other facilities are also impacted by the tourism phenomenon. The tourism has had an especially visible impact on the economy in some remote rural areas, according to Fiona Hyslop MSP, Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Tourism and External Affairs. \"The Scottish Government is committed to working with partners like the Scotch Whisky Association to increase our tourism offer and encourage more people to visit our distilleries,\" the Secretary said.", "A 2016 report stated that only 20% of the whisky was made by companies owned in Scotland. Distilleries owned by Diageo, a London-based company, produce 40% of all Scotch whisky, with over 24 brands, such as Johnnie Walker, Oban, and Talisker. Another 20% of the product is made by distillers owned by Pernod Ricard of France, including brands such as Glenlivet, Chivas Regal, and Ballantine's. There are also smaller distillers that are owned by foreign companies, such as BenRiach whose parent is the Brown–Forman Corporation based in Kentucky. Nonetheless, Scotch whisky is produced according to the current regulations, as to ageing, production and so on, ensuring that it remains Scottish. Independents owned by Scots companies make a substantial amount of Scotch whisky, with the largest, William Grant & Sons, producing 8%, or about 7.6 million cases per year. Its brands include Glenfiddich and Balvenie. Glenfiddich is the best-selling single malt Scotch in the world. Roughly 14 million bottles of Glenfiddich are sold annually.", "Most malt distilleries sell a significant amount of whisky by the cask for blending, and sometimes to private buyers as well. Whisky from such casks is sometimes bottled as a single malt by \"independent bottling\" firms such as Duncan Taylor, Master of Malt, Gordon & MacPhail, Cadenhead's, The Scotch Malt Whisky Society, Murray McDavid, Berry Bros. & Rudd, Douglas Laing, and others. These are usually labelled with the distillery's name, but not using the distillery's trademarked logos or typefaces. An \"official bottling\" (or \"proprietary bottling\"), by comparison, is from the distillery (or its owner). Many independent bottlings are from single casks, and they may sometimes be very different from an official bottling. For a variety of reasons, some independent brands do not identify which facility distilled the whisky in the bottle. They may instead identify only the general geographical area of the source, or they simply market the product using their own brand name without identifying their source. This may, in some cases, be simply to give the independent bottling company the flexibility to purchase from multiple distillers without changing their labels.", "There are two basic types of Scotch whisky, from which all blends are made: Excluded from the definition of \"single grain Scotch whisky\" is any spirit that qualifies as a single malt Scotch whisky or as a blended Scotch whisky. The latter exclusion is to ensure that a blended Scotch whisky produced from single malt(s) and single grain(s) distilled at the same distillery does not also qualify as single grain Scotch whisky. Nearly 90% of the bottles of Scotch sold per year are blended whiskies. Three types of blends are defined for Scotch whisky: The five Scotch whisky definitions are structured in such a way that the categories are mutually exclusive. The 2009 regulations changed the formal definition of blended Scotch whisky to achieve this result, but in a way that reflected traditional and current practice: before the 2009 SWR, any combination of Scotch whiskies qualified as a blended Scotch whisky, including for example a blend of single malt Scotch whiskies. As was the case under the Scotch Whisky Act 1988, regulation 5 of the SWR 2009 stipulates that the only whisky that may be manufactured in Scotland is Scotch whisky. The definition of \"manufacture\" is \"keeping for the purpose of maturation; and keeping, or using, for the purpose of blending, except for domestic blending for domestic consumption\". This provision prevents the existence of two \"grades\" of whisky originating from Scotland, one \"Scotch whisky\" and the other, a \"whisky – product of Scotland\" that complies with the generic EU standard for whisky. According to the Scotch Whisky Association, allowing non-Scotch whisky production in Scotland would make it difficult to protect Scotch whisky as a distinctive product. The SWR regulation also states that no additives may be used except for plain (E150A) caramel colouring.", "To qualify for this category the Scotch whisky must be made in one distillery, in a pot still by batch distillation, using only water and malted barley. As with any other Scotch whisky, the Scotch Whisky Regulations of 2009 also require single malt Scotch to be made completely and bottled in Scotland and aged for at least three years. Most are aged longer. Another term is sometimes seen, called \"double wood\" or \"triple wood\", sometimes incorrectly referred to as \"double malt\" or \"triple malt\". These indicate that the whisky was aged in two or three types of casks. Hence, if the whisky otherwise meets the criteria of a single malt, it still falls into the single malt category even if more than one type of cask was used for ageing. Examples include The Balvenie 12 Years Old DoubleWood and Laphroaig Triple Wood. Another nuance is that Lowland Scotch malts used a triple distillation just like the Irish do, breaking away from the general rule that all Scotch is double distilled.", "Single grain whisky is made with water and a malted barley but the distillery then adds other grains or cereals, wheat, corn or rye, for example. From that moment on, it can no longer be called single malt. This type of product must be from a single distillery and is often used in making blended Scotch. Single grain whiskies are usually not distilled in pot stills but with column stills.", "Blended malt whisky—formerly called \"vatted malt\" or \"pure malt\" (terms that are now prohibited in the SWR 2009)—is one of the least common types of Scotch: a blend of single malts from more than one distillery (possibly with differing ages). Blended malts contain only single malt whiskies from two or more distilleries. This type must contain no grain whiskies and is distinguished by the absence of the word \"single\" on the bottle. The age of the vat is that of the youngest of the original ingredients. For example, a blended malt marked \"8 years old\" may include older whiskies, with the youngest constituent being eight years old. Johnnie Walker Green Label and Monkey Shoulder are examples of blended malt whisky. Starting from November 2011, no Scotch whisky could be labelled as a vatted malt or pure malt, the SWR requiring them to be labelled blended malt instead.", "Blended Scotch whisky constitutes about 90% of the whisky produced in Scotland. Blended Scotch whiskies contain both malt whisky and grain whisky. Producers combine the various malts and grain whiskies to produce a consistent brand style. Notable blended Scotch whisky brands include Ballantine's, Bell's, Chivas Regal, Cutty Sark, Dewar's, J&B, Johnnie Walker, Teacher's Highland Cream, The Famous Grouse, and Whyte and Mackay. The term blended grain Scotch refers to whisky that contains at least two single grain Scotch whiskies from at least two distilleries, combined to create one batch of the product.", "", "Dozens of compounds contribute to Scotch whisky flavour and aroma characteristics, including volatile alcohol congeners (also called \"higher oils\") formed during fermentation, such as acetaldehyde, methanol, ethyl acetate, n-propanol, and isobutanol. Other flavour and aroma compounds include vanillic acid, syringic acid, vanillin, syringaldehyde, furfural, phenyl ethanol, and acetic acid. One analysis established 13 distinct flavour characteristics dependent on individual compounds, including sour, sweet, grainy, and floral as major flavour perceptions. Some distilleries use a peat fire to dry the barley for some of their products before grinding it and making the mash. Peat smoke contributes phenolic compounds, such as guaiacol, that give aromas similar to smoke. The Maillard browning process of the residual sugars in the mashing process, particularly through formation of 2-furanmethanol and pyrazines imparting nutty or cereal characteristics, contributes to the baked bread notes in the flavour and aroma profile. Maturation during multi-year casking from reusing sherry oak barrels originally used for bourbon whiskey production contributes a vanilla aroma to some premium Scotch whiskies.", "Refilling and fabrication or tampering of branded Scotch whiskies are types of Scotch whisky adulteration that diminishes brand integrity, consumer confidence, and profitability in the Scotch industry. Deviation from normal concentrations of major constituents, such as alcohol congeners, provides a precise, quantitative method for determining authenticity of Scotch whiskies. Over 100 compounds can be detected during counterfeit analysis, including phenolics and terpenes which may vary in concentration by different geographic origins, the barley used in the fermentation mash, or the oak cask used during ageing. Typical high-throughput instruments used in counterfeit detection are liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry.", "Scotland was traditionally divided into four regions: The Highlands, The Lowlands, The Isle of Islay, and Campbeltown. Due to the large number of distilleries found there, the Speyside area became the fifth, recognised by the Scotch Whisky Association (SWA) as a distinct region in 2014. The whisky-producing islands other than Islay are not recognised as a distinct region by the SWA, which groups them into the Highlands region. Although only five regions are specified, any Scottish locale may be used to describe a whisky if it is distilled entirely within that place; for example a single malt whisky distilled on Orkney could be described as \"Orkney Single Malt Scotch Whisky\" instead of as an Island whisky." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "European implementations.", "United Kingdom.", "Speed limits.", "Ireland.", "Germany.", "Italy.", "Croatia.", "Other regional implementations.", "United States.", "Canada.", "Australia.", "China.", "Turkey.", "India.", "Pakistan.", "Philippines.", "Singapore.", "Malaysia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A very early (perhaps the first) example of a dual carriageway was the \"Via Portuensis\", built in the first century by the Roman emperor Claudius between Rome and its port Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. One claim for the first divided highway in the United States was Savery Avenue in Carver, Massachusetts, first built in 1860, where the two roadways were separated by a narrow strip of trees down the middle. In 1907 the Long Island Motor Parkway opened, and roughly 20% of it featured a semi-dual-carriageway design. The New York City Belt Parkway system, which was built between 1907 and 1934, also pioneered the same design. However the majority of it featured concrete or brick railings as lane dividers instead of grass medians. In 1924 the first Italian \"autostrada\" was opened running from Milan to Varese. It featured a broad road bed and did not feature lane dividers except near cities and through the mountains. The London end of the Great West Road became Britain's first dual carriageway when it was opened in 1925 by King George V. In 1927 the Rome bypass was opened. It ran bypassing Rome to the east. Almost the entire length featured a dual-carriageway design. In the early 1930s it was extended southward all the way to Naples and northward to Florence. Most of the original routing was destroyed by the Allies in World War II. By 1930 several US and European cities had built dual-carriageway highways, mostly to control traffic jams and/or to provide bypass routes for traffic. In 1932 the first German \"autobahn\" opened between Cologne and Bonn. It ran and became a precedent for future highways. Although it, like the first \"autostrada\", did not feature a dual-carriageway design, it inspired the mass construction of future high-speed roadways. During the 1930s, Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union began construction of a network of dual carriageway expressways. By 1942, Germany had over of dual carriageway roads, Italy had nearly, and the Soviet Union had. What may be the world's first long-distance intercity dual carriageway/freeway is the Queen Elizabeth Way in Southern Ontario in Canada, initially linking the large cities of Toronto and Hamilton together by 1939, with construction on this stretch of the present-day Queen Elizabeth Way beginning in 1936 as \"Middle Road\". Opened to traffic in 1940, the Pennsylvania Turnpike was the first rural dual carriageway built in the United States. By 1955 several states had built dual carriageway freeways and turnpikes and in 1957 the Interstate Highway System began. Completed in 1994, the major highway system links all the major cities of the United States.", "", "In the UK, although the term \"dual carriageway\" applies to any road with physically separated lanes, it is frequently used as a descriptive term for major routes built in this style. Such major dual carriageways usually have two lanes of traffic in each direction, with the lane nearest the centre being reserved for overtaking. Occasionally dual carriageways have only one lane in each direction, or more than two lanes each way (sometimes to permit easier overtaking of slower uphill traffic). Different speed limits apply on dual carriageway sections from those that apply on single carriageway sections of the same class of road, except in cities and built-up areas where the dual carriageway is more of a safety measure. When first constructed, many dual carriageways—including the first motorways—had no crash- or other barriers in the central reservation. In the event of congestion, or if a driver missed their exit, some drivers made U-turns onto the opposite carriageway; many accidents were caused as a result of their misjudging the speed of approaching traffic on the other carriageway when doing so. The majority of dual carriageway roads now have barriers. Some are heavy concrete obstructions which can bounce a vehicle back into the path of other traffic; others are made from steel ropes mounted on moderately weak posts, where the rope cuts into the vehicle body to slow the vehicle while keeping it against the barrier until it has stopped. Often on urban dual carriageways where the road has been converted from a four-lane single carriageway the central reservation will not be substantial: often just a small steel divider to save space. Turning right (that is, across the line of traffic heading in the opposite direction) is usually permitted only at specific locations. Often the driver will be required to turn left (away from the dual carriageway) in order to loop around to an access road that permits crossing the major road. Roundabouts on dual carriageways are relatively common, especially in cities or where the cost of a grade-separated junction would be prohibitive. Where space is even more limited, intersections may be controlled by traffic lights. Smaller residential roads adjoining urban dual carriageways may be blocked off at one end to limit the number of junctions on the dual carriageway; often other roads will pass over or under the dual carriageway without an intersection. A dual carriageway with grade-separated junctions and which meets other requirements may be upgraded to motorway standard, denoted by an \"(M)\" added after the road number (e.g. \"A1(M)\" or \"A38(M)\"). Unlike in Ireland, there was no official terminology for 'high-quality dual carriageways' until April 2015, when in England a new standard was set to designate certain high-quality routes formally as \"Expressways\". Many roads such as the A1, the A14, the A19 and the A42 are built to a high quality, with grade-separated junctions, full barriers at roadside and central reservations and, in some cases, three lanes of traffic. They may still fall short of motorway standard in terms of hard shoulders, the height of overpasses or the quality of intersecting junctions.", "The national speed limit applies on dual carriageways (unless it is in a 'built-up area', or a lower limit is posted), which is as follows: A dual carriageway in a built up area will have a statutory speed limit of unless otherwise sign-posted. It is common for such urban dual carriageways to have an increased speed limit of. A built up road is indicated by the presence of street lights, on lit dual carriageways that are not considered to be in a built-up area, the speed limit will be clarified with intermittent signs.", "Although in Ireland the term dual carriageway technically applies to any road with physically separated lanes, it is usually used only to refer to those route sections that do not have a motorway designation. Most often it is \"national roads\" (roads with a route number prefix of \"N\"; e.g. N8) that are built as or upgraded to dual carriageway. A number of non-national roads (for example, \"regional roads\") are dual carriageway, for example in urban areas near or in cities, or where the road was part of a national route. Dual carriageways of this class differ from motorways in a number of ways. The hard shoulder is demarcated with a dashed yellow line (as opposed to an unbroken yellow line on motorways). The standard speed limit of 100 km/h (62 mph) for national routes usually applies (by default the limit is 80 km/h (50 mph) for non-national roads, even if dual carriageway). Local authorities have the power to apply a limit of up to 120 km/h (75 mph) as used on most motorways (The High Quality Dual Carriageway section of the N1 between the end of the M1 and the border with Northern Ireland and the N25/N22 Ballincollig Bypass in Cork are the only route sections with such special limits). Traffic lights and junctions are permitted at grade on dual carriageways. For older sections of dual carriageway, this has resulted in fewer flyover junctions. Newer dual carriageway sections are usually near motorway standard, with grade-separated junctions, but may not be designated as motorways due to the need to preserve access to adjoining property or to the absence of a non-motorway alternative route. Also, dual carriageways that are not motorway classified do not need to be equipped with emergency phones. Motorway restrictions only apply to motorway sections, rather than all dual carriageway sections of national roads (these are signposted with the \"N\" prefix on the route number, rather than \"M\"). Some \"national secondary roads\", and \"regional roads\" in particular often have houses, schools and other developments fronting on to them. Less important \"national primary roads\", and older sections not yet upgraded may also feature such developments built before the introduction the Irish Planning system in 1964. Today Irish planning policy prohibits such development on National Primary or National Secondary roads where the speed limit exceeds 60 km/h (37 mph). This policy results from concerns expressed by the National Roads Authority. A local authority is not obliged to implement this policy and can disregard this policy at its own discretion. This would usually only occur in exceptional circumstances or where planners are overruled by elected councillors using section 140 of the Local Government Act 2001. Accordingly, hard shoulders are included wherever feasible to provide for the resulting pedestrian and cyclist traffic, and are present on much of the national route network. These hard shoulders may also be used as running lanes by motorised traffic under certain conditions. Until 2005, many motorways and dual carriageways in Ireland did not have crash barriers in the central reservation, the policy being to use a wider median instead. Crash barriers are now mandatory for such routes, and wire cabling or full crash barriers (depending on whether or not the route is a motorway, and median width) have been fitted to existing routes. Between 2000 and 2010, three major types of dual carriageway were built on national road schemes in Ireland:", "In Germany the term \"Autobahnähnliche Straße\" (highway-like motorway) refers to roads that are similar to German autobahn in grade-separation and signage. Most of them are designated as \"Kraftfahrstraßen\" (expressways), which means that the roads allow higher speed traffic than is common on other roads. This in turn requires them to have dual carriageways in most cases. An exception is the 2+1 road system in some rural areas; these roads are also referred to as expressways. \"Autobahnähnliche Straßen\" mostly are colloquially referred to as \"gelbe Autobahn\" (yellow motorway) because they have the same technical standard as the \"Autobahn\" but have black on yellow signs instead of the white on blue signs used on the \"Autobahn\" motorway network. These are generally high-speed arterial roads in larger cities or important roads within a federal state that do not connect to major cities, so that they do not fall under the federal budget for the \"Autobahn\" network. The federal road Bundesstraße 27 is an example where about half of its length is upgraded to a high speed motorway standard. On the basis of their structure these roads have, comparable to the German \"autobahn\", the legal foundation that no default speed limit exists (design speed 130 km/h), although the standard advisory speed limit () still exists. Nevertheless expressways are often given speed limit signs. At the moment some (blue) motorways have been taken out of the \"Autobahn\" network programme but still have the blue signs; and on the other hand some former non-\"Autobahn\" (yellow) motorways have been added to \"Autobahn\" budgeting but the signs have not been changed either. Motorways that are neither in the \"autobahn\" network nor in the \"Bundesstraße\" network are given black on white signs, following the same sign code as high-speed dual carriageways—this is mostly seen on urban trunk roads.", "In Italy, a dual carriageway is often called \"superstrada\" (meaning \"expressway\"), but this name is unofficial. Italian Highway Code (\"Codice della strada\") divides dual carriageways into three different classifications: Italian type-B and type-C roads do not follow a specific numbering criterion. They may be numbered as state roads (SS), regional roads (SR), provincial roads (SP) or municipal roads (SC).", "Dual carriageways or expressways in Croatia () are non-tolled roads with 2 or more lanes in each direction, but without emergency lanes. The main highways/motorways in Croatia are also dual carriageways, but they have emergency lanes and tolls. Many bypasses and beltways of smaller cities in Croatia have been recently constructed or planned as dual carriageways. All dual carriageways in Croatia house a central median, usually fitted with guardrails. The most heavily used dual carriageway in Croatia is the B28 expressway, connecting capital Zagreb to a satellite town, Vrbovec. The D28 is currently finished up to the Gradec interchange. It is undergoing extensions which will increase the traffic traversing it.", "", "In the United States, this type of road may be called a divided highway, boulevard, parkway, expressway, freeway, or interstate, and has a grassy median or Jersey barrier separating the traffic directions. With few exceptions, all roads in the federally funded Interstate Highway System are fully controlled access divided highways known as freeways. A broader definition, expressways, includes both freeways and partial limited-access divided highways, and \"expressway\" is often used specifically to refer to the latter. United States Numbered Highways, state highways and other locally maintained highways may also be divided. Speed limits on rural divided highways range from, with some portions as high as. One privately run toll road in Texas, SH 130, has the highest speed limit in the United States at. Urban divided highways which are at grade and typically have much lower speed limits are sometimes called boulevards. In keeping with the U.S. Department of Transportation's \"Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices\" (MUTCD), since the early 1970s all divided highways are striped by color to show the direction of traffic flow. Two-way undivided roads have an amber center line, with a broken line indicating passing zones and a solid line indicating no passing zones and solid white baseline shoulder stripes. On undivided roads with more than one lane in each direction, the center is normally marked with a double solid line. The double solid stripe denotes that it is illegal to pass on the other side of the center line. Multilane one-way carriageways use broken white lines between lanes; the median-side baseline is solid amber, and the right sideline is solid white. Frequently in the U.S. the two carriageways are separated by some distance (wide medians with small forests or even hills in them), but drivers can always tell whether the roadway is two-way or one-way—and, if one-way, the direction in which the traffic flows—by looking at the striping coloration. For an example, see inset showing U.S. Route 52 near Lafayette, Indiana. Some dual-carriage highways have been turned into undivided highways by widening the lanes of an existing road (for example US Highway 33 between Elkhart and Goshen in northern Indiana).", "Like other countries, there are several types of divided highways; fully controlled-access divided routes with interchanges known as freeways, expressways that often include a mix of interchanges and traffic signals, and divided arterial roads that are almost entirely stop-controlled. \"Unlike\" other countries, divided highways in Canada are seldom equipped with traffic circles, roundabouts, or rotaries as alternatives to stoplights. Canadian roundabouts are almost entirely restricted to small local-service collector roads. In Canada, the term \"divided highway\" is used for this type of road, and the segment between the roadways is referred to as a \"median\". There may be gaps in the median strip of a partially controlled-access road to allow turning and crossing. More informally, a divided highway may be referred to as \"twinned\". This stems from the practice of \"twinning\" an existing two-lane highway and converting it into a divided highway. Divided highways are usually freeways in southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and parts of Atlantic Canada where robust federal and provincial funding has made such freeways possible. However, due to a lack of funding elsewhere, partial controlled-access \"expressways\" and limited-mobility divided arterial roads are more common in the western provinces where there are no specially numbered systems of freeways. On some portions of Ontario's 400-series highway network, the freeway median may be either steel guardrail or an Ontario tall-wall barrier rather than an unpaved strip. Some partial limited-access divided highways such as the Hanlon Parkway and Black Creek Drive have stop-controlled at-grade intersections and private entrances, but have sufficient right-of-way to convert them to full freeways with interchanges if traffic warrants. However, some older divided highways like the Trans-Canada north of Victoria BC are on relatively narrow road allowances that make any future grade separation almost completely unfeasible, regardless of traffic volumes and speeds. There are also RIRO expressways, such as Highway 11 and a portion of Highway 35, which are not full freeways since they allow access to existing properties, but traffic speeds are faster than regular roads due to a median barrier preventing left turns (motorists have to use a \"turnabout\" overpass to access exits on the opposing direction). Speed limits in Canada are usually 80 to 90 km/h on signalized divided highways and 100 to 120 km/h on freeways.", "In Australia, dual carriageways are referred to in some regions as divided roads, though there is no official terminology. Each state's road agency has its own definition of what constitutes a'motorway/freeway' standard divided road. Most states only declare a divided road as a'motorway' or 'freeway' if access is completely controlled. Speed limits are usually 100km/h or 110km/h. VicRoads, the agency responsible for highways in the state of Victoria, has often declared rural limited-access dual carriageways as freeways. Furthermore, VicRoads applies the M designation to these roads in alpha-numeric route numbers, where most other states will only do so if access is completely controlled. Dual carriageways exist in and around the major capital cities however there are currently several road projects under construction that will complete the roughly 2000 km of continuous dual carriageway from Geelong in Victoria to Curra in Southern Queensland. Once this is complete, it will be possible to travel between Melbourne to Brisbane via Sydney on a mix of controlled access and limited access dual carriageway.", "The best examples of dual carriageways in mainland China can be seen on the China National Highways. On some routes, such as China National Highway 106, there is a central reservation.", "Turkey has 21,227 km of dual carriageway as January 2012. Speed limit changes, but normally 110 km/h is the limit of state road (e.g. D 100). Turkey has 2551 km of motorways. The minimum speed limit on the Turkish motorways is 40 km/h and the maximum is 120 km/h. Almost all of the network is 6 lanes (3 in each direction) wide and illuminated. Some parts converted from uncontrolled access dual carriageways are 4 lanes(2 in each direction) wide. The motorway sign in Turkey is green and uses Highway Gothic typeface.", "India has many dual carriageways. Many of them are under the control of National Highways Authority of India and some of them are under state and local authorities. National Highway (India) and State highways in India comes under these type of roads, like Golden Quadrilateral and major arterial roads.", "Hyderabad-Mirpurkhas Dual Carriageway was constructed in 2012 on which the work started in 2009. It was under the Special Directives of President Asif Ali Zardari and Chief Minister Sindh Syed Qaim Ali Shah the first dual carriageway constructed under the Public Private Plan it extends up to 60 km.", "Principal Philippine Expressways, Metro Manila Roads and Avenues in Metro Cebu are examples of dual carriageways in the Philippines. STAR Tollway, NLEX, SCTEX and SLEX have portions with central reservations. Some highways inside Metro Manila have underpasses, tunnels and flyovers.", "A high proportion of roads in Singapore are dual carriageways with central reservations; examples include Clementi Road, Commonwealth Avenue and Holland Road. Often there might be railings erected on the central reservation to prevent pedestrians from dashing across the road. These usually have traffic lights along the way but flyovers and road tunnels (or 'underpasses') can be built to minimise the use of traffic lights; for example, at the Holland Road-Farrer Road-Queensway junction there are three levels of roads. Before the 1980s roundabouts were popular but since then many have been changed to traffic-light controlled junctions. These dual carriageways are to be distinguished from motorways, known in Singapore as expressways such as the Pan-Island Expressway (PIE) and Ayer Rajah Expressway (AYE) where no traffic lights are used.", "Known dual carriageways in Malaysia include the North-South Expressway (the main motorway system in Peninsular Malaysia), the East Coast Expressway (serving the Peninsular east coast), the Federal Highway (serving Kuala Lumpur), the AMJ Highway (linking Malacca and the Johorean towns Muar and Batu Pahat) and the under construct Pan Borneo Highway of Sabah and Sarawak. Some highways inside Klang Valley have underpasses, tunnels and flyovers e.g. SMART Tunnel (mostly tunnel section) and Ampang–Kuala Lumpur Elevated Highway (mostly elevated section). In Apart from major motorways and expressways, treelined dual carriageways also pass through most urban areas." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Production.", "Properties.", "Processing.", "Applications and uses.", "Safety.", "Ecotoxicity.", "PFOA.", "Similar polymers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "PTFE was accidentally discovered in 1938 by Roy J. Plunkett while he was working in New Jersey for DuPont. As Plunkett attempted to make a new chlorofluorocarbon refrigerant, the tetrafluoroethylene gas in its pressure bottle stopped flowing before the bottle's weight had dropped to the point signaling \"empty.\" Since Plunkett was measuring the amount of gas used by weighing the bottle, he became curious as to the source of the weight, and finally resorted to sawing the bottle apart. He found the bottle's interior coated with a waxy white material that was oddly slippery. Analysis showed that it was polymerized perfluoroethylene, with the iron from the inside of the container having acted as a catalyst at high pressure. Kinetic Chemicals patented the new fluorinated plastic (analogous to the already known polyethylene) in 1941, and registered the Teflon trademark in 1945. By 1948, DuPont, which founded Kinetic Chemicals in partnership with General Motors, was producing over two million pounds (900 tons) of Teflon brand PTFE per year in Parkersburg, West Virginia. An early use was in the Manhattan Project as a material to coat valves and seals in the pipes holding highly reactive uranium hexafluoride at the vast K-25 uranium enrichment plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. In 1954, Collette Grégoire, the wife of French engineer Marc Grégoire, urged him to try the material he had been using on fishing tackle on her cooking pans. He subsequently created the first PTFE-coated, non-stick pans under the brandname Tefal (combining \"Tef\" from \"Teflon\" and \"al\" from aluminium). In the United States, Marion A. Trozzolo, who had been using the substance on scientific utensils, marketed the first US-made PTFE-coated pan, \"The Happy Pan\", in 1961. Non-stick cookware has since become a common household product, nowadays offered by hundreds of manufacturers across the world. In the 1990s, it was found that PTFE could be radiation cross-linked above its melting point in an oxygen-free environment. Electron beam processing is one example of radiation processing. Cross-linked PTFE has improved high-temperature mechanical properties and radiation stability. This was significant because, for many years, irradiation at ambient conditions has been used to break down PTFE for recycling. This radiation-induced chain scission allows it to be more easily reground and reused.", "PTFE is produced by free-radical polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene. The net equation is Because tetrafluoroethylene can explosively decompose to tetrafluoromethane and carbon, special apparatus is required for the polymerization to prevent hot spots that might initiate this dangerous side reaction. The process is typically initiated with persulfate, which homolyzes to generate sulfate radicals: The resulting polymer is terminated with sulfate ester groups, which can be hydrolyzed to give OH end-groups. Because PTFE is poorly soluble in almost all solvents, the polymerization is conducted as an emulsion in water. This process gives a suspension of polymer particles. Alternatively, the polymerization is conducted using a surfactant such as PFOS.", "PTFE is a thermoplastic polymer, which is a white solid at room temperature, with a density of about 2200 kg/m. According to research, its melting point is. It maintains high strength, toughness and self-lubrication at low temperatures down to, and good flexibility at temperatures above. PTFE gains its properties from the aggregate effect of carbon-fluorine bonds, as do all fluorocarbons. The only chemicals known to affect these carbon-fluorine bonds are highly reactive metals like the alkali metals, and at higher temperatures also such metals as aluminium and magnesium, and fluorinating agents such as xenon difluoride and cobalt(III) fluoride. At temperatures above PTFE undergoes depolymerization. The coefficient of friction of plastics is usually measured against polished steel. PTFE's coefficient of friction is 0.05 to 0.10, which is the third-lowest of any known solid material (BAM being the first, with a coefficient of friction of 0.02; diamond-like carbon being second-lowest at 0.05). PTFE's resistance to van der Waals forces means that it is the only known surface to which a gecko cannot stick. In fact, PTFE can be used to prevent insects climbing up surfaces painted with the material. PTFE is so slippery that insects cannot get a grip and tend to fall off. For example, PTFE is used to prevent ants climbing out of formicaria. Because of its chemical inertness, PTFE cannot be cross-linked like an elastomer. Therefore, it has no \"memory\" and is subject to creep. Because of its superior chemical and thermal properties, PTFE is often used as a gasket material within industries that require resistance to aggressive chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or chemical processing. However, because of the propensity to creep, the long-term performance of such seals is worse than for elastomers that exhibit zero, or near-zero, levels of creep. In critical applications, Belleville washers are often used to apply continuous force to PTFE gaskets, thereby ensuring a minimal loss of performance over the lifetime of the gasket.", "Processing PTFE can be difficult and expensive, because the high melting temperature,, is above the initial decomposition temperature,. Even when melted, PTFE does not flow, but instead behaves as a gel due to the absence of crystalline phase and high melt viscosity. Some PTFE parts are made by cold-moulding, a form of compression molding. Here, fine powdered PTFE is forced into a mould under high pressure (10–100 MPa). After a settling period, lasting from minutes to days, the mould is heated at, allowing the fine particles to fuse into a single mass.", "The major application of PTFE, consuming about 50% of production, is for the insulation of wiring in aerospace and computer applications (e.g. hookup wire, coaxial cables). This application exploits the fact that PTFE has excellent dielectric properties, especially at high radio frequencies, making it suitable for use as an excellent insulator in connector assemblies and cables, and in printed circuit boards used at microwave frequencies. Combined with its high melting temperature, this makes it the material of choice as a high-performance substitute for the weaker and lower-melting-point polyethylene commonly used in low-cost applications. In industrial applications, owing to its low friction, PTFE is used for plain bearings, gears, slide plates, seals, gaskets, bushings, and more applications with sliding action of parts, where it outperforms acetal and nylon. Its extremely high bulk resistivity makes it an ideal material for fabricating long-life electrets, the electrostatic analogues of permanent magnets. PTFE film is also widely used in the production of carbon fiber composites as well as fiberglass composites, notably in the aerospace industry. PTFE film is used as a barrier between the carbon or fiberglass part being built, and breather and bagging materials used to incapsulate the bondment when debulking (vacuum removal of air from between layers of laid-up plies of material) and when curing the composite, usually in an autoclave. The PTFE, used here as a film, prevents the non-production materials from sticking to the part being built, which is sticky due to the carbon-graphite or fiberglass plies being pre-pregnated with bismaleimide resin. Non-production materials such as Teflon, Airweave Breather and the bag itself would be considered F.O.D. (foreign object debris/damage) if left in layup. Because of its extreme non-reactivity and high temperature rating, PTFE is often used as the liner in hose assemblies, expansion joints, and in industrial pipe lines, particularly in applications using acids, alkalis, or other chemicals. Its frictionless qualities allow improved flow of highly viscous liquids, and for uses in applications such as brake hoses. Gore-Tex is a brand of expanded PTFE (ePTFE), a material incorporating a fluoropolymer membrane with micropores. The roof of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis, US, was one of the largest applications of PTFE coatings. of the material was used in the creation of the white double-layered PTFE-coated fiberglass dome. PTFE is often found in musical instrument lubrication product; most commonly, valve oil. PTFE is used in some aerosol lubricant sprays, including in micronized and polarized form. It is notable for its extremely low coefficient of friction, its hydrophobia (which serves to inhibit rust), and for the dry film it forms after application, which allows it to resist collecting particles that might otherwise form an abrasive paste. PTFE (Teflon) is best known for its use in coating non-stick frying pans and other cookware, as it is hydrophobic and possesses fairly high heat resistance. The sole plates of some clothes irons are coated with PTFE (Teflon). Other niche applications include:", "Pyrolysis of PTFE is detectable at, and it evolves several fluorocarbon gases and a sublimate. An animal study conducted in 1955 concluded that it is unlikely that these products would be generated in amounts significant to health at temperatures below.Products like non-stick coated cookware have had their PFOA removed since 2013 and prior to this products containing PFOA weren't found to be major sources of exposure. While PTFE is stable and nontoxic at lower temperatures, it begins to deteriorate after the temperature of cookware reaches about, and decomposes above. The degradation by-products can be lethal to birds, and can cause flu-like symptoms in humans—see polymer fume fever. Meat is usually fried between, and most oils start to smoke before a temperature of is reached, but there are at least two cooking oils (refined safflower oil at and avocado oil at ) that have a higher smoke point. However these cases of polymer fume fever were mostly present in people who had cooked at for ⪰4 hours. Several recent legislative and regulatory efforts across the US to address polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have focused on limiting levels in drinking water. However, there has been relatively little conversation about the presence of these chemicals in our everyday lives and the public’s sheer exposure to PFAS through primary contact from commercial products used in our everyday lives. Several peer reviewed studies have shown that the mean and median concentration of PFOA in household dust in the US was found to be between approximately 10,000 and 50,000 parts per trillion (ppt). These studies highlight the fact that there is significantly more PFOA in the ambient dust in the average home than the levels currently being discussed as thresholds for drinking water. Because PFAS is in the products we use, is transported through air and water and has been found in the food we eat, there are numerous public exposure pathways for PFAS beyond drinking water. Drinking water treatment systems, wastewater treatment facilities, and municipal solid waste landfills are not “producers” or users of PFAS, and none of these essential public service providers utilize or profit from PFAS chemicals. Rather, they are “receivers” of these chemicals used by manufacturers and everyday consumers, and merely convey and/or manage the traces of PFAS coming into our systems daily. In response to the phase out of PFAS use and appropriate source control and product substitution, continued reduction of trace levels is anticipated. It is important to note that PFAS are also found in paper mill residuals, digestates, composts, and soils. Given the ubiquity of PFAS, and the comparative background levels which may be found in wastewater, biosolids, and leachates, setting requirements near analytical detection limits on these sources may not provide a discernable benefit to protecting public health.", "Sodium trifluoroacetate and the similar compound chlorodifluoroacetate can both be generated when PTFE undergoes thermolysis, as well as producing longer chain polyfluoro- and/or polychlorofluoro- (C3-C14) carboxylic acids which may be equally persistent. Some of these products have recently been linked with possible adverse health and environmental impacts and are being phased out of the US market. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is sometimes used in the process of making PTFE/Teflon, although it is burned off during this process and is not usually present in significant quantities in the resultant PTFE.", "Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, or C8) has been used as a surfactant in the emulsion polymerization of PTFE, although several manufacturers have entirely discontinued its use. PFOA persists indefinitely in the environment. PFOA has been detected in the blood of more than 98% of the general US population in the low and sub-parts per billion range, and levels are higher in chemical plant employees and surrounding subpopulations. PFOA and PFOS are found in every American person’s blood stream in the parts per billion range, though those concentrations have decreased by 70% for PFOA and 84% for PFOS between 1999 and 2014, which coincides with the end of the production and phase out of PFOA and PFOS in the US. The general population has been exposed to PFOA through massive dumping of C8 waste into the ocean and near the Ohio River Valley. PFOA has been detected in industrial waste, stain-resistant carpets, carpet cleaning liquids, house dust, microwave popcorn bags, water, food and Teflon cookware. As a result of a class-action lawsuit and community settlement with DuPont, three epidemiologists conducted studies on the population surrounding a chemical plant that was exposed to PFOA at levels greater than in the general population. The studies concluded that there was an association between PFOA exposure and six health outcomes: kidney cancer, testicular cancer, ulcerative colitis, thyroid disease, hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol), and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Overall, PTFE cookware is considered a minor exposure pathway to PFOA.", "The Teflon trade name is also used for other polymers with similar compositions: These retain the useful PTFE properties of low friction and nonreactivity, but are also more easily formable. For example, FEP is softer than PTFE and melts at ; it is also highly transparent and resistant to sunlight. (Wayback Machine copy) (Wayback Machine copy)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and evolution of warships.", "First warships.", "The Age of Sail.", "Steel, steam and shellfire.", "20th century.", "The dreadnought era.", "Decline of battleships.", "Cold War-era.", "Development of the submarine.", "Development of the aircraft carrier." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "4", "4" ], "content": [ "", "In the time of Mesopotamia, Ancient Persia, Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, warships were always galleys (such as biremes, triremes and quinqueremes): long, narrow vessels powered by banks of oarsmen and designed to ram and sink enemy vessels, or to engage them bow-first and follow up with boarding parties. The development of catapults in the 4th century BC and the subsequent refinement of this technology enabled the first fleets of artillery-equipped warships by the Hellenistic age. During late antiquity, ramming fell out of use and the galley tactics against other ships used during the Middle Ages until the late 16th century focused on boarding.", "Naval artillery was redeveloped in the 14th century, but cannon did not become common at sea until the guns were capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a ship required to carry a large number of cannons made oar-based propulsion impossible, and warships came to rely primarily on sails. The sailing man-of-war emerged during the 16th century. By the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on their broadsides and tactics evolved to bring each ship's firepower to bear in a line of battle. The man-of-war now evolved into the ship of the line. In the 18th century, the frigate and sloop-of-war – too small to stand in the line of battle – evolved to convoy trade, scout for enemy ships and blockade enemy coasts.", "During the 19th century a revolution took place in the means of marine propulsion, naval armament and construction of warships. Marine steam engines were introduced, at first as an auxiliary force, in the second quarter of the 19th century. The Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the development of guns. The introduction of explosive shells soon led to the introduction of iron, and later steel, armour for the sides and decks of larger warships. The first ironclad warships, the French and British, made wooden vessels obsolete. Metal soon entirely replaced wood as the main material for warship construction. From the 1850s, the sailing ships of the line were replaced by steam-powered battleships, while the sailing frigates were replaced by steam-powered cruisers. The armament of warships also changed with the invention of the rotating barbettes and turrets, which allowed the guns to be aimed independently of the direction of the ship and allowed a smaller number of larger guns to be carried. The final innovation during the 19th century was the development of the torpedo and development of the torpedo boat. Small, fast torpedo boats seemed to offer an alternative to building expensive fleets of battleships.", "", "Another revolution in warship design began shortly after the start of the 20th century, when Britain launched the Royal Navy's all-big-gun battleship in 1906. Powered by steam turbines, it was bigger, faster and more heavily gunned than any existing battleships, which it immediately rendered obsolete. It was rapidly followed by similar ships in other countries. The Royal Navy also developed the first battlecruisers. Mounting the same heavy guns as the dreadnoughts on an even larger hull, battlecruisers sacrificed armour protection for speed. Battlecruisers were faster and more powerful than all existing cruisers, which they made obsolete, but battlecruisers proved to be much more vulnerable than contemporary battleships. The torpedo-boat destroyer was developed at the same time as the dreadnoughts. Bigger, faster and more heavily gunned than the torpedo boat, the destroyer evolved to protect the capital ships from the menace of the torpedo boat. At this time, Britain also developed the use of fuel oil to produce steam to power warships, instead of coal. While reliance on coal required navies to adopt a \"coal strategy\" to remain viable, fuel oil produced twice the power and was significantly easier to handle. Tests were conducted by the Royal Navy in 1904 involving the torpedo-boat destroyer, the first warship powered solely by fuel oil. These proved its superiority, and all warships procured for the Royal Navy from 1912 were designed to burn fuel oil.", "During the lead-up to the Second World War, Germany and Great Britain once again emerged as the two dominant Atlantic sea powers. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, had its navy limited to only a few minor surface ships. But the clever use of deceptive terminology, such as \"Panzerschiffe\" deceived the British and French commands. They were surprised when ships such as,, and raided the Allied supply lines. The greatest threat though, was the introduction of the Kriegsmarine's largest vessels, and. \"Bismarck\" was heavily damaged and sunk/scuttled after a series of sea battles in the north Atlantic in 1941, while \"Tirpitz\" was destroyed by the Royal Air Force in 1944. The British Royal Navy gained dominance of the European theatre by 1943. The Second World War brought massive changes in the design and role of several types of warships. For the first time, the aircraft carrier became the clear choice to serve as the main capital ship within a naval task force. World War II was the only war in history in which battles occurred between groups of carriers. World War II saw the first use of radar in combat. It brought the first naval battle in which the ships of both sides never engaged in direct combat, instead sending aircraft to make the attacks, in the Battle of Coral Sea.", "Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories, which are: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines and amphibious assault ships. Battleships comprise an eighth category, but are not in current service with any navy in the world. Only the deactivated American s still exist as potential combatants, and battleships in general are unlikely to re-emerge as a ship class without redefinition. The destroyer is generally regarded as the dominant surface-combat vessel of most modern blue-water navies. However, the once distinct roles and appearances of cruisers, destroyers, frigates, and corvettes have blurred. Most vessels have come to be armed with a mix of anti-surface, anti-submarine and anti-aircraft weapons. Class designations no longer reliably indicate a displacement hierarchy, and the size of all vessel types has grown beyond the definitions used earlier in the 20th century. Another key differentiation between older and modern vessels is that all modern warships are \"soft\", without the thick armor and bulging anti-torpedo protection of World War II and older designs. Most navies also include many types of support and auxiliary vessels, such as minesweepers, patrol boats and offshore patrol vessels. By 1982 the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) treaty negotiations had produced a legal definition of what was then generally accepted as a late-twentieth century warship. The UNCLOS definition was : \"A warship means a ship belonging to the armed forces of a State bearing the external marks distinguishing such ships of its nationality, under the command of an officer duly commissioned by the government of the State and whose name appears in the appropriate service list or its equivalent, and manned by a crew which is under regular armed forces discipline.\"", "The first practical submarines were developed in the late 19th century, but it was only after the development of the torpedo that submarines became truly dangerous (and hence useful). By the end of the First World War submarines had proved their potential. During the Second World War Nazi Germany's submarine fleet of U-boats almost starved Britain into submission and inflicted huge losses on US coastal shipping. The success of submarines led to the development of new anti-submarine convoy escorts during the First and Second World Wars, such as the destroyer escort. Confusingly, many of these new types adopted the names of the smaller warships from the age of sail, such as corvette, sloop and frigate.", "A major shift in naval warfare occurred with the introduction of the aircraft carrier. First at Taranto and then at Pearl Harbor, the aircraft carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out of sight and range of surface vessels. By the end of the Second World War, the carrier had become the dominant warship." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physiology.", "Invertebrates.", "Mollusca.", "Arthropoda.", "Vertebrates.", "Reptiles and amphibians.", "Fish.", "Mammals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Organisms that aestivate appear to be in a fairly \"light\" state of dormancy, as their physiological state can be rapidly reversed, and the organism can quickly return to a normal state. A study done on \"Otala lactea\", a snail native to parts of Europe and Northern Africa, shows that they can wake from their dormant state within ten minutes of being introduced to a wetter environment. The primary physiological and biochemical concerns for an aestivating animal are to conserve energy, retain water in the body, ration the use of stored energy, handle the nitrogenous end products, and stabilize bodily organs, cells, and macromolecules. This can be quite a task as hot temperatures and arid conditions may last for months. The depression of metabolic rate during aestivation causes a reduction in macromolecule synthesis and degradation. To stabilize the macromolecules, aestivators will enhance antioxidant defenses and elevate chaperone proteins. This is a widely used strategy across all forms of hypometabolism. These physiological and biochemical concerns appear to be the core elements of hypometabolism throughout the animal kingdom. In other words, animals which aestivate appear to go through nearly the same physiological processes as animals that hibernate.", "", "Gastropoda: some air-breathing land snails, including species in the genera \"Helix, Cernuella, Theba, Helicella, Achatina\" and \"Otala\", commonly aestivate during periods of heat. Some species move into shaded vegetation or rubble. Others climb up tall plants, including crop species as well as bushes and trees, and will also climb man-made structures such as posts, fences, etc. Their habit of climbing vegetation to aestivate has caused more than one introduced snail species to be declared an agricultural nuisance. To seal the opening to their shell to prevent water loss, pulmonate land snails secrete a membrane of dried mucus called an epiphragm. In certain species, such as \"Helix pomatia\", this barrier is reinforced with calcium carbonate, and thus it superficially resembles an operculum, except that it has a tiny hole to allow some oxygen exchange. There is decrease in metabolic rate and reduced rate of water loss in aestivating snails like \"Rhagada tescorum\", \"Sphincterochila boissieri\" and others.", "Insecta: Lady beetles (\"Coccinellidae\") have been reported to aestivate. Mosquitoes also are reported to undergo aestivation. False honey ants are well known for being winter active and aestivate in temperate climates. Bogong moths will aestivate over the summer to avoid the heat and lack of food sources. Adult alfalfa weevils (\"Hypera postica\") aestivate during the summer in the southeastern United States, during which their metabolism, respiration, and nervous systems show a dampening of activity. Crustacea: An example of a crustacean undergoing aestivation is with the Australian crab \"Austrothelphusa transversa,\" which undergoes aestivation underground during the dry season\".\"", "", "Non-mammalian animals that aestivate include North American desert tortoises, crocodiles, and salamanders. Some amphibians (e.g. the cane toad and greater siren) aestivate during the hot dry season by moving underground where it is cooler and more humid. The California red-legged frog may aestivate to conserve energy when its food and water supply is low. The water-holding frog has an aestivation cycle. It buries itself in sandy ground in a secreted, water-tight mucus cocoon during periods of hot, dry weather. Australian Aborigines discovered a means to take advantage of this by digging up one of these frogs and squeezing it, causing the frog to empty its bladder. This dilute urine—up to half a glassful—can be drunk. However, this will cause the death of the frog which will be unable to survive until the next rainy season without the water it had stored. The western swamp turtle aestivates to survive hot summers in the ephemeral swamps it lives in. It buries itself in various media which change depending on location and available substrates. Because the species is critically endangered, the Perth Zoo began a conservation and breeding program for it. However, zookeepers were unaware of the importance of their aestivation cycle and during the first summer period would perform weekly checks on the animals. This repeated disturbance was detrimental to the health of the animals, with many losing significant weight and some dying. The zookeepers quickly changed their procedures and now leave their captive turtles undisturbed during their aestivation period.", "African lungfish also aestivate.", "Although relatively uncommon, a small number of mammals aestivate. Animal physiologist Kathrin Dausmann of Philipps University of Marburg, Germany, and coworkers presented evidence in a 2004 edition of \"Nature\" that the Malagasy fat-tailed dwarf lemur hibernates or aestivates in a small tree hole for seven months of the year. According to the Oakland Zoo in California, East African hedgehogs are thought to aestivate during the dry season." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Nobel Prize.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sperry was born in Hartford, Connecticut, to Francis Bushnell and Florence Kraemer Sperry. His father was in banking, and his mother trained in business school. He was raised in an upper middle-class environment, which stressed academic achievement. Roger had one brother, Russell Loomis. Their father died when Roger was 11. Afterwards, his mother became assistant to the principal in the local high school. Sperry went to Hall High School in West Hartford, Connecticut, where he was a star athlete in several sports, and did well enough academically to win a scholarship to Oberlin College. At Oberlin, he was captain of the basketball team, and he also took part in varsity baseball, football, and track. He also worked at a cafe on campus to help support himself. Sperry was an English major, but he took an Intro to Psychology class taught by a Professor named R. H. Stetson who had worked with William James, the father of American Psychology. This class sparked Sperry's interest in the brain and how it can change. Stetson was disabled and had trouble getting around so Sperry would help him out by driving him to and from wherever he needed to go. This included taking Stetson to lunch with his colleagues. Sperry would just sit at the end of the table and listen to Stetson and his colleagues discuss their research and other psychological interests. This increased Sperry's interest in Psychology even more and after he received his undergraduate degree in English from Oberlin he decided to stay and get his master's degree in Psychology. He received his bachelor's degree in English in 1935 and a master's degree in psychology in 1937. He received his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Chicago in 1941, supervised by Paul A. Weiss. Sperry then did postdoctoral research with Karl Lashley at Harvard University though most of his time was spent with Lashley at the Yerkes Primate Research Center in Orange Park, Florida.", "In 1942, Sperry began work at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology, then a part of Harvard University. There he focused on experiments involving the rearranging of motor and sensory nerves. He left in 1946 to become an assistant professor, and later associate professor, at the University of Chicago. In 1949, during a routine chest x-ray, there was evidence of tuberculosis. He was sent to Saranac Lake in the Adironack Mountains in New York for treatment. It was during this time when he began writing his concepts of the mind and brain, and was first published in the \"American Scientist\" in 1952. In 1952, he became the Section Chief of Neurological Diseases and Blindness at the National Institutes of Health and finished out the year at the Marine Biology Laboratory in Coral Gables, FL. Sperry went back to The University of Chicago in 1952 and became an Associate Professor of Psychology. He was not offered tenure at Chicago and planned to move to Bethesda, Maryland but was held up by a delay in construction at the National Institutes of Health. During this time Sperry's friend Victor Hepburn invited him to lecture about his research at a symposium. There were professors from the California Institute of Technology in the audience of the symposium who, after listening to Sperry's lecture, were so impressed with him they offered him a job as the Hixson Professor of Psychobiology. In 1954, he accepted the position as a professor at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech as Hixson Professor of Psychobiology) where he performed his most famous experiments with Joseph Bogen, MD and many students including Michael Gazzaniga. Under the supervision of Paul Weiss while earning his Ph.D. at the University of Chicago, Sperry became interested in neuronal specificity and brain circuitry and began questioning the existing concepts about these two topics. He asked the simple question first asked in his Introduction to Psychology class at Oberlin: Nature or nurture? He began a series of experiments in an attempt to answer this question. Sperry crosswired the motor nerves of rats' legs so the left nerve controlled the right leg and vice versa. He would then place the rats in a cage that had an electric grid on the bottom separated into four sections. Each leg of the rat was placed into one of the four sections of the electric grid. A shock was administered to a specific section of the grid, for example the grid where the rat's left back leg was located would receive a shock. Every time the left paw was shocked the rat would lift his right paw and vice versa. Sperry wanted to know how long it would take the rat to realize he was lifting the wrong paw. After repeated tests Sperry found that the rats never learned to lift up the correct paw, leading him to the conclusion that some things are just hardwired and cannot be relearned. In Sperry's words, \"no adaptive functioning of the nervous system took place.\" During Sperry's postdoctoral years with Karl Lashley at Harvard and at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology in Orange Park, Florida, he continued his work on neuronal specificity that he had begun as a doctoral student and initiated a new series of studies involving salamanders. The optic nerves were sectioned and the eyes rotated 180 degrees. The question was whether vision would be normal after regeneration or would the animal forever view the world as \"upside down\" and right-left reversed. Should the latter prove to be the case, it would mean that the nerves were somehow \"guided\" back to their original sites of termination. Restoration of normal vision (i.e., \"seeing\" the world in a \"right-side-up\" orientation) would mean that the regenerating nerves had terminated in new sites, quite different from the original ones. The animals reacted as though the world was upside down and reversed from right to left. Furthermore, no amount of training could change the response. These studies, which provided strong evidence for nerve guidance by \"intricate chemical codes under genetic control\" (1963) culminated in Sperry's chemoaffinity hypothesis (1951). Sperry later served on the Board of Trustees and as Professor of Psychobiology Emeritus at California Institute of Technology. The Sperry Neuroscience Building at Oberlin College was named in his honor in 1990.", "Sperry was granted numerous awards over his lifetime, including the California Scientist of the Year Award in 1972, the National Medal of Science in 1989, the Wolf Prize in Medicine in 1979, and the Albert Lasker Medical Research Award in 1979, and the Nobel Prize for Medicine/Physiology in 1981 that he shared with David H. Hubel and Torsten N. Wiesel. Sperry won this award for his work with \"split-brain\" patients. The brain is divided into two hemispheres, the left and right hemispheres, connected in the middle by a part of the brain called the corpus callosum. In \"split-brain\" patients, the corpus callosum has been severed due to the patients suffering from epilepsy, a disease that causes intense and persistent seizures. Seizures begin in one hemisphere and continue into the other hemisphere. Cutting the corpus callosum prevents the seizures from moving from one hemisphere to the other, which then prevents seizures from occurring, thus allowing the patients to function normally instead of suffering from continuous seizures. Sperry first became interested in \"split-brain\" research when he was working on the topic of interocular transfer, which occurs when \"one learns with one eye how to solve a problem then, with that eye covered and using the other eye, one already knows how to solve the problem\". Sperry asked the question: \"how can the learning with one eye appear with the use of the other?\" Sperry cut nerves in the eyes of cats so the left eye was connected to the left hemisphere and the right eye was connected to the right hemisphere; he also cut the corpus callosum. The cats were then taught to distinguish a triangle from a square with the right eye covered. Then the cats were presented the same problem with the left eye covered; the cats had no idea what they had just learned with the right eye and because of this could be taught to distinguish a square from a triangle. Depending on which eye was covered, the cats would either distinguish a square from a triangle or a triangle from a square, demonstrating that the left and right hemispheres learned and remembered two different events. This led Sperry to believe that the left and right hemispheres function separately when not connected by the corpus callosum. Sperry's research with \"split-brain\" cats helped lead to the discovery that cutting the corpus callosum is a very effective treatment for patients who suffer from epilepsy. Initially after the patients recovered from surgery there were no signs that the surgery caused any changes to their behavior or functioning. This observation rendered the question: if the surgery had absolutely no effect on any part of the patients' normal functioning then what is the purpose of the corpus callosum? Was it simply there to keep the two sides of the brain from collapsing, as Karl Lashley jokingly put it? Sperry was asked to develop a series of tests to perform on the \"split-brain\" patients to determine if the surgery caused changes in the patients' functioning or not. Working with his graduate student Michael Gazzaniga, Sperry invited several of the \"split-brain\" patients to volunteer to take part in his study to determine if the surgery affected their functioning. These tests were designed to test the patients' language, vision, and motor skills. When a person views something in the left visual field (that is on the left side of their body), the information travels to the right hemisphere of the brain and vice versa. In the first series of tests, Sperry would present a word to either the left or right visual field for a short period of time. If the word was shown to the right visual field, meaning the left hemisphere would process it, then the patient could report seeing the word. If the word was shown to the left visual field, meaning the right hemisphere would process it, then the patient could not report seeing the word. This led Sperry to believe that only the left side of the brain could articulate speech. However, in a follow-up experiment, Sperry discovered that the right hemisphere does have some language abilities. In this experiment, he had the patients place their left hands in a tray full of objects located under a partition so the patient would not be able to see the objects. Then a word was shown to the patient's left visual field, which was processed by the right side of the brain. This word described one of the objects in the tray, so the patient's left hand picked up the object corresponding to the word. When participants were asked about the word and the object in their hand, they claimed they had not seen the word and had no idea why they were holding the object. The right side of the brain had recognized the word and told the left hand to pick it up, but because the right side of the brain cannot speak and the left side of the brain had not seen the word, the patient could not articulate what they had seen. In another series of experiments further examining the lateralization of language in the left and right hemispheres, Sperry presented one object to the left visual field and a different object to the right visual field of the \"split-brain\" patients. The patient's left hand was put under a partition and then the patient was asked to draw with their left hand what they had been shown. The patients would draw what they had seen in their left visual field, but when asked what they had drawn would describe what had been shown to their right visual field. These tests proved that when the corpus callosum is severed, it breaks the connection between the left and right hemispheres, making them unable to communicate with each other. Not only are they unable to communicate with each other, but also without the corpus callosum connecting them one hemisphere has no idea that the other hemisphere even exists. There was even evidence of this outside the laboratory when some of the patients reported that, \"while their left hand was unbuttoning their shirt, the right hand would follow along behind and button it again.\" These experiments were beneficial to numerous people in many different ways. In his words, each hemisphere is: This research contributed greatly to understanding the lateralization of brain function. In 1989, Sperry also received the National Medal of Science. Afterwards in 1993, Sperry received the Lifetime Achievement Award from APA. In addition to his contribution in establishing the lateralized function of the brain, Sperry is noted for his \"chemoaffinity hypothesis\", which has not only been influential in formation of testable hypotheses in how precise neuronal wiring diagram is established in the brain, but the hypothesis itself has been verified by numerous experiments. In the words of a 2009 review article in \"Science\" magazine: \"He suggested that gradients of such identification tags on retinal neurons and on the target cells in the brain coordinately guide the orderly projection of millions of developing retinal axons. This idea was supported by the identification and genetic analysis of axon guidance molecules, including those that direct development of the vertebrate visual system.\" This was confirmed in the seventies by Marshall W. Nirenberg's work on chick retinas and later on \"Drosophila melanogaster\" larvae. The experiments conducted by Sperry focused on four major ideas which were also called \"turnarounds\": equipotentiality, split brain studies, nerve regeneration and plasticity, and psychology of the consciousness.", "In 1949, Sperry married Norma Gay Deupree. They had one son, Glenn Michael, and one daughter, Janeth Hope. Sperry was a quiet, thoughtful, and modest man with an insatiable curiosity. He never stopped working, questioning, or learning up until his death in 1994 of ALS or Lou Gehrig's Disease. Sperry could often be found in his office with his feet propped up on his desk scribbling in his notebook or deep in thought. Sperry was an avid paleontologist and displayed his large fossil collection in his home. He was also a very talented sculptor, artist, and ceramicist. He enjoyed going on camping and fishing trips with his wife and children in Baja, California." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History of food chemistry.", "Water in food systems.", "Carbohydrates.", "Lipids.", "Food proteins.", "Enzymes.", "Vitamins.", "Minerals.", "Colour.", "Flavours.", "Food additives." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The scientific approach to food and nutrition arose with attention to agricultural chemistry in the works of J. G. Wallerius, Humphry Davy, and others. For example, Davy published \"Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of Agriculture\" (1813) in the United Kingdom which would serve as a foundation for the profession worldwide, going into a fifth edition. Earlier work included that by Carl Wilhelm Scheele who isolated malic acid from apples in 1785. Some of the findings of Liebig on food chemistry were translated and published by Eben Horsford in Lowell Massachusetts in 1848. In 1874 the Society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical methods to the benefit of the public. Its early experiments were based on bread, milk and wine. It was also out of concern for the quality of the food supply, mainly food adulteration and contamination issues that would first stem from intentional contamination to later with chemical food additives by the 1950s. The development of colleges and universities worldwide, most notably in the United States, would expand food chemistry as well with research of the dietary substances, most notably the Single-grain experiment during 1907-11. Additional research by Harvey W. Wiley at the United States Department of Agriculture during the late 19th century would play a key factor in the creation of the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1906. The American Chemical Society would establish their Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division in 1908 while the Institute of Food Technologists would establish their Food Chemistry Division in 1995. Food chemistry concepts are often drawn from rheology, theories of transport phenomena, physical and chemical thermodynamics, chemical bonds and interaction forces, quantum mechanics and reaction kinetics, biopolymer science, colloidal interactions, nucleation, glass transitions and freezing/disordered or noncrystalline solids, and thus has Food Physical Chemistry as a foundation area.", "A major component of food is water, which can encompass anywhere from 50% in meat products to 95% in lettuce, cabbage, and tomato products. It is also an excellent place for bacterial growth and food spoilage if it is not properly processed. One way this is measured in food is by water activity which is very important in the shelf life of many foods during processing. One of the keys to food preservation in most instances is reduce the amount of water or alter the water's characteristics to enhance shelf-life. Such methods include dehydration, freezing, and refrigeration This field encompasses the\" \"physiochemical principles of the reactions and conversions that occur during the manufacture, handling, and storage of foods\"\".", "Comprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all food intake for human consumption, the most common known human carbohydrate is Sucrose. The simplest version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of CHO where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose is an example of a monosaccharide as is fructose. When combined in the way that the image to the right depicts, sucrose, one of the more common sugar products found in plants, is formed. A chain of monosaccharides form to make a polysaccharide. Such polysaccharides include pectin, dextran, agar, and xanthan. Sugar content is commonly measured in degrees brix.", "The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids (including essential fatty acids), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid. Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic (\"water-fearing\"), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic (\"water-loving\") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). Lipids in food include the oils of such grains as corn, soybean, from animal fats, and are parts of many foods such as milk, cheese, and meat. They also act as vitamin carriers.", "Proteins compose over 50% of the dry weight of an average living cell and are very complex macromolecules. They also play a fundamental role in the structure and function of cells. Consisting mainly of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and some sulfur, they also may contain iron, copper, phosphorus, or zinc. In food, proteins are essential for growth and survival, and requirements vary depending upon a person's age and physiology (e.g., pregnancy). Protein is commonly obtained from animal sources: eggs, milk, and meat. Nuts, grains and legumes provide vegetable sources of protein, and protein combining of vegetable sources is used to achieve complete protein nutritional quotas from vegetables. Protein sensitivity as food allergy is detected with the ELISA test.", "Enzymes are biochemical catalysts used in converting processes from one substance to another. They are also involved in reducing the amount of time and energy required to complete a chemical process. Many aspects of the food industry use catalysts, including baking, brewing, dairy, and fruit juices, to make cheese, beer, and bread.", "Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body. These are broken down in nutrition as either water-soluble (Vitamin C) or fat-soluble (Vitamin E). An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent diseases such as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy while an overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death.", "Dietary minerals in foods are large and diverse with many required to function while other trace elements can be hazardous if consumed in excessive amounts. Bulk minerals with a Reference Daily Intake (RDI, formerly Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)) of more than 200 mg/day are calcium, magnesium, and potassium while important trace minerals (RDI less than 200 mg/day) are copper, iron, and zinc. These are found in many foods, but can also be taken in dietary supplements.", "Food colouring is added to change the colour of any food substance. It is mainly for sensory analysis purposes. It can be used to simulate the natural colour of a product as perceived by the customer, such as red dye (like FD&C Red No.40 Allura Red AC) to ketchup or to add unnatural colours to a product like Kellogg's Froot Loops. Caramel is a natural food dye; the industrial form, caramel colouring, is the most widely used food colouring and is found in foods from soft drinks to soya sauce, bread, and pickles.", "Flavour in food is important in how food smells and tastes to the consumer, especially in sensory analysis. Some of these products occur naturally like salt and sugar, but flavour chemists (called a \"flavourist\") develop many of these flavours for food products. Such artificial flavours include methyl salicylate which creates the wintergreen odor and lactic acid which gives milk a tart taste.", "Food additives are substances added to food for preserving flavours, or improving taste or appearance. The processes are as old as adding vinegar for pickling or as an emulsifier for emulsion mixtures like mayonnaise. These are generally listed by \"E number\" in the European Union or GRAS (\"generally recognized as safe\") by the United States Food and Drug Administration." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The first steam battleship.", "The first ironclad battleship.", "Navigable balloons.", "Electrical submarine.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After his return from England, Dupuy de Lôme started work at the arsenal in Toulon. At the time the only armed steamships in the French Navy were propelled by paddle-wheels, and there was great opposition to the introduction of steam power into line-of-battle ships. The paddle-wheel was seen to be unsuited to such large fighting vessels, and there was no confidence in the screw; while the great majority of naval officers in France, as well as in England, were averse to any decrease in sail spread. Dupuy de Lôme had carefully studied the details of the \"Great Britain\", which he had seen being built at Bristol, and was convinced that full steam power should be used on line-of-battle ships. He held fast to this idea; as early as 1845 he addressed a report to the Minister of Marine suggesting the construction of a screw-driven frigate, to be built with an iron hull, and protected by a belt of armour formed by several thicknesses of iron plating. This report alone would justify his claim to be considered the leading naval architect of that time; such a ship was not built for several years, but the idea of the \"classic\" iron battleship was clearly stated in this report. Dupuy de Lôme did not stand alone in the feeling that radical changes in the construction and propulsion of ships were imminent. His colleagues in the \"Génie Maritime\" (naval engineering) were impressed with the same idea: and in England, about this date, the earliest screw liners — converted \"block ships\" — were ordered. This action on the British part decided the French also to begin the conversion of their sailing line-of-battle ships into vessels with auxiliary steam power. Dupuy de Lôme continued work on the idea, and was rewarded in 1847 with the ordering of \"Le Napoléon\", which would become the first steam-powered battleship as well as the first screw battleship ever built. She was 77.8 m (240 ft) in length, 17 m (55 ft) in breadth, and of 5,000 tons displacement, with two gun decks. She was launched in 1850, tried in 1852, and attained a speed of nearly. During the Crimean War her performance attracted great attention, and soon there were plans to introduce steam power to fleets around the world.", "Along with the introduction of steam-power, the use of iron armour was leading to another revolution in design at about the same time. Dupuy de Lôme applied his talents to this field as well, by showing the practicability of armouring the sides of a wooden-built ship. In 1857 he was appointed to the highest office in the \"Constructive Corps—Directeur du Matériel\"—and his design for the earliest seagoing ironclad, \"La Gloire\", was approved in the same year. \"La Gloire\" was built fairly quickly, and was followed by a construction program that delivered a total of five such ships by 1863. Among these new ironclads were the only two-decked broadside ironclad battleships ever built, also designed by Dupuy de Lôme - \"Magenta\" and \"Solferino\". These ships were also the first to be equipped with a spur ram. In the design of \"La Gloire\", Dupuy de Lôme followed the principle of utilising known forms and dimensions for existing successful designs, and only changing what was absolutely necessary. The \"La Gloire\" nearly reproduced \"Napoléon\" so far as under-water shape was concerned, but with one gun deck instead of two, and a completely protected battery. As long as he retained office, Dupuy de Lôme consistently adhered to this principle; but at the same time he showed himself ready to consider how best to meet the constantly growing demands for thicker armour, heavier guns, and higher speeds. It is important to note, however, especially during his early enthusiasm for ironclads, that only a small proportion of the ships added to the French Navy during his time in office were built of anything but wood. Distinctions were showered upon him. He received the cross of the Legion of Honor in 1845, was made a commander in 1858, and grand officer in December 1863. In 1860 he was made a Councilor of State, and represented the French Admiralty in Parliament; in 1861, he was appointed \"\"inspecteur général du matériel de la Marine\"\" (general inspector for Navy equipment). In 1866 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. At the beginning of the Franco-German War he was appointed a member of the committee of defence. From 1869 to 1875 he was a Deputy, and in 1877 he was elected a Senator for life. He was a member of the Academy of Sciences and of other distinguished scientific bodies.", "In 1870 Dupuy de Lôme devoted a large amount of time to perfecting a practical navigable balloon, and the French Government gave him great assistance in carrying out the experiments. For carrying out the project, he was given a credit of 40,000 francs; but the balloon was not ready until a few days before the capitulation. These experiments led to the development of one of the first navigable balloons, named the \"Dupuy de Lôme\"(). The \"Dupuy de Lôme\" airship was 36 meters in length, 14.84 meters in diameter, 29 meters tall, and had a total volume of 3,454 cubic meters. It was powered by a crank, which was operated by 4 or 8 men and which could provide a speed of between 9 and 11 km/h. The basket under the balloon could carry 14 people. In 1875, he was busy over a scheme for embarking a railway train at Calais, and exhibited plans of the improved harbour and models of the \"bateaux porte-trains\" to the Academy of Sciences in July.", "Towards the end of his life, Dupuy de Lôme worked on a project for an electrical submarine, largely inspired from the experimental results of the submarine \"Plongeur\". Upon his death, the project was taken over by his friend Gustave Zédé, leading to the launch of one of the first electrical submarines in the world, the \"Gymnote\".", "Dupuy de Lôme was instrumental in helping the French Navy take the initiative in several of the technological advances of the 19th century, consolidating the position of the French Navy as the second in the world at that time. These innovations relied on a strong industrial base, second only to Britain, and considerably ahead of the United States or Prussia. According to a British obituary, \"it may be questioned whether any constructor has ever rendered greater services to the navy of any country...\". He died at Paris on 1 February 1885. Several warships have been named after Dupuy de Lôme:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Childhood.", "Military career.", "Gunpowder Plot.", "Overseas.", "Discovery.", "Torture.", "Trial and execution.", "Legacy.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Guy Fawkes was born in 1570 in Stonegate, York. He was the second of four children born to Edward Fawkes, a proctor and an advocate of the consistory court at York, and his wife, Edith. Guy's parents were regular communicants of the Church of England, as were his paternal grandparents; his grandmother, born Ellen Harrington, was the daughter of a prominent merchant, who served as Lord Mayor of York in 1536. Guy's mother's family were recusant Catholics, and his cousin, Richard Cowling, became a Jesuit priest. \"Guy\" was an uncommon name in England, but may have been popular in York on account of a local notable, Sir Guy Fairfax of Steeton. The date of Fawkes's birth is unknown, but he was baptised in the church of St Michael le Belfrey, York on 16 April. As the customary gap between birth and baptism was three days, he was probably born about 13 April. In 1568, Edith had given birth to a daughter named Anne, but the child died aged about seven weeks, in November that year. She bore two more children after Guy: Anne (b. 1572), and Elizabeth (b. 1575). Both were married, in 1599 and 1594 respectively. In 1579, when Guy was eight years old, his father died. His mother remarried several years later, to the Catholic Dionis Baynbrigge (or Denis Bainbridge) of Scotton, Harrogate. Fawkes may have become a Catholic through the Baynbrigge family's recusant tendencies, and also the Catholic branches of the Pulleyn and Percy families of Scotton, but also from his time at St. Peter's School in York. A governor of the school had spent about 20 years in prison for recusancy, and its headmaster, John Pulleyn, came from a family of noted Yorkshire recusants, the Pulleyns of Blubberhouses. In her 1915 work \"The Pulleynes of Yorkshire\", author Catharine Pullein suggested that Fawkes's Catholic education came from his Harrington relatives, who were known for harbouring priests, one of whom later accompanied Fawkes to Flanders in 1592–1593. Fawkes's fellow students included John Wright and his brother Christopher (both later involved with Fawkes in the Gunpowder Plot) and Oswald Tesimond, Edward Oldcorne and Robert Middleton, who became priests (the latter executed in 1601). After leaving school Fawkes entered the service of Anthony Browne, 1st Viscount Montagu. The Viscount took a dislike to Fawkes and after a short time dismissed him; he was subsequently employed by Anthony-Maria Browne, 2nd Viscount Montagu, who succeeded his grandfather at the age of 18. At least one source claims that Fawkes married and had a son, but no known contemporary accounts confirm this.", "In October 1591 Fawkes sold the estate in Clifton in York that he had inherited from his father. He travelled to the continent to fight in the Eighty Years War for Catholic Spain against the new Dutch Republic and, from 1595 until the Peace of Vervins in 1598, France. Although England was not by then engaged in land operations against Spain, the two countries were still at war, and the Spanish Armada of 1588 was only five years in the past. He joined Sir William Stanley, an English Catholic and veteran commander in his mid-fifties who had raised an army in Ireland to fight in Leicester's expedition to the Netherlands. Stanley had been held in high regard by Elizabeth I, but following his surrender of Deventer to the Spanish in 1587 he, and most of his troops, had switched sides to serve Spain. Fawkes became an alférez or junior officer, fought well at the siege of Calais in 1596, and by 1603 had been recommended for a captaincy. That year, he travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England. He used the occasion to adopt the Italian version of his name, Guido, and in his memorandum described James I (who became king of England that year) as \"a heretic\", who intended \"to have all of the Papist sect driven out of England.\" He denounced Scotland, and the King's favourites among the Scottish nobles, writing \"it will not be possible to reconcile these two nations, as they are, for very long\". Although he was received politely, the court of Philip III was unwilling to offer him any support.", "In 1604 Fawkes became involved with a small group of English Catholics, led by Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate the Protestant King James and replace him with his daughter, third in the line of succession, Princess Elizabeth. Fawkes was described by the Jesuit priest and former school friend Oswald Tesimond as \"pleasant of approach and cheerful of manner, opposed to quarrels and strife... loyal to his friends\". Tesimond also claimed Fawkes was \"a man highly skilled in matters of war\", and that it was this mixture of piety and professionalism that endeared him to his fellow conspirators. The author Antonia Fraser describes Fawkes as \"a tall, powerfully built man, with thick reddish-brown hair, a flowing moustache in the tradition of the time, and a bushy reddish-brown beard\", and that he was \"a man of action... capable of intelligent argument as well as physical endurance, somewhat to the surprise of his enemies.\" The first meeting of the five central conspirators took place on Sunday 20 May 1604, at an inn called the Duck and Drake, in the fashionable Strand district of London. Catesby had already proposed at an earlier meeting with Thomas Wintour and John Wright to kill the King and his government by blowing up \"the Parliament House with gunpowder\". Wintour, who at first objected to the plan, was convinced by Catesby to travel to the continent to seek help. Wintour met with the Constable of Castile, the exiled Welsh spy Hugh Owen, and Sir William Stanley, who said that Catesby would receive no support from Spain. Owen did, however, introduce Wintour to Fawkes, who had by then been away from England for many years, and thus was largely unknown in the country. Wintour and Fawkes were contemporaries; each was militant, and had first-hand experience of the unwillingness of the Spaniards to help. Wintour told Fawkes of their plan to \"doe some whatt in Ingland if the pece with Spaine healped us nott\", and thus in April 1604 the two men returned to England. Wintour's news did not surprise Catesby; despite positive noises from the Spanish authorities, he feared that \"the deeds would nott answere\". One of the conspirators, Thomas Percy, was promoted in June 1604, gaining access to a house in London that belonged to John Whynniard, Keeper of the King's Wardrobe. Fawkes was installed as a caretaker and began using the pseudonym John Johnson, servant to Percy. The contemporaneous account of the prosecution (taken from Thomas Wintour's confession) claimed that the conspirators attempted to dig a tunnel from beneath Whynniard's house to Parliament, although this story may have been a government fabrication; no evidence for the existence of a tunnel was presented by the prosecution, and no trace of one has ever been found; Fawkes himself did not admit the existence of such a scheme until his fifth interrogation, but even then he could not locate the tunnel. If the story is true, however, by December 1604 the conspirators were busy tunnelling from their rented house to the House of Lords. They ceased their efforts when, during tunnelling, they heard a noise from above. Fawkes was sent out to investigate, and returned with the news that the tenant's widow was clearing out a nearby undercroft, directly beneath the House of Lords. The plotters purchased the lease to the room, which also belonged to John Whynniard. Unused and filthy, it was considered an ideal hiding place for the gunpowder the plotters planned to store. According to Fawkes, 20 barrels of gunpowder were brought in at first, followed by 16 more on 20 July. On 28 July however, the ever-present threat of the plague delayed the opening of Parliament until Tuesday, 5 November.", "In an attempt to gain foreign support, in May 1605 Fawkes travelled overseas and informed Hugh Owen of the plotters' plan. At some point during this trip his name made its way into the files of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, who employed a network of spies across Europe. One of these spies, Captain William Turner, may have been responsible. Although the information he provided to Salisbury usually amounted to no more than a vague pattern of invasion reports, and included nothing which regarded the Gunpowder Plot, on 21 April he told how Fawkes was to be brought by Tesimond to England. Fawkes was a well-known Flemish mercenary, and would be introduced to \"Mr Catesby\" and \"honourable friends of the nobility and others who would have arms and horses in readiness\". Turner's report did not, however, mention Fawkes's pseudonym in England, John Johnson, and did not reach Cecil until late in November, well after the plot had been discovered. It is uncertain when Fawkes returned to England, but he was back in London by late August 1605, when he and Wintour discovered that the gunpowder stored in the undercroft had decayed. More gunpowder was brought into the room, along with firewood to conceal it. Fawkes's final role in the plot was settled during a series of meetings in October. He was to light the fuse and then escape across the Thames. Simultaneously, a revolt in the Midlands would help to ensure the capture of Princess Elizabeth. Acts of regicide were frowned upon, and Fawkes would therefore head to the continent, where he would explain to the Catholic powers his holy duty to kill the King and his retinue.", "A few of the conspirators were concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present at Parliament during the opening. On the evening of 26 October, Lord Monteagle received an anonymous letter warning him to stay away, and to \"retyre youre self into yowre contee whence yow maye expect the event in safti for... they shall receyve a terrible blowe this parleament\". Despite quickly becoming aware of the letterinformed by one of Monteagle's servantsthe conspirators resolved to continue with their plans, as it appeared that it \"was clearly thought to be a hoax\". Fawkes checked the undercroft on 30 October, and reported that nothing had been disturbed. Monteagle's suspicions had been aroused, however, and the letter was shown to King James. The King ordered Sir Thomas Knyvet to conduct a search of the cellars underneath Parliament, which he did in the early hours of 5 November. Fawkes had taken up his station late on the previous night, armed with a slow match and a watch given to him by Percy \"becaus he should knowe howe the time went away\". He was found leaving the cellar, shortly after midnight, and arrested. Inside, the barrels of gunpowder were discovered hidden under piles of firewood and coal.", "Fawkes gave his name as John Johnson and was first interrogated by members of the King's Privy chamber, where he remained defiant. When asked by one of the lords what he was doing in possession of so much gunpowder, Fawkes answered that his intention was \"to blow you Scotch beggars back to your native mountains.\" He identified himself as a 36-year-old Catholic from Netherdale in Yorkshire, and gave his father's name as Thomas and his mother's as Edith Jackson. Wounds on his body noted by his questioners he explained as the effects of pleurisy. Fawkes admitted his intention to blow up the House of Lords, and expressed regret at his failure to do so. His steadfast manner earned him the admiration of King James, who described Fawkes as possessing \"a Roman resolution\". James's admiration did not, however, prevent him from ordering on 6 November that \"John Johnson\" be tortured, to reveal the names of his co-conspirators. He directed that the torture be light at first, referring to the use of manacles, but more severe if necessary, authorising the use of the rack: \"the gentler Tortures are to be first used unto him \"et sic per gradus ad ima tenditur\" [and so by degrees proceeding to the worst]\". Fawkes was transferred to the Tower of London. The King composed a list of questions to be put to \"Johnson\", such as \"\"as to what he is\", For I can never yet hear of any man that knows him\", \"When and where he learned to speak French?\", and \"If he was a Papist, who brought him up in it?\" The room in which Fawkes was interrogated subsequently became known as the Guy Fawkes Room. Sir William Waad, Lieutenant of the Tower, supervised the torture and obtained Fawkes's confession. He searched his prisoner, and found a letter addressed to Guy Fawkes. To Waad's surprise, \"Johnson\" remained silent, revealing nothing about the plot or its authors. On the night of 6 November he spoke with Waad, who reported to Salisbury \"He [Johnson] told us that since he undertook this action he did every day pray to God he might perform that which might be for the advancement of the Catholic Faith and saving his own soul\". According to Waad, Fawkes managed to rest through the night, despite his being warned that he would be interrogated until \"I had gotton the inwards secret of his thoughts and all his complices\". His composure was broken at some point during the following day. The observer Sir Edward Hoby remarked \"Since Johnson's being in the Tower, he beginneth to speak English\". Fawkes revealed his true identity on 7 November, and told his interrogators that there were five people involved in the plot to kill the King. He began to reveal their names on 8 November, and told how they intended to place Princess Elizabeth on the throne. His third confession, on 9 November, implicated Francis Tresham. Following the Ridolfi plot of 1571 prisoners were made to dictate their confessions, before copying and signing them, if they still could. Although it is uncertain if he was tortured on the rack, Fawkes's scrawled signature suggests the suffering he endured at the hands of his interrogators.", "The trial of eight of the plotters began on Monday 27 January 1606. Fawkes shared the barge from the Tower to Westminster Hall with seven of his co-conspirators. They were kept in the Star Chamber before being taken to Westminster Hall, where they were displayed on a purpose-built scaffold. The King and his close family, watching in secret, were among the spectators as the Lords Commissioners read out the list of charges. Fawkes was identified as Guido Fawkes, \"otherwise called Guido Johnson\". He pleaded not guilty, despite his apparent acceptance of guilt from the moment he was captured. The jury found all the defendants guilty, and the Lord Chief Justice Sir John Popham pronounced them guilty of high treason. The Attorney General Sir Edward Coke told the court that each of the condemned would be drawn backwards to his death, by a horse, his head near the ground. They were to be \"put to death halfway between heaven and earth as unworthy of both\". Their genitals would be cut off and burnt before their eyes, and their bowels and hearts removed. They would then be decapitated, and the dismembered parts of their bodies displayed so that they might become \"prey for the fowls of the air\". Fawkes's and Tresham's testimony regarding the Spanish treason was read aloud, as well as confessions related specifically to the Gunpowder Plot. The last piece of evidence offered was a conversation between Fawkes and Wintour, who had been kept in adjacent cells. The two men apparently thought they had been speaking in private, but their conversation was intercepted by a government spy. When the prisoners were allowed to speak, Fawkes explained his not guilty plea as ignorance of certain aspects of the indictment. On 31 January 1606, Fawkes and three others – Thomas Wintour, Ambrose Rookwood, and Robert Keyes – were dragged (\"i.e.\", \"drawn\") from the Tower on wattled hurdles to the Old Palace Yard at Westminster, opposite the building they had attempted to destroy. His fellow plotters were then hanged and quartered. Fawkes was the last to stand on the scaffold. He asked for forgiveness of the King and state, while keeping up his \"crosses and idle ceremonies\" (Catholic practices). Weakened by torture and aided by the hangman, Fawkes began to climb the ladder to the noose, but either through jumping to his death or climbing too high so the rope was incorrectly set, he managed to avoid the agony of the latter part of his execution by breaking his neck. His lifeless body was nevertheless quartered and, as was the custom, his body parts were then distributed to \"the four corners of the kingdom\", to be displayed as a warning to other would-be traitors.", "On 5 November 1605, Londoners were encouraged to celebrate the King's escape from assassination by lighting bonfires, provided that \"this testemonye of joy be carefull done without any danger or disorder\". An Act of Parliament designated each 5 November as a day of thanksgiving for \"the joyful day of deliverance\", and remained in force until 1859. Fawkes was one of 13 conspirators, but he is the individual most associated with the plot. In Britain, 5 November has variously been called Guy Fawkes Night, Guy Fawkes Day, Plot Night, and Bonfire Night (which can be traced directly back to the original celebration of 5 November 1605). Bonfires were accompanied by fireworks from the 1650s onwards, and it became the custom after 1673 to burn an effigy (usually of the pope) when heir presumptive James, Duke of York, converted to Catholicism. Effigies of other notable figures have found their way onto the bonfires, such as Paul Kruger and Margaret Thatcher, although most modern effigies are of Fawkes. The \"guy\" is normally created by children from old clothes, newspapers, and a mask. During the 19th century, \"guy\" came to mean an oddly dressed person, while in many places it has lost any pejorative connotation and instead refers to any male person and the plural form can refer to people of any gender (as in \"you guys\"). James Sharpe, professor of history at the University of York, has described how Guy Fawkes came to be toasted as \"the last man to enter Parliament with honest intentions\". William Harrison Ainsworth's 1841 historical romance \"Guy Fawkes; or, The Gunpowder Treason\" portrays Fawkes in a generally sympathetic light, and his novel transformed Fawkes in the public perception into an \"acceptable fictional character\". Fawkes subsequently appeared as \"essentially an action hero\" in children's books and penny dreadfuls such as \"The Boyhood Days of Guy Fawkes; or, The Conspirators of Old London\", published around 1905. According to historian Lewis Call, Fawkes is now \"a major icon in modern political culture\" whose face has become \"a potentially powerful instrument for the articulation of postmodern anarchism\" in the late 20th century.", "Footnotes Citations Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "According to Jerome's account, Malchus was the only child of a farming family that resided near Nisibis during the fourth century. When he reached mature age Malchus' parents desired that he should marry. Malchus left his family home at this time and began his monastic life in the desert of Chalcis. After several years as a monk Malchus heard of his father's death and went home to deal with his inheritance, leaving the monastery against the direction of his abbot. He joined a group of pilgrims headed to his home district, but during their journey they were overtaken by Saracens and sold into slavery. Malchus' slave master insisted that he marry another of the slaves who had been captured in the same raid, and whose husband had been sold to another master. But Malchus, faithful to his monastic vocation refused to consummate the union and threatened to kill himself. The woman told him that she also wanted to live a celibate life, and proposed that she become the partner of his chastity, but not tell their master that they were living as brother and sister. Malchus and his wife eventually escaped their master by fleeing downriver on inflated goatskins. When their master caught up, they hid in a cave but were tracked down. They received protection from God when a lioness using the cave for a den attacked and killed their pursuers, then left with her cub. Then they were able to ride their deceased pursuers' camels back to civilization. According to records, \"Malchus sent his wife to a women's monastery as she requested,\" while he tried to return to his own monastery. \"By then the igumen was no longer alive.\" Malchus ended up going to Maronia, to a men's monastery under the direction of Bishop Evagrius. \"For the edification of monks he often recounted his trials, which were the result of his disobedience. Malchus labored in asceticism in the monastery until the end of his life.\" His wife also transferred to a woman's monastery in Maronia. In their old age, they became close companions again." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Political career.", "Early career.", "Recent career and 2007 presidential bid.", "Positions.", "Criticism of Islam.", "Political philosophy.", "Support base.", "Political positions held." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Villiers was born in Boulogne in the \"département\" of Vendée, France, the second of five children and eldest son of Jacques Le Jolis de Villiers de Saintignon (born Meurthe-et-Moselle, Nancy, 14 November 1913) and his wife Edwige d'Arexy (born Loire Atlantique, Nantes, 1 July 1925). His paternal grandfather, Louis Le Jolis de Villiers, born at Brucheville on 17 October 1874, was killed in action in World War I at Saint-Paul-en-Forêt on 10 September 1914 and married, on 24 October 1904, Jeanne de Saintignon (Auverre, 27 July 1880 – 25 August 1959), by whom he had five children, the youngest of whom was Philippe's father, Jacques. He received a Master's Degree in Law in 1971, graduated from the Paris Institute of Political Studies in 1973, and graduated from the National School of Administration in 1978. After university, Villiers became a successful entrepreneur. He created Puy du Fou, one of the most visited theme parks in France, as a living showcase for its history. The theme park includes a replica medieval city with the 'Gallo-Roman Stadium', a colosseum designed by Villiers to stoke patriotic feeling by recreating Gallic rebellions against Imperial Rome. He is a French aristocrat and a descendant of diplomat and historian Louis Philippe, comte de Ségur and Minister and Regent Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. As of 2007 he is a Member of the European Parliament (Independence/Democracy Group). He is 1.85 meters tall. He is married to Dominique du Buor de Villeneuve, born at Valenciennes on 4 October 1950, and has seven children: Caroline (born Montaigu, 12 August 1976), Guillaume (born La Roche-sur-Yon, 14 December 1977), Nicolas (born La Roche-sur-Yon, 10 September 1979), Marie (born Nantes, 5 October 1981), Laurent (born La Roche-sur-Yon, 8 April 1984), Bérengère (born La Roche-sur-Yon, 1 October 1988) and Blanche (born Cholet, 21 June 1993).", "", "From 1976 to 1978, Villiers served as a senior civil servant in the Chirac administration. In 1981, he resigned his post as sub-prefect because he did not want to serve the government of the Socialist President François Mitterrand. In 1986-1987, he briefly served as a junior Minister for Culture () in the second government of Jacques Chirac, under Minister François Léotard. His appointment was initially viewed badly by \"Libération\" and several other press agencies, which referred to his \"ambiguous personality\". However, Villiers supported Leotard's mixed, non-ideological policy towards French culture. In 1987, he was elected into local office as a member in Valéry Giscard d'Estaing's Republican Party. He became a rising star within the Union for French Democracy. During the public debate over the Maastricht Treaty, which established the European Union, in 1992, he achieved lasting prominence in the media as an anti-Treaty activist. This set him apart from most prominent members of the mainstream political right. The French people narrowly ratified the Treaty in September 1992. Villiers led an anti-European integration list in 1994 receiving about 12 percent of the votes, placing it in third place behind the Gaullists and the Socialists. Villiers centered the campaign on opposition to the European Union along with a call to eliminate corruption in government. In November 1994, Villers left the Republican Party to form Movement for France. He ran for President of France in 1995 and received about 5 percent of the vote.", "Once a member of the Union for French Democracy political party, he now leads a party called the Mouvement pour la France, which has enjoyed some success in elections for the European Parliament. The party's share of the vote declined in the 2004 European Parliament election. Nevertheless, Villiers and two other members of his party were elected. Villiers ran for the French presidency in 2007, and based his campaign on his opposition to what he sees as the rampant Islamisation of France. In May 2006, polls showed him enjoying the support of about 4% of the electorate, almost twice as high as he actually polled in the first round of the election. An \"Ifop-Paris-Match\" poll conducted on 12 October 2006 gave him his highest ever popularity rating, with 37% saying they \"have an excellent or good opinion\" of Villiers, and 28% saying they could vote for him in 2007. This was not borne out in the results of the first round of voting, with him receiving less than 3% of the popular vote. Following the first round of the 2007 presidential election, he called on voters to vote for Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) candidate Nicolas Sarkozy to counter the Socialist Party's candidate Ségolène Royal and the left. Villiers and Konstantin Malofeev are planning to build two Russian history related theme parks: one in Moscow and one in Yalta (Crimea); despite that Malofeev was put on the European Union list of individuals sanctioned during the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine (Malofeev is suspected of funding the pro-Russian rebels of the War in Donbass). In August 2014 Villiers travelled to Crimea to meet Russian President Vladimir Putin; while there, he defended the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea by saying the Crimean park will \"promote the history of Crimea as part of the long history of Russia\". He also stated there \"I would gladly swap Hollande and Sarkozy for Putin\".", "", "Villiers is internationally notable for his criticism of Islam in France. He has stated that \"I am the only politician who tells the French the truth about the Islamization of France\" and that \"I do not think Islam is compatible with the French republic\". Villiers advocates an end to all mosque construction, banning all Islamist organizations suspected of links to terrorism, and expelling extremist individuals from France. Villiers published \"Les mosquées de Roissy: nouvelles révélations sur l'islamisation en France\" (\"The Mosques of Roissy: New Revelations about Islamization in France\") in 2006. He alleged that, using internal documents from whistleblowers, the Muslim Brotherhood infiltrated security personnel at Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris. The book led to seventy-two employees having their clearances revoked. As well, makeshift Muslim prayer rooms were closed. Villiers' views on Islam and Muslim immigrants have caused \"Der Spiegel\", \"The Wall Street Journal\", \"The Boston Globe\", and \"The San Francisco Chronicle\" to label him \"far right\".", "Villiers is a nationalist, a traditionalist, and a leading eurosceptic. He has self-described as a \"rooted conservative\". During his tenure under François Léotard, he said that he shared Léotard's American-based \"libertarian liberalism\". In 1995, \"The Economist\" referred to him as \"an ephemeral Catholic monarchist\" He advocates cutting taxes, expelling all illegal immigrants, and preventing Turkey from joining the EU. He is a vocal critic of the European Union's relationship with France, accusing it of \"destroying their jobs, their security and their identity\" and saying that \"the Europe of Brussels is an anti-democratic dictatorship\". He was a leader of the side advocating a 'No' vote in the 2005 French referendum of the European Constitution. The 'No' side won the vote, which the activists believed constituted a major victory for Euroscepticism in France. Villiers then launched a campaign to restore the franc, remarking that \"Everybody notes today that the adoption of the euro was a technical success but its economic, political and human toll is incontestable.\" Villiers opposes immigration into France in general, but he has advocated that \"individual cases be treated with the greatest humanity.\" He also opposes expelling current immigrants residing in France or subjecting them to discrimination in housing, employment, or other spheres. Despite their differences on these and other issues, the National Front's Jean Marie Le Pen has remarked that Villiers' ideas were \"lifted\" from him and that their \"votes should be added together\". Villiers coined the phrase \"Polish Plumber\" in a June 2005 political speech about the Bolkestein directive, referring to the perceived threat of cheap East European labour to French wages. The mythical figure became a central point of debate in France, and it later prompted an international controversy. He has also referred to the \"Latvian mason\" and the \"Estonian gardener.\" American author Harvey Gerald Simmons has compared the \"Villiers phenomenon\" to Ross Perot's support in the 1992 American Presidential election. He stated that Villiers has a populist, anti-establishment image that puts him on the edges of the mainstream political right of France rather than in the far right.", "Villiers gathers his support from among practising Roman Catholics, artisans, retired people, farmers and small business owners.", "Governmental function Secretary of State for Communication: 1986-1987. Electoral mandates European Parliament Member of European Parliament: 1994-1997 (Resignation, reelected in the parliamentary elections in 1997) / July–December 1999 (Resignation) / Since 2004. Elected in 1994, reelected in 1999, 2004, 2009. National Assembly of France Member of the National Assembly of France for Vendée : 1987-1994 (Became member of European Parliament in 1994) / 1997-2004 (Became member of European Parliament in 2004). Elected in 1987, reelected in 1988, 1993, 1997, 2002. General Council President of the General Council of Vendée : 1988-2010 (Resignation). Reelected in 1992, 1994, 1998, 2001, 2004, 2008. General councillor of Vendée: 1987-2010 (Resignation). Reelected in 1988, 1994, 2001, 2008. Political function President of the Movement for France: 1994-1999 / Since 2000." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Creation.", "World War I.", "World War II.", "Former staffers.", "Current." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "On November 9, 1861, during the Civil War, soldiers of the 11th, 18th, and 29th Illinois Regiments set up camp in the Missouri city of Bloomfield. Finding the local newspaper's office empty, they decided to print a newspaper about their activities. They called it the \"Stars and Stripes\". Today, the Stars and Stripes Museum/Library Association is located in Bloomfield. There is, however, no continuity between this and the later newspaper bearing the same name.", "During World War I, the staff, roving reporters, and illustrators of the \"Stars and Stripes\" were veteran reporters or young soldiers who would later become such in the post-war years. It was published by the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) from February 8, 1918, to June 13, 1919. Harold Ross, editor of the \"Stars and Stripes\", returned home to found \"The New Yorker\" magazine. Cyrus Baldridge, its art director and principal illustrator, became a major illustrator of books and magazines, as well as a writer, print maker and stage designer. Sports page editor Grantland Rice had a long career in journalism and founded a motion picture studio called Grantland Rice Sportlight. Drama critic Alexander Woollcott's essays for \"Stars and Stripes\" were collected in his 1919 book, \"The Command Is Forward\". The \"Stars and Stripes\" was then an eight-page weekly which reached a peak of 526,000 readers, relying on the improvisational efforts of its staff to get it printed in France and distributed to U.S. troops.", "During World War II, the newspaper was printed in dozens of editions in several operating theaters. Again, both newspapermen in uniform and young soldiers, some of whom would later become important journalists, filled the staffs and showed zeal and talent in publishing and delivering the paper on time. Some of the editions were assembled and printed very close to the front in order to get the latest information to the most troops. Also, during the war, the newspaper published the 53-book series \"G.I. Stories\". After Bill Mauldin did his popular \"Up Front\" cartoons for the World War II \"Stars and Stripes\", he returned home to a successful career as an editorial cartoonist and two-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize. The magazine frequently posted photographs of a young Marilyn Monroe, then known as Norma Jeane Dougherty which later led her as being named 'Miss Cheesecake 1952' by \"Stars & Stripes\" magazine", "The newspaper has been published continuously in Europe since 1942 and in the Pacific since 1945. Notable former \"Stars and Stripes\" staffers include: CBS \"60 Minutes\" Andy Rooney and Steve Kroft; songwriter and author Shel Silverstein; comic book illustrator Tom Sutton; authors Gustav Hasford and Ralph G. Martin; painter and cartoonist Paul Fontaine; author and television news correspondent Tony Zappone; cartoonist Vernon Grant (\"A Monster Is Loose in Tokyo\"); Hollywood photographer Phil Stern; and stock market reporter and host of public television's \"Wall Street Week\", Louis Rukeyser, and the first and only Black reporter in WWII, Allen Morrison. A photograph in \"Stars and Stripes\" loosely inspired the exploits of PFC Jack Agnew in the 1965 novel and its 1967 film adaptation, \"The Dirty Dozen\". American comic strips have been presented in a 15-page section, \"Stripes' Sunday Comics\".", "\"Stars and Stripes\" is authorized by Congress and the US Department of Defense to produce independent daily military news and information distributed at U.S. military installations in Europe and Mideast and East Asia. A weekly derivative product is distributed within the United States by its commercial publishing partners. \"Stars and Stripes\" newspaper averages 32 pages each day and is published in tabloid format and online at www.stripes.com/epaper. Stars and Stripes employs civilian reporters, and U.S. military senior non-commissioned officers as reporters, at a number of locations around the world and on any given day has an audience just shy of 1.0 million. \"Stars and Stripes\" also serves independent military news and information to an online audience of about 2.0 million unique visitors per month, 60 to 70 percent of whom are located in the United States. \"Stars and Stripes\" is a non-appropriated fund (NAF) organization, only partially subsidized by the Department of Defense. In 2020, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Elaine McCusker indicated its funding would be cut and said: “We have essentially decided that, you know, kind of coming into the modern age that newspaper is probably not the best way that we communicate any longer.” A large portion of its operating costs is earned through the sale of advertising and subscriptions. Unique among the many military publications, \"Stars and Stripes\" operates as a First Amendment newspaper and is part of the newly formed Defense Media Activity. The other entities encompassed by the Defense Media Activity (the DoD News Channel and Armed Forces Radio and Television Service, for example), are command publications of the Department of Defense; only \"Stars and Stripes\" maintains complete editorial independence. \"Stars and Stripes\" is in the process of digitizing its World War II editions. Newspaper microfilm from 1949 to 1999 is now in searchable format through a partnership with Heritage Microfilm and has been integrated into an archives website. Newspaper Archive has also more recently made the England, Ireland and Mediterranean editions from World War II available." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Common features in all types.", "History.", "Engine capacity.", "Power.", "Other modern non-internal combustion types.", "Reciprocating quantum heat engine.", "Miscellaneous engines." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There may be one or more pistons. Each piston is inside a cylinder, into which a gas is introduced, either already under pressure (e.g. steam engine), or heated inside the cylinder either by ignition of a fuel air mixture (internal combustion engine) or by contact with a hot heat exchanger in the cylinder (Stirling engine). The hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is also known as the Bottom Dead Center (BDC), or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the cylinder top (Top Dead Centre) (TDC) by a flywheel, the power from other pistons connected to the same shaft or (in a double acting cylinder) by the same process acting on the other side of the piston. This is where the piston forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or \"exhausted\" gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke. The exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction. In some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the linear movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod and a crankshaft or by a swashplate or other suitable mechanism. A flywheel is often used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders a reciprocating engine has, generally, the more vibration-free (smoothly) it can operate. The power of a reciprocating engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons' displacement. A seal must be made between the sliding piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it and reduce the efficiency of the engine. This seal is usually provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a hard metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit closely in the groove and press lightly against the cylinder wall to form a seal, and more heavily when higher combustion pressure moves around to their inner surfaces. It is common to classify such engines by the number and alignment of cylinders and total volume of displacement of gas by the pistons moving in the cylinders usually measured in cubic centimetres (cm3 or cc) or litres (l) or (L) (US: liter). For example, for internal combustion engines, single and two-cylinder designs are common in smaller vehicles such as motorcycles, while automobiles typically have between four and eight, and locomotives, and ships may have a dozen cylinders or more. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm3 or less in model engines up to thousands of liters in ships' engines. The compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine. It is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder, when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume when the piston is at the top of its stroke. The bore/stroke ratio is the ratio of the diameter of the piston, or \"bore\", to the length of travel within the cylinder, or \"stroke\". If this is around 1 the engine is said to be \"square\", if it is greater than 1, i.e. the bore is larger than the stroke, it is \"oversquare\". If it is less than 1, i.e. the stroke is larger than the bore, it is \"undersquare\". Cylinders may be aligned in line, in a V configuration, horizontally opposite each other, or radially around the crankshaft. Opposed-piston engines put two pistons working at opposite ends of the same cylinder and this has been extended into triangular arrangements such as the Napier Deltic. Some designs have set the cylinders in motion around the shaft, such as the Rotary engine. In steam engines and internal combustion engines, valves are required to allow the entry and exit of gases at the correct times in the piston's cycle. These are worked by cams, eccentrics or cranks driven by the shaft of the engine. Early designs used the D slide valve but this has been largely superseded by Piston valve or Poppet valve designs. In steam engines the point in the piston cycle at which the steam inlet valve closes is called the cutoff and this can often be controlled to adjust the torque supplied by the engine and improve efficiency. In some steam engines, the action of the valves can be replaced by an oscillating cylinder. Internal combustion engines operate through a sequence of strokes that admit and remove gases to and from the cylinder. These operations are repeated cyclically and an engine is said to be 2-stroke, 4-stroke or 6-stroke depending on the number of strokes it takes to complete a cycle. In some steam engines, the cylinders may be of varying size with the smallest bore cylinder working the highest pressure steam. This is then fed through one or more, increasingly larger bore cylinders successively, to extract power from the steam at increasingly lower pressures. These engines are called Compound engines. Aside from looking at the power that the engine can produce, the Mean Effective Pressure (MEP), can also be used in comparing the power output and performance of reciprocating engines of the same size. The mean effective pressure is the fictitious pressure which would produce the same amount of net work that was produced during the power stroke cycle. This is shown by: and therefore: Whichever engine with the larger value of MEP produces more net work per cycle and performs more efficiently.", "An early known example of rotary to reciprocating motion is the crank mechanism. The earliest hand-operated cranks appeared in China during the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD). The Chinese used the crank-and-connecting rod for operating querns as far back as the Western Han dynasty (202 BC - 9 AD). Eventually crank-and-connecting rods were used in the inter-conversion of rotary and reciprocating motion for other applications such as flour-sifting, silk-reeling machines, treadle spinning wheels, and furnace bellows driven either by horses or waterwheels. Several saw mills in Roman Asia and Byzantine Syria during the 3rd–6th centuries AD had a crank and connecting rod mechanism which converted the rotary motion of a water wheel into the linear movement of saw blades. In 1206, Arab engineer Al-Jazari invented a crankshaft. The reciprocating engine developed in Europe during the 18th century, first as the atmospheric engine then later as the steam engine. These were followed by the Stirling engine and internal combustion engine in the 19th century. Today the most common form of reciprocating engine is the internal combustion engine running on the combustion of petrol, diesel, Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or compressed natural gas (CNG) and used to power motor vehicles and engine power plants. One notable reciprocating engine from the World War II Era was the 28-cylinder, Pratt & Whitney R-4360 \"Wasp Major\" radial engine. It powered the last generation of large piston-engined planes before jet engines and turboprops took over from 1944 onward. It had a total engine capacity of, and a high power-to-weight ratio. The largest reciprocating engine in production at present, but not the largest ever built, is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine of 2006 built by Wärtsilä. It is used to power the largest modern container ships such as the Emma Mærsk. It is five stories high (), long, and weighs over in its largest 14 cylinders version producing more than 84.42 MW (114,800 bhp). Each cylinder has a capacity of, making a total capacity of for the largest versions.", "For piston engines, an engine's capacity is the engine displacement, in other words the volume swept by all the pistons of an engine in a single movement. It is generally measured in litres (l) or cubic inches (c.i.d., cu in, \"or\" in3) for larger engines, and cubic centimetres (abbreviated cc) for smaller engines. All else being equal, engines with greater capacities are more powerful and consumption of fuel increases accordingly (although this is not true of every Reciprocating engine), although power and fuel consumption are affected by many factors outside of engine displacement.", "Reciprocating engines can be characterized by their specific power, which is typically given in kilowatts per litre of engine displacement (in the U.S. also horsepower per cubic inch). The result offers an approximation of the peak power output of an engine. This is not to be confused with fuel efficiency, since high efficiency often requires a lean fuel-air ratio, and thus lower power density. A modern high-performance car engine makes in excess of 75 kW/L (1.65 hp/in).", "Reciprocating engines that are powered by compressed air, steam or other hot gases are still used in some applications such as to drive many modern torpedoes or as pollution-free motive power. Most steam-driven applications use steam turbines, which are more efficient than piston engines. The French-designed FlowAIR vehicles use compressed air stored in a cylinder to drive a reciprocating engine in a local-pollution-free urban vehicle. Torpedoes may use a working gas produced by high test peroxide or Otto fuel II, which pressurise without combustion. The Mark 46 torpedo, for example, can travel underwater at fuelled by Otto fuel without oxidant.", "Quantum heat engines are devices that generate power from heat that flows from a hot to a cold reservoir. The mechanism of operation of the engine can be described by the laws of quantum mechanics. Quantum refrigerators are devices that consume power with the purpose to pump heat from a cold to a hot reservoir. In a reciprocating quantum heat engine, the working medium is a quantum system such as spin systems or a harmonic oscillator. The Carnot cycle and Otto cycle are the ones most studied. The quantum versions obey the laws of thermodynamics. In addition, these models can justify the assumptions of endoreversible thermodynamics. A theoretical study has shown that it is possible and practical to build a reciprocating engine that is composed of a single oscillating atom. This is an area for future research and could have applications in nanotechnology.", "There are a large number of unusual varieties of piston engines that have various claimed advantages, many of which see little if any current use:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition and properties.", "Solid angles for common objects.", "Cone, spherical cap, hemisphere.", "Tetrahedron.", "Pyramid.", "Latitude-longitude rectangle.", "Sun and Moon.", "Solid angles in arbitrary dimensions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "An object's solid angle in steradians is equal to the area of the segment of a unit sphere, centered at the apex, that the object covers. A solid angle in steradians equals the area of a segment of a unit sphere in the same way a planar angle in radians equals the length of an arc of a unit circle; therefore, just like a planar angle in radians is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius, a solid angle in steradians is the following ratio: where A is the spherical surface area and r is the radius of the considered sphere. Solid angles are often used in astronomy, physics, and in particular astrophysics. The solid angle of an object that is very far away is roughly proportional to the ratio of area to squared distance. Here \"area\" means the area of the object when projected along the viewing direction. The solid angle of a sphere measured from any point in its interior is 4 sr, and the solid angle subtended at the center of a cube by one of its faces is one-sixth of that, or sr. Solid angles can also be measured in square degrees (1 sr = () square degrees), in square minutes and square seconds, or in fractions of the sphere (1 sr = fractional area), also known as spat (1 sp = 4 sr). In spherical coordinates there is a formula for the differential, where is the colatitude (angle from the North pole) and is the longitude. The solid angle for an arbitrary oriented surface S subtended at a point P is equal to the solid angle of the projection of the surface S to the unit sphere with center P, which can be calculated as the surface integral: where formula_5 is the unit vector corresponding to formula_6, the position vector of an infinitesimal area of surface with respect to point P, and where formula_7 represents the unit normal vector to. Even if the projection on the unit sphere to the surface S is not isomorphic, the multiple folds are correctly considered according to the surface orientation described by the sign of the scalar product formula_8. Thus one can approximate the solid angle subtended by a small facet having flat surface area, orientation formula_9, and distance from the viewer as: where the surface area of a sphere is.", "", "The solid angle of a cone with its apex at the apex of the solid angle, and with apex angle 2, is the area of a spherical cap on a unit sphere For small such that, this reduces to the area of a circle. The above is found by computing the following double integral using the unit surface element in spherical coordinates: This formula can also be derived without the use of calculus. Over 2200 years ago Archimedes proved that the surface area of a spherical cap is always equal to the area of a circle whose radius equals the distance from the rim of the spherical cap to the point where the cap's axis of symmetry intersects the cap. In the diagram this radius is given as: Hence for a unit sphere the solid angle of the spherical cap is given as: When =, the spherical cap becomes a hemisphere having a solid angle 2. The solid angle of the complement of the cone is: This is also the solid angle of the part of the celestial sphere that an astronomical observer positioned at latitude can see as the earth rotates. At the equator all of the celestial sphere is visible; at either pole, only one half. The solid angle subtended by a segment of a spherical cap cut by a plane at angle from the cone's axis and passing through the cone's apex can be calculated by the formula: For example, if =-, then the formula reduces to the spherical cap formula above: the first term becomes, and the second cos.", "Let OABC be the vertices of a tetrahedron with an origin at O subtended by the triangular face ABC where formula_17 are the vector positions of the vertices A, B and C. Define the vertex angle to be the angle BOC and define, correspondingly. Let formula_18 be the dihedral angle between the planes that contain the tetrahedral faces OAC and OBC and define formula_19, formula_20 correspondingly. The solid angle subtended by the triangular surface ABC is given by This follows from the theory of spherical excess and it leads to the fact that there is an analogous theorem to the theorem that \"\"The sum of internal angles of a planar triangle is equal to \"\", for the sum of the four internal solid angles of a tetrahedron as follows: where formula_23 ranges over all six of the dihedral angles between any two planes that contain the tetrahedral faces OAB, OAC, OBC and ABC. A useful formula for calculating the solid angle subtended by the triangular surface ABC where formula_17 are the vector positions of the vertices A, B and C has been given by Oosterom and Strackee (although the result was known earlier by Euler and Lagrange): where denotes the scalar triple product of the three vectors; When implementing the above equation care must be taken with the function to avoid negative or incorrect solid angles. One source of potential errors is that the scalar triple product can be negative if,, have the wrong winding. Computing is a sufficient solution since no other portion of the equation depends on the winding. The other pitfall arises when the scalar triple product is positive but the divisor is negative. In this case returns a negative value that must be increased by. Another useful formula for calculating the solid angle of the tetrahedron at the origin O that is purely a function of the vertex angles,, is given by L'Huilier's theorem as where", "The solid angle of a four-sided right rectangular pyramid with apex angles and (dihedral angles measured to the opposite side faces of the pyramid) is If both the side lengths ( and ) of the base of the pyramid and the distance () from the center of the base rectangle to the apex of the pyramid (the center of the sphere) are known, then the above equation can be manipulated to give The solid angle of a right -gonal pyramid, where the pyramid base is a regular -sided polygon of circumradius, with a pyramid height is The solid angle of an arbitrary pyramid with an -sided base defined by the sequence of unit vectors representing edges can be efficiently computed by: where parentheses (* *) is a scalar product and square brackets [* * *] is a scalar triple product, and is an imaginary unit. Indices are cycled: and.", "The solid angle of a latitude-longitude rectangle on a globe is where and are north and south lines of latitude (measured from the equator in radians with angle increasing northward), and and are east and west lines of longitude (where the angle in radians increases eastward). Mathematically, this represents an arc of angle swept around a sphere by radians. When longitude spans 2 radians and latitude spans radians, the solid angle is that of a sphere. A latitude-longitude rectangle should not be confused with the solid angle of a rectangular pyramid. All four sides of a rectangular pyramid intersect the sphere's surface in great circle arcs. With a latitude-longitude rectangle, only lines of longitude are great circle arcs; lines of latitude are not.", "The Sun is seen from Earth at an average angular diameter of 0.5334 degrees or 9.310 radians. The Moon is seen from Earth at an average angular diameter of 9.22 radians. We can substitute these into the equation given above for the solid angle subtended by a cone with apex angle : The resulting value for the Sun is 6.807 steradians. The resulting value for the Moon is 6.67 steradians. In terms of the total celestial sphere, the Sun and the Moon subtend \"fractional areas\" of 0.000542% (Sun) and 0.000531% (Moon). On average, the Sun is larger in the sky than the Moon even though it is much, much farther away.", "The solid angle subtended by the complete ()-dimensional spherical surface of the unit sphere in -dimensional Euclidean space can be defined in any number of dimensions. One often needs this solid angle factor in calculations with spherical symmetry. It is given by the formula where is the gamma function. When is an integer, the gamma function can be computed explicitly. It follows that This gives the expected results of 4 steradians for the 3D sphere bounded by a surface of area and 2 radians for the 2D circle bounded by a circumference of length. It also gives the slightly less obvious 2 for the 1D case, in which the origin-centered 1D \"sphere\" is the interval and this is bounded by two limiting points. The counterpart to the vector formula in arbitrary dimension was derived by Aomoto and independently by Ribando. It expresses them as an infinite multivariate Taylor series: Given unit vectors formula_40 defining the angle, let denote the matrix formed by combining them so the th column is formula_41 and formula_42 Where this series converges, it converges to the solid angle defined by the vectors." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location and route.", "History.", "Origins and etymology.", "15th to 17th century.", "18th and 19th centuries.", "20th century and today.", "Attractions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Arbat is in the historic center of Moscow. It begins at \"Arbatskaya square\" (), 800 metres west of the walls of the Moscow Kremlin. Arbatskaya square is also the meeting point of the Boulevard Ring and \"Vozdvizhenka Street\" (). The part of this square which is adjacent to the Arbat is called \"Arbat Gate\" (), as it is the site of one of the ten gates of the old city wall. The wall, which was intact from the 16th to the 18th centuries, followed the path of the current Boulevard Ring. From this point the Arbat runs southwest, with a dozen side streets leading off, and ends at \"Smolenskaya Square\" (), which intersects with the Garden Ring. Continuing on from the Arbat in a westerly direction is the eight-lane \"Smolenskaya Street\" (). This street changes its name several times within the city limits, ultimately crossing the MKAD ring road, and becoming the M1 highway to Smolensk, Minsk and Warsaw. Until the middle of the 20th century, the Arbat remained part of the main road from the Moscow Kremlin westwards. In the 1960s a parallel road, the \"New Arbat\" () was built, and took on this function. The New Arbat with its wide sidewalks and 1960s tower blocks has no sidestreets. Two decades later the Arbat was made into the first pedestrian zone in Moscow. In order to avoid confusion with the New Arbat, people began to refer to the Arbat as the \"Old Arbat\" ().", "", "The Arbat is one of the oldest surviving streets in Moscow. Exactly when it came into existence is not recorded, but a document from July 28, 1493 mentions it. The document describes a fire which started in the wooden \"Church of Nicholas on the Sand\" (). The fire spread throughout Moscow, devastating large areas of the city, which consisted for the most part of wooden structures. The original meaning of the place name \"Arbat\" remains unknown. In addition to places with Slavic names, there are also numerous places of Oriental origin in Moscow. Geographically Moscow is located within Russia between the wooded northwest and the southwestern steppe areas. The Russian steppes in Eurasian steppes were through its history largely inhabited by nomadic tribes. Many theories assume that the term arbat is of Oriental origin. Several hypotheses attempt to explain it: A non-Russian origin of the word Arbat is generally held to be more likely than a Russian origin. Possibly lending some weight to this view, an \"Arbat Street\" () exists in Kolomna, 100 km southeast of Moscow. It is possible that the name of the place has Mongolian roots which came through the Golden Horde culture to Muscovite Russia. Arbat was in ancient times the name of the whole area and not just of the one street. The location of the Old Arbat was in ancient times situated between the borders of today's Sadovoe Kolco (Garden Ring), Ermolayevski, Vozdvizhenka and Arbat.", "As early as the 15th century the Arbat formed the first part of a road which linked Moscow — predominantly the Kremlin — with the western regions of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and thus via Poland with other areas of Europe. This location attracted craftsmen to the Arbat, and they set up shop here \"en masse\". This period is recalled in the names of some of the side streets off the Arbat, for example \"Plotnikov pereulok\" (), i.e. \"Carpenters' Lane\", \"Serebryanyi pereulok\" (), i.e. \"Silver Lane\". As well as the workshops of craftsmen, there were also a great number of churches on the Arbat, along with some houses where merchants and members of the clergy lived. During the reign of Ivan IV of Russia (\"\"the Terrible\"\"), the Arbat had a less salubrious connotation. It was here that the infamous bodyguards of the Tsar, the Oprichnina, had their headquarters. It was from here that orders were issued for mass executions and torture of alleged traitors to the crown. In Alexey Tolstoy's historical novel \"Ivan the Terrible\" we find the following interpretation of the atmosphere of the period, \"\"News of the fearsome plans had spread throughout Moscow, and a deathly silence reigned. The shops were closed, the streets empty, and only occasionally one heard the galloping horses of the messengers of the Tsar, who had come down to the Arbat, to his favourite palace.\"\" After the dissolution of the Oprichnina, and the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Arbat's significance as a trade route began to grow again. Not only merchants travelled this route, but also Tsars, along with their messengers and soldiers. Foreign invaders also used the Arbat when attacking the Kremlin, and when retreating in defeat. Time and again the Arbat proved important to the defence of the Kremlin: From its Eastern end, the volunteer army of Prince Dmitry Pozharsky delivered a decisive blow to the troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Field Marshal Jan Karol Chodkiewicz. In the 16th and 17th centuries, three regiments of Streltsy troops were stationed on the Arbat, to better defend the Kremlin. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the neighbourhood was graced with elegant churches, notably the one featured in Vasily Polenov's celebrated painting \"\" (1879).", "By the 19th century at the latest the growth of Moscow meant that the Arbat was now in the centre of the city rather than at its edge, and so it became an ever more desirable place to live. In 1736 about half the street was destroyed in yet another fire, but by the second half of the 18th century it was already being described as the \"Moscow Boulevard Saint-Germain.\" In 1793 about 33 of the 56 houses on the Arbat belonged to nobility or to civil servants. Amongst the nobles who had houses built for them on or near the Arbat were such celebrated families as the Tolstoys, the Gagarins, the Kropotkins, the Galitzines and the Sheremetevs. Nevertheless, despite its proximity to the Kremlin and to the seat of power, the district was considered to be tranquil, almost rural. By this period there was hardly any manufacture on the street, and also less trade than in other parts of Moscow. However the Arbat continued to serve as the most important way into and out of Moscow towards the West. During Napoleon's Russian Campaign of 1812, French troops led by Joachim Murat used the street to get to the Kremlin. This event is mentioned in Leo Tolstoy's epic novel War and Peace, written 50 years afterwards. The fire lit during the battle for Moscow in 1812 destroyed large parts of the predominantly wooden city, and also decimated the Arbat. The results of the energetic period of rebuilding in the 1810s can still be seen today, in the surviving houses of the Empire style, which was characteristic for the period. Towards the end of the 19th century, the architecture changed to Art Nouveau, with many luxury apartment buildings being built in this style. These buildings, with as many as six or seven floors, were technologically remarkable for the period, and fitted with all modern conveniences. Around a dozen are still to be seen along the Arbat today. In the last years of the 20th century and the first of the 21st, they were all renovated and made into plush domiciles or offices. In the second half of the 19th century, the Arbat also moved away from being a purely aristocratic part of town, and became a popular place for artists to live. This was mainly due to the fact that many of the poets, thinkers, musicians and actors who had shaped Russia's cultural life came from the middle and lower nobility, sometimes from impoverished noble families. It was around the Arbat that Russia's \"intelligentsia\" began to develop, largely made up of young educated nobles who were not afraid to criticize society. Alexander Pushkin lodged in one of its mansions for a short time, and there is a statue of him and his wife, Natalie, in front of the house. Another famous inhabitant was the writer Andrey Bely, many of whose novels feature impressionist portrayals of the area. Thus over time the Arbat lost its richest noble inhabitants, who preferred the splendid districts around the Kremlin and Tverskaya Street over the would-be rural idyll of the Arbat. By the start of the 20th century, the Arbat had become popular with the middle classes, and academics, doctors and lawyers settled in the area.", "In the first two decades of the 20th century comfortable new apartment buildings were built on the Arbat, which still contribute to the overall appearance of the street. The main inhabitants were now well-off academics, as well as a small number of artists. The Arbat's transport connections were also improved in the first half of the 20th century. In 1904 electric trams were introduced, which were replaced 30 years later by trolleybuses (electric buses which get their power from overhead lines similar to those of a tram). For this reason the previous cobbles were replaced with an asphalt surface. In 1935 Moscow's first Metro station opened on Arbatskaya Square. The fact that the Arbat remained part of the road between Moscow and Smolensk facilitated trade. Arbat became a busy shopping street with many renowned boutiques. At the beginning of the 20th century the most intense business activity took place near the Western end: on the site of today's Smolenskaya Square, a large farmers' market used to take place, the \"Smolensky Rynok\" (). Furthermore, in 1899 Kiev Station was built, a few hundred metres to the west of the Arbat, which further increased the influx of traders from Ukraine and Southeastern Europe into Moscow via the Arbat. After the October revolution of 1917, the Bolsheviks confiscated private property on the Arbat, as they did elsewhere in Russia, and made the buildings state property. Nevertheless, the street did not immediately lose its reputation as a haunt for artists. Through the 1920s this began to change, as mass immigration from the countryside into the capital put enormous pressure on housing. For this reason, the previous apartment buildings were made into kommunalkas, apartments where more than one family lived together. Furthermore, the area served more and more to accommodate the high-ranking functionaries of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. This period is described in Anatoli Rybakov's novel \"Children of the Arbat\" (} This is the reason for the plain apartment buildings in the side streets off the Arbat, some of which replaced earlier, more architecturally significant buildings. Furthermore, most of the Arbat's churches were demolished, including that of St Nicholas, regarded as one of the finest examples of the style of the Boris Godunov period. For visiting functionaries a luxury hotel was also built near the Arbat, the \"Arbat Hotel\" () in Plotnikov Street. Some buildings were also renovated or built in the constructivist style. Probably the most original monument to this new trend is the Melnikov Mansion. In the early 1980s the Arbat, which had been a busy street in terms of traffic, was closed off and made into the first pedestrian zone of the Soviet Union. This happened at the same time as the construction of a new Ministry of Defence building on Arbatskaya Square, which required a great number of communications, pipes and wires to be laid beneath the Arbat. The renovation of the street and many of its historical buildings was completed in 1986. During Perestroika, the street was a gathering place for informal youth movements (like hippies or punks), as well as street musicians and artists. Tsoi's Wall in one of the Arbat side streets (Krivoarbatskiy Pereulok) remains a curious monument to those turbulent years. To this day, Russian youth frequently gather on the Arbat to play Tsoi's songs and those of other Russian songwriters. However, the overall appearance of the Arbat is dominated by street artists, souvenir stalls and shops, restaurants, cafés and bars.", "Since 1986, the Arbat has been dotted with distinctive street lanterns. It has several notable statues, including one to Princess Turandot in front of the Vakhtangov Theatre, and another to Soviet-era folk singer, bard and poet Bulat Okudzhava, who wrote several poignant songs about the Arbat. Arbat is home to the headquarters of oil company TNK-BP - a modern building at the beginning of the street. It also contains numerous restaurants, including The Hard Rock Cafe. Most of these restaurants are geared towards visitors to Moscow and are considered by many residents to be over-priced and of low quality compared to those in other parts of the city. There are also a few restaurants and cafés that cater to the working population and middle class; these include Praim, and Mu-Mu's." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Childhood.", "Youth activities.", "World War II.", "The Nazis and the OUN.", "Operation Barbarossa.", "Antisemitism.", "After the war.", "The Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations.", "Death.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Yaroslav Stetsko was born on 19 January 1912 in Tarnopol, Austria–Hungary (now Ternopil, Ukraine) into a Ukrainian Catholic priest's family. His father, Semen, and his mother, Teodoziya, née Chubaty, encouraged him to pursue a higher education. Yaroslav not only graduated high school in Ternopil, but later studied law and philosophy at the Kraków and Lwów Universities, graduating in 1934.", "Yaroslav Stetsko was active in Ukrainian nationalist organizations from an early age. He was a member of three separate organizations: \"Ukrayinska Natsionalistychna Molod'\" (Ukrainian Nationalist Youth; ) where he became a member of the National Executive in 1932, Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO) () and eventually the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) (). Because of his anti-Polish activities and the recent assassination of by Ukrainian nationalists, Stetsko was arrested by Polish authorities in 1934 and sentenced to a 5-year term. This sentence was reduced, and Stetsko was released in 1937 in a general amnesty.", "", "According to the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and other sources, OUN leaders had meetings with the heads of Nazi Germany's intelligence, regarding the formation of \"Nachtigall\" and \"Roland\" Battalions. In spring the OUN received 2.5 million marks for subversive activities inside the USSR.", "On 30 June 1941, Stetsko declared in Lviv the formation of a Ukrainian National Government which \"will closely cooperate with the National-Socialist Greater Germany, under the leadership of its leader Adolf Hitler which is forming a new order in Europe and the world\" – as stated in the text of the \"Act of Proclamation of Ukrainian Statehood\" Gestapo and Abwehr officials protected Bandera followers, as both organizations intended to use them for their own purposes. On 5 July, OUN-B leader Bandera was placed under honorary arrest () in Kraków, and transported to Berlin the next day. On 14 July he was released, but required to stay in Berlin. On 12 July 1941 he was joined in Berlin by his deputy Yaroslav Stetsko, whom the Germans had moved from Lviv after an unsuccessful attempt by unknown persons to assassinate him. During July–August both of them submitted dozens of proposals for cooperation to different Nazi institutions (OKW, RSHA etc.) and freely communicate with their followers. After the assassination of two key members of the Melnyk OUN, said to have been carried out by members of the OUN-B, Bandera and Stetsko were held in the central Berlin prison at Spandau from 15 September 1941 until January 1942, when they were transferred to Sachsenhausen concentration camp's special barrack for high-profile political prisoners, Zellenbau. In April 1944 Stepan Bandera and his deputy Yaroslav Stetsko were approached by Otto Skorzeny to discuss plans for diversions and sabotage against the Soviet Army. In September 1944 Stetsko and Stepan Bandera were released by the German authorities in the hope that he would rouse the native populace to fight the advancing Soviet Army. With German consent, Bandera set up headquarters in Berlin. The Germans supplied the OUN-B and the UIA by air with arms and equipment. Assigned German personnel and agents trained to conduct terrorist and intelligence activities behind Soviet lines, as well as some OUN-B leaders, were also transported by air until early 1945. In April 1945 Stetsko was seriously injured during an Allied air-attack on a Nazi military convoy in Bohemia.", "In August 1941 Stetsko allegedly wrote his autobiography. It was addressed to the German authorities, and contained several notable antisemitic passages; in particular he stated that he considered Marxism a product of Jewish thought, that was put into practice by the Muscovite-Asiatic people with Jewish assistance, and that Moscow and the Jews are the carriers of the international ideas of the Bolsheviks. He stated that although he considered Moscow rather than the Jews to be the main enemy of imprisoned Ukraine, he absolutely endorsed the idea of the indubitably harmful role of Jews in the enslavement of Ukraine by Moscow. He finally stated that he absolutely endorsed the extermination of the Jews, and the rationality of the German methods of extermination of Jews, instead of assimilating them. This document's veracity has been questioned.", "Stetsko continued to be very active politically after World War II. In 1968 he became the head of the OUN-B. He also became a board member of the World Anti-Communist League.", "In 1946, Stetsko spearheaded the creation of a new anti-Soviet organization, the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (ABN). He was president of this organization until his death.", "On 5 July 1986, Yaroslav Stetsko died in Munich, Germany. He was 74 years old. Stetsko was buried in the Munich Waldfriedhof.", "Stetsko's book \"Two Revolutions\" (1951) is the ideological cornerstone of the political party All-Ukrainian Union \"Svoboda\". The essence of this doctrine is: \"the revolution will not end with the establishment of the Ukrainian state, but will go on to establish equal opportunities for all people to create and share material and spiritual values and in this respect the national revolution is also a social one\". In 2010, at the initiative of Viktor Yushchenko, a plaque for Yaroslav Stetsko was mounted at his home in Zeppelinstraße 67 in Munich." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Within the Garden Ring.", "Beyond the Garden Ring." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A modern avenue running parallel to the picturesque Arbat Street was first envisioned in Joseph Stalin's 1935 Master Plan, however the project was delayed by the outbreak of the Second World War, and work did not begin until the late 1950s. The first stage of the project, the Novoarbatsky Bridge, was completed in 1957. Between 1957 and 1963, the city redeveloped land on the opposite (western) bank of the Moskva, creating the beginning of Kutuzovsky Prospekt, and completing the main part of New Arbat by 1968. The southern side of the avenue (excluding the historical buildings of the Praga Restaurant and the Grauerman Nursery near Arbat Square) is dominated by a series of V-shaped, 26-storey office built atop a long two-storey structure housing restaurants, retail establishments and two underground levels for storage and delivery. Despite the government's public statements against gambling, more than half of this space was for a long time occupied by casinos. On July 4, 2009, a new government ban restricted gambling to four permitted zones, effectively putting an end to the industry in Moscow; the Novy Arbat casinos have subsequently either closed or morphed into entertainment centers and restaurants. The northern side, has five narrow 26-storey apartment towers positioned perpendicularly to the avenue. The space between the towers is occupied by (west to east): Native Muscovites sometimes refer to the office blocks as \"the dentures\".", "The short stretch beyond Novoarbatsky Bridge is lined with Stalinist apartment buildings; a five-story postconstructivist block on the south side was recently torn down and replaced with luxury apartment buildings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Description.", "Capabilities.", "Container format.", "Compression algorithm.", "Software support.", "Licensing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Microsoft first announced Windows Media Photo at WinHEC 2006, and then renamed it to HD Photo in November of that year. In July 2007, the Joint Photographic Experts Group and Microsoft announced HD Photo to be under consideration to become a JPEG standard known as JPEG XR. On 16 March 2009, JPEG XR was given final approval as ITU-T Recommendation T.832 and starting in April 2009, it became available from the ITU-T in \"pre-published\" form. On 19 June 2009, it passed an ISO/IEC Final Draft International Standard (FDIS) ballot, resulting in final approval as International Standard ISO/IEC 29199-2. The ITU-T updated its publication with a corrigendum approved in December 2009, and ISO/IEC issued a new edition with similar corrections on 30 September 2010. In 2010, after completion of the image coding specification, the ITU-T and ISO/IEC also published a motion format specification (ITU-T T.833 | ISO/IEC 29199-3), a conformance test set (ITU-T T.834 | ISO/IEC 29199-4), and reference software (ITU-T T.835 | ISO/IEC 29199-5) for JPEG XR. In 2011, they published a technical report describing the workflow architecture for the use of JPEG XR images in applications (ITU-T T.Sup2 | ISO/IEC TR 29199-1).", "", "JPEG XR is an image file format that offers several key improvements over JPEG, including:", "One file container format that can be used to store JPEG XR image data is specified in Annex A of the JPEG XR standard. It is a TIFF-like format using a table of \"Image File Directory\" (IFD) tags. A JPEG XR file contains image data, optional alpha channel data, metadata, optional XMP metadata stored as RDF/XML, and optional Exif metadata, in IFD tags. The image data is a contiguous self-contained chunk of data. The optional alpha channel, if present, can be compressed as a separate image record, enabling decoding of the image data independently of transparency data in applications which do not support transparency. (Alternatively, JPEG XR also supports an \"interleaved\" alpha channel format in which the alpha channel data is encoded together with the other image data in a single compressed codestream.) Being TIFF-based, this format inherits all of the limitations of the TIFF format including the 4 GB file-size limit, which according to the HD Photo specification \"will be addressed in a future update\". New work has been started in the JPEG committee to enable the use of JPEG XR image coding within the JPX file storage format — enabling use of the JPIP protocol, which allows interactive browsing of networked images. Additionally, a Motion JPEG XR specification was approved as an ISO standard for motion (video) compression in March 2010.", "JPEG XR's design is conceptually very similar to JPEG: the source image is optionally converted to a luma-chroma colorspace, the chroma planes are optionally subsampled, each plane is divided into fixed-size blocks, the blocks are transformed into the frequency domain, and the frequency coefficients are quantized and entropy coded. Major differences include the following: The HD Photo bitstream specification claims that \"HD Photo offers image quality comparable to JPEG-2000 with computational and memory performance more closely comparable to JPEG\", that it \"delivers a lossy compressed image of better perceptive quality than JPEG at less than half the file size\", and that \"lossless compressed images... are typically 2.5 times smaller than the original uncompressed data\".", "A reference software implementation of JPEG XR has been published as ITU-T Recommendation T.835 and ISO/IEC International Standard 29199-5. The following notable software products natively support JPEG XR: The following notable software support JPEG XR through a Plug-in: The following APIs and software frameworks support JPEG XR and may be used in other software to provide JPEG XR support to end users: The 2011 video game Rage employs JPEG XR compression to compress its textures.", "Microsoft has patents on the technology in JPEG XR. A Microsoft representative stated in a January 2007 interview that in order to encourage the adoption and use of HD Photo, the specification is made available under the Microsoft Open Specification Promise, which asserts that Microsoft allows implementation of the specification for free, and will not file suits on the patented technology for its implementation, as reportedly stated by Josh Weisberg, director of Microsoft's Rich Media Group. As of 15 August 2010, Microsoft made the resulting JPEG XR standard available under its Community Promise. In July 2010, reference software to implement the JPEG XR standard was published as ITU-T Recommendation T.835 and International Standard ISO/IEC 29199-5. Microsoft included these publications in the list of specifications covered by its Community Promise. In April 2013, Microsoft released an open source JPEG XR library under the BSD licence. This resolved any licensing issues with the library being implemented in software packages distributed under popular open source licences such as the GNU General Public License, with which the previously released \"HD Photo Device Porting Kit\" was incompatible." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career and research.", "Publications.", "Decision-making.", "Artificial intelligence.", "Psychology.", "Sociology and economics.", "Pedagogy.", "Awards and honors.", "Selected publications.", "Personal life and interests.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Herbert Alexander Simon was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on June 15, 1916. Simon's father, Arthur Simon (1881–1948), was a Jewish electrical engineer who came to the United States from Germany in 1903 after earning his engineering degree at Technische Hochschule Darmstadt. An inventor, Arthur also was an independent patent attorney. Simon's mother, Edna Marguerite Merkel (1888-1969), was an accomplished pianist whose ancestors came from Prague and Cologne. Simon's European ancestors were piano makers, goldsmiths, and vintners. Like his father, Simon's mother also came from a family with Jewish, Lutheran, and Catholic backgrounds. Simon attended Milwaukee Public Schools, where he developed an interest in science and established himself as an atheist. While attending middle school, Simon wrote a letter to \"the editor of the \"Milwaukee Journal\" defending the civil liberties of atheists\". Unlike most children, Simon's family introduced him to the idea that human behavior could be studied scientifically; his mother's younger brother, Harold Merkel (1892-1922), who studied economics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison under John R. Commons, became one of his earliest influences. Through Harold's books on economics and psychology, Simon discovered social science. Among his earliest influences, Simon cited Norman Angell for his book \"The Great Illusion\" and Henry George for his book \"Progress and Poverty\". While attending high school, Simon joined the debate team, where he argued \"from conviction, rather than cussedness\" in favor of George's single tax. In 1933, Simon entered the University of Chicago, and, following his early influences, decided to study social science and mathematics. Simon was interested in studying biology but chose not to pursue the field because of his \"color-blindness and awkwardness in the laboratory\". At an early age, Simon learned he was color blind and discovered the external world is not the same as the perceived world. While in college, Simon focused on political science and economics. Simon's most important mentor was Henry Schultz, an econometrician and mathematical economist. Simon received both his B.A. (1936) and his Ph.D. (1943) in political science from the University of Chicago, where he studied under Harold Lasswell, Nicolas Rashevsky, Rudolf Carnap, Henry Schultz, and Charles Edward Merriam. After enrolling in a course on \"Measuring Municipal Governments,\" Simon became a research assistant for Clarence Ridley, and the two co-authored \"Measuring Municipal Activities: A Survey of Suggested Criteria for Appraising Administration\" in 1938. Simon's studies led him to the field of organizational decision-making, which became the subject of his doctoral dissertation.", "After graduating with his undergraduate degree, Simon obtained a research assistantship in municipal administration which turned into a directorship at the University of California, Berkeley. From 1942 to 1949, Simon was a professor of political science and also served as department chairman at Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. There, he began participating in the seminars held by the staff of the Cowles Commission who at that time included Trygve Haavelmo, Jacob Marschak, and Tjalling Koopmans. He thus began an in-depth study of economics in the area of institutionalism. Marschak brought Simon in to assist in the study he was currently undertaking with Sam Schurr of the \"prospective economic effects of atomic energy\". From 1949 to 2001, Simon was a faculty at Carnegie Mellon. In 1949, Simon became a professor of administration and chairman of the Department of Industrial Management at Carnegie Tech (later to become Carnegie Mellon University). Simon later also taught psychology and computer science in the same university, (occasionally visiting other universities).", "Seeking to replace the highly simplified classical approach to economic modeling, Simon became best known for his theory of corporate decision in his book \"Administrative Behavior\". In this book he based his concepts with an approach that recognized multiple factors that contribute to decision making. His organization and administration interest allowed him to not only serve three times as a university department chairman, but he also played a big part in the creation of the Economic Cooperation Administration in 1948; administrative team that administered aid to the Marshall Plan for the U.S. government, serving on President Lyndon Johnson's Science Advisory Committee, and also the National Academy of Science. Simon has made a great number of contributions to both economic analysis and applications. Because of this, his work can be found in a number of economic literary works, making contributions to areas such as mathematical economics including theorem, human rationality, behavioral study of firms, theory of casual ordering, and the analysis of the parameter identification problem in econometrics.", "\"Administrative Behavior\", first published in 1947, and updated across the years was based on Simon's doctoral dissertation. It served as the foundation for his life's work. The centerpiece of this book is the behavioral and cognitive processes of humans making rational choices, that is, decisions. By his definition, an operational administrative decision should be correct and efficient, and it must be practical to implement with a set of coordinated means. Simon recognized that a theory of administration is largely a theory of human decision making, and as such must be based on both economics and on psychology. He states: Contrary to the \"homo economicus\" stereotype, Simon argued that alternatives and consequences may be partly known, and means and ends imperfectly differentiated, incompletely related, or poorly detailed. Simon defined the task of rational decision making is to select the alternative that results in the more preferred set of all the possible consequences. Correctness of administrative decisions was thus measured by: The task of choice was divided into three required steps: Any given individual or organization attempting to implement this model in a real situation would be unable to comply with the three requirements. Simon argued that knowledge of all alternatives, or all consequences that follow from each alternative is impossible in many realistic cases. Simon attempted to determine the techniques and/or behavioral processes that a person or organization could bring to bear to achieve approximately the best result given limits on rational decision making. Simon writes: Simon therefore, describes work in terms of an economic framework, conditioned on human cognitive limitations: Economic man and Administrative man. \"Administrative Behavior\" addresses a wide range of human behaviors, cognitive abilities, management techniques, personnel policies, training goals and procedures, specialized roles, criteria for evaluation of accuracy and efficiency, and all of the ramifications of communication processes. Simon is particularly interested in how these factors influence the making of decisions, both directly and indirectly. Simon argued that the two outcomes of a choice require monitoring and that many members of the organization would be expected to focus on adequacy, but that administrative management must pay particular attention to the efficiency with which the desired result was obtained. Simon followed Chester Barnard who pointed out that \"the decisions that an individual makes as a member of an organization are quite distinct from his personal decisions\". Personal choices may be determined whether an individual joins a particular organization, and continue to be made in his or her extra–organizational private life. As a member of an organization, however, that individual makes decisions not in relationship to personal needs and results, but in an impersonal sense as part of the organizational intent, purpose, and effect. Organizational inducements, rewards, and sanctions are all designed to form, strengthen, and maintain this identification. Simon saw two universal elements of human social behavior as key to creating the possibility of organizational behavior in human individuals: Authority (addressed in Chapter VII—The Role of Authority) and in Loyalties and Identification (Addressed in Chapter X: Loyalties, and Organizational Identification). Authority is a well-studied, primary mark of organizational behavior, straightforwardly defined in the organizational context as the ability and right of an individual of higher rank to guide the decisions of an individual of lower rank. The actions, attitudes, and relationships of the dominant and subordinate individuals constitute components of role behavior that may vary widely in form, style, and content, but do not vary in the expectation of obedience by the one of superior status, and willingness to obey from the subordinate. Loyalty was defined by Simon as the \"process whereby the individual substitutes organizational objectives (service objectives or conservation objectives) for his own aims as the value-indices which determine his organizational decisions\". This entailed evaluating alternative choices in terms of their consequences for the group rather than only for onself or ones family. Decisions can be complex admixtures of facts and values. Information about facts, especially empirically-proven facts or facts derived from specialized experience, are more easily transmitted in the exercise of authority than are the expressions of values. Simon is primarily interested in seeking identification of the individual employee with the organizational goals and values. Following Lasswell, he states that \"a person identifies himself with a group when, in making a decision, he evaluates the several alternatives of choice in terms of their consequences for the specified group\". A person may identify himself with any number of social, geographic, economic, racial, religious, familial, educational, gender, political, and sports groups. Indeed, the number and variety are unlimited. The fundamental problem for organizations is to recognize that personal and group identifications may either facilitate or obstruct correct decision making for the organization. A specific organization has to determine deliberately, and specify in appropriate detail and clear language, its own goals, objectives, means, ends, and values. Simon has been critical of traditional economics' elementary understanding of decision-making, and argues it \"is too quick to build an idealistic, unrealistic picture of the decision-making process and then prescribe on the basis of such unrealistic picture\". His contributions to research in the area of administrative decision-making have become increasingly mainstream in the business community. Herbert Simon rediscovered path diagrams which were invented by Sewall Wright around 1920. Source: The Book of Why Judea Pearl, Dana Mackenzie p.79.", "Simon was a pioneer in the field of artificial intelligence, creating with Allen Newell the Logic Theory Machine (1956) and the General Problem Solver (GPS) (1957) programs. GPS may possibly be the first method developed for separating problem solving strategy from information about particular problems. Both programs were developed using the Information Processing Language (IPL) (1956) developed by Newell, Cliff Shaw, and Simon. Donald Knuth mentions the development of list processing in IPL, with the linked list originally called \"NSS memory\" for its inventors. In 1957, Simon predicted that computer chess would surpass human chess abilities within \"ten years\" when, in reality, that transition took about forty years. In the early 1960s psychologist Ulric Neisser asserted that while machines are capable of replicating \"cold cognition\" behaviors such as reasoning, planning, perceiving, and deciding, they would never be able to replicate \"hot cognition\" behaviors such as pain, pleasure, desire, and other emotions. Simon responded to Neisser's views in 1963 by writing a paper on emotional cognition, which he updated in 1967 and published in \"Psychological Review\". Simon's work on emotional cognition was largely ignored by the artificial intelligence research community for several years, but subsequent work on emotions by Sloman and Picard helped refocus attention on Simon's paper and eventually, made it highly influential on the topic. Simon also collaborated with James G. March on several works in organization theory. With Allen Newell, Simon developed a theory for the simulation of human problem solving behavior using production rules. The study of human problem solving required new kinds of human measurements and, with Anders Ericsson, Simon developed the experimental technique of verbal protocol analysis. Simon was interested in the role of knowledge in expertise. He said that to become an expert on a topic required about ten years of experience and he and colleagues estimated that expertise was the result of learning roughly 50,000 chunks of information. A chess expert was said to have learned about 50,000 chunks or chess position patterns. He was awarded the ACM Turing Award, along with Allen Newell, in 1975. \"In joint scientific efforts extending over twenty years, initially in collaboration with J. C. (Cliff) Shaw at the RAND Corporation, and with numerous faculty and student colleagues at Carnegie Mellon University, they have made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing.\"", "Simon was interested in how humans learn and, with Edward Feigenbaum, he developed the EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) theory, one of the first theories of learning to be implemented as a computer program. EPAM was able to explain a large number of phenomena in the field of verbal learning. Later versions of the model were applied to concept formation and the acquisition of expertise. With Fernand Gobet, he has expanded the EPAM theory into the CHREST computational model. The theory explains how simple chunks of information form the building blocks of schemata, which are more complex structures. CHREST has been used predominantly, to simulate aspects of chess expertise.", "Simon has been credited for revolutionary changes in microeconomics. He is responsible for the concept of organizational decision-making as it is known today. He also was the first to discuss this concept in terms of uncertainty; i.e., it is impossible to have perfect and complete information at any given time to make a decision. While this notion was not entirely new, Simon is best known for its origination. It was in this area that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978. At the Cowles Commission, Simon's main goal was to link economic theory to mathematics and statistics. His main contributions were to the fields of general equilibrium and econometrics. He was greatly influenced by the marginalist debate that began in the 1930s. The popular work of the time argued that it was not apparent empirically that entrepreneurs needed to follow the marginalist principles of profit-maximization/cost-minimization in running organizations. The argument went on to note that profit maximization was not accomplished, in part, because of the lack of complete information. In decision-making, Simon believed that agents face uncertainty about the future and costs in acquiring information in the present. These factors limit the extent to which agents may make a fully rational decision, thus they possess only \"bounded rationality\" and must make decisions by \"satisficing\", or choosing that which might not be optimal, but which will make them happy enough. Bounded rationality is a central theme in behavioral economics. It is concerned with the ways in which the actual decision making process influences decision. Theories of bounded rationality relax one or more assumptions of standard expected utility theory. Further, Simon emphasized that psychologists invoke a \"procedural\" definition of rationality, whereas economists employ a \"substantive\" definition. Gustavos Barros argued that the procedural rationality concept does not have a significant presence in the economics field and has never had nearly as much weight as the concept of bounded rationality. However, in an earlier article, Bhargava (1997) noted the importance of Simon's arguments and emphasized that there are several applications of the \"procedural\" definition of rationality in econometric analyses of data on health. In particular, economists should employ \"auxiliary assumptions\" that reflect the knowledge in the relevant biomedical fields, and guide the specification of econometric models for health outcomes. Simon was also known for his research on industrial organization. He determined that the internal organization of firms and the external business decisions thereof, did not conform to the neoclassical theories of \"rational\" decision-making. Simon wrote many articles on the topic over the course of his life, mainly focusing on the issue of decision-making within the behavior of what he termed \"bounded rationality\". \"Rational behavior, in economics, means that individuals maximize their utility function under the constraints they face (e.g., their budget constraint, limited choices,...) in pursuit of their self-interest. This is reflected in the theory of subjective expected utility. The term, bounded rationality, is used to designate rational choice that takes into account the cognitive limitations of both knowledge and cognitive capacity. Bounded rationality is a central theme in behavioral economics. It is concerned with the ways in which the actual decision-making process influences decisions. Theories of bounded rationality relax one or more assumptions of standard expected utility theory\". Simon determined that the best way to study these areas was through computer simulations. As such, he developed an interest in computer science. Simon's main interests in computer science were in artificial intelligence, human–computer interaction, principles of the organization of humans and machines as information processing systems, the use of computers to study (by modeling) philosophical problems of the nature of intelligence and of epistemology, and the social implications of computer technology. In his youth, Simon took an interest in land economics and Georgism, an idea known at the time as \"single tax\". The system is meant to redistribute unearned economic rent to the public and improve land use. In 1979, Simon still maintained these ideas and argued that land value tax should replace taxes on wages. Some of Simon's economic research was directed toward understanding technological change in general and the information processing revolution in particular.", "Simon's work has strongly influenced John Mighton, developer of a program that has achieved significant success in improving mathematics performance among elementary and high school students. Mighton cites a 2000 paper by Simon and two coauthors that counters arguments by French mathematics educator, Guy Brousseau, and others suggesting that excessive practice hampers children's understanding:", "He received many top-level honors in life, including becoming a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959; election as a Member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1967; APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions to Psychology (1969); the ACM's Turing Award for making \"basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing\" (1975); the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics \"for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations\" (1978); the National Medal of Science (1986); the APA's Award for Outstanding Lifetime Contributions to Psychology (1993); ACM fellow (1994); and IJCAI Award for Research Excellence (1995).", "Simon was a prolific writer and authored 27 books and almost a thousand papers. As of 2016, Simon was the most cited person in artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology on Google Scholar. With almost a thousand highly cited publications, he was one of the most influential social scientists of the twentieth century.", "Simon married Dorothea Pye in 1938. Their marriage lasted 63 years until his death. In January 2001, Simon underwent surgery at UPMC Presbyterian to remove a cancerous tumor in his abdomen. Although the surgery was successful, Simon later succumbed to the complications that followed. They had three children, Katherine, Peter, and Barbara. His wife died in 2002. From 1950 to 1955, Simon studied mathematical economics and during this time, together with David Hawkins, discovered and proved the Hawkins–Simon theorem on the \"conditions for the existence of positive solution vectors for input-output matrices\". He also developed theorems on near-decomposability and aggregation. Having begun to apply these theorems to organizations, by 1954 Simon determined that the best way to study problem-solving was to simulate it with computer programs, which led to his interest in computer simulation of human cognition. Founded during the 1950s, he was among the first members of the Society for General Systems Research. Simon had a keen interest in the arts, as he was a pianist. He was a friend of Robert Lepper and Richard Rappaport. Rappaport also painted Simon's commissioned portrait at Carnegie Mellon University. He was also a keen mountain climber. As a testament to his wide interests, he at one point taught an undergraduate course on the French Revolution.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career in Hungary.", "Early years.", "Mighty Magyars.", "Ferenc Puskás’ statistics in the 1952 Helsinki Olympics.", "Ferenc Puskás’ statistics at the 1954 World Cup in Switzerland.", "Honvéd World Tour.", "Spanish career.", "Real Madrid.", "Spanish national appearances.", "Appearance for South Liverpool.", "Management career.", "Later life and death.", "Career statistics.", "Club.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Ferenc Purczeld was born on 1 April 1927 to a German (Danube Swabian) family in Budapest and brought up in Kispest, then a suburb, today part of the city. His mother, Margit Biró (1904–1976), was a seamstress. He began his career as a junior with Kispest AC, where his father, who had previously played for the club, was a coach. He had grandchildren, who were the children of his brothers son; the two sons of his brother are Zoltan and Istvan, the first one have 3 children; Ilonka, Camila and Andrés, and the second one have two. He changed his name to Puskás. He initially used the pseudonym \"Miklós Kovács\" to help circumvent the minimum age rules before officially signing at the age of 12. Among his early teammates was his childhood friend and future international teammate József Bozsik. He made his first senior appearance for Kispest in November 1943 in a match against Nagyváradi AC. It was here where he got the nickname \"Öcsi\" or \"Buddy\". Kispest was taken over by the Hungarian Ministry of Defence in 1949, becoming the Hungarian Army team and changing its name to Budapest Honvéd. As a result, football players were given military ranks. Puskás eventually became a major (Hungarian: \"Őrnagy\"), which led to the nickname \"The Galloping Major\". As the army club, Honvéd used conscription to acquire the best Hungarian players, leading to the recruitment of Zoltán Czibor and Sándor Kocsis. During his career at Budapest Honvéd, Puskás helped the club win five Hungarian League titles. He also finished as top goal scorer in the league in 1947–48, 1949–50, 1950 and 1953, scoring 50, 31, 25 and 27 goals, respectively. In 1948, he was the top goal scorer in Europe.", "Puskás made his debut for Hungary team on 20 August 1945 and scored in a 5–2 win over Austria. He went on to play 85 games and scored 84 times for Hungary. His international goal record included two hat tricks against Austria, one against Luxembourg and four goals in a 12–0 win over Albania. Together with Zoltán Czibor, Sándor Kocsis, József Bozsik, and Nándor Hidegkuti, he formed the nucleus of the Golden Team that was to remain unbeaten for 32 consecutive games. During this run, they became Olympic Champions in 1952, beating Yugoslavia 2–0 in the final in Helsinki. Puskás scored four times at the Olympic tournament, including the opening goal in the final. They also defeated England twice, first with a 6–3 win at Wembley Stadium., and then 7–1 in Budapest. Puskás scored two goals in each game against England. In 1953, they also became Central European Champions. Hungary won the championship after finishing top of the table with 11 points. Puskás finished the tournament as top scorer with 10 goals and scored twice as Hungary claimed the trophy with a 3–0 win over Italy at the Stadio Olimpico in 1953. Puskás scored three goals in the two first-round matches Hungary played at the 1954 FIFA World Cup. They defeated South Korea 9–0 and then West Germany 8–3. In the latter game, he suffered a hairline fracture of the ankle after a tackle by Werner Liebrich, and did not return until the final. Puskás played the entire 1954 World Cup final against West Germany with a hairline fracture. Despite this, he scored his fourth goal of the tournament to put Hungary ahead after six minutes, and with Czibor adding another goal two minutes later, it seemed that the pre-tournament favorites would take the title. However, the West Germans pulled back two goals before half time, with six minutes left the West Germans scored the winner. Two minutes from the end of the match, Puskás appeared to score an equalizer but the goal was disallowed due to an offside call.", "The scores contain links to the article on football in the Helsinki Olympics and the round in question.", "The scores contain links to the article on 1954 FIFA World Cup and the round in question. When there is a special article on the match in question, the link is in the column for \"round\".", "Budapest Honvéd entered the European Cup in 1956 and were drawn against Atlético Bilbao in the first round. Honvéd lost the away leg 2–3, but before the home leg could be played, the Hungarian Revolution erupted in Budapest. The players decided against going back to Hungary and arranged for the return with Atlético to be played at Heysel Stadium in Brussels, Belgium. Puskás scored in the subsequent 3–3 draw but Honvéd were eliminated 6–5 on aggregate, and the Hungarian players were left in limbo. They summoned their families from Budapest, and despite opposition from FIFA and the Hungarian football authorities, they organised a fundraising tour of Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Brazil. After returning to Europe, the players parted ways. Some, including Bozsik, returned to Hungary while others, including Czibor, Kocsis and Puskás, found new clubs in Western Europe.", "", "After refusing to return to Hungary, Puskás initially played a few unofficial games for RCD Espanyol. At the same time, both AC Milan and Juventus attempted to sign him, but then he received a two-year ban from UEFA (for refusing to return to Budapest) which prevented him from playing in Europe. He moved to Austria and then Italy. After his ban, Puskás tried to play in Italy but was not able to find a top-flight club willing to sign him, as Italian managers were concerned about his age and weight. He was considered by Manchester United to strengthen a squad ravaged by the Munich Air Disaster in 1958, but because of FA rules regarding foreigners and Puskás' not knowing the English language, stand-in manager Jimmy Murphy could not fulfill his wish of signing the Hungarian. However, a few months later, Puskás joined Real Madrid and at the age of 31 embarked on the second phase of his career. During his first La Liga season, Puskás scored four hat-tricks, including one in his second game, against Sporting de Gijón on 21 September 1958. In the game against UD Las Palmas on 4 January 1959, Puskás and Alfredo di Stéfano scored hat-tricks in a 10–1 win. During the 1960–61 season, Puskás scored four times in a game against Elche CF and the following season, he scored five goals against the same team. Puskás scored two hat-tricks against FC Barcelona in 1963, one at the Bernabéu and one at the Camp Nou. During eight seasons with Real, Puskás played 180 La Liga games and scored 156 goals. He scored 20 or more goals in each of his first six seasons in the Spanish league, and won the \"Pichichi\" four times: in 1960, 1961, 1963, and 1964, scoring 25, 28, 26 and 21 goals, respectively. He helped Real win La Liga five times in a row between 1961 and 1965 and the Copa del Generalísimo in 1962. He scored both goals in the 2–1 victory over Sevilla FC in the Copa final. Puskás also played a further 39 games for Real in the European Cup, scoring 35 goals. He helped Real reach the final of the 1959 European Cup, scoring in the first leg and in the decisive replay of the semi-final against Atlético Madrid, but missed the final due to injury. In the following season he began Real's 1960 European Cup campaign with a hat-trick against Jeunesse Esch and in the semi-final against FC Barcelona, he once again guided Real into the final with three goals over two legs. In the final itself, Real beat Eintracht Frankfurt 7–3 with Puskás scoring four goals and di Stéfano scoring three. In subsequent European campaigns, he would score a further three hat-tricks, including one in the 1962 final against Benfica, which Real lost 5–3. In 1965, he scored five goals over two games against Feyenoord as he helped Real Madrid to the 1966 European Cup final – Real won the game against Partizan Belgrade, but Puskás did not play in the final.", "In 1962, Puskás took Spanish nationality, and subsequently played four times for Spain. Three of these games were at the 1962 World Cup.", "In 1967, at the age of 40, he appeared in a fundraising friendly game for South Liverpool, the English non-League side, in front of a 10,000-strong sell-out crowd at the club's Holly Park stadium.", "After retiring as a player, Puskás became a coach and managed teams in Europe, North America, South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia. In 1971, he guided Panathinaikos of Greece to the European Cup final, the only time a Greek club has reached a European final to date. In the qualifying rounds they beat Everton in the quarter-finals on away goals, then defeated Red Star Belgrade in the semis. In the final Panathinaikos lost 2–0 to Johan Cruyff's Ajax. During his four-year tenure at Panathinaikos, Puskás helped the team secure one Greek Championship in 1972. However, with the notable exception of his spell at Panathinaikos, Puskás failed to transfer his success as a player to his coaching career. Despite his wide travels, his only other success came with South Melbourne Hellas, with whom he won the National Soccer League title in 1991. When Wolverhampton Wanderers opened their renovated stadium Molineux in 1993, Puskás visited the newly opened stadium as an honorary guest to watch the friendly match between Wolves and Budapest Honvéd, which was a match to christen the new opening of the stadium. This was because in the 1950s, Wolves played a game against Honvéd in a memorable friendly match, which Puskás played in. Wolves won the 1954 match 3–2, with the 1993 match ending in a 1–1 draw. In 1993, he took charge of the Hungarian national football team for four games, including a 4–2 friendly victory against the Republic of Ireland in Dublin, where Hungary came from two goals down to eventually beat their opponents.", "Puskás was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2000. He was admitted to a Budapest hospital in September 2006 and died on 17 November 2006 of pneumonia. He was 79 years old and was survived by his wife of 57 years, Erzsébet, and their daughter, Anikó. In a state funeral, his coffin was moved from Puskás Ferenc Stadion to Heroes' Square for a military salute. He was buried under the dome of the St Stephen's Basilica in Budapest on 9 December 2006.", "", "Source:", "Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Death and veneration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Peter was born in Imola, where Cornelius, bishop of Catholic Diocese of Imola, baptized him, educated him, and ordained him a deacon. He was made an archdeacon through the influence of Emperor Valentinian III. Pope Sixtus III appointed Peter as Bishop of Ravenna circa 433, apparently rejecting the candidate whom the people of the city of Ravenna elected. At that time Ravenna was the capital of the West, and there are indications that Ravenna held the rank of metropolitan before this time. The traditional account, as recorded in the Roman Breviary, is that Sixtus had a vision of Pope Saint Peter the Apostle and Saint Apollinaris of Ravenna, the first bishop of that see, who showed Peter, a young man, the next Bishop of Ravenna. When a group from Ravenna arrived, including Cornelius and his archdeacon Peter from Imola, Sixtus recognized Peter as the young man in his vision and consecrated him as a bishop. People knew Saint Peter Chrysologus, \"the Doctor of Homilies\", for his very simple and short but inspired sermons, for he was afraid of fatiguing the attention of his hearers. His piety and zeal won universal admiration. After hearing oratory of his first homily as bishop, Roman Empress Galla Placidia supposedly gave him the surname \"Chrysologus\", meaning \"golden-worded.\" His sermons are historically significant in that they reveal Christian life in fifth-century Ravenna. The Emperor's mother, Galla Placidia, patronized many projects of Bishop Peter. In his extant homilies, Bishop Peter explained Biblical texts briefly and concisely. He also condemned Arianism and Monophysitism as heresies and explained the Apostles' Creed, the mystery of the Incarnation, and other topics in simple and clear language. He dedicated a series of homilies to Saint John the Baptist and the Blessed Virgin Mary. Peter advocated daily reception of Eucharist. He urged his listeners to confide in the forgiveness offered through Christ. His surviving works attest to the Church's traditional beliefs about Mary's perpetual virginity, the penitential value of Lent, Christ's Eucharistic presence, and the primacy of St. Peter and his successors. He shared the confidence of Saint Pope Leo I the Great (440-461), another doctor of the Church. A synod held in Constantinople in 448 condemned Eutyches for Monophysitism; Eutyches then appealed to Peter Chrysologus but failed in his endeavour to win the support of the Bishop. The \"Acts of the Council of Chalcedon\" (451) preserves the text of letter of Saint Peter Chrysologus in response to Eutyches; Peter admonishes Eutyches to accept the ruling of the synod and to give obedience to the Bishop of Rome as the successor of Saint Peter. Archbishop Felix of Ravenna in the early eighth century collected and preserved 176 of his homilies. Various authors edited and translated these works into numerous languages.", "St Peter died circa or after 450 during a visit to Imola, the town of his birth. Older reference books say he died on 2 December, but a more recent interpretation of the ninth-century \"\"Liber Pontificalis Ecclesiae Ravennatis\"\" indicated that he died on 31 July. When in 1729 he was declared a Doctor of the Church, his feast day, not already included in the Tridentine Calendar, was inserted in the General Roman Calendar for celebration on 4 December. In 1969 his feast was moved to 30 July, as close as possible to the day of his death, 31 July, the feast day of Saint Ignatius of Loyola. A contemporary portrait of Saint Peter Chrysologus, found in the mosaics of the Church of San Giovanni Evangelista in Ravenna, depicts him among the members of the eastern and western imperial family, showing his extraordinary influence." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Glorification." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Matěj Pavlík was born on 26 May 1879, in the Moravian village of Hrubá Vrbka in what would later be the Czech Republic. Born into the Roman Catholic society of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Matthias entered the Faculty of Theology in Olomouc after finishing his earlier education. He was subsequently ordained a priest. During his studies, he was interested in the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius and of Eastern Orthodoxy. Establishment of Czechoslovakia in the aftermath of the First World War brought complete religious freedom. In this environment, many people left the Catholic Church. While many left the religion completely, some looked either to old Czech Protestant churches or, as Pavlík, to Eastern Orthodoxy. The Serbian Orthodox Church provided a shelter for those looking to Orthodoxy. As a leader in Moravia, the Serbian Orthodox Church agreed to consecrate Fr. Pavlík to the episcopate for his homeland. On 24 September 1921, he was consecrated bishop with the name of Gorazd. Historically, his monastic name of Gorazd was significant as it was the name of the bishop who succeeded St. Methodius as Bishop of Moravia after he died in 885. Subsequently, Pope Stephen V drove the disciples of St Methodius from Moravia as the Latin rite was imposed. Thus, by the choice of his monastic name of Gorazd, the continuity of the Orthodox Church in Moravia from some 1,100 years before was recognized. Archimandrite Gorazd was named Bishop of Moravia and Silesia on 24 September 1921, and consecrated bishop on the next day at the Cathedral of the Holy Archangel Michael in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, by Serbian Patriarch Dimitrije. Over the next decade or so, Bp. Gorazd and his faithful followers organized parishes and built churches in Bohemia. In all they built eleven churches and two chapels. He had the essential service books translated and published in the Czech language, which was the language used in the church services. With Carpathian Ruthenia and Slovakia part of Czechoslovakia, he assisted many who had returned to their ancestral Eastern Orthodox faith, thus helping the creation of the Eparchy of Mukačevo and Prešov in 1931. With the conquest of Czechoslovakia by the Nazis in 1938, the church was placed under the Metropolitan in Berlin, Germany. Reinhard Heydrich was appointed as ruler of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. On 27 May 1942, a group of Czech resistance fighters assassinated Heydrich. In making their escape, the group found refuge in the crypt of the Cathedral. When Bp. Gorazd found out a few days later, he recognized the serious burden this placed on the Czech Orthodox Church. Before he left for the consecration to the episcopate of Fr John (Gardner) in Berlin, he asked that the resistance fighters move elsewhere as soon as possible. However, on June 18, the Nazis found the hiding places after a betrayal by two members of the resistance group, and all the members of the group were killed. Reprisals came quickly. The two priests and the senior lay church officials were arrested. Bp. Gorazd, wishing to help his fellow believers and the Czech Church itself, took the blame for the actions in the Cathedral on himself, even writing letters to the Nazi authorities. On 27 June 1942, he was arrested and tortured. On 4 September 1942, Bp. Gorazd, the Cathedral priests and the lay officials were executed by firing squad at Kobylisy Shooting Range. His body was disposed of at Strašnice Crematorium. The reprisals went much further as the Nazis conducted widespread roundups of Czechs, including the whole village of Lidice, then summarily killed the men and children, while they placed the women in concentration camps. The Orthodox churches in Moravia and Bohemia were closed and the Church forbidden to operate. Metropolitan Seraphim courageously refused to issue any statement condemning Bishop Gorazd. It was not until the end of the war that the Orthodox Church in Czechoslovakia would function again.", "By these actions the Orthodox Faithful, led by their bishop, proved the qualities of their little church in bravery and devotion to matters of justice and showed how firmly it was connected to the Czech nation. On 4 May 1961, the Serbian Orthodox Church recognized Bp. Gorazd as a new martyr, and on 24 August 1987, he was glorified in the Olomouc Orthodox Church in Moravia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "History.", "Medieval origins.", "Between Russia, Lithuania, and Poland.", "Modern history.", "Soviet period.", "Recent events.", "Attractions.", "The Smolensk Kremlin.", "Monuments.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Education.", "Twin towns – sister cities.", "Honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name of the city is derived from the name of the Smolnya River. The origin of the river's name is less clear. One possibility is the old Slavic word () for black soil, which might have colored the waters of the Smolnya. An alternative origin could be the Russian word (), which means resin, tar, or pitch. Pine trees grow in the area, and the city was once a center of resin processing and trade. Third possibility, that this name is given by Lithuanian tribes living in this region prior Slavic occupation (Lithuanian tribe Goliads lived between Mozhaisk and Tula/Protva until circa 1580 when tsar Ivan genocided them completely in the military conflict), where the word for the resin or tar or pitch is \"smala\" in Lithuanian language (most names for rivers in that region is of Lithuanian origin). The Byzantine emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959) recorded its name as ().", "The city is located in European Russia on the banks of the upper Dnieper River, which crosses the city within the Smolensk Upland, which is the western part of the Smolensk–Moscow Upland. The Dnieper River flows through the city from east to west and divides it into two parts: the northern (Zadneprove) and southern (center). Within the city and its surroundings the river takes in several small tributaries. In the valleys are stretched streets, high ridges, hills, and headlands form the mountain. Smolensk is situated on seven hills (mountains). The old part of the city occupies the high, rugged left (south) bank of the Dnieper River. The area features undulating terrain, with a large number of tributaries, creeks and ravines.", "", "Smolensk is among the oldest Russian cities. The first recorded mention of the city was 863 AD, two years after the founding of Kievan Rus'. According to Russian Primary Chronicle, Smolensk (probably located slightly downstream, at the archaeological site of Gnezdovo) was located on the area settled by the East Slavic Radimichs tribe in 882 when Oleg of Novgorod took it in passing from Novgorod to Kiev. The town was first attested two decades earlier, when the Varangian chieftains Askold and Dir, while on their way to Kiev, decided against challenging Smolensk on account of its large size and population. The first foreign writer to mention the city was the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus. In \"De Administrando Imperio\" (c. 950) he described Smolensk as a key station on the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. The Rus' people sailed from the Baltics up the Western Dvina as far as they could then they portaged their boats to the upper Dnieper. It was in Smolensk that they supposedly mended any leaks and small holes that might have appeared in their boats from being dragged on the ground and they used tar to do that, hence the city name. The Principality of Smolensk was founded in 1054. Due to its central position in Kievan Rus', the city developed rapidly. By the end of the 12th century, the princedom was one of the strongest in Eastern Europe, so that Smolensk Dynasty frequently controlled the Kievan throne. Numerous churches were built in the city at that time, including the church of Sts. Peter and Paul (1146, reconstructed to its presumed original appearance after World War II) and the church of St. John the Baptist (1180, also partly rebuilt). The most remarkable church in the city is called Svirskaya (1197, still standing); it was admired by contemporaries as the most beautiful structure east of Kiev. Smolensk had its own veche since the very beginning of its history. Its power increased after the disintegration of Kievan Rus', and although it was not as strong as the veche in Novgorod, the princes had to take its opinion into consideration; several times in 12th and 13th centuries there was an open conflict between them.", "Although spared by the Mongol armies in 1240, Smolensk paid tribute to the Golden Horde, gradually becoming a pawn in the long struggle between Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The last sovereign monarch of Smolensk was Yury of Smolensk; during his reign the city was taken by Vytautas the Great of Lithuania on three occasions: in 1395, 1404, and 1408. After the city's incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, some of Smolensk's boyars (e.g., the Sapiehas) moved to Vilnius; descendants of the ruling princes (e.g., the Tatishchevs, Kropotkins, Mussorgskys, Vyazemskys) fled to Moscow. With tens of thousands of people living there, Smolensk was probably the largest city in 15th-century Lithuania. Three Smolensk regiments took part in the Battle of Grunwald against the Teutonic Knights. It was a severe blow to Lithuania when the city was taken by Vasily III of Russia in 1514. To commemorate this event, the Tsar founded the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow and dedicated it to the icon of Our Lady of Smolensk. In order to repel future Polish–Lithuanian attacks, Boris Godunov made it his priority to heavily fortify the city. The stone kremlin constructed in 1597–1602 is the largest in Russia. It features thick walls and numerous watchtowers. Heavy fortifications did not prevent the fortress from being taken by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1611 after a long twenty-month siege, during the Time of Troubles and Dimitriads. Weakened Muscovy temporarily ceded Smolensk land to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Truce of Deulino and for the next forty-three years it was the seat of Smolensk Voivodeship. To recapture the city, the Tsardom of Russia launched the so-called \"Smolensk War\" against the Commonwealth in 1632. After a defeat at the hands of king Wladislaw IV, the city remained in Polish–Lithuanian hands. In 1632, the Uniate bishop Lew Kreuza built his apartments in Smolensk; they were later converted into the Orthodox Church of Saint Barbara. The hostilities resumed in 1654 when the Commonwealth was being affected by the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the Swedish deluge. After another siege, on September 23, 1654, Smolensk was recaptured by Russia. In the 1667 Truce of Andrusovo, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth renounced its claims to Smolensk.", "Smolensk has been a special place to Russians for many reasons, not least for the fact that the local cathedral housed one of the most venerated Orthodox icons, attributed to St. Luke. Building the new Cathedral of the Assumption was a great project which took more than a century to complete. Despite slowly sinking into an economic backwater, Smolensk was still valued by the Tsars as a key fortress defending the route to Moscow. It was made the seat of Smolensk Governorate in 1708. In August 1812, two of the largest armies ever assembled clashed in Smolensk. During the hard-fought battle, described by Leo Tolstoy in \"War and Peace\" (Book Three Part Two Chapter 4), Napoleon entered the city. Total losses were estimated at 30,000 men. Apart from other military monuments, central Smolensk features the Eagles monument, unveiled in 1912 to mark the centenary of Napoleon's Russian campaign. At the beginning of World War I, the 56th Smolensk Infantry Division was first assigned to the First Army of the Imperial Russian Army. They fought at the Battle of Tannenberg. It was subsequently transferred to the 10th Army and fought at the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes. In March 1918, while the city remained part of Russia, the Belarusian People's Republic, proclaimed in Minsk under the German occupation, declared Smolensk part of it. In February–December 1918, Smolensk was home to the headquarters of the Western Front, North-West Oblast Bolshevik Committee and Western Oblast Executive Committee. On January 1, 1919, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed in Smolensk, but its government moved to Minsk as soon as the German forces had been driven out of Minsk several days later.", "After the Revolution, for inclusion in its composition as claimed Smolensk Belarusian People's Republic and the Byelorussian SSR. Since April 1918 Smolensk was the center of the Western Region, which is based on January 1, 1919, Byelorussian SSR was formed. January 7 BSSR government moved from Minsk and Smolensk already January 16, 1919 decision of the Central Committee of the RCP Smolensk region was transferred to the RSFSR. In 1920 was held the new provincial census, according to which the Russian population prevailed over Belarus, but the Belarusian party leadership until 1926 left no hope for the inclusion of Smolensk in the Belorussian SSR. In 1940, from Smolensk, the Katyn Massacre occurred. During World War II, Smolensk once again saw wide-scale fighting during the first Battle of Smolensk when the city was captured by the Germans on July 16, 1941. The first Soviet counteroffensive against the German army was launched in August 1941 but failed. However, the limited Soviet victories outside the city halted the German advance for a crucial two months, granting time to Moscow's defenders to prepare in earnest. Camp 126 was situated close to Smolensk and at this time Boris Menshagin was mayor of Smolensk, with his deputy Boris Bazilevsky. Both of them would be key witnesses in the Nuremberg Trials over the Katyn massacre. Over 93% of the city was destroyed during the fighting; the ancient icon of Our Lady of Smolensk was lost. Nevertheless, it escaped total destruction. In late 1943, Göring had ordered Gotthard Heinrici to destroy Smolensk in accordance with the Nazi \"scorched earth\" policy. He refused and was punished for it. The city was finally liberated on September 25, 1943, during the second Battle of Smolensk. The rare title of Hero City was bestowed on Smolensk after the war. After the Germans captured the city in 1941, they found the intact archives of Smolensk Oblast Committee of the Communist Party, the so-called Smolensk Archive. The archive was moved to Germany, and a significant part of it eventually ended up in the United States, providing Western scholars and intelligence specialists with unique information on the local workings of the Soviet government during its first two decades. The archives were returned to Russia by the United States in 2002.", "On April 10, 2010, a Tu-154 military jet carrying Polish president Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and many notable political and military figures crashed in a wooded area near Smolensk while approaching the local military airport. All ninety-six passengers died immediately on impact. The purpose of the visit was to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the Katyn massacre, in which some 22,000 Polish POWs were murdered by the NKVD. In 2013, archaeologists of the Russian Academy of Sciences discovered and unearthed in the ancient temples in Smolensk dated to middle to second half of the 12th century, built on the left bank at the time the city was the capital of Smolensk principality. From unique object preserved walls in some places low, in others the height of human growth. In September 2013, Smolensk widely celebrated the 1,150th anniversary with funds spent on different construction and renovation projects in the city. In celebration the Central Bank of Russia issued commemorative coins made of precious metals.", "Owing to its long and rich history, Smolensk is home to many fine examples of Russian architecture ranging from the Kievan Rus period to post-WWII Stalinist architecture. Although the city was destroyed several times over, many historically and culturally significant buildings still remain, including a large number of churches and cathedrals. The most famous of these are the Cathedral of the Assumption, the Immaculate Conception Church, and the Church of St. Michael the Archangel, which is one of the few structures remaining in Russia from before the Mongol invasion.", "The Smolensk Kremlin, built at the end of the 16th century during the reign of Tsars Fyodor I Ioannovich and Boris Godunov, under the supervision of the architect Fyodor Kon, is one of the greatest achievement of Russian medieval architecture and military engineering.", "Being the site of many great battles in Russian history, Smolensk is home to many monuments commemorating its rich military history.", "Smolensk serves as the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Smolensky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Smolensk Urban Okrug—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban okrug status.", "Smolensk has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification \"Dfb\").", "Smolensk has several factories including the Smolensk Aviation Plant and several electronics and agricultural machinery factories.", "Smolensk is located on the M1 main highway and Moscow–Brest Railway. Since 1870, there is a railway connection between Smolensk and Moscow. Local public transport includes buses and trolleybuses. Public transportation network includes buses, trolleybuses, trams, and \"marshrutkas\". There are two airports located in the outskirts of the city; Smolensk South (civilian) and Smolensk North (military); however, there are no regular flights scheduled to Smolensk South Airport.", "Smolensk is home to the Smolensk State University (SMOLGU) and the Smolensk State Medical University (affiliated as university in 2015) (SSMU); together with colleges of further education and other educational institutes.", "Smolensk is twinned with:", "Smolensk Strait between Livingston Island and Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after the city. A Soviet post World War II project planned the creation of a light cruiser vessel named Smolensk. It was never constructed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Second World War.", "Modern day.", "Tourism.", "Transport.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Twin cities.", "In popular culture.", "Sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"rova\" part in the name Rovaniemi has often been considered to be of Saamic origin, as'in Saami denotes a forested ridge or hill or the site of an old forest fire. In Southern Saami dialects, however,'means a heap of stones, a rock or a group of rocks in a stretch of rapids or even a sauna stove. The \"niemi\" part of the name means \"cape\". Names in the Samic languages include, and \"\" and.", "Periodic clearance of new land for agriculture and the practise of slash-and-burn cultivation began around 750–530 BC. Artifacts found in the area suggest that an increasing number of travellers from Karelia in the east, Häme in the south and the Arctic Ocean coast in the north must have come there from 500 AD onwards. The Sami are considered to be Lapland's most indigenous existing population. It is first mentioned by name in official documents in 1453, existing effectively as a set of small villages whose inhabitants earned their living mainly in agriculture and animal husbandry—with fishing and hunting the most important offshoots. The exploitation of Lapland's natural resources in the 1800s boosted Rovaniemi's growth. Extensive logging sites and gold fever attracted thousands of people to Lapland. As the mining of natural resources was increased, Rovaniemi became the business centre of the province of Lapland.", "During the Second World War, Finland signed the Moscow Armistice and found itself involved in the Lapland War with its former German ally. Retreating German forces utilised scorched earth tactics, and though initially German General Lothar Rendulic ordered only the public buildings in Rovaniemi to be destroyed, on 13 October 1944 the German army received orders to destroy all the buildings in Rovaniemi, only excluding hospitals and houses where inhabitants were present. While the German rearguard was going about the destruction, an ammunition train in Rovaniemi station exploded and set fire to the wooden houses of the town. The German troops suffered many casualties, mainly from glass splinters. A Finnish commando unit claimed to have blown up the ammunition train and may well have been the primary cause of the town's ruin. The cause was then unknown and generally assumed to be the deliberate intent of Rendulic. During these hostilities 90% of all the buildings in Rovaniemi were destroyed. There is a German cemetery 19 km from Rovaniemi where soldiers killed fighting in Lapland during the war are buried. Although there has been continuous human settlement in the Rovaniemi area since at least the Stone Age, few of the buildings date back before 1944 since most of the city was destroyed during WWII. When the city was rebuilt, it was designed with input by famous Finnish architect Alvar Aalto, who planned the city's footprint in the shape of a reindeer's head, with the city roads forming the antlers, and the local sports stadium as the reindeer's eye.", "Since Rovaniemi is the capital of the region of Lapland, many government institutions have their offices there. About 10,000 of the inhabitants are students. Rovaniemi is home to not only the University of Lapland but also the Lapland University of Applied Sciences (formerly known as the Rovaniemi Polytechnic), which comprises institutes of information and traditional technology, business, health and social care, culinary studies, forestry, rural studies, and sports. Local newspapers include the \"Lapin Kansa\", \"Uusi Rovaniemi\" and \"Lappilainen\". Rovaniemi's most prominent landmarks include the Jätkänkynttilä bridge with its eternal flame over the Kemijoki river, the Arktikum Science Museum which rises out of the bank of the Ounasjoki river, the Rovaniemi Town Hall, the Lappia House (which serves as a theatre, concert hall, and congress centre), and the library. The last three mentioned buildings are designed by the famous Finnish architect Alvar Aalto. The Arktikum Science Museum is a comprehensive museum of Finland's, and the world's, Arctic regions.", "Because of the unspoiled nature of the area and numerous recreational opportunities, tourism is an important industry in Rovaniemi. The city has a number of hotels and restaurants located both in the centre and on the outskirts of the town, hosting over 481,000 visitors in 2013. Rovaniemi is also considered by Finns to be the official home town of Santa Claus. It is home to the Santa Claus Village at the Arctic Circle and SantaPark Arctic World, which is located north of the centre. Directly across the river from the town is the Ounasvaara ski centre. The top of the Ounasvaara hill bears the site of some of the earliest known human settlements in the area. A phenomenon also attracting numerous tourists is the Aurora Borealis or \"Northern Lights\". In Finnish Lapland, the number of auroral displays can be as high as 200 a year whereas in southern Finland the number is usually fewer than 20.", "VR Group, the Finnish state railway system, operates direct daytime and overnight passenger trains from Rovaniemi Station to Oulu, Tampere, Helsinki and Turku. Diesel-powered passenger trains operated northeast of Rovaniemi to Kemijärvi until March 2014, when electrification to Kemijärvi was completed. Rovaniemi Airport is located about north of the Rovaniemi city centre.", "", "Due to its location near the Arctic Circle, Rovaniemi has a subarctic climate (Köppen \"Dfc\") with short, pleasant summers, while the winters are long, cold and snowy. The city lies just south of the mean annual isotherm, but freezing in the soil is very limited even during the winter due to typical heavy snow cover. Its extreme northerly location combined with frequent overcast skies leads to very low levels of sunshine in the winter months; December averages just under six minutes of sunshine daily. Winters are somewhat modified by marine air from the North Atlantic Current that ensures average temperatures are less extreme than expected for an inland area at such a northerly latitude. On 26 April 2019, Rovaniemi recorded its warmest April day on record with. The average annual temperature in Rovaniemi is. Snow stays on the ground 175 days a year on average. The lowest temperature ever recorded at the airport is, recorded on 28 January 1999. However, on the same day temperatures as cold as -47.5 C were recorded at nearby weather stations. The highest temperature ever recorded is, recorded on July 18, 2018 at the railway station. Despite the fact that Rovaniemi experiences polar day between 7 June and 6 July (30 days) it does not experience polar night. However, the sun barely gets above the horizon in the winter.", "Rovaniemi is twinned with:", "The 1998 Spanish romantic film \"Lovers of the Arctic Circle\" \"(Los amantes del Círculo Polar)\", by director Julio Medem, partly takes place in Rovaniemi. Rovaniemi appears in the video game \"Tom Clancy's EndWar\" as a possible battlefield. In the game, Rovaniemi houses military facilities critical to a missile shield for a European Federation. Rovaniemi is a central scene in a documentary film \"Reindeerspotting\". TV-Star Bam Margera and his friends travelled to Rovaniemi in their film \"\" in order to find Santa Claus who is assumed to live in Rovaniemi. A version of the music video for Lordi's song \"Hard Rock Hallelujah\" was filmed near Rovaniemi. The video for the Nightwish single \"The Islander\" was filmed in Rovaniemi by Stobe Harju. Rovaniemi used to have the northernmost location of any McDonald's in the world until the opening of a McDonald's in Murmansk in 2013, 23 years after it first opened in that country. There are plenty of different restaurants to go for food in Rovaniemi from expensive to less expensive. Rovaniemi appears as one location of Gavin Lyall's 1963 book \"The Most Dangerous Game\", a spy-thriller set in Lapland and the northern USSR.", "The city is home to the football clubs Rovaniemen Palloseura, or RoPS, part of the Veikkausliiga, the Finnish premier division, and FC Santa Claus, part of the third division; to the ice hockey team Rovaniemen Kiekko, or RoKi, whose home arena is Lappi Areena and which currently competes on Mestis, the second-highest league in Finland; and to the volleyball team called Team Lakkapää (formerly Rovaniemen Santasport and Perungan Pojat), which plays in the Finland Volleyball League and won the national championship in 2003, 2007, 2008 and 2011. Rovaniemi has hosted several international ski competition, including the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1984, several FIS Nordic Combined World Cup and FIS Ski Jumping Continental Cup events, the 2005 FIS Nordic Junior World Ski Championships, the 1970 Winter Universiade and the 2008 Winter Transplant Games." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Pre-incorporation.", "Development of Chinatown.", "City beginnings.", "1900–1950s.", "Plague epidemic.", "Incorporation.", "1960–1999.", "2000s.", "Geography and Cityscape.", "Neighborhoods.", "Climate and Vegetation.", "Demographics.", "Race and ethnicity.", "2018 United States Census American Community Survey estimates.", "Educational attainment and income.", "Households.", "Shifting of cultures.", "Economy.", "Top employers.", "Tourism.", "Arts and culture.", "Attractions.", "Nightlife.", "\"There is no there there\".", "Sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Parks.", "Places of worship.", "Law and government.", "Politics.", "Crime.", "Education.", "Primary and secondary education.", "Funding.", "Colleges and universities.", "Media.", "Infrastructure.", "Transportation.", "Air and rail.", "Mass transit and bicycling.", "Motorized scooters.", "Bridges, freeways, and tunnels.", "Freight rail.", "Shipping.", "Utilities.", "Healthcare.", "International relations.", "Sister cities.", "Friendship cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The earliest known inhabitants were the Huchiun natives, who lived there for thousands of years. The Huchiun belonged to a linguistic grouping later called the Ohlone (a Miwok word meaning \"western people\"). In Oakland, they were concentrated around Lake Merritt and Temescal Creek, a stream that enters the San Francisco Bay at Emeryville. In 1772, the area that later became Oakland was colonized, with the rest of California, by Spanish settlers", "During the 1850s—just as gold was discovered in California—Oakland started growing and further developing because land was becoming too expensive in San Francisco. The Chinese were struggling financially, as a result of the First Opium War, the Second Opium War, and the Taiping Rebellion, so they began migrating to", "In 1851, three men—Horace Carpentier, Edson Adams, and Andrew Moon—began developing what is now downtown Oakland. In 1852, the Town of Oakland was incorporated by the state legislature. During this time, Oakland had 75-100 inhabitants, two hotels, a wharf, two warehouses, and only cattle trails. Two years later, on March 25, 1854, Oakland re-incorporated as the City of Oakland.. Horace Carpentier was elected the first mayor, though a scandal ended his mayorship in less than a year. The", "", "Oakland was one of the worst affected cities in California that was impacted by the plague epidemic. Quarantine measures were set in place at the Oakland ports requiring the authorities at the port to inspect the arriving vessels for the presence of infected rats. Quarantine authorities at these ports inspected over a thousand vessels per year for plague and yellow fever. By 1908, over 5,000 people were detained in quarantine. Hunters were sent to poison the affected areas in Oakland and shoot the squirrels, but the eradication work was limited in its range because the State", "At the time of incorporation in 1852, Oakland had consisted of the territory that lay south of today's major intersection of San Pablo Avenue, Broadway, and Fourteenth Street. The city gradually annexed farmlands and settlements to the east and the north. Oakland's rise to industrial prominence, and its subsequent need for a seaport, led to the digging of a shipping and tidal channel in 1902. This resulted in the nearby town of Alameda being made an island. In 1906, the city's population doubled with refugees made homeless after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. In 1908 lawyer, former miner and newspaper owner Homer Wood (1880-1976) suggested to his friend Frank Bilger of Blake and Bilger Rock Quarry and Paving Company that he organize a gathering to establish a Rotary Club east of the bay. On November 27, 1908 Homer took a ferry across the bay in a driving rainstorm and met for lunch with Frank and twenty three other businessmen at the Hotel Metropole at 13th and Jefferson. This gathering became the first meeting of the Tri-City Rotary Club, renamed in 1911 The Rotary Club of Oakland, the third Rotary Club in the world. This group established the tradition of weekly meetings, something most clubs worldwide follow today. In 1916, General Motors opened an automobile factory in East Oakland called Oakland Assembly. It produced Chevrolet cars and then GMC trucks until 1963, when it was moved to Fremont in southern Alameda County. Also in 1916, the Fageol Motor Company chose East Oakland for their first factory, manufacturing farming tractors from 1918 to 1923. By 1920, Oakland was the home of numerous manufacturing industries, including metals, canneries, bakeries, internal combustion engines, automobiles, and shipbuilding. By 1929, when Chrysler expanded with a new plant there, Oakland had become known as the \"Detroit of the West,\" referring to the major auto manufacturing center in Michigan. Oakland expanded during the 1920s, as its population expanded with factory workers. Approximately 13,000 homes were built in the 3 years between 1921 and 1924, more than during the 13 years between 1907", "In 1960, Kaiser Corporation opened its new headquarters; it was the largest skyscraper in Oakland, as well as \"the largest office tower west of Chicago\" up to that time. In the postwar period, suburban development increased around Oakland, and wealthier residents moved to new housing. Despite the major increases in the number and proportion of African Americans in the city, in 1966 only 16 of the city's 661 police officers were black. Tensions between the black community and the largely white police force were high, as expectations during the civil rights era increased to gain social justice and equality before the law. Police abuse of blacks was common. Students Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party at Merritt College (then located at a former high school on Grove Street, now occupied by Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute), which emphasized black power, advocated armed self-defense against police brutality, and was involved in several incidents that ended in the deaths of police officers and other Black Panther members. Among their social programs were feeding children and providing other services to the needy. During the 1970s, Oakland began to suffer serious violence and", "After his 1999 inauguration, Oakland Mayor Jerry Brown continued his predecessor Elihu Harris' public policy of supporting downtown housing development in the area defined as the Central Business District in Oakland's 1998 General Plan. Brown's plan and other redevelopment projects were controversial due to potential rent increases and gentrification, which would displace lower-income residents from downtown Oakland into outlying neighborhoods and cities. Due to allegations of misconduct by the Oakland Police Department, the City of Oakland has paid claims for a total of 57 million during the 2001–2011 timeframe to plaintiffs claiming police abuse; this is the largest sum paid by any city in California. On October 10, 2011, protesters and civic activists began \"Occupy Oakland\" demonstrations", "Oakland is in the eastern region of the San Francisco Bay. In 1991 the City Hall tower was at (NAD83). (The building still exists, but like the rest of the Bay Area, it has shifted northwest perhaps 0.6 meters in the last twenty years.) The United States Census Bureau says the city's total area is, including of land and (28.48 percent) of water. Oakland's highest point is near Grizzly Peak Blvd, east of Berkeley, just over above sea level at about. Oakland has of shoreline, but Radio Beach is the only beach in Oakland. Oaklanders refer to their city's terrain as \"the flatlands\" and \"the hills\". Until recent waves of gentrification, these terms also symbolized Oakland's deep economic divide, with \"the hills\" being more affluent communities. About two-thirds of Oakland lies in the flat plain of the East Bay, with one-third rising into the foothills and hills of the East Bay range. Ruptures along the nearby San Andreas Fault caused severe earth movement in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1906 and 1989. San Andreas quakes induces creep (movement occurring on earthquake faults) in the Hayward fault, which runs directly through Oakland, Berkeley, San Jose and other Bay Area cities.", "Oakland has more than 50 distinct neighborhoods. The city's greater divisions include downtown Oakland and its greater Central Business District, Lake Merritt, East Oakland, North Oakland, West Oakland, and the Oakland Hills. East Oakland, which includes the East Oakland Hills, encompasses more than half of Oakland's land area, stretching from Lakeshore Avenue on the east shore of Lake Merritt southeast to the San Leandro border. North Oakland encompasses the neighborhoods between downtown and Berkeley and Emeryville. West Oakland is the area between downtown and the Bay, partially surrounded by the Oakland Point, and encompassing the Port of Oakland.", "Oakland has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate with an average of 260 sunny days per year. In general, the city features warm, dry summers, and mild, wet winters. Lake Merritt, a large estuary centrally located east of Downtown, was announced as the United States' first official wildlife refuge. Based on data gathered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Oakland is ranked No. 1 in climate among U.S. cities. Oakland's climate is typified by the temperate and seasonal Mediterranean climate. Summers are usually dry and warm and winters are mild and damp. It has features found in both nearby coastal cities such as San Francisco and inland cities such as San Jose, making it warmer than San Francisco and cooler than San Jose. Its position on San Francisco Bay across from the Bay Bridge means the northern part of the city can have cooling maritime fog. It is far enough inland that the fog often burns off by midday, allowing it to have typically sunny California days. The hills tend to have more fog than the", "", "The 2010 United States Census reported Oakland had a population of 390,724. The population density was. The racial makeup of Oakland was 134,925 (34.5%) White (non-Hispanic White 25.9%), 129,471 (28.0%) African American, 3,040 (0.8%) Native American, 65,811 (16.8%) Asian (8.7% Chinese,", "According to 2018 US Census Bureau estimates, Oakland's population rose to 429,114, and was 35.1% White (29.0% Non-Hispanic White and 6.1% Hispanic White), 23.2% Black or African American, 0.9% Native American and Alaskan Native, 15.3% Asian, 0.8% Pacific Islander, 17.8% Some Other Race, and 7.0% from two or more races. If Hispanics are treated as a separate category from race, Oakland's population was 29.0% White, 22.8% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American and Alaskan Native, 15.2% Asian, 0.7% Pacific Islander, 0.3% Some Other Race, 5.2% from", "The greater Oakland area has the fifth largest cluster of \"elite zip codes\" ranked by the number of households with the highest combination of income and education. 37.9% of residents over 25 years of age have bachelor's degree or higher. Oakland ranked among the top cities with residents with bachelor's degrees and graduate degrees per square mile. Oakland ranks in the top 20 of American cities in median household income, with a 2012 value of 51,863. In 2012, the median income for a household in the city was 51,863 and the median income", "The census reported 382,586 people (97.9% of the population) lived in households, 5,675 (1.5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 2,463 (0.6%) were institutionalized. There were 153,791 households, out of which 44,762 (29.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 50,797 (33.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 24,122 (15.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 8,799 (5.7%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 11,289 (7.3%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 3,442 (2.2%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 52,103 households (33.9%) were made up of individuals, and 13,778 (9.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 years", "Oakland has consistently ranked as one of the most ethnically diverse major cities in the country. A 2019 analysis by WalletHub showed that Oakland was the most ethnoracially diverse city in the United States. The city's formerly most populous ethnic group, whites, declined from 95.3% in 1940 to 32.5% by 1990, due to a combination of factors, including suburbanization. Oakland became a destination for African Americans in the Great Migration during and after World War II as they gained high-paying jobs in the defense industry. Blacks have formed a plurality in Oakland for many years, peaking in 1980 at about 47% of the population. Oakland's black population decreased by nearly 25 percent between 2000 and 2010. The city's demographics have changed due to a combination of rising housing prices associated with gentrification and with blacks relocating to", "Oakland is a major West Coast port, and the fifth busiest in the United States by cargo volume. The Port of Oakland handles 99% of all containerized goods moving through Northern California, representing $41 billion worth of international trade. There are nearly 200,000 jobs related to marine cargo transport in the Oakland area. These jobs range from minimum wage hourly positions to Transportation Storage and Distribution Managers who earn an annual average salary of 91,520. The Port of Oakland was an early innovator/pioneer in the technologies of Intermodal Containerized Shipping. The city is also home to several major corporations including Kaiser Permanente, Clorox, and Dreyer's ice cream. Tech companies such as Ask.com and Pandora Radio are in Oakland, and in recent years many start-up high tech and green energy companies have found a home in the downtown neighborhoods of Uptown, City Center, Jack London Square and Lake Merritt Financial District. In 2014, Oakland was the fifth ranked city for tech entrepreneurs by total venture capital investment. In 2015 Uber announced plans to build and house 3,000 employees in a new office at the site of the old Sears building, which is being redeveloped with plans to open in late 2017. , the San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward metropolitan area has a gross domestic product (GDP) of 360.4 billion, ranking eighth among metropolitan areas in the United States. In 2014, Oakland was amongst the best cities to start a career, the highest ranked city in California after San Francisco. Additionally, Oakland ranked fourth in cities with professional opportunities. Numerous companies in San Francisco continue to expand in or migrate over to Oakland. Oakland experienced an increase of both its population and of land values in the early-to-mid first decade of the 21st century. The 10k Plan, which began during former mayor Elihu Harris' administration, and intensified during former mayor Jerry Brown's administration resulted in several thousand units of new multi-family housing and development.", ", the top", "In 2013, over 2.5 million people visited Oakland, injecting 1.3 billion into the economy. Oakland has been experiencing an increase in hotel demand. Occupancy is 74%, while RevPAR (Revenue Per Available Room) increased by 14%, the highest increase of any big city in the western region of the United States. Both Oakland and San Francisco were forecasted to experience the highest increases in ADR (Average daily rate). In recent years, Oakland has gained national recognition as a travel destination. In 2012, Oakland was named the top North American city to visit, highlighting its growing number of sophisticated restaurants and bars, top music venues, and increasing nightlife appeal. Oakland also took the No. 16 spot in \"America's Coolest Cities,\" ranked by metrics like entertainment options and recreational opportunities per capita, etc. In 2013, Oakland topped the No. 1 spot in \"America's Most Exciting Cities,\" notably having the most movie theaters, theater companies, and museums per square mile. In \"America's Most Hipster Cities,\" Oakland took the number-5 spot, cited for luring San Francisco \"hippies\" into the city. Oakland has also increased its travel destination allure internationally.", "Oakland has a significant art scene and claims the highest concentration of artists per capita in the United States. In 2013, Oakland was designated as one of America's top twelve art communities, recognizing Downtown (including Uptown), Chinatown, Old Oakland, and Jack London Square as communities \"that have most successfully combined art, artists and venues for creativity and expression with independent businesses, retail shops and restaurants, and a walkable lifestyle to make vibrant neighborhoods.\" Galleries exist in various", "Free walking tours", "Downtown Oakland has an assortment of bars and nightclubs. They include dive bars, dance clubs, modern lounges and jazz bars. The Paramount Theater features headlining musical tours and productions, while Fox Oakland Theatre draws various musical genres including jam bands, rock, punk, blues, jazz, and reggae. The Paramount and Fox theaters often book", "Gertrude Stein wrote about Oakland in her 1937 book \"Everybody's Autobiography\" \"There is no there there,\" upon learning that the neighborhood where she lived as a child had been torn down to make way for an industrial park. The quote is sometimes misconstrued to refer to Oakland as", "Oakland currently has professional teams in two sports: baseball and indoor football. The Oakland Athletics MLB club won three consecutive World Series championships in 1972, 1973, and 1974, and appeared in another three consecutive World Series from 1988 to 1990, winning their fourth championship in 1989. On November 28, 2018, the Athletics announced plans to build a new ballpark at Howard Terminal, set to open in 2023. In 2020, the Oakland Panthers of the Indoor Football League will begin play. Oakland's former football team, the Oakland Raiders of the National Football League (NFL), won Super Bowl XI in 1976, Super Bowl XV in 1980, and", "", "Oakland has many parks and recreation centers which total. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation organization, reported that Oakland had the 18th best park", "Major places of", "Oakland has a mayor-council government. The mayor is elected at-large for a four-year term. The Oakland City Council has eight council members representing seven districts in Oakland with one member elected at-large and others from single-member districts; council members serve staggered four-year terms. The mayor appoints a city administrator, subject to the confirmation by the City Council, who is the city's chief administrative officer. Other city officers include: city attorney (elected), city auditor (elected), and city clerk (appointed by city administrator). Oakland's mayor is limited to two terms. There are no term limits for the city council. Council member Larry Reid, also serving as vice-mayor, was elected to a fifth term in November 2012. Oakland City Hall was evacuated after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake until 80M seismic retrofit and hazard abatement work was complete in 1995. City offices had to be housed in leased space and other locations. Jean Quan was elected mayor in November 2010, beating Don Perata and Rebecca Kaplan in the city's first ranked choice balloting. This new system is intended to increase voters' ability to choose preferred candidates, as they can combine ranked votes when several candidates are competing. Oakland is also part of Alameda County, for which the Government of Alameda County is defined and authorized under the California Constitution, California law, and the Charter of the County of Alameda. The County government provides countywide services such as elections and voter registration, law enforcement, jails, vital records, property records, tax collection, public health, and social services. The County government is primarily composed of the elected five-member Board of Supervisors, other elected offices including the Sheriff/Coroner, the District Attorney, Assessor, Auditor-Controller/County Clerk/Recorder, and Treasurer/Tax Collector, and numerous county departments and entities under the supervision of the County Administrator. In the California State Legislature, Oakland is in, and is split between the 15th and 18th Assembly districts, represented by and, respectively. In the United States House of Representatives, Oakland is in.", "Oakland was a Republican Party bastion from the 1860s to the 1950s, with positions expressed by the Republican-oriented \"Oakland Tribune\" newspaper. At the time, the GOP was more moderate than it has become in the 21st century, and some members belonged to a progressive tradition across the Northern Tier of states. In the 1960s, the majority of voters began to favor liberal policies and the Democratic Party. Oakland has the second highest percentage of registered Democrats of any of the incorporated cities in Alameda County, with", "Substantial progress has been made in reducing the city's historically high crime rate. Gun crime is primarily concentrated in certain poor minority neighborhoods with nearly all homicides committed by criminals with guns. Oakland's crime rate had begun to escalate during the late 1960s; and by the end of the 1970s, during the drug wars, the city's per capita murder rate had risen to twice that of San Francisco or New York City. The primary factor in the rising crime rate has been the dramatic increase of street narcotics sales and use since the 1970s, with", "", "The Oakland Unified School District (OUSD), which covers the city except for Sheffield Village, operates most of Oakland's public schools. Due to financial troubles and administrative failures, it was in receivership by the state of California from 2002 to 2008., the Oakland Unified School District includes 86 division-run schools and 32 charter schools; the district also manages several adult education programs. there are 48,181 K–12 students; among division-run schools, there are 4,600 plus employees. OUSD test scores historically lag behind the rest of California, in particular due to a high proportion of English-language learners. Some individual schools have much better performance than the citywide average., for example, over half the students at Hillcrest Elementary School in the Montclair upper hills neighborhood performed at the \"advanced\" level in the English portion of the test, and students at Lincoln Elementary School in the Chinatown neighborhood performed at", "In 2017, the Oakland Unified School District has received funding from Pandora in partnership with Little Kids Rock, towards expanding music education programs within the schools. The result from these donations has given teachers from 20 additional Oakland- area schools the ability to participate in an eight-hour professional development workshop, and receive music education instruction from Little Kids Rock. The donation includes providing new instruments, that will benefit over 2000 Oakland students.", "Accredited colleges and universities include: In 2001, the SFSU Oakland Multimedia Center was opened, allowing San Francisco State University to conduct classes near downtown Oakland. The Oakland Higher Education Consortium and the City of Oakland's Community and Economic Development Agency (CEDA)", "Oakland is served by major television stations broadcasting primarily out of San Francisco and San Jose. The region's Fox O&O, KTVU 2, is based in (and licensed to) Oakland at Jack London Square along with co-owned independent station KICU-TV 36 (licensed to San Jose). In addition, the city is served by various radio stations as well; AM stations KKSF, KMKY, KNEW and KQKE are licensed to Oakland. Oakland", "", "", "Oakland residents have access to the three major airports of the San Francisco Bay Area: Oakland International Airport, San Francisco International Airport, and San Jose International Airport. Oakland International Airport, within Oakland's city limits, is south of downtown Oakland and serves domestic and international destinations. AC Transit provides 24-hour service to the airport, and BART's Coliseum–Oakland International Airport automated guideway transit line provides frequent service between the airport and Oakland Coliseum station. The city has regional and", "The most recent census data compiled in 2007 before gasoline price spikes in 2008, show 24.3 percent of Oaklanders used public transportation, walked or used \"other means\" to commute to work, not including telecommuting, with 17 percent of Oakland households being \"car free\" and/or statistically categorized as having \"no vehicles available.\" Bus transit service in Oakland and the inner East Bay is provided by the Alameda and Contra Costa Transit District, AC Transit. The district originated in 1958 after the conspiratorial dissolution of the Key System of streetcars. Many AC Transit lines follow old routes of the Key System. Intercity bus companies that serve Oakland include Greyhound, BoltBus, Megabus, USAsia, and Hoang Transportation. The metropolitan area is served by Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) from eight stations in Oakland. The system has headquarters in Oakland, with major transfer hubs at MacArthur and 19th Street", "In July 2019, the City of Oakland Department of Transportation announced that it had issued official permits for the deployment of shared e-scooters to four", "Oakland is served by several major highways: Eastbound Bay Bridge traffic entering Oakland then splits into three freeways at the MacArthur Maze freeway interchange: Interstate 580 (MacArthur Freeway) heads southeast toward Hayward and eventually to the California Central Valley; Interstate 880 (Nimitz Freeway) runs south to San Jose; and the Eastshore Freeway (Interstate 80/I-580) runs north, providing connections to Sacramento and San Rafael, respectively. Interstate 980 (Williams Freeway) begins its eastbound journey at I-880 in Downtown Oakland before turning into State Route 24 (Grove Shafter Freeway) at I-580. State Route 13 begins as the Warren Freeway at I-580, and runs through a scenic valley in the Montclair District before entering Berkeley. A stub of a planned freeway was constructed at the High Street exit from the Nimitz Freeway, but that freeway extension plan was abandoned. At the time of", "Freight service, which consists primarily of moving shipping containers to and from the Port of Oakland, is provided today by Union Pacific Railroad (UP), and to a lesser extent by BNSF Railway (which now shares the tracks of the UP between Richmond", "As one of the three major ports on the West Coast of the United States, the Port of Oakland is the largest seaport on San Francisco Bay and the fifth busiest container port in the United States. It was one of the earliest seaports to switch to containerization and to", "Water and sewage treatment are provided by East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD). Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG & E) provides natural gas and electricity service. Municipal garbage collection is franchised", "Originating in Oakland, Kaiser Permanente is an HMO started in 1942, during World War II, by industrialist Henry J. Kaiser to provide medical care for Kaiser Shipyards workers. It is the largest managed care organization in the United States and the largest non-governmental health care provider in the world. It is headquartered at One Kaiser Plaza in Downtown Oakland and maintains a large medical center in the Piedmont Avenue neighborhood. Alta Bates Summit Medical Center, an East Bay hospital system, maintains its Summit Campus in the neighborhood known", "", "Oakland has", "Oakland has" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Production variants.", "Bugatti Veyron (2005–2011).", "Specifications and performance.", "Engine power output.", "Top speed.", "Braking.", "Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Grand Sport (2009–2015).", "Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport, World Record Edition (2010–2011).", "Top Speed World Record.", "Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Grand Sport Vitesse (2012–2015).", "Special editions.", "Records.", "Production.", "Future development.", "Reception.", "\"Top Gear\".", "Martin Roach.", "Gordon Murray." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In May 1998, Volkswagen AG acquired the rights to use the Bugatti logo and the trade name Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. To succeed the EB 110 model produced under the previous ownership, the automaker quickly released a series of concept cars whose technological advancements would culminate in the form of the Veyron 16.4. Between October 1998 and September 1999, Bugatti introduced a series of Giugiaro-designed concept vehicles, each with permanent four-wheel drive and powered by the Volkswagen-designed W18 engine. The first car, the EB 118, was a 2-door luxury coupé presented at the 1998 Paris Motor Show. The next car, the EB218, was a 4-door saloon presented at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show. The third and final car, the 18/3 Chiron, was a mid-engine sports car presented at the 1999 International Motor Show in Frankfurt. In October 1999, Bugatti unveiled a fourth concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show. The EB 18/4 Veyron was a mid-engine sports car styled in-house under the direction of Hartmut Warkuß. In 2000, a modified version, the EB 16/4 Veyron, was displayed at motor shows in Detroit, Geneva, and Paris. Rather than the three-bank W18 engine of the four previous concept cars, the EB 16/4 featured the four-bank W16 engine architecture installed in every production example of the Veyron. The decision to start production of the car was made by the Volkswagen Group in 2001. The first roadworthy prototype was completed in August 2003. It is identical to the later series variant, except for a few details. In the transition from development to series production, considerable technical problems had to be addressed, repeatedly delaying production until September 2005. The Veyron EB 16.4 is named in honour of Pierre Veyron, a Bugatti development engineer, test driver and company race driver who, with co-driver Jean-Pierre Wimille, won the 1939 24 Hours of Le Mans while driving a Bugatti. The \"EB\" refers to Bugatti founder Ettore Bugatti and the \"16.4\" refers to the engine's 16 cylinders and quad turbochargers.", "", "", "The Veyron features an 8.0-litre, quad-turbocharged, W16 cylinder engine, equivalent to two narrow-angle V8 engines bolted together. Each cylinder has four valves for a total of 64, but the configuration of each bank allows two overhead camshafts to drive two banks of cylinders so only four camshafts are needed. The engine is fed by four turbochargers and displaces, with a square bore and stroke. The transmission is a dual-clutch direct-shift computer-controlled automatic transmission having seven gear ratios, with magnesium paddles behind the steering wheel and a shift time of less than 150 milliseconds, built by Ricardo of England rather than Borg-Warner, who designed the six speed DSG used in the mainstream Volkswagen Group marques. The Veyron can be driven in either semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. A replacement transmission for the Veyron costs just over. It also has permanent all-wheel drive using the Haldex Traction system. It uses special Michelin PAX run-flat tyres, designed specifically to accommodate the Veyron's top speed, and cost per set. The tyres can be mounted on the wheels only in France, a service which costs. Kerb weight is. This gives the car a power-to-weight ratio, according to Volkswagen Group's figures, of per ton. The car's wheelbase is. Overall length is which gives of overhang. The width is and height. The Bugatti Veyron has a total of ten radiators: It has a (normal condition) and (after lowering to the ground), and a frontal area of. This gives it a drag area, the product of drag coefficient and frontal area, of.", "According to Volkswagen Group and certified by TÜV Süddeutschland, the W16 engine utilised by the Veyron engine has a power output of, and generates of torque.", "German inspection officials recorded an average top speed of the original version at during test sessions on Volkswagen Group's private Ehra-Lessien test track on 19 April 2005. This top speed was almost matched by James May on \"Top Gear\" in November 2006, at the Ehra-Lessien test track, at. May noted that at top speed the engine consumes of air per minute (as much as a human breathes in four days). Back in the \"Top Gear\" studio, co-presenter Jeremy Clarkson commented that most sports cars felt like they were shaking apart at their top speed, and asked May if that was the case with the Veyron at. May responded that the Veyron was very controlled, and only wobbled slightly when the air brake deployed. The car's normal top speed is listed at. When the car reaches, hydraulics lower the car until it has a ground clearance of about. At the same time, the wing and spoiler deploy. In this \"handling mode\", the wing provides of downforce, holding the car to the road. \"Top speed mode\" must be entered while the vehicle is at rest. Its driver must toggle a special top speed key to the left of their seat, which triggers a checklist to establish whether the car and its driver are ready to attempt to reach. If so, the rear spoiler retracts, the front air diffusers shut, and normal ground clearance drops to.", "The Veyron's brakes use cross drilled, radially vented carbon fibre reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC) composite discs, manufactured by SGL Carbon, which have less brake fade and weigh less than standard cast iron discs. The lightweight aluminium alloy monobloc brake calipers are made by AP Racing; the front have eight titanium pistons and the rear calipers have six pistons. Bugatti claims maximum deceleration of 1.3 g on road tyres. As an added safety feature, in the event of brake failure, an anti-lock braking system (ABS) has also been installed on the handbrake. Prototypes have been subjected to repeated 1.0 g braking from to without fade. With the car's acceleration from to, that test can be performed every 22 seconds. At speeds above, the rear wing also acts as an airbrake, snapping to a 55° angle in 0.4 seconds once brakes are applied, providing an additional 0.68 g (6.66 m/s) of deceleration (equivalent to the stopping power of an ordinary hatchback). Bugatti claims the Veyron will brake from to a standstill in less than 10 seconds, though distance covered in this time will be half a kilometre (third of a mile).", "The targa top version of the Bugatti Veyron EB 16.4, dubbed the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Grand Sport, was unveiled at the 2008 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance. It has extensive reinforcements to compensate for the lack of a standard roof and small changes to the windshield and running lights. Two removable tops are included, the second a temporary arrangement fashioned after an umbrella. The top speed with the hardtop in place is the same as the standard coupé version, but with the roof removed is limited to —and to with the temporary soft roof. The Grand Sport edition was limited to 150 units, with the first 50 going exclusively to registered Bugatti customers. Production began in the second quarter of 2009.", "The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport is a faster, more powerful version of the Bugatti Veyron 16.4. Production was limited to 30 units. The Super Sport has increased engine power output of at 6,400 rpm and a maximum torque of at 3,000–5,000 rpm and a revised aerodynamic package. The Super Sport has been driven as fast as, making it the fastest production road car in the world at the time of its introduction although it is electronically limited to to protect the tyres from disintegrating. The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport World Record Edition is a version of the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport. It is limited to five units. It has an orange body detailing, orange wheels, and a special black exposed carbon body. The electronic limiter is also removed with this version. The model was unveiled in 2010 at The Quail, followed by the 2010 Monterey Historic Races at Laguna Seca, and the 2010 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance.", "On 4 July 2010 James May, a television presenter on BBC Two's television show \"Top Gear\", drove the Veyron Super Sport on Volkswagen's Ehra-Lessien (near Wolfsburg, Germany) high-speed test track at. Later that day, Bugatti's official test driver Pierre Henri Raphanel drove the Super Sport version of the Veyron at the same track to establish the car's top speed. With representatives of the Guinness Book of Records and German Technical Inspection Agency (TÜV) on hand, Raphanel made passes around the big oval in both directions achieving an average maximum speed of, thus taking back the title from the SSC Ultimate Aero TT as the fastest production vehicle of all time. The 431.072 km/h mark was reached by averaging the Super Sport's two test runs, the first reaching and the second. When the record was certified it was already well known to the public that the customer car would be electronically limited to. Yet, after a query by the \"Sunday Times\" Guinness' PR director Jaime Strang was quoted on 5 April 2013: \"As the car's speed limiter was deactivated, this modification was against the official guidelines. Consequently, the vehicle's record set at 431.072 km/h is no longer valid.\" On 10 April 2013 it was written on its website: \"Guinness World Records would like to confirm that Bugatti's record has not been disqualified; the record category is currently under review.\" On 15 April 2013 Bugatti's speed record was confirmed: \"Following a thorough review conducted with a number of external experts, Guinness World Records is pleased to announce the confirmation of Bugatti's record of Fastest production car achieved by the Veyron 16.4 Super Sport. The focus of the review was with respect to what may constitute a modification to a car's standard specification. Having evaluated all the necessary information, Guinness World Records is now satisfied that a change to the speed limiter does not alter the fundamental design of the car or its engine.\"", "The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Grand Sport Vitesse is a targa top version of the Veyron Super Sport. The engine in the Vitesse variant has a maximum power output of at 6,400 rpm and a maximum torque of at 3,000–5,000 rpm. These figures allow the car to accelerate from a stand still to in 2.6 seconds. On normal roads, the Vitesse is electronically limited to. The Vitesse was first unveiled at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show and later at the 2012 Beijing Auto Show and the 2012 São Paulo Motor Show.", "A number of special editions of the Vitesse were made: In 2013, Bugatti produced a series of Vitesse dedicated to racing legends, including Jean-Pierre Wimille Jean Bugatti, Meo Costantini, and Ettore Bugatti. All six models in the Legend series are limited to three vehicles:", "A Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Grand Sport Vitesse driven by the Chinese racing driver Anthony Liu at Volkswagen Group's proving grounds in Ehra-Lessien became the fastest open-top production sports car, with a top speed of. After the world record attempt, Dr. Wolfgang Schreiber, President of Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S, said \"When we introduced the Vitesse, we established the top speed for open-top driving to be 375 km/h. Still, we could not let go of the idea of reaching the 400 km/h mark with this car as well. The fact that we have succeeded in reaching 408.84 km/h is a thrill for me, and it reaffirms once again that Bugatti is the leader when it comes to technology in the international automotive industry.\" The driver, Anthony Liu, claimed \"Even at such high speeds it remained incredibly comfortable and stable. With an open top, you can really experience the sound of the engine and yet even at higher speeds I did not get compromised by the wind at all.\"", ", 405 cars have been produced and delivered to customers worldwide, with orders have already been placed for another 30. Bugatti was reported to produce 300 coupés and 150 roadsters up to the end of 2015. Production amounted to 450 units in a span of over 10 years. The final production vehicle, a Grand Sport Vitesse titled \"La Finale\" (The Last One), was displayed at the Geneva Motor Show from 5–15 March 2015.", "In 2008, Bugatti then-CEO Dr Franz-Josef Paefgen confirmed that the Veyron would be replaced by another high-end model by 2012. In 2011, the new CEO Wolfgang Dürheimer revealed that the company was planning to produce two models in the future — one a sports car-successor to the Veyron, the other a limousine known as the Bugatti 16C Galibier, which was later cancelled since Bugatti was later then working on a successor to the Veyron, which became the Bugatti Chiron. The successor to the Veyron was unveiled in concept form as the Bugatti Vision Gran Turismo at the September 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show. A toned-down version of the radically styled Vision Gran Turismo concept car, now called the Chiron, debuted at the March 2016 Geneva Motor Show. Production started in 2017 and will be limited to 500 units.", "", "All three former presenters of the popular BBC motoring show \"Top Gear\" have given the Veyron considerable praise. While initially skeptical that the Veyron would ever be produced, Jeremy Clarkson later declared the Veyron \"the greatest car ever made and the greatest car we will ever see in our lifetime\", comparing it to Concorde and S.S. \"Great Britain\". He also pointed out that the actual production cost of a Bugatti Veyron car was, but was sold to customers for just. When asked why, he jokingly said that Volkswagen designed the car merely as a \"Technical Exercise\". James May described the Veyron as \"our Concorde moment\". Clarkson test drove the Veyron from Alba in northern Italy to London in a race against May and Richard Hammond who made the journey in a Cessna 182 aeroplane. A few episodes later, May drove the Veyron at the VW test track and took it to its top speed of. In series 10, Hammond raced the Veyron against the Eurofighter Typhoon and lost. He also raced the car in Series 13 against a McLaren F1 driven by The Stig in a one-mile (1.6 km) drag race in Abu Dhabi. The commentary focused on Bugatti's \"amazing technical achievement\" versus the \"non-gizmo\" racing purity of the F1. While the F1 was quicker off the line and remained ahead until both cars were travelling at approximately 200 km/h, the Bugatti overtook its competitor from 200 to 300 km/h and emerged the victor. Hammond has stated that he did not use the Veyron's launch control in order to make the race more interesting. The Veyron also won the award for \"Car of the Decade\" in \"Top Gear\" end of 2010 award show. Clarkson commented \"It was a car that just rewrote the rule book really, an amazing piece of engineering, a genuine Concorde moment\". When the standard version was tested in 2008, it did not reach the top of the lap time leader board, with a time of 1:18.3, which was speculated as being due to the car's considerable weight disadvantage against the other cars towards the top. In 2010 the Super Sport version achieved the fastest ever time of 1:16.8 (dethroned the Gumpert Apollo S, replaced by the Ariel Atom V8 in 2011), as well as being taken to a verified average top speed of by Raphanel on the programme, thenceforth retaking its position as the fastest production car in the world.", "In 2011, Martin Roach's book \"Bugatti Veyron: A Quest for Perfection – The Story of the Greatest Car in the World\" took the stance that the car had now become so famous that it is effectively a bona fide celebrity. The book follows its author as he attempts to track down and drive the car, along the way interviewing chief designers, test drivers, and the president of Bugatti.", "During its development period McLaren F1 designer Gordon Murray said in UK auto magazine \"Evo\": \"The most pointless exercise on the planet has got to be this four-wheel-drive, thousand-horsepower Bugatti.\" But after driving it he called it \"a huge achievement\". Murray was impressed with the Veyron's engine and transmission after he test drove one for \"Road & Track\" magazine. He also praised its styling: \"The styling is a wonderful mélange of classic curves and mechanical edges and elements — this should ensure that the car will still look good years from now, and therefore have a chance of becoming a future classic.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Cast.", "Production.", "Development.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Effects.", "Music.", "Release.", "Home media.", "Cuts and censorship.", "Reception.", "Box office.", "Critical response.", "Top ten lists.", "Accolades." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "MI6 agent James Bond gains his status as a 00 agent by assassinating traitorous section chief Dryden and his contact, Fisher. In Uganda, the mysterious Mr. White introduces Steven Obanno, a high-ranking member of the Lord's Resistance Army, to Le Chiffre, a private banker to terrorists. Obanno entrusts Le Chiffre with a large sum of money to invest; Le Chiffre subsequently buys put options on aerospace manufacturer Skyfleet, betting on the company's failure given his insider knowledge of a terrorist attack. In Madagascar, Bond pursues bomb-maker Mollaka to an embassy, killing him and blowing up the building. In London, MI6 chief M admonishes Bond for causing an international incident and ignoring her orders to capture Mollaka alive. Clues point to corrupt Greek official Alex Dimitrios, whom Bond finds in the Bahamas. After winning his 1964 Aston Martin DB5 in a poker game and seducing his wife Solange, Bond pursues Dimitrios to Miami, where he kills him. Following his henchman Carlos to the airport, Bond thwarts the destruction of Skyfleet's airliner and Le Chiffre loses Obanno's money. To recoup the money, Le Chiffre organizes a high-stakes Texas hold 'em tournament at the Casino Royale in Montenegro. MI6 enters Bond in the tournament, believing a defeat will force Le Chiffre to seek asylum with the British government in exchange for information on his clients. Bond is paired with Vesper Lynd, a British Treasury agent protecting the $10 million buy-in. In Montenegro, they meet their contact, René Mathis. Bond initially gains the upper hand, deducing Le Chiffre's tell. Obanno ambushes Le Chiffre and his girlfriend Valenka with a machete, but allows him to continue playing to win back the", "\"Casino Royale\" includes a cameo by British entrepreneur Richard Branson (seen being frisked at Miami International Airport). The cameo was", "", "\"Casino Royale\" had been produced as a 1954 television episode and a non-canonical 1967 satirical film. Eon Productions gained the rights to \"Casino Royale\" in 1999 after Sony Pictures Entertainment exchanged them for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's rights to \"Spider-Man\". In March 2004, Neal Purvis and Robert Wade began writing a screenplay for Pierce Brosnan as Bond, aiming to bring back the flavour of Ian Fleming's original \"Bond\" novels. Paul Haggis' main contribution was to rewrite the climax of the film. He explained, \"the draft that was there was very faithful to the book and there was a confession, so in the original draft, the character confessed and killed herself. She then sent Bond to chase after the villains; Bond chased the villains into the house. I don't know why but I thought that Vesper had to be in the sinking house and Bond has to want to kill her and then try and save", "Pierce Brosnan had signed a deal for four films when he was cast in the role of James Bond. This was fulfilled with the production of \"Die Another Day\" in 2002. Brosnan officially announced he was stepping down in February 2004. At one point, producer Michael G. Wilson claimed over 200 names were being considered for his replacement. Croatian actor Goran Višnjić auditioned for the role the same day as Craig, but was reportedly unable to master a British accent. New Zealander Karl Urban was considered,", "Principal photography for \"Casino Royale\" commenced on 3 January 2006 and concluded on 20 July 2006. The film was primarily shot at Barrandov Studios in Prague, with additional location shooting in the Bahamas, Italy and the United Kingdom. The shoot concluded at Pinewood Studios. Michael G. Wilson had stated \"Casino Royale\" would either be filmed or take place in Prague and South Africa. However, Eon Productions encountered problems in securing film locations in South Africa. After no other locations became available, the", "In designing the credit sequence for the film, graphic designer Daniel Kleinman was inspired by the cover of the 1953 British first edition of \"Casino Royale\", which featured Ian Fleming's original design of a playing card bordered by eight red hearts dripping with blood. Kleinman said, \"The hearts not only represent cards but the tribulations of Bond's love story. So I took that as inspiration to use playing card graphics in different ways in the titles,\" like a club representing a puff of gun smoke, and slashed arteries spurting thousands of tiny hearts. In creating the shadow images of the sequence, Kleinman digitised the footage of Craig and the film's stuntmen on the Inferno visual effects system, at Framestore CFC in London; the actors' silhouettes were incorporated into more than 20 digitally animated scenes depicting intricate and innovative", "The soundtrack of \"Casino Royale\", released by Sony Classical Records on 14 November 2006, featured music composed by veteran composer David Arnold, his fourth soundtrack for the \"Bond\" film series, while Nicholas Dodd orchestrated and conducted the score. Producers Michael G. Wilson", "\"Casino Royale\" premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square, the Odeon West End and the Empire simultaneously in London on 14 November 2006. It marked the 60th Royal Film Performance and benefited the Cinema & Television Benevolent Fund (CTBF), whose patron, Queen Elizabeth II, was in attendance with the Duke of Edinburgh. Along with the cast and crew, numerous celebrities and 5,000 paying guests were also in attendance with half the proceeds benefiting the CTBF. Only two days following the premiere, unlicensed copies appeared for sale in London. \"The rapid appearance of this film on the streets shows the sophistication and organisation behind film piracy in the UK,\" said Kieron Sharp, from the Federation Against Copyright Theft. Infringing copies of the DVD were selling for less than £1.57. Craig himself was offered such a DVD while walking anonymously through the streets of Beijing wearing a hat and glasses to avoid being identified. In January 2007, \"Casino Royale\" became the first Bond film ever to be shown in mainland Chinese cinemas. The Chinese version was edited before release, with the reference to the Cold War re-dubbed and new dialogue added during the poker scene explaining the process of Texas hold 'em, as the game is less familiar in China (this addition is reminiscent of dialogue that was added to the 1954 American TV adaptation to explain the rules of baccarat, the game featured in the original book). \"Casino Royale\" has earned approximately $11.7 million in China since its opening on 30 January on 468 screens, including a record opening weekend collection for a non-Chinese film, with $1.5 million. After critics dubbed \"Die Another Day\" \"Buy Another Day\" because of around 20 product placement deals, Eon limited their promotions for \"Casino Royale\". Partners included Ford, Heineken (which Eva Green starred in adverts for), Smirnoff, Omega SA, Virgin Atlantic and Sony Ericsson.", "\"Casino Royale\" was simultaneously released on DVD, UMD and Blu-ray Disc on 16 March 2007. In the UK, \"Casino Royale\" was released on 16 March 2007 on DVD and Blu-ray Disc. The DVD and Blu-ray Disc releases broke sales records: the Region 1 Blu-ray Disc edition became the highest selling high-definition title to date, selling more than 100,000 copies since its release. The region 2 DVD edition achieved the record of fastest selling title for its first-week release. The UK DVD has continued to sell well, with 1,622,852 copies sold since 19 March. A copy of the Blu-ray Disc edition of \"Casino Royale\" was given out to the first 500,000 PAL PlayStation 3 owners who signed up to the PlayStation Network. The DVD release includes the official music", "\"Casino Royale\" was censored for its release in Britain, the United States, Germany and China. In Britain, by omitting some of Le Chiffre's sadism and James Bond's reactions in the torture scene, the film received the desired BBFC 12A rating. In the United States, two fight scenes were censored to achieve a PG-13 rating: the fight between Bond and the traitorous MI6 agent's contact Fisher, and the fight between Bond and Obanno", "", "The film has earned $606,099,584 worldwide. \"Casino Royale\" was the 4th highest-grossing film of 2006, and was the highest-grossing instalment of the \"James Bond\" series until \"Skyfall\" surpassed it in November 2012. Upon its release in the United Kingdom, \"Casino Royale\" broke series records on both opening day—£1.7 million—and opening weekend—£13,370,969. At the end of its box office run, the film had grossed £55.4 million, making it the most successful film of the year in the UK, and as of 2011, the tenth highest-grossing film of all time in", "Critics praised the film, in particular to Craig's performance and credibility. During production, Craig had been subject to debate by the media and the public, as he did not appear to fit Ian Fleming's original portrait of the character as tall, dark and suave. \"The Daily Telegraph\" compared the quality of Craig's characterisation of Bond to Sean Connery's and praised the script as smartly written, noting how the film departed from the series' conventions. \"The Times\" compared Craig's portrayal of the character to that of Timothy Dalton, and praised the action as \"edgy\", with another reviewer citing in particular the action sequence involving the cranes in Madagascar. Critics Paul Arendt of BBC Films, Kim Newman of \"Empire\", and Todd McCarthy of \"Variety\" all described Craig as the first actor to truly embody Ian Fleming's James Bond from the original novel: ironic, brutal and cold. Arendt commented, \"Craig is the first actor to really nail 007’s defining characteristic: he's an absolute swine\". The film was similarly well received in North America. MSNBC gave the movie a perfect 5 star rating. The film was described as taking James Bond \"back to his roots\", similar to \"From Russia with Love\", where the focus was on character and plot rather than the high-tech gadgets and visual effects that were strongly criticised in \"Die Another Day\". On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 95% based on 256 reviews, with an average rating of 7.86/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"\"Casino Royale\" disposes of the silliness and gadgetry that plagued recent James Bond outings, and Daniel Craig delivers what fans and critics have been waiting for: a caustic, haunted, intense reinvention of 007.\" It is the second-highest rating for a Bond film on the site alongside From Russia With Love and Dr. No behind \"Goldfinger\", which earned a 98% score, and On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 80 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". \"Entertainment Weekly\" named the film as the fifth best of the series, and chose Vesper Lynd as the fourth best Bond girl in the series. Some newspaper columnists and critics were impressed enough by Craig's performance to consider him a viable candidate for an Academy Award nomination. Roger Ebert gave the film a four out of four star rating, and wrote that \"Craig makes a superb Bond... who gives the sense of a hard man, wounded by life and his job, who nevertheless cares about people and right and wrong,\" and that the film \"has the answers to all my complaints about the 45-year-old James Bond series,\" specifically \"why nobody in a Bond movie ever seems to have any", "The film appeared on many critics'", "At the 2006 British Academy of Film and Television Arts Awards, \"Casino Royale\" won the Film Award for Best Sound (Chris Munro, Eddy Joseph, Mike Prestwood Smith, Martin Cantwell, Mark Taylor), and the Orange Rising Star Award, which was won by Eva Green. The film was nominated for eight BAFTA awards, including the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film of the Year; Best Screenplay (Neal Purvis, Robert Wade, Paul Haggis); the Anthony Asquith Award for Best Film Music (David Arnold); Best Cinematography (Phil Méheux); Best Editing (Stuart Baird); Best Production Design (Peter Lamont, Simon Wakefield); Best Achievement in Special Visual Effects (Steve Begg, Chris Corbould, John Paul Docherty, Ditch Doy); and Best Actor (Daniel Craig). This made Craig the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physical explanation.", "Technology.", "History.", "Prehistory to 500 BCE: Possible inspiration for prehistoric art and possible use in religious ceremonies, gnomons.", "500 BCE to 500 CE: Earliest written observations.", "500 to 1000: Earliest experiments, study of light.", "1000 to 1400: Optical and astronomical tool, entertainment.", "1450 to 1600: Depiction, lenses, drawing aid, mirrors.", "1600 to 1650: Name coined, camera obscura telescopy, portable drawing aid in tents and boxes.", "1650 to 1800: Introduction of the magic lantern, popular portable box-type drawing aid, painting aid.", "Role in the modern age." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color and brightness of the surface of that object. Lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. A small enough opening in a screen only lets through rays that travel directly from different points in the scene on the other side, and these rays form an image of that scene when they are collected on a surface opposite from the opening. The human eye (as well as those of other animals including birds, fish, reptiles etc.) works much like a camera obscura with an opening (pupil), a biconvex lens and a surface where the image is formed (retina).", "A camera obscura device consists of a box, tent, or room with a small hole in one side. Light from an external scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted, (thus upside-down) and reversed (left to right), but with color and perspective preserved. In order to produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture has to be about 1/100th the distance to the screen, or less. As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, but the projected image becomes dimmer. With too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction. In practice, camera obscuras use a lens rather than a pinhole (as in a pinhole camera) because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus. If the image is caught on a semi-transparent screen, it can be viewed from the back so that it is no longer reversed (but still upside-down). Using mirrors it is possible to project a right-side-up image. The projection can also be diverted onto a horizontal surface (e.g., a table). The 18th-century overhead version in tents used mirrors inside a kind of periscope on the top of the tent. The box-type camera obscura often has an angled mirror projecting an upright image onto tracing paper placed on the glass top. Although the image is viewed from the back, it is now reversed by the mirror.", "", "There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects (through tiny holes in tents or in screens of animal hide) inspired paleolithic cave paintings. Distortions in the shapes of animals in many paleolithic cave artworks might be inspired by distortions seen when the surface on which an image was projected was not straight or not in the right angle. It is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in Neolithic structures. Perforated gnomons projecting a pinhole image of the sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings (1046 BCE–256 BCE with material added until circa 220 CE). The location of the bright circle can be measured to tell the time of day and year. In Arab and European cultures its invention was much later attributed to Egyptian astronomer and mathematician Ibn Yunus around 1000 CE. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in temple worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura projections.", "The earliest known written record of the camera obscura is found in the Chinese text called Mozi, dated to the 4th century BCE, traditionally ascribed to and named for Mozi (circa 470 BCE-circa 391 BCE), a Han Chinese philosopher and the founder of Mohist School of Logic. These writings explain how the image in a \"collecting-point\" or \"treasure house\" is inverted by an intersecting point (a pinhole) that collects the (rays of) light. Light coming from the foot of an illuminated person would partly be hidden below (i.e., strike below the pinhole) and partly form the top part of the image. Rays from the head would partly be hidden above (i.e., strike above the pinhole) and partly form the lower part of the image. This is a remarkably early correct description of the camera obscura; there are no other examples known that are dated before the 11th century. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE), or possibly a follower of his ideas, touched upon the subject in the work \"Problems – Book XV\", asking: and further on: Many philosophers and scientists of the Western world would ponder this question before it became accepted that the circular and crescent-shapes described in this \"problem\" were actually pinhole image projections of the sun. Although a projected image will have the shape of the aperture when the light source, aperture and projection plane are close together, the projected image will have the shape of the light source when they are further apart. In his book \"Optics\" (circa 300 BCE, surviving in later manuscripts from around 1000 CE), Euclid proposed mathematical descriptions of vision with \"lines drawn directly from the eye pass through a space of great extent\" and \"the form of the space included in our vision is a cone, with its apex in the eye and its base at the limits of our vision.\" Later versions of the text, like Ignazio Danti's 1573 annotated translation, would add a description of the camera obscura principle to demonstrate Euclid's ideas.", "In the 6th century, the Byzantine-Greek mathematician and architect Anthemius of Tralles (most famous as a co-architect of the Hagia Sophia), experimented with effects related to the camera obscura. Anthemius had a sophisticated understanding of the involved optics, as demonstrated by a light-ray diagram he constructed in 555 CE. In the 10th century Yu Chao-Lung supposedly projected images of pagoda models through a small hole onto a screen to study directions and divergence of rays of light.", "Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (known in the West by the Latinised Alhazen) (965–1039) extensively studied the camera obscura phenomenon in the early 11th century. He provided the first competent geometrical and quantitative descriptions of the phenomenon and must have understood the relationship between the focal point and the pinhole, In his \"Book of Optics\" (circa 1027), Ibn al-Haytham explained that rays of light travel in straight lines and are distinguished by the body that reflected the rays, and then wrote: He described a \"dark chamber\" and did a number of trials of experiments with small pinholes and light passing through them. This experiment consisted of three candles in a row and seeing the effects on the wall after placing a cutout between the candles and the wall. Ibn al-Haytham also analyzed the rays of sunlight and concluded that they make a conic shape where they meet at the hole, forming another conic shape reverse to the first one from the hole to the opposite wall in the dark room. Ibn al-Haytham's writings on optics became very influential in Europe through Latin translations since circa 1200. Among those he inspired were Witelo, John Peckham, Roger Bacon, Leonardo Da Vinci, René Descartes and Johannes Kepler. In his 1088 book, \"Dream Pool Essays\", the Song Dynasty Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) compared the focal point of a concave burning-mirror and the \"collecting\" hole of camera obscura phenomena to an oar in a rowlock to explain how the images were inverted: Shen Kuo also responded to a statement of Duan Chengshi in \"Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang\" written in about 840 that the inverted image of a Chinese pagoda tower beside a seashore, was inverted because it was reflected by the sea: \"This is nonsense. It is a normal principle that the image is inverted after passing through the small hole.\" English statesman and scholastic philosopher Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175 – 9 October 1253) was one of the earliest Europeans who commented on the camera obscura. English philosopher and Franciscan friar Roger Bacon (c. 1219/20 – c. 1292) falsely stated in his \"De Multiplicatione Specerium\" (1267) that an image projected through a square aperture was round because light would travel in spherical waves and therefore assumed its natural shape after passing through a hole. He is also credited with a manuscript that advised to study solar eclipses safely by observing the rays passing through some round hole and studying the spot of light they form on a surface. A picture of a three-tiered camera obscura (see illustration) has been attributed to Bacon, but the source for this attribution is not given. A very similar picture is found in Athanasius Kircher's \"Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae\" (1646). Polish friar, theologian, physicist, mathematician and natural philosopher Erazmus Ciołek Witelo (also known as Vitello Thuringopolonis and by many different spellings of the name \"Witelo\") wrote about the camera obscura in his very influential treatise \"Perspectiva\" (circa 1270–1278), which was largely based on Ibn al-Haytham's work. English archbishop and scholar John Peckham (circa 1230 – 1292) wrote about the camera obscura in his \"Tractatus de Perspectiva\" (circa 1269–1277) and \"Perspectiva communis\" (circa 1277–79), falsely arguing that light gradually forms the circular shape after passing through the aperture. His writings were influenced by Roger Bacon. At the end of the 13th century, Arnaldus de Villa Nova is credited with using a camera obscura to project live performances for entertainment. French astronomer Guillaume de Saint-Cloud suggested in his 1292 work \"Almanach Planetarum\" that the eccentricity of the sun could be determined with the camera obscura from the inverse proportion between the distances and the apparent solar diameters at apogee and perigee. Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1267–1319) described in his 1309 work \"Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir\" (\"The Revision of the Optics\") how he experimented with a glass sphere filled with water in a camera obscura with a controlled aperture and found that the colors of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light. French Jewish philosopher, mathematician, physicist and astronomer/astrologer Levi ben Gershon (1288–1344) (also known as Gersonides or Leo de Balneolis) made several astronomical observations using a camera obscura with a Jacob's staff, describing methods to measure the angular diameters of the sun, the moon and the bright planets Venus and Jupiter. He determined the eccentricity of the sun based on his observations of the summer and winter solstices in 1334. Levi also noted how the size of the aperture determined the size of the projected image. He wrote about his findings in Hebrew in his treatise \"Sefer Milhamot Ha-Shem\" (\"The Wars of the Lord\") Book V Chapters 5 and 9.", "Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), familiar with the work of Alhazen in Latin translation, and after an extensive study of optics and human vision, wrote the oldest known clear description of the camera obscura in mirror writing in a notebook in 1502, later published in the collection \"Codex Atlanticus\" (translated from Latin): These descriptions, however, would remain unknown until Venturi deciphered and published them in 1797. Da Vinci was clearly very interested in the camera obscura: over the years he drew circa 270 diagrams of the camera obscura in his notebooks. He systematically experimented with various shapes and sizes of apertures and with multiple apertures (1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16, 24, 28 and 32). He compared the working of the eye to that of the camera obscura and seemed especially interested in its capability of demonstrating basic principles of optics: the inversion of images through the pinhole or pupil, the non-interference of images and the fact that images are \"all in all and all in every part\". The oldest known published drawing of a camera obscura is found in Dutch physician, mathematician and instrument maker Gemma Frisius’ 1545 book \"De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica\", in which he described and illustrated how he used the camera obscura to study the solar eclipse of 24 January 1544 Italian polymath Gerolamo Cardano described using a glass disc – probably a biconvex lens – in a camera obscura in his 1550 book \"De subtilitate, vol. I, Libri IV\". He suggested to use it to view \"what takes place in the street when the sun shines\" and advised to use a very white sheet of paper as a projection screen so the colours wouldn't be dull. Sicilian mathematician and astronomer Francesco Maurolico (1494–1575) answered Aristotle's problem how sunlight that shines through rectangular holes can form round spots of light or crescent-shaped spots during an eclipse in his treatise \"Photismi de lumine et umbra\" (1521–1554). However this wasn't published before 1611, after Johannes Kepler had published similar findings of his own. Italian polymath Giambattista della Porta described the camera obscura, which he called \"obscurum cubiculum\", in the 1558 first edition of his book series \"Magia Naturalis\". He suggested to use a convex mirror to project the image onto paper and to use this as a drawing aid. Della Porta compared the human eye to the camera obscura: \"For the image is let into the eye through the eyeball just as here through the window\". The popularity of Della Porta's books helped spread knowledge of the camera obscura. In his 1567 work \"La Pratica della Perspettiva\" Venetian nobleman Daniele Barbaro (1513-1570) described using a camera obscura with a biconvex lens as a drawing aid and points out that the picture is more vivid if the lens is covered as much as to leave a circumference in the middle. In his influential and meticulously annotated Latin edition of the works of Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo \"Opticae thesauru\" (1572) German mathematician Friedrich Risner proposed a portable camera obscura drawing aid; a lightweight wooden hut with lenses in each of its four walls that would project images of the surroundings on a paper cube in the middle. The construction could be carried on two wooden poles. A very similar setup was illustrated in 1645 in Athanasius Kircher's influential book \"Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae\". Around 1575 Italian Dominican priest, mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer Ignazio Danti designed a camera obscura gnomom and a meridian line for the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Florence and he later had a massive gnomon built in the San Petronio Basilica in Bologna. The gnomon was used to study the movements of the sun during the year and helped in determining the new Gregorian calendar for which Danti took place in the commission appointed by Pope Gregorius XIII and instituted in 1582. In his 1585 book \"Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum\" Venetian mathematician Giambattista Benedetti proposed to use a mirror in a 45-degree angle to project the image upright. This leaves the image reversed, but would become common practice in later camera obscura boxes. Giambattista della Porta added a \"lenticular crystal\" or biconvex lens to the camera obscura description in the 1589 second edition of \"Magia Naturalis\". He also described use of the camera obscura to project hunting scenes, banquets, battles, plays, or anything desired on white sheets. Trees, forests, rivers, mountains \"that are really so, or made by Art, of Wood, or some other matter\" could be arranged on a plain in the sunshine on the other side of the camera obscura wall. Little children and animals (for instance handmade deer, wild boars, rhinos, elephants, and lions) could perform in this set. \"Then, by degrees, they must appear, as coming out of their dens, upon the Plain: The Hunter he must come with his hunting Pole, Nets, Arrows, and other necessaries, that may represent hunting: Let there be Horns, Cornets, Trumpets sounded: those that are in the Chamber shall see Trees, Animals, Hunters Faces, and all the rest so plainly, that they cannot tell whether they be true or delusions: Swords drawn will glister in at the hole, that they will make people almost afraid.\" Della Porta claimed to have shown such spectacles often to his friends. They admired it very much and could hardly be convinced by Della Porta's explanations that what they had seen was really an optical trick.", "The earliest use of the term \"camera obscura\" is found in the 1604 book \"Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena\" by German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer Johannes Kepler. Kepler discovered the working of the camera obscura by recreating its principle with a book replacing a shining body and sending threads from its edges through a many-cornered aperture in a table onto the floor where the threads recreated the shape of the book. He also realized that images are \"painted\" inverted and reversed on the retina of the eye and figured that this is somehow corrected by the brain. In 1607, Kepler studied the sun in his camera obscura and noticed a sunspot, but he thought it was Mercury transiting the sun. In his 1611 book \"Dioptrice\", Kepler described how the projected image of the camera obscura can be improved and reverted with a lens. It is believed he later used a telescope with three lenses to revert the image in the camera obscura. In 1611, Frisian/German astronomers David and Johannes Fabricius (father and son) studied sunspots with a camera obscura, after realizing looking at the sun directly with the telescope could damage their eyes. They are thought to have combined the telescope and the camera obscura into camera obscura telescopy. In 1612, Italian mathematician Benedetto Castelli wrote to his mentor, the Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician Galileo Galilei about projecting images of the sun through a telescope (invented in 1608) to study the recently discovered sunspots. Galilei wrote about Castelli's technique to the German Jesuit priest, physicist, and astronomer Christoph Scheiner. From 1612 to at least 1630, Christoph Scheiner would keep on studying sunspots and constructing new telescopic solar-projection systems. He called these \"Heliotropii Telioscopici\", later contracted to helioscope. For his helioscope studies, Scheiner built a box around the viewing/projecting end of the telescope, which can be seen as the oldest known version of a box-type camera obscura. Scheiner also made a portable camera obscura. In his 1613 book \"Opticorum Libri Sex\" Belgian Jesuit mathematician, physicist, and architect François d'Aguilon described how some charlatans cheated people out of their money by claiming they knew necromancy and would raise the specters of the devil from hell to show them to the audience inside a dark room. The image of an assistant with a devil's mask was projected through a lens into the dark room, scaring the uneducated spectators. By 1620 Kepler used a portable camera obscura tent with a modified telescope to draw landscapes. It could be turned around to capture the surroundings in parts. Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel is thought to have constructed a box-type camera obscura which corrected the inversion of the projected image. In 1622, he sold one to the Dutch poet, composer, and diplomat Constantijn Huygens who used it to paint and recommended it to his artist friends. Huygens wrote to his parents (translated from French): German Orientalist, mathematician, inventor, poet, and librarian Daniel Schwenter wrote in his 1636 book \"Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae\" about an instrument that a man from Pappenheim had shown him, which enabled movement of a lens to project more from a scene through the camera obscura. It consisted of a ball as big as a fist, through which a hole (AB) was made with a lens attached on one side (B). This ball was placed inside two-halves of part of a hollow ball that were then glued together (CD), in which it could be turned around. This device was attached to a wall of the camera obscura (EF). This universal joint mechanism was later called a scioptric ball. In his 1637 book \"Dioptrique\" French philosopher, mathematician and scientist René Descartes suggested placing an eye of a recently dead man (or if a dead man was unavailable, the eye of an ox) into an opening in a darkened room and scraping away the flesh at the back until one could see the inverted image formed on the retina. Italian Jesuit philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer Mario Bettini wrote about making a camera obscura with twelve holes in his \"Apiaria universae philosophiae mathematicae\" (1642). When a foot soldier would stand in front of the camera, a twelve-person army of soldiers making the same movements would be projected. French mathematician, Minim friar, and painter of anamorphic art Jean-François Nicéron (1613–1646) wrote about the camera obscura with convex lenses. He explained how the camera obscura could be used by painters to achieve perfect perspective in their work. He also complained how charlatans abused the camera obscura to fool witless spectators and make them believe that the projections were magic or occult science. These writings were published in a posthumous version of \"La Perspective Curieuse\" (1652).", "The use of the camera obscura to project special shows to entertain an audience seems to have remained very rare. A description of what was most likely such a show in 1656 in France, was penned by the poet Jean Loret. The Parisian society were presented with upside-down images of palaces, ballet dancing and battling with swords. The performance was silent and Loret was surprised that all the movements made no sound. Loret felt somewhat frustrated that he did not know the secret that made this spectacle possible. There are several clues that this was a camera obscura show, rather than a very early magic lantern show, especially in the upside-down image and the energetic movements. German Jesuit scientist Gaspar Schott heard from a traveler about a small camera obscura device he had seen in Spain, which one could carry under one arm and could be hidden under a coat. He then constructed his own sliding box camera obscura, which could focus by sliding a wooden box part fitted inside another wooden box part. He wrote about this in his 1657 \"Magia universalis naturæ et artis\" (volume 1 – book 4 \"Magia Optica\" pages 199–201). By 1659 the magic lantern was introduced and partly replaced the camera obscura as a projection device, while the camera obscura mostly remained popular as a drawing aid. The magic lantern can be seen as a development of the (box-type) camera obscura device. The 17th century Dutch Masters, such as Johannes Vermeer, were known for their magnificent attention to detail. It has been widely speculated that they made use of the camera obscura, but the extent of their use by artists at this period remains a matter of fierce contention, recently revived by the Hockney–Falco thesis. German philosopher Johann Sturm published an illustrated article about the construction of a portable camera obscura box with a 45° mirror and an oiled paper screen in the first volume of the proceedings of the Collegium Curiosum, \"Collegium Experimentale, sive Curiosum\" (1676). Johann Zahn's \"Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus Sive Telescopium\", published in 1685, contains many descriptions, diagrams, illustrations and sketches of both the camera obscura and the magic lantern. A hand-held device with a mirror-reflex mechanism was first proposed by Johann Zahn in 1685, a design that would later be used in photographic cameras. The scientist Robert Hooke presented a paper in 1694 to the Royal Society, in which he described a portable camera obscura. It was a cone-shaped box which fit onto the head and shoulders of its user. From the beginning of the 18th century, craftsmen and opticians would make camera obscura devices in the shape of books, which were much appreciated by lovers of optical devices. One chapter in the Conte Algarotti's \"Saggio sopra Pittura\" (1764) is dedicated to the use of a camera ottica (\"optic chamber\") in painting. By the 18th century, following developments by Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke, more easily portable models in boxes became available. These were extensively used by amateur artists while on their travels, but they were also employed by professionals, including Paul Sandby and Joshua Reynolds, whose camera (disguised as a book) is now in the Science Museum in London. Such cameras were later adapted by Joseph Nicephore Niepce, Louis Daguerre and William Fox Talbot for creating the first photographs.", "While the technical principles of the camera obscura have been known since antiquity, the broad use of the technical concept in producing images with a linear perspective in paintings, maps, theatre setups, and architectural, and, later, photographic images and movies started in the Western Renaissance and the scientific revolution. While, e.g., Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) had already observed an optical effect and developed a state of the art theory of the refraction of light, he was less interested to produce images with it (compare Hans Belting 2005); the society he lived in was even hostile (compare Aniconism in Islam) towards personal images. Western artists and philosophers used the Arab findings in new frameworks of epistemic relevance. E.g. Leonardo da Vinci used the camera obscura as a model of the eye, René Descartes for eye and mind and John Locke started to use the camera obscura as a metaphor of human understanding per se. The modern use of the camera obscura as an epistemic machine had important side effects for science. While the use of the camera obscura has dwindled, for those who are interested in making one it only requires a few items including: a box, tracing paper, tape, foil, a box cutter, a pencil and a blanket to keep out the light. In 1827, critic Vergnaud complained about the use of camera obscura for many painting at that year's Salon exhibition in Paris: \"Is the public to blame, the artists, or the jury, when history paintings, already rare, are sacrificed to genre painting, and what genre at that!... that of the camera obscura.\" (translated from French)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Political, moral and literary themes.", "Space and liberty.", "World government.", "Libertarianism.", "Fairness to adversaries.", "Underestimation of \"primitives\" as a costly mistake.", "Tragic conflicts.", "Fictional appearances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Poul Anderson was born on November 25, 1926, in Bristol, Pennsylvania, of Scandinavian parents. Shortly after his birth, his father, Anton Anderson, an engineer, moved the family to Texas, where they lived for over ten years. Following Anton Anderson's death, his widow took her children to Denmark. The family returned to the United States after the outbreak of World War II, settling eventually on a Minnesota farm. The frame story of his later novel \"Three Hearts and Three Lions\", before the fantasy part begins, is partly set in the Denmark which the young Anderson personally experienced. While he was an undergraduate student at the University of Minnesota, Anderson's first stories were published by John W. Campbell in \"Astounding Science Fiction\": \"Tomorrow's Children\" by Anderson and F. N. Waldrop in March 1947 and a sequel, \"Chain of Logic\" by Anderson alone, in July. He earned his B.A. in physics with honors but made no serious attempt to work as a physicist; instead he became a free-lance writer after his graduation in 1948, and placed his third story in the December \"Astounding\". While finding no purely academic application, Anderson's knowledge of physics is evident in the great care given to details of the scientific background – one of the defining characteristics of his writing style. Anderson married Karen Kruse in 1953 and moved with her to the San Francisco Bay area. Their daughter Astrid (now married to science fiction author Greg Bear) was born in 1954. They made their home in Orinda, California. Over the years Poul gave many readings at The Other Change of Hobbit bookstore in Berkeley, and his wife later donated his typewriter and desk to the store. In 1965 Algis Budrys said that Anderson \"has for some time been science fiction's best storyteller\". He was a founding member of the Society for Creative Anachronism (SCA) in 1966 and of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), also in the mid-1960s. The latter was a loose-knit group of Heroic Fantasy authors led by Lin Carter, originally eight in number, with entry by credentials as a fantasy writer alone. Anderson was the sixth President of Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, taking office in 1972. Robert A. Heinlein dedicated his 1985 novel \"The Cat Who Walks Through Walls\" to Anderson and eight of the other members of the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy. The Science Fiction Writers of America made Anderson its 16th SFWA Grand Master in 1998 and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 2000, its fifth class of two deceased and two living writers. He died of prostate cancer on July 31, 2001, after a month in the hospital. A few of his novels were first published posthumously.", "Anderson is probably best known for adventure stories in which larger-than-life characters succeed gleefully or fail heroically. His characters were nonetheless thoughtful, often introspective, and well developed. His plot lines frequently involved the application of social and political issues in a speculative manner appropriate to the science fiction genre. He also wrote some quieter works, generally of shorter length, which appeared more often during the latter part of his career. Much of his science fiction is thoroughly grounded in science (with the addition of unscientific but standard speculations such as faster-than-light travel). A specialty was imagining scientifically plausible non-Earthlike planets. Perhaps the best known was the planet of \"The Man Who Counts\" in which Anderson adjusted its size and composition so that humans could live in the open air but flying intelligent aliens could evolve, and he explored the consequences of those adjustments.", "In many stories, Anderson commented on society and politics. Whatever other vicissitudes his views went through, he firmly retained his belief in the direct and inextricable connection between human liberty and expansion into space, for which reason he strongly cried out against any idea of space exploration being \"a waste of money\" or \"unnecessary luxury\". The connection between space flight and freedom is clearly (as is stated explicitly in some of the stories) an extension of the 19th-century American concept of the Frontier, where malcontents can advance further and claim some new land, and pioneers either bring life to barren asteroids (as in \"Tales of the Flying Mountains\") or settle on Earth-like planets teeming with life, but not intelligent forms (such as New Europe in \"Star Fox\"). As he repeatedly expressed in his nonfiction essays, Anderson firmly held that going into space was not an unnecessary luxury but an existential need, and that abandoning space would doom humanity to \"a society of brigands ruling over peasants.\" That is graphically expressed in the chilling short story \"Welcome\". In it, humanity has abandoned space and is left with an overcrowded Earth where a small elite not only treats all the rest as chattel slaves, but also regularly practices cannibalism, their chefs preparing \"roast suckling coolie\" for their banquets. Conversely, in the bleak Orwellian world of \"The High Ones\" where the Soviets have won the Third World War and gained control of the whole of Earth, the dissidents still have some hope, precisely because space flight has not been abandoned. By the end of the story, rebels have established themselves at another stellar system—where their descendants, the reader is told, would eventually build a liberating fleet and set out back to Earth.", "While horrified by the prospect of the Soviets winning complete rule over the Earth, Anderson was not enthusiastic about having Americans in that role either. Several stories and books describing the aftermath of a total US victory in another world war, such as \"Sam Hall\" and its loose sequel \"Three Worlds to Conquer\" as well as \"Shield\", are scarcely less bleak than the above-mentioned depictions of a Soviet victory. Like Heinlein in \"Solution Unsatisfactory\", Anderson assumed that the imposition of US military rule over the rest of the world would necessarily entail the destruction of the USA's democracy and the imposition of a harsh tyrannical rule over its own citizens. Both Anderson's depiction of a Soviet-dominated world and that of a US-dominated one mention a rebellion breaking out in Brazil in the early 21st century, which is in both cases brutally put down by the dominant world power—the Brazilian rebels being characterized as \"counter-revolutionaries\" in the one case and as \"communists\" in the other. In the early years of the Cold War—when he had been, as described by his later, more conservative self, a \"flaming liberal\"—Anderson pinned his hopes on the United Nations developing into a true world government. This is especially manifest in \"Un-man\", a future thriller where the 'Good Guys' are agents of the UN Secretary General working to establish a world government while the 'Bad Guys' are nationalists (especially American nationalists) who seek to preserve their respective nations' sovereignty at all costs. (The title has a double meaning: the hero is literally an UN man and has superhuman abilities which make his enemies fear him as an \"un-man\"). Anderson and his wife were among those who in 1968 signed a pro-Vietnam War advertisement in \"Galaxy Science Fiction\". By then, Anderson had repudiated world government; a half-humorous remnant is the beginning of \"Tau Zero\": a future in which the nations of the world entrusted Sweden with overseeing disarmament and found themselves living under the rule of the Swedish Empire. In \"The Star Fox\", he unfavorably depicts a future peace group called \"World Militants for Peace\". A more explicit expression of the same appears in the later \"The Shield of Time\" where a time-traveling young American woman from the 1990s pays a brief visit to a university campus of the 1960s and is not enthusiastic about what she sees there.", "Anderson often returned to right-libertarianism and to the business leader as hero, most notably his character Nicholas van Rijn. Van Rijn is different from the archetype of a modern type of business executive, being more reflective of a Dutch Golden Age merchant of the 17th century. If he spends any time in boardrooms or plotting corporate takeovers, the reader remains ignorant of it since nearly all his appearances are in the wilds of a space frontier. Beginning in the 1970s, Anderson's historically grounded works were influenced by the theories of the historian John K. Hord, who argued that all empires follow the same broad cyclical pattern, into which the Terran Empire of the Dominic Flandry spy stories fit neatly. The writer Sandra Miesel (1978) has argued that Anderson's overarching theme is the struggle against entropy and the heat death of the universe, a condition of perfect uniformity in which nothing can happen.", "In his numerous books and stories depicting conflict in science fiction or fantasy settings, Anderson takes trouble to make both sides' points of view comprehensible. Even if the author's point of view is obvious, the antagonists are usually depicted not as villains but as honorable on their own terms. The reader is given access to antagonists' thoughts and feelings, and they often have a tragic dignity in defeat. Typical examples are \"The Winter of the World\" and \"The People of the Wind\". A common theme in Anderson's works, with obvious origins in the Northern European legends, is that doing the \"right\" (wisest) thing often involves performing actions that at face value seem dishonorable, illegal, destructive, or downright evil. \"The Man who Counts\", Nicholas van Rijn is \"The Man\" because he is prepared to be tyrannical and callously manipulative so that he and his companions can survive. In \"High Treason\", the protagonist disobeys orders and betrays his subordinates to prevent a war crime that would bring severe retribution upon humanity. In \"A Knight of Ghosts and Shadows\", Dominic Flandry first (effectively) lobotomizes his own son and then bombards the home planet of the Chereionite race to do his duty and prop up the Terran Empire. Such actions affect their characters in different ways, and dealing with the repercussions of having done the \"right\" (but unpleasant) thing is often the major focus of his short stories. The general lesson seems to be that guilt is the penalty for action. In \"The Star Fox\", a relationship of grudging respect is built up between the hero, space privateer Gunnar Heim, and his enemy Cynbe, an exceptionally gifted Alerione trained from a young age to understand his species' human enemies to the point of being alienated from his own kind. In the final scene, Cynbe challenges Heim to a space battle which only one of them would survive. Heim accepts, whereupon Cynbe says, \"I thank you, my brother.\"", "Anderson set much of his work in the past, often with the addition of magic or in alternate or future worlds that resemble past eras. A specialty was his ancestral Scandinavia, as in his novel versions of the legends of Hrólf Kraki (\"Hrolf Kraki's Saga\") and Haddingus (\"The War of the Gods\"). Frequently he presented such worlds as superior to the dull, over-civilized present. Notable depictions of this superiority are the prehistoric world of \"The Long Remembering\", the quasi-medieval society of \"No Truce with Kings\", and the untamed Jupiter of \"Call Me Joe\" and \"Three Worlds to Conquer\". He handled the lure and power of atavism satirically in \"Pact\", critically in \"The Queen of Air and Darkness\" and \"The Night Face\", and tragically in \"Goat Song\". His 1965 novel \"The Corridors of Time\" alternates between the European Stone Age and a repressive future. In this vision of tomorrow, almost everyone is either an agricultural serf or an industrial slave, but the rulers genuinely believe they are creating a better world. Set largely in Denmark, it treats the Neolithic society with knowledge and respect does but not hide its faults. The protagonist, having access to literally all periods of the past and future, finally decides to settle down in that era and finds a happy and satisfying life. In many stories, a representative of a technologically advanced society underestimates \"primitives\" and pays a high price for it. In \"The High Crusade\", aliens who land in medieval England in the expectation of an easy conquest find that they are not immune to swords and arrows. In \"The Only Game in Town\", a Mongol warrior, while not knowing that the two \"magicians\" he meets are time travelers from the future, correctly guesses their intentions—and captures them with the help of the \"magic\" flashlight they had given him in an attempt to impress him. In another time-travel tale, \"The Shield of Time\", a \"time policeman\" from the 20th century, equipped with information and technologies from much further in the future, is outwitted by a medieval knight and barely escapes with his life. Yet another story, \"The Man Who Came Early\", features a 20th-century US Army soldier stationed in Iceland who is transported to the 10th century. Although he is full of ideas, his lack of practical knowledge of how to implement them and his total unfamiliarity with the technology and customs of the period leads to his downfall. Anderson wrote the short essay \"Uncleftish Beholding\", an introduction to atomic theory, using only Germanic-rooted words. Fitting his love for olden years, that kind of learned writing has been named Ander-Saxon after him.", "The story told in \"The Shield of Time\" is also an example of a tragic conflict, another common theme in Anderson's writing. The knight tries to do his best in terms of his own society and time, but his actions might bring about a horrible 20th century (even more horrible than that actually occurred). Therefore, the Time Patrol protagonists, who like the young knight and wish him well (the female protagonist comes close to falling in love with him), have no choice but to fight and ultimately kill him. In \"The Sorrow of Odin the Goth\", a time-travelling anthropologist is assigned to study the culture of an ancient Gothic tribe by regular visits every few decades. Gradually, he is drawn into close involvement and feels protective towards the Goths (many of them are his own descendants because of a brief and poignant liaison with a Gothic, girl who dies in childbirth). The Goths identify him as the god Odin/Wodan. He finds that he must cruelly betray his beloved Goths since a ballad says that Odin did so; failure to fulfill his prescribed role might change history and bring the whole of the actual 20th century crashing down. In the final scene, he cries out in anguish: \"Not even the gods can defy the Norns!\", giving a new twist to that central aspect of the Norse religion. In \"The Pirate\", the hero is duty-bound to deny a band of people from societies blighted by poverty the chance for a new start on a new planet since their settling the planet would eradicate the remnants of the artistic and articulate beings who lived there earlier. A similar theme but with much higher stakes appears in \"Sister Planet\": although terraforming Venus would provide new hope to starving people on the overcrowded Earth, it would exterminate Venus's just-discovered intelligent race, and the hero can avert that genocide only by murdering his best friends. In \"Delenda Est\" the stakes are the highest imaginable. Time-travelling outlaws have created a new 20th century that is \"not better or worse, just completely different\". The hero can fight the outlaws and restore his (and our) familiar history but only at the price of totally destroying the vast world that has taken its place. \"Risking your neck in order to negate a world full of people like yourself\" is how the hero describes what he eventually undertakes.", "Philip K. Dick's story \"Waterspider\" features Poul Anderson as one of the main characters. In the opening of S.M. Stirling's novel \"In the Courts of the Crimson Kings\", a group of science fiction authors, including Poul Anderson, watch first contact with the book's Martians while attending an SF convention. Anderson supplies the beer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation.", "RRHOF and Museum building.", "Layout.", "Architecture.", "New York City Annex.", "Exhibit history.", "Inductees.", "Performers.", "Early Influences.", "Ahmet Ertegun Award for Lifetime Achievement.", "Award for Musical Excellence.", "Library and archives.", "Criticism.", "Dave Clark Five.", "The Monkees." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The RRHOF Foundation was established in 1983 by Ahmet Ertegun, who assembled a team that included \"Rolling Stone\" publisher Jann S. Wenner, record executives Seymour Stein, Bob Krasnow, and Noreen Woods, and attorneys Allen Grubman and Suzan Evans. The Foundation began inducting artists in 1986, but the Hall of Fame still had no home. The search committee considered several cities, including Philadelphia (home of Bill Haley and \"American Bandstand\"), Memphis (home of Sun Studios and Stax Records), Detroit (home of Motown Records), Cincinnati (home of King Records), New York City, and Cleveland. Cleveland lobbied for the museum, with civic leaders in Cleveland pledging $65 million in public money to fund the construction, and citing that WJW disc jockey Alan Freed both coined the term \"rock and roll\" and heavily promoted the new genre—and that Cleveland was the location of Freed's Moondog Coronation Ball, often credited as the first major rock and roll concert. Freed was also a member of the hall of fame's inaugural class of inductees in 1986. In addition, Cleveland cited radio station WMMS, which played a key role in breaking several major acts in the U.S. during the 1970s and 1980s, including David Bowie,", "The groundbreaking ceremony took place on June 7, 1993. Pete Townshend, Chuck Berry, Billy Joel, Sam Phillips, Ruth Brown, Sam Moore of Sam and Dave, Carl Gardner of the Coasters and Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum all appeared at the groundbreaking. The museum was dedicated on September 1, 1995, with the ribbon being cut by an ensemble that included Yoko Ono and Little Richard, among others, before a crowd of more than 10,000 people. The following night an all-star concert was held at Cleveland Stadium. It featured Chuck Berry, Bob Dylan, Al Green, Jerry Lee Lewis, Aretha Franklin, Bruce Springsteen, Iggy Pop, John Fogerty, John Mellencamp, and many others. In addition to the Hall of Fame inductees, the museum documents the entire history of rock and roll, regardless of induction status. Hall of Fame inductees are honored in a special exhibit located in a wing that juts out over Lake Erie. Since 1986, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has selected new inductees. The formal induction ceremony has been held in New York City 26 times (1986–92, 1994–96, 1998–2008, 2010–11, 2014, 2016, 2017, and 2019); twice in Los Angeles (1993 and 2013); and five times in the hall of fame's home in Cleveland (1997, 2009, 2012, 2015, and 2018). As of 2018, the induction ceremonies alternate each year between New York and Cleveland. The 2009 and 2012 induction weeks were made possible by a public–private partnership between the City of Cleveland, the State of Ohio, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and local foundations, corporations, civic organizations and individuals. Collectively these entities invested $5.8 million in 2009 and $7.9 million in 2012 to produce a week of events including free concerts, a gospel celebration, exhibition openings, free admission to the museum, and induction ceremonies at Public Hall. Millions viewed the television broadcast of the Cleveland inductions; tens of thousands traveled to Ohio during induction week to participate in the events. The economic impact of the 2009 induction week activities was more than $13 million, and it provided an additional $20 million in media exposure for the region. The 2012 induction week yielded similar results.", "There are seven levels in the building. On the lower level is the Ahmet M. Ertegun Exhibition Hall, the museum's main gallery. It includes exhibits on the roots of rock and roll (gospel, blues, rhythm & blues and folk, country and bluegrass). It also features exhibits on cities that have had a major impact on rock and roll: Memphis, Detroit, London, Liverpool, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, and Seattle. There are exhibits about soul music, the Fifties, Sun Records, hip hop music, Cleveland's rock and roll legacy, the music of the Midwest, rock and roll radio and dee-jays, and the many protests against rock and roll. This gallery also has exhibits that focus on individual artists, including the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Jimi Hendrix and others. Finally, the Ahmet M. Ertegun Exhibition Hall includes a theatre that features films on various subjects such as American Bandstand. The first floor of the museum is the entrance level. It includes a cafe, a stage that the museum uses for various special performances and", "Designed by I. M. Pei and structurally engineered by Leslie E. Robertson Associates, the building rises above the shores of Lake Erie. It is a combination of geometric forms and cantilevered spaces that are anchored by a 162-foot tower. The tower supports a dual-triangular-shaped glass \"tent\" that extends (at its base) onto a 65,000-square-foot plaza that", "In 2006, the RRHOF partnered with three entertainment production companies to create a branch museum in New York City. On November 18, 2008, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Annex NYC opened in Manhattan's SoHo district. Located at 76 Mercer Street just off Broadway, the Annex occupied an underground space of 25,000 square feet. The branch museum operated in much the same way as its Cleveland parent, featuring archetypal display pieces like Prince's coat from \"Purple Rain\", David Byrne's \"big suit\" from \"Stop Making Sense\", and Elvis Presley's motorcycle jacket and his Bible. But from its start the Annex also had a distinct New York area focus that made plenty of", "Since 1997, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has featured numerous temporary exhibits that range in size from major exhibits that fill the top two floors of the museum to smaller exhibits that are often installed in the main exhibition hall on the lower level. The museum's first major exhibit opened on May 10, 1997. It was called \"I Want to Take You Higher: The Psychedelic Era, 1965–1969\". It included memorabilia from numerous artists including John Lennon, Eric Clapton, John Sebastian, Jefferson Airplane, and Janis Joplin, as well as items related to the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival and 1969's Woodstock. That exhibit was followed by \"Elvis is in the Building\", which ran from August 8, 1998, to September 5, 1999. This year-long tribute was the first exhibit devoted to a single artist, Elvis Presley—the \"King of Rock and Roll\" and the first inductee into the RRHOF, in 1986. Graceland supplied a significant selection of representative artifacts for this special tribute spanning Elvis' life and legendary career. Next, the museum curated \"Roots, Rhymes and Rage: The Hip-Hop Story\". That was the first major museum exhibit to focus on hip-hop. It ran from November 11, 1999, to August 6, 2000. It was followed by \"Rock Style\", an exhibit that focused on rock and roll and fashion. It featured clothing from Buddy Holly to Alice Cooper, from Ray Charles to David Bowie and from Smokey Robinson to Sly Stone. After it closed in Cleveland, \"Rock Style\" traveled to other museums in the U.S. Other temporary exhibits have included \"Lennon: His Life and Work\", which ran from October 20, 2000, to January 1, 2003. It was followed by \"In the Name of Love: Two Decades of U2\" and then \"Reflections: The Mary Wilson Supreme Legacy Collection\". A major exhibition titled \"Louder than Words: Rock, Power, Politics\" was on display during the 2016 Republican National Convention in Cleveland. Other large temporary exhibits have focused on the Clash (\"Revolution Rock: The Story of the Clash\"), the Doors (\"Break on Through: The Lasting Legacy of the Doors\"), the Who's \"Tommy\" (\"Tommy: The Amazing Journey\"), and Bruce Springsteen (\"From Asbury Park to the Promised Land: The Life and Music of Bruce Springsteen\"). Another thematic temporary exhibit focused on the role of women in rock and roll (\"Women Who Rock: Vision, Passion, Power\"). Many of these exhibits travel to other museums after closing in Cleveland. A major temporary exhibit in 2017 told the story and impact of \"Rolling Stone\" magazine. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame also curates many smaller temporary exhibits. Over the years, these exhibits have focused on such topics as the Vans Warped Tour, the Concert for Bangladesh, Woodstock's 40th and 50th anniversaries, Austin City Limits, the Monterey International Pop Festival, Roy Orbison, Motown's 50th anniversary, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Marty Stuart, Paul Simon, Graham Nash, John Mellencamp, and Geddy Lee's basses. The museum also devotes exhibits to photography and artwork related to rock and roll. Among the photographers whose work has been featured at the Hall of Fame are George Kalinsky, Alfred Wertheimer, Tommy Edwards, Kevin Mazur, Janet Macoska, Lynn Goldsmith, Linda McCartney, Mike McCartney, Robert Alford, and George Shuba. The museum also featured the artwork of Philip Burke in one of its temporary exhibits, and a later exhibit featured Herb Ritts.", "Artists are inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at an annual induction ceremony. Over the years, the majority of the ceremonies have been held at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City. However, on January 12, 1993, the ceremony was held in Los Angeles, and was held there again in 2013. On May 6, 1997, about a year and a half after the opening of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, the ceremony was held in Cleveland. It returned to Cleveland in 2009 and again in 2012. Current plans call for the ceremony to be in Cleveland every three years. Generally, the number of inductees ranges from about a half-dozen to a dozen. Virtually all living inductees have attended the ceremonies, and they are presented with their Hall of Fame award by an artist who was influenced by that inductee's music. Both the presenter and the inductee speak at the ceremonies, which also include numerous musical performances, by both the inductees and the presenters. The first group of inductees, inducted on January 23, 1986, included Elvis Presley, James Brown, Little Richard, Fats Domino, Ray Charles, Chuck Berry, Sam Cooke, the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly, and Jerry Lee Lewis. Robert Johnson, Jimmie Rodgers, and Jimmy Yancey were inducted as Early Influences, John Hammond received the Lifetime Achievement Award and Alan Freed and Sam Phillips were inducted as Non-Performers.", "A nominating committee composed of rock and roll historians selects names for the \"Performers\" category (singers, vocal groups, bands, and instrumentalists of all kinds), which are then voted on by roughly 500 experts across the world. Those selected to vote include academics, journalists, producers, and others with music industry experience. Artists become eligible for induction 25 years after the release of their first record. Criteria include the influence and significance of the artists' contributions to the development and perpetuation of rock and roll. Block approval voting is used,", "Early Influences includes artists from earlier eras, primarily country, folk, jazz, and blues, whose music inspired and influenced rock and roll artists. Other notable artists that have been inducted as Early Influences include Bill Kenny & The Ink Spots, country musicians Jimmie Rodgers", "Formerly the \"Non-Performers\" award, this category encompasses those who primarily work behind the scenes in the music industry, including record label executives, songwriters, record producers, disc", "Formerly the \"Sidemen\" award, this category was introduced in 2000 and honors veteran session and concert players who are selected by a committee composed primarily of producers. The category was dormant from 2004 through", "The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum's Library and Archives is the world's most comprehensive repository of materials related to the history of rock and roll. The Library and Archives is located in a new building on the Metro Campus of Cuyahoga Community College in Cleveland's Campus District. The Library and Archives' mission is to collect, preserve and provide access to these materials. The Library and Archives operates on two levels: people may come into the library and read the books and magazines, listen to music", "The most frequent criticism of the Hall of Fame is that the nomination process is controlled by a few individuals who are not themselves musicians, such as founders Jann Wenner and Suzan Evans, and writer Dave Marsh, reflecting their personal tastes rather than the views of the rock world as a whole. A former member of the nominations board once commented that \"At one point Suzan Evans lamented the choices being made because there weren't enough big names that would sell tickets to the dinner. That was quickly remedied by dropping one of the doo-wop groups being considered in favor of a 'name' artist... I saw how certain pioneering artists of the '50s and early '60s were shunned because there needed to be more name power on the list, resulting in '70s superstars getting in before the people who made it possible for them. Some of those pioneers still aren't in today.\" Sister Rosetta Tharpe is often considered \"The Godmother/Grandmother of Rock & Roll\", but was not chosen for induction until 2017. Velvet Underground drummer Maureen Tucker has dismissed the Hall of Fame as the \"Hall of Lame\". There was also criticism of the opacity in the selection process. Janet Morrissey of \"The New York Times\" wrote: With fame and money at stake, it's no surprise that a lot of backstage lobbying goes on. Why any particular act is chosen in any particular year is a mystery to performers as well as outsiders – and committee members say they want to keep it that way. Jon Landau, the chairman of the nominating committee, says they prefer it that way. \"We've done a good job of keeping the proceedings nontransparent. It all dies in the room.\" According to Fox News, petitions with tens of thousands of signatures were also being ignored, and some groups that were signed with certain labels or companies or were affiliated with various committee members have even been put up for nomination with no discussion at all. The committee has also been accused of largely ignoring certain genres. According to author Brett Milano in 2007, \"entire genres get passed over, particularly progressive rock, '60s Top 40, New Orleans funk and a whole lot of black music.\" Another criticism is that too many artists are inducted. In fifteen years, 97 different artists were inducted. A minimum of 50% of the vote is needed to be inducted, although the final percentages are not announced and a certain number of inductees (five in 2011) is set before the ballots are shipped. The committee usually nominates a small number of artists (12 in 2010) from an increasing number of different genres. Several voters, including Joel Selvin, himself a former member of the nominating committee, did not submit their ballots in 2007 because they did not feel that any of the candidates were truly worthy. Members of the British punk rock band The Sex Pistols, inducted in 2006, refused to attend the ceremony, calling the museum \"a piss stain\" and \"urine in wine.\" In BBC Radio 6 Music's Annual John Peel Lecture in 2013, the singer Charlotte Church accused the museum of gender bias, stating, \"Out of 295 acts and artists in the Rock n' Roll Hall of Fame, 259 are entirely male, meaning that Tina Weymouth's part in Talking Heads makes them one of the 36 female acts.\" In fact, the actual percentage of woman inductees is 8.5%. Combining all the categories, there have been 719 inductees, out of which 61 have been women. 2016 inductee Steve Miller directed a litany of complaints at the hall, both during his induction speech and, especially, in interviews after it. His criticisms included his opinions that there is a general lack of female inductees, that there is not enough support by the hall for music education, and that inductees are treated poorly at the award ceremony. In 2018, Bruce Dickinson of Iron Maiden criticized the Hall of Fame by calling it \"an utter and complete load of bollocks... run by a bunch of sanctimonious bloody Americans who wouldn’t know rock 'n' roll if it hit them in the face.\" Dickinson has also expressed an overall distaste for the Hall of Fame entity, arguing that \"if you put [music] in a museum, then it's dead.\" Iron Maiden had been eligible for induction since 2004. Hard rock and heavy metal website Blabbermouth.net observed how it had taken Kiss 15 years to be inducted and Deep Purple 23 years. Regarding his band's non-induction into the Hall, Judas Priest bassist Ian Hill stated in a 2019 interview, \"I don't think they like heavy metal music in general.\" In 2018, when British rock band Dire Straits were inducted, Grammy award winner and band leader Mark Knopfler did not attend the ceremony and offered no official explanation. Several people criticized the 2020 nominations because Dave Matthews Band were not part of the class, despite them topping the fan vote.", "On March 14, 2007, two days after that year's induction ceremony, Roger Friedman of Fox News published an article claiming that the Dave Clark Five should have been the fifth inductee, as they had more votes than inductee Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. The article went on to say that Jann Wenner availed himself of a technicality on", "In June 2007, Monkee Peter Tork complained to the \"New York Post\" that Wenner had blackballed the Monkees, commenting: In a Facebook post, fellow Monkee Michael Nesmith stated that he did not know if the Monkees belonged in the Hall of Fame because he could only see the impact of the Monkees from the inside, and went on to say: \"I can see the HOF (Hall of Fame)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Initial design.", "Launch.", "Assembly.", "Production outsourcing.", "Further developments.", "Boeing 737 generations.", "737 Original (first generation).", "737-100.", "737-200.", "737 Classic (second generation).", "737-300.", "737-400.", "737-500.", "737 NG (third generation).", "737 MAX (fourth generation).", "737 replacement.", "Design evolution.", "Fuselage, landing gear and planform.", "Engines.", "Flight systems.", "Aerodynamic improvements.", "Cabin design.", "Other variants.", "Enhanced Short Runway Package.", "737 AEW&C.", "T-43/CT43A.", "C-40 Clipper.", "P-8 Poseidon.", "Boeing Business Jet (BBJ).", "Boeing Converted Freighter program.", "Competition.", "Operators.", "Civilian.", "Military.", "Orders and deliveries.", "Accidents and incidents.", "Aircraft on display." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Boeing had been studying short-haul jet aircraft designs, and wanted to produce another aircraft to supplement the 727 on short and thin routes. Preliminary design work began on May 11, 1964, and Boeing's intense market research yielded plans for a 50- to 60-passenger airliner for routes long. The initial concept featured podded engines on the aft fuselage and a T-tail like the 727, and five-abreast seating, but engineer Joe Sutter instead placed the engines under the wings to lighten the structure, enabling fuselage widening for six-abreast seating. The 737 design was presented in October 1964 at the Air Transport Association maintenance and engineering conference by chief project engineer Jack Steiner, where its elaborate high-lift devices raised concerns", "The launch decision for the $150 million development was made by the board on February 1, 1965. Lufthansa became the launch customer on February 19, 1965, with an order for 21 aircraft, worth $67 million in 1965, after the airline received assurances from Boeing that the 737 project would not be canceled. Consultation with Lufthansa over the previous winter resulted in an increase in capacity to 100 seats. This was later renamed the 737-100. It competed primarily with the McDonnell Douglas DC-9, then", "The initial assembly of the Boeing 737 was adjacent to Boeing Field (now officially named King County International Airport) because the factory in Renton was filled to capacity with the production of the 707 and 727. After 271 of the Boeing 737 aircraft were built, production was moved to Renton in late 1970. It was the highest-selling commercial jetliner until being surpassed in total orders by the competing Airbus A320 family in October 2019. A significant portion of fuselage assembly—previously done", "Sales were low in the early 1970s and, after a peak of 114 deliveries in 1969, only 22 737s were shipped in 1972 with 19 in backlog. The US Air Force saved the program by ordering T-43s, which was a modified Boeing 737-200. African airline orders kept the production running until the 1978 US Airline Deregulation Act where demand was better for a six-abreast narrow-body aircraft, particularly re-engined with the CFM56, struggling at the time. In 1990, Boeing was", "The original 737 continued to be developed into thirteen major variants.", "", "The \"Original\" models consisted of the 737-100, 737-200 and the 200 Advanced:", "The initial model was the 737-100, which was launched in February 1965. The -100 was rolled out on January 17, 1967, had its first flight on April 9, 1967, and entered service with Lufthansa in February 1968. The aircraft is the smallest variant of the 737. A total of 30 737-100s were ordered and delivered; the final commercial delivery took place on October 31, 1969 to Malaysia–Singapore Airlines. The Federal Aviation Administration issued Type Certificate A16WE certifying the 737-100 for commercial flight on December 15, 1967,. It was the first aircraft to have, as part of its initial certification, approval for Category II approaches, which refers to an precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height between. Lufthansa received its first aircraft on December 28, 1967 and on February 10, 1968, became the first non-American airline to launch a new Boeing aircraft. Lufthansa was the only significant customer to purchase the 737-100 and only 30 aircraft were produced. No 737-100s remain in commercial service.", "The 737-200 had its maiden flight on August 8, 1967. It was certified by the FAA on December 21, 1967, and the inaugural flight for United was on April 28, 1968, from Chicago to Grand Rapids, Michigan. The lengthened -200 was widely preferred over the -100 by airlines. The 737-200 was a 737-100 with an extended fuselage, launched by an order from United Airlines in 1965. The -200 was rolled out on June 29, 1967, and entered service with United in April 1968. The 737-200 Advanced is an improved version of the -200, introduced into service by All Nippon Airways on May 20, 1971. The -200 Advanced has improved aerodynamics, automatic wheel brakes, more powerful engines, more fuel capacity, and longer range than the -100. Boeing also provided the 737-200C (Combi), which allowed for conversion between passenger and cargo use and the 737-200QC (Quick Change), which facilitated a rapid conversion between roles. The 1,095th and last delivery of a -200 series aircraft was in August 1988 to Xiamen Airlines. With a gravel kit modification (features preventing foreign object damage), the 737-200 can use unimproved or unpaved landing strips, such as gravel runways, that other similarly-sized jet aircraft cannot. Gravel-kitted 737-200 Combis are currently used by Canadian North, First Air, Air Inuit, Nolinor, and Air North in northern Canada where gravel runways are common. For many years, Alaska Airlines made use of gravel-kitted 737-200s to serve Alaska's many unimproved runways across the state. Nineteen 737-200s, designated T-43, were used to train", "The \"Boeing 737 Classic\" is the name given to the -300/-400/-500 series of the Boeing 737 after the introduction of the -600/700/800/900 series: The Classic series was originally introduced as the 'new generation' of the 737. Produced from 1984 to 2000, 1,988 aircraft were delivered. Development began in 1979 for the 737's first major revision. Boeing wanted to increase capacity and range, incorporating improvements to upgrade the aircraft to modern specifications, while also retaining commonality with previous 737 variants. In 1980, preliminary aircraft specifications of the variant, dubbed 737-300, were released at the Farnborough Airshow.", "Boeing engineer Mark Gregoire led a design team, which cooperated with CFM International to select, modify and deploy a new engine and nacelle that would make the 737-300 into a viable aircraft. They chose the CFM56-3B-1 high-bypass turbofan engine to power the aircraft, which yielded significant gains in fuel economy and a reduction in noise, but also posed an engineering challenge, given the low ground clearance of the 737 and the larger diameter of the engine over the original Pratt & Whitney engines. Gregoire's team and CFM solved the problem by reducing the size of the fan (which made the engine slightly less efficient", "In June 1986, Boeing announced the development of the 737-400, which stretched the fuselage a further, increasing", "The -500 series was offered, due to customer demand, as a modern and direct replacement of the 737-200. It incorporated the improvements of the 737 Classic series, allowing longer routes with fewer passengers to be more economical than with the 737-300. The fuselage length of the -500 is longer than the 737-200, accommodating up to 140 passengers. Both glass and older-style mechanical cockpits arrangements were available. Using the CFM56-3 engine also gave a 25% increase in fuel efficiency over the older -200s P&W engines. The 737-500 was launched in 1987 by Southwest Airlines, with an order for", "The 737 Next Generation (NG) is the name given to the 737-600, 737-700/-700ER, 737-800, and 737-900/-900ER variants. By the early 1990s, it had become clear that the new Airbus A320 was a serious threat to Boeing's market share, as Airbus won previously loyal 737 customers such as Lufthansa and United Airlines. In November 1993, Boeing's board of directors authorized the Next Generation program to upgrade the 737 Classic (−300/-400/-500) series. The third-generation derivative of the Boeing 737, the -600, -700, -800, and -900 series, were planned. After engineering trade studies and discussions with major 737 customers, Boeing proceeded to launch the 737 Next Generation (NG) -600/700/800/900 series", "On July 20, 2011, Boeing announced plans for a fourth generation 737 series to be powered by the CFM International LEAP-X engine, with American Airlines intending to order 100 of these aircraft. On August 30, 2011, Boeing confirmed the launch of the 737 new engine variant, to be called the Boeing 737 MAX. It competes with the Airbus A320neo family that was launched in December 2010 and reached 1,029 orders by June 2011, breaking Boeing's monopoly with American Airlines with an order for 130 A320neos that July. The 737 MAX's first flight was on January 29, 2016. It gained FAA certification on March 8, 2017.", "Boeing had discussed replacing the 737 with a \"clean sheet\" design since 2006. The project's working name was the Boeing Y1 and development was planned to follow the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. However, a decision on this replacement was postponed to after 2011. In November 2014, Boeing announced a plan to develop a clean sheet aircraft to replace the 737 by 2030. The airplane was to have a similar fuselage but made from", "The 737 continued to evolve into many variants but still remains recognisable as the 737. These are divided into four generations but all are based on the same basic design.", "The fuselage cross section and nose is derived from that of the Boeing 707 and Boeing 727. Early 737 cockpits also inherited the \"eyebrow windows\" positioned above the main glareshield, which were a feature of the original 707 and 727 to allow for better crew visibility. Contrary to popular belief, these windows were not intended for celestial navigation (only the military T-43A had a sextant port for star navigation, which the civilian models lacked). With modern avionics, the windows became redundant, and many pilots actually placed newspapers or other objects in them to block out sun glare. They were eliminated from the 737 cockpit design in 2004, although they are still installed on customer request. The eyebrow windows were sometimes removed and plugged, usually during maintenance overhauls, and can be distinguished by the metal plug which differs from the smooth metal in later aircraft that were not originally fitted with the windows. The 737's main landing gear, under the wings at mid-cabin, rotates", "Engines on the 737 Classic series (−300, −400, −500) and Next-Generation series (−600, −700, −800, −900) do not have circular inlets like most aircraft. The 737 Classic series featured CFM56 turbofan engines, which yielded significant gains in fuel economy and a reduction in noise over the JT8D engines used on the −100 and −200, but also posed an engineering challenge given the low ground clearance of the 737. Boeing and engine supplier CFMI solved the problem by placing the engine ahead of (rather than below) the wing, and by moving engine accessories to the", "The 737 is unusual in that it still uses a hydro-mechanical flight control system, similar to the Boeing 707 and typical of the period, that transmits pilot commands to control surfaces by steel cables run through the fuselage and wings rather than by an electrical fly-by-wire system as used in all of the Airbus fleet and all later Boeing models. This has been raised as a safety issue because of the impracticality of duplicating such a mechanical cable-based system in the way", "The Original -100 and -200 series were built without wingtip devices but these were later introduced to improve fuel efficiency. The 737 has evolved four winglet types: the 737-200 Mini-winglet, 737 Classic/NG Blended Winglet, 737 Split Scimitar Winglet, and 737 MAX Advanced Technology Winglet. The 737-200 Mini-winglets are part of the Quiet Wing Corp modification kit that received certification in 2005. Blended winglets were standard on the 737 NG and are available for retrofit on 737 Classic models. These winglets stand approximately tall and are installed at the wing tips. They improve fuel efficiency", "The first generation Original series 737 cabin was replaced for the second generation Classic series with a design based on the Boeing 757 cabin. The Classic cabin was then redesigned once more for the third, Next Generation, 737 with a design based on the Boeing 777 cabin. Boeing later offered the", "", "This short-field design package is an option on the 737-600, -700 and -800 and is standard equipment for the new 737-900ER. These enhanced short runway versions could increase pay or fuel loads when operating on runways under. Landing payloads were increased by up to 8,000 lbs on the 737-800 and 737-900ER and up to 4,000 lbs on", "The Boeing 737 AEW&C is a 737-700IGW roughly similar to the 737-700ER. This is an Airborne", "The T-43 was a 737-200 modified for use by the United States Air Force for training navigators, now known as USAF combat systems officers. Informally referred to as the Gator (an abbreviation of \"navigator\") and \"Flying Classroom\", nineteen of these aircraft were delivered to the Air Training Command at Mather AFB, California during 1973 and 1974. Two additional aircraft were delivered to the Colorado Air National Guard at", "The Boeing C-40 Clipper is a military version of the 737-700C NG. It is used by both the United States Navy and", "The P-8 Poseidon (formerly Multimission Maritime Aircraft) developed for the United States Navy by Boeing Defense, Space & Security, based on the Next Generation 737-800ERX. The P-8 can be operated in the anti-submarine", "In the late 1980s, Boeing marketed the 77-33 jet, a business jet version of the 737-300. The name was short-lived. After the introduction of the Next Generation series, Boeing introduced the Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) series. The BBJ1 was similar in dimensions to the 737-700 but had additional features, including stronger wings and landing gear from the 737-800, and had increased range over the other 737 models through the use of extra fuel tanks. The first BBJ rolled out on August 11, 1998", "The Boeing Converted Freighter program (BCF), or the 737-800BCF program, was launched by Boeing in 2016. It converts old 737-800 passenger jets to dedicated", "The Boeing 737 Classic, Next Generation and MAX series have faced significant competition from the Airbus A320 family first introduced in 1988. The relatively recent Airbus A220 family now also competes against the smaller capacity end of the 737 variants. The A320 was developed to compete also with the McDonnell Douglas MD-80/90 and 95 series; the 95 later becoming the", "", "The 737 is operated by more than 500 airlines, flying to 1,200 destinations in 190 countries: over 4,500 are in service and at any given time there are on average 1,250 airborne worldwide. On average, somewhere in the world, a", "Many countries operate the 737 passenger, BBJ, and", "Boeing delivered the 5,000th 737 to Southwest Airlines on February 13, 2006, the 6,000th 737 to Norwegian Air Shuttle in April 2009, the 8,000th 737 to United Airlines on April 16, 2014. The 10,000th 737 was ordered in July 2012, and rolled out on March 13, 2018, as over 4,600 orders were pending. By 2006, there were an average of 1,250 Boeing 737s airborne at any given time, with two either departing or landing somewhere every five seconds. The 737 was the most commonly flown aircraft in 2008, 2009, and 2010. In 2016, there were", ", there has been a total of 481 aviation accidents and incidents involving all 737 aircraft, including 214 hull losses resulting in a total of 5,565 fatalities. A Boeing analysis of commercial jet airplane accidents between 1959 and 2013 found that the hull loss rate for the Original series was 1.75 per million departures, for the Classic series 0.54, and the Next Generation series 0.27. During the 1990s, a series of rudder issues on series -200 and -300 aircraft resulted in multiple incidents. In two total loss accidents, United Airlines Flight 585 (a -200 series) and USAir Flight 427, (a -300), the pilots lost control of the aircraft", "Owing to the 737's long production history and popularity, many older 737s have found use in museums after reaching the end of useful service." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Nagel was born in Nové Mesto nad Váhom (now in Slovakia, then Vágújhely and part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). His mother, Frida Weiss, was from the nearby town of Vrbové (or Verbo). He emigrated to the United States at the age of 10 with his family, and became a U.S. citizen in 1919. He received a BSc from the City College of New York in 1923, and earned his PhD from Columbia University in 1931, with a dissertation on the concept of measurement. Except for one year (1966-1967) at Rockefeller University, he spent his entire academic career at Columbia. He became the first John Dewey Professor of Philosophy there in 1955. And then University Professor from 1967 until his retirement in 1970, after which he continued to teach. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1977. His work concerned the philosophy of mathematical fields such as geometry and probability, quantum mechanics, and the status of reductive and inductive theories of science. His book \"The Structure of Science\" (1961) practically inaugurated the field of analytic philosophy of science. He expounded the different kinds of explanation in different fields, and was sceptical about attempts to unify the nature of scientific laws or explanations. He was the first to propose that by positing analytic equivalencies (or \"bridge laws\") between the terms of different sciences, one could eliminate all ontological commitments except those required by the most basic science. He also upheld the view that social sciences are scientific, and should adopt the same standards as natural sciences. Nagel wrote \"An Introduction to Logic and the Scientific Method\" with Morris Raphael Cohen, his CCNY teacher in 1934. In 1958, he published with James R. Newman \"Gödel's proof\", a short book explicating Gödel's incompleteness theorems to those not well trained in mathematical logic. He edited the \"Journal of Philosophy\" (1939–1956) and the \"Journal of Symbolic Logic\" (1940-1946). He died in New York. He had two sons, Alexander Nagel (professor of mathematics at the University of Wisconsin) and Sidney Nagel (professor of physics at the University of Chicago). At a meeting of the executive council of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) in Denver, Colorado in April 2011, Nagel was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism. Nagel's doctoral students include Morton White, Patrick Suppes, Henry Kyburg, Isaac Levi, and Sidney Morgenbesser." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Second World War.", "Post-war.", "Malayan Scouts.", "22 SAS Regiment.", "Influence on other special forces.", "Organisation.", "Squadrons.", "Special projects team.", "Operational command.", "Regular.", "Reserve.", "Recruitment and training.", "Uniform distinctions.", "Equipment.", "Battle honours.", "Memorials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Special Air Service was a unit of the British Army during the Second World War that was formed in July 1941 by David Stirling and originally called \"L\" Detachment, Special Air Service Brigade—the \"L\" designation and Air Service name being a tie-in to a British disinformation campaign, trying to deceive the Axis into thinking there was a paratrooper regiment with numerous units operating in the area (the real SAS would \"prove\" to the Axis that the fake one existed). It was conceived as a commando force to operate behind enemy lines in the North African Campaign and initially consisted of five officers and 60 other ranks. Its first mission, in November 1941, was a parachute drop in support of the Operation Crusader offensive. Due to German resistance and adverse weather conditions, the mission was a disaster; 22 men, a third of the unit, were killed or captured. Its second mission was a major success. Transported by the Long Range Desert Group, it attacked three airfields in Libya, destroying 60 aircraft with the loss of 2 men and 3 jeeps. In September 1942, it was renamed 1st SAS, consisting at that time of four British squadrons, one Free French, one Greek, and the Folboat Section. In January 1943, Colonel Stirling was captured in Tunisia and Paddy Mayne replaced him as commander. In April 1943, the 1st SAS was reorganised into the Special Raiding Squadron under Mayne's command and the Special Boat Squadron was placed under the command of George Jellicoe. The Special Raiding Squadron fought in Sicily and Italy along with the 2nd SAS, which had been formed in North Africa in 1943 in part by the renaming of the Small Scale Raiding Force. The Special Boat Squadron fought in the Aegean Islands and Dodecanese until the end of the war. In 1944 the SAS Brigade was formed from the British 1st and 2nd SAS, the French 3rd and 4th SAS and the Belgian 5th SAS. It was tasked with parachute operations behind the German lines in France and carried out operations supporting the Allied advance through France, (Operations Houndsworth, Bullbasket, Loyton and Wallace-Hardy) Belgium, the Netherlands (Operation Pegasus), and eventually into Germany (Operation Archway). As a result of Hitler's issuing of the Commando Order on 18 October 1942, the members of the unit faced the additional danger that they would be summarily executed if captured by the Germans. In July 1944, following Operation Bulbasket, 34 captured SAS commandos were summarily executed by the Germans. In October 1944, in the aftermath of Operation Loyton another 31 captured SAS commandos were summarily executed by the Germans.", "At the end of the war the British government saw no further need for the force and disbanded it on 8 October 1945. The following year it was decided there \"was\" a need for a long-term deep-penetration commando unit and a new SAS regiment was to be raised as part of the Territorial Army. Ultimately, the Artists Rifles, raised in 1860 and headquartered at Dukes Road, Euston, took on the SAS mantle as 21st SAS Regiment (V) on 1 January 1947.", "In 1950, a 21 SAS squadron was raised to fight in the Korean War. After three months of training in Britain, it was informed that the squadron would no longer be required in Korea and so it instead volunteered to fight in the Malayan Emergency. Upon arrival in Malaya, it came under the command of \"Mad Mike\" Mike Calvert who was forming a new unit called the Malayan Scouts (SAS). Calvert had already formed one squadron from 100 volunteers in the Far East, which became A Squadron—the 21 SAS squadron then became B Squadron; and after a recruitment visit to Rhodesia by Calvert, C Squadron was formed from 1,000 Rhodesian volunteers. The Rhodesians returned home after three years' service and were replaced by a New Zealand squadron. By this time the need for a regular army SAS regiment had been recognised; the 22 SAS Regiment was formally added to the army list in 1952 and has been based at Hereford since 1960. In 1959 the third regiment, the 23 SAS Regiment, was formed by renaming the Reserve Reconnaissance Unit, which had succeeded MI9 and whose members were experts in escape and evasion.", "Since serving in Malaya, men from the regular army 22 SAS Regiment have taken part in reconnaissance patrols and large scale raiding missions in the Jebel Akhdar War in Oman and conducted covert reconnaissance and surveillance patrols and some larger scale raiding missions in Borneo. They returned to Oman in operations against Communist-backed rebels in the Dhofar Rebellion including the Battle of Mirbat. They have also taken part in operations in the Aden Emergency, Northern Ireland, and Gambia. Their Special projects team assisted the West German counterterrorism group GSG 9 at Mogadishu. The SAS counter terrorist wing famously took part in a hostage rescue operation during the Iranian Embassy Siege in London. SAS were heavily involved throughout the Soviet-Afghan War—they acted through private military contractor Keenie Meenie Services (or KMS Ltd), training the Afghan Mujaheddin in weapons, tactics and using explosives. Not only did they train the Mujaheddin in Afghanistan but also sent them to be trained in Pakistan, Oman and even parts of the UK. During the Falklands War B squadron were prepared for Operation Mikado before it was subsequently cancelled while D and G squadrons were deployed and participated in the raid on Pebble Island. Operation Flavius was a controversial operation in Gibraltar against the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). 22 SAS also directed NATO aircraft onto Serb positions and hunted war criminals in Bosnia. They were also involved in the Kosovo War helping KLA guerillas behind Serbian lines. According to Albanian sources one SAS sergeant was killed by Serbian special forces. The Gulf War, in which A, B and D squadrons deployed, was the largest SAS mobilisation since the Second World War, also notable for the failure of the Bravo Two Zero mission. In Sierra Leone it took part in Operation Barras, a hostage rescue operation, to extract members of the Royal Irish Regiment. Following the September 11 attacks on the United States by al-Qaeda in 2001, 2 squadrons of 22 SAS, reinforced by members of both the territorial SAS units deployed to Afghanistan as part of the Coalition invasion at the start of the War in Afghanistan (2001–present), to dismantle and destroy al-Qaeda and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power in the War on Terror. The Regiment carried out Operation Trent, the largest operation in its history, which included its first wartime HALO parachute jump. Following the invasion, the Regiment continued to operate in Afghanistan against the Taliban and other insurgents until 2006, where its deployment Iraq became its focus of operations until 2009 when the SAS redeployed to Afghanistan. The regiment took part in the Iraq War, notably carrying out operations in Iraq before the 2003 invasion. Following the invasion, it formed part of Task Force Black/Knight to combat the postinvasion insurgency; in late 2005/early 2006, the SAS were integrated into JSOC and focused its counterinsurgency efforts on combating al-Qaeda in Iraq and the Sunni insurgency alongside Delta Force. The counter-insurgency was successful, and the UKSF mission in Iraq ended in May 2009. Overall, more than 3,500 terrorists were \"taken off the streets\" of Baghdad by 22 SAS. Various British newspapers have speculated on SAS involvement in Operation Ellamy and the 2011 Libyan civil war. The \"Daily Telegraph\" reports that \"defence sources have confirmed that the SAS has been in Libya for several weeks, and played a key role in coordinating the fall of Tripoli.\" While \"The Guardian\" reports \"They have been acting as forward air controllers—directing pilots to targets—and communicating with NATO operational commanders. They have also been advising rebels on tactics.\" Members of the Special Air Service were deployed to Northern Iraq in late August 2014, and according to former MI6 chief Richard Barrett, would also be sent to Syria, tasked with trying to track down the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) terrorist group that the press labelled the Beatles. In recent years SAS officers have risen to senior appointments in the British Army and Armed Forces. General Peter de la Billière was the commander in chief of the British forces in the 1990 Gulf War. General Michael Rose became commander of the United Nations Protection Force in Bosnia in 1994. In 1997 General Charles Guthrie became Chief of the Defence Staff the head of the British armed forces. Lieutenant-General Cedric Delves was appointed commander of the Field Army and deputy commander in chief NATO Regional Headquarters Allied Forces North in 2002–2003.", "Following the post-war reconstitution of the Special Air Service, other countries in the Commonwealth recognised their need for similar units. The Canadian Special Air Service Company was formed in 1947, being disbanded in 1949. The New Zealand Special Air Service squadron was formed in June 1955 to serve with the British SAS in Malaya, which became a full regiment in 2011. Australia formed the 1st SAS Company in July 1957, which became a full regiment of the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR) in 1964. On its return from Malaya, the C (Rhodesian) Squadron formed the basis for creation of the Rhodesian Special Air Service in 1961. It retained the name \"C Squadron (Rhodesian) Special Air Service\" within the Rhodesian Security Forces until 1978, when it became 1 (Rhodesian) Special Air Service Regiment. Non-Commonwealth countries have also formed units based on the SAS. The Belgian Army's Special Forces Group, which wears the same capbadge as the British SAS, traces its ancestry partly from the 5th Special Air Service of the Second World War. The French 1st Marine Infantry Parachute Regiment (1er RPIMa) can trace its origins to the Second World War 3rd and 4th SAS, adopting its \"who dares wins\" motto. The American unit, 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta, was formed by Colonel Charles Alvin Beckwith, who served with 22 SAS as an exchange officer, and recognised the need for a similar type of unit in the United States Army. The Israeli Sayeret Matkal has also been modelled after the SAS, sharing its motto. Ireland's Army Ranger Wing (ARW) has also modelled its training on that of the SAS. The Philippine National Police's Special Action Force was formed along the lines of the SAS.", "Little publicly verifiable information exists on the contemporary SAS, as the British government usually does not comment on special forces matters due to the nature of their work. The Special Air Service comprises three units: one Regular and two Army Reserve (AR) units. The regular army unit is 22 SAS Regiment and the reserve units are 21 Special Air Service Regiment (Artists) (Reserve) (21 SAS(R)) and 23 Special Air Service Regiment (23 SAS (R)), collectively, the Special Air Service (Reserve) (SAS(R)).", "22 SAS normally has a strength of 400 to 600. The regiment has four operational squadrons: A, B, D and G. Each squadron consists of approximately 65 men commanded by a major, divided into four troops (each troop being commanded by a captain) and a small headquarters section. Troops usually consist of 16 men (Members of the SAS are variously known as \"blade\" or \"Operator\") and each patrol within a troop consists of four men, with each man possessing a particular skill e.g. signals, demolition, medic or linguist in addition to basic skills learned during the course of his training. The term \"squadron\" dates back to the unit's earliest days when the unit's name was intended to confuse German intelligence. The four troops specialise in four different areas: In 1980 R Squadron (which has since been renamed L Detachment) was formed; its members are all ex-regular SAS regiment soldiers who have a commitment to reserve service. 22 SAS squadron duty rotations are set up as such that one squadron is maintained on Counter-Terrorism duty in the UK; a second will be on a deployment; a third will be preparing for deployment whilst conducting short term training; and the fourth will be preparing for long-term overseas training such as jungle or desert exercises. In times of war, such as the 2003 invasion of Iraq, it's not uncommon for two squadrons to be deployed. Squadron Structure A Squadron: 1 (Boat) Troop – 2 (Air) Troop – 3 (Mobility) Troop – 4 (Mountain) Troop B Squadron: 6 (Boat) Troop – 7 (Air) Troop – 8 (Mobility) Troop – 9 (Mountain) Troop D Squadron: 16 (Air) Troop – 17 (Boat) Troop – 18 (Mobility) Troop – 19 (Mountain) Troop G Squadron: 21 (Mobility) Troop – 22 (Mountain) Troop – 23 (Boat) Troop – 24 (Air) Troop", "The special projects team is the official name for the Special Air Service anti-hijacking counter-terrorism team. It is trained in Close Quarter Battle (CQB), sniper techniques and specialises in hostage rescue in buildings or on public transport. The team was formed in the early 1970s after the Prime Minister, Edward Heath, asked the Ministry of Defence to prepare for any possible terrorist attack similar to the massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics therefore ordering that the SAS Counter Revolutionary Warfare (CRW) wing be raised. Squadrons refresh their training every 16 months, on average. The CRW's first deployment was during the Balcombe Street siege. The Metropolitan Police had trapped a PIRA unit; it surrendered when it heard on the BBC that the SAS were being sent in. The first documented action abroad by the CRW wing was assisting the West German counter-terrorism group GSG 9 at Mogadishu. The CT role was shared amongst the squadrons, initially on a 12-month and later six-month rotation basis to ensure that all members are eventually trained in CT and CQB techniques. The SAS train for the CT role at Pontrilas Army Training Area in a facility that includes the Killing House (officially known as Close Quarter Battle House) and part of a Boeing 747 airliner that can be reconfigured to match the internal layouts of virtually any commercial aircraft. The on-call CT squadron is split into four troops, two of which are on immediate notice to move and are restricted to the Hereford-Credenhill area, whilst the other two conduct training and exercises across the UK, but are available for operational deployment should the need arise.", "", "The 22nd Special Air Service is under the operational command of the Director Special Forces (DSF), a major-general grade post. Previously ranked as a brigadier, the DSF was promoted from brigadier to major-general in recognition of the significant expansion of the United Kingdom Special Forces (UKSF).", "During Operation HERRICK the SAS Reserve were responsible for mentoring members of the Afghan National Police. Following a review of the unit's operational capability they were withdrawn from this tasking and the task handed over to a regular infantry unit. The report found that the SAS reservists lacked a clearly defined role and also stated that the reservists lacked the military capability and skillset to serve alongside the regular special forces. On 1 September 2014, 21 and 23 SAS left United Kingdom Special Forces and were placed under the command of 1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade. This change was reverted in 2019 with both 21 and 23 SAS returning as an integrated part of United Kingdom Special Forces.", "Except for the reserve component, the United Kingdom Special Forces never recruit directly from the general public. All current members of the UK Armed Forces can apply for Special Forces selection, but the majority of candidates have historically come from a Commando or Airborne Forces background. Selections are held twice a year, once in summer and again in winter. Taking place in Wales, specifically Sennybridge and the Brecon Beacons, selection lasts for five weeks and normally starts with approximately 200 potential candidates. Candidates complete a Personal Fitness Test (PFT) upon arrival, which consists of at least 50 sit-ups in two minutes, 60 press-ups in two minutes, and a run in 10 minutes and 30 seconds. They then complete an Annual Fitness Test (AFT), which consists of marching in two hours while carrying of equipment. Candidates then march cross-country against the clock, increasing the distance covered each day; this culminates in an endurance test known as the Endurance, in which candidates march with full equipment before climbing up and down the mountain Pen y Fan (886 m; 2,907 ft) in 20 hours. By the end of this phase, candidates must then be able to run in 30 minutes or less and swim in 90 minutes or less. Following mountain training, the jungle phase takes place in Belize, Brunei, or Malaysia. Candidates are taught navigation, patrol formation and movement, and jungle survival skills. They then return to the UK to begin training in battle plans and foreign weapons, and then take part in combat survival exercises, ending in week-long escape and evasion training. Candidates are formed into patrols and, with nothing more than a tin can filled with survival equipment, are dressed in World War II-era uniforms and told to head for a particular destination by sunrise. The final selection test, resistance to interrogation (RTI), is arguably the most gruelling and lasts for 36 hours. Typically, 15–20% of candidates make it through the initial selection process. From a group of approximately 200 candidates, most will drop out within the first few days, and less than 30 will remain by the end. Those who complete all phases of selection are transferred to an operational squadron. In October 2018, recruitment policy changed to allow women to become members of the SAS for the first time.", "Normal barracks headdress is the sand-coloured beret, its cap badge is a downward pointing Excalibur, wreathed in flames (often incorrectly referred to as a winged dagger) worked into the cloth of a Crusader shield with the motto \"Who Dares Wins\". SAS pattern parachute wings, designed by Lieutenant Jock Lewes and based on the stylised sacred ibis of Isis of Egyptian iconography depicted in the décor of Shepheard's Hotel in Cairo, are worn on the right shoulder. Its is distinguished by a light-blue stripe on the trousers. Its stable belt is a shade of blue similar to the blue stripe on the No 1 dress uniform.", "As an elite unit, there is a broad range of various firearms used by the SAS. The known weapons used by the unit, some made locally while others are imported from abroad, are:", "In the British Army, battle honours are awarded to regiments that have seen active service in a significant engagement or campaign, generally with a victorious outcome. The Special Air Service Regiment has been awarded the following battle honours:", "The names of those members of the Regular SAS who have died on duty were inscribed on the regimental clock tower at Stirling Lines. Originally funded by contributions of a day's pay by members of the regiment and a donation from Handley Page in memory of Cpl. R.K. Norry who was killed in a freefall parachuting accident, this was rebuilt at the new barracks at Credenhill. Those whose names are inscribed are said by surviving members to have \"failed to beat the clock\". At the suggestion of the then Commanding Officer, Dare Wilson, inscribed on the base of the clock is a verse from \"The Golden Road to Samarkand\" by James Elroy Flecker: The other main memorial is the SAS and Airborne Forces memorial in the cloisters at Westminster Abbey. The SAS Brigade Memorial at Sennecey-le-Grand in France commemorates the wartime dead of the Belgian, British and French SAS and recently a memorial plaque was added to the David Stirling Memorial in Scotland. There are other smaller memorials \"scattered throughout Europe and in the Far East\". The local church of St Martin's, Hereford has part of its graveyard set aside as an SAS memorial, over twenty SAS soldiers are buried there. There is also a wall of remembrance displaying memorial plaques to some who could not be buried, including the 18 SAS men who lost their lives in the Sea King helicopter crash during the Falklands Campaign on 19 May 1982 and a sculpture and stained glass window dedicated to the SAS. On 17 October 2017 \"Ascension\", a new sculpture and window honouring the Special Air Service Regiment in Hereford Cathedral, was dedicated by the Bishop of Hereford at a service attended by Prince William." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Members of the Order.", "Original.", "Members of the reconstituted Order.", "Order members.", "Sirius Black.", "Fleur Delacour.", "Aberforth Dumbledore.", "Arabella Figg.", "Mundungus Fletcher.", "Remus Lupin.", "Mad-Eye Moody.", "James Potter.", "Lily Potter.", "Kingsley Shacklebolt.", "Nymphadora Tonks.", "Arthur Weasley.", "Bill Weasley.", "Charlie Weasley.", "Molly Weasley." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Before the Harry Potter series starts – when the character Lord Voldemort declared war on the wizarding world – Albus Dumbledore, headmaster of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry and an upstanding and powerful citizen of the wizarding world, attempted to take control of the situation by founding the Order of the Phoenix. Several characters joined the organisation, seeking to prevent Voldemort from taking over the wizarding world and establishing a tyrannical new world order. During this period, before the events of the \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", the Order sustained heavy losses, including the murders of minor characters such as the Prewetts, the Bones and the McKinnons. The Longbottoms were also tortured to insanity at the hands of Bellatrix Lestrange. Voldemort's first reign of terror ended after the murders of James and Lily Potter, and the unsuccessful attempt to murder their son, Harry Potter, at the beginning of the series. The spell rebounded on to him and severely diminished Voldemort's powers and as a result the Order was temporarily disbanded due to the lack of any further threat. When Harry reported that Voldemort had returned, towards the end of \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\", Dumbledore reactivated the Order. Many of the original members returned and were soon joined", "", "The following characters were members of the Order of the Phoenix during Lord Voldemort's initial rise to", "These characters joined the Order when Dumbledore reactivated it", "This is a list of notable members of the Order of the Phoenix. Albus Dumbledore, Severus Snape and Rubeus Hagrid have their own pages. Minerva McGonagall is listed under Hogwarts staff, Fred and George are listed under Dumbledore's Army, and Peter Pettigrew is listed under Death Eater.", "Sirius Black, nicknamed Padfoot (because his Animagus form takes the shape of a dog), is the last heir to the House of Black, a once notable pure-blood Wizarding family. He is the older brother of Regulus Arcturus Black (R.A.B) and a cousin of Narcissa Malfoy, Andromeda Tonks, and Bellatrix Lestrange. He rejected his family's pure-blood tradition and tolerance for the Dark Arts. In contrast to his home life, Sirius greatly enjoyed his life at Hogwarts. Being the only Black to be sorted into Gryffindor placed him further from his Slytherin family, and was one of his reasons for pride. He was inseparable from his best friends James 'Prongs' Potter, Peter 'Wormtail' Pettigrew, and Remus 'Moony' Lupin. He was mentioned by Rubeus Hagrid in the first novel; however, he did not appear until the third book in the series, \"The Prisoner of Azkaban\". Sirius, along with James, bullied Severus Snape while they were at school, nicknaming him \"Snivellus\". Sirius left home at the age of sixteen and took refuge with James and his parents. His outraged mother burned his name off the family tree, but he was left financially independent by his Uncle Alphard's generous bequest (hence Alphard's name was burnt off as well). After leaving school, he remained close friends with James and Lily and was best man at their wedding. When Harry was born, the Potters named Sirius as his godfather. When the Potters went into hiding from Voldemort, Sirius was assigned as their Secret-Keeper. Sirius convinced James and Lily to switch Secret-Keepers at the last moment to Peter Pettigrew, believing that Voldemort would never think to hunt him and would attack Sirius instead. However, Pettigrew betrayed James and Lily, and they were murdered by Lord Voldemort. Harry survived and was rescued by Hagrid. Sirius asked Hagrid to give Harry to him since he was Harry's godfather, but Hagrid, under Dumbledore's orders, refused and instead took Harry to live with the Dursleys. Sirius gave Hagrid his flying motorbike, saying he wouldn't need it. In his rage, Sirius tracked Pettigrew down and challenged him. During the confrontation, Pettigrew faked his own death and killed twelve Muggles, framing Sirius for betraying the Potters and the murder of Pettigrew and the Muggles. Sirius was arrested and sent to Azkaban without trial by Barty Crouch Sr. Unlike most of the other Azkaban prisoners, Sirius was able to keep his sanity because he knew he was innocent; and because as an Animagus he was less vulnerable to the effects of the Dementors when in his dog form. Twelve years later, in \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\", Sirius sees a picture of the Weasley family on the front cover of the \"Daily Prophet\" taken from the then Minister of Magic, Cornelius Fudge, in which a rat stands perched on Ron's shoulder. The rat is Ron's pet, Scabbers, and Sirius recognises Pettigrew in his Animagus form, seeing a", "Fleur Isabelle Delacour is a student of Beauxbatons Academy in France, and is selected as a champion in the prestigious Triwizard Tournament. Her maternal grandmother is a Veela, from whom Fleur inherited her silvery-blonde hair, pale eyes, good looks, and ability to enchant men. It is revealed in the Tournament wand inspection that the core of Fleur's wand is a Veela hair from the head of her grandmother. During the Triwizard Tournament, Fleur is initially aloof and unfriendly despite receiving much admiration from the boys, especially Ron. During the second task of the Tournament, she attempts to rescue her sister Gabrielle Delacour from the lake but fails, hindered by the Grindylows. When Harry rescues Gabrielle instead, Fleur is extremely grateful, despite her sister being in no real danger, and becomes much warmer towards both Harry and Hogwarts. Fleur finishes in 4th place in the Triwizard Tournament due to being Stunned during the last task. In the following year, Fleur works at Gringotts with Bill Weasley, whom she already met during the Tournament, and the pair get engaged. Bill is attacked by werewolf Fenrir Greyback and severely mauled near", "Aberforth Dumbledore is Albus Dumbledore's brother. He is the younger brother by some three years and the less skilled of the two; as such, he is usually left in the background while his brother basks in the glory of his comparative success. After his parents' deaths and Albus' return home to look after their unstable sister Ariana, Aberforth quarrels with his brother and his brother's friend, Gellert Grindelwald, over their plans to start a new order, neglecting Ariana. Grindelwald began torturing him, leading to the three dueling. This argument results in Ariana's accidental death at the hands of one of them. At Ariana's funeral, Aberforth publicly confronts Albus and strikes him, breaking his nose. Eventually, Aberforth becomes the owner and barman of the Hog's Head inn. He is known for his strong affinity with goats. His Patronus takes the form of a goat, and he recounts to the trio that as a boy he fed the goats in company with his sister, Ariana. Aberforth was also tried before the Wizengamot (the Wizard High Court), for performing inappropriate charms on a goat. His tavern also, according to Harry's description in \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\", has a faint smell", "Arabella Doreen Figg, better known simply as Mrs. Figg, is a Squib living undercover as a Muggle and on Dumbledore's orders surreptitiously watches over Harry while he is at home with the Dursleys. She is a Chekhov's gun, first mentioned as a seemingly insignificant neighbour in \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" and not revealed as a member of the magical community until \"Order of the Phoenix\". She has a lifelong love of cats and does \"a roaring trade\" in crossbred cats and Kneazles, their magical variant. Within the Order of the Phoenix, she functions as one of Dumbledore's liaisons between the magical and Muggle worlds. In \"Order", "Mundungus \"Dung\" Fletcher is mentioned in passing in some of the earlier books in the series, but it is not until the second chapter of \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" that he makes his first appearance. Mundungus is described as a \"squat, unshaven man\" with \"short, bandy legs\", \"long, straggly ginger hair\", and \"bloodshot, baggy eyes that gave him the doleful look of a basset hound\". He is involved in many illegal activities, yet he seems confined to relatively minor crimes, such as theft and trading stolen goods on the black market. Many members of the Order have mixed feelings about him, but he is very loyal to Dumbledore, who once got him out of serious trouble. His connections enable him to hear rumours and information rolling around the shadier segments of the wizarding population, which could potentially prove instrumental in the fight against Voldemort. He is briefly mentioned in \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" where following the Death Eaters attack at the Quidditch World Cup, Mundungus put in an insurance claim to the Ministry of", "Remus John Lupin, nicknamed Moony, first appears in \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" as the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. Most of the students hold him in extremely high regard and love his hands-on teaching style. During his tenure, he gives Harry private lessons in casting the Patronus Charm, to aid him in fighting off the Dementors patrolling the Hogwarts grounds. It is revealed in the climax of \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" that Professor Lupin is a werewolf. He turns into a werewolf at every full moon and only retains his human mind while transformed by drinking the Wolfsbane Potion prepared for him by Snape. Hermione discovers before Harry and Ron that Professor Lupin is a werewolf after Professor Snape gives Lupin's class an assignment on werewolves. She also notices that Professor Lupin's boggart is a full moon. Dumbledore, one of the few wizards who are sympathetic towards his condition, made arrangements for Lupin to attend Hogwarts as a child, where he became close friends with James (Prongs) Potter, Sirius (Padfoot) Black, and Peter (Wormtail) Pettigrew. Until the climax of \"Prisoner of Azkaban\", Professor Lupin believes Sirius to be guilty of betraying James and Lily and killing Pettigrew. Upon discovering that Sirius is innocent and that the very much alive Pettigrew is the traitor, Professor Lupin helps Sirius explain the truth to Harry, Ron, and Hermione in the Shrieking Shack. However, Professor Lupin had forgotten to take the Wolfsbane Potion that night and so, when touched by moonlight, transforms into a werewolf with no control over his actions. Sirius, in dog form, drives Lupin safely away from the others into the Forbidden Forest, where he wakes the next morning restored to his human body and mind. Snape, however, furious over Sirius' eventual escape and his resultant loss of the Order of Merlin promised to him by Cornelius Fudge, publicly reveals the nature of Professor Lupin's lycanthropy. Anticipating a public outcry in response to the threat he himself agrees he poses to the students, Professor Lupin resigns from his post. Long after resigning as a teacher, Lupin remains a friend to Harry. In \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" Lupin joins the newly reformed Order of the Phoenix and is part of the advance guard which escorts Harry from the Dursley family home in the book's opening chapters.", "Alastor \"Mad-Eye\" Moody is perhaps the most famous Auror in the modern times of the Wizarding World, single-handedly responsible for capturing numerous wizard criminals. He is also said never to have killed his quarry, even when permitted to do so, unless he had no other choice. Moody's face is badly scarred; he has lost several body parts while fighting Dark wizards, including his left eye, lower left leg, and part of his nose; and he is cautious – some characters might say paranoid – in that he refuses to eat or drink anything which he himself did not prepare. He has replaced his missing eye with a magical one that can rotate 360 degrees and see through almost everything (including walls, doors, Invisibility Cloaks, and the back of his own head). He walks with a pronounced limp due to his prosthetic leg and uses a walking staff. He frequently exclaims \"Constant vigilance!\" to encourage wizards to be on their guard against the dark arts, and keeps a number of devices in his office to alert him to the presence of potential enemies. Before his retirement from the Aurors' Office, he was Nymphadora Tonks' mentor, and still regards her as his protégée. In \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\", Moody is appointed as the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher at Hogwarts, coming out of retirement as a favour to Dumbledore. Shortly before the school year begins, however, Moody is attacked by Barty Crouch, Jr., who subdues him with the Imperius Curse and takes", "James Potter, nicknamed Prongs, is the father of Harry Potter and husband of Lily Potter. James met Sirius Black, Remus Lupin, and Peter Pettigrew when they entered Hogwarts. When James, Sirius, and Peter discovered that Remus is, in fact, a werewolf, the three of them illegally learned to become Animagi to accompany Remus safely during his transformations and keep him under control. It is during this time that they discovered almost all the secret passageways of Hogwarts and designed the Marauder's Map. At school, James is said to have been a talented player on the Gryffindor Quidditch team. In the film version of \"Philosopher's Stone\", Harry and his friends find James' name listed on a plaque as a Seeker on his Quidditch team; however, Rowling stated in an interview that she intended him to be a Chaser. Rowling describes James and Harry as having similar attributes: the same thin face, same hands, and the same untidy black hair sticking up at the back, and nearly the same height as his son during their school days. However, Rowling also describes James as having hazel eyes and a slightly longer nose than Harry does. Like Harry, James is generally described to be a good, loyal friend who \"regarded it as the height of dishonour to mistrust his friends\". Characters in the books often comment on James' personality, about which Rowling comments that \"there was a lot of good in James\". The Hogwarts student population seems to have admired James back in his day, and teachers respected his talent, though not his behaviour. His popularity, however, was not universal, as a mutual hatred sprang up between him and Snape. Snape constantly tells Harry that James was \"exceedingly arrogant\", and on one occasion, Sirius admits that he and James could sometimes be \"arrogant little berks\" but that \"James grew out of it\" (which Lily is said to have noted by their", "Lily Potter (née Evans) is the mother of Harry Potter. She is described as being very pretty, with startlingly green almond-shaped eyes and thick, long, dark auburn hair. She is one of the \"all-time favorite students\" of star collector Horace Slughorn, who describes her as \"vivacious\", \"charming\", \"cheeky\", and \"very funny\" and recalls that he \"often told her she should have been in Slytherin\". In addition, Slughorn says Lily is one of the brightest students he ever taught, with a natural and intuitive ability at Potions. Rowling describes Lily as being \"a bit of a catch\"; she was a popular girl for whom many boys had romantic feelings. Although Lily is Muggle-born, she is an extremely gifted witch at the top of her class. She became Head Girl in her seventh year. Lily's sister Petunia Dursley despised her for being a witch and viewed her as a \"freak\", although Petunia is later revealed to have been envious of her abilities. Rowling stated that Lily did receive warning letters for testing the limits of the Statute of Secrecy. Lily's Patronus is a doe, presumably to pair with James' Animagus shape of a stag (also the form of Harry's Patronus). After witnessing a memory from Snape about Lily's and James' time as Hogwarts students, Harry gathers the impression that Lily hated James, but Sirius and Lupin assure him that she did not; they \"simply got off on the wrong foot\", because Snape and James hated each other, and Snape was Lily's best friend at the time, despite him sorting into Slytherin. Rowling confirmed this view when asked how Lily and James had fallen in love if Lily hated him. Lupin tells Harry that after James matured, Lily started seeing him in their seventh year. Rowling later echoed Lupin's words, describing it as James having to \"[tone] down some of his more 'bombastic' behavior\". They married soon after leaving Hogwarts, with Sirius as best man at their wedding. The old, pre-Hogwarts friendship between Lily and Snape is fully revealed in \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows\", along with the fact that Snape harboured unrequited romantic feelings for Lily from", "Kingsley Shacklebolt is a senior Auror who acts as informer for the Order within the Ministry of Magic. He is first introduced in \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\", when he volunteers to be one of the members of the Advance Guard that escorted Harry from the Dursleys' home to Number 12, Grimmauld Place. Kingsley is in charge of the search for Sirius in the Ministry; however, knowing Sirius is innocent, he is supplying the Ministry false information that Sirius is in Tibet. He is present in the scene of the fifth book when Harry is confronted about Dumbledore's Army, after Marietta Edgecombe betrays it to Dolores Umbridge. Kingsley swiftly modifies Marietta's memory, but to avoid suspicion from the Ministry, Dumbledore is forced to hex him too as he flees. Kingsley takes part in the battle at the Department of Mysteries and appears to be very skilled at duelling as he is seen fighting two Death Eaters at once. However, after Sirius is killed, he continues the duel with Bellatrix Lestrange, during which Kingsley is hit by a spell that causes a \"loud bang\" and he", "Nymphadora Tonks is a Metamorphmagus and an Auror. Her name means \"Gift of the Nymphs\". She despises her given name and prefers to be called by her surname alone. She is still referred to as \"Tonks\" by her peers even after her marriage. She is described as having \"a pale heart-shaped face, dark twinkling eyes\", and is usually depicted with different hair colours, which she can change at will. Tonks is seen to be notoriously clumsy and unskilled at household spells. Nymphadora is the only daughter of Ted and Andromeda Tonks, the latter being sister to Bellatrix Lestrange and Narcissa Malfoy; Nymphadora is therefore Draco Malfoy's first cousin yet she never addresses him as family, alluding to him simply as \"the Malfoy boy\". Tonks is sorted into Hufflepuff, and graduates from Hogwarts one year before Harry enters, after which she begins three years of Auror training; under Moody's tutelage, she qualifies as an Auror one year before her first appearance in \"Order of the Phoenix\". Tonks and Kingsley act as spies for the Order in the Ministry. She helps to escort Harry first from the Dursleys' house to Order headquarters, and later to the Hogwarts Express. Tonks later fights the Death Eaters at the Department of Mysteries, in which she is injured by Bellatrix, and has to be taken to St Mungo's. During \"Half-Blood Prince\", Tonks is stationed at Hogsmeade and assigned", "Arthur Weasley is the patriarch of the Weasleys, a family of wizards who is considered \"blood traitors\" by Death Eaters for their interest in the Muggle world. He is married to Molly Weasley, with whom he has seven children, including Ron, Harry's best friend. During his time at Hogwarts, Arthur belonged to the house of Gryffindor. Arthur is described as being tall and thin, and as having a receding hairline and horn-rimmed glasses. An affable, light-hearted man, he tends not to be the authority figure in the family; his wife Molly handles that area. Arthur works for the Ministry of Magic, initially in the Misuse of Muggle Artefacts Office. He is obsessed with learning about Muggle customs and inventions and owns a large collection of mostly Muggle used items. His department lacks funding, and his salary is only just able to provide for a vast family, leaving his family finances precarious. Mr. Weasley first appears in \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\", when Harry stays with the Weasley family at The Burrow during the summer before the first term of Hogwarts begins. In this book, Lucius Malfoy tries to discredit Arthur when Harry and Ron are seen flying his enchanted car and by placing Tom Riddle's diary in Ginny's cauldron so that she can open the Chamber of Secrets and take the blame for the attacks on Muggle-borns. However, Lucius fails to fulfill his objective and the diary is destroyed. At the start of \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\", Arthur wins a large", "William Arthur \"Bill\" Weasley is the eldest born son of Arthur and Molly Weasley. He is described to be \"hard-working\" and \"down-to-earth\", but possesses a fondness for \"a bit of adventure, a bit of glamour\". During his time at Hogwarts, Bill becomes both a prefect and Head Boy, with 12 OWLs to his credit. Later, he works for Gringotts Bank in Egypt as a Curse-Breaker. He makes his first full appearance in \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\", where he is described as being a good-looking young man, sporting long red hair tied back in a ponytail and a single fang earring. When Fleur spies Bill at Hogwarts as he and Mrs Weasley paid a visit to Harry during the Triwizard Tournament, she eyes him with \"great interest\". Bill returns to Britain to work with the Order in \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\". He meets Fleur at Gringotts head office in London where she is employed at the time, giving her lessons to improve her English. After a year-long relationship, the", "Charlie Weasley is the second son of Arthur and Molly Weasley and is described as having a build like that of his brothers Fred and George: shorter and stockier than Bill, Percy and Ron. He has a broad, good-natured face, which is slightly weather-beaten and very freckly. His arms are muscly, and one of them has a long shiny burn. While at Hogwarts, he was a prefect, a Quidditch Captain, and a legendary Seeker for the Gryffindor Quidditch team. His skills as a Seeker were so good that it was said, \"He could have been capped for England if he hadn't gone off chasing dragons.\" After school, Charlie chooses to go", "Molly Weasley (née Prewett) is the wife of Arthur Weasley and the matriarch of the Weasley family. She is the mother of seven children, including Ron Weasley, who becomes Harry Potter's best friend. Molly is born into the pure-blood Prewett family, being the sister of Gideon and Fabian Prewett. The character is first introduced in \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", when she kindly tells Harry how to cross the barrier through to Platform Nine and Three-Quarters. In \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\", she is furious with Fred, George, and Ron after she discovers that they flew their parents' enchanted car to rescue Harry from his aunt and uncle who had imprisoned him in his room. At the beginning of the school year, Molly sends Ron a Howler, screaming at him in anger that he and Harry flew the family car again, this time to Hogwarts. In \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\", the Weasleys win the \"Daily Prophet\" draw and use the gold on a trip to Egypt to visit Bill. They return to Britain and stay at the Leaky Cauldron with Harry and Hermione. Harry overhears Mr and Mrs Weasley arguing one night about telling Harry the truth about the supposed connection between Sirius Black and Harry; Arthur feels Harry should know the truth but Molly, feeling the truth would terrify him, assures him Harry will be perfectly safe at Hogwarts with Dumbledore's protection, and orders Percy Weasley to keep an eye on Harry at the school. When Harry arrives at the Burrow in \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\", Molly finds out about Fred and George's experimentation with dangerous sweets they were manufacturing and tells them off before leaving for the Quidditch World Cup; however, after the Dark Mark appears over the sky at the World Cup campsite, Molly is upset for yelling at Fred and George, worried that something might have happened to them after she treated them so horribly. Towards the climax of that book, Molly and Bill arrive at Hogwarts to see the Third Task of the Triwizard Tournament, acting as family guests to Harry. After the return of Voldemort, Dumbledore asks Molly and Bill to join the Order and fight in the impending Second War. Molly comforts Harry and, for the first time in" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Development.", "In literature and in practice.", "Related concepts.", "Notable utopian communities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The thinkers identified as utopian socialist did not use the term utopian to refer to their ideas. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were the first thinkers to refer to them as utopian, referring to all socialist ideas that simply presented a vision and distant goal of an ethically just society as utopian. This utopian mindset which held an integrated conception of the goal, the means to produce said goal and an understanding of the way that those means would inevitably be produced through examining social and economic phenomena can be contrasted with scientific socialism which has been likened to Taylorism. This distinction was made clear in Engels' work \"\" (1892, part of an earlier publication, the \"Anti-Dühring\" from 1878). Utopian socialists were seen as wanting to expand the principles of the French revolution in order to create a more rational society. Despite being labeled as utopian by later socialists, their aims were not always utopian and their values often included rigid support for the scientific method and the creation of a society based upon scientific understanding.", "The term utopian socialism was introduced by Karl Marx in \"For a Ruthless Criticism of Everything\" in 1843 and then developed in \"The Communist Manifesto\" in 1848, although shortly before its publication Marx had already attacked the ideas of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in \"Das Elend der Philosophie\" (originally written in French, 1847). The term was used by later socialist thinkers to describe early socialist or quasi-socialist intellectuals who created hypothetical visions of egalitarian, communalist, meritocratic, or other notions of perfect societies without considering how these societies could be created or sustained. In \"Das Elend der Philosophie\", English title \"The Poverty of Philosophy\", Marx criticized the economic and philosophical arguments of Proudhon set forth in \"The System of Economic Contradictions, or The Philosophy of Poverty\". Marx accused Proudhon of wanting to rise above the bourgeoisie. In the history of Marx's thought and Marxism, this work is pivotal in the distinction between the concepts of utopian socialism and what Marx and the Marxists claimed as scientific socialism. Although utopian socialists shared few political, social, or economic perspectives, Marx and Engels argued that they shared certain intellectual characteristics. In \"The Communist Manifesto\", Marx and Engels wrote: \"The undeveloped state of the class struggle, as well as their own surroundings, causes Socialists of this kind to consider themselves far superior to all class antagonisms. They want to improve the condition of every member of society, even that of the most favored. Hence, they habitually appeal to society at large, without distinction of class; nay, by preference, to the ruling class. For how can people, when once they understand their system, fail to see it in the best possible plan of the best possible state of society? Hence, they reject all political, and especially all revolutionary, action; they wish to attain their ends by peaceful means, and endeavor, by small experiments, necessarily doomed to failure, and by the force of example, to pave the way for the new social Gospel\". Marx and Engels used the term scientific socialism to describe the type of socialism they saw themselves developing. According to Engels, socialism was not \"an accidental discovery of this or that ingenious brain, but the necessary outcome of the struggle between two historically developed classesthe proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Its task was no longer to manufacture a system of society as perfect as possible, but to examine the historical-economic succession of events from which these classes and their antagonism had of necessity sprung, and to discover in the economic conditions thus created the means of ending the conflict\". Critics have argued that utopian socialists who established experimental communities were in fact trying to apply the scientific method to human social organization and were therefore not utopian. For instance, Joshua Muravchik on the basis of Karl Popper's definition of science as \"the practice of experimentation, of hypothesis and test\" argued that \"Owen and Fourier and their followers were the real'scientific socialists.' They hit upon the idea of socialism, and they tested it by attempting to form socialist communities\". Muravchik further argued that in contrast Marx made untestable predictions about the future and that Marx's view that socialism would be created by impersonal historical forces may lead one to conclude that it is unnecessary to strive for socialism because it will happen anyway. Since the mid-19th century, Marxism and Marxism–Leninism overtook utopian socialism in terms of intellectual development and number of adherents. At one time almost half the population of the world lived under regimes that claimed to be Marxist. Currents like Saint-Simonianism and Fourierism attracted the interest of numerous later authors but failed to compete with the now dominant Marxist, Proudhonist, or Leninist schools on a political level. It has been noted that they exerted a significant influence on the emergence of new religious movements such as spiritualism and occultism.", "Perhaps the first utopian socialist was Thomas More (1478–1535), who wrote about an imaginary socialist society in his book \"Utopia\", published in 1516. The contemporary definition of the English word \"utopia\" derives from this work and many aspects of More's description of Utopia were influenced by life in monasteries. Saint-Simonianism was a French political and social movement of the first half of the 19th century, inspired by the ideas of Henri de Saint-Simon (1760–1825). His ideas influenced Auguste Comte (who was for a time Saint-Simon's secretary), Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill and many other thinkers and social theorists. Robert Owen (1771–1858) was a successful Welsh businessman who devoted much of his profits to improving the lives of his employees. His reputation grew when he set up a textile factory in New Lanark, Scotland, co-funded by his teacher, the utilitarian Jeremy Bentham and introduced shorter working hours, schools for children and renovated housing. He wrote about his ideas in his book \"A New View of Society\" which was published in 1813 and \"An Explanation of the Cause of Distress which pervades the civilized parts of the world\" in 1823. He also set up an Owenite commune called New Harmony in Indiana. This collapsed when one of his business partners ran off with all the profits. Owen's main contribution to socialist thought was the view that human social behavior is not fixed or absolute and that humans have the free will to organize themselves into any kind of society they wished. Charles Fourier (1772–1837) rejected the Industrial Revolution altogether and thus the problems that arose with it. Fourier made various fanciful claims about the ideal world he envisioned. Despite some clearly non-socialist inclinations, he contributed significantly even if indirectly to the socialist movement. His writings about turning work into play influenced the young Karl Marx and helped him devise his theory of alienation. Also a contributor to feminism, Fourier invented the concept of \"phalanstère\", units of people based on a theory of passions and of their combination. Several colonies based on Fourier's ideas were founded in the United States by Albert Brisbane and Horace Greeley. Many Romantic Authors, most notably William Godwin and Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote anti-capitalist works and supported peasant revolutions across early 19th century Europe. Étienne Cabet (1788–1856), influenced by Robert Owen, published a book in 1840 entitled \"Travel and adventures of Lord William Carisdall in Icaria\" in which he described an ideal communalist society. His attempts to form real socialist communities based on his ideas through the Icarian movement did not survive, but one such community was the precursor of Corning, Iowa. Possibly inspired by Christianity, he coined the word \"communism\" and influenced other thinkers, including Marx and Engels. Edward Bellamy (1850–1898) published \"Looking Backward\" in 1888, a utopian romance novel about a future socialist society. In Bellamy's utopia, property was held in common and money replaced with a system of equal credit for all. Valid for a year and non-transferable between individuals, credit expenditure was to be tracked via \"credit-cards\" (which bear no resemblance to modern credit cards which are tools of debt-finance). Labour was compulsory from age 21 to 40 and organised via various departments of an Industrial Army to which most citizens belonged. Working hours were to be cut drastically due to technological advances (including organisational). People were expected to be motivated by a Religion of Solidarity and criminal behavior was treated as a form of mental illness or \"atavism\". The book ranked as second or third best seller of its time (after \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" and \"Ben Hur\"). In 1897, Bellamy published a sequel entitled \"Equality\" as a reply to his critics and which lacked the Industrial Army and other authoritarian aspects. William Morris (1834–1896) published \"News from Nowhere\" in 1890, partly as a response to Bellamy's \"Looking Backwards\", which he equated with the socialism of Fabians such as Sydney Webb. Morris' vision of the future socialist society was centred around his concept of useful work as opposed to useless toil and the redemption of human labour. Morris believed that all work should be artistic, in the sense that the worker should find it both pleasurable and an outlet for creativity. Morris' conception of labour thus bears strong resemblance to Fourier's, while Bellamy's (the reduction of labour) is more akin to that of Saint-Simon or in aspects Marx. The Brotherhood Church in Britain and the Life and Labor Commune in Russia were based on the Christian anarchist ideas of Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910). Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) and Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921) wrote about anarchist forms of socialism in their books. Proudhon wrote \"What is Property?\" (1840) and \"The System of Economic Contradictions, or The Philosophy of Poverty\" (1847). Kropotkin wrote \"The Conquest of Bread\" (1892) and \"Fields, Factories and Workshops\" (1912). Many of the anarchist collectives formed in Spain, especially in Aragon and Catalonia, during the Spanish Civil War were based on their ideas. While linking to different topics is always useful to maximize exposure, anarchism does not derive itself from utopian socialism and most anarchists would consider the association to essentially be a marxist slur designed to reduce the credibility of anarchism amongst socialists. Many participants in the historical kibbutz movement in Israel were motivated by utopian socialist ideas. Augustin Souchy (1892–1984) spent most of his life investigating and participating in many kinds of socialist communities. Souchy wrote about his experiences in his autobiography \"Beware! Anarchist!\" Behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) published \"Walden Two\" in 1948. The Twin Oaks Community was originally based on his ideas. Ursula K. Le Guin (1929-2018) wrote about an impoverished anarchist society in her book \"The Dispossessed\", published in 1974, in which the anarchists agree to leave their home planet and colonize a barely habitable moon in order to avoid a bloody revolution.", "Some communities of the modern intentional community movement such as kibbutzim could be categorized as utopian socialist. Some religious communities, such as the Hutterites, can be categorized as religious socialists. Classless modes of production in hunter-gatherer societies are referred to as primitive communism by Marxists to stress their classless nature. A related concept is that of a socialist utopia, usually depicted in works of fiction as possible ways society can turn out to be in the future and often combined with notions of a technologically revolutionized economy.", "Utopian communities have existed all over the world. In various forms and locations, they have existed continuously in the United States since the 1730s, beginning with Ephrata Cloister, a religious community in what is now Lancaster County, Pennsylvania." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Operation and requirements." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The earliest known usage of the naval mine dates to the Ming dynasty. Dedicated minesweepers, however, only appear in the historical record many centuries later during the Crimean War, where they were deployed by the British. In the Crimean War, minesweepers consisted of British rowboats trailing grapnels to snag the mines. Despite the use of mines in the American Civil War, there are no records of effective minesweeping being used. Officials in the Union Army attempted to create the first minesweeper but were plagued by flawed designs and abandoned the project. Minesweeping technology picked up in the Russo-Japanese War, using aging torpedo boats as minesweepers. In Britain, naval leaders recognized before the outbreak of World War I that the development of sea mines was a threat to the nation's shipping and began efforts to counter the threat. Sir Arthur Wilson noted the real threat of the time was blockade aided by mines and not invasion. The function of the fishing fleet's trawlers with their trawl gear was recognized as having a natural connection with mine clearance and, among other things, trawlers were used to keep the English Channel clear of mines. A Trawler Section of the Royal Navy Reserve became the predecessor of the mine sweeping forces with specially designed ships and equipment to follow. These reserve Trawler Section fishermen and their trawlers were activated, supplied with mine gear, rifles, uniforms and pay as the first minesweepers. The dedicated, purpose-built minesweeper first appeared during World War I with the Flower-class minesweeping sloop. By the end of the War, naval mine technology had grown beyond the ability of minesweepers to detect and remove. Minesweeping made significant advancements during World War II. Combatant nations quickly adapted ships to the task of minesweeping, including Australia's 35 civilian ships that became Auxiliary Minesweepers. Both Allied and Axis countries made heavy use of minesweepers throughout the war. Historian Gordon Williamson wrote that \"Germany's minesweepers alone formed a massive proportion of its total strength, and are very much the unsung heroes of the Kriegsmarine.\" Naval mines remained a threat even after the war ended, and minesweeping crews were still active after VJ Day. After the Second World War, allied countries worked on new classes of minesweepers ranging from 120-ton designs for clearing estuaries to 735-ton oceangoing vessels. The United States Navy even used specialized Mechanized Landing Craft to sweep shallow harbors in and around North Korea. , the U.S. Navy had four minesweepers deployed to the Persian Gulf to address regional instabilities. The Royal Navy also has four minesweepers stationed in the Persian Gulf as part of the 9th Mine Counter-Measures Squadron.", "Minesweepers are equipped with mechanical or electrical devices, known as \"sweeps\", for disabling mines. The modern minesweeper is designed to reduce the chances of it detonating mines itself; it is soundproofed to reduce its acoustic signature and often constructed using wood, fiberglass or non-ferrous metal, or is degaussed to reduce its magnetic signature. Mechanical sweeps are devices designed to cut the anchoring cables of moored mines, and preferably attach a tag to help the subsequent localization and neutralization. They are towed behind the minesweeper, and use a towed body (e.g. oropesa, paravane) to maintain the sweep at the desired depth and position. Influence sweeps are equipment, often towed, that emulate a particular ship signature, thereby causing a mine to detonate. The most common such sweeps are magnetic and acoustic generators. There are two modes of operating an influence sweep: MSM (mine setting mode) and TSM (target simulation mode or target setting mode). MSM sweeping is founded on intelligence on a given type of mine, and produces the output required for detonation of this mine. If such intelligence is unavailable, the TSM sweeping instead reproduces the influence of the friendly ship that is about to transit the area. TSM sweeping thus clears mines directed at this ship without knowledge of the mines. However, mines directed at other ships might remain. The minesweeper differs from a minehunter; the minehunter actively detects and neutralises individual mines. Minesweepers are in many cases complementary to minehunters, depending on the operation and the environment; a minesweeper is, in particular, better suited to clearing open-water areas with large numbers of mines. Both kinds of ships are collectively called mine countermeasure vessels (MCMV), a term also applied to a vessel that combines both roles. The first such ship was HMS \"Wilton\", also the first warship to be constructed from fiberglass." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1950s: Early career struggles.", "1960s.", "1970s.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "Directing.", "Personal life.", "Relationships, marriages, affairs and children.", "Properties.", "Health and leisure activities.", "Spiritual beliefs.", "Other personal interests.", "Politics.", "Musical interests.", "Filmography.", "Awards and honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Eastwood was born on May 31, 1930 at Saint Francis Memorial Hospital in San Francisco, California to Ruth (née Runner; 1909–2006) and Clinton Eastwood (1906–1970). During her son's fame, Ruth was known by the surname of her second husband, John Belden Wood (1913–2004), whom she married after the death of Clinton Sr. Eastwood was nicknamed \"Samson\" by the hospital nurses because he weighed at birth. He has a younger sister, Jeanne Bernhardt (b. 1934). He is of English, Irish, Scottish, and Dutch ancestry. He is descended from \"Mayflower\" passenger William Bradford, and through this line is the 12th generation born in North America. His family relocated three times during the 1930s as his father changed occupations, residing in Sacramento in 1935, according to census records. Contrary to what Eastwood has indicated in media interviews, they did not move between 1940 and 1949. Settling in Piedmont, California, the Eastwoods lived in an affluent area of the town, had a swimming pool, belonged to a country club, and each parent drove their own car. Eastwood's father was a manufacturing executive at Georgia-Pacific for most of his working life. As Clint and Jeanne grew older, Ruth took a clerical job at IBM. Eastwood attended Piedmont Middle School, where he was held back due to poor academic scores, and records indicated he also had to attend summer school. From January", "", "According to the CBS press release for \"Rawhide\", the Universal-International film company was shooting in Fort Ord when an enterprising assistant spotted Eastwood and invited him to meet the director, although this is disputed by Eastwood's unauthorized biographer, Patrick McGilligan. According to Eastwood's official biography, the key figure was a man named Chuck Hill, who was stationed in Fort Ord and had contacts in Hollywood. While in Los Angeles, Hill became reacquainted with Eastwood and managed to sneak him into a Universal studio, where he introduced him to cameraman Irving Glassberg. Glassberg arranged for an audition under Arthur Lubin, who, although very impressed with Eastwood's appearance and stature, then 6'4\" (193 cm), disapproved of his acting, remarking, \"He was quite amateurish. He didn't know", "In late 1963, Eastwood's \"Rawhide\" co-star Eric Fleming rejected an offer to star in an Italian-made western called \"A Fistful of Dollars\" (1964), filmed in a remote region of Spain by a relatively unknown director, Sergio Leone. Richard Harrison suggested Eastwood to Leone because Harrison knew Eastwood could play a cowboy convincingly. Eastwood thought the film would be an opportunity to escape from his \"Rawhide\" image. He signed a contract for $15,000 in wages for eleven weeks' work, with a bonus of a Mercedes-Benz automobile upon completion. Eastwood later said of the transition from a TV western to \"A Fistful of Dollars\": \"In \"Rawhide\" I did get awfully tired of playing the conventional white hat. The hero who kisses old ladies and dogs and was kind to everybody. I decided it was time to be an antihero.\" Eastwood was instrumental in creating the Man with No Name character's distinctive visual style and, although a non-smoker, Leone insisted Eastwood smoke cigars as an essential ingredient of the \"mask\" he was attempting to create for the character. \"A Fistful", "Eastwood starred with Shirley MacLaine in the western \"Two Mules for Sister Sara\" (1970), directed by Don Siegel. The film follows an American mercenary, who becomes mixed up with a prostitute disguised as a nun, and ends up helping a group of Juarista rebels during the reign of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. Eastwood again played a mysterious strangerunshaven, wearing a serape-like vest, and smoking a cigar. Although it received moderate reviews, the film is listed in \"The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made\". Around the same time, Eastwood starred as one of a group of Americans who steal a fortune in gold from the Nazis, in the World War II film \"Kelly's Heroes\" (also 1970), with Donald Sutherland and Telly Savalas. \"Kelly's Heroes\" was the last film Eastwood appeared in that was not produced by his own Malpaso Productions. Filming commenced in July 1969 on location in Yugoslavia and in London. The film received mostly a positive reception and its anti-war sentiments were recognized. In the winter of 1969–70, Eastwood and Siegel began planning his next film, \"The Beguiled\" (1971), a tale of a wounded Union soldier, held captive by the sexually repressed matron (played by Geraldine Page) of a Southern girls' school. Upon release the film received major recognition in France and is considered one of Eastwood's finest works by French critics. However, it grossed less than $1 million and, according to Eastwood and Lang, flopped due to poor publicity and the \"emasculated\" role of Eastwood. Eastwood's career reached a turning point in 1971. Before Irving Leonard died, he and Eastwood had discussed the idea of Malpaso producing \"Play Misty for Me\", a film that was to give Eastwood the artistic control he desired, and his debut as a director. The script was about a jazz disc jockey named Dave (Eastwood), who has a casual affair with Evelyn (Jessica Walter), a listener who had been calling the radio station repeatedly at night, asking him to play her favorite song –", "Eastwood directed and played the title role in \"Bronco Billy\" (1980), alongside Locke, Scatman Crothers, and Sam Bottoms. Eastwood has cited \"Bronco Billy\" as being one of the most relaxed shoots of his career and biographer Richard Schickel argued that Bronco Billy is Eastwood's most self-referential character. The film was a commercial disappointment, but was liked by critics. Janet Maslin of \"The New York Times\" wrote that film was \"the best and funniest Clint Eastwood movie in quite a while\", and praised Eastwood's directing, intricately juxtaposing the old West and the new West. Released later in 1980, \"Any Which Way You Can\", was the sequel to \"Every Which Way But Loose\" and also starring Eastwood. The film received a number of bad reviews from critics, although Maslin described it as \"funnier and even better than its predecessor\". In theaters over the Christmas season, \"Any Which Way You Can\" was a major box office success and ranked among the top five highest-grossing films of the year. Eastwood directed and starred in \"Honkytonk Man\" (1982), based on the eponymous Clancy Carlile's depression-era novel. Eastwood portrays a struggling western singer Red Stovall who suffers from tuberculosis, but has finally been given an opportunity to make it big at the Grand Ole Opry. He is accompanied", "Eastwood directed and starred in \"White Hunter Black Heart\" (1990), an adaptation of Peter Viertel's \"roman à clef\", about John Huston and the making of the classic film \"The African Queen\". Shot on location in Zimbabwe in the summer of 1989, the film received some critical attention but with only a limited release earned just $8.4 million. Eastwood directed and co-starred with Charlie Sheen in \"The Rookie\", a buddy cop action film released in December 1990. Critics found the film's plot and characterization unconvincing, but praised its action sequences. An ongoing lawsuit, in response to Eastwood allegedly ramming a woman's car, resulted in no Eastwood films being shown in cinemas in 1991. Eastwood won the suit and agreed to pay the complainant's legal fees if she did not appeal. Eastwood revisited the", "Eastwood directed and starred in \"Space Cowboys\" (2000) alongside Tommy Lee Jones, Donald Sutherland and James Garner. Eastwood played one of a group of veteran ex-test pilots sent into space to repair an old Soviet satellite. The original music score was composed by Eastwood and Lennie Niehaus. \"Space Cowboys\" was critically well-received and holds a 79 percent rating at Rotten Tomatoes, although Roger Ebert wrote that the film was, \"too secure within its traditional story structure to make much seem at risk.\" The film grossed more than $90 million in its United States release, more than Eastwood's two previous films combined. Eastwood played an ex-FBI agent chasing a sadistic killer (Jeff Daniels) in the thriller \"Blood Work\" (2002), loosely based on the 1998 novel of the same name by Michael Connelly. The film was a commercial failure, grossing just $26.2 million on an estimated budget of", "In the Eastwood-directed \"Hereafter\" (2010), he again worked with Matt Damon, who portrayed a psychic. The film had its world premiere on September 12, 2010 at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival and had a limited release later in October. \"Hereafter\" received mixed reviews from critics, with the consensus at Rotten Tomatoes being, \"Despite a thought-provoking premise and Clint Eastwood's typical flair as director, \"Hereafter\" fails to generate much compelling drama, straddling the line between poignant sentimentality and hokey tedium.\" Around the same time, Eastwood served as executive producer for a Turner Classic Movies (TCM) documentary about jazz pianist Dave", "Beginning with the thriller \"Play Misty for Me\", Eastwood has directed over 30 films, including Westerns, action films, and dramas. He is one of few top Hollywood actors to have also become a critically and commercially successful director. \"The New Yorker\"s David Denby wrote that, unlike Eastwood, From the very early days of his career Eastwood was frustrated by directors' insistence that scenes be re-shot multiple times and perfected, and when he began directing in 1970, he made a conscious attempt to avoid any aspects of directing he had been indifferent to as an actor. As a result, Eastwood is renowned for his efficient film directing and ability to reduce filming time and control budgets. He usually avoids actors' rehearsing and prefers to complete most scenes on the first take. Eastwood's rapid filmmaking practices have been compared to those of Woody Allen, Ingmar Bergman, Jean-Luc Godard, and the Coen brothers. When acting", "", "Eastwood has had numerous casual and serious relationships of varying length and intensity over his life, many of which overlapped. Shortly after he met future wife Maggie Johnson on a blind date in spring 1953, Eastwood had a relationship that resulted in a daughter, Laurie (born 1954), who was adopted by Clyde and Helen Warren of Seattle. Although the identity of Laurie's biological mother is not publicly known, biographer Patrick McGilligan said she belonged to a theatre group Eastwood participated in. Eastwood continued having affairs while married to Johnson, including a 1959 to 1973 liaison with stuntwoman Roxanne Tunis that produced a daughter, Kimber (born 1964). Johnson evidently tolerated the open marriage with Eastwood,", "In 2010 at age 80, Eastwood spent approximately $20 million to build himself a 15,949-square-foot compound in Carmel-by-the-Sea. His California real estate portfolio also includes a 6,136-square-foot Spanish style mansion in Bel-Air, the 1,067.5 acre Rising River Ranch in Burney, an apartment in Burbank, as well as a", "Eastwood has held a lifelong distaste for tobacco and tobacco companies, and only smokes when required to do so by a film role. He has also been conscious of his health and fitness since he was a teenager, and practices healthy eating and daily Transcendental Meditation. He opened an old English-inspired pub called the", "In 1973, Eastwood told the film critic Gene Siskel, \"No, I don't believe in God.\" Eastwood has said that he finds spirituality in nature (as suggested by his Western, \"Pale Rider\", 1985), stating that \"I was born during the Depression and I was brought up with no specific church. We moved every four or five months during the first 14 years of my life, so I was sent to a different church depending on wherever we lived. Most of them were Protestant, but I went to other churches", "Eastwood has been conscious of his health and fitness since he was a teenager, and practices healthful eating habits. As a young man making a name for himself during the production of \"Rawhide\", Eastwood would be featured in magazines and journals, which often documented his health-conscious lifestyle. In the August 1959 edition of \"TV Guide\", for example, Eastwood was photographed doing push-ups. He gave tips on fitness and nutrition, telling people to eat plenty of fruit and raw vegetables, to take vitamins, and to avoid sugar-loaded beverages, excessive alcohol, and overloading on carbohydrates. On July 21, 1970, Eastwood's father died of a heart attack at the age of 64. The death,", "Eastwood is a former Republican, albeit one who has sometimes supported Democrats, and has long shown an interest in California politics; he is currently a registered Libertarian. He won election as the nonpartisan mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California in April 1986. He earned $200 per month in that position which he donated to the Carmel Youth Center. While in office, he helped to make ice cream legal to consume on city streets, added public restrooms to the public beach, and a city library annex building was built. He served for 2 years and declined to run for a second", "Eastwood is an audiophile and owns an extensive collection of LPs which he plays on a Rockport turntable. He has had a strong passion for music all his life, particularly jazz and country and western music. He dabbled in music early on by developing as a boogie-woogie pianist and had originally intended to pursue a career in music by studying for a music theory degree after graduating from high school. In late 1959 he produced the album \"Cowboy Favorites\", released on the Cameo label, which included some classics such as Bob Wills's \"San Antonio Rose\" and Cole Porter's \"Don't Fence Me In\". Despite his attempts to plug the album by going on a tour, it never reached the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. In 1963, Cameo producer Kal Mann told him that \"he would never make it big as a singer\". Nevertheless, during the off season of filming \"Rawhide\", Eastwood and Paul Brinegarsometimes joined by Sheb Wooleytoured rodeos, state fairs, and festivals. In 1962, their act, entitled Amusement Business Cavalcade of Fairs, earned them as much as $15,000 a performance. Eastwood has his own Warner Bros. Records-distributed imprint, Malpaso Records, as part of his deal with Warner Brothers. This deal was unchanged when Warner Music Group was sold by Time Warner to private investors. Malpaso Records, which has released all of the scores of", "Eastwood has contributed to over 50films over his career as actor, director, producer, and composer. He has acted in several television series, including his co-starring role in \"Rawhide\". He started directing in 1971, and made his debut as a producer in 1982, with \"Firefox\", though he had been", "Eastwood has been recognized with multiple awards and nominations for his work in film, television, and music. His widest reception has been in film work, for which he has received Academy Awards, Directors Guild of America Awards, Golden Globe Awards, and People's Choice Awards, among others. Eastwood is one of only two people to have been twice nominated for Best Actor and Best Director for the same film (\"Unforgiven\" and \"Million Dollar Baby\") the other being Warren Beatty (\"Heaven Can Wait\" and \"Reds\"). Along with Beatty, Robert Redford, Richard Attenborough, Kevin Costner, and Mel Gibson, he is one of the few directors best known as an actor to win an Academy Award for directing. On February 27, 2005, he became one of only three living directors (along with Miloš Forman and Francis Ford Coppola) to have directed two Best Picture winners. At the age of 74, he was the oldest recipient of the Academy Award for Best Director to date. Eastwood has directed five actors in Academy Award-winning performances: Gene Hackman in \"Unforgiven\", Tim Robbins and Sean Penn in \"Mystic River\", and Morgan Freeman and Hilary Swank in \"Million Dollar Baby\". On August 22, 1984, Eastwood was honored at a ceremony at Grauman's Chinese theater to record his hand and footprints in cement. Eastwood received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1996, and received an honorary degree from AFI in 2009. On December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Eastwood into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts. In early 2007, Eastwood was presented with the highest civilian distinction in France, Légion d'honneur, at a ceremony in Paris. French President Jacques Chirac told Eastwood that he embodied \"the best of Hollywood.\" In October 2009, he was honored by the Lumière Award (in honor of the Lumière Brothers, inventors of the Cinematograph) during the first edition of the Lumière Film Festival in Lyon, France. This award honors his entire career and his major contribution to the 7th Art. In February 2010, Eastwood was recognized by President Barack Obama with an arts and humanities award. Obama described Eastwood's films as \"essays in individuality, hard truths and the essence of what it means to be American.\" Eastwood has also been awarded at least three honorary degrees from universities and colleges, including an honorary degree from the University of the Pacific in 2006, an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California on May 27, 2007, and an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival on September 22, 2007. On July 22, 2009, Eastwood was honored by Emperor Akihito of Japan with the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon for his contributions to the enhancement of Japan–United States relations. Eastwood won the Golden Pine lifetime achievement award at the 2013 International Samobor Film Music Festival, along with Ryuichi Sakamoto and Gerald Fried." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood and education.", "Career.", "Richter magnitude scale.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Richter was born in Overpeck, Ohio. Richter had German heritage: his great-grandfather was a Forty-Eighter, coming from Baden-Baden (today in Baden-Württemberg, Germany) in 1848 in the wake of the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. Richter's parents Frederick William and Lillian Anna (Kinsinger) Richter, were divorced when he was very young. He grew up with his maternal grandfather, who moved the family (including his mother) to Los Angeles in 1909. After graduating from Los Angeles High School he attended Stanford University and received his undergraduate degree in 1920. In 1928, he began work on his PhD in theoretical physics from the California Institute of Technology, but, before he finished it, he was offered a position at the Carnegie Institute of Washington. At this point, he became fascinated with seismology (the study of earthquakes and the waves they produce in the earth). Thereafter, he worked at the new Seismological Laboratory in Pasadena, under the direction of Beno Gutenberg. In 1932, Richter and Gutenberg developed a standard scale to measure the relative sizes of earthquake sources, called the Richter scale. In 1937, he returned to the California Institute of Technology, where he spent the rest of his career, eventually becoming professor of seismology in 1952.", "Richter went to work at the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1927 after Robert Millikan offered him a position as a research assistant there, where he began a collaboration with Beno Gutenberg. The Seismology Lab at the California Institute of Technology wanted to begin publishing regular reports on earthquakes in southern California and had a pressing need for a system of measuring the strength of earthquakes for these reports. Together, Richter and Gutenberg devised the scale that would become known at the Richter scale to fill this need, based on measuring quantitatively the displacement of the earth by seismic waves, as Kiyoo Wadati had suggested. The pair designed a seismograph that measured this displacement and developed a logarithmic scale to measure intensity. The name \"magnitude\" for this measurement came from Richter's childhood interest in astronomy - astronomers measure the intensity of stars in magnitudes. Gutenberg's contribution was substantial, but his aversion to interviews contributed to his name being left off the scale. After the publication of the proposed scale in 1935, seismologists quickly adopted it for use in measuring the intensity of earthquakes. Richter remained at the Carnegie Institution until 1936, when he obtained a post at the California Institute of Technology, where Beno Gutenberg worked. Gutenberg and Richter published \"Seismicity of the Earth\" in 1941. Its revised edition, published in 1954, is considered a standard reference in the field. Richter became a full professor at the California Institute of Technology in 1952. In 1958, he published \"Elementary Seismology\" based on his undergraduate teaching notes. As Richter seldom published in peer-reviewed scientific journals, that is often considered his most important contribution to seismology. Richter spent 1959 and 1960 in Japan as a Fulbright scholar. Around this time in his career, he became involved in earthquake engineering through development of building codes for earthquake prone areas. The city government of Los Angeles removed many ornaments and cornices from municipal buildings in the 1960s as a result of Richter's awareness campaigns. After the 1971 San Fernando earthquake, the city cited Richter's warnings as important in preventing many deaths. Richter had retired in 1970.", "At the time when Richter began a collaboration with Gutenberg, the only way to rate shocks was a scale developed in 1902 by the Italian priest and geologist Giuseppe Mercalli. The Mercalli scale uses Roman numerals and classifies earthquakes from I to XII, depending on how buildings and people responded to the tremor. A shock that set chandeliers swinging might rate as a I or II on this scale, while one that destroyed huge buildings and created panic in a crowded city might count as an X. The obvious problem with the Mercalli scale was that it relied on subjective measures of how well a building had been constructed and how used to these sorts of crises the population was. The Mercalli scale also made it difficult to rate earthquakes that happened in remote, sparsely populated areas. The scale developed by Richter and Gutenberg (which became known by Richter's name only) was instead an absolute measure of an earthquake's intensity. Richter used a seismograph, an instrument generally consisting of a constantly unwinding roll of paper, anchored to a fixed place, and a pendulum or magnet suspended with a marking device above the roll, to record actual earth motion during an earthquake. The scale takes into account the instrument's distance from the epicenter, or the point on the ground that is directly above the earthquake's origin. Richter chose to use the term \"magnitude\" to describe an earthquake's strength because of his early interest in astronomy; stargazers use the word to describe the brightness of stars. Gutenberg suggested that the scale be logarithmic so an earthquake of magnitude 7 would be ten times stronger than a 6, a hundred times stronger than a 5, and a thousand times stronger than a 4. (The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake that shook San Francisco was magnitude 6.9.) The Richter scale was published in 1935 and immediately became the standard measure of earthquake intensity. Richter did not seem concerned that Gutenberg's name was not included at first; but in later years, after Gutenberg was already dead, Richter began to insist for his colleague to be recognized for expanding the scale to apply to earthquakes all over the globe, not just in southern California. Since 1935, several other magnitude scales have been developed.", "Richter was an active and avowed naturist. He travelled to many nudist communities with his wife. At his retirement party, a group of colleagues at Caltech, called the \"Quidnuncs,\" played and sang a ditty titled \"Richter Scale,\" which gave examples of earthquakes in American history, told in ballad style. Richter was initially shy about the song, thinking it demeaned science. However, the author of the song, Kent Clark, stated in a 1989 interview that eventually Richter enjoyed the song. Richter died of congestive heart failure on September 30, 1985 in Pasadena, California. He is buried in Altadena, California's Mountain View Cemetery and Mausoleum." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Geography.", "Present morphology.", "History.", "Ancient Greek, Persian, Roman, and Byzantine eras (pre-1454).", "Greek and Persian history.", "Byzantine history.", "Ottoman era (1354–1922).", "Nineteenth century.", "World War I.", "Turkish republican and modern eras (1923–present).", "Crossings.", "Maritime.", "Land.", "Subsea.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The contemporary Turkish name, meaning'Strait', is derived from the eponymous midsize city that adjoins the strait, itself meaning 'pottery fort'—from (, 'pottery') + (, 'fortress')—in reference to the area's famous pottery and ceramic wares, and the landmark Ottoman fortress of Sultaniye. The English name \"Dardanelles\" is an abbreviation of \"Strait of the Dardanelles\". During Ottoman times there was a castle on each side of the strait. These castles together were called the \"Dardanelles\", probably named after Dardanus, an ancient city on the Asian shore of the strait which in turn was said to take its name from Dardanus, the mythical son of Zeus and Electra. The ancient Greek name () means \"Sea of Helle\", and was the ancient name of the narrow strait. It was variously named in classical literature,, and. It was so called from Helle, the daughter of Athamas, who was drowned here in the mythology of the Golden Fleece.", "As a maritime waterway, the Dardanelles connects various seas along the Eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Near East, and Western Eurasia, and specifically connects the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. The Marmara further connects to the Black Sea via the Bosphorus, while the Aegean further links to the Mediterranean. Thus, the Dardanelles allows maritime connections from the Black Sea all the way to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean via Gibraltar, and the Indian Ocean through the Suez Canal, making it a crucial international waterway, in particular for the passage of goods coming in from Russia. The strait is located at approximately.", "The strait is long, and wide, averaging deep with a maximum depth of at its narrowest point at Nara Burnu, abreast Çanakkale. There are two major currents through the strait: a surface current flows from the Black Sea towards the Aegean Sea, and a more saline undercurrent flows in the opposite direction. The Dardanelles is unique in many respects. The very narrow and winding shape of the strait is more akin to that of a river. It is considered one of the most hazardous, crowded, difficult and potentially dangerous waterways in the world. The currents produced by the tidal action in the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara are such that ships under sail must await at anchorage for the right conditions before entering the Dardanelles.", "As part of the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Dardanelles has always been of great importance from a commercial and military point of view, and remains strategically important today. It is a major sea access route for numerous countries, including Russia and Ukraine. Control over it has been an objective of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the attack of the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles during the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli in the course of World War I.", "", "The ancient city of Troy was located near the western entrance of the strait, and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the Trojan War. Troy was able to control the marine traffic entering this vital waterway. The Persian army of Xerxes I of Persia and later the Macedonian army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in 480 BC and 334 BC respectively. Herodotus says that, circa 482 BC, Xerxes I (the son of Darius) had two pontoon bridges built across the width of the Hellespont at Abydos, in order that his huge army could cross from Persia into Greece. This crossing was named by Aeschylus in his tragedy \"The Persians\" as the cause of divine intervention against Xerxes. According to Herodotus (vv.34), both bridges were destroyed by a storm and Xerxes had those responsible for building the bridges beheaded and the strait itself whipped. The Histories of Herodotus vii.33–37 and vii.54–58 give details of building and crossing of Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges. Xerxes is then said to have thrown fetters into the strait, given it three hundred lashes and branded it with red-hot irons as the soldiers shouted at the water. Herodotus commented that this was a \"highly presumptuous way to address the Hellespont\" but in no way atypical of Xerxes. (vii.35) Harpalus the engineer eventually helped the invading armies to cross by lashing the ships together with their bows facing the current and, so it is said, two additional anchors. From the perspective of ancient Greek mythology, it was said that Helle, the daughter of Athamas, was drowned at the Dardanelles in the legend of the Golden Fleece. Likewise, the strait was the scene of the legend of Hero and Leander, wherein the lovesick Leander swam the strait nightly in order to tryst with his beloved, the priestess Hero, and was drowned in a storm.", "The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of Constantinople during the Byzantine period. Also, the Dardanelles was an important source of income for the ruler of the region. At the Istanbul Archaeological Museum a marble plate contains a law by the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD), that regulated fees for passage through the customs office of the Dardanelles. Translation: ... Whoever dares to violate these regulations shall no longer be regarded as a friend, and he shall be punished. Besides, the administrator of the Dardanelles must have the right to receive 50 golden Litrons, so that these rules, which we make out of piety, shall never ever be violated...... The distinguished governor and major of the capital, who already has both hands full of things to do, has turned to our lofty piety in order to reorganize the entry and exit of all ships through the Dardanelles...... Starting from our day and also in the future, anybody who wants to pass through the Dardanelles must pay the following: – All wine merchants who bring wine to the capital (Constantinopolis), except Cilicians, have to pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis and 2 sextarius of wine. – In the same manner, all merchants of olive-oil, vegetables and lard must pay the Dardanelles officials 6 follis. Cilician sea-merchants have to pay 3 follis and in addition to that, 1 keration (12 follis) to enter, and 2 keration to exit. – All wheat merchants have to pay the officials 3 follis per modius, and a further sum of 3 follis when leaving. Since the 14th century the Dardanelles have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks.", "The Dardanelles continued to constitute an important waterway during the period of the Ottoman Empire, which conquered Gallipoli in 1354. Ottoman control of the strait continued largely without interruption or challenges until the 19th century, when the Empire started its decline.", "Gaining control of or guaranteed access to the strait became a key foreign-policy goal of the Russian Empire during the 19th century. During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia—supported by Great Britain in the Dardanelles Operation—blockaded the straits in 1807. Following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, in 1833 Russia pressured the Ottomans to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi—which required the closing of the straits to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. That would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea. That treaty alarmed the losers, who were concerned that the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Black Sea and Mediterranean regions could conflict with their own possessions and economic interest in the region. At the London Straits Convention in July 1841, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, and Prussia pressured Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to defend the Danube front and to attack the Crimean Peninsula during the Crimean War of 1853-1856 —but they did so as allies of the Ottoman Empire. Following the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War, the Congress of Paris in 1856 formally reaffirmed the London Straits Convention. It remained technically in force into the 20th and 21st centuries.", "In 1915 the Allies sent a substantial invasion force of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, French and Newfoundland troops to attempt to open up the straits. In the Gallipoli campaign, Turkish troops trapped the Allies on the coasts of the Gallipoli peninsula. The campaign did damage to the career of Winston Churchill, then the First Lord of the Admiralty (in office 1911-1915), who had eagerly promoted the unsuccessful use of Royal Navy sea-power to force open the straits. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, later founder of the Republic of Turkey, served as a commander for the Ottomans during the land campaign. The Turks mined the straits to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them, but in minor actions, two submarines, one British and one Australian, did succeed in penetrating the minefields. The British submarine sank an obsolete Turkish pre-dreadnought battleship off the Golden Horn of Istanbul. Sir Ian Hamilton's Mediterranean Expeditionary Force failed in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and the British cabinet ordered its withdrawal in December 1915, after eight months' fighting. Total Allied deaths included 43,000 British, 15,000 French, 8,700 Australians, 2,700 New Zealanders, 1,370 Indians and 49 Newfoundlanders. Total Turkish deaths were around 60,000. Following the war, the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the League of Nations. The Ottoman Empire's non-ethnically Turkish territories were broken up and partitioned among the Allied Powers, and Turkish jurisdiction over the straits curbed.", "After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire following a lengthy campaign by Turks as part of the Turkish War of Independence against both the Allied Powers and the Ottoman court, the Republic of Turkey was created in 1923 by the Treaty of Lausanne, which established most of the modern sovereign territory of Turkey and restored the straits to Turkish territory, with the condition that Turkey keep them demilitarized and allow all foreign warships and commercial shipping to traverse the straits freely. As part of its national security strategy, Turkey eventually rejected the terms of the treaty, and subsequently remilitarized the straits area over the following decade. Following extensive diplomatic negotiations, the reversion was formalized under the Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits in July 20, 1936. That convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane while allowing Turkey to retain the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea states. During World War II, through February 1945, when Turkey was neutral for most of the length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations. Turkey declared war on Germany in February 1945, but it did not employ any offensive forces during the war. In July 1946, the Soviet Union sent a note to Turkey proposing a new régime for the Dardanelles that would have excluded all nations except the Black Sea powers. The second proposal was that the straits should be put under joint Turkish-Soviet defence. This meant that Turkey, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria and Romania would be the only states having access to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles. The Turkish government however, under pressure from the United States, rejected these proposals. Turkey joined NATO in 1952, thus affording its straits even more strategic importance as a commercial and military waterway. In more recent years, the Turkish Straits have become particularly important for the oil industry. Russian oil, from ports such as Novorossyisk, is exported by tankers primarily to western Europe and the U.S. via the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles straits.", "", "The waters of the Dardanelles are traversed by numerous passenger and vehicular ferries daily, as well as recreational and fishing boats ranging from dinghies to yachts owned by both public and private entities. The strait also experiences significant amounts of international commercial shipping traffic by freighters and tankers.", "At present, there are no vehicular crossings across the strait. However, as part of planned expansions to the Turkish National Highway Network, the Turkish Government is considering the construction of a suspension bridge between Sarıçay (a district of Çanakkale Province) on the Asian side, to Kilitbahir on the European side, at the narrowest part of the strait. In March 2017, construction of the Çanakkale 1915 Bridge between the cities of Gelibolu and Lapseki started.", "2 submarine cable systems transmitting electric power at 400 kV voltage bridge the Dardanelles to feed west and east of Istanbul. They have their own landing stations in Lapseki and Sütlüce. The first, situated in the northeast quarter portion of the strait, has been energised in April 2015 and leads 2 GW via 6 phases 400 kV AC 3.9 km far thru the sea. The second, somewhat in the middle of the strait, has been still under construction in June 2016 and has quite similar data. Both subsea power lines cross 4 optical fibre data lines laid earlier along the strait. A published map shows communication lines leading from Istanbul into the Mediterranean, named MedNautilus and landing at Athens, Sicily and elsewhere.", "English Romantic poet Lord Byron (1788–1824) swam across the Dardanelles on 3 May 1810, and recorded it in his poem \"Don Juan\" (1821). Çanakkale, located along the southern shores of the strait, is the finishing point every year for an organised swim across the Dardanelles, which kicks off from Eceabat. This event emulates the swim in 1810 by Lord Byron, who was himself emulating the legendary swim by Leander in the story of Hero and Leander. The shores of the strait are also the site of ancient Troy. The \"wooden horse\" from the 2004 movie \"Troy\" is exhibited on the seafront. The Dardanelles is also the site of two notable maritime accidents in Turkish naval history, when two generations of the submarine TCG Dumlupinar were struck by tankers on their way back from naval missions. The first incident resulted in the deaths of 96 sailors, while the second incident had no fatalities. Due to the importance of the Gallipoli Campaign in many countries' histories, the Dardanelles also features prominently in many documentaries and films about World War I. The Dardanelles is mentioned in the song No place like London from the movie. The song is written and composed by Stephen Sondheim and sung by Johnny Depp and Jamie Campbell Bower. Jamie's character Anthony sings, \"I have sailed the world, beheld its wonders, from the Dardanelles to the mountains of Peru...\" \"Bow Down to Washington\", the fight song of the University of Washington, references the Dardanelles in the lyrics: \"Our boys are there with bells, their fighting blood excels, it's harder to push them over the line than pass the Dardanelles.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classical music.", "Instruments.", "Dances.", "Devotional music.", "Shabd Vani.", "Sufi music.", "Folk music.", "Ritual and life-cycle songs.", "Short verse forms and entertainment songs.", "Professional musicians and genres.", "Popular music.", "Bhangra evolution from folk to pop.", "Punjabi pop.", "Diaspora developments.", "Global Punjabi music industry." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "During the past century, Punjabi folk musicians used 87 instruments, 55 of which are still used today. It is notable that the instruments used today serve a function that exceeds musical necessity in that they are closely tied to Punjabi culture and heritage. The dhol, for example, continues to be popular because it is important to special proceedings such as weddings and sporting events. Additionally, the popularity of certain instruments encourages people to continue learning to play them; therefore, maintaining their relevance in Punjabi events. Terrorist events in during the late 1980s threatened the existence of Punjabi folk music and the instruments that accompanied this genre. With several notable artists being killed and major festivals being cancelled there was not a space for folk music to exist. The boom of technology also threatened folk music by creating a new genre of music known as Punjabi Pop, which mixed electronic and folk music. The following instruments are the most popular within Punjabi music. Algoza: The algoza “consists of two joined beak flutes, one for melody, the second for drone” and the “flutes are either tied together or may be held together loosely with the hands”. A continuous flow of air is necessary as the player blows into the two flutes simultaneously. Dhol: Resembles much of the construction of a drum. It is a two-sided drum of mango wood, 48 cm long and 38 cm wide and is played using two slightly curved sticks. It is thought to have a much more significant value to the artisans such as the blacksmiths or the cobblers. It is usually played during neutral occasions and mostly by only men. Chimta: The chimta are similar to tongs and consist of 122 cm long iron strip that is bent in half and adorned with an iron ring set. The small metal discs called chaene are “attached on the inner side of the tongs so as to strike against each other like small cymbals when the arms of the chimta are struck”. Dholki: The dholki is a smaller, feminine version of the dhol. It is played by women in marriages and religious gatherings. It is rarely decorated with tassels. Kanjari: This is a shallow one sided drum, round or sometimes octagonal, 18 to 28 cm in diameter and set with rattling discs around the rim- in essence of a tambourine. It accompanies singing, dances and religious activities. Kato: This a stick with a squirrel (galad) on top. Attached to the head of the squirrel is a cord, which jerks its head up, “producing a sharp click”. At the same time, bells attached to its tail jingles. Dhad: The Dhad has the hourglass shape of the damroo and but is slightly larger. The body of this instrument is made from mango, mulberry or sheesham wood and the heads are covered in goatskin held taut with cords. The fingers are used to tap and make sounds that can vary based on how tightly or loosely the strings are maintained.", "Dance traditions of Punjab represent a collection of folk art forms that have evolved significantly and changed in meaning throughout the centuries. After the Partition of 1947, Punjab was marked by a period state-building efforts that sought to establish a national identity, which was intimately tied to the revival, folklorization, and ritualization of many of Punjab's older dances. During this period, bhangra dance in particular became tokenized as the iconic emblem of the Punjab region as a whole, overshadowing other important and centuries-old folk dances of the region. Punjab's rich repertoire of folk dances include jhummar, sammi, luddi, dandas, nachar, and giddha. There are prominent dances in Punjab, but are perhaps less familiar to a global audience. Jhummar is A widely established Punjabi dance, there was a decline in jhummar performances, through it was later revived as a conscious reaction to the over-commodified and over-sensationalized bhangra dance to invoke a more traditional notion of Punjab. The name jhummar stems from ghoomar, designated a performance done in a circular direction or group of individuals spinning. It is generally performed only be men, and the movement are generally “relatively slow and gentle, and often considered rather “feminine” when compared to other Punjabi dances. Dance movements are performed in unison.\" Musical accompaniment usually involves the dhol barrel drum. Summi is a simple female dominated dance traditionally performed by women in the Sandal Bar region of Punjab that has existed from at least the eighteenth century that was revived after the Partition of 1947. Giddha is a dance of the Malwa, Southeast region of Punjab that has both expression in men and women's forms, and involves pairs of individuals dancing while others stand in a circle around them singing lyrical verses (boliyan).", "", "Shabda in Sikhism is a term used for hymns within Sikh scriptures. Etymologically, the word \" shabad \" is derived from the Sanskrit word \"Shabad\" which means \"sound\" or \"word\". Preaching of Sikh Gurus is called \"vani\" or \"voice\" of Sikh gurus, which is set to music in various Sikh scriptures called \"grantha\" where chapters are organised by ragas, with each chapter containing many \"shabads\" or hymns of that \"raga\". The first \"Shabad\" in Guru Granth Sahib is the Mool Mantar. Example of \"Shabad\" in other Sikh scriptures, include the hymn Deh Siva Var Mohe in Dasam Granth. Gurmukhi script is used for the \"Shabad\". Singing of Shabd by \"Raagi\" (Sikh devotional singers) is called the \"Shabd Vani\".", "Sufi music includes the singing of Sufi poetry in several genres. Some of the poets whose compositions are often sung include Baba Farid, Bulleh Shah, Shah Hussain, Waris Shah, and Mian Muhammad Bakhsh.", "Folk music of the Punjab is the traditional music of Punjab produced using traditional musical instruments like Tumbi, Algoze, Dhadd, Sarangi, Chimta and more. There is a wide range of folk songs for every occasion from birth to death including marriage, festivals, fairs and religious ceremonies. Folk music is often perceived as the traditional music of Punjab and typically has communal authorship. This aspect of folk music has shifted with time but the older categories of folk begin with the dhadi genre, which does follow ideas of communal authorship. The folk dhadi genre emphasizes stories of heroism and love stories, as exemplified by the numerous ballads of the legendary romantic tales of Hir-Ranjha and Sahiba-Mirza. Folk music is also commonly used in various life-cycle events in the Punjab region. “In almost every wedding ceremony family members, friends, and professional folk musicians perform different sets of folk songs which use themes from a nostalgic past, but communicate themes of separation, joy, fear, and hope in the present.” The lyrical content of many of these wedding songs have the paternal home depicted as a source of love and nurture, while the in-laws home is a source of tyranny and torture. Folk music continues to be used as a modern tool and a way of locating identification.", "The notion of the traditional or folk music remains a critical part of Punjab society because it aids in the preservation of long-established customs. Life-cycle songs mostly “coincide with ritual occasions and they often mark stages in a ceremony” and can vary in topic ranging from birth to marriage. For example, family members and friends sing these songs during wedding festivities, by doing so help protect the traditional rituals associated with each step of the marriage. \"Suhag\" or \"ghorian\", which are sung for the bride and groom respectively, typically give praise to God and ask for blessings from God. Women typically sing these songs in a choral fashion and may also focus on the ideal groom and bride. Both song genres celebrate the emotion of joy specifically surrounding the wedding process. The ghorian emotes feeling of “pure joy and desire”, while the suhag is a “mixture of joy and grief”. There are also songs that are associated with each night of the wedding starting as far back as five nights before to spread turmeric paste on the bride and groom. By having these songs, Punjabi people continue to celebrate the traditional cultural practices and have “transformed and even...revitalized” the way marriages are celebrated. While folk songs exist to commemorate important moments in one's life, they also “serve as a repository of local culture, beliefs, social structures, and response to historical change” because they reflect the current climate within local communities. With the subject of these songs varying from praising God to simply discussing the qualms of an agrarian lifestyle, they provide greater insight into Punjabi daily life. While folks song are “set in complex cultural context of a society” that is consumed by a strict social system influenced by social and economic status, they reveal that these “village people of all levels interact daily in a manner that demonstrates their mutual codependence”. Because of this, folk music serves as a way to further encourage this mixture that helps to break down social constructs.", "These include Tappa, Mahia, and Dhola.", "Professional performing communities in Punjab represent endogamous ethnic groups who generally occupy a lower-class status of service providers and are patronized by higher classes. Generally, men dominant professional music production and are trained in the ‘master-disciple’ system. Professional musicians are occupational speciationalists who inherit their professions through their musician ancestors. The most prominent group are the Mirasis, which an umbrella occupational label used to designate all hereditary musicians. Mirasis serve as genealogists and are responsible for committing to memory and singing the praises their lineages. Mirasis are generally Muslims (settled in West Punjab) who emerged from the “Dum” group and encompass many performing communities that “differ depending on kinship practices, musical sophistication, and sociomusical contexts.” Other professional performing communities include the tribal Bazigar group, performers of the dhadi and tumba-algoza genre. Bazigar (Goaar) people: From their base in West Punjab in the pre-Partition era, Bazigar performers carried both traditions that were unique to their community and those that were typical of the local residents of that area. However, despite their contributions to the music world and performing sector of Punjab, they are poorly recognized by their neighbors and outsiders. mainstream Punjab classifies these people as the “acrobats” of the society. The Bazigar people have neither inclination nor the opportunity to remedy that situation. At present they are becoming more and more integrated into the mainstream society. Their performances consist of the display of a variety of physical feats- of strength, balance, agility, and courage. Performances were usually invited by big festivals and occasions. They would begin with the beating of the dhols in order to enhance excitement and call attention to the event. Dhadi: Refers to both a genre of Punjabi music and the performers who play it. It is a distinctly composed ensemble of ballad-singers. The folk dhadi genre is subject to three main poetic forms namely baint, sadd, and kali. It has four main aspects: discourse, poetry, singing and music. The concerts were usually held outside of villages on the banks of a pond or in some other open space under the dense shade of a few large tree, or else the religious-camps of the village. A distinctive feature of the folk dhadi's art has been a continuous and strict practice regimen. Usually these dhadis were completely illiterate or practically so. They would have to learn by hearing others, so their power of memory, would have to be very great. Their attire usually consisted of dazzling white, starched turbans with fan. The white color is a symbol of wisdom, learning and cleanliness. Another ballad-style form of music is the tumba-algoza genre based in the regions of Malwa and Majha.", "", "Bhangra describes dance-oriented popular music with Punjabi rhythms. The name refers to one of the traditional and folkloric Punjabi dances. Thus in bhangra music the emphasis is usually on the music (i.e. rhythm for dancing) and less on the singer and the lyrics. Shift from folk instruments to pop started to happen since the 1980s, since then Bhangra dance music developed into a popular pop genre appreciated all over the globe, specially among the Punjabi diaspora.", "Punjabi songs in recent years have entered mainstream Indian culture, as well as in the UK and U.S., and its inclusion in Bollywood songs. The rise in popularity in Punjabi music in London and in the suburb of Southall, which has a sizeable South Asian population, can be attributed to the diaspora of immigrants from both the east and west Punjab to the United Kingdom in the 1970s. By the 1980s, Punjabi music, many types of which were now being referred to as “bhangra,” started to be played in discos. Mr-Punjab- Most Famous Punjabi Songs mp3 downlaod site 2020 in Punjab. Please visit here to know more: http://www.mr-punjab.com/ In addition to the UK, Punjabi music has also gained popularity in the United States. This inclusion of Punjabi music in popular culture has continued and become more salient today, as exemplified by UK-based Panjabi MC's “Mundian to Bach Ke” becoming a Top 40 hit in the United States, being listened to widely by non-Punjabis. Furthermore, second generation Indian American youth in major American cities such as New York and New Jersey have adopted elements of Punjabi music into their nightlife. The music that is popular amongst this Indian American subculture incorporates both Western and Eastern influences. Urban sounds including hip hop, R&B, and reggae are mixed with the more traditional Indian genres of bhangra and Hindi film music. Punjabi music has also made its mark in mainstream Hindi cinema. It has typically been characterized as “an ethnocultural signifier of Panjabi celebration,” and more recently, “a national signifier of fun.”", "Although the diaspora of Punjabi music to western countries such as the United Kingdom first became popular in the 1980s, the trend continued into the 1990s. In the UK in particular, Punjabi music became intertwined with American and British popular music, as Punjabi youth connected their western experience with their cultural roots. It became an important medium through which Punjabi youth could navigate their unique identities as British Indians. The British press sporadically became aware of trends in Punjabi music, especially with the rise of popular artists such as Panjabi MC and Apache Indian; that said, however, the diaspora of Punjabi music was primarily a local phenomenon, limited to Punjabi communities in the UK. The 1990s marked a significant shift in Punjabi music pertaining to production styles and lyrical content. The decade was marked by a musical style that contained consistent elements of traditional music including instruments such as the dhol, tumbi, and algoza. However, the 90s were the first time that elements from other genres such as reggae and disco/club type of instrumentals were incorporated in the music. This is seen as the decade that produced the birth of what is commonly referred to today as “fusion” Punjabi music. One prime example of a breakthrough artist that exemplified this new fusion style was Apache Indian. His song “Arranged Marriage,” produced by British Indian Punjabi brothers Simon and Diamond and released on the album titled No Reservations (1993), combined a reggae lyrical style, traditional dhol elements, and a Punjabi background chorus. Many more prominent Punjabi artists and producers broke through into mainstream Punjabi music during this time. They included Bally Sagoo, Sukshinder Shinda, and Jazzy B. Bally Sagoo became famous for his productions and remix. Shinda became renowned for his production ability and inclusion of vigorous dhol beats, while Jazzy B exemplified the influence hip-hop had in Punjabi music in his image and tough lyrics.", "Diaspora music has been spread back to India through media, including radio, cassettes and the TV channels MTV and ETC Panjabi. The 2000s Diaspora music was a reflection of the evolution that took place in Punjabi music in the 1990s. Artists began to develop and build upon the styles and foundations that were previously established as popular and successful musical styles abroad. With the mixture of styles of both Punjabi and Western culture, there became a fusion in both the music and the identity formation of those living abroad. Because samples of famous Hindi and Punjabi music have been included in the club scene, youth are able to “inculcate an Indian identity.” Youth of the Diaspora can use these fusions to help establish their hybrid identities. These identities could include urban American culture or British culture alongside Indian culture. While this new identity has been created by the Diaspora youth the same ideas of identity do not hold for older generations, causing divides between the two. The artists of this time period and the music they produced had a large effect on the popularity and transformation of Punjabi music into a type of genre that became an enjoyable and popular component of nightlife for South Asians. Dr. Zeus for example produced club-friendly instrumentals and collaborated with established Punjabi artists to take the fusion sound to a higher and more sophisticated level. His song “Kangna” reflects a fusion between club, hip-hop, and Punjabi musical styles. While Punjabi MC became famous in the late 1990s for his hit “Mundian tho Bachke Rahin,” he has continued to produce music that reflects a similar style and is extremely popular with the first and second generation South Asian population. These styles continue to progress into the present decade. By 2016, Punjabi music grew by 80% over two to three years in Canada, where Punjabi folk hop artists, such as Jaz Dhami, credit Prime Minister Justin Trudeau for his contribution for \"promoting Indian culture and Punjabi music... leader who understands the importance of Punjabi music in his country's music space.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Host city selection.", "Organization.", "Economic aspects.", "Transportation.", "Marketing.", "Mascots.", "Sponsors of the 1998 Winter Olympics.", "Ticket sales.", "Cost and cost overrun.", "Venues.", "Sport sites.", "Accommodation.", "The Games.", "The Olympic Torch Relay.", "Participating National Olympic Committees.", "Calendar.", "Ceremonies.", "Opening ceremony.", "Medals ceremony.", "Closing ceremony.", "Medal table.", "Sports.", "Biathlon.", "Bobsleigh.", "Curling.", "Ice hockey.", "Luge.", "Skating.", "Figure skating.", "Short track speed skating.", "Speed skating.", "Skiing.", "Alpine skiing.", "Cross-country skiing.", "Freestyle skiing.", "Nordic combined skiing.", "Ski jumping.", "Snowboarding.", "Media.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1932, Japan won the rights to host the 1940 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. At that time, organizers of the Summer Olympics had priority in choosing the venue for the Winter Olympics the same year. Several Japanese cities, including Nagano, prepared a bid. Sapporo was chosen; however, the games never took place because of World War II. In 1961, Nagano declared its intention to host the 1968 Winter Olympics but lost to Sapporo, the winning Japanese bid, who lost to Grenoble, France, and Sapporo eventually won the right to host the 1972 Winter Olympics. Japanese private sector organizations, in 1983, began publicly discussing a possible bid. Two years later, in 1985, the Nagano Prefectural Assembly, decided to begin the process to bid, for its third time, for a Winter Olympics. The bid committee was established in July 1986, they submitted their bid to the Japanese Olympic Committee (JOC) in November of the same year. Other Japanese cities that were bidding were Asahikawa, Yamagata, and Morioka. 1 June 1988, the JOC selected Nagano in the first round of national voting, receiving 34 of 45 votes. In 1989, the bid committee was reorganized, with the Japanese Prime Minister as head of the committee. The number", "Five months after the city was selected, the Nagano Olympic Organizing Committee (NAOC) was created. Eishiro Saito, Chairman of Japan Business Federation (Keidanren) was selected as president of the committee. There were four Vice Presidents: Goro Yoshimura, the Governor of Nagano Prefecture; Hironoshin Furuhashi, president of the Japanese Olympic Committee; Yoshiaki Tsutsumi, the president of the Ski Association of Japan; and Tasuku Tsukada, the Mayor of Nagano City. In addition, the Vice Minister of the Ministry of Home Affairs, Tadashi Tsuda, served as director-general. Tsuda was replaced by Makoto Kobayashi in 1993. The organizing committee recognized three goals for the games, which they referred to as \"Games from the Heart\": promote youth participation, coexistence with nature, create a festival with peace and friendship at its centre. To realize the first goal, a camp bringing together 217 young people from 51 countries was created, along with the program of \"One school, one country\" in Nagano Prefecture. This program organized cultural exchanges with other countries. In addition, more than 100,000 tickets were reserved for children. For the second point, the organizers attempted to minimize the impact on their nature and the local ecosystem. Regarding the third point, an international truce organized by the United Nations in 1997 was adopted during the games. In June 1998, four months after the Games, the NAOC presented a gift of US$1 million to the Olympic Museum in Lausanne. In October of the same year, NAOC donated a 3-D high vision theater system to the Olympic Museum. In February 1999, one year after the Games, the IOC awarded the Nagano the Olympic Cup, and presented the city a sculpture of stylized athletes raising the Olympic Flag by the Swiss artist Nag Arnoldi.", "The costs of construction and of the land of the Olympic venues totaled 106.6 billion yen, approximately 914 million US dollars. Of this, the Japanese national government spent 51.1 billion, the Nagano prefectural government spent 29.6 billion, and the cities and towns of Nagano, 23.4 billion; Hakuba, 1 billion; and Nozawa Onsen, 1.1 billion; shared the remaining 25.5 billion. The most expensive venue was M-Wave, which hosted the long-track speed skating events. It cost 34.8 billion. The two ice hockey venues, Big Hat and Aqua Wing Arena cost 19.1 and 9.1 billion respectively. The White Ring (arena), which hosted figure skating and short-track speed skating cost 14.2 billion, the Spiral, which hosted", "Nagano is situated in a mountainous area of Japan that receives large snowfalls. These combined to make transportation an important challenge for the organizing committee. In addition, the Olympic Village was a distance of 7 kilometers from the center of the city, and sporting events were spread over five surrounding communities. Complicating matters is that many of the venues had one single road in-out, which limited possibilities and led to traffic jams. To improve access to Nagano, the government decided to link Nagano with the high-speed \"shinkansen\" train network. The Nagano Shinkansen, now the Hokuriku Shinkansen was inaugurated five months before the start of the Games. This reduced by half the travel time between Tokyo and Nagano, to 79 minutes for 221 kilometers. The length of the track between Takasaki Station and Nagano Station is 125.7 km, which includes 63.4 km of tunnels. The high speed train network carried 655,000 passengers during the Games. Two highways, the Nagano Expressway and the Jōshin-etsu Expressway, were also built in the Nagano region. In May", "The emblem of the 1998 Winter Olympics consisted of a stylized snow flower with each petal representing an athlete participating in a winter sport. The figure could also represent a snowflake, or a mountain flower, which refers to the importance of the natural environment to the city of Nagano. Similarly, Tokyo used cherry blossoms in its logo for its candidature for the 2020 Summer Olympics. Landor Associates conceived the official mascots that were used by the communication team for the Games. They consisted of four owlets, Sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki, also called \"Snowlets\". The names were chosen from more than", "Sukki, Nokki, Lekki and Tsukki, also known as the Snowlets are the 1998 Winter Olympic mascots and", "The development of Rights Packages were based on IOC policy of offering exclusive rights to a limited number of companies, with one company allowed to purchase the rights for any single product or service category, and these were based on previous Games, with adaptations for the local market. Sponsors were permitted to use the emblem and mascots as long as consent was obtained from the IOC, JOC, and the NAOC. Hospitality packages for sponsors included priority for accommodations, tickets, and transportation services. The Sponsor Hospitality Village, next to the Nagano Olympic Stadium, welcomed 32,000 guests. To promote awareness of the sponsors, advertising was done in various media from 1995, and on banners and buses immediately before the games. Dick Pound noted, during the Games, the excellence of the marketing program, citing the \"\"perfect example of how the private and public sectors can work together\"\". The Games had 11 Worldwide Olympic Partners, eight Gold Sponsors and 18 Official Supporters and Suppliers.", "From 7 February 1997, the organizing committee put up for sale 1,286,000 tickets for the various competitions and ceremonies. The number of tickets sold was 1,149,615, which represented 89.4% of available tickets. Including people connected to the Games, the total number of spectators was 1,275,529. This number was slightly higher than in 1994 but slightly lower than the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary. Tickets sales were", "\"The Oxford Olympics Study\" established the outturn cost of the Nagano 1998 Winter Olympics at US$2.2 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 56% in real terms. This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i) \"operational costs\" incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii) \"direct capital costs\" incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build,", "", "For the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, a total of fourteen sports venues, all within Nagano Prefecture, were used. Construction of these venues, and of the Olympic Stadium which hosted the ceremonies, began in 1990 and lasted until 1997, with construction and land costs totaling 106.6 billion yen. The most expensive venue constructed for the games was the long-track speed skating venue, M-Wave built 5 kilometers from Nagano Station. Between March 1996 and November 1997, these sites were tested with 16 different world champion events, world cups, and other international competitions to allow the organizers to prepare for the running of the Games. Five sites, all constructed for the Games, are located in the city of Nagano. Minami Nagano Sports Park, built to serve as a", "To accommodate the athletes and officials during the Games, the Olympic Village was constructed in Imai district, approximately 7 kilometers south of Nagano Station. Along with the construction of the village, Imai Station was opened in 1997. The village was constructed by the city of Nagano as public residential housing, and loaned to the organizing committee during the Games. The Village occupies an area that is 19 hectares, composed of 23 buildings with a total of 1,032 apartments. Temporary restaurants and shops were also available during the Games. The Village was open from 24 January to 25 February 1998, and accommodated 3,200 people. Several prominent people were recognized", "", "The Olympic Torch was lit by sunlight during a ceremony organized by the Temple of Hera at Olympia, Greece on 19 December 1997. A Greek alpine skier started the relay towards Athens where a ceremony was held at the Panathenaic Stadium. On 22 December, the flame was transported to Japan by airplane. On 4 January, the 1998 Winter Olympics torch relay flame was divided into three parts in order for it to pass through every Japanese prefecture by three distinct routes: the Sea of Japan Route, the Pacific Route, and the Eastern Route. The start, on 6 January, was from Okinawa, Kagoshima, and Hokkaido. By 23 January, the relay had travelled through all 120 municipalities of Nagano Prefecture, and finally arrived in Nagano City on 5 February. The following day, after traveling through each district of the city, the relay arrived at the central square", "72 nations participated in the 1998 Winter Olympic Games for a total of 2,176 athletes, of which 787 were female and 1,389 were male. With the addition of five countries and another 439 athletes since the 1994 Winter Olympic Games at Lillehammer, Norway, these were the largest Winter Olympics ever at the time. The nations of Azerbaijan, Kenya, Macedonia, Uruguay, and Venezuela participated in their first Winter Olympic Games. Iran returned to the Winter games after a 22-year absence, and North Korea, India, Ireland, and Yugoslavia returned after 8", "The 1998 Winter Olympics were held from Saturday, 7 February to Sunday, 22 February. This was 16 days and included three weekends. The number of events increased from 61 at the 1994 Winter Olympics to 68 in 1998. Two sports, curling and snowboarding were added to the program, as was women's ice hockey. This increased the number", "", "The Opening ceremony took place at Nagano Olympic Stadium, Nagano, Japan, on 7 February 1998. Japanese figure skater, Midori Ito, who was the first female skater to land seven triple jumps in a free skating competition, and who won the silver medal at the 1992 Winter Olympics, lit the", "The medal ceremonies for indoor events (skating, ice hockey, and curling) took place immediately after the finals at the venues, with the exception of the bronze medal matches for the ice hockey events which took place immediately after the bronze medal matches. For events that took place outside (skiing, biathlon, bobsleigh and luge), a simple ceremony was arranged where bouquets of flowers were awarded, and their medal ceremonies took place that evening in the Central Square in Nagano City, approximately midway between Nagano Station and Zenkō-ji. A short fanfare of music was placed, the athletes arrived, and the medals, in the order of gold, silver, and bronze, were given with flowers. Finally, the nationally flags of the athletes were raised, and the national anthem of the winning athlete(s) was played. In all, 167,200 people attended the medal ceremonies, which took place at 7:00 pm each night. Music and dance performances took place before and", "The closing ceremonies, like those of the opening, took place in the Nagano Olympic Stadium, with 60,000 spectators, including Akihito, the Emperor of Japan at the time, and his wife Empress Michiko. After the athletes entered with their flags, hundreds of drums were beat and a traditional hose and lion dance was presented. Tasuku Tsukada, the mayor of Nagano presented the Olympic Flag to Deedee Corradini, the mayor of Salt Lake City, the host of the 2002 Winter Olympics. This was followed by a performance from the Japanese singer Anri. The ceremony ended with the words \"\" (\"Goodbye, Thank you\") and a major fireworks performance accompanied by the song: \"Ile Aiye\" or \"Let's Make a Circle and Dance\" performed by Japanese pop group Agharta. Juan Antonio Samaranch declared the Games closed, and the cauldron was extinguished.", "In all, 24 of the 72 participating nations at these Games won at least one medal, as shown in the table below. A total of 15 countries won at least one gold medal and 18 nations won two or more medals. In total, 205 medals were distributed. Germany finished on top of the table with 29 medals, including 12 gold, nine silver, and eight bronze. Germany, which finished in third place in the medal standings at the 1994 Winter Olympics, won most of its medals in Alpine skiing, speed skating, and luge, in which it won all three gold medals. German female athletes won 22 of the country's 29 medals. Norway finished", "The 1998 Winter Olympics featured 68 medal events over 14 disciplines in seven sports. This was an increase from 61 events in 12 disciplines across six sports from the 1994 Winter Olympics. Curling was the additional sport, snowboarding was an additional discipling in skiing, and women's ice hockey was added to the ice hockey program.", "The biathlon competitions took place at Nozawa Onsen Snow Resort, north of Nagano City. The six events were the sprint, individual, and relay, for both men and women. In all, 183 athletes took part, including 96 men and 87 women from 32 different countries. Norway and Germany each won five medals, with Uschi Disl from the latter country winning one gold, one silver, and one bronze. The first event was the women's 15 km individual race that took place in falling snow", "The bobsleigh competitions took place at the Spiral, in Iizuna, just north of Nagano City. The Spiral course measured 1700 m in length, with fifteen curves, descended 113 m from start to finish, and included two short uphill sections. The two events were the two-man and four-man, for men only. Female competitors would begin competing in the two woman events at the subsequent Winter Olympics, the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. In all, 156 athletes took part from 28 different countries. The bobsleigh events resulted in two ties, for the two-man gold and for the four-man bronze. This was the first time in Olympic bobsleigh history that there were ties for the medal positions. Christoph Langen and Markus Zimmermann won bronze in the two-man competition and were part of the winning four-man team. In all, Germany win one gold and one bronze; Italy and Canada also won", "Curling was included in the program for the Nagano Olympics in 1993 following discussions that had begun in 1992. At the time, it was considered that curling was making its official Olympic debut following its appearance as a demonstration sport at the 1932, 1988, and 1992. At the Games in Nagano, both the men's and the women's curling tournament took place at Kazakoshi Park Arena in Karuizawa, Nagano, 30 minutes by bullet train (\"shinkansen\") south of Nagano City. Eight teams played a total of seven games in the round robin in both tournaments, with the four best teams going to the semifinals. Canada won gold in the women's competition and silver in the men's; Switzerland won the gold in the men's tournament. In the men's tournament, the Mike Harris team from Canada easily completed the", "The ice hockey matches took place at two purpose-built arenas in Nagano City, Big Hat and Aqua Wing Arena. The ice hockey events were significant for two reasons: the first Olympic ice hockey tournament for women and the participation of players from the NHL. The Czech Republic defeated Russia in the gold medal game for the men's final, and Americans defeated Canadians in the gold medal game for the women's final. The men's competition began on 7 February with eight teams playing in two groups of four, Group A and B, with each team playing three games. The winners of these two groups, Kazakhstan and Belarus, advanced to join Groups C and D, composed of the six highest ranked men's national ice hockey teams in the world. Russia, Czech Republic, and Finland were joined by Kazakhstan in Group C; Canada, Sweden, and USA", "The luge competitions took place in Iizuna, Nagano, at the Spiral (Nagano Bobsleigh-Luge Park), the first purpose-built permanent bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track in Asia. In all, 24 nations took part in the luge events, with four countries, India, South Korea, New Zealand, and Venezuela making their Olympic debut in luge events. There were three events, men's single, women's single, and doubles. Germany won all three gold medals, one silver, and one bronze. The United States won one silver and one bronze. Italy and Austria rounded out the medal table. The first event with 24 lugers was the men's singles. Each athlete completed four runs over two days, 8 and 9 February. The German athlete, Georg Hackl, who had won gold at the 1992 Winter Olympics and 1994 Winter Olympics, had entered the competition winless in the 1997–1998 season. Hackl raced in a newly designed luge and aerodynamic shoes. Several team protested but these protests were rejected. Hackl dominated all four races, and finished with", "", "The figure skating events took place at the White Ring (arena), an indoor arena built for the Games in Nagano City. Medals were awarded in four events: men's and women's singles, pair skating, and ice dance. The pairs event took place from 8–10 February, followed by the men's singles from 12–14", "Six short track speed skating events took place at the White Ring (arena) from 17 to 21 February. A total of 18 nations were representing among the skaters. Four countries won medals. South Korea won six medals, including three gold. Canada won four medals, including two gold. Host Japan won one gold and one silver; and China won five silver and one bronze medal. The 14th ranked Japanese skater Takafumi Nishitani beat the Olympic record in the 500m semi-finals. In the", "From 8–20 February 171 athletes from 25 countries took part in the long-track speed skating events that were held in Nagano City at M-Wave, Japan's first indoor, long-track speed skating venue. In all, eight countries won medals. The Netherlands won 11 medals, including five gold and four silver. Canada, host Japan, and the USA also won multiple medals. Twelve Olympic records and five World records were established at the Games on the ice at M-Wave. Gianni Romme and Marianne Timmer, both of the Netherlands, each won two gold medals. The Nagano Olympics were the first where athletes wore clap skates. On the men's side, the world record holder in the men's 500m was the Japanese skater Hiroyasu Shimizu. Shimizu was the smallest skater at the Games, 1.62m tall. The 500m was run over two races for the first time at these Games. Shimizu was fastest in both races becoming only the second ever Japanese to win a singles title at the Olympic Games. Finishing in second and third were the Canadian skaters, Jeremy Wotherspoon and Kevin Overland, who are 1.91m and 1.84 m tall, respectively. Shimizu's combined time was 1:11.35, 0.49 seconds ahead of Wotherspoon, and another 0.02 seconds ahead of Overland. The 1500m was won by Norwegian Ådne Søndrål with a world record time of 1:47.87. Søndrål was 0.26 and 0.65 seconds ahead", "", "The Alpine skiing events took place at Hakuba Happoone Winter Resort in Hakuba village, 50 kilometers west of Nagano City, and at Mount Higashidate in the Shiga Highlands in Yamanouchi, Nagano, 30 kilometers northeast of Nagano City. In all, 249 athletes, 141 males and 108 females, from 49 countries, took part in the", "The cross-country skiing events took place at Nozawa Onsen Ski Resort, in the town of Nozawaonsen, approximately 50 kilometers north of Nagano. In all, 228 athletes, including 126 men and 102 women, from 37 countries took part. Russia won", "The freestyle skiing competition was held at the Iizuna Kogen Ski Area, 12 kilometers north of Nagano, from 8 to 18 February. It was the third consecutive Games that freestyle skiing events took place. The four events, men's and women's moguls and aerials, involved 110 athletes from 25 countries. The United States won three gold medals. Host Japan won one gold medal. Athletes from Finland won a silver and a bronze medal. Six other countries took home either one silver or one bronze medal. In men's moguls, the American Jonny Moseley was first after the qualifications. Two cousins from Finland, Janne Lahtela and Sami Mustonen, who had never medalled at the FIS Freestyle Ski World Cup, were ranked second and third behind", "The Nordic combined events were held at the Hakuba Ski Jumping Stadium and the Snow Harp, both in Hakuba village, 50 kilometers west of Nagano City. In all, 53 athletes from 14 countries, took part in the two events, individual and team. Norway won both gold medals. Finland won both silver medals. France and Russia each won one of the bronze medals. The first event was the individual competition that took place on 13 and 14 February. In all, there were 48 athletes. The silver medalist from the 1994 Winter Olympics, the Norwegian Bjarte Engen Vik, was the 1997–98 FIS Nordic Combined World Cup leader. At the Hakuba Ski Jumping Stadium, Vik led after the first two jumps. He was followed by the Russian Valeri Stoliarov. The following day, the skiers left, in order of the placement following the ski jump, along te 15 kilometer cross-country race at the Snow Harp. The race was skied in the rain. Vik led throughout and finished", "The ski jumping competitions took place at the Hakuba Ski Jumping Stadium in Hakuba village, 50 kilometers west of Nagano City. In all, 68 athletes from 19 countries participated. For the first time, the top 30 jumpers qualified for the second round. Host Japan won the most medals, including two gold in the large hill and large hill team. Finland, Germany, and Austria rounded out the medal table. Kazuyoshi Funaki from Yoichi, Hokkaido in Japan won two gold and one silver for", "In the decade leading up the games, snowboarding had become popular in both North America and Europe, as well as Japan, and as a result, in August 1994, the NAOC received a request from the IOC president Samaranch to consider including snowboarding at the 1998 Winter Olympics. To reduce costs, NAOC asked the host community to cover a portion of the costs – the town Yamanouchi agreed – and FIS was expected to support financially as well. In November 1995, the NAOC executive board agreed to add snowboarding, and this was approved by the IOC at their December meeting the following month in Karuizawa. This was the first Winter Olympics with snowboarding events. The events took place at Mount Yakebitai and Kanbayashi Snowboard Park in Yamanouchi, Nagano, 30 kilometers northeast of Nagano City, from 8 to 12 February. In all, 125 athletes from 22 countries participated in the men's and women's Halfpipe and Giant slalom. Athletes from Germany won two medals, including one gold. Athletes from Switzerland, France, and Canada also won gold medals. In the men's giant slalom, the Canadian Jasey-Jay Anderson won the first race with a half-second lead ahead of Rebagliati. During the second race, the event was temporary delayed because of snow and fog. Ross", "The Nagano Olympics were covered by more than 10,000 members of the media, including 8,329 accredited journalists, of which 2,586 were from newspaper media and 5,743 television and radio journalists. The Organizing Committee established Main Press Center (MPC, over two buildings, and 17 annexes throughout the different sites. The MPC, which is today the \"Wakasato Civic Cultural Hall\", was built beside Big Hat, the main ice hockey venue. The MPC had a surface area of 42,728 m, with one principal room for 600 journalists of 1430m and another of 5100m that was rented by various press agencies. The largest press offices at the Games were Kyodo News, Associated Press, Agence", "Notes Citations" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family and education.", "Career.", "Recognition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Altman was born on May 7, 1939, in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. His parents, Ray (Arlin), a textile worker, and Victor Altman, a grocer, were immigrants to Canada, each coming from Eastern Europe as a young adult, in the 1920s. Altman's mother was from Białystok in Poland, and had come to Canada with her sister at the age of eighteen, learning English and working in a textile factory to earn money to bring the rest of their family to Quebec. Altman's father, born in Ukraine, had been a worker on a collective farm in the Soviet Union. He was sponsored to come to Canada as a farm worker, but later, as a husband and a father of two sons, he supported the family by running a small grocery store in Montreal. Sidney Altman was later to look back on his parents' lives as an illustration of the value of the work ethic: \"It was from them I learned that hard work in stable surroundings could yield rewards, even if only in infinitesimally small increments.\" As Altman reached adulthood, the family's financial situation had become secure enough that he was able to pursue a college education. He went to the United States to study physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While at MIT, he was a member of the ice hockey team. After achieving his bachelor's degree from MIT in 1960, Altman spent 18 months as a graduate student in physics at Columbia University. Due to personal concerns and the lack of opportunity for beginning graduate students to participate in laboratory work, he left the program without completing the degree. Some months later, he enrolled as a graduate student in biophysics at the University of Colorado Medical Center. His project was a study of the effects of acridines on the replication of bacteriophage T4 DNA. He received his Ph.D. in biophysics from the University of Colorado in 1967 with thesis advisor Leonard Lerman; Lerman went in 1967 to Vanderbilt University, where Altman worked briefly as a researcher in molecular biology before leaving for Harvard. Altman was married to Ann M. Körner (daughter of Stephan Körner) in 1972. They are the parents of two children, Daniel and Leah. Having lived primarily in the United States since departing Montreal to attend MIT in 1958, Altman became a U.S. citizen in 1984, maintaining dual citizenship as a Canadian citizen as well.", "After receiving his Ph.D., Altman embarked upon the first of two research fellowships. He joined Matthew Meselson's laboratory at Harvard University to study a DNA endonuclease involved in the replication and recombination of T4 DNA. Later, at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, England, Altman started the work that led to the discovery of RNase P and the enzymatic properties of the RNA subunit of that ribozyme. John D. Smith, as well as several postdoctoral colleagues, provided Altman with very good advice that enabled him to test his ideas. \"The discovery of the first radiochemically pure precursor to a tRNA molecule enabled me to get a job as an assistant professor at Yale University in 1971, a difficult time to get any job at all\". Altman's career at Yale followed a standard academic pattern with promotion through the ranks until he became Professor in 1980. He was Chairman of his department from 1983 to 1985 and in 1985 became the Dean of Yale College for four years. On July 1, 1989, he returned to the post of Professor on a full-time basis. His doctoral students include Ben Stark. While at Yale, Altman's Nobel Prize work came with the analysis of the catalytic properties of the ribozyme RNase P, a ribonucleoprotein particle consisting of both a structural RNA molecule and one (in prokaryotes) or more (in eukaryotes) proteins. Originally, it was believed that, in the bacterial RNase P complex, the protein subunit was responsible for the catalytic activity of the complex, which is involved in the maturation of tRNAs. During experiments in which the complex was reconstituted in test tubes, Altman and his group discovered that the RNA component, in isolation, was sufficient for the observed catalytic activity of the enzyme, indicating that the RNA itself had catalytic properties, which was the discovery that earned him the Nobel Prize. Although the RNase P complex also exists in eukaryotic organisms, his later work revealed that in those organisms, the protein subunits of the complex are essential to the catalytic activity, in contrast to the bacterial RNase P.", "Altman was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1988." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "The American Morgans.", "Early life and education.", "The New Confederacy of the Iroquois.", "Encounter with the Iroquois.", "The Ogden Land Company affair.", "Marriage and family.", "Supporting education.", "Success at last.", "Field anthropologist.", "The Civil War.", "The Erie Railroad affair.", "The Grant-Parker policy on Native Americans.", "Later career.", "Death and legacy.", "Professional associations.", "Thought.", "Work in ethnology.", "Theory of social evolution.", "Influence on Marxism.", "List of Morgan's writings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "According to Herbert Marshall Lloyd, an attorney and editor of Morgan's works, Lewis was descended from James Morgan, brother of Miles, who were Welsh pioneers of Connecticut and Springfield, Massachusetts, respectively. Various sources record that the three sons of William Morgan of Llandaff, Glamorganshire, took passage for Boston in 1636. From there Miles went to Springfield, James to New London, Connecticut and John Morgan to Virginia. Lloyd writes, \"From these two brothers [James and Miles] all the Morgans prominent in", "Lewis' grandfather, Thomas Morgan of Connecticut, had been a Continental soldier in the Revolutionary War. Afterward he and his family migrated west to New York's Finger Lakes region, where he bought land from the Cayuga people and planted a farm on the shores of Lake Cayuga near Aurora. He and his wife already had three sons, including Jedediah, the future father of Lewis; and a daughter. In 1797, Jedediah Morgan (1774–1826) married Amanda Stanton, settling on a 100-acre gift of land from his father. After she had five children and died, Jedediah married Harriet Steele of Hartford, Connecticut. They had eight more children, including Lewis. As an adult, he adopted the middle initial \"H.\" Lewis later decided that this H, if anything, stood for \"Henry\". A multi-skilled Yankee, Jedediah Morgan invented a plow and formed a business partnership to manufacture parts for it; he built a blast furnace for the factory. He moved to Aurora, leaving the farm to a son.", "After graduating in 1840, Morgan returned to Aurora to read the law with an established firm. In 1842 he was admitted to the bar in Rochester, where he went into partnership with a Union classmate, George F. Danforth, a future judge. They could find no clients, as the nation was in an economic depression, which had started with the Panic of 1837. Morgan wrote essays, which he had begun to do while studying law, and published some in \"The Knickerbocker\" under the pen name Aquarius. On January 1, 1841, Morgan and some friends from Cayuga Academy formed a secret fraternal society which they called the Gordian Knot. As Morgan's earliest essays from that time had classical themes, the club may have been a kind of literary society, as was common then. In 1841 or 1842 the young men redefined the society,", "On an 1844 business trip to the capital of Albany, Morgan started research on old Cayuga treaties in the state archives. The Seneca people were also studying old US-Native American treaties, to support their land claims. After the Revolutionary War, the United States had forced the four Iroquois tribes allied with the British to cede their lands and migrate to Canada. By specific treaties, the US set aside small reservations in New York for their own allies, the Onondaga and Seneca. In the 1840s, long after the war, the Ogden Land Company, a real estate venture, laid claim to the Seneca Tonawanda Reservation on the basis of a fraudulent treaty. The Seneca sued and had representatives at the state capital pressing their case when Morgan was there. The delegation, led by", "Meanwhile, the organization had had activist goals from the beginning. In his initial New Gordius address Morgan had said: ... when the last tribe shall slumber in the grass, it is to be feared that the stain of blood will be found on the escutcheon of the American republic. This nation must shield their declining day... In 1838 the Ogden Land Company began a campaign to defraud the remaining Iroquois in New York of their lands. By Iroquois law, only a unanimous vote of all the chiefs sitting in council could effect binding decisions relating to the tribe. The OLC set about to purchase the votes of as many chiefs as it could, plying some with alcohol. The chiefs in many cases complied, believing any resolutions to sell the land would be defeated in council. Obtaining a majority vote for sale at one council called for the purpose, the OLC took their treaty to the Congress of the United States, which knew nothing of Iroquois law. President Martin Van Buren advised Congress that the treaty was fraudulent but on June 11, 1838, Congress adopted it as a resolution. After being compensated for their land by $1.67", "In 1851 Morgan summarized his investigation of Iroquois customs in his first book of note, \"League of the Iroquois\", one of the founding works of ethnology. In it he compares systems of kinship. In that year also he married his cross-cousin, Mary Elizabeth Steele, his companion and partner for the rest of his life. She had intended to become a Presbyterian missionary. On their wedding day he presented to her an ornate copy of his new book. It was dedicated to his collaborator, Ely Parker. In 1853 Mary's father died, leaving", "For several years \"his ethnical interests lay dormant\", but not his scholarship and writing. In 1852 Morgan and eight other \"Rochester intellectuals\" instituted The Pundit Club, shortened later to just The Club, a scientific and literary society before which the members read papers they had researched for the occasion. Morgan read papers to The Club every year for the rest of his life. He also joined the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Morgan and other leading men of Rochester decided to found a", "In 1855 Morgan and other Rochester businessmen invested in the expanding metals industry of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. After a brief sojourn on the 5-man board of the Iron Mountain Railroad, Morgan joined them in creating the Bay de Noquet and Marquette Railroad Company, connecting the entire Upper Peninsula by a single, ore-bearing line. He became its attorney and director. At that time the U.S. government was selling lands previously confiscated from the natives in cases where the sale benefited the public good. Although the Upper Peninsula was known for its great natural beauty, the discovery of iron persuaded Morgan and others to develop wide-scale mining and industrialization of the peninsula. He spent the next few years between Washington, lobbying for the sale of the land to his company, and in large cities such as Detroit and Chicago, where he fought lawsuits to prevent competitors", "After attending the 1856 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Morgan decided on an ethnology study to compare kinship systems. He conducted a field research program funded by himself and the Smithsonian Institution, 1859-1862. He made four expeditions, two to the Plains tribes of Kansas and Nebraska, and two more up the Missouri River past Yellowstone. This was before the development of any inland transportation system. Passengers on riverboats could shoot Bison and other game for food along the upper", "During this time, neither Morgan nor Mary showed any interest in abolitionism, nor did they participate in the American Civil War. They differed markedly from their friend Ely Parker. The latter attempted to raise an Iroquois regiment but was denied, on the grounds that he was not a US citizen, and denied service on the same ground. He entered the army finally by the intervention of his friend, Ulysses S. Grant, serving on Grant's staff. Parker was present at the surrender of General Lee; to Lee's remark that Parker was the \"true American\" (as an American Indian), he responded, \"We are all Americans here, sir.\" Morgan held no consistent views on the war. He could easily have joined the anti-slavery cause if he had wished to do so. Rochester, as the last station before Canada on the Underground Railroad, was a center of abolitionism. Frederick Douglass published the \"North Star\" in Rochester. Like", "Lewis took up trout fishing during his Michigan period. He fished in the wilds of Michigan during the summers, sometimes with Ojibwe guides. During this recreational activity, he became interested in beavers, which had greatly modified the lowlands. After several summers of tracking and observing beavers in the field, in 1868 he published a work describing in detail the biology and habits of this animal, which shaped the environment through its construction of dams. In that year also, his wealth secure and free of business, Morgan entered the state government again as a senator, 1868–1869, still seeking appointment as head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. He was ridiculed by the \"Union Advertiser\" as being a \"hobby candidate\". The Republicans that year were running on a platform of moral probity. They argued that as a superior class, they could and should serve as guardians of the public morals. Lewis passed muster on the heredity because of his descent and Mary's descent from William Bradford, of Mayflower note. Morgan soon was immersed in such issues as whether beer drinking on Sunday should be allowed (a veiled hit at the new German immigrants). As member of the", "Despite his new interest in government, which was to come to be expressed in his subsequent works on social systems, Morgan persisted in his major goal in running for office, to be appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs. The choice was now up to President Grant. Together in \"The League\", Parker and Morgan had determined the policy Grant was to adopt. They thought that, much as Parker had assimilated, American Indians should assimilate into American society; they were not yet considered US citizens. Of the two men responsible for his policy, Grant chose his former adjutant. Terribly disappointed, Morgan never applied for the post again. The two collaborators did not speak to each other during Parker's tenure, but Morgan stayed on intimate terms with Parker's family. The implementation of assimilation policy was more difficult than either man had anticipated. Parker controlled none of the variables. The American Indians were to be moved into reservations, assisted with supplies and food so they could start subsistence farming, and educated at mission schools to be converted to Christianity and American values,", "Having failed to become Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Morgan applied for various ambassadorships under the Grant administration, including to China and Peru. Grant's administration rejected all the applications, after which Morgan resolved to visit Europe on his own with a professional as well as a personal agenda. For one year, 1870–71, the three Morgans went on a grand tour of Europe. During his European travels, Lewis met Charles Darwin and the great British anthropologists of the age. He visited Sir John Lubbock, who had coined the words \"Paleolithic\" and \"Neolithic\", and used the terms \"barbarians\" and \"savages\" in his own studies of the three-age system. Morgan adopted these terms, but with an", "In 1879 Lewis completed two construction projects. One was his library, an addition to the house he had purchased with Mary many years before and where he died in December 1881. He combined the opening of the library with a celebration of the 25th anniversary of The Club. It included a dinner for 40 persons, who were by that time the leading lights of Rochester. The library acquired some fame as a local monument. Pictures were taken and published. The Club only met there one other time, however, at Lewis' funeral in 1881. The second building project was a mausoleum for his daughters", "Morgan was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1865. He was elected", "", "In the 1840s, Morgan had befriended the young Ely S. Parker of the Seneca tribe and the Tonawanda Reservation. With a classical missionary education, Parker went on to study law. With his help, Morgan studied the culture and the structure of Iroquois society. Morgan had noticed they used different terms than Europeans to designate individuals by their relationships within the extended family. He had the creative insight to recognize this was meaningful in terms of their social organization. He defined European terms as \"descriptive\" and Iroquois (and Native American) terms as \"classificatory\", terms that continue to be used as major divisions by anthropologists and ethnographers. Based on his extensive research, Morgan wrote and published \"The League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee or Iroquois\" (1851). He dedicated the book to Parker (who was then 23) and \"our joint researches\". This work presented the complexity of Iroquois society in a path-breaking ethnography that was a model for future anthropologists, as Morgan presented the kinship system of the Iroquois with unprecedented nuance. Morgan expanded his research far beyond the Iroquois. Although Benjamin Barton had posited Asian origins for Native Americans as early as 1797, in the mid-nineteenth century, other American and", "This original theory became less relevant because of the Darwinian revolution, which demonstrated how change happens over time. In addition, Morgan became increasingly interested in the comparative study of kinship (family) relations as a window into understanding larger social dynamics. He saw kinship relations as a basic part of society. Morgan viewed society as a living system that changes over time. In the years that followed, Morgan developed his theories. Combined with an exhaustive study of classic Greek and Roman sources, he crowned his work with his \"magnum opus\" \"Ancient Society\" (1877). Morgan elaborated upon his theory of social evolution. He", "In 1881, Karl Marx started reading Morgan's \"Ancient Society\", thus beginning Morgan's posthumous influence among European thinkers. Frederick Engels also read his work after Morgan's death. Although Marx never finished his own book based", "Lewis Morgan wrote continuously, whether letters, papers to be read, or published articles and books. A list of his major works follows. Some of the letters and papers have been omitted. A complete list, as far as was known, is given by Lloyd in the 1922 revised edition (posthumous) of \"The League... \". Specifically omitted are 14 \"Letters on the Iroquois\" read before the New Confederacy, 1844–1846, and published in \"\" in 1847 under another pen name, Skenandoah; 31 papers read before The Club, 1854–1880; and various book reviews published in \"The Nation\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Sources.", "Ultraviolet light.", "Distribution in the stratosphere.", "Depletion.", "Regulation.", "Implications for astronomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the British physicist Sydney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O to create ozone, O. The ozone molecule is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O and an individual atom of oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle. Chemically, this can be described as: About 90 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about, where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only thick.", "Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun. Extremely short or vacuum UV (10–100 nm) is screened out by nitrogen. UV radiation capable of penetrating nitrogen is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400–315 nm), UV-B (315–280 nm), and UV-C (280–100 nm). UV-C, which is very harmful to all living things, is entirely screened out by a combination of dioxygen (< 200 nm) and ozone (> about 200 nm) by around altitude. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause cataracts, immune system suppression, and genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer (which absorbs from about 200 nm to 310 nm with a maximal absorption at about 250 nm) is very effective at screening out UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth's surface. Nevertheless, some UV-B, particularly at its longest wavelengths, reaches the surface, and is important for the skin's production of vitamin D. Ozone is transparent to most UV-A, so most of this longer-wavelength UV radiation reaches the surface, and it constitutes most of the UV reaching the Earth. This type of UV radiation is significantly less harmful to DNA, although it may still potentially cause physical damage, premature aging of the skin, indirect genetic damage, and skin cancer.", "The thickness of the ozone layer varies worldwide and is generally thinner near the equator and thicker near the poles. Thickness refers to how much ozone is in a column over a given area and varies from season to season. The reasons for these variations are due to atmospheric circulation patterns and solar intensity. The majority of ozone is produced over the tropics and is transported towards the poles by stratospheric wind patterns. In the northern hemisphere these patterns, known as the Brewer-Dobson circulation, make the ozone layer thickest in the spring and thinnest in the fall. When ozone is produced by solar UV radiation in the tropics, it is done so by circulation lifting ozone-poor air out of the troposphere and into the stratosphere where the sun photolyzes oxygen molecules and turns them into ozone. Then, the ozone-rich air is carried to higher latitudes and drops into lower layers of the atmosphere. Research has found that the ozone levels in the United States are highest in the spring months of April and May and lowest in October. While the total amount of ozone increases moving from the tropics to higher latitudes, the concentrations are greater in high northern latitudes than in high southern latitudes, due to the ozone hole phenomenon. The highest amounts of ozone are found over the Arctic during the spring months of March and April, but the Antarctic has their lowest amounts of ozone during their summer months of September and October,", "The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (NO), hydroxyl (OH), atomic chlorine (Cl), and atomic bromine (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these species, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man-made organohalogen compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons. These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the stratosphere, where Cl and Br radicals are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities. The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth's surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as \"ozone holes\". The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin, in a paper which appeared in \"Nature\" on May 16, 1985.", "To support successful regulation attempts, the ozone case was communicated to lay persons \"with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture\" and related to \"immediate risks with everyday relevance\". The specific metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) proved quite useful and, compared to global climate change, the ozone case was much more seen as a \"hot issue\" and imminent risk. Lay people were cautious about a depletion of the ozone layer and the risks of skin cancer. In 1978, the United States, Canada and Norway enacted bans on CFC-containing aerosol sprays that damage the ozone layer. The European Community rejected an analogous proposal to do the same. In the U.S., chlorofluorocarbons continued to be used in other applications, such as refrigeration and industrial cleaning, until after the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985. After negotiation of an international treaty (the Montreal Protocol), CFC production was capped at 1986 levels with commitments to long-term reductions. This allowed for a ten-year phase-in for developing countries (identified in Article 5 of the protocol). Since that time, the treaty was amended to ban CFC production after 1995 in the developed countries, and later in developing countries. Today, all of the world's 197 countries have signed the treaty. Beginning January 1, 1996, only recycled and stockpiled CFCs were available for use in developed countries like the US. This production phaseout was possible because of efforts to ensure that there would be substitute chemicals and technologies for all ODS uses. On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer may be slowing down because of the international regulation of ozone-depleting substances. In a study organized by the American Geophysical Union, three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper-atmosphere ozone-depletion rate slowed significantly during the previous decade. Some breakdown can be expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases which are already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes, ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward \"healing\" was reported in 2016. Compounds containing C–H bonds (such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs) have been designed to replace CFCs in certain applications. These replacement compounds are more reactive and less likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all. The residual effects of CFCs accumulating within the atmosphere lead to a concentration gradient between the atmosphere and the ocean. This organohalogen compound is able to dissolve into the ocean's surface waters and is able to act as a time-dependent tracer. This tracer helps scientists study ocean circulation by tracing biological, physical and chemical pathways", "As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the Earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths have to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer, GALEX, is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Related definitions and terminology.", "Definitions and representations.", "In Euclidean geometry.", "Linear and multilinear algebra formalism.", "Two dimensions.", "Three dimensions.", "Quaternions.", "Further notes.", "More alternatives to the matrix formalism.", "In non-Euclidean geometries.", "In relativity.", "Importance.", "Generalizations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"rotation group\" is a Lie group of rotations about a fixed point. This (common) fixed point is called the \"center of rotation\" and is usually identified with the origin. The rotation group is a \"point stabilizer\" in a broader group of (orientation-preserving) motions. For a particular rotation: A \"representation\" of rotations is a particular formalism, either algebraic or geometric, used to parametrize a rotation map. This meaning is somehow inverse to the meaning in the group theory. Rotations of (affine) spaces of points and of respective vector spaces are not always clearly distinguished. The former are sometimes referred to as \"affine rotations\" (although the term is misleading), whereas the latter are \"vector rotations\". See the article below for details.", "", "A motion of a Euclidean space is the same as its isometry: it leaves the distance between any two points unchanged after the transformation. But a (proper) rotation also has to preserve the orientation structure. The \"improper rotation\" term refers to isometries that reverse (flip) the orientation. In the language of group theory the distinction is expressed as \"direct\" vs \"indirect\" isometries in the Euclidean group, where the former comprise the identity component. Any direct Euclidean motion can be represented as a composition of a rotation about the fixed point and a translation. There are no non-trivial rotations in one dimension. In two dimensions, only a single angle is needed to specify a rotation about the origin – the \"angle of rotation\" that specifies an element of the circle group (also known as ). The rotation is acting to rotate an object counterclockwise through an angle about the origin; see below for details. Composition of rotations sums their angles modulo 1 turn, which implies that all two-dimensional rotations about \"the same\" point commute. Rotations about \"different\" points, in general, do not commute. Any two-dimensional direct motion is either a translation or a rotation; see Euclidean plane isometry for details. Rotations in three-dimensional space differ from those in two dimensions in a number of important ways. Rotations in three dimensions are generally not commutative, so the order in which rotations are applied is important even about the same point. Also, unlike the two-dimensional case, a three-dimensional direct motion, in general position, is not a rotation but a screw operation. Rotations about the origin have three degrees of freedom (see rotation formalisms in three dimensions for details), the same as the number of dimensions. A three-dimensional rotation can be specified in a number of ways. The most usual methods are: A general rotation in four dimensions has only one fixed point, the centre of rotation, and no axis of rotation; see rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space for details. Instead the rotation has two mutually orthogonal planes of rotation, each of which is fixed in the sense that points in each plane stay within the planes. The rotation has two angles of rotation, one for each plane of rotation, through which points in the planes rotate. If these are and then all points not in the planes rotate through an angle between and. Rotations in four dimensions about a fixed point have six degrees of freedom. A four-dimensional direct motion in general position \"is\" a rotation about certain point (as in all even Euclidean dimensions), but screw operations exist also.", "When one considers motions of the Euclidean space that preserve the origin, the distinction between points and vectors, important in pure mathematics, can be erased because there is a canonical one-to-one correspondence between points and position vectors. The same is true for geometries other than Euclidean, but whose space is an affine space with a supplementary structure; see an example below. Alternatively, the vector description of rotations can be understood as a parametrization of geometric rotations up to their composition with translations. In other words, one vector rotation presents many equivalent rotations about \"all\" points in the space. A motion that preserves the origin is the same as a linear operator on vectors that preserves the same geometric structure but expressed in terms of vectors. For Euclidean vectors, this expression is their \"magnitude\" (Euclidean norm). In components, such operator is expressed with orthogonal matrix that is multiplied to column vectors. As it was already stated, a (proper) rotation is different from an arbitrary fixed-point motion in its preservation of the orientation of the vector space. Thus, the determinant of a rotation orthogonal matrix must be 1. The only other possibility for the determinant of an orthogonal matrix is, and this result means the transformation is a hyperplane reflection, a point reflection (for odd ), or another kind of improper rotation. Matrices of all proper rotations form the special orthogonal group.", "In two dimensions, to carry out a rotation using a matrix, the point to be rotated counterclockwise is written as a column vector, then multiplied by a rotation matrix calculated from the angle : The coordinates of the point after rotation are, and the formulae for and are The vectors formula_3 and formula_4 have the same magnitude and are separated by an angle as expected. Points on the plane can be also presented as complex numbers: the point in the plane is represented by the complex number This can be rotated through an angle by multiplying it by, then expanding the product using Euler's formula as follows: and equating real and imaginary parts gives the same result as a two-dimensional matrix: Since complex numbers form a commutative ring, vector rotations in two dimensions are commutative, unlike in higher dimensions. They have only one degree of freedom, as such rotations are entirely determined by the angle of rotation.", "As in two dimensions, a matrix can be used to rotate a point to a point. The matrix used is a matrix, This is multiplied by a vector representing the point to give the result The set of all appropriate matrices together with the operation of matrix multiplication is the rotation group SO(3). The matrix is a member of the three-dimensional special orthogonal group,, that is it is an orthogonal matrix with determinant 1. That it is an orthogonal matrix means that its rows are a set of orthogonal unit vectors (so they are an orthonormal basis) as are its columns, making it simple to spot and check if a matrix is a valid rotation matrix. Above-mentioned Euler angles and axis–angle representations can be easily converted to a rotation matrix. Another possibility to represent a rotation of three-dimensional Euclidean vectors are quaternions described below.", "Unit quaternions, or \"versors\", are in some ways the least intuitive representation of three-dimensional rotations. They are not the three-dimensional instance of a general approach. They are more compact than matrices and easier to work with than all other methods, so are often preferred in real-world applications. A versor (also called a \"rotation quaternion\") consists of four real numbers, constrained so the norm of the quaternion is 1. This constraint limits the degrees of freedom of the quaternion to three, as required. Unlike matrices and complex numbers two multiplications are needed: where is the versor, is its inverse, and is the vector treated as a quaternion with zero scalar part. The quaternion can be related to the rotation vector form of the axis angle rotation by the exponential map over the quaternions, where is the rotation vector treated as a quaternion. A single multiplication by a versor, either left or right, is itself a rotation, but in four dimensions. Any four-dimensional rotation about the origin can be represented with two quaternion multiplications: one left and one right, by two \"different\" unit quaternions.", "More generally, coordinate rotations in any dimension are represented by orthogonal matrices. The set of all orthogonal matrices in dimensions which describe proper rotations (determinant = +1), together with the operation of matrix multiplication, forms the special orthogonal group. Matrices are often used for doing transformations, especially when a large number of points are being transformed, as they are a direct representation of the linear operator. Rotations represented in other ways are often converted to matrices before being used. They can be extended to represent rotations and transformations at the same time using homogeneous coordinates. Projective transformations are represented by matrices. They are not rotation matrices, but a transformation that represents a Euclidean rotation has a rotation matrix in the upper left corner. The main disadvantage of matrices is that they are more expensive to calculate and do calculations with. Also in calculations where numerical instability is a concern matrices can be more prone to it, so calculations to restore orthonormality, which are expensive to do for matrices, need to be done more often.", "As was demonstrated above, there exist three multilinear algebra rotation formalisms: one with U(1), or complex numbers, for two dimensions, and two others with versors, or quaternions, for three and four dimensions. In general (even for vectors equipped with a non-Euclidean Minkowski quadratic form) the rotation of a vector space can be expressed as a bivector. This formalism is used in geometric algebra and, more generally, in the Clifford algebra representation of Lie groups. In the case of a positive-definite Euclidean quadratic form, the double covering group of the isometry group formula_12 is known as the Spin group, formula_13. It can be conveniently described in terms of a Clifford algebra. Unit quaternions give the group formula_14.", "In spherical geometry, a direct motion of the -sphere (an example of the elliptic geometry) is the same as a rotation of -dimensional Euclidean space about the origin (). For odd, most of these motions do not have fixed points on the -sphere and, strictly speaking, are not rotations \"of the sphere\"; such motions are sometimes referred to as \"Clifford translations\". Rotations about a fixed point in elliptic and hyperbolic geometries are not different from Euclidean ones. Affine geometry and projective geometry have not a distinct notion of rotation.", "One application of this is special relativity, as it can be considered to operate in a four-dimensional space, spacetime, spanned by three space dimensions and one of time. In special relativity this space is linear and the four-dimensional rotations, called Lorentz transformations, have practical physical interpretations. The Minkowski space is not a metric space, and the term \"isometry\" is inapplicable to Lorentz transformation. If a rotation is only in the three space dimensions, i.e. in a plane that is entirely in space, then this rotation is the same as a spatial rotation in three dimensions. But a rotation in a plane spanned by a space dimension and a time dimension is a hyperbolic rotation, a transformation between two different reference frames, which is sometimes called a \"Lorentz boost\". These transformations demonstrate the pseudo-Euclidean nature of the Minkowski space. They are sometimes described as \"squeeze mappings\" and frequently appear on Minkowski diagrams which visualize (1 + 1)-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean geometry on planar drawings. The study of relativity is concerned with the Lorentz group generated by the space rotations and hyperbolic rotations. Whereas rotations, in physics and astronomy, correspond to rotations of celestial sphere as a 2-sphere in the Euclidean 3-space, Lorentz transformations from induce conformal transformations of the celestial sphere. It is a broader class of the sphere transformations known as Möbius transformations.", "Rotations define important classes of symmetry: rotational symmetry is an invariance with respect to a \"particular rotation\". The circular symmetry is an invariance with respect to all rotation about the fixed axis. As was stated above, Euclidean rotations are applied to rigid body dynamics. Moreover, most of mathematical formalism in physics (such as the vector calculus) is rotation-invariant; see rotation for more physical aspects. Euclidean rotations and, more generally, Lorentz symmetry described above are thought to be symmetry laws of nature. In contrast, the reflectional symmetry is not a precise symmetry law of nature.", "The complex-valued matrices analogous to real orthogonal matrices are the unitary matrices formula_15, which represent rotations in complex space. The set of all unitary matrices in a given dimension forms a unitary group formula_15 of degree ; and its subgroup representing proper rotations (those that preserve the orientation of space) is the special unitary group formula_17 of degree. These complex rotations are important in the context of spinors. The elements of formula_18 are used to parametrize \"three\"-dimensional Euclidean rotations (see above), as well as respective transformations of the spin (see representation theory of SU(2))." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Science.", "Infant swimming.", "Technique.", "History.", "Purpose.", "Recreation.", "Health.", "Disabled swimmers.", "Elderly swimmers.", "Sport.", "Safety.", "Occupation.", "Locomotion.", "Risks.", "Lessons.", "Clothing and equipment.", "Swimsuits." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Swimming relies on the nearly neutral buoyancy of the human body. On average, the body has a relative density of 0.98 compared to water, which causes the body to float. However, buoyancy varies on the basis of body composition, lung inflation, and the salinity of the water. Higher levels of body fat and saltier water both lower the relative density of the body and increase its buoyancy. Since the human body is only slightly less dense than water, water supports the weight of the body during swimming. As a result, swimming is “low-impact” compared to land activities such as running. The density and viscosity of water also create resistance for objects moving through the water. Swimming strokes use this resistance to create propulsion, but this same resistance also generates drag on the body. Hydrodynamics is important to stroke technique for swimming faster, and swimmers who want to swim faster or exhaust less try to reduce the drag of the body's motion through the water. To be more hydrodynamic, swimmers can either increase the power of their strokes or reduce water resistance, though power must increase by a factor of three to achieve the same effect as reducing resistance. Efficient swimming by reducing water resistance involves a horizontal water position, rolling the body to reduce the breadth of the body in the water, and extending the arms as far as possible to reduce wave resistance. Just before plunging into the pool, swimmers may perform exercises such as squatting. Squatting helps in enhancing a swimmer's start by warming up the thigh muscles.", "Human babies demonstrate an innate swimming or diving reflex from newborn until the age of approximately 6 months. Other mammals also demonstrate this phenomenon (see mammalian diving reflex). The diving response involves apnea, reflex bradycardia, and peripheral vasoconstriction; in other words, babies immersed in water spontaneously hold their breath, slow their heart rate, and reduce blood circulation to the extremities (fingers and toes). Because infants are innately able to swim, classes for babies of about 6 months old are offered in many locations. This helps build muscle memory and makes strong swimmers from a young age.", "Swimming can be undertaken using a wide range of styles, known as'strokes,' and these strokes are used for different purposes, or to distinguish between classes in competitive swimming. It is not necessary to use a defined stroke for propulsion through the water, and untrained swimmers may use a 'doggy paddle' of arm and leg movements, similar to the way four-legged animals swim. There are four main strokes used in competition and recreation swimming: the front crawl, also known as freestyle, breaststroke, backstroke and butterfly. Competitive swimming in Europe started around 1800, mostly using the breaststroke. In 1873, John Arthur Trudgen introduced the trudgen to Western swimming competitions. Butterfly was developed in the 1930s, and was considered a variant of the breaststroke until accepted as a separate style in 1953. Butterfly is considered the hardest stroke by many people, but it is the most effective for all-around toning and the building of muscles. It also burns the most calories and can be the second fastest stroke if practiced regularly. Other strokes exist for specific purposes, such as training or rescue, and it is also possible to adapt strokes to avoid using parts of the body, either to isolate certain body parts, such as swimming with arms only or legs only to train them harder, or for use by amputees or those affected by paralysis.", "Swimming has been recorded since prehistoric times, and the earliest records of swimming date back to Stone Age paintings from around 7,000 years ago. Written references date from 2000 BC. Some of the earliest references include the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible (Ezekiel 47:5, Acts 27:42, Isaiah 25:11), Beowulf, and other sagas. The coastal tribes living in the volatile Low Countries were known as excellent swimmers by the Romans. Men and horses of the Batavi tribe could cross the Rhine without losing formation, according to Tacitus. Dio Cassius describes one surprise tactic employed by Aulus Plautius against the Celts at the Battle of the Medway: The [British Celts] thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of [Batavii], who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams.... Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake. This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found, but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful. However, the [Batavii] swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them.\" In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss–German professor of languages, wrote the earliest known complete book about swimming, \"Colymbetes, sive de arte natandi dialogus et festivus et iucundus lectu\" (\"The Swimmer, or A Dialogue on the Art of Swimming and Joyful and Pleasant to Read\").", "There are many reasons why people swim, from swimming as a recreational pursuit to swimming as a necessary part of a job or other activity. Swimming may also be used to rehabilitate injuries, especially various cardiovascular and muscle injuries. People may also pursue swimming as a career or field of interest. Some may be gifted and choose to compete professionally and go onto claim fame.", "Many swimmers swim for recreation, with swimming consistently ranking as one of the physical activities people are most likely to take part in. Recreational swimming can also be used for exercise, relaxation or rehabilitation. The support of the water, and the reduction in impact, make swimming accessible for people who are unable to undertake activities such as running.", "Swimming is primarily a cardiovascular/aerobic exercise due to the long exercise time, requiring a constant oxygen supply to the muscles, except for short sprints where the muscles work anaerobically. Furthermore, swimming can help tone and strengthen muscles. Swimming allows sufferers of arthritis to exercise affected joints without worsening their symptoms. However, swimmers with arthritis may wish to avoid swimming breaststroke, as improper technique can exacerbate arthritic knee pain. As with most aerobic exercise, swimming reduces the harmful effects of stress. Swimming is also effective in improving health for people with cardiovascular problems and chronic illnesses. It is proven to positively impact the mental health of pregnant women and mothers. Swimming can even improve mood.", "As of 2020, the Americans with Disabilities Act requires that swimming pools in the United States be accessible to disabled swimmers.", "\"Water-based exercise can benefit older adults by improving quality of life and decreasing disability. It also improves or maintains the bone health of post-menopausal women.\" Swimming is an ideal workout for the elderly, mainly because it presents little risk of injury and is also low impact. Exercise in the water works out all muscle groups, helping with conditions such as muscular dystrophy which is common in seniors.", "Swimming as a sport predominantly involves participants competing to be the fastest over a given distance in a certain period of time. Competitors swim different distances in different levels of competition. For example, swimming has been an Olympic sport since 1896, and the current program includes events from 50 m to 1500 m in length, across all four main strokes and medley. During the season competitive swimmers typically train several times a week, this is in order to preserve fitness as well as promoting overload in training. Furthermore when the cycle of work is completed swimmers go through a stage called taper where intensity is reduce in preparation for racing, during taper power and feel in the water are concentrated. The sport is governed internationally by the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA), and competition pools for FINA events are 25 or 50 meters in length. In the United States, a pool 25 yards in length is commonly used for competition. Other swimming and water-related sporting disciplines include open water swimming, diving, synchronized swimming, water polo, triathlon, and the modern pentathlon.", "As a popular leisure activity done all over the world, one of the primary risks of swimming is drowning. Drowning may occur from a variety of factors, from swimming fatigue to simply inexperience in the water. From 2005 to 2014, an average of 3,536 fatal unintentional drownings occurred in the United States, approximating 10 deaths a day. To minimize the risk and prevent potential drownings from occurring, lifeguards are often employed to supervise swimming locations such as pools and beaches. Different lifeguards receive different training depending on the sites that they are employed at; i.e. a waterfront lifeguard receives more rigorous training than a poolside lifeguard. Well-known aquatic training services include the National Lifesaving Society and the Canadian Red Cross, which specialize in training lifeguards in North America.", "Some occupations require workers to swim, such as abalone and pearl diving, and spearfishing. Swimming is used to rescue people in the water who are in distress, including exhausted swimmers, non-swimmers who have accidentally entered the water, and others who have come to harm on the water. Lifeguards or volunteer lifesavers are deployed at many pools and beaches worldwide to fulfill this purpose, and they, as well as rescue swimmers, may use specific swimming styles for rescue purposes. Swimming is also used in marine biology to observe plants and animals in their natural habitat. Other sciences use swimming; for example, Konrad Lorenz swam with geese as part of his studies of animal behavior. Swimming also has military purposes. Military swimming is usually done by special operation forces, such as Navy SEALs and US Army Special Forces. Swimming is used to approach a location, gather intelligence, engage in sabotage or combat, and subsequently depart. This may also include airborne insertion into water or exiting a submarine while it is submerged. Due to regular exposure to large bodies of water, all recruits in the United States Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard are required to complete basic swimming or water survival training. Swimming is also a professional sport. Companies sponsor swimmers who have the skills to compete at the international level. Many swimmers compete competitively to represent their home countries in the Olympics. Professional swimmers may also earn a living as entertainers, performing in water ballets.", "Locomotion by swimming over brief distances is frequent when alternatives are precluded. There have been cases of political refugees swimming in the Baltic Sea and of people jumping in the water and swimming ashore from vessels not intended to reach land where they planned to go.", "There are many risks associated with voluntary or involuntary human presence in water, which may result in death directly or through drowning asphyxiation. Swimming is both the goal of much voluntary presence and the prime means of regaining land in accidental situations. Most recorded water deaths fall into these categories: Adverse effects of swimming can include: Around any pool area, safety equipment is often important, and is a zoning requirement for most residential pools in the United States. Supervision by personnel trained in rescue techniques is required at most competitive swimming meets and public pools.", "Traditionally, children were considered not able to swim independently until 4 years of age, although now infant swimming lessons are recommended to prevent drowning. In Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Estonia and Finland, the curriculum for the fifth grade (fourth grade in Estonia) states that all children should learn how to swim as well as how to handle emergencies near water. Most commonly, children are expected to be able to swim —of which at least on their back – after first falling into deep water and getting their head under water. Even though about 95 percent of Swedish school children know how to swim, drowning remains the third most common cause of death among children. In both the Netherlands and Belgium swimming lessons under school time (\"schoolzwemmen\", school swimming) are supported by the government. Most schools provide swimming lessons. There is a long tradition of swimming lessons in the Netherlands and Belgium, the Dutch translation for the breaststroke swimming style is even \"schoolslag\" (schoolstroke). In France, swimming is a compulsory part of the curriculum for primary schools. Children usually spend one semester per year learning swimming during CP/CE1/CE2/CM1 (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th grade). In many places, swimming lessons are provided by local swimming pools, both those run by the local authority and by private leisure companies. Many schools also include swimming lessons into their Physical Education curricula, provided either in the schools' own pool or in the nearest public pool. In the UK, the \"Top-ups scheme\" calls for school children who cannot swim by the age of 11 to receive intensive daily lessons. Children who have not reached Great Britain's National Curriculum standard of swimming 25 meters by the time they leave primary school receive a half-hour lesson every day for two weeks during term-time. In Canada and Mexico there has been a call to include swimming in public school curriculum. In the United States there is the Infant Swimming Resource (ISR) initiative that provides lessons for infant children, to cope with an emergency where they have fallen into the water. They are taught how to roll-back-to-float (hold their breath underwater, to roll onto their back, to float unassisted, rest and breathe until help arrives). In Switzerland, swimming lessons for babies are popular, to help them getting used to be in another element. At the competition level, unlike in other countries - such as the Commonwealth countries, swimming teams are not related to educational institutions (high-schools and universities), but rather to cities or regions.", "", "Standard everyday clothing is usually impractical for swimming and is unsafe under some circumstances. Most cultures today expect swimmers to wear swimsuits. Men's swimsuits commonly resemble shorts, or briefs. Casual men's swimsuits (for example, boardshorts) are rarely skintight, unlike competitive swimwear, like jammers or diveskins. In most cases, boys and men swim with their upper body exposed, except in countries where custom or law prohibits it in a public setting, or for practical reasons such as sun protection. Modern women's swimsuits are generally skintight, covering the pubic region and the breasts (See bikini). Women's swimwear may also cover the midriff as well. Women's swimwear is often a fashion statement, and whether it is modest or not is a subject of debate by many groups, religious and secular. Competitive swimwear is built so that the wearer can swim faster and more efficiently. Modern competitive swimwear is skintight and lightweight. There are many kinds of competitive swimwear for each gender. It is used in aquatic competitions, such as water polo, swim racing, diving, and rowing. Wetsuits provide both thermal insulation and flotation. Many swimmers lack buoyancy in the leg. The wetsuit reduces density and therefore improves buoyancy while swimming. It provides insulation by absorbing some of the surrounding water, which then heats up when in direct contact with skin. The wetsuit is the usual choice for those who swim in cold water for long periods of time, as it reduces susceptibility to hypothermia. Some people also choose to wear no clothing while swimming; this is known as skinny dipping. In some European countries public pools have naturist sessions to allow clothes-free swimming and many countries have naturist beaches where one can swim naked. It is legal to swim naked in the sea at all UK beaches. It was common for males to swim naked in a public setting up to the early 20th century. Today, skinny dipping can be a rebellious activity or merely a casual one." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Relation to SI units.", "Ozone.", "Sulfur dioxide.", "Derivation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Dobson unit is not part of the International System of Units. To address this shortcoming, a brief study in 1982 examined a number of alternative SI-based units suitable for column amounts of not only ozone but any gas in any planetary atmosphere and proposed the use of the unit of mole per square metre for all cases. Examples range from Earth's trace gases at levels of micro moles per square meter to Venus' carbon dioxide at mega moles per square meter: Typical values of total ozone in the Earth's atmosphere are conveniently represented in millimoles per square metre (mmol/m). A later examination in 1995 of units for use in atmospheric chemistry by the Commission on Atmospheric Chemistry, a part of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), discouraged the use of special names and symbols for units that are not part of the SI and are not products of powers of SI base units. Although it overlooked the 1982 article it concurred with the view that the Dobson unit should eventually be replaced by an appropriate SI unit and that the unit mmol/m was the most convenient and least cumbersome option. It expressed the hope that this unit would eventually supplant the Dobson unit. However, as of March 2017, there is little evidence that this has occurred; for example the Dobson unit is still used by NASA and by the World Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation Data Center in their reporting of total ozone amount.", "NASA uses a baseline value of 220 DU for ozone. This was chosen as the starting point for observations of the Antarctic ozone hole, since values of less than 220 Dobson units were not found before 1979. Also, from direct measurements over Antarctica, a column ozone level of less than 220 Dobson units is a result of the ozone loss from chlorine and bromine compounds.", "In addition, Dobson units are often used to describe total column densities of sulfur dioxide, which occurs in the atmosphere in small amounts due to the combustion of fossil fuels, from biological processes releasing dimethyl sulfide, or by natural combustion such as forest fires. Large amounts of sulfur dioxide may be released into the atmosphere as well by volcanic eruptions. The Dobson unit is used to describe total column amounts of sulfur dioxide because it appeared in the early days of ozone remote sensing on ultraviolet satellite instruments (such as TOMS).", "The Dobson unit arises from the ideal gas law where \"P\" and \"V\" are pressure and volume respectively, and \"n\", \"R\" and \"T\" are the number of moles of gas, the gas constant (8.314 J/(mol·K)), and \"T\" is temperature in kelvins (K). The number density of air is the number of molecules or atoms per unit volume: and when plugged into the real gas law, the number density of air is found by using pressure, temperature and the real gas constant: The number density (molecules/volume) of air at standard temperature and pressure (\"T\" = 273 K and \"P\" = 101325 Pa) is, by using this equation, With some unit conversions of joules to pascal cubic meters, the equation for molecules/volume is A Dobson unit is the total amount of a trace gas per unit area. In atmospheric sciences, this is referred to as a column density. How, though, do we go from units of molecules per \"cubic\" meter, a volume, to molecules per \"square centimeter\", an area? This must be done by integration. To get a column density, we must integrate the total column over a height. Per the definition of Dobson units, we see that 1 DU = 0.01 mm of trace gas when compressed down to sea level at standard temperature and pressure. So if we integrate our number density of air from 0 to 0.01 mm, we find the number density which is equal to 1 DU: And thus we come up with the value of 1 DU, which is 2.69 molecules per meter squared." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "His reign." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Huneric was a son of King Genseric (or Gaiseric), and was sent to Italy as a hostage in 435, when his father made a treaty with the Western emperor Valentinian III. Huneric became king of the Vandals on his father's death on 25 January 477. Like Gaiseric he was an Arian, and his reign is chiefly memorable for his persecution of members of the orthodox Christian Church in his dominions. Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III, was Huneric's wife.", "Huneric was a fervent adherent to Arianism. Yet his reign opened with making a number of positive overtures towards the local Roman population. Following the visit of a diplomatic mission from the Eastern Roman Empire led by Alexander, Huneric restored properties seized by his father from the merchants of Carthage. He also lifted the policy of persecuting the local Roman Catholics, allowing them to hold a synod wherein they elected a new Catholic bishop of Carthage, Eugenius, after a vacancy of 24 years. However, not long after the ordination of Eugenius, Huneric reversed himself and began to once again persecute Catholics. Furthermore, he tried to make Catholic property fall to the state, but when this caused too much protest from the Eastern Roman Emperor, he chose to banish a number of Catholics to a faraway province instead. On February 1, 484 he organized a meeting of Catholic bishops with Arian bishops, but on February 24, 484 he forcibly removed the Catholic bishops from their offices and banished some to Corsica. A few were executed, including the former proconsul Victorian along with Frumentius and other wealthy merchants, who were killed at Hadrumetum after refusing to become Arians. Among those exiled was Vigilius, bishop of Thapsus, who published a theological treatise against Arianism. Additionally, Huneric murdered many members of the Hasdingi dynasty and also persecuted Manichaeans. Towards the end of his reign, the Moors in the Aurès Mountains (in modern-day Algeria) successfully rebelled from Vandal rule. Upon his death on December 23, 484, Huneric was succeeded by his nephew Gunthamund (reigned 484–496)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Western World.", "Classical Antiquity.", "Middle Ages.", "Renaissance.", "Middle and Far East.", "Design.", "Bearings.", "Cross-plane vs flat-plane.", "Engine balance.", "Flying arms.", "Piston stroke.", "Counterweights.", "Counter-rotating crankshafts.", "Full Crank vs Half Crank.", "Construction.", "Forging, casting and machining.", "Fatigue strength.", "Bearing surfaces." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "", "A Roman iron crankshaft of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the other handle being lost. The earliest evidence for a crank and connecting rod in a machine appears in the late Roman Hierapolis sawmill from the 3rd century AD and two Roman stone sawmills at Gerasa, Roman Syria, and Ephesus, Asia Minor (both 6th century AD). On the pediment of the Hierapolis mill, a waterwheel fed by a mill race is shown transmitting power through a gear train to two frame saws, which cut rectangular blocks by way of some kind of connecting rods and, through mechanical necessity, cranks. The accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train. In ancient literature, we find a reference to the workings of water-powered marble saws close to Trier, now Germany, by the late 4th century poet Ausonius; about the same time, these mill types seem also to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia, demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the Roman Empire. The three finds push back the date of the invention of the crank and connecting rod back by a full millennium; for the first time, all essential components of the much later steam engine were assembled by one technological culture:", "The Italian physician Guido da Vigevano (c. 1280−1349), planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels (center of image). The Luttrell Psalter, dating to around 1340, describes a grindstone rotated by two cranks, one at each end of its axle; the geared hand-mill, operated either with one or two cranks, appeared later in the 15th century;", "The first depictions of the compound crank in the carpenter's brace appear between 1420 and 1430 in various northern European artwork. The rapid adoption of the compound crank can be traced in the works of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars, an unknown German engineer writing on the state of the military technology of his day: first, the connecting-rod, applied to cranks, reappeared, second, double compound cranks also began to be equipped with connecting-rods and third, the flywheel was employed for these cranks to get them over the 'dead-spot'. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a compound crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola, but the device is still mechanically misunderstood. A sound grasp of the crank motion involved demonstrates a little later Pisanello who painted a piston-pump driven by a water-wheel and operated by two simple cranks and two connecting-rods. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks (see above). The concept was much improved by the Italian Roberto Valturio in 1463, who devised a boat with five sets, where the parallel cranks are all joined to a single power source by one connecting-rod, an idea also taken up by his compatriot Francesco di Giorgio. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser (d. 1405), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and a Dutch \"farmer\" by the name Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest in 1592. His wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmill's circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597. From the 16th century onwards, evidence of cranks and connecting rods integrated into machine design becomes abundant in the technological treatises of the period: Agostino Ramelli's \"The Diverse and Artifactitious Machines\" of 1588 alone depicts eighteen examples, a number that rises in the \"Theatrum Machinarum Novum\" by Georg Andreas Böckler to 45 different machines, one third of the total.", "Al-Jazari (1136–1206) described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, but the device was unnecessarily complex indicating that he still did not fully understand the concept of power conversion. In China, the potential of the crank of converting circular motion into reciprocal one never seems to have been fully realized, and the crank was typically absent from such machines until the turn of the 20th century.", "The crankshaft is supported by the engine block, with the engine's main bearings allowing the crankshaft to rotate within the block. The up-down motion of each piston is transferred to the crankshaft via connecting rods. A flywheel is often attached to one end of the crankshaft, in order to store rotational energy and maintain a more consistent rotational speed as the crankshaft received energy from the connecting rods as a series of pulses. This assists in smoothing the power delivery and often in conjunction with a Harmonic damper -attached to the other end of crankshaft- reduces torsional vibration. A crankshaft is subjected to enormous stresses, in some cases more than per cylinder. Crankshafts for single-cylinder engines are usually a simpler design than for engines with multiple cylinders. Crankshafts can either be one-piece forgings or pressed together from separate individual crank-webs, shafts and pins, sometimes called a 'built-up crankshaft'. In most automotive applications (Four-stroke engines) a one-piece forging is used in conjunction with plain/shell bearings that rely on steady supply of pressurized engine oil. This pressurized oil fills the clearance between the bearings and the journals of the crankshaft and creates a thin hydrodynamic layer of oil that 'floats' the metal surfaces apart so no metal to metal contact occurs as the parts rotate. This oil film is very low friction and, as long as oil pressure is maintained, can easily handle the forces generated by piston acceleration, deceleration, reversal and swing of conrod big ends. Two-stroke engines use a sealed crankcase as part of the induction of fresh fuel/air into the cylinder. This precludes the use of oil pressurized plain main and crankpin bearings. Instead rolling element ball and needle roller bearings are used and the cranks shaft is made up of several pieces press-fitted together using one-piece conrods, rather than the 2-piece conrod design ubiquitous in a plain bearing 4-stroke engine. Lubrication of the two-stroke crankshaft is via oil mixed with fuel, either in the fuel tank (pre-mix) or via a separate oiling system that delivers oil to the crankcase to be mixed with the fuel according to rpm and load. While mainly used in two-stroke engines (everything from chainsaws to large multi-cylinder outboard motors) some older 4-stroke engines (mainly motorcycles) use built up roller crankshafts.", "The crankshaft is able to rotate in the engine block due to the main bearings. Since the crankshaft is subject to large sideways forces from each cylinder, bearings are located at various points along the crankshaft, not just one at each end. This was a factor in V8 engines replacing straight-eight engines in the 1950s. The long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher engine speeds (RPM). High performance engines often have more main bearings than their lower performance cousins for this reason.", "Most production V8 engines use crank throws spaced 90° apart, which is called a \"cross-plane\" configuration (such as the Ford Modular engine and the General Motors LS engine). Several high-performance V8 engines (such as the Ferrari 355) instead use use a \"flat-plane\" crankshaft with throws spaced 180° apart, essentially resulting in two inline-four engines running in a common crankcase. Flat-plane engines are usually able to rev higher, however they have more vibration. Flat-plane crankshafts were used on several early V8 engines. See the main article on crossplane crankshafts.", "For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating mass of each piston and connecting rod to improve engine balance. These are typically cast as part of the crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces. In 1916, the Hudson Motor Car Company began production of the first engines to use balanced crankshafts, which allowed the engine to run at higher speeds (RPM) than contemporary engines.", "In some engines, the crankshaft contains direct links between adjacent crank pins, without the usual intermediate main bearing. These links are called \"flying arms\". This arrangement is sometimes used in V6 and V8 engines, as it enables the engine to be designed with different V angles than what would otherwise be required to create an even firing interval, while still using fewer main bearings than would normally be required with a single piston per crankthrow. This arrangement reduces weight and engine length at the expense of reduced crankshaft rigidity.", "The distance the axis of the crank throws from the axis of the crankshaft determines the stroke length of the engine. Most modern car engines are classified as \"over square\" or short-stroke, wherein the stroke is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore. A common way to increase the low-RPM torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes known as \"stroking\" the engine. Traditionally, the trade-off for a long-stroke engine was reduced power and increased vibration at high RPM.", "Some high performance crankshafts also use heavy-metal counterweights to make the crankshaft more compact. The heavy-metal used is most often a tungsten alloy but depleted uranium has also been used. A cheaper option is to use lead, but compared with tungsten its density is much lower.", "The conventional design for piston engines is where each connecting rod is attached to one crankshaft, with the angle of the connecting rod varying as the piston moves through its stroke. This variation in angle results in lateral forces on the pistons, pushing the pistons against the cylinder wall. This lateral force causes additional friction between the piston and cylinder wall and can cause additional wear on the cylinder wall. To avoid these lateral forces, each piston can be connected to two crankshafts that are rotating in opposite directions, which cancels out the lateral forces. This arrangement also reduces the requirement for counterweights, reducing the mass of the crankshaft. An early example of a counter-rotating crankshaft arrangement is the 1900-1904 Lanchester Engine Company flat-twin engines.", "On small single cylinder engines, to reduce cost and weight, one of the crank shaft bearings is sometimes omitted. Full crank designs are considered to be smoother running and to last longer.", "", "The most common construction methods for crankshafts are forging (usually through roll forging) or casting. Most crankshafts are made in a single piece, however some smaller and larger engines use crankshafts assembled from multiple pieces. Recently, forging has become the most common construction method for crankshafts, due to their lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent damping. With forged crankshafts, vanadium microalloyed steels are mostly used as these steels can be air cooled after reaching high strengths without additional heat treatment (aside from the surface hardening of the bearing journals). The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than high alloy steels. Casting (using cast iron) is today mostly used for crankshafts in cheaper, lower performance engines. Crankshafts can also be machined out of a billet of steel. These crankshafts tend to be expensive due to the large amount of material that must be removed with lathes and milling machines, the high material cost, and the additional heat treatment required. Since no expensive tooling is needed, this production method is mostly used for low-volume engines. In a machined crankshafts, the fibre flow (local inhomogeneities of the material caused by the casting process) does not follow the shape of the crankshaft, however this is rarely a problem since machined crankshafts often use higher quality steels than forged crankshafts.", "To improve the fatigue strength, a radius is often rolled at the ends of each main and crankpin bearing. The radius itself reduces the stress in these critical areas, but since the radius in most cases is rolled, this also leaves some compressive residual stress in the surface, which prevents cracks from forming. Microfinishing is a grinding process to produce a smooth finish on the surface of a metallic object, which is also used to prevent cracks developing from fatigue stress.", "Most mass-production crankshafts use induction hardening for the bearing surfaces. Some high performance crankshafts, billet crankshafts in particular, use nitridization instead. For crankshafts that operate on roller bearings, the use of carburization tends to be favored due to the high contact stresses in such situations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Applications.", "Formats and form factors.", "Memory Stick.", "Memory Stick Select.", "Memory Stick PRO.", "Memory Stick Duo.", "Memory Stick PRO Duo.", "Memory Stick PRO-HG Duo.", "Memory Stick Micro (M2).", "Memory Stick XC.", "Memory Stick PRO-HG Duo HX.", "Mark 2 certification." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The original Memory Stick, which was launched in October 1998, was available in capacities up to 128 MB. In October 1999, Sony licensed the technology to Fujitsu, Aiwa, Sanyo, Sharp, Pioneer and Kenwood, in a bid to avoid a repetition of the Betamax failure. Other companies were also licensees to the format. Some early examples of Memory Stick usage by third-party companies include Sharp's MP3 players, Alpine's in-dash players, and Epson's printers. Initially the format had a lukewarm reception, but it soon increased in popularity, especially after the licensing deal. In spring 2001, Memory Stick attained 25% market share (against CompactFlash's 40% and SmartMedia's 32%), up from 7% a year earlier. By May 2001, total shipment of Memory Stick units surpassed 10 million. However the SD card, jointly developed by Toshiba, Panasonic and SanDisk, became widely popular among companies and soon became the most popular flash format by November 2003 it held 42% market share in the United States, ahead of CompactFlash's 26% and Memory Stick with 16%. Eventually Sony itself became the only company to support the format. Sony was often criticized for the Memory Stick, as they were deemed to be expensive compared to other formats. , it appeared that Sony had begun to combine support for SD/SDHC and Memory Stick formats in their products. All digital cameras and camcorders announced by Sony at the 2010 Consumer Electronics Show could use SD and SDHC cards as well as Memory Sticks. Furthermore, Sony is releasing its own line of SD cards. Many claim this development as the end of the format war between Memory Stick and SD card. However, Sony did not abandon the format at this time, and has indicated it will continue development of the format for the foreseeable future. A prime example is the development of WiFi transfers through a special Memory Stick PRO-Duo which is still in development as of 2011. Sony's first significant migration away from Memory Stick did not come until 2019, when it introduced the α7R IV full-frame mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera without Memory Stick support, opting instead for dual SDXC slots. Memory Stick cards were almost entirely produced by Sony itself. SanDisk and Lexar were among the few third-party Memory Stick producers.", "Typically, Memory Sticks are used as storage media for a portable device, in a form that can easily be removed for access by a personal computer. For example, Sony digital compact cameras use Memory Stick for storing image files. With a Memory Stick-capable memory card reader a user can copy the pictures taken with the Sony digital camera to a computer. Sony typically included Memory Stick reader hardware in its first-party consumer electronics, such as digital cameras, digital music players, PDAs, cellular phones, the VAIO line of laptop computers, TV sets under the WEGA and Bravia names, and Sony's handheld gaming device, the PlayStation Portable. A special Memory Stick can be inserted in the hindquarters of Sony's AIBO robot pet, to enable the use of Aiboware—software intended for use on AIBOs. The Sticks include a copy protection mechanism used by the robot, allowing users to write programs. These are referred to as \"programmable\" or \"programming\". Only 8 MB and 16 MB versions are available.", "Memory Sticks include a wide range of actual formats, including three different form factors.", "The original Memory Stick is approximately the size and thickness of a stick of chewing gum. It was available in capacities from 4 MB to 128 MB. It was available both with and without MagicGate support. The MagicGate-capable memory sticks were white-colored, while the standard version was purple. The original Memory Stick is no longer manufactured.", "In response to the storage limitations of the original Memory Stick, Sony introduced the Memory Stick Select at CES 2003 on January 9. The Memory Stick Select contained two separate 128 MB partitions which the user could switch between using a physical switch on the card. This solution was fairly unpopular, but it did give users of older Memory Stick devices more capacity. Its physical size remained the same as the original Memory Stick.", "The Memory Stick PRO, introduced on January 9, 2003 as a joint effort between Sony and SanDisk, would be the longer-lasting solution to the space problem. Most devices that use the original Memory Sticks support both the original and PRO sticks since both formats have identical form factors. Some readers that were not compatible could be upgraded to Memory Stick PRO support via a firmware update. Memory Stick PROs have a marginally higher transfer speed and a maximum \"theoretical\" capacity of 32 GB, although it appears GB-sized capacities are only available in the PRO Duo form factor. \"High Speed\" Memory Stick PROs are available, and newer devices support this high-speed mode, allowing for faster file transfers. All Memory Stick PROs larger than 1 GB support this high-speed mode, and High Speed Memory Stick PROs are backwards-compatible with devices that don't support the high-speed mode. High-capacity Memory Sticks such as the 4 GB versions are expensive compared to other types of flash memory such as SD cards and CompactFlash., 512 MB Memory Stick PRO can be bought.", "The Memory Stick Duo was developed in response to Sony's need for a smaller flash memory card for pocket-sized digital cameras, cell phones and the PlayStation Portable. It is slightly smaller than the competing Secure Digital (SD) format and roughly two thirds the length of the standard Memory Stick form factor, but costs more. Memory Stick Duos are available with the same features as the larger standard Memory Stick, available with and without high speed mode, and with and without MagicGate support. The Memory Stick PRO Duo has replaced the Memory Stick Duo due to its 128 MB size limitation, but has kept the same form factor as the Duo. A simple adapter allows Memory Stick Duo to be used in devices designed to accept the original Memory Stick form factor.", "The Memory Stick PRO Duo (MSPD) quickly replaced the Memory Stick Duo due to the Duo's size limitation of 128 MB and slow transfer speed. Memory Stick PRO Duos are available in all the same variants as the larger Memory Stick PRO, with and without High Speed mode, and with and without MagicGate support. Sony has released different versions of Memory Stick PRO Duo. A Memory Stick PRO Duo with MagicGate was released as a 512 MB stick. Additionally, a 16 GB version on March 2008 and another a 32 GB version on August 21, 2009. In 2009, Sony and SanDisk also announced the joint development of an expanded Memory Stick PRO format tentatively named \"Memory Stick PRO Format for Extended High Capacity\". Sony has since finalized the format and released its specification under the new name, \"Memory Stick XC\" (see below).", "On December 11, 2006, Sony, together with SanDisk, announced the Memory Stick PRO-HG Duo. While only serial and 4-bit parallel interfaces are supported in the Memory Stick PRO format, an 8-bit parallel interface was added to the Memory Stick PRO-HG format. Also, the maximum interface clock frequency was increased from 40 MHz to 60 MHz. With these enhancements, a theoretical transfer rate of 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s) is achieved, which is three times faster than the Memory Stick PRO format.", "In a joint venture with SanDisk, Sony released a new Memory Stick format on February 6, 2006. The Memory Stick Micro (M2) measures 15 × 12.5 × 1.2 mm (roughly one-quarter the size of the Duo) with 64 MB, 128 MB, 256 MB, 512 MB, 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB, and 16 GB capacities available. The format has a theoretical limit of 32 GB and maximum transfer speed of 160 Mbit/s. However, as with the \"PRO Duo\" format, it has been expanded through the \"XC\" series as \"Memory Stick XC Micro\" and \"Memory Stick XC-HG Micro\", both with the \"theoretical\" maximum capacity of 2 TB. The M2 comes with an adapter, much like the Duo Sticks, to ensure physical compatibility with Memory Stick PRO devices. However, not all devices with a PRO slot are compatible with the M2/Adapter combination, as the firmware of older devices don't support the higher capacity of some M2 cards. One example is certain Sony CLIÉ PDAs which don't support cards larger than 2 GB. Sony announced on June 1, 2009, that M2 support in Sony Ericsson phones would be dropped in favor of microSD. The Sony DSC-RX0 Mark II made a revived usage of M2 slots.", "On January 7, 2009, SanDisk and Sony announced the Memory Stick XC format (tentatively named \"Memory Stick Format Series for Extended High Capacity\" at the time). The Memory Stick XC has a maximum \"theoretical\" 2 TB capacity, 64 times larger than that of the Memory Stick PRO Duo which is limited to 32 GB. XC series has the same form factors as PRO series, and supports MagicGate content protection technology as well as Access Control function as PRO series does. In line with the rest of the industry, the XC series uses the newer exFAT file system due to size and formatting limitations of FAT/FAT16/FAT32 filesystems used in the PRO series. A maximum transfer speed of 480 Mbit/s (60 Mbyte/s) is achieved through 8-bit parallel data transfer.", "Sony announced the release of the Memory Stick PRO-HG Duo HX on May 17, 2011, which was considered the fastest card ever made by the manufacturer. It measures 20 × 31 × 1.6 mm, with 8 GB, 16 GB, or 32 GB versions available. Also, the format offers a maximum transfer speed of 50 MB/s.", "As of early 2008, Mark 2-certified versions of the Memory Stick PRO Duo became available. The Mark 2 designation indicates the Memory Stick is suitable for use with AVCHD recording products or other faster Memory Stick enabled devices by providing appropriate minimum write performance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "History.", "Biosystem.", "Tourism.", "Ecology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Seč dam is the largest dam in the protected landscape area Železné hory. It is located on river Chrudimka in a valley close to the town of the same name, about 20 kilometers from Chrudim and 25 kilometers from Pardubice. The lake is approx. 7 kilometers long and is situated at 490 meters above the sea level.", "The dam was constructed between 1925 and 1934 as a protection against floods. As a result of the construction, 22 buildings were depopulated and flooded. Remains of some of them are popular destination for scuba divers. A small power plant was constructed between 1941 and 1946. In 1947 another smaller reservoir was constructed approx 1 km from the main lake and it is called Seč II.", "The environmentally most valuable part of Seč are Ostrůvek and the Oheb peninsula, which consists of a steep rock that ends with a small rocky promontory covered with pines. This place is a home to some rare invertebrate species (snails, beetles) as well as a natural habitat of Eurasian eagle-owls. The forest that covers the Oheb rock consists of some very old species of European beeches. Dead trees are left to decay and become hosts for a wide range of polypores that feed on their dead wood.", "The lake and its surroundings are the main tourist attraction of the Železné hory region. The surroundings are hilly and covered with forests, meadows and fields. The lake offers great variety of activities including swimming, sailing, boating, windsurfing, scuba diving, fishing in summer and ice skating in winter (at own risk). The forests around the lake offer great opportunity for hiking, horse riding or cross-country skiing in winter. The most important places on Seč and its vicinity are:", "Oheb and Ostrůvek are protected natural areas threatened by tourists that visit these sites. Another ecological issue is the wastewater from surrounding villages and recreational objects that contaminates the lake. It does not represent a direct risk to the people who swim in the water but it causes algal bloom. In some cases, large areas of green \"tufts\" can be observed. This was originally believed to be caused by manure washed down from the fields close to the lake, but results of recent researches proved that fluoride compounds from manure are insoluble in water so it cannot be the primary cause. The algal bloom season on Seč may start as soon as in June and gets worse when there's lack of rain which reduces the water flow. It is recommended to have a shower after swimming in the water or avoid entering the water when the situations worsens." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The first minted coins.", "Early minting technology.", "The screw press.", "Industrial minting." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The earliest metallic money did not consist of coins, but of unminted metal in the form of rings and other ornaments or of weapons, which were used for thousands of years by the Egyptian, Chaldean and Assyrian empires. Metals were well suited to represent wealth, owing to their great commodity value per unit weight or volume, and their durability, divisibility and rarity. The best metals for coinage are gold, silver, platinum, copper, tin, nickel, aluminum, zinc, iron, and their alloys; certain alloys of gold, silver, copper and nickel have the best combination of the required qualities. The first mint was likely established in Lydia in the 7th century BC, for coining gold, silver and electrum. The Lydian innovation of manufacturing coins under the authority of the state spread to neighboring Greece, where a number of city-states operated their own mints. Some of the earliest Greek mints were within city-states on Greek islands such as Crete; a mint existed at the ancient city of Cydonia on Crete at least as early as the fifth century BC. At about the same time, coins and mints appeared independently in China and spread to Korea and Japan. The manufacture of coins in the Roman Empire, dating from about the 4th century BC, significantly influenced later development of coin minting in Europe. The origin of the word \"mint\" is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC at the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperor's portrait. Some of the emperors who ruled only for a short time made sure that a coin bore their image; Quietus, for example, ruled only part of the Roman Empire from 260 to 261 AD, and yet he issued two coins bearing his image.", "Ancient coins were made by casting in moulds or by striking between engraved dies. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they knew nothing of striking, but because it was not suitable for such large masses of metal. Casting is now used only by counterfeiters. The most ancient coins were cast in bulletshaped or conical moulds and marked on one side by means of a die which was struck with a hammer. The \"blank\" or unmarked piece of metal was placed on a small anvil, and the die was held in position with tongs. The reverse or lower side of the coin received a \"rough incuse\" by the hammer. Later a rectangular mark, a \"square incuse\", was made by the sharp edges of the little anvil, or punch. The rich iconography of the obverse of the early electrum coins contrasts with the dull appearance of their reverse which usually carries only punch marks. The shape and number of these punches varied according to their denomination and weight-standard. Subsequently, the anvil was marked in various ways, and decorated with letters and figures of beasts, and later still the anvil was replaced by a reverse die. The spherical blanks soon gave place to lenticular-shaped ones. The blank was made red-hot and struck between cold dies. One blow was usually insufficient, and the method was similar to that still used in striking medals in high relief, except that the blank is now allowed to cool before being struck. With the substitution of iron for bronze as the material for dies, about 300 AD, the practice of striking the blanks while they were hot was gradually discarded. In the Middle Ages bars of metal were cast and hammered out on an anvil. Portions of the flattened sheets were then cut out with shears, struck between dies and again trimmed with shears. A similar method had been used in Ancient Egypt during the Ptolemaic Kingdom (c. 300 BC), but had been forgotten. Square pieces of metal were also cut from cast bars, converted into round disks by hammering and then struck between dies. In striking, the lower die was fixed into a block of wood, and the blank piece of metal laid upon it by hand. The upper die was then placed on the blank, and kept in position by means of a holder round which was placed a roll of lead to protect the hand of the operator while heavy blows were struck with a hammer. An early improvement was the introduction of a tool resembling a pair of tongs, the two dies being placed one at the extremity of each leg. This avoided the necessity of readjusting the dies between blows, and ensured greater accuracy in the impression.", "Minting by means of a falling weight (monkey press) intervened between the hand hammers and the screw press in many places. In Birmingham in particular this system became highly developed and was long in use. In 1553, the French engineer Aubin Olivier introduced screw presses for striking coins, together with rolls for reducing the cast bars and machines for punching-out round disks from flattened sheets of metal. 8 to 12 men took over from each other every quarter of an hour to maneuver the arms driving the screw which struck the medals. Later, the rolls were driven by horses, mules or water-power. Henry II came up against hostility on the part of the coin makers, so the process was largely discarded in 1585 and only used for coins of small value, medals and tokens. The system was reintroduced into France by Jean Varin in 1640 and the practice of hammering was forbidden in 1645. In England the new machinery was tried in London in 1561, but abandoned soon afterwards; it was finally adopted in 1662, although the old pieces continued in circulation until 1696.", "Industrial techniques and steam-power was introduced to coin manufacture by Matthew Boulton in Birmingham in 1788. By 1786, two-thirds of the coins in circulation in Britain were counterfeit, and the Royal Mint responded to this crisis by shutting itself down, worsening the situation. The industrialist Mathew Boulton turned his attention to coinage in the mid-1780s as an extension to the small metal products he already manufactured in his factory in Soho. In 1788 he established a Mint as part of his industrial plant. He invented a steam driven screw press in the same year (his original machinery was being used at the Royal Mint until 1881, almost a century later), which worked by atmospheric pressure applied to a piston. The piston was in communication with a vacuum vessel from which the air had been pumped by steam power. He installed eight of these state-of-the-art steam-driven presses in his factory, each with the capacity to strike between 70 and 84 coins per minute. The firm had little immediate success getting a license to strike British coins, but was soon engaged in striking coins for the British East India Company, Sierra Leone and Russia, while producing high-quality planchets, or blank coins, to be struck by national mints elsewhere. The firm sent over 20 million blanks to Philadelphia, to be struck into cents and half-cents by the United States Mint—Mint Director Elias Boudinot found them to be \"perfect and beautifully polished\". These were the first truly modern coins; the mass-production of coinage with steam driven machinery organised in factories enabled the achievement of standardized dimensions and uniform weight and roundness, something no counterfeiter of the day could hope to achieve. Boulton also pioneered special methods to further frustrate counterfeiters. Designed by Heinrich Küchler, the coins featured a raised rim with incuse or sunken letters and numbers. The high-technology of Soho Mint gained increasing and somewhat unwelcome attention: rivals attempted industrial espionage, while lobbying with the Government for Boulton's mint to be shut down. Boulton was finally awarded a contract by the Royal Mint on 3 March 1797, after a national financial crisis reached its nadir when the Bank of England suspended convertibility of its notes for gold. The twopenny coins measured exactly an inch and a half across; 16 pennies lined up would reach two feet. Between 1817 and 1830 the German engineer Dietrich \"Diedrich\" Uhlhorn invented the Presse Monétaire, a level coin press which became known as the Uhlhorn Press. His steam driven knuckle-lever press made him internationally famous, and over 500 units had been sold by 1840. The advanced construction of the Uhlhorn press proved to be highly satisfactory, and the use of the screw press for general coinage was gradually eliminated. This new technology was used at the Birmingham Mint, the largest private mint in the world for much of the 19th century, and was further improved at the Taylor and Challen who began to supply complete press room equipment to national mints around the world, such as Sydney Mint, Australia. By the early 20th century, mints were using electrical power to drive rolls, the advantage being that each pair of rolls could be driven independently without the intervention of cumbrous shafting." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Similar triangles.", "Other similar polygons.", "Similar curves.", "In Euclidean space.", "Ratios of sides, of areas, and of volumes.", "In general metric spaces.", "Topology.", "Self-similarity.", "Psychology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Two triangles, and, are similar if and only if corresponding angles have the same measure: this implies that they are similar if and only if the lengths of corresponding sides are proportional. It can be shown that two triangles having congruent angles (\"equiangular triangles\") are similar, that is, the corresponding sides can be proved to be proportional. This is known as the AAA similarity theorem. Note that the \"AAA\" is a mnemonic: each one of the three A's refers to an \"angle\". Due to this theorem, several authors simplify the definition of similar triangles to only require that the corresponding three angles are congruent. There are several statements each of which is necessary and sufficient for two triangles to be similar: This is known as the SAS similarity criterion. The \"SAS\" is a mnemonic: each one of the two S's refers to a \"side\"; the A refers to an \"angle\" between the two sides. When two triangles and are similar, one writes There are several elementary results concerning similar triangles in Euclidean geometry: Given a triangle and a line segment one can, with ruler and compass, find a point such that. The statement that the point satisfying this condition exists is Wallis's postulate and is logically equivalent to Euclid's parallel postulate. In hyperbolic geometry (where Wallis's postulate is false) similar triangles are congruent. In the axiomatic treatment of Euclidean geometry given by G.D. Birkhoff (see Birkhoff's axioms) the SAS similarity criterion given above was used to replace both Euclid's Parallel Postulate and the SAS axiom which enabled the dramatic shortening of Hilbert's axioms. Similar triangles provide the basis for many synthetic (without the use of coordinates) proofs in Euclidean geometry. Among the elementary results that can be proved this way are: the angle bisector theorem, the geometric mean theorem, Ceva's theorem, Menelaus's theorem and the Pythagorean theorem. Similar triangles also provide the foundations for right triangle trigonometry.", "The concept of similarity extends to polygons with more than three sides. Given any two similar polygons, corresponding sides taken in the same sequence (even if clockwise for one polygon and counterclockwise for the other) are proportional and corresponding angles taken in the same sequence are equal in measure. However, proportionality of corresponding sides is not by itself sufficient to prove similarity for polygons beyond triangles (otherwise, for example, all rhombi would be similar). Likewise, equality of all angles in sequence is not sufficient to guarantee similarity (otherwise all rectangles would be similar). A sufficient condition for similarity of polygons is that corresponding sides and diagonals are proportional. For given \"n\", all regular \"n\"-gons are similar.", "Several types of curves have the property that all examples of that type are similar to each other. These include:", "A similarity (also called a similarity transformation or similitude) of a Euclidean space is a bijection from the space onto itself that multiplies all distances by the same positive real number, so that for any two points and we have where \"\" is the Euclidean distance from to. The scalar has many names in the literature including; the \"ratio of similarity\", the \"stretching factor\" and the \"similarity coefficient\". When = 1 a similarity is called an isometry (rigid motion). Two sets are called similar if one is the image of the other under a similarity. As a map, a similarity of ratio takes the form where is an orthogonal matrix and is a translation vector. Similarities preserve planes, lines, perpendicularity, parallelism, midpoints, inequalities between distances and line segments. Similarities preserve angles but do not necessarily preserve orientation, \"direct similitudes\" preserve orientation and \"opposite similitudes\" change it. The similarities of Euclidean space form a group under the operation of composition called the \"similarities group \". The direct similitudes form a normal subgroup of and the Euclidean group of isometries also forms a normal subgroup. The similarities group is itself a subgroup of the affine group, so every similarity is an affine transformation. One can view the Euclidean plane as the complex plane, that is, as a 2-dimensional space over the reals. The 2D similarity transformations can then be expressed in terms of complex arithmetic and are given by (direct similitudes) and (opposite similitudes), where and are complex numbers,. When, these similarities are isometries.", "The ratio between the areas of similar figures is equal to the square of the ratio of corresponding lengths of those figures (for example, when the side of a square or the radius of a circle is multiplied by three, its area is multiplied by nine — i.e. by three squared). The altitudes of similar triangles are in the same ratio as corresponding sides. If a triangle has a side of length and an altitude drawn to that side of length then a similar triangle with corresponding side of length will have an altitude drawn to that side of length. The area of the first triangle is,, while the area of the similar triangle will be. Similar figures which can be decomposed into similar triangles will have areas related in the same way. The relationship holds for figures that are not rectifiable as well. The ratio between the volumes of similar figures is equal to the cube of the ratio of corresponding lengths of those figures (for example, when the edge of a cube or the radius of a sphere is multiplied by three, its volume is multiplied by 27 — i.e. by three cubed). Galileo's square–cube law concerns similar solids. If the ratio of similitude (ratio of corresponding sides) between the solids is, then the ratio of surface areas of the solids will be, while the ratio of volumes will be.", "In a general metric space, an exact similitude is a function from the metric space into itself that multiplies all distances by the same positive scalar, called's contraction factor, so that for any two points and we have Weaker versions of similarity would for instance have be a bi-Lipschitz function and the scalar a limit This weaker version applies when the metric is an effective resistance on a topologically self-similar set. A self-similar subset of a metric space is a set for which there exists a finite set of similitudes with contraction factors such that is the unique compact subset of for which These self-similar sets have a self-similar measure with dimension given by the formula which is often (but not always) equal to the set's Hausdorff dimension and packing dimension. If the overlaps between the are \"small\", we have the following simple formula for the measure:", "In topology, a metric space can be constructed by defining a similarity instead of a distance. The similarity is a function such that its value is greater when two points are closer (contrary to the distance, which is a measure of dissimilarity: the closer the points, the lesser the distance). The definition of the similarity can vary among authors, depending on which properties are desired. The basic common properties are More properties can be invoked, such as reflectivity (formula_10) or finiteness (formula_11). The upper value is often set at 1 (creating a possibility for a probabilistic interpretation of the similitude). Note that, in the topological sense used here, a similarity is a kind of measure. This usage is not the same as the \"similarity transformation\" of the and sections of this article.", "Self-similarity means that a pattern is non-trivially similar to itself, e.g., the set of numbers of the form where ranges over all integers. When this set is plotted on a logarithmic scale it has one-dimensional translational symmetry: adding or subtracting the logarithm of two to the logarithm of one of these numbers produces the logarithm of another of these numbers. In the given set of numbers themselves, this corresponds to a similarity transformation in which the numbers are multiplied or divided by two.", "The intuition for the notion of geometric similarity already appears in human children, as can be seen in their drawings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "History.", "Early history.", "Ottoman rule.", "French rule.", "Algerian War.", "Independence.", "Crisis of the 1990s.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Government.", "Local architecture.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Tourist installations.", "Education.", "Public transport.", "Sports.", "Football clubs.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "Cooperation agreements." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The city's name is derived via French and Catalan from the Arabic name \"al-Jazāʾir\" (), \"The Islands\". This name refers to the four former islands which lay off the city's coast before becoming part of the mainland in 1525. \"Al-Jazāʾir\" is itself a truncated form of the city's older name \"Jazaʾir Banī Mazghanna\" (), \"The Islands of the Sons of Mazghana\", used by early medieval geographers such as al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi. In antiquity, the Greeks knew the town as \"Ikósion\" (), which was Latinized as Icosium under Roman rule. The Greeks explained the name as coming from their word for \"twenty\" (, \"eíkosi\"), supposedly because it had been founded by 20 companions of Hercules when he visited the Atlas Mountains during his labors. Algiers is also known as \"el-Behdja\" (, \"The Joyous\") or \"Algiers the White\" () for its whitewashed buildings, seen rising from the sea.", "", "A small Phoenician colony on Algiers's former islands was established and taken over by the Carthaginians sometime before the 3rd century. After the Punic Wars, the Romans eventually took over administration of the town, which they called Icosium. Its ruins now form part of the modern city's marine quarter, with the Rue de la Marine following a former Roman road. Roman cemeteries existed near \"Bab-el-Oued\" and \"Bab Azoun\". The city was given Latin rights by the emperor Vespasian. The bishops of Icosium are mentioned as late as the 5th century, but the ancient town fell into obscurity during the Muslim conquest of North Africa. The present city was founded in 944 by Bologhine ibn Ziri, the founder of the Berber Zirid–Sanhaja dynasty. He had earlier (935) built his own house and a Sanhaja center at Ashir, just south of Algiers. Although his Zirid dynasty was overthrown by Roger II of Sicily in 1148, the Zirids had already lost control of Algiers to their cousins the Hammadids in 1014. The city was wrested from the Hammadids by the Almohads in 1159, and in the 13th century came under the dominion of the Ziyanid sultans of Tlemcen. Nominally part of the sultanate of Tlemcen, Algiers had a large measure of independence under amirs of its own due to Oran being the chief seaport of the Ziyanids. The Peñón of Algiers, an islet in front of Algiers harbour had been occupied by the Spaniards as early as 1302. Thereafter, a considerable amount of trade began to flow between Algiers and Spain. However, Algiers continued to be of comparatively little importance until after the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, many of whom sought asylum in the city. In 1510, following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of Africa, the Spaniards fortified the islet of Peñon and imposed a levy intended to suppress corsair activity.", "In 1516, the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the corsair brothers Aruj and Hayreddin \"Barbarossa\" to expel the Spaniards. Aruj came to Algiers, ordered the assassination of Selim, and seized the town and ousted the Spanish in the Capture of Algiers (1516). Hayreddin, succeeding Aruj after the latter was killed in battle against the Spaniards in the Fall of Tlemcen (1517), was the founder of the \"pashaluk\", which subsequently became the \"beylik\", of Algeria. Barbarossa lost Algiers in 1524 but regained it with the Capture of Algiers (1529), and then formally invited the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to accept sovereignty over the territory and to annex Algiers to the Ottoman Empire. Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the Barbary pirates. In October 1541 in the Algiers expedition, the King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly made up of Spaniards, was defeated by the Algerians under their Pasha, Hassan. Formally part of the Ottoman Empire but essentially free from Ottoman control, starting in the 16th century Algiers turned to piracy and ransoming. Due to its location on the periphery of both the Ottoman and European economic spheres, and depending for its existence on a Mediterranean that was increasingly controlled by European shipping, backed by European navies, piracy became the primary economic activity. Repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Iceland. The United States fought two wars (the First and Second Barbary Wars) over Algiers' attacks on shipping. Among the notable people held for ransom was the future Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes, who was captive in Algiers almost five years, and who wrote two plays set in Algiers of the period. The primary source for knowledge of Algiers of this period, since there are no contemporary local sources, is the \"Topografía e historia general de Argel\" (1612, but written earlier), published by Diego de Haedo, but whose authorship is disputed. This work describes in detail the city, the behavior of its inhabitants, and its military defenses, with the unsuccessful hope of facilitating an attack by Spain so as to end the piracy. A significant number of renegades lived in Algiers at the time, Christians converted voluntarily to Islam, many fleeing the law or other problems at home. Once converted to Islam, they were safe in Algiers. Many occupied positions of authority, such as Samson Rowlie, an Englishman who became Treasurer of Algiers. The city under Ottoman control was enclosed by a wall on all sides, including along the seafront. In this wall, five gates allowed access to the city, with five roads from each gate dividing the city and meeting in front of the Ketchaoua Mosque. In 1556, a citadel was constructed at the highest point in the wall. A major road running north to south divided the city in two: The upper city (al-Gabal, or 'the mountain') which consisted of about fifty small quarters of Andalusian, Jewish, Moorish and Kabyle communities, and the lower city (al-Wata, or 'the plains') which was the administrative, military and commercial centre of the city, mostly inhabited by Ottoman Turkish dignitaries and other upper-class families. In August 1816, the city was bombarded by a British squadron under Lord Exmouth (a descendant of Thomas Pellew, taken in an Algerian slave raid in 1715), assisted by Dutch men-of-war, destroying the corsair fleet harboured in Algiers.", "The history of Algiers from 1830 to 1962 is bound to the larger history of Algeria and its relationship to France. On July 4, 1830, under the pretext of an affront to the French consul—whom the dey had hit with a fly-whisk when the consul said the French government was not prepared to pay its large outstanding debts to two Algerian merchants—a French army under General de Bourmont attacked the city in the 1830 invasion of Algiers. The city capitulated the following day. Algiers became the capital of French Algeria. Many Europeans settled in Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the city's population. During the 1930s, the architect Le Corbusier drew up plans for a complete redesign of the colonial city. Le Corbusier was highly critical of the urban style of Algiers, describing the European district as \"nothing but crumbling walls and devastated nature, the whole a sullied blot\". He also criticised the difference in living standards he perceived between the European and African residents of the city, describing a situation in which \"the 'civilised' live like rats in holes\" whereas \"the 'barbarians' live in solitude, in well-being\". However, these plans were ultimately ignored by the French administration. During World War II, Algiers was the first city to be seized from the Germans by the Allies during Operation Torch. In 1962, after a bloody independence struggle in which hundreds of thousands (estimates range between 350,000 and 1,500,000) died (mostly Algerians but also French and Pieds-Noirs) during fighting between the French Army and the Algerian Front de Libération Nationale, Algeria gained its independence, with Algiers as its capital. Since then, despite losing its entire \"pied-noir\" population, the city has expanded massively. It now has about five million inhabitants, or 10 percent of Algeria's population—and its suburbs now cover most of the surrounding Mitidja plain.", "Algiers also played a pivotal role in the Algerian War (1954–1962), particularly during the Battle of Algiers when the 10th Parachute Division of the French Army, starting on January 7, 1957, and on the orders of the French Minister of Justice François Mitterrand (who authorized any means \"to eliminate the insurrectionists\"), led attacks against the Algerian fighters for independence. Algiers remains marked by this battle, which was characterized by merciless fighting between FLN forces which carried out a guerrilla campaign against the French military and police and pro-French Algerian soldiers, and the French Army which responded with a bloody repression, torture and blanket terrorism against the native population. The demonstrations of May 13 during the crisis of 1958 provoked the fall of the Fourth Republic in France, as well as the return of General de Gaulle to power.", "Algeria achieved independence on July 5, 1962. Run by the FLN that had secured independence, Algiers became a member of Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War. In October 1988, one year before the fall of the Berlin Wall, Algiers was the site of demonstrations demanding the end of the single-party system and the creation of a \"real\" democracy baptized the \"Spring of Algier\". The demonstrators were repressed by the authorities (more than 300 dead), but the movement constituted a turning point in the political history of modern Algeria. In 1989, a new constitution was adopted that put an end to the one-party rule and saw the creation of more than fifty political parties, as well as official freedom of the press.", "The city became the theatre of many political demonstrations of all descriptions until 1993. In 1991, a political entity dominated by religious conservatives called the Islamic Salvation Front engaged in a political test of wills with the authorities. In the 1992 elections for the Algerian National Assembly, the Islamists garnered a large amount of support in the first round, helped by a massive abstention from disillusioned Algerian voters by the turn of events. Fearing an eventual win by the Islamists, the army canceled the election process, setting off a civil war between the State and armed religious conservatives which would last for a decade. On December 11, 2007, two car bombs exploded in Algiers. One bomb targeted two United Nations buildings and the other targeted a government building housing the Supreme Court. The death toll was at least 62, with over two hundred injured in the attacks. However, only 26 remained hospitalized the following day., it is speculated that the attack was carried out by the Al Qaida cell within the city. Indigenous terrorist groups have been actively operating in Algeria since around 2002.", "", "Algiers has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification \"Csa\"). Its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea aids in moderating the city's temperatures. As a result, Algiers usually does not see the extreme temperatures that are experienced in the adjacent interior. Algiers on average receives roughly of rain per year, the bulk of which is seen between October and April. The precipitation is higher than in most of coastal Mediterranean Spain, and similar to most of coastal Mediterranean France, as opposed to the interior North African semi-arid or arid climate. Snow is very rare; in 2012, the city received of snowfall, its first snowfall in eight years.", "The city (and province) of Algiers is composed of 13 administrative districts, sub-divided into 57 \"communes\" listed below with their populations at the 1998 and 2008 Censuses:", "There are many public buildings of interest, including the whole Kasbah quarter, Martyrs Square (\"Sahat ech-Chouhada\" ساحة الشهداء), the government offices (formerly the British consulate), the \"Grand\", \"New\", and Ketchaoua Mosques, the Roman Catholic cathedral of Notre Dame d'Afrique, the Bardo Museum (a former Turkish mansion), the old \"Bibliothèque Nationale d'Alger\"—a Turkish palace built in 1799–1800—and the new National Library, built in a style reminiscent of the British Library. The main building in the Kasbah was begun in 1516 on the site of an older building, and served as the palace of the deys until the French conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into barracks, and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a minaret and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the dey. Djamaa el Kebir (\"Jamaa-el-Kebir\" الجامع الكبير) is the oldest mosque in Algiers. It was first built by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, but reconstructed many times. The pulpit (\"minbar\" منبر) bears an inscription showing that the building existed in 1097. The minaret was built by the sultan of Tlemcen, in 1324. The interior of the mosque is square and is divided into aisles by columns joined by Moorish arches. The New Mosque (\"Jamaa-el-Jedid\" الجامع الجديد), dating from the 17th century, is in the form of a Greek cross, surmounted by a large white cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque. The church of the Holy Trinity (built in 1870) stands at the southern end of the \"rue d'Isly\" near the site of the demolished Fort Bab Azoun باب عزون. The interior is richly decorated with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial inscriptions relating to the British residents (voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, the first English consul, in 1580 (NB Some sources give 1585). One tablet records that in 1631 two Algerine pirate crews landed in Ireland, sacked Baltimore, and enslaved its inhabitants. The Ketchaoua mosque (\"Djamaa Ketchaoua\" جامع كتشاوة), at the foot of the Casbah, was before independence in 1962 the cathedral of St Philippe, itself made in 1845 from a mosque dating from 1612. The principal entrance, reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a portico supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of Moorish plaster work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the original mosque. In one of the chapels was a tomb containing the bones of San Geronimo. The building seems a curious blend of Moorish and Byzantine styles. Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, science and letters. The college buildings are large and handsome. The Bardo Museum in Tunisia holds some of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with medals and Algerian money. The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two harbours, both artificial—the old or northern harbour and the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an area of. An opening in the south jetty affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its southern side. The inner harbour was begun in 1518 by Khair-ad-Din Barbarossa (see History, below), who, to accommodated his pirate vessels, caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a mole. The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon was built in 1544. Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupation of the city (1830), built a rampart, parapet and ditch, with two terminal forts, Bab Azoun باب عزون to the south and Bab-el-Oued اد to the north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at the beginning of the 20th century, when a line of forts occupying the heights of Bouzareah بوزريعة (at an elevation of above the sea) took their place. Notre Dame d'Afrique, a church built (1858–1872) in a mixture of the Roman and Byzantine styles, is conspicuously situated overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the Bouzareah hills, to the north of the city. Above the altar is a statue of the Virgin depicted as a black woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the archangel Michael, belonging to the confraternity of Neapolitan fishermen. Villa Abd-el-Tif, former residence of the dey, was used during the French period, to accommodate French artists, chiefly painters, and winners of the Abd-el-Tif prize, among whom Maurice Boitel, for a while of two years. Nowadays, Algerian artists are back in the villa's studios.", "Algiers has a population of about 3,335,418 (2012 estimate). The ethnic distribution is 53% from an Arabic-speaking background, 44% from a Berber-speaking background and 3% foreign-born.", "Algiers is an important economic, commercial and financial center, with in particular a stock exchange with a capitalisation of 60 million euros. The city has the highest cost of living of any city in North Africa, as well as the 50th highest worldwide, as of March 2007, having gained one position compared to the previous year. Mohamed Ben Ali El Abbar, president of the Council of Administration of the Emirate Group EMAAR, presented five \"megaprojects\" to Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, during a ceremony which took place Saturday, July 15, within the Palace of the People of Algiers. These projects will transform the city of Algiers and its surroundings by equipping them with a retail area and restoration and leisure facilities. The first project will concentrate on the reorganization and the development of the infrastructures of the railway station \"Aga\" located in the downtown area. The ultramodern station intended to accommodate more than 80.000 passengers per day, will become a center of circulation in the heart of the grid system, surrounded by commercial offices and buildings and hotels intended for travelers in transit. A shopping centre and three high-rise office buildings rising with the top of the commercial zone will accompany the project. The second project will not relate to the bay of Algiers and aims to revitalize the sea front. The development of the sea front will include marinas, channels, luxury hotels, offices, apartments of great standing, luxury stores and leisure amenities. A crescent-shaped peninsula will be set up on the open sea. The project of the bay of Algiers will also comprise six small islands, of which four of round form, connected to each other by bridges and marinas and will include tourist and residential complexes. The third project will relate to restructuring an area of Algiers, qualified by the originators of the project of \"city of wellness\". El Abbar indicated to the journalists that the complex would be \"agreeable for all those which will want to combine tourism and well-being or tourism and relaxation\". The complex will include a university, a research center and a medical centre. It should also include a hospital complex, a care centre, a hotel zone, an urban centre and a thermal spa with villas and apartments. The university will include a medical school and a school for care male nurses which will be able to accommodate 500 students. The university campus will have the possibility of seeing setting up broad ranges of buildings of research laboratories and residences. Another project relates to technological implantation of a campus in Sidi Abdellah, south-east from Algiers. This site will include shopping centres, residential zones with high standard apartments and a golf course surrounded by villas and hotels. Two other residential zones, including 1.800 apartments and 40 high standard villas, will be built on the surrounding hills. The fifth project is that of the tourist complex Colonel Abbès, which will be located west from Algiers. This complex will include several retail zones, meeting places, and residential zones composed of apartments and villas with views of the sea. Currently there is another project under construction, by the name of Algiers Medina. The first step of the project is nearly complete. A Hewlett Packard office for French-speaking countries in Africa is in Algiers.", "Some to the west of Algiers are such seaside resorts as Sidi Fredj (ex-Sidi Ferruch), Palm Beach, Douaouda, Zéralda, and the \" Club of the Pines \" (residence of State); there are tourist complexes, Algerian and other restaurants, souvenir shops, supervised beaches, and other amenities. The city is also equipped with important hotel complexes such as the hotel Hilton, El-Aurassi or El Djazair. Algiers also has the first water park in the country. The tourism of Algiers is growing but is not as developed as that of the larger cities in Morocco or Tunisia.", "International schools for foreign residents include: There was formerly the École japonaise d'Alger (アルジェ日本人学校 \"Aruje Nihonjin Gakkō\"), a school for Japanese children.", "4 urban beltways:", "Algiers is the sporting centre of Algeria. The city has a number of professional clubs in the variety of sports, which have won national and international titles. Among the sports facilities within the city, there is an enormous sporting complex – Complex of OCO – Mohamed Boudiaf. This includes the Stade 5 Juillet 1962 (capacity ), a venue for athletics, an Olympic swimming pool, a multisports room (the Cupola), an 18-hole golf course, and several tennis courts. The following major sporting events have been held in Algiers (not-exhaustive list):", "Major association football club based in Algiers include:", "", "Algiers is twinned with:", "Algiers has cooperation agreements with: \"In addition, many of the wards and cities within Algiers maintain sister-city relationships with other foreign cities.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Matrix representation.", "Translations in physics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A translation is an affine transformation with \"no\" fixed points. Matrix multiplications \"always\" have the origin as a fixed point. Nevertheless, there is a common workaround using homogeneous coordinates to represent a translation of a vector space with matrix multiplication: Write the 3-dimensional vector w = (\"w\", \"w\", \"w\") using 4 homogeneous coordinates as w = (\"w\", \"w\", \"w\", 1). To translate an object by a vector v, each homogeneous vector p (written in homogeneous coordinates) can be multiplied by this translation matrix: As shown below, the multiplication will give the expected result: The inverse of a translation matrix can be obtained by reversing the direction of the vector: Similarly, the product of translation matrices is given by adding the vectors: Because addition of vectors is commutative, multiplication of translation matrices is therefore also commutative (unlike multiplication of arbitrary matrices).", "In physics, translation (Translational motion) is movement that changes the position of an object, as opposed to rotation. For example, according to Whittaker: A translation is the operation changing the positions of all points (\"x\", \"y\", \"z\") of an object according to the formula where formula_8 is the same vector for each point of the object. The translation vector formula_8 common to all points of the object describes a particular type of displacement of the object, usually called a \"linear\" displacement to distinguish it from displacements involving rotation, called \"angular\" displacements. When considering spacetime, a change of time coordinate is considered to be a translation. For example, the Galilean group and the Poincaré group include translations with respect to time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Author.", "Cinema.", "Politics and wartime activities.", "Trial and execution.", "Legacy.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Perpignan, he studied at the École normale supérieure, at the time a school of the University of Paris, and then became a novelist and literary critic for the Action française of Charles Maurras. After the 6 February 1934 crisis in the Place de la Concorde, Brasillach openly supported fascism. His politics are shared by several of the protagonists in his literary works, notably the two male main characters in \"The Seven Colours\" (see below).", "Brasillach wrote both fiction and non-fiction. While his fiction dealt with love, life and politics in his era, his non-fiction dealt with a great variety of themes, ranging from drama, great literary figures and contemporary world events. His work in the realm of cinema history (see below) was particularly influential.", "Brasillach was fascinated by the cinema and in 1935 co-wrote a detailed critical history of that medium, \"Histoire du cinéma\" (re-edited in 1943), with his brother-in-law, Maurice Bardèche. This work remained the \"most prominent aesthetic history of film for at least a decade\", and a work that exerted considerable influence, via its impact on Georges Sadoul (who nonetheless disliked the authors) until the 1970s. Unlike several other authors and critics of the time, Brasillach did not see cinema through an overtly political lens, although the 1943 re-edition of his work did contain certain anti-Semitic comments not included in the original. Despite being fervent nationalists and personally believing that each nation and people had a unique cinema, the authors instead focussed on international trends rather than local particularities. Brasillach frequented Henri Langlois' \"Cercle du cinéma\" (Cinema Circle). His personal tastes are detailed in his major work on cinema and in numerous articles of the period. These tastes ranged from Russian cinema (\"Battleship Potemkin\" and \"Alexander Nevski\") to classics such as Charlie Chaplin, Georg Wilhelm Pabst, René Clair and Jean Renoir and to certain Hollywood films, such as those of John Ford, Frank Borzage and King Vidor. Brasillach was drawn to originality and explored foreign cinema, and became the first major critic in France to address Japanese cinema, namely Yasujirō Ozu, Kenji Mizoguchi and Heinosuke Gosho. While in prison, he worked on a third edition of his work on cinema and started to adapt a work on Falstaff which he hoped to film with Raimu.", "He became an editor of \"Je suis partout\", a fascist paper founded by dissidents from the Action Française and led by Pierre Gaxotte. Brasillach was attracted to the fascistic Rexist movement in Belgium, and wrote an article and later a book about the leader of the movement, Leon Degrelle. Brasillach admired what he perceived to be Degrelle's youth and charisma and Degrelle's insistence on being neither left nor right, supporting striking workers, encouraging love of God, the King and family and desiring to see the establishment of an anti-Communist and anti-capitalist, Christian-influenced corporate state. Degrelle went on to collaborate with the German occupation of Belgium and served in the Waffen-SS. Brasillach was also greatly impressed by José Antonio Primo de Rivera and his Falangist movement. By contrast, he described Mein Kampf as a \"masterpiece of cretinism\" in which Hitler appeared to be \"a sort of enraged teacher.\" A soldier in 1940, Brasillach was captured by the Germans and held prisoner for several months after the fall of France. At his trial the prosecution alleged that his release was due to pro-German articles written while in captivity. He was freed in early 1941 and returned to his editorial duties at \"Je suis partout\". He wrote in favor of the Vichy regime but later embraced a more wholehearted germanophile policy of collaboration and Nazi policies and criticized the Vichy state. He joined a group of French authors and artists in a trip to meet with German counterparts in Weimar and in November 1942 he supported the German militarisation of the unoccupied zone (Case Anton) under the Vichy government because it \"reunited France\". He visited the site of the Katyn massacre, toured the Eastern Front, visited French volunteers and wrote, on his return to France, that he had gone from embracing a collaboration due to reason and rationality to being a collaborator for reasons of the heart (\"\"De collaborationiste de raison, je suis devenu collaborationiste de coeur.\"\") He published the names and addresses of Jews who had gone into hiding, called for the death of left-wing politicians, and in the summer of 1944 signed the call for the summary execution of all members of the French Resistance. He considered himself a \"moderate\" anti-Semite and was replaced as editor of \"Je suis partout\" in 1943 by the even more extreme Pierre-Antoine Cousteau. He was a member of the Groupe Collaboration, an initiative that encouraged close cultural ties between France and Germany. He went on to work for various journals, including \"Révolution nationale\" and \"le Petit Parisien\". After the liberation of Paris Brasillach hid in an attic, joking in his diary: \"Jews have been living in cupboards for four years, why not imitate them?\" He gave himself up on September 14 when he heard that his mother had been arrested. He spent the next five months in prison and continued his literary endeavours while incarcerated.", "Brasillach was tried in Paris on 19 January 1945. His judge had served under Vichy. The prosecutor re-iterated Brasillach's vehement anti-semitism, linked his praise of Germany and denunciation of the Resistance to SS massacres in France and played upon homophobic sentiments by repeatedly drawing the jurors' attention to the author's homosexuality, noting, \"inter alia\", that he had slept with the enemy and approved of Germany's \"penetration\" of France. In so doing the prosecution was making hay with Brasillach's own words, as he had suggested, as Liberation approached, that France had slept with Germany and would remember the experience fondly. Brasillach was sentenced to death. Brasillach responded to the outrage of some of his supporters then in attendance by saying \"It's an honor!\" The sentence caused an uproar in French literary circles and even some of Brasillach's political opponents protested. Resistance member and author François Mauriac, whom Brasillach had savaged in the press, circulated a petition to Charles De Gaulle to commute the sentence. This petition was signed by many of the leading lights of the French literary world, including Paul Valéry, Paul Claudel, Albert Camus, Jean Cocteau, Colette, Arthur Honegger, Jean Anouilh and Thierry Maulnier. De Gaulle did not comply and Brasillach was executed by firing squad in Montrouge. It has been argued that De Gaulle refused to spare Brasillach because the author had on numerous occasions called for Georges Mandel's execution. De Gaulle admired Mandel, a prominent conservative politician (who happened to be Jewish), and who was murdered by the Milice during the closing days of the Occupation. Brasillach called out \"But all the same, long live France!\" (\"Vive la France quand même!\") immediately before his execution. He was buried in the cimetière de Charonne in the 20th Arrondissement of Paris. His brother-in-law, Maurice Bardèche, was later buried next to him.", "Brasillach sought to protect his own legacy as his life drew to a close. He composed several works while awaiting trial and execution, including a collection of verse and a letter to French youth of the future, explaining and justifying his actions (\"Lettre à un soldat de la classe de soixante\" (Lettre), see below). In \"Lettre\" he was unrepentant about his fascism, his anti-semitism or his wartime activity, although he insisted that he had no idea that French Jews were being sent to their deaths when they were deported. Brasillach's trial and execution inspired Simone de Beauvoir's essay \"An Eye for an Eye\", in which she defended the role of emotion (especially hatred) in politics and the role of revenge in punishment. His biographer Alice Kaplan noted that his death made him the \"James Dean of French fascism\" and a martyr to the extreme right. François Truffaut was both aware and appreciative of Brasillach, stating that Brasillach and Pierre Drieu La Rochelle shared similar political beliefs and that \"views that earn their advocates by the death penalty are bound to be worthy of esteem.\" Dominique Venner's \"Nouvelle Revue d'Histoire\" has praised the author's intellectual oeuvre. A group called \"Association des Amis de Robert Brasillach\" celebrates the author's work and legacy.", "Below is a list of Brasillach's oeuvre (fiction, non-fiction and poetry), including posthumous works. Certain works have been briefly summarized." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Blood and lymphatic supply.", "Nerve supply.", "Microanatomy.", "Variation.", "Development.", "Function.", "Clinical significance.", "Injury.", "Ureteral stones.", "Reflux.", "Obstruction and enlargement.", "Cancer.", "Imaging.", "Other animals.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The ureters are tubular structures, approximately in adults, that pass from the pelvis of each kidney into the bladder. From the renal pelvis, they descend on top of the psoas major muscle to reach the brim of the pelvis. Here, they cross in front of the common iliac arteries. They then pass down along the sides of the pelvis, and finally curve forwards and enter the bladder from its left and right sides at the back of the bladder. The ureters enter the bladder from its back surface, traveling 1.5 - 2 cm before opening into the bladder on its outer back surface at the slit-like \"ureteric orifices\". In the contracted bladder they are about apart and about the same distance from the internal urethral orifice; in the distended bladder these measurements may be increased to about. The junction between the pelvis of the kidney and the ureters is known as the \"ureteropelvic junction\" or \"ureteral pelvic junction\", and the junction between the ureter and the bladder is known as the ureterovesical (ureter-bladder) junction. At the entrance to the bladder, the ureters are surrounded by valves known as ureterovesical valves, which prevent vesicoureteral reflux (backflow of urine). A number of structures pass by, above, and around the ureters on their path down from the kidneys to the pelvis. In females, the ureters pass through the mesometrium and under the uterine arteries on the way to the urinary bladder.", "The ureter has an arterial supply which varies along its course. There are many connections () between the arteries of the ureter, particularly in the aventitia, which means damage to a single vessel does not compromise the blood supply of the ureter. Venous drainage mostly parallels that of the arterial supply. Lymphatic drainage depends on the position of lymphatic vessels in the ureter. Lymph collects in submucosal, intramuscular and advential lymphatic vessels. Those vessels closer to the kidney drain into renal collecting vessels; into the lateral aortic nodes near the gonadal vessels. In the lower ureter, lymph may drain into the common iliac lymph nodes, or lower down in the pelvis to the common, external, or internal iliac lymph nodes.", "The ureters are richly supplied by nerves that form a network () of nerves, the ureteric plexus that lies in the adventitia of the ureters. This plexus is formed from a number of nerve roots directly (T9-12, L1, and S2-4), as well as branches from other nerve plexuses and nerves; specifically, the upper third of the ureter receives nerve branches from the renal plexus and aortic plexus, the middle part receives branches from the upper hypogastric plexus and nerve, and the lower ureter receives branches from the lower hypogastric plexus and nerve. The plexus is in the adventitia. The these nerves travel in individual bundles and along small blood vessels to form the ureteric plexus. Sensation supplied is sparse close to the kidneys and increases closer to the bladder. Sensation to the ureters is provided by nerves that come from T11 - L2 segments of the spinal cord. When pain is caused, for example by spasm of the ureters or by a stone, the pain may be referred to the dermatomes of T11 - L2, namely the back and sides of the abdomen, the scrotum (males) or labia majora (females) and upper part of the front of the thigh.", "The ureter is lined by urothelium, a type of transitional epithelium that is capable of responding to stretches in the ureters. The transitional epithelium may appear as a layer of column-shaped cells when relaxed, and of flatter cells when distended. Below the epithelium sits the lamina propria. The lamina propria is made up of loose connective tissue with many elastic fibers interspersed with blood vessels, veins and lymphatics. The ureter is surrounded by two muscular layers, an inner longitudinal layer of muscle, and an outer circular or spiral layer of muscle. The lower third of the ureter has a third muscular layer. Beyond these layers sits an adventitia containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and veins.", "Congenital disorders of the ureter and urinary tract affect 10% of infants. These include duplication of the ureter (a duplex ureter), or the formation of a second irregularly placed () ureter.", "The ureters develop from the ureteric buds, which are outpuchings from the mesonephric duct. This is a duct, derived from mesoderm, found in the early embryo. Over time, the buds elongate, moving into surrounding mesodermal tissue, dilate, and divide into left and right ureters. Eventually, successive divisions from these buds form not only the ureters, but also the pelvis, major and minor calyces, and collecting ducts of the kidneys. The mesonephric duct is connected with the cloaca, which over the course of development splits into a urogenital sinus and the anorectal canal. The urinary bladder forms from the urogenital sinus. Over time, as the bladder enlarges, it absorbs the surrounding parts of the primitive ureters. Finally, the entry points of the ureters into the bladder move upwards, owing to the upward migration of the kidneys in the developing embryo.", "The ureters are a component of the urinary system. Urine, produced by the kidneys, travels along the ureters to the bladder. It does this through regular contractions called peristalsis.", "", "Injuries to the ureter with certain forms of trauma including penetrating abdominal injuries and injuries at high speeds followed by an abrupt stop (e.g., a high speed car accident). The ureter is injured in 0.2 per 1,000 cases of vaginal hysterectomies and 1.3 per 1,000 cases of abdominal hysterectomies, near the infundibulopelvic (suspensory) ligament or where the ureter courses posterior to the uterine vessels, near the cardinal ligament.", "A kidney stone can move from the kidney and become lodged inside the ureter, which can block the flow of urine, as well as cause a sharp cramp in the back, side, or lower abdomen. Pain often comes in waves lasting up to two hours, then subsides, called renal colic. The affected kidney could then develop hydronephrosis, should a part of the kidney become swollen due to blocked flow of urine. There are three sites in the ureter where a kidney stone will commonly become stuck: where the ureter meets the renal pelvis; where the iliac blood vessels cross the ureters; and where the ureters enter the urinary bladder. Most stones are compounds containing calcium such as calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate. The first recommended investigation is a CT scan of the abdomen because it can detect almost all stones. Management includes analgesia, often with nonsteroidal antiinflammatories. Small stones (< 4mm) may pass themselves; larger stones may require lithotripsy, and those with complications such as hydronephrosis or infection may require surgery to remove.", "Vesicoureteral reflux refers to the reflux of fluid from the bladder to the ureters during urination. This condition can be one cause of chronic urinary tract infections, particularly in children. It is unclear if there is a role of surgery in vesicoureteral reflux.", "Blockage, or obstruction of the ureter can occur, as a result of ureteric stones, masses associated with cancer, and other lesions such as tuberculosis. If the cause cannot be removed, a nephrostomy may be required, which is the insertion of a tube connected to the renal pelvis which directly drains urine into a stoma bag. Failure of the ureteropelvic junction to become open during development is the most frequent cause of bilateral hydronephrosis, particularly in male neonates. Pyeloplasty, which involves excision of the stenotic section and creation of a new junction, is the most common and effective treatment for this problem.", "Cancer of the ureters is known as ureteral cancer and may have several causes. It is due to cancer of the urothelium, the cells that line the surface of the ureters. Urothelial cancer is more common after the age of 40, and more common in men than women. If the cancer is a squamous cell carcinoma, this is often associated with a change in the type of cells lining the ureters as a result of chronic inflammation associated with schistosomiasis or stones.", "Several forms of medical imaging exist that are used to view the ureters and urinary tract. Ultrasound may be able to show evidence of blockage because of hydronephrosis of the kidneys and renal pelvis. CT scans, including ones where contrast media is injected intravenously to better show the ureters, and with contrast to better show lesions, and to differentiate benign from malignant lesions. Dye may also be injected directly into the ureters or renal tract; an anterograde pyelogram is when contrast is injected directly into the renal pelvis, and a retrograde pyelogram is where dye is injected into the urinary tract via a catheter, and flows backwards into the ureters. More invasive forms of imaging include ureteroscopy, which is the insertion of a flexible endoscope into the urinary tract to view the ureters and, if required, take biopsies.", "Ureters are also found in all other amniote species, although different ducts fulfill the same role in amphibians and fish. In marsupials, but not in placental mammals, the ureters pass between the oviducts during embryonic development.", "Kidney stones have been identified and recorded about as long as written historical records exist. The urinary tract including the ureters, as well as their function to drain urine from the kidneys, has been described by Galen in the second century AD. The first to examine the ureter through an internal approach, called ureteroscopy, rather than surgery was Hampton Young in 1929. This was improved on by VF Marshall who is the first published use of a flexible endoscope based on fiber optics, which occurred in 1964. The insertion of a drainage tube into the renal pelvis, bypassing the uterers and urinary tract, called nephrostomy], was first described in 1941. Such an approach differed greatly from the open surgical approaches within the urinary system employed during the preceeding two millenia. The first radiological imaging of the ureters first occured via X-rays, although this was made more difficult by the thick abdomen, which the low power of the original X-rays was not able to penetrate enough to produce clear images. More useful images were able to be produced when Harry Fenwick in 1908 pioneered the use of tubes covered in material visible to X-rays inserted into the ureters, and in the early 20th century when contrast were injected externally into the urinary tract (retrograde pyelograms). Unfortunately, much of the earlier retrograde pyelograms were complicated by significant damage to the kidneys as a result of contrast based on silver or sodium iodide. Hryntshalk in 1929 pioneered the development of the intravenous urogram, in which contrast is injected into a vein and highlights the kidney and, when excreted, the urinary tract. Things improved with the development by Moses Swick and Leopold Lichtwitz in the late 1920s of relatively nontoxic contrast media, with controversy surrounding publication as to was the primary discoverer. Side-effects associated with imaging improved even more when Tosten Almen published a ground-breaking thesis in 1969 based on the less toxic low-osmolar contrast media, developed based on swimming experiences in lakes with different salinity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "Eastern sinology.", "Western sinology.", "Beginnings to 17th century.", "18th century.", "19th century.", "Twentieth century and after." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The terms \"sinology\" and \"sinologist\" were coined around 1838 and use \"sino-\", derived from Late Latin \"Sinae\" from the Greek \"Sinae\", from the Arabic \"Sin\" which in turn may derive from \"Qin\", as in the Qin dynasty. In the context of area studies, the European and the American usages may differ. In Europe, Sinology is usually known as \"Chinese Studies\", whereas in the United States, Sinology is a subfield of Chinese Studies. A China watcher is a person who monitors current events and power struggles in the People's Republic of China.", "In East Asia, the studies of China-related subjects began early. In Japan, sinology was known as. In modern China, the studies of China-related subjects is known as \"National Studies\" (), and sinology is translated as \"Han Studies\" ().", "", "The earliest Westerners known to have studied Chinese in significant numbers were 16th-century Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian missionariesall from either the Dominican Order or the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)seeking to spread Roman Catholicism among the Chinese people. An early Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a printing press, and between 1593 and 1607 produced four works on Catholic doctrine for the Chinese immigrant community, three in Classical Chinese and one in a mixture of Classical Chinese and vernacular Hokkien. Dominican accomplishments among the Chinese diaspora pale in comparison to the success of the Jesuits in Mainland China, led by the renowned pioneer Matteo Ricci. Ricci arrived in Canton (modern Guangzhou) in 1583 and spent the rest of his life in China. Unlike most of his predecessors and contemporaries, Ricci did not view the Chinese as \"idolatrous pagans\", but viewed them as \"like-minded literati approachable on the level of learning.\" He studied the Chinese Confucian classics, just like educated Chinese scholars, in order to present Catholic doctrine and European learning to the Chinese literati in their own language.", "During the Age of Enlightenment, sinologists started to introduce Chinese philosophy, ethics, legal system, and aesthetics into the West. Though often unscientific and incomplete, their works inspired the development of Chinoiserie and a series of debates comparing Chinese and Western cultures. At that time, sinologists often described China as an enlightened kingdom, comparing it to Europe, which had just emerged from the Dark Ages. Among those European literati interested in China was Voltaire, who wrote the play \"L'orphelin de la Chine\" inspired by \"The Orphan of Zhao\", Leibniz who penned his famous \"Novissima Sinica\" (News from China) and Giambattista Vico. In France, the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a grammar of Chinese in 1742. In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation \"De propaganda fide\" from the kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the \"Chinese Institute\", the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University. Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723. Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China.", "The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics. Chinese texts, perhaps because they did not have these connections, were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France. In 1814, a chair of Chinese and Manchu was founded at Collège de France. Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filled the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. By then the first Russian Sinologist, Nikita Bichurin, had been living in Beijing for ten years. Abel-Rémusat's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd (1797–1843) and Wilhelm Schott (1807–1889) respectively, though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. In 1878, a Professorship of Far Eastern Languages, the first of its kind in the German-speaking world, was created at the University of Leipzig with von der Gabelentz taking the position. Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao. Stanislas Julien served as the Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years, starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833. He was notable for his translations not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature, and for his knowledge of Manchu. Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893. Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language. The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times. While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese, most studied written classical Chinese. These scholars were in what is called the “commentarial tradition” through critical annotated translation. This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions. One scholar described this type of sinology as “philological hairsplitting” preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects. Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries, and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities.", "The Paris-based type of sinology dominated learning about China until the Second World War even outside France. Paul Pelliot, Henri Maspero, and Marcel Granet both published basic studies and trained students. Pelliot's knowledge of the relevant languages, especially those of Central Asia, and control of bibliography in those languages, gave him the power to write on a range of topics and to criticize in damning detail the mistakes of other scholars. Maspero expanded the scope of sinology from Confucianism to include Daoism, Buddhism, and popular religion, as well as art, mythology, and the history of science. The contribution of Granet was to apply the concepts of Emile Durkheim, a pioneer sociologist, to the society of ancient China, especially the family and ritual. The Russian school of sinology was focused mainly on learning classical Chinese texts. For example, the contribution of the Russian sinologist Julian Shchutsky was especially valuable. The best full translation of the \"I Ching\" (\"Book of Changes\") was made by him in 1937. Later his translation was translated in English and other European languages. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the study of China developed along diverging lines. The rise of Area studies, the role of China watchers, and the growth of university graduate programs has changed the role of sinology. Funding for Chinese and Taiwanese studies may come from a variety of sources; one prominent source is the Chiang Ching-kuo Foundation. The Area studies approach, especially in the United States, challenged the dominance of classical Sinology. Scholars such as John King Fairbank promoted the \"study of China within a discipline,\" an approach which downplayed the role of philological Sinology and focused on issues in history and the social sciences. In 1964 an exchange in the pages of the Journal of Asian Studies debated the continued relevance of Sinology. The anthropologist G. William Skinner called for the social sciences to make more use of China, but wrote “In recent years the cry has gone up: Sinology is dead; long live Chinese studies!” and concluded that “Sinology, a discipline unto itself, is being replaced by Chinese studies, a multidisciplinary endeavor with specific research objectives.” Joseph Levenson, an historian, went further. He doubted that Sinology was a tool which social scientists would still find useful, while another historian, Benjamin I. Schwartz, on the other hand, replied that the disciplines were too often treated as ends in themselves. Sinology had its backers. Frederick W. Mote, a specialist in traditional China, replying to Skinner, spoke up for Sinology, which he saw as a field or discipline in itself. Another specialist in traditional China, Denis Twitchett, in reply to the back and forth of this debate, issued what he called \"A Lone Cheer for Sinology.\" He did not accept the assumption that there is \"some implicit hostility between 'Sinology’ and the disciplines of history and social sciences.” Sinology, he continued, is used in too a wide range of meanings to be so confined: During the Cold War, China Watchers centered in Hong Kong, especially American government officials or journalists. Mutual distrust between the United States and China and the prohibition of travel between the countries meant they did not have access to press briefings or interviews. They therefore adopted techniques from Kremlinology, such as the close parsing of official announcements for hidden meanings, movements of officials reported in newspapers, and analysis of photographs of public appearances. But in the years since the opening of China, China watchers can live in China and take advantage of normal sources of information. Towards the end of the century, many of those studying China professionally called for an end to the split between Sinology and the disciplines. The Australian scholar Geremie Barmé, for instance, suggests a \"New Sinology\", one which \"emphasizes strong scholastic underpinnings in both the classical and modern Chinese language and studies, at the same time as encouraging an ecumenical attitude in relation to a rich variety of approaches and disciplines, whether they be mainly empirical or more theoretically inflected.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Asian Dub Foundation (ADF) was formed in summer 1993 from an education workshop run by Aniruddha Das (bass, programming) and assisted by John Pandit (mixing) which was attended by rapper Deeder Zaman. This early line-up released the sound-system based \"Conscious\" EP in late 1993 on Nation Records. Guitarist/programmer Steve Chandra Savale was invited to join in early 1994 and ADF became more of a band format. Sanjay Tailor joined the band as live midi/programmer and DJ soon after. This completed the full live line-up of the band and their debut album \"Facts and Fictions\" was released in late 1995, following the single \"Rebel Warrior\". Initially not widely known in a UK music scene focused on Britpop, the band toured in mainland Europe and gained a substantial following, particularly in France where their French-only release \"R.A.F.I.\" sold 100,000 copies. In early 1997 the band was signed by London Records. Their British profile was upped considerably by the support of Primal Scream with whom the band began to tour regularly. Their second album \"Rafi's Revenge\" (1998) combined punk energy with a jungle/reggae core and was nominated for a Mercury Prize. The single \"Naxalite\" was an ode to the militant Naxalite movement in India. Tours to the United States (with the Beastie Boys) and Japan followed. Their following album, \"Community Music\", developed their sound further and received a 10/10 review in \"NME\". In 2000, ADF played a slot on Glastonbury Festival's Pyramid stage. At the end of 2000, Deeder Zaman announced his plans to go solo, his last gig being at Alexandra Palace alongside Primal Scream and Ian Brown. Their first project of 2001 was an attempt to create a live re-score of Mathieu Kassovitz's film \"La Haine\" at the Barbican Centre's \"Only Connect\" festival in London. The gig was sold out and received critical praise, particularly from Max Bell and Steven Wells. They did the piece again by invitation of David Bowie at his South Bank Meltdown Festival in 2002; in attendance was Kassovitz. The band went to Brazil to collaborate with community activist Afro-Reggae with new band members MC Aktarv8tr, Spex MC, Rocky Singh (drums), and Prithpal Rajput (dhol). In 2002, Pandit G was awarded the MBE for \"services to the music industry\" in relation to his work with \"Community Music\". He declined the award, however, stating: In 2003, they released \"Enemy of the Enemy\", which became their best-selling album and contained the track \"Fortress Europe\", an attack on European immigration policy, along with \"1000 Mirrors\", a collaboration with Sinéad O'Connor about a woman serving life for killing an abusive husband. In 2003, they played their biggest gig in front of 100,000 people in France at a celebration of José Bové, a radical campaigning farmer. For 2005's \"Tank\", they were joined by On-U Sound collaborator Ghetto Priest on vocals, with the help of Adrian Sherwood. The band continued performing their \"La Haine\" soundtrack around the world for the next five years. They developed this approach in 2004 with another improvised soundtrack to the film \"The Battle of Algiers\", first performing the piece at the Brighton Dome. In 2005, they won \"Best Underground\" at the UK Asian Music Awards. Bassist Dr Das announced his intention to retire in May 2006 to resume teaching and produce his own music. He was replaced by Martin Savale, who also plays bass with British-Asian electro/grunge/hip-hop band Swami. In September 2006, the dub/punk opera \"Gaddafi: A Living Myth\", with music by ADF, opened at the London Coliseum. In Spring 2007, Asian Dub Foundation announced the release of a best of compilation \"\" which included a bonus disc of rare remixes and live tracks, including a live recording of a Public Enemy song featuring Chuck D. The album also featured a new track recorded with former vocalist Deeder Zaman. In May 2007 ADF performed a radio session and interview on the Bobby and Nihal show on BBC Radio 1 where they performed three new tracks: \"Climb On\", \"Superpower\" and \"S.O.C.A.\". In June 2007, they were the only Western act to perform at the Festival of Gnawa music in Essaouira, Morocco playing to a crowd of 60,000 people and collaborating with traditional Gnawa musicians. In August 2007, Asian Dub Foundation started playing with two new vocalists, Al Rumjen (previously and subsequently with King Prawn) and Aktarv8r, who returned after MC Spex was asked to leave the band due to personal issues. In November/December 2007, Asian Dub Foundation recorded a new album, \"Punkara\". It was released in March 2008 and followed by a tour of Europe and Japan. In 2009, ADF contributed to the Indigenous Resistance project after having met up with the Atenco movement in Mexico. Asian Dub Foundation started work on their new album, provisionally entitled \"A New London Eye\", which would feature Ministry of Dhol, Nathan \"Flutebox\" Lee, Chi 2 and Skrein. The album eventually came out as \"The History of Now\" and the band toured extensively to promote it. The cover contained many fantasy iPhone \"Apps\" intended to parody the contemporary age. In May 2012, the band was asked by immersive pop-up subversives Secret Cinema to revive their live soundtrack to \"La Haine\" at Broadwater Farm and also performed the piece in Paris the night of the French elections. Later that year ADF were rejoined by Dr. Das, Ghetto Priest and Rocky Singh. They recorded a new album, \"The Signal and the Noise\", and headlined a series of festivals including \"Bearded Theory\" and \"Asigiri Jam\" in Japan. In 2014, the band debuted their latest live soundtrack, to \"THX 1138\", George Lucas's first feature-length film. George Lucas and his collaborator Walter Murch gave their blessing to the project and it was performed at the Brooklyn Festival in Prospect Park which led to an Arts Council Sponsored Tour of the UK in 2015. ADF signed a label deal with Believe records in 2015 and released \"More Signal More Noise\" on their own ADF Communications imprint, an enhanced version of the 2013 Japanese release. They were joined in early 2015 by ex-The Prodigy drummer Brian Fairbairn and have since toured Italy with a revived version of their \"La Haine\" soundtrack, performed an Arts Council sponsored tour of THX 1138, recorded a BBC Radio 6 session for Tom Robinson and played headline slots at WOMAD and Boomtown festivals in 2016. In June 2017, it was announced that the band is working on an upcoming album, titled \"Access Denied\" which is set to be released on September 18, 2020. In May 2019, the band released Youth Quake Pt 1, pairing electronica and breakbeats with a speech that teenage Swedish activist Greta Thunberg gave to the United Nations conference on climate change in 2018, in support of Extinction Rebellion and the urgent struggle for Climate Justice. 2020 will see the release of their new album \"Access Denied\" which features collaborations with comedian Stuart Lee, palestinian refugee band 47 Soul, Ana Tijoux and Dub FX." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Flora and fauna.", "Administrative structures.", "Neighbouring communes.", "Climate.", "History.", "Early history.", "Middle Ages.", "Modern history.", "1803 to 1933.", "Nazism and the World War II-period.", "History after 1945.", "Population.", "Politics.", "Cityscape.", "The old town.", "Heidelberg Castle.", "Philosophers' Walk.", "Heidelberg churches.", "Education.", "Universities and academia.", "Research.", "Schools.", "Economy.", "Tourism.", "Industry.", "Roads.", "Tourist roads.", "Railways.", "Public transport.", "United States military installations.", "Culture.", "Events.", "Cinemas.", "Museums and exhibitions.", "Heidelberg Romanticism.", "Old Heidelberg.", "I Lost My Heart in Heidelberg.", "Sport.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Heidelberg is in the Rhine Rift Valley, on the left bank of the lower part of the Neckar in a steep valley in the Odenwald. It is bordered by the Königsstuhl (568 m) and the Gaisberg (375 m) mountains. The Neckar here flows in an east-west direction. On the right bank of the river, the Heiligenberg mountain rises to a height of 445 meters. The Neckar flows into the Rhine approximately 22 kilometres north-west in Mannheim. Villages incorporated during the 20th century stretch from the Neckar Valley along the Bergstraße, a road running along the Odenwald hills. Heidelberg is on European walking route E1 (Sweden-Umbria).", "Since Heidelberg is among the warmest regions of Germany, plants atypical of the central-European climate flourish there, including almond and fig trees; there is also an olive tree in \"Gaisbergstraße\". Alongside the \"Philosophenweg\"", "Heidelberg is a unitary authority within the Regierungsbezirk Karlsruhe. The Rhein-Neckar-Kreis rural district surrounds it and has its seat in the town, although the town is not a part of the district. Heidelberg is a part of the Rhine-Neckar Metropolitan Region, often referred to as the Rhein-Neckar Triangle. This region consists of the southern part of the State of Hessen, the southern part of the State of Rhineland-Palatinate (\"Vorderpfalz\"), the administrative districts of Mannheim and Heidelberg, and", "The following towns and communes border the city of Heidelberg, beginning in the west and in", "Heidelberg has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification \"Cfb\"), defined by the protected valley between the Pfälzerwald and the Odenwald. Year-round, the mild temperatures are determined by maritime air masses coming from the west. In contrast to the", "", "Between 600,000 and 200,000 years ago, \"Heidelberg Man\" died at nearby Mauer. His jaw bone was discovered in 1907. Scientific dating determined his remains as the earliest evidence of human life in Europe. In the 5th century BC, a Celtic fortress of refuge and place of worship were built on the \"Heiligenberg\", or \"Holy Mountain\". Both places can still be identified. In 40 AD,", "Modern Heidelberg can trace its beginnings to the fifth century. The village \"Bergheim\" (\"Mountain Home\") is first mentioned for that period in documents dated to 769 AD. \"Bergheim\" now lies in the middle of modern Heidelberg. The people gradually converted to Christianity. In 863 AD, the monastery of St. Michael was founded on the Heiligenberg inside the double rampart of the Celtic fortress. Around 1130, the Neuburg Monastery was founded in the Neckar valley. At the same time, the bishopric of Worms extended its influence into the valley, founding Schönau Abbey", "Heidelberg University played a leading part in the era of humanism and the Reformation, and the conflict between Lutheranism and Calvinism, in the 15th and 16th centuries. Heidelberg's library, founded in 1421, is the oldest existing public library in Germany. In April 1518, a few months after proclaiming his 95 Theses, Martin Luther was received in Heidelberg, to defend them. In 1537, the castle located higher up the mountain was destroyed by a gunpowder explosion. The duke's palace was built at the site of the lower castle. Elector Frederick III, sovereign of the Electoral Palatinate from 1559 to 1576, commissioned the composition of a new Catechism for his territory. While the catechism's introduction credits the \"entire theological faculty here\" (at the University of Heidelberg) and \"all the superintendents and prominent servants of the church\" for the composition of the catechism, Zacharius Ursinus is commonly regarded as", "Heidelberg fell to the Grand Duchy of Baden in 1803. Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden, re-founded the university, named \"Ruperto-Carola\" after its two founders. Notable scholars soon earned it a reputation as a \"royal residence of the intellect\". In the 18th century, the town was rebuilt in the Baroque style on the old medieval layout. In 1810 the French revolution refugee Count Charles Graimberg", "During the Nazi period (1933–1945), Heidelberg was a stronghold of the NSDAP, (the National Socialist German Workers' Party) the strongest party in the elections before 1933 (the NSDAP obtained 30% at the communal elections of 1930). The NSDAP received 45.9% of the votes in the German federal election of March 1933 (the national average was 43.9%). Non-Aryan university staff were discriminated against. By 1939, one-third of the university's teaching staff had been forced out for racial and political reasons. The non-Aryan professors were ejected in 1933,", "In 1945 the university was reopened relatively quickly on the initiative of a small group of professors, among whom were the anti-Nazi economist Alfred Weber and the philosopher Karl Jaspers. The surgeon Karl Heinrich Bauer was nominated rector. On December 9, 1945, US Army General George S. Patton had a car accident in the adjacent city of Mannheim and died in the Heidelberg US Army hospital on December 21, 1945. The funeral ceremony", "The population of the city of Heidelberg exceeded 100,000 for the first time in 1946. It is a city with an international population, including one of the largest American communities outside North America, but this is not analysed in the Heidelberg population statistics. At the end of December 2011, the city had 149,633 inhabitants with an official primary residence in Heidelberg (not including the soldiers and employees of the U.S. Army and their dependents, a total", "Since 2006, the \"Oberbürgermeister\" (lord mayor) of Heidelberg has been the independent Eckart Würzner. From 1990 to 2006, the mayor was Beate Weber (SPD). The council consists of 40 volunteer members with the mayor as chairman. The council is directly elected for a term of five years. The task of the council is to decide with the mayor presiding all the affairs of the city. The", "", "The \"old town\" (), on the south bank of the Neckar, is long and narrow. It is", "The castle is a mix of styles from Gothic to Renaissance. Prince Elector Ruprecht III (1398–1410) erected the first building in the inner courtyard as a royal residence. The building was divided into a ground floor made of stone and framework upper levels. Another royal building is located opposite the Ruprecht Building: the Fountain Hall. Prince Elector Philipp (1476–1508) is said to have arranged the transfer of the hall's columns from a decayed palace of Charlemagne from Ingelheim to Heidelberg. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Prince Electors added two palace buildings and turned the fortress into a castle. The two dominant buildings at the eastern and northern side of the courtyard were erected during the rule of Ottheinrich (1556–1559) and Friedrich IV (1583–1610). Under Friedrich V (1613–1619), the main", "On the northern side of the Neckar is located the Heiligenberg (\"Saints' Mountain\"), along the side of which runs the Philosophers' Walk (), with scenic views of the old town and castle. Traditionally, Heidelberg's", "There are many historical churches in Heidelberg and its surroundings. The Church of the Holy Spirit has been shared over the centuries since the Protestant Reformation by both Catholics and Protestants. It is one of the few buildings to survive the many wars during the past centuries. It was rebuilt after the French set fire to it in 1709 during the War of the Palatinian Succession. The church has remains of the tombs and epitaphs of the past Palatinate electors. This Church stands in the \"Marktplatz\" next to the seat of local government. In 1720, Karl III", "", "Heidelberg is known for its institutions of higher education. The most famous of those is Heidelberg University Founded in 1386, it is one of Europe's oldest institutions. In fact, Heidelberg is the oldest university town of today's Germany. Among the prominent thinkers associated with the institution are Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Jaspers, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Jürgen Habermas, Karl-Otto Apel and Hannah Arendt. The campus is situated in two urban areas and several buildings. In numerous historical buildings in the old town there are the Faculties of the Humanities, the Social Science and the Faculty of Law. The school of applied sciences is located in the \"Science Tower\" in Wieblingen. The Faculties of Medicine and Natural Science are settled on the Neuenheimer Feld Campus. The campus of", "In addition to the research centers and institutes of the university, there are numerous research institutions situated in the city of Heidelberg. Among them are the European Molecular", "Heidelberg is home to 23 elementary schools. There are several institutions of secondary education, both public and private, representing all levels of the German school system. There are 14 Gymnasiums, with six of them private. With 52% of secondary students attending a", "", "In 2004, 81.8% of people worked for service industries, including tourism. As a relic of the period of Romanticism, Heidelberg has been labeled a", "Only 18% of employment is provided by industry. Printing and publishing are important enterprises; nearby Walldorf is a center of the IT industry and SAP World Headquarters. Noted pen manufacturer Lamy has its headquarters and factory in Heidelberg-Wieblingen. Heidelberger Druckmaschinen has its headquarters here; its factory", "The A 5 autobahn runs through the western outskirts of Heidelberg, connecting the region to Frankfurt am Main in the north and Karlsruhe to the south. The A 656 commences just west of the city, connecting Heidelberg with Mannheim. Both highways meet at Heidelberg autobahn intersection in the city of Heidelberg, and the A 656 connects to the A 6 at the Mannheim autobahn intersection, which connects to the east towards Stuttgart. Furthermore, the B 3 (Frankfurt–Karlsruhe) runs north–south through the town, and the B 37 (Mannheim–Eberbach) runs east–west. Both meet in the city center at the Bismarckplatz. The B 535 begin in the south of Heidelberg and runs to Schwetzingen.", "Heidelberg is located on four tourist roads: Bergstraße, Bertha Benz Memorial Route, Castle Road, and Straße der Demokratie (Road of Democracy).", "Heidelberg Central Station (Hauptbahnhof) is on the Rhine Valley Railway and is served by Intercity-Express, Euro", "The main transport hub of Heidelberg is the Bismarckplatz. Several main thoroughfares of the city intersect here and one of the longest pedestrian streets in Europe, the Hauptstraße (main street) runs from here through the entire old town of Heidelberg. Heidelberg Central Station was nearby for many years, which was a combined terminal and through station. In 1955, it was moved about 1.5 km further to the west, which removed the necessity for trains continuing to the south or from the south to the north to reverse. The new central station became the second major transport hub of Heidelberg. Heidelberg has had a public transport service since 1883, when horse-drawn trams were established. Due to the rapidly rising patronage it was decided on 20 December 1901 to convert the Heidelberg tramway network to electrical operation. On 16 March 1902, the first electric tram ran on Rohrbacher Straße, sharing use of the suburban tracks built by the \"Deutsche Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft\" in 1901 between Heidelberg and Wiesloch. Until the 1950s,", "During World War II, Heidelberg was one of the few major cities in Germany not significantly damaged by Allied bombing. Situated in the American Zone of Germany, Heidelberg became the headquarters of the American forces in Europe. The main military facilities were Campbell Barracks, the former Wehrmacht Grossdeutschland-Kaserne, which housed the US Army, Europe (USAREUR) and NATO's Component Command-Land Headquarters. (Until 2004, this was designated Joint Headquarters Centre, and before that, LANDCENT). Campbell Barracks and Mark Twain Village were both in Südstadt; Patton Barracks was in nearby Kirchheim. Nachrichten Kaserne in Rohrbach was home to the former Heidelberg Army Hospital, later designated the Heidelberg Health Center. Patrick Henry Village, the largest U.S. military housing area in the Heidelberg area, was west", "", "Several festivals and events hosted and organized in Heidelberg throughout the year. In February, the \"Ball der Vampire\" (Ball of the Vampires) is arranged and Fasching, the equivalent of Mardis Gras or Carnival in some German regions, with a giant vampire-themed costume party at the local castle or city hall is celebrated. In March or April the \"Heidelberger Frühling\" (Heidelberg Spring), the Classic Music Festival and the international Easter egg market are conducted. During the last weekend of April there is an annually organized half marathon.", "The nationwide trend of cinema closures hit Heidelberg harder than many other places in Germany. Recent years saw the low-point of this development, when in this city of over 150,000 people there were just three small cinemas left, with a total capacity of under 450 seats. The situation has slightly improved since late 2017, when Heidelberg got a new multiplex adjacent to the new Bahnstadt development, the \"Luxor", "Among the most prominent museums of Heidelberg are for instance the Carl Bosch Museum which shows life and work of chemist and Nobel Prize-winner Carl Bosch. Then there is the Documentation and Culture Centre of German Sinti and Roma (Dokumentations- und Kulturzentrum Deutscher Sini und Roma) describing the Nazi genocide of the Sinti and Roma peoples. The German Packing Museum (Deutsches Verpackungsmuseum) gives an", "Heidelberg was the centre of the epoch of \"Romantik\" (Romanticism) in Germany. The phase after Jena Romanticism is often called Heidelberg Romanticism (see also Berlin Romanticism). There was a famous circle of poets (the Heidelberg Romantics), such as Joseph von Eichendorff, Johann Joseph von Görres, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, and Clemens Brentano. A relic of Romanticism is the", "In 1901 Wilhelm Meyer-Förster wrote the play \"Old Heidelberg\" which was followed by a large number of", "The 1925 song \"I Lost My Heart in Heidelberg\" composed by Fred Raymond", "Heidelberg is one of the centres of Rugby union in Germany, along with Hanover. In 2008–09, four out of nine clubs in the Rugby-Bundesliga were from Heidelberg, these being RG Heidelberg, SC Neuenheim, Heidelberger RK and TSV Handschuhsheim. Heidelberger TV has a rugby department. Rugby League Deutschland has two teams based in Heidelberg, Heidelberg Sharks formed in 2005 and Rohrbach Hornets formed in 2007. The city is also home to the USC Heidelberg, which won", "", "Heidelberg is", "Heidelberg features in the 1968 film \"The Girl on a Motorcycle\", the university being the ultimate destination of Marianne Faithfull's character. Heidelberg is the home of a professional Quidditch team operating within the fictional Harry Potter universe: the Heidelberg Harriers have been described as “fiercer than a dragon and twice as clever”. Heidelberg is the residence of fictional character Nina Fortner/Anna Liebert in the anime/manga series \"Monster\", by Naoki Urasawa. Further, its castle forms the setting for the beginning of Mark Twain's story \"The Awful German Language\". Most of David Lodge's novel \"Out of the shelter\" takes place in Heidelberg in 1951 during the American occupation after World War II. The city also features during a mission in the Electronic Arts strategy game \"Red Alert 3\". Heidelberg also features in Somerset Maugham's \"Of Human Bondage\" and its film versions. Also, \"Morris from America\" takes places in Heidelberg. In \"Watchmen\" tv series which serves as alternate direct sequels to the original Watchmen graphic novel, Dr. Manhattan aka Jonathan \"Jon\" Osterman aka Calvin \"Cal\" Abar (né Jelani), is said to be born in Heidelberg, Germany and immigrates to the US along with his father. Heidleberg is also revealled to be the home town of Sergeant Schultz on Hogan's Heroes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Politics.", "Features.", "Climate.", "Events.", "History.", "Soviet naval base.", "Sports.", "International relations.", "Twin towns — Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Results of the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election in Hanko:", "The Hanko Peninsula, on which the city is located, is the southernmost tip of continental Finland. The soil is a sandy moraine, and vegetation consists mainly of pine and low shrubs, mostly \"Calluna\". Hanko is known for its beautiful archipelago. The city has a coastline of approximately, of which are sandy beaches. There are also over 90 small islands and islets within the city limits. The skyline of Hanko is dominated by the church and the water tower. Both of them received their current appearance after World War II, as their predecessors were either damaged or destroyed by the Soviet Armed Forces.", "Hanko has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\"), similar to other locations in southern Finland.", "The \"Hangon Regatta\" is a traditional fixture on the Finnish social scene, and is the town's main summer event. Sailing enthusiasts attend to compete, but there are also others, mostly young people, with little or no interest in sailing, who attend only in order to party and drink. The latter constitute the so-called \"Regatta tail\", which is not appreciated by most of the town's residents. Other traditional summer activities are the \"Tennis Week\", the \"Sea Horse\" riding competitions, the \"Summer Theatre\" and Hanko Music Festival events. Several sandy beaches and a multitude of leisure harbors attract tourists during the summer months.", "The site was already known by sailors in the 15th century. Petroglyphs from that time are carved into the rock at the \"\" (, ) island. Hanko has a long history of wars and battles. The Battle of Gangut between Swedish and Russian navies was fought in 1714 in the archipelago north of the peninsula. The battle was the first-ever victory of the Russian regular fleet. The fortification works on the Hanko Peninsula had already been started by the end of the 18th century, when the Swedish constructed three separate forts on the outlying islands. The forts were taken over by Russia in 1809, and were later bombarded by the Royal Navy during the Crimean War and were eventually blown up during the hostilities by their own defenders. The city was founded in 1874, soon after the Hanko-Hyvinkää railway was inaugurated in 1872. The Imperial Charter for the city was granted by Tsar Alexander II. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Hanko was the port of choice for emigrants leaving Finland for a new life in North America. A memorial statue, showing birds in flight, commemorates this. In the late 19th century, while Finland was still a Grand Duchy under Russia, Hanko was a popular spa resort for the Russian nobility. Some of the buildings from that period survive, notably the Hanko Casino (which is not a gambling establishment, but a former banquet hall of the spa). It is currently a restaurant. The Hotel Continental (1901) (now the Hotel Regatta) was designed by architect Lars Sonck in the notable Jugendstil style of the time; after falling into disrepair, the hotel was restored to its former glory in 2013. Field Marshal C. G. Mannerheim owned a café, (, ), which is still popular among tourists and residents alike. The Bengtskär lighthouse, situated southwest of Hanko, is the tallest () in the Nordic countries. It was built in 1906 and was the first lighthouse museum in Finland.", "In the Moscow Peace Treaty that ended the Winter War on 13 March 1940, Hanko was leased to the Soviet Union as a naval base for a period of 30 years. During the Continuation War, Soviet troops were forced to evacuate Hanko in early December 1941. The Soviet Union renounced the lease formally in the Paris peace treaty of 1947. As a curiosity, it can be noted that the short Russo-Finnish front across the base of the peninsula on the Finnish side was held in part by volunteer troops from Sweden. A museum has been established at this location, among the trenches and other remnants of the war. The role of the Hanko naval base was replaced by Porkkala in the armistice between Finland and the Soviet Union of 19 September 1944, but it was returned to Finland in January 1956.", "The following sports clubs are located in Hanko:", "", "Hanko is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Medieval and Renaissance.", "Age of Reason.", "Development and application in modern science.", "Issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The idea of ethnobotany was first proposed by the early 20th century botanist John William Harshberger. While Harshberger did perform ethnobotanical research extensively, including in areas such as North Africa, Mexico, Scandinavia, and Pennsylvania, it was not until Richard Evans Schultes began his trips into the Amazon that ethnobotany become a more well known science. However, the practice of ethnobotany is thought to have much earlier origins in the first century AD when a Greek physician by the name of Pedanius Dioscorides wrote an extensive botanical text detailing the medical and culinary properties of \"over 600 mediterranean plants\" named De Materia Medica. Historians note that Dioscorides wrote about traveling often throughout the Roman empire, including regions such as \"Greece, Crete, Egypt, and Petra\", and in doing so obtained substantial knowledge about the local plants and their useful properties. European botanical knowledge drastically expanded once the New World was discovered due to ethnobotany. This expansion in knowledge can be primarily attributed to the substantial influx of new plants from the Americas, including crops such as potatoes, peanuts, avocados, and tomatoes. The French explorer Jacques Cartier learned a cure for scurvy (a tea made from the needles of a coniferous tree, likely spruce) from a local Iroquois tribe.", "During the medieval period, ethnobotanical studies were commonly found connected with monasticism. Notable at this time was Hildegard von Bingen. However, most botanical knowledge was kept in gardens such as physic gardens attached to hospitals and religious buildings. It was thought of in practical use terms for culinary and medical purposes and the ethnographic element was not studied as a modern anthropologist might approach ethnobotany today.", "Carl Linnaeus carried out in 1732 a research expedition in Scandinavia asking the Sami people about their ethnological usage of plants. The age of enlightenment saw a rise in economic botanical exploration. Alexander von Humboldt collected data from the New World, and James Cook's voyages brought back collections and information on plants from the South Pacific. At this time major botanical gardens were started, for instance the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in 1759. The directors of the gardens sent out gardener-botanist explorers to care for and collect plants to add to their collections. As the 18th century became the 19th, ethnobotany saw expeditions undertaken with more colonial aims rather than trade economics such as that of Lewis and Clarke which recorded both plants and the peoples encountered use of them. Edward Palmer collected material culture artifacts and botanical specimens from people in the North American West (Great Basin) and Mexico from the 1860s to the 1890s. Through all of this research, the field of \"aboriginal botany\" was established—the study of all forms of the vegetable world which aboriginal peoples use for food, medicine, textiles, ornaments and more.", "The first individual to study the emic perspective of the plant world was a German physician working in Sarajevo at the end of the 19th century: Leopold Glück. His published work on traditional medical uses of plants done by rural people in Bosnia (1896) has to be considered the first modern ethnobotanical work. Other scholars analyzed uses of plants under an indigenous/local perspective in the 20th century: Matilda Coxe Stevenson, Zuni plants (1915); Frank Cushing, Zuni foods (1920); Keewaydinoquay Peschel, Anishinaabe fungi (1998), and the team approach of Wilfred Robbins, John Peabody Harrington, and Barbara Freire-Marreco, Tewa pueblo plants (1916). In the beginning, ethonobotanical specimens and studies were not very reliable and sometimes not helpful. This is because the botanists and the anthropologists did not always collaborate in their work. The botanists focused on identifying species and how the plants were used instead of concentrating upon how plants fit into people's lives. On the other hand, anthropologists were interested in the cultural role of plants and treated other scientific aspects superficially. In the early 20th century, botanists and anthropologists better collaborated and the collection of reliable, detailed cross-disciplinary data began. Beginning in the 20th century, the field of ethnobotany experienced a shift from the raw compilation of data to a greater methodological and conceptual reorientation. This is also the beginning of academic ethnobotany. The so-called \"father\" of this discipline is Richard Evans Schultes, even though he did not actually coin the term \"ethnobotany\". Today the field of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills: botanical training for the identification and preservation of plant specimens; anthropological training to understand the cultural concepts around the perception of plants; linguistic training, at least enough to transcribe local terms and understand native morphology, syntax, and semantics. Mark Plotkin, who studied at Harvard University, the Yale School of Forestry and Tufts University, has contributed a number of books on ethnobotany. He completed a handbook for the Tirio people of Suriname detailing their medicinal plants; \"Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice\" (1994); \"The Shaman's Apprentice,\" a children's book with Lynne Cherry (1998); and \"Medicine Quest: In Search of Nature's Healing Secrets\" (2000). Plotkin was interviewed in 1998 by \"South American Explorer\" magazine, just after the release of \"Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice\" and the IMAX movie Amazonia. In the book, he stated that he saw wisdom in both traditional and Western forms of medicine: No medical system has all the answers—no shaman that I've worked with has the equivalent of a polio vaccine and no dermatologist that I've been to could cure a fungal infection as effectively (and inexpensively) as some of my Amazonian mentors. It shouldn't be the doctor versus the witch doctor. It should be the best aspects of all medical systems (ayurvedic, herbalism, homeopathic, and so on) combined in a way which makes health care more effective and more affordable for all. A great deal of information about the traditional uses of plants is still intact with tribal peoples. But the native healers are often reluctant to accurately share their knowledge to outsiders. Schultes actually apprenticed himself to an Amazonian shaman, which involves a long-term commitment and genuine relationship. In \"Wind in the Blood: Mayan Healing & Chinese Medicine\" by Garcia et al. the visiting acupuncturists were able to access levels of Mayan medicine that anthropologists could not because they had something to share in exchange. Cherokee medicine priest David Winston describes how his uncle would invent nonsense to satisfy visiting anthropologists. Another scholar, James W. Herrick, who studied under ethnologist William N. Fenton, in his work \"Iroquois Medical Ethnobotany\" (1995) with Dean R. Snow (editor), professor of Anthropology at Penn State, explains that understanding herbal medicines in traditional Iroquois cultures is rooted in a strong and ancient cosmological belief system. Their work provides perceptions and conceptions of illness and imbalances which can manifest in physical forms from benign maladies to serious diseases. It also includes a large compilation of Herrick’s field work from numerous Iroquois authorities of over 450 names, uses, and preparations of plants for various ailments. Traditional Iroquois practitioners had (and have) a sophisticated perspective on the plant world that contrast strikingly with that of modern medical science. Researcher Cassandra Quave at Emory University has used ethnobotany to address the problems that arise from antibiotic resistance. Quave notes that the advantage of medical ethnobotany over Western medicine rests in the difference in mechanism. For example, elmleaf blackberry extract focuses instead on the prevention of bacterial collaboration as opposed to directly exterminating them.", "Many instances of gender bias have occurred in ethnobotany, creating the risk of drawing erroneous conclusions. Anthropologists would often consult with primarily men. In Las Pavas, a small farming community in Panama, anthropologists drew conclusions about the entire community's use of plant from their conversations and lessons with mostly men. They consulted with 40 families, but the women only participated rarely in interviews and never joined them in the field. Due to the division of labor, the knowledge of wild plants for food, medicine, and fibers, among others, was left out of the picture, resulting in a distorted view of which plants were actually important to them. Ethnobotanists have also assumed that ownership of a resource means familiarity with that resource. In some societies women are excluded from owning land, while being the ones who work it. Inaccurate data can come from interviewing only the owners. Other issues include ethical concerns regarding interactions with indigenous populations, and the International Society of Ethnobiology has created a code of ethics to guide researchers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He was born in Banská Bystrica, Czechoslovakia. He earned LLM and PhD degrees from Charles University in Prague in 1979 and 1985 respectively. In addition, he has also undertaken studies at the Faculty of International Law and International Relations in Kiev, Ukraine, at the Institut du droit de la paix et du développement in Nice, France, at the Institute of International Public Law and International Relations in Thessaloniki, Greece, and The Hague Academy of International Law in the Netherlands.", "In 1986, he joined Czechoslovakia's Foreign Ministry as an Assistant Legal Adviser, and in 1990 was promoted to Head of the Ministry's Public International Law Division. The following year, he was transferred to the country's United Nations Mission, where he served as Legal Adviser. Following the division of Czechoslovakia, he served as Slovakia's Deputy Permanent Representative from 1993 to 1994. From 1994 to 1997, he served as Slovakia's Ambassador to the United Nations. Returning to the Foreign Ministry, he served as Director of the International Law Department from 1997 to 1998, when he transferred to the post of Director-General for International Legal and Consular Affairs. After a year in that post, he was reappointed as Slovakia's UN Ambassador, serving until his appointment to the Court. He also held a seat on the International Law Commission between 1999 and 2002. He is member of the Slovak Society of International Law and has served as the organization's Honorary President since 2003. He is also a member of the American Society of International Law and the European Society of International Law. Tomka was elected to the ICJ by the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council; his first term began on February 6, 2003. In parallel to his ICJ Membership, Tomka served in 2005 as an Arbitrator of the \"Belgium/Netherlands Iron Rhine\" Tribunal, which was presided over by ICJ Rosalyn Higgins and in 2007 Tomka has been Member of the ICSID \"ad hoc\" Committee in the case of \"Malaysian Historical Salvors v. Government of Malaysia\", which also comprises ICJ s Stephen M. Schwebel (President) and Mohamed Shahabuddeen. In 2009, Tomka was also on the \"ad hoc\" Committee in the \"MCI Power Group v. Republic of Ecuador\" Annulment Decision. The judges of the ICJ elected Tomka as their vice-president on 6 February 2009. In 2011 Tomka was re-elected to a second nine-year term on the ICJ by the UN General Assembly and the Security Council; his term now expires on 5 February 2021. In February 2012 Tomka was elected President of the Court for a three-year term from 6 February 2012." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ovid.", "In the Arts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\", Morpheus is one of the thousand sons of Somnus (Sleep). His name derives from the Greek word for form (\"μορφή\"), and his function was to appear in dreams in human guise. According to Ovid \"no other is more skilled than he in representing the gait, the features, and the speech of men; the clothing also and the accustomed words of each he represents.\" Like other gods associated with sleep, Ovid makes Morpheus winged. Ovid called Morpheus and his brothers, the other sons of Somnus, the \"Somnia\" (\"dream shapes\"), saying that they appear in dreams \"mimicking many forms\". Ovid gives names to two more of these sons of Sleep. One called Icelos ('Like'), by the gods, but Phobetor ('Frightener') by men, \"takes the form of beast or bird or the long serpent\", and Phantasos ('Fantasy'), who \"puts on deceptive shapes of earth, rocks, water, trees, all lifeless things\". The three brothers' names are found nowhere earlier than Ovid, and are perhaps Ovidian inventions. Tripp calls these three figures \"literary, not mythical concepts\". However Griffin suggests that this division of dream forms between Morpheus and his brothers, possibly including their names, may have been of Hellenistic origin.", "Robert Burton, in his 1621 \"Anatomy of Melancholy\", refers to a depiction of Morpheus, saying \"Philostratus paints [Morpheus] in a white and black coat, with a horn and ivory box full of dreams, of the same colours, to signify good and bad\". In Carl Michael Bellman's \"Fredman's Epistle\" No. 72, \"Glimmande nymf\", Morpheus is invoked as the \"god of sleep\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Distribution and related species.", "Description.", "Habitat and diet.", "Behaviour and lifecycle.", "Reproduction.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Within Europe, the European roe deer occurs in most areas, with the exception of northernmost Scandinavia (north of Narvik) and some of the islands, notably Iceland, Ireland, and the Mediterranean Sea islands; in the Mediterranean region, it is largely confined to mountainous areas, and is absent or rare at low altitudes. Scottish roe deer were introduced to the Lissadell Estate in Co. Sligo in Ireland around 1870 by Sir Henry Gore-Booth, Bt. The Lissadell deer were noted for their occasional abnormal antlers and survived in that general area for about 50 years before they died out. According to the National Biodiversity Data Centre, in 2014 there was a confirmed sighting of roe deer in County Armagh. There have been other, unconfirmed, sightings in County Wicklow. In England and Wales, roe have experienced a substantial expansion in their range in the latter half of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century. This increase in population also appears to be affecting woodland ecosystems. At the start of the 20th century, they were almost extinct in Southern England, but since then have hugely expanded their range for no apparent reason and possibly in some cases with human help. In 1884, roe were introduced from Württemberg in Germany into the Thetford Chase area, and these spread to populate most of Norfolk, Suffolk, and substantial parts of Cambridgeshire. In southern England, they started their expansion in Sussex (possibly from enclosed stock in Petworth Park) and from there soon spread into Surrey, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Dorset, and for the first half of the 20th century, most roe in southern England were to be found in these counties. By the end of the 20th century, they had repopulated much of Southern England and had expanded into Somerset, Devon, Cornwall, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Lincolnshire, and South Yorkshire, and had even spread into mid-Wales from the Ludlow area where an isolated population had appeared. At the same time, the surviving population in Scotland and the Lake District had pushed further south beyond Yorkshire and Lancashire and into Derbyshire and Humberside. Roe can now be found in most of rural England except for south east Kent and the greater part of Staffordshire and Cheshire, although the expansion is continuing to the extent that before the end of the 21st century, anywhere in the UK mainland suitable for roe may have a population. Not being a species that needs large areas of woodland to survive, urban roe are now a feature of several cities, notably Glasgow and Bristol, where in particular they favour cemeteries. In Wales, they are less common, but have been seen as far south west as Cardigan and as far north west as Bangor, and they are reasonably well established in Powys and Monmouthshire. German colonial administrators introduced roe deer to the island of Pohnpei in Micronesia. They are hunted by locals in very steep and heavily vegetated terrain. The meat is openly sold in markets and restaurants in Kolonia, the capital city of Pohnpei and the Federated States of Micronesia. The roe deer is distinct from the somewhat larger Siberian roe deer (\"Capreolus pygargus\") found from the Ural Mountains to as far east as China and Siberia. The two species meet at the Caucasus Mountains, with the European species occupying the southern flank of the mountain ranges and adjacent Asia Minor, and the Siberian species occupying the northern flank of the mountain ranges. It is known that there are roe deer that live in the Red Forest near Chernobyl.", "The roe deer is a relatively small deer, with a body length of, a shoulder height of, and a weight of. Bucks in good conditions develop antlers up to long with two or three, rarely even four, points. When the male's antlers begin to regrow, they are covered in a thin layer of velvet-like fur which disappears later on after the hair's blood supply is lost. Males may speed up the process by rubbing their antlers on trees, so that their antlers are hard and stiff for the duels during the mating season. Unlike most cervids, roe deer begin regrowing antlers almost immediately after they are shed.", "The roe deer is primarily crepuscular, very quick and graceful, and lives in woods, although it may venture into grasslands and sparse forests. They feed mainly on grass, leaves, berries, and young shoots. They particularly like very young, tender grass with a high moisture content, i.e., grass that has received rain the day before. Roe deer will not generally venture into a field that has had or has livestock (sheep, cattle) in it because the livestock make the grass unclean. A pioneer species commonly associated with biotic communities at an early stage of succession, during the Neolithic period in Europe, the roe deer was abundant, taking advantage of areas of forest or woodland cleared by Neolithic farmers.", "In order to mitigate risk while foraging, roe deer remain within refuge habitats (such as forests) during the day. They are likelier to venture into more open habitats at night and during crepuscular periods when there is less ambient activity. Similarly, roe deer are more likely to be spotted in places with nearby forests to retreat to if there is a perceived threat. The roe deer attains a maximum lifespan (in the wild) of 10 years. When alarmed, it will bark a sound much like a dog and flash out its white rump patch. Rump patches differ between the sexes, with the white rump patches heart-shaped on females and kidney-shaped on males. Males may also bark or make a low grunting noise. Females (does) make a high-pitched \"pheep\" whine to attract males during the rut (breeding season) in July and August. Initially, the female goes looking for a mate and commonly lures the buck back into her territory before mating. The roe deer is territorial, and while the territories of a male and a female might overlap, other roe deer of the same sex are excluded unless they are the doe's offspring of that year.", "The polygamous roe deer males clash over territory in early summer and mate in early autumn. During courtship, when the males chase the females, they often flatten the underbrush, leaving behind areas of the forest in the shape of a figure eight called 'roe rings'. Males may also use their antlers to shovel around fallen foliage and soil as a way of attracting a mate. Roebucks enter rutting inappetence during the July and August breeding season. Females are monoestrous and after delayed implantation usually give birth the following June, after a 10-month gestation period, typically to two spotted fawns of opposite sexes. The fawns remain hidden in long grass from predators; they are suckled by their mother several times a day for around three months. Young female roe deer can begin to reproduce when they are around 6 months old. During the mating season, a male roe deer may mount the same doe several times over a duration of several hours.", "The world-famous deer Bambi (the titular character of the book \"Bambi, A Life in the Woods\" (1923) and its sequel \"Bambi's Children\" (1939), by the Austrian author Felix Salten) was originally a roe deer. When the story was adapted into the animated feature film \"Bambi\" (1942), by the Walt Disney Studios, Bambi was changed to a mule deer, and accordingly, the setting was changed to a North American wilderness. These changes made Bambi a deer species more familiar to mainstream US viewers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Geographic distribution.", "Behaviour." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Snout rounded, about as long as the distance between the eye and the ear-opening, 1.25 to 1.3 the diameter of the orbit; forehead slightly concave; ear-opening oval, oblique, nearly half the diameter of the eye. Body and limbs moderate. Digits variable in length, the inner always well developed; 6 to 8 lamellae under the inner digits, 8 to 10 under the fourth finger, and 9 to 11 under the fourth toe. Head with large granules anteriorly, posteriorly with minute granules intermixed with round tubercles. Rostrum four-sided, not twice as broad as deep, with medial cleft above; nostril pierced between the rostrum, the first labial, and three nasals; 7 to 10 upper and 6 to 8 lower labials; mental large, triangular, at least twice as long as the adjacent labials, its point between two large chin-shields, which may be in contact behind it; a smaller chin shield on each side of the larger pair. Upper surface of body covered with minute granules intermixed with large tubercles, generally larger than the spaces between them, suboval, trihedral, and arranged in 14 or 16 pretty, regular longitudinal series. Abdominal scales small, smooth, roundish-hexagonal, imbricate. Males with a short angular series of 4 to 10 (exceptionally 2) preanal pores. Tail cylindrical, slightly depressed, tapering, covered above with minute scales and transverse series of large keeled tubercles, beneath with a series of large transversely dilated plates. Light brown or grayish above, spotted with darker; many of the tubercles white, lower surfaces white. They may be completely translucent except for the spotting. Some are darker. They often seek darkness when fleeing. They may be seen singularly or in a group ranging from 2 to 5 together.", "Native to the Mediterranean region, the \"med gecko\" is one of the most successful species of geckos in the world. It has spread over much of the world and established stable populations far from its origins; it holds no threatened or endangered status. It can be found in countries with Mediterranean climates such as Portugal, Spain, France, Italy (including Lampedusa island, Elba), Israel, Albania, Greece, Malta, North Macedonia, coastal Croatia (except western Istria), Czech Republic (only warm parts of Moravia and Czech Silesia), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Adriatic islands, coastal Montenegro, coastal part of Albania, Cyprus, Turkey, northern Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Jordan, Syria, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, northern Yemen (Socotra Archipelago), Somalia, Eritrea, Kenya, southern Iran, Iraq, Oman, Qatar, Pakistan, India, Balearic Islands (Island Addaya Grande), Canary Islands (introduced to Gran Canaria and Tenerife), Panama, Puerto Rico, Belize, Mexico (Baja California, Chihuahua, Durango, Nuevo León, Yucatán; introduced), Cuba (introduced). It has also been introduced to the southern USA (Louisiana, Alabama, Texas, Arizona, Florida, California, Arkansas, Mississippi, South Carolina, Georgia, Oklahoma, Virginia, Maryland, Nevada, New Mexico, Kansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, Utah, and Missouri). It can also be occasionally found as far north as Ohio.", "Mediterranean house geckoes emit a distinctive, high-pitched call somewhat like a squeak or the chirp of a bird, possibly expressing a territorial message. They are voracious predators on moths and small roaches, and are attracted to outdoor lights in search of these prey. They are also attracted by the call of a male decorated cricket (\"Gryllodes supplicans\") even though the males are usually safely out of reach in a burrow, because female crickets attracted to the male's call can be intercepted and eaten." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Drift.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Circumnavigation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "When this line of latitude was named in the last centuries BC, the Sun was in the constellation Cancer (Latin for \"crab\") at the June solstice, the time each year that the Sun reaches its zenith at this latitude. Due to the precession of the equinoxes, this is no longer the case; today the Sun is in Taurus at the June solstice. The word \"tropic\" itself comes from the Greek \"trope (τροπή)\", meaning turn (change of direction, or circumstances), inclination, referring to the fact that the Sun appears to \"turn back\" at the solstices.", "The Tropic of Cancer's position is not fixed, but constantly changes because of a slight wobble in the Earth's longitudinal alignment relative to the ecliptic, the plane in which the Earth orbits around the Sun. Earth's axial tilt varies over a 41,000-year period from 22.1 to 24.5 degrees, and is about 23.4 degrees, which will continue to remain valid for about a millennium. This wobble means that the Tropic of Cancer is currently drifting southward at a rate of almost half an arcsecond (0.468′′) of latitude, or 15 metres, per year. The circle's position was at exactly 23° 27′N in 1917 and will be at 23° 26'N in 2045. See axial tilt and circles of latitude for additional details.", "North of the tropic are the subtropics and the North Temperate Zone. The equivalent line of latitude south of the Equator is called the Tropic of Capricorn, and the region between the two, centered on the Equator, is the tropics. There are approximately 13 hours, 35 minutes of daylight during the summer solstice. During the winter solstice, there are 10 hours, 41 minutes of daylight. Using 23°26'N for the Tropic of Cancer, the tropic passes through the following countries and territories starting at the prime meridian and heading eastward:", "Excluding cooler highland regions in China, the climate at the Tropic of Cancer is generally hot and dry except for easterly coastal areas where orographic rainfall can be very heavy, in some places reaching annually. Most regions on the Tropic of Cancer experience two distinct seasons: an extremely hot summer with temperatures often reaching and a warm winter with maxima around. Much land on or near the Tropic of Cancer is part of the Sahara Desert, while to the east the climate is torrid monsoonal with a short wet season from June to September and very little rainfall for the rest of the year. The highest mountain on or adjacent to the Tropic of Cancer is Yu Shan in Taiwan; though it had glaciers descending as low as during the Last Glacial Maximum, none survive and at present no glaciers exist within of the Tropic of Cancer; the nearest currently surviving are the Minyong and Baishui in the Himalayas to the north and on Iztaccíhuatl to the south.", "According to the rules of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, for a flight to compete for a round-the-world speed record, it must cover a distance no less than the length of the Tropic of Cancer, cross all meridians, and end on the same airfield where it started. Length of the Tropic on 11 December 2015, at 23°26′14′′N is. For an ordinary circumnavigation the rules are somewhat relaxed and the distance is set to a rounded value of at least." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Veneration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Giles first lived in retreats near the mouth of the Rhône and by the River Gard in Septimania, in today's southern France. The story that he was the son of King Theodore and Queen Pelagia of Athens is probably an embellishment of his early hagiographers; it was given wide currency in the \"Legenda Aurea\". The two main incidents in his legend were often depicted in art. The \"Legenda Aurea\" links him with Arles, but finally he withdrew deep into the forest near Nîmes, where in the greatest solitude he spent many years, his sole companion being his dear deer, or red deer, who in some stories sustained him on her milk. Giles ate a Christian vegetarian diet. This retreat was finally discovered by the king's hunters, who had pursued the hind to its place of refuge. An arrow shot at the deer wounded the saint instead, who afterwards became a patron of the physically disabled. The king, by legend, was Wamba, an anachronistic Visigoth, but must have been a Frank in the original story due to the historical setting. He held the hermit in high esteem for his humility in rejecting all honors save having some disciples. Wamba built him a monastery in his valley, Saint-Gilles-du-Gard, which Giles placed under the Benedictine rule. He died there in the early part of the 8th century, with the highest repute for sanctity and miracles. A 10th-century \"Vita sancti Aegidii\" recounts that, as Giles was celebrating Mass to pardon the Emperor Charlemagne's sins, an angel deposited upon the altar a letter outlining a sin so terrible Charlemagne had never dared confess it. Several Latin and French texts, including the \"Legenda Aurea\" refer to this hidden \"sin of Charlemagne\". This legend, however, contradicts the well established later dates for the life of Charlemagne (approximately 742 – 28 January 814). A later text, the \"Liber miraculorum sancti Aegidii\" (\"The Book of Miracles of Saint Giles\") served to reinforce the flow of pilgrims to the abbey.", "The town of St-Gilles-du-Gard sprang up around the abbey allegedly founded by him in the 7th century. That abbey (which was re-dedicated to him in the 10th century) remained the center of his cult, which was particularly strong in Languedoc, even after a rival body of Saint Giles appeared at Toulouse. His cult spread rapidly far and wide throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, as is witnessed by the churches and monasteries dedicated to him in France, Spain, Germany, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, and Great Britain; by the numerous manuscripts in prose and verse commemorating his virtues and miracles; and especially by the vast concourse of pilgrims who from all Europe flocked to his shrine. In 1562, the relics of the saint were secretly transferred to Toulouse to protect them from the Huguenots and the level of pilgrimages declined. The restoration of most of the relics to the abbey of Saint-Gilles-du-Gard in 1862, and the publicized rediscovery of his former tomb there in 1865, helped the pilgrimages recommence. Saint Giles is the patron saint of cripples and is also invoked as a saint for childhood fears, convulsions, depression, particularly in Normandy, for example in Eure Iville, Saint-Germain-Village or Bernay or in Calvados, Gilles Touques. In medieval art, he is depicted with his symbol, the hind. His emblem is also an arrow. Giles is one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, and the only non-martyr, initially invoked as protection against the Black Death. His feast day is 1 September. Besides Saint-Gilles-du-Gard, nineteen other cities bear his name. Cities that possess relics of St. Giles include Saint-Gilles, Toulouse and many other French cities, including Antwerp, Brugge and Tournai in Belgium, Cologne and Bamberg in Germany (known as Egidien), Rome and Bologna in Italy, Prague in the Czech Republic, and Esztergom in Hungary. Giles is also the patron saint of Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, where St. Giles' High Kirk is a prominent landmark. He is also the patron saint of Graz, Nuremberg, Osnabrück, Sankt Gilgen, Brunswick, Wollaberg, Saint-Gilles (Brussels Capital Region) and Saint-Gillis-Waas. In 1630, the church of Sant'Egidio in Trastevere in Rome was dedicated to him, and which since 1968 has housed the lay Community of Sant'Egidio. The centuries-long presence of Crusaders, many of them of French origin, left the name of Saint Giles in some locations in the Middle East. Raymond of St Gilles lent his name to St. Gilles Castle () in Tripoli, Lebanon." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "History.", "Bóbr dam.", "Protections." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Bóbr has a length of (3 in Czech Republic, 276 in Poland, 10th longest Polish river) and a basin area of (44 in Czech Republic and 5,830 in Poland). It originates on a slope of the Rýchory mountains in the southeast of the Krkonoše range. The source is located near the small Bobr village of the Žacléř municipality in the Czech Hradec Králové Region. Parallel to the Lusatian Neisse tributary of the Oder in the west, it flows northwards from the Bohemian region into adjacent Silesia. Shortly after the river crosses the border to Polish Niedamirów and runs northwestwards through the Jelenia Góra valley of the Western Sudetes to the dam of Pilchowice and downhill into the plains of Lower Silesia, passing the towns of Jelenia Góra, Bolesławiec, Szprotawa, and Żagań, where the parallel Kwisa river joins it. The river finally flows into the Oder near the town of Krosno. Non-navigable for its entire length, it is a popular destination for canoeing.", "Since the Middle Ages the lower Bóbr river north of Żagań and the Kwisa confluence marked the border between the historic regions of Silesia in the east and Lower Lusatia to the west. After in 937 King Otto I of Germany had established the Saxon Eastern March on the lands settled by Polabian Slavs, Margrave Gero until 963 subdued the Lusatian lands up to the border with Poland (\"Civitas Schinesghe\"). Upon Gero's death in 965, the river was the designated eastern border of the newly created March of Lusatia in the Holy Roman Empire. The Polish territorial sovereignty was acknowledged to Duke Bolesław I Chrobry by Emperor Otto III at the Congress of Gniezno in 1000. Nevertheless, Bolesław laid claims to the lands west of the Bóbr, which he temporarily acquired by the 1018 Treaty of Bautzen. After Emperor Conrad II had reconquered the territory until 1031, the \"status quo\" was restored. The river became an internal border, when the Luxembourg king John of Bohemia step-by-step vassalized the Piast dukes of Silesia and incorporated their lands with the consent of King Casimir III of Poland by the 1335 Treaty of Trentschin, whereafter both Lusatia in the west and Silesia in the east became Lands of the Bohemian Crown. During the Potsdam Conference in 1945, the Western Allies briefly advocated a Polish-German border along the Oder, Bóbr and Kwisa rivers, but were rejected by Joseph Stalin, who had already committed himself to the Oder-Neisse line.", "The Pilchowice Dam (, German: \"Talsperre Mauer\") was built from 1904 to 1912 in the northern Krkonoše range near Jelenia Góra. Then the largest in Europe, surpassing even the Urft Dam built in 1905, it created a reservoir of about length. The masonry structure was erected on a Gneiss basis according to the Intze Principle. Equipped with Francis turbines manufactured by Voith and Siemens-Schuckert and AEG generators, the hydroelectric plant supplies about 20,000,000 kWh a year, with a power rating of 7,585 kW.", "Parts of the Bóbr river valley is protected area in some form or another, and the river itself originates from the Krkonoše National Park in Czech Republic, close to the border with Poland. Protections in the Bóbr valley area include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Native American settlements.", "Western and Atlantic Railroad.", "Civil War.", "Rebuilding the city.", "20th century.", "Metropolitan area's growth.", "Civil rights movement.", "1996 Summer Olympic Games.", "2000 to present.", "Geography.", "Cityscape.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Arts and theater.", "Music and film.", "Festivals.", "Tourism.", "Sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Government.", "Law enforcement, fire, and EMS services.", "Education.", "Tertiary education.", "Primary and secondary education.", "Media.", "Transportation.", "Tree canopy.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "For thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia, the indigenous Creek people and their ancestors inhabited the area. Standing Peachtree, a Creek village where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the", "In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western and Atlantic Railroad in order to provide a link between the port of Savannah and the Midwest. The initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the \"zero milepost\" was", "By 1860, Atlanta's population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a strategic hub for the distribution of military supplies. In 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. The region surrounding Atlanta was the location of several major army battles, culminating with the Battle of Atlanta", "After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt. The work attracted many new residents. Due to the city's superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta had surpassed Savannah as Georgia's largest city. Beginning in the 1880s, Henry W. Grady, the editor of the \"Atlanta", "During the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta enjoyed a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades' time, Atlanta's population tripled as the city limits expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs. The city's skyline grew taller with the construction of the Equitable, Flatiron, Empire, and Candler buildings. Sweet Auburn emerged as a center of black commerce. The period was also marked by strife and tragedy. Increased racial tensions led to the Atlanta Race Riot of 1906, when whites attacked blacks, leaving at least 27 people dead and over 70 injured, with extensive damage in black neighborhoods. In 1913, Leo Frank, a Jewish-American factory superintendent,", "Atlanta played a vital role in the Allied effort during World War II due to the city's war-related manufacturing companies, railroad network and military bases. The defense industries attracted thousands of new residents and", "African-American veterans returned from World War II seeking full rights in their country and began heightened activism. In exchange for support by that portion of the black community that could vote, in 1948 the mayor ordered the hiring of the first eight African-American police officers in the city. In the 1960s, Atlanta became a major organizing center of the civil rights movement, with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Ralph David Abernathy, and students from Atlanta's historically black colleges and universities playing major roles in the movement's leadership. While Atlanta in the postwar years had relatively minimal racial strife compared to other cities, blacks were limited by discrimination, segregation, and continued disenfranchisement of most voters. In 1961, the city attempted to thwart blockbusting by realtors by erecting road barriers in Cascade Heights, countering the efforts of civic and business leaders to", "Atlanta was selected as the site for the 1996 Summer Olympic Games. Following the announcement, the city government undertook several major construction projects to improve Atlanta's parks, sporting venues, and transportation infrastructure; however, for the first time, none of the $1.7 billion cost of the games was governmentally funded. While the games experienced", "During the 2000s, Atlanta underwent a profound physical, cultural, and demographic transformation. As some of the black middle and upper classes also began to move to the suburbs, a booming economy drew numerous new migrants from other areas of the country, who contributed to changes in the city's demographics. African Americans made up a decreasing portion of the population, from a high of 67% in 1990 to 54% in 2010. From 2000 to 2010, Atlanta gained 22,763 white residents, 5,142 Asian residents, and 3,095 Hispanic residents, while the city's black population decreased by 31,678. Much of the city's demographic change during the decade was driven by young, college-educated professionals: from 2000 to 2009, the three-mile radius surrounding Downtown Atlanta gained 9,722 residents aged 25 to 34 and holding at least a four-year degree, an increase of 61%. This was similar to the tendency in other cities for young, college educated, single or married couples to live in downtown areas. Between the mid-1990s and 2010, stimulated by funding from the HOPE VI program and under leadership of", "Atlanta encompasses, of which is land and is water. The city is situated among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains. At above mean sea level, Atlanta has one of the highest elevations among major cities east of the Mississippi River. Atlanta straddles the Eastern Continental Divide. Rainwater that falls on the south and east side of the divide flows into the Atlantic Ocean, while rainwater on the north and west side of the divide flows into the Gulf of Mexico. Atlanta developed on a ridge south of the Chattahoochee River, which is part of the ACF River Basin. The river borders the far northwestern edge of the city, and much of its natural habitat has been preserved, in part by the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area.", "Most of Atlanta was burned during the Civil War, depleting the city of a large stock of its historic architecture. Yet architecturally, the city had never been traditionally \"southern\" because Atlanta originated as a railroad town, rather than a southern seaport dominated by the planter class, such as Savannah or Charleston. Because of its later development, many of the city's landmarks share architectural characteristics with buildings in the Northeast or Midwest, as they were designed at a time of shared national architectural styles. During the late twentieth century, Atlanta embraced the global trend of modern architecture, especially for commercial and institutional structures. Examples include the State of Georgia Building built in 1966, and the Georgia-Pacific Tower in 1982. Many of the most notable examples from this period we designed by world renowned Atlanta architect John Portman. Most of the buildings that define the", "Atlanta has a humid subtropical climate (\"Cfa\") according to the Köppen classification, with the seasons more or less defined. The winter has a shorter duration, with hot and humid summers and mild winters (in some cases the outbreaks are cold), but susceptible to snowstorms even if in small quantities on several occasions, unlike the rest of the southeastern United States. Winters are mild but variable, with an average of 48 freezing days per year, though temperatures very rarely drop even close to. Warm air from the Gulf of Mexico can bring spring-like highs while strong Arctic air masses can push lows into the teens °F (−7 to −12 °C). July averages, with high temperatures reaching on an average 44 days per year, though readings", "The 2010 United States Census reported that Atlanta had a population of 420,003. The population density was 3,154 per square mile (1232/km). The racial makeup and population of Atlanta was 54.0% Black or African American, 38.4% White, 3.1% Asian and 0.2% Native American. Those from some other race made up 2.2% of the city's population, while those from two or more races made up 2.0%. Hispanics of any race made up 5.2% of the city's population. The median income for a household in the city was $45,171. The per capita income for the city was $35,453. 22.6% percent of the population was living below the poverty line. Atlanta has one of the highest LGBT populations per capita, according to a survey by the Williams Institute, ranking third among major American cities, behind San Francisco and slightly behind Seattle, with 12.8% of the city's total population identifying as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender. In the 2010 Census, Atlanta was recorded as the nation's fourth-largest majority-black city. The New Great Migration has brought an insurgence of African Americans from California and the North to the Atlanta area. It has long been known as a center of African-American political power, education, economic prosperity, and culture, often called a black mecca. Some middle and upper class African-American residents of Atlanta followed an influx of whites to newer housing and public schools in the suburbs in the early 21st century. From 2000 to 2010, the city's black population decreased by 31,678 people, shrinking from 61.4% of the city's population in 2000 to 54.0% in 2010, as the overall population expanded and migrants increased from other areas. At the same time, the white population of Atlanta has", "With a GDP of $385 billion, the Atlanta metropolitan area's economy is the tenth-largest in the country and among the top 20-largest in the world. Corporate operations play a major role in Atlanta's economy, as the city claims the nation's third-largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. It also hosts the global headquarters of corporations like The Coca-Cola Company, The Home Depot, Delta Air Lines, AT&T Mobility, Chick-fil-A, and UPS. Over 75% of Fortune 1000 companies conduct business operations in the city's metro area, and the region hosts offices of over 1,250 multinational corporations. Many corporations are drawn to the city by its educated workforce;, 45% of adults aged 25 or older residing in the city have at least 4-year college degrees, compared to the national average of 28%. Atlanta started as a railroad town, and logistics has been a major component of the city's economy to this day. Atlanta serves as an important rail junction and contains major classification yards for Norfolk Southern and CSX. Since its construction in the 1950s, Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport has served as a key engine of the city's economic growth. Delta Air Lines, the city's largest employer and the metro area's third-largest, operates the world's largest airline hub at Hartsfield-Jackson, and it has helped make it the world's busiest airport, in terms of both passenger traffic and aircraft operations. Partly due to the airport, Atlanta has been also a hub for diplomatic missions;, the city contains 26 consulates general, the seventh-highest concentration of diplomatic missions in the US. Broadcasting is also an important aspect of Atlanta's economy. In the 1980s, media mogul Ted Turner founded the Cable News Network (CNN) and the Turner Broadcasting System (TBS) in the city.", "Atlanta is noted for its Southern culture. This is due to a large population of migrants from other parts of the U.S., in addition to many recent immigrants to the U.S. who have made the metropolitan area their home, establishing Atlanta as the cultural and economic hub of an increasingly multi-cultural metropolitan area. Thus, although traditional Southern culture is part of Atlanta's cultural fabric, it is mostly the backdrop to one of the nation's most cosmopolitan cities. This unique cultural combination reveals itself in the arts district of Midtown, the quirky neighborhoods on the city's eastside, and the multi-ethnic enclaves found along Buford Highway.", "Atlanta is one of few United States cities with permanent, professional, and resident companies in all major performing arts disciplines: opera (Atlanta Opera), ballet (Atlanta Ballet), orchestral music (Atlanta Symphony Orchestra), and theater (the Alliance Theatre). Atlanta attracts many touring Broadway acts, concerts, shows, and exhibitions catering to a variety of interests. Atlanta's performing arts district is concentrated in Midtown Atlanta at the Woodruff Arts Center, which is home to the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and the Alliance Theatre. The city frequently hosts touring Broadway acts, especially at The Fox Theatre, a historic landmark among the highest-grossing theaters of its size. As a national center for the arts, Atlanta is home to significant art museums", "Atlanta has played a major or contributing role in the development of various genres of American music at different points in the city's history. Beginning as early as the 1920s, Atlanta emerged as a center for country music, which was brought to the city by migrants from Appalachia. During the countercultural 1960s, Atlanta hosted the Atlanta International Pop Festival, with the 1969 festival taking place more than a month before Woodstock and featuring many of the same bands. The city was also a", "Atlanta has more festivals than any city in the southeastern United States. Some notable festivals in Atlanta include Shaky Knees Music Festival, Dragon", ", Atlanta is the seventh-most visited city in the United States, with over 35 million visitors per year. Although the most popular attraction among visitors to Atlanta is the Georgia Aquarium, the world's largest indoor aquarium, Atlanta's tourism industry is mostly driven by the city's history museums and outdoor attractions. Atlanta contains a notable number of historical museums and sites, including the Martin Luther King Jr. National Historic Site, which includes the preserved childhood home of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., as well as his", "Sports are an important part of the culture of Atlanta. The city is home to professional franchises for four major team sports: the Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball, the Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association, the Atlanta Falcons of the National Football League, and Atlanta United FC of Major League Soccer. In addition, many of the city's universities participate in collegiate sports. The city also regularly hosts international, professional, and collegiate sporting events. The Braves moved to Atlanta in 1966. Originally established as the Boston Red Stockings in 1871, they are the oldest continually operating professional sports franchise in the United States. The Braves won the World Series in 1995, during an unprecedented run of 14 straight divisional championships from 1991 to 2005. The team plays at Truist Park, having moved from Turner Field for the 2017 season. The new stadium is outside the city limits, located northwest of downtown in the Cumberland/Galleria area of Cobb county. The Atlanta Falcons have played in Atlanta since their inception in 1966. The team play their home games at Mercedes Benz Stadium, having moved from the Georgia Dome in 2017. The Falcons have won the division title six times (1980, 1998, 2004, 2010, 2012, 2016) and the NFC championship twice in 1998 and 2016. However, they have been unsuccessful in both of their Super Bowl trips, losing to the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXIII in 1999 and to the New England Patriots in Super Bowl LI in 2017. In 2019, Atlanta also briefly hosted an Alliance of American Football team, the Atlanta Legends, but the league was suspended during its first season and the team folded. The Atlanta Hawks were founded in 1946 as the Tri-Cities Blackhawks, playing in Moline, Illinois. they moved to Atlanta in 1968 and play their games in State Farm Arena. The city is also home to a Women's National Basketball Association franchise, the Atlanta Dream, who share the stadium with the Hawks. Professional soccer has been played in some form in", "Atlanta's 343 parks, nature preserves, and gardens cover, which amounts to only 5.6% of the city's total acreage, compared to the national average of just over 10%. However, 64% of Atlantans live within a 10-minute walk of a park, a percentage equal to the national average. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land reported that among the park systems of the 50 most populous U.S. cities, Atlanta's park system received a ranking of 31. Piedmont Park, in Midtown, is Atlanta's most iconic green space. The park, which underwent a major renovation and expansion in recent years, attracts visitors from across the region and hosts cultural events throughout the year. Other notable city parks include Centennial Olympic Park, a legacy of the 1996 Summer Olympics that forms the centerpiece of the city's tourist district; Woodruff Park, which anchors the", "Atlanta is governed by a mayor and the Atlanta City Council. The city council consists of 15 representatives—one from each of the city's 12 districts and three at-large positions. The mayor may veto a bill passed by the council, but the council can override the veto with a two-thirds majority. The mayor of Atlanta is Keisha Lance Bottoms, a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot whose first term in office began on January 2, 2018. Every mayor elected since 1973 has been black. In 2001, Shirley Franklin became the first woman to be elected mayor of Atlanta, and the first African-American woman to serve as mayor of a major Southern city. Atlanta city politics suffered from a notorious reputation for corruption during the 1990s administration of Mayor Bill Campbell, who was convicted by a federal jury in 2006 on three counts of tax evasion in connection with gambling", "The city is served by the Atlanta Police Department, which numbers 2,000 officers and oversaw a 40% decrease in the city's crime rate between 2001 and 2009. Specifically, homicide decreased by 57%, rape by 72%, and violent crime overall by 55%. Crime is down across the country, but Atlanta's improvement has occurred at more than twice the national rate. Nevertheless, Forbes ranked Atlanta as the sixth most dangerous city in the United States in 2012. Aggravated assaults, burglaries and robberies were down from 2014. Mexican drug cartels thrive in Atlanta. 145 gangs operate in Atlanta. The Atlanta Fire Rescue Department provides fire protection and first", "", "Due to more than 15 colleges and universities in Atlanta, it is considered one of the nation's largest hubs for higher education. The Georgia Institute of Technology is a prominent public research university in Midtown. It offers highly ranked degree programs in engineering, design, industrial management, the sciences, and architecture. The University of Georgia, chartered in 1785, is one of the top public research universities in the nation with \"Highest Research Activity\" and based about an hour away in Athens, Georgia; however, the Atlanta Center of its Terry College of Business is in the Buckhead area of Atlanta and the university has a metropolitan Atlanta Gwinnett Campus that occupies 60,000 square feet of the Intellicenter. Georgia State University is a major public research university in Downtown Atlanta; it is the largest of the 29 public colleges and universities in the University System of Georgia and", "Fifty-five thousand students are enrolled in 106 schools in Atlanta Public Schools (APS), some of which are operated as charter schools. Atlanta is served by many private schools including, without limitation, Atlanta Jewish Academy, Atlanta International School, The Westminster Schools, Pace Academy,", "The primary network-affiliated television stations in Atlanta are WXIA-TV 11 (NBC), WGCL-TV 46 (CBS), WSB-TV 2 (ABC), and WAGA-TV 5 (Fox). Other major commercial stations include WPXA-TV 14 (Ion), WPCH-TV 17 (Ind.), WUVG-TV 34 (Univision), WUPA 69 (CW), and WATL 36 (MyNetworkTV). WPXA-TV, WUVG-TV, WAGA-TV and WUPA are network O&O's. The Atlanta metropolitan area is served by two public television stations (both PBS member stations), and two public radio stations. WGTV 8 is the flagship station of the statewide Georgia Public Television network, while WPBA", "Atlanta's transportation infrastructure comprises a complex network that includes a heavy rail rapid transit system, a light rail streetcar loop, a multi-county bus system, Amtrak service via the Crescent, multiple freight train lines, an Interstate Highway System, several airports, including the world's busiest, and over of bike paths. Atlanta has a network of freeways that radiate out from the city, and automobiles are the dominant means of transportation in the region. Three major interstate highways converge in Atlanta: I-20 (east-west), I-75 (northwest-southeast), and I-85 (northeast-southwest). The latter two combine in the middle of the city to form the Downtown Connector (I-75/85), which carries more than 340,000 vehicles per day and is one of the most congested segments of interstate highway in the United States. Atlanta is mostly encircled by Interstate 285, a beltway locally known as \"the Perimeter\" that has come to mark the boundary between \"Inside the Perimeter\" (ITP), the city and close-in suburbs, and \"Outside the Perimeter\" (OTP), the outer suburbs and exurbs. The heavy reliance on automobiles for transportation in Atlanta has resulted in traffic, commute, and air pollution rates that rank among the worst in the country. The City of Atlanta has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 15.2 percent of Atlanta households lacked a car, and increased slightly to 16.4 percent in 2016. The national average is 8.7 percent in 2016. Atlanta averaged 1.31 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. The Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) provides public transportation in the form of buses, heavy rail, and a downtown light rail loop. Notwithstanding heavy automotive usage in Atlanta, the city's subway system is the eighth busiest in the country. MARTA rail lines connect key destinations, such as the", "Atlanta has a reputation as a \"city in a forest\" due to an abundance of trees that is rare among major cities. The city's main street is named after a tree, and beyond the Downtown, Midtown, and Buckhead business districts, the skyline gives way to a dense canopy of woods that spreads into the suburbs. The city is home to the Atlanta Dogwood Festival, an annual arts and crafts festival held one weekend during early April, when the native dogwoods are in bloom. The nickname is factually accurate, as vegetation covers 47.9% of the city as of 2017, the highest", "Atlanta has 17 sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI):" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Prehistory and European exploration.", "Founding, Erie Canal, and railroads.", "Rise of heavy industry, decline, urban renewal.", "Geography.", "Cityscape.", "Architecture.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Arts and culture.", "Cuisine.", "Fine and performing arts.", "Music.", "Tourism.", "Sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Law and government.", "Media.", "Education.", "Infrastructure.", "Healthcare.", "Transportation.", "Utilities.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The city of Buffalo received its name from a nearby creek called Buffalo Creek. British military engineer Captain John Montresor made reference to \"Buffalo Creek\" in his 1764 journal, which may be the earliest recorded appearance of the", "", "The first inhabitants of the New York State are believed to have been nomadic Paleo-Indians, who migrated after the disappearance of Pleistocene glaciers during or before 7000 BCE. Around 1000 CE, the Woodland period began, marked by the rise of the Iroquois Confederacy and its tribes throughout the state. During French exploration of the region in 1620, the region was occupied simultaneously by the agrarian Erie people, a tribe outside of the Five Nations of the Iroquois southwest of Buffalo Creek, and the Wenro people or \"Wenrohronon\", an Iroquoian-speaking tribal offshoot of the large Neutral Nation who lived along the inland south shore of Lake Ontario and at the east end of Lake Erie and a bit of its northern shore. For trading, the Neutral people made a living by growing tobacco and hemp to trade with the Iroquois, using animal paths or warpaths to travel and move goods across the state. These paths were later paved, and now function as major roads. Later, during the Beaver Wars of the 1640s-1650s,", "Former slave Joseph \"Black Joe\" Hodges, and Cornelius Winney, a Dutch trader from Albany who arrived in 1789, were early settlers along the mouth of Buffalo Creek. The first white settlers along the creek were prisoners captured during the Revolutionary War. The first resident and landowner of Buffalo with a permanent presence was Captain William Johnston, a white Iroquois interpreter who had been in the area since the days after the Revolutionary War and who the Senecas granted creekside land as a gift of appreciation. His house stood at present-day Washington and Seneca streets. On July 20, 1793, the Holland Land Purchase was completed, containing the land of present-day Buffalo, brokered by Dutch investors from Holland. The Treaty of Big Tree removed Iroquois title to lands west of the Genesee River in 1797. In the fall of 1797, Joseph Ellicott, the architect who helped survey Washington, D.C. with brother Andrew, was appointed as the Chief of Survey for the Holland Land Company. Over the next year, he began to survey the tract of land at the mouth of Buffalo Creek. This was completed in 1803, and the new village boundaries extended from the creekside in the south to present-day Chippewa Street in the north and Carolina Street to the west, which", "At the dawn of the 20th century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated by the Niagara River. The city got the nickname \"The City of Light\" at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. It was also part of the automobile revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow and the Seven Little Buffaloes early in the century. At the same time, an exit of local entrepreneurs and industrial titans brought about a nascent stage that would see the city lose its competitiveness against Pittsburgh, Cleveland and Detroit. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded by an anarchist at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6, 1901. McKinley died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion. The Great Depression of 1929–39 saw severe unemployment, especially among working-class men. The New Deal", "Buffalo is on Lake Erie's eastern end, opposite Fort Erie, Ontario, Canada. It is at the origin of the Niagara River, which flows northward over Niagara Falls and into Lake Ontario. The city is south-southeast from Toronto. Relative to downtown, the city is generally flat with the exception of area surrounding North and High streets, where a hill of 90 feet gradually develops approaching from the south and north. The Southtowns include the Boston Hills, while the Appalachian Mountains sit in the Southern Tier below them. To the north and east, the region maintains a flatter profile descending to Lake Ontario. Various types of shale, limestone and lagerstätten are prevalent in the geographic makeup of Buffalo and surrounding areas, which line the waterbeds within and bordering the city. Although there have not been any recent or significant earthquakes, Buffalo sits atop of the Southern Great Lakes Seismic Zone, which is part of the Great Lakes tectonic zone. Buffalo has four channels that flow through its boundaries: the Niagara River, Buffalo River and Creek, Scajaquada Creek, and the Black Rock Canal, which is adjacent to the Niagara River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of, of which is land and the rest water. The total area is 22.66% water.", "", "Buffalo's architecture is diverse, with a collection of buildings from the 19th and 20th centuries. Most structures and works are still standing, such as the country's largest intact parks system designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux. At the end of the 19th century, the Guaranty Building—constructed by Louis Sullivan—was a prominent example of an early high-rise skyscraper. The Darwin D. Martin House designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and built between 1903 and 1905, is considered to be one of the most important projects from Wright's Prairie School era. The Larkin Administration Building, now demolished, was Frank Lloyd Wright's first commercial commission. The 20th century saw works such as the Art Deco-style Buffalo City Hall and Buffalo Central Terminal, Electric Tower, the Richardson Olmsted Complex, and the Rand Building. Urban renewal from the 1950s–1970s gave way to the construction of the Brutalist-style Buffalo City Court Building and One Seneca Tower—formerly the HSBC Center, the city's tallest building.", "Buffalo has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\" bordering on \"Dfa\"), which is common in the Great Lakes region. Buffalo has snowy winters, but it is rarely the snowiest city in New York state. The Blizzard of 1977 resulted from a combination of high winds and snow accumulated on land and on frozen Lake Erie. Snow does not typically impair the city's operation, but can cause significant damage during the autumn as with the October 2006 storm. In November 2014, the region had a record-breaking storm, producing over of snow; this storm was named \"Snowvember\". Buffalo has the sunniest and driest summers of any major city in the Northeast, but still has enough rain to keep vegetation green and lush. Summers are marked by plentiful sunshine and", "Like most former industrial cities of the Great Lakes region in the United States, Buffalo is recovering from an economic depression from suburbanization and the loss of its industrial base. The city's population peaked in 1950 when it was the 15th largest city in the United States, down from the 8th largest city in America in 1900, and its population has been spreading out to the suburbs every census since then. At the American Community Survey's 2018 estimates, 42.5% of the population was non-Hispanic white, 34.3% African American, 0.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.5% Asian, 0.1% from some other race and 3.3% from two or more races. Approximately 13% of Buffalonians were of Hispanic or Latin American origin. The largest Latin American groups in 2018 were Puerto Ricans (9.7%), Mexicans (0.7%), and Cubans (0.3%). Since 2003, there has been an ever-growing number of Burmese refugees, mostly of the Karen ethnicity, with an estimated 4,665 residing in Buffalo as of 2016. At the 2010 census, the city's population was 50.4% white (45.8% non-Hispanic white alone), 38.6% black or African-American, 0.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.2% Asian, 3.9% from some other race and 3.1% from two or more races, while 10.5% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. The city's median household income was $24,536 and the median family income was $30,614 in 2010. Males had a median income of $30,938 versus $23,982 for females. The city's per capita income was $14,991. Of the population 26.6%, and 23% of families, were below the poverty line. Of the total population, 38.4% of those under the age of 18 and 14% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.", "Per \"Sperling's BestPlaces\" in 2020, nearly 60% of Buffalonians identify with a religion. Overall, Buffalo and Upstate New York are more religious than Downstate New York. Largely a result of British and French colonialism and missionary work, Christianity is the largest religion in Buffalo and Western New York. The largest Christian groups in Buffalo and the surrounding area are the Catholic Church (38.8%) and Baptists (2.9%). Buffalo's Catholic population primarily make up the Latin Church's Diocese of Buffalo. The Catholic Diocese of Buffalo covers Western New York except for the nearby Diocese of Rochester. Its episcopal see is St. Joseph Cathedral. Baptists in the city mainly affiliate with the American Baptist Churches USA, National Baptist Convention, USA, and the National Baptist Convention of America. There is one Cooperative Baptist church within the metropolitan area as of 2020. The third largest Christian group in the city are Lutherans (2.7%), primarily served by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Methodists (2.0%), Presbyterians (1.9%), and Pentecostals (1.2%) were the following largest Christian groups. The", "Buffalo's economic sectors include industrial, light manufacturing, high technology and services. The State of New York, with over 15,000 employees, is the city's largest employer. Other major employers include the United States government, Kaleida Health, M&T Bank (which is headquartered in Buffalo), the University at Buffalo, General Motors, Time Warner Cable and Tops Friendly Markets. Buffalo is home to Rich Products, Canadian brewer Labatt, cheese company Sorrento Lactalis, Delaware North Companies and New Era Cap Company. More recently, the Tesla Gigafactory 2 opened in South Buffalo in summer 2017, as a result of the Buffalo Billion program. The loss of traditional jobs in manufacturing, rapid suburbanization and high labor costs have led to economic decline and made Buffalo one of the poorest U.S. cities with populations of more than", "", "Buffalo's cuisine encompasses a variety of cultural contributions, including Sicilian, Italian, Irish, Jewish, German, Polish, African-American, Greek and American influences. In 2015, the National Geographic Society ranked Buffalo third on their list of \"The World's Top Ten Food Cities\". Locally owned restaurants offer Chinese, German, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai, Mexican, Sicilian, Italian, Arab, Indian, Myanmar, Caribbean, soul food and French cuisine. Buffalo's local pizzerias differ from the thin-crust New York–style pizzerias and deep-dish Chicago-style pizzerias and is locally known for being a midpoint between the two. The Beef on weck sandwich, kielbasa, sponge candy, pastry hearts, pierogi, pizza logs, chicken finger subs and haddock fish fries are", "Buffalo is home to over 50 private and public art galleries, most notably the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, home to a collection of modern and contemporary art, and the Burchfield-Penney Art Center. In 2012, \"AmericanStyle\" ranked Buffalo twenty-fifth in its list of top mid-sized cities for art. It is also home to many independent media and literary arts organizations like Squeaky Wheel Film and Media Arts Center.", "The Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra, which performs at Kleinhans Music Hall, is one of the city's most prominent performing arts institutions. During the 1960s and 1970s, under the musical leadership of Lukas Foss and Michael Tilson Thomas, the Philharmonic collaborated with Grateful Dead and toured with the Boston Pops Orchestra. Buffalo has the roots of many jazz and classical musicians, and it is also the founding city for several mainstream bands and musicians, including Rick James, Billy Sheehan, Cannibal", "Although the region's primary tourism destination is Niagara Falls to the north, Buffalo's tourism relies on historical attractions and outdoor recreation. The city's points of interest include the Edward M. Cotter fireboat, considered the world's oldest active fireboat and is a United States National Historic Landmark, Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens, the Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society, Buffalo Museum of Science, the Buffalo Zoo—the third oldest in the United States—Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park, the Anchor Bar and Darwin D.", "Buffalo and the surrounding region is home to three major leagues professional sports teams. The NHL's Buffalo Sabres and the NLL's Buffalo Bandits both play in KeyBank Center, while the NFL's Buffalo Bills play in suburban Orchard Park, New York, where they have been since 1973. The Bills, established in 1959, played in War Memorial Stadium until 1973, when Rich Stadium, now New Era Field, opened. The city of Buffalo brought home its two major league sports titles when the Bills won the American Football League Championship in both 1964 and 1965. The team competes in the AFC East division. The Bills currently have 10 Division Titles to their name. Since the AFL–NFL merger in 1970, the Bills have won the AFC Championship four times (1990, 1991, 1992, 1993), resulting in four lost Super Bowls (Super Bowl XXV, Super Bowl XXVI, Super Bowl XXVII and Super Bowl XXVIII). The Sabres, established in 1970, played in Buffalo Memorial Auditorium until 1996, when Marine Midland Arena, now KeyBank Center opened. The team plays in the Atlantic Division of the NHL. The team has won one Presidents' Trophy (2006–2007) and three Prince of Wales Trophies (conference championships) (1974–1975, 1979–1980 and 1998–1999). However, unlike the Bills, the Sabres don't have a league championship, having lost the 1975 Stanley Cup to the Philadelphia Flyers and the 1999 Stanley Cup to the", "The Buffalo parks system has over 20 parks with several parks accessible from any part of the city. The Olmsted Park and Parkway System is the hallmark of Buffalo's many green spaces. Three-fourths of city parkland is part of the system, which comprises six major parks, eight connecting parkways, nine circles and seven smaller spaces. Constructed in 1868 by Frederick Law Olmsted and his partner Calvert Vaux, the system was integrated into the city and marks the first attempt in America to lay out a coordinated system of public parks and parkways. The Olmsted-designed portions of the Buffalo park system are listed on the National Register", "At the municipal level, the city of Buffalo has a mayor and a council of nine councilmembers. Buffalo also serves as the seat of Erie County with some of the 11 members of county legislature representing at least a portion of Buffalo. At the state level, there are three states assemblymembers and two state senators representing parts of the city proper. At the federal level, Buffalo is the heart of in the House of Representatives, represented by Democrat Brian Higgins. In a trend common to northern \"Rust Belt\" regions, the Democratic Party has dominated Buffalo's political life for the last half-century. The last time anyone other than a Democrat held the position of Mayor in Buffalo was Chester A. Kowal in 1965. In 1977, Democratic Mayor James D. Griffin was elected as the nominee of two minor parties, the Conservative Party and the Right to Life Party, after he lost the Democratic primary for Mayor to then Deputy State Assembly Speaker Arthur Eve. Griffin switched political allegiances several times during his 16 years as Mayor, generally hewing to socially conservative platforms. Griffin's successor, Democrat Anthony M. Masiello (elected in 1993) continued to campaign on social conservatism, often crossing party lines in his endorsements and alliances. However, in 2005, Democrat Byron Brown was elected the city's first African-American mayor in a landslide (64%–27%) over Republican Kevin Helfer, who ran on a conservative platform. In 2013, the Conservative Party endorsed Brown for a third term because of his pledge to cut taxes. This change in local politics was preceded by a fiscal crisis in 2003 when years of economic decline, a diminishing tax-base and civic mismanagement left the city deep in debt and on the edge of bankruptcy. At New York State Comptroller Alan Hevesi's urging, the state took over the management of Buffalo's finances, appointing the Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority, a New York State public-benefit corporation. Mayor Tony Masiello began conversations about merging the city with the larger Erie County government the following year, but they came to nought. The offices of the Buffalo District, US Army Corps of Engineers are next to the Black Rock Lock in the Erie Canal's Black Rock channel. In addition to maintaining and operating the lock, the District plans, designs, constructs and maintains water resources projects from Toledo, Ohio to Massena, New York. These include the flood-control dam at Mount Morris, New York, oversight of the lower Great Lakes (Lake Erie and Lake Ontario), review and permitting of wetlands construction, and remedial action for hazardous waste sites. Buffalo is also the home of a major office of the National Weather Service (NOAA), which serves all of western and much of central New York State. Buffalo is home to one of the 56 national FBI field offices. The field office covers all of Western New York and parts of the Southern Tier and Central New York. The field office operates several task forces in conjunction with local agencies to help combat issues such as gang violence, terrorism threats and health care fraud. Buffalo is also the location of the chief judge, United States Attorney and administrative offices for the United States District Court for the Western District of New York.", "Buffalo's major newspaper is \"The Buffalo News\". Established in 1880 as the \"Buffalo Evening News\", the newspaper has 181,540 in daily circulation and 266,123 on Sundays. With the radio stations WBEN (later WBEN-AM), WBEN-FM, and television station WBEN-TV, Buffalo's first and for several years only television station, the Buffalo Evening News dominated the local media market until 1977, when the newspaper and the stations were separated. The stations showed their affiliation with the newspaper in their call sign: WBEN. Other newspapers in the Buffalo area include \"The Public\", \"The Challenger Community News\", and \"Buffalo Business First.\"", "Buffalo Public Schools serve most of the city of Buffalo. The city has 78 public schools, including a growing number of charter schools., the total enrollment was 41,089 students with a student-teacher ratio of 13.5 to 1. The graduation rate is up to 52% in 2008, up from 45% in 2007, and 50% in 2006. More than 27% of teachers have a master's degree or higher and the median amount of experience in the field is 15 years. The metropolitan area has 292 schools with 172,854 students. Buffalo's magnet school system attracts students with special interests, such as science, bilingual studies, and Native American studies. Specialized facilities include the Buffalo Elementary School of Technology; the Dr Martin Luther King Jr., Multicultural Institute; the International School; the Dr. Charles R. Drew Science Magnet; BUILD Academy; Leonardo da Vinci High School; PS 32 Bennett Park Montessori; the Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts, BAVPA; the Riverside Institute of Technology; Lafayette High School/Buffalo Academy of Finance; Hutchinson Central Technical High School; Burgard", "", "The city is home to two private healthcare systems, which combined operate eight hospitals and countless clinics in the greater metropolitan area, as well as three public hospitals operated by Erie County and the State of New York. Oishei Children's Hospital opened in November 2017 and is the only long-standing children's hospital in New York. Buffalo General Medical Center and the Gates Vascular Institute", "The Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority (NFTA) operates Buffalo Niagara International Airport, reconstructed in 1997, in the suburb of Cheektowaga. The airport serves Western New York and much of the Finger Lakes and Southern Tier Regions. The Buffalo Metro Rail, also operated by the NFTA, is a long, single line light rail system that extends from Erie Canal Harbor in downtown Buffalo to the University Heights district (specifically, the South Campus of University at Buffalo) in the city's northeastern part. The line's downtown section runs above ground and is", "Buffalo's water system is operated by Veolia Water. To reduce large-scale ice blockage in the Niagara River—with resultant flooding, ice damage to docks and other waterfront structures, as well as blockage of the water intakes for the hydro-electric power plants at Niagara Falls—the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation have jointly operated the Lake Erie-Niagara River", "Buffalo has 15 sister cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Climate.", "Administration.", "History.", "Population.", "Historical population.", "Migrations.", "Sanitary conditions.", "Economy.", "Heritage.", "The palmists place.", "The Botanical Garden.", "The market and the Place du Coq.", "Saint-Sauveur Cathedral.", "Culture.", "Carnival of Cayenne.", "Description and origin.", "Carnival of the streets.", "The masked balls.", "Main sights.", "Transport.", "Cayenne in popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cayenne is located on the banks of the estuary of the Cayenne River on the Atlantic Ocean. The city occupies part of the Cayenne Island. It is located from Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni and from Kourou. Distances to some cities: <br>", "Under the Köppen climate classification, Cayenne has a tropical monsoon climate (\"Am\"). Average high and low temperatures are nearly identical throughout the course of the year averaging about and respectively. Cayenne sees copious precipitation during the year. The city features a very lengthy wet season and a very short dry season. The dry season covers only two months of the year (September and October) while the wet season covers the remainder of the year. Precipitation is seen even during the dry season, a trait commonly seen in places featuring tropical monsoon climates. Cayenne averages roughly of rain each year.", "Cayenne is a commune of the French Republic and as such it is ruled by a mayor and a municipal council. The current mayor is Marie-Laure Phinéra-Horth, a former member of the Guianese Socialist Party who is supported by various left-wing parties. Marie-Laure Phinéra-Horth has been mayor of Cayenne since 2010. She is the daughter of a former president of the General Council of French Guiana, Stéphan Phinéra-Horth, from the Guianese Socialist Party, who ruled the department of French Guiana from 1994 to 1998. As in the rest of France, the small size of the commune of Cayenne (only 23.6 km), which does not cover the entire urban area of Cayenne, has led to the creation of an intercommunal authority which groups Cayenne and 5 suburban communes: the communauté d'agglomération du Centre Littoral (5,087 km). Marie-Laure Phinéra-Horth has been president of the communauté d'agglomération du Centre Littoral since 2014. This intercommunal structure, which levies its own taxes, is the sole authority in charge of refuse collection, water supply and sewage treatment, urban planning, and public transport over the 5,087 km of Cayenne and its suburbs. Until 2015, the commune of Cayenne was divided in six cantons, but these were abolished in 2015 when the department and the region of French Guiana were abolished and replaced by the French Guiana Territorial Collectivity.", "Ignored by Spanish explorers, who found the region too hot and poor to be claimed, the region was not colonized until 1604, when a French settlement was founded. However, it was soon destroyed by the Portuguese, who were determined to enforce the provisions of the Treaty of Tordesillas. French colonists returned in 1643 and founded Cayenne, but they were forced to leave once more following Amerindian attacks. In 1664, France finally succeeded at establishing a permanent settlement at Cayenne. Over the next decade the colony changed hands between the French, Dutch, and English, before being restored to France. It was captured by an Anglo-Portuguese force at the invasion of Cayenne in 1809 and administered from Brazil until 1814, when it was returned to French control. It was used as a French penal colony from 1854 to 1938. The city's population has recently grown dramatically, owing to high levels of immigration (chiefly from the West Indies and Brazil) as well as a high birthrate.", "", "Average population growth of the Cayenne metropolitan area:", "The places of birth of the 121,490 residents in the Cayenne metropolitan area at the 2012 census were the following: These were the countries of birth of the immigrants living in the Cayenne metropolitan area at the 2009 census:", "Health conditions in Cayenne and French Guiana are generally good. The principal illnesses that cause mortality are circulatory, infectious and parasitic diseases, as well as cancer. A branch of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, located in Cayenne, conducts research on tropical and endemic local diseases and is renowned throughout Latin America. Life expectancy averages about 76 years for men and 83 years for women. The main hospital of the city is the Andrée-Rosemon Hospital which opened in 1992.", "Cayenne is an important seaport in South America. The major port of Dégrad des Cannes is on the estuary of the river Mahury, replacing Larivot and the Îles du Salut. Timber, rosewood essence, rum, and gold are exported in small quantities. In the mid-1960s sugarcane and pineapple were planted around the city, and a pineapple cannery and a shrimp-processing plant were later built. A seafront avenue links Cayenne with the suburbs of Chaton and Montabo, where the French Institute of Tropical America and the Pasteur Institute are located. Historic landmarks include the Church of the Holy Saviour and a prefecture on the Place d’Armes. The Félix Eboué International Airport is the only international airport serving Cayenne.", "", "Initially it was a place arranged to ventilate the city after the demolition of the walls in 1810. The place being occupied by herbs, it was therefore called Place de la Savane. Later they planted royal palms of Guisanbourg, and it became the place of the Palmistes. In 1880, a bronze column was erected bearing the bust of the Republic commemorating the taking of the Bastille. Under Governor Gerville-Reache transformed the place into an English garden, with artificial hills, flower beds and ornamental plants. Because of the rains, the place was regularly flooded, which is why Governor Chanel in 1925 bordered it with a network of cemented canals that can still be found today. There is a statue of Félix Éboué, an illustrious Guianan character, in place of the Merlet fountain. Today it is a place of life, meeting Cayenese. In the evening, trailers sell French fries, sandwiches, bamis and (Javanese specialties), local juices and other takeaways.", "In 1786, Louis XVI had a garden that served as a deposit and nursery for various plants and trees from various destinations. Louis Claude Richard, director of the garden was responsible for bringing from India muscadiers, rattans, trees in, feet of cardamom and pepper. During this period, it was called King's Garden. In 1821 a house was built for the botanist. In 1879, he changed his name and became Botanical Garden is a floral park in the city center. It covers an area of three hectares. There is a Gaston Monnerville statue in the center of the garden.", "These two adjoining buildings are located near the old port of Cayenne. As early as 1703, a Place du Port appears on a map of the city of Cayenne, it then becomes Place du Marché in 1842. In 1888, a covered market and a public garden were built there. In 1907 the municipal council led by the mayor Eugène Gobert decides the removal of the garden for the construction of a new covered market, the one that we know today. In 1920 on the site of the old market was inaugurated the war memorial of the First World War surmounted by a rooster, which gave it the current name of the place.", "In 1823, the Reverend Father Nicolas Guiller and Baron Pierre Bernard Milius, administrator of French Guiana decided to replace the old church of Cayenne, the Church of St. Nicholas to the current place Leopold Heder. Work begun in 1825 was completed in 1833. The church was inaugurated in 1861. It is classified as a Historic Monument. The high altar, the pulpit and the confessional of the chapel of the penitentiary of Ilet la Mère were transferred to the cathedral in 1876. In 1933, the Apostolic Prefecture of French Guiana was transformed into a vicariate, the Apostolic Prefect became bishop. The church also changes status and becomes cathedral. It is consecrated as a cathedral on 9 November 1934 by Bishop Gourtay, then the first bishop of Guiana. In 1952, it was enlarged, during the work the workers found an inset lead cassette containing 21 coins, the oldest of which dates from Napoleon I and 20 seals from the time of Charles X. Between 1952 and 1954 to the east on 13 m, the ceiling, the stained glass windows, the floors of the tribune, are replaced. The Saint-Sauveur Cathedral of Cayenne has been recently renovated.", "", "The carnival is one of the major events of the Capital. It takes place between Epiphany in early January and Ash Wednesday in February or March.", "This festival belongs to the Guianan Creole culture. It is originally carnival as practiced in Europe. At the beginning of the colonization, the colonists practiced the carnival, but it was forbidden to the slaves. Braving ban, the slaves practiced the carnival, in the clandestine festivals. They were regaining some freedom, commemorating Africans, fertility and harvest, and making fun of settlers. The fat days close the carnival :", "Groups disguised according to the theme of the year, and around decorated characters, to the rhythm of drums and brass. The preparation of the groups last from the month before the carnival. The groups parade in front of the thousands of spectators who are massed on the sidewalks and the stands arranged for the occasion. The most known groups are: Brazilian bands similar to those at the Rio Carnival are also appreciated for their alluring rhythms and costumes. The Asian community of Cayenne also participates in the changes made by a characteristic touch, with the dragons.", "The night business, called \"Universities\", organizes masked balls during which men come to dance with the Touloulous. Evenings are held on Friday and Saturday nights. This tradition is peculiar to French Guiana, it does not exist anywhere else. Since the 1990s, Tololo parties have been held, where men disguise themselves and play the role of the Touloulous. These evenings are more and more popular and take place several times during the carnival. The carnival dances are mazurka, biguine and piké djouk. It is the Touloulou who invites men to dance, and they can not refuse. Only the Touloulous have the right to dance, if a woman is not disguised, the orchestra stops. The Cayenne Ballroom is called Nana, where the Blues Star band plays.", "Cayenne centres on its main commercial street, the Avenue Général de Gaulle. At the east end of the avenue near the coast is the Place des Palmistes and the Place de Grenoble (also known as the Place Léopold Héder). Most of the official buildings are located in this area: the Hôtel de Ville (the town hall) built by Jesuits in the 1890s, the Post Office, the Préfecture, residence of French Guiana's Préfect, and the Musée Départmental Franconie. To the west of this area lies Fort Cépérou, built in the 17th century, though now mostly in ruins. To the south lie the Place du Coq and Place Victor Schoelcher (named in honour of the anti-slavery activist) and a market. To the south of this compact region is the Village Chinois (known as Chicago), separated from the rest of Cayenne by the Canal Laussat. It has a reputation for being a dangerous area. Other buildings in the city include Cayenne Cathedral, municipal library, the municipal museum and a museum of French Guianese Culture (Musée des Cultures Guyanaise) and a scientific research institute (IRD or Institut de recherche pour le développement, formerly Orstom). The Jardin botanique de Cayenne is the city's botanical garden.", "Cayenne is served by the Cayenne – Félix Eboué Airport, which is located in the neighbouring commune of Matoury. There are two flights a day to Paris (Orly Airport), served by Air France and Air Caraïbes. The flight time from Cayenne to Paris is 8 hours and 10 minutes, and from Paris to Cayenne it is 8 hours and 30 minutes. There are also flights to Fort-de-France, Pointe-à-Pitre, Belém, and Fortaleza. French Guiana's main seaport is the port of Dégrad des Cannes, located on the estuary of the Mahury River, in the commune of Remire-Montjoly, a south-eastern suburb of Cayenne. Almost all of French Guiana's imports and exports pass through the port of Dégrad des Cannes. Built in 1969, it replaced the old harbour of Cayenne which was congested and could not cope with modern traffic.", "The French folk song \"Cayenne\", tells the story of a pimp who shoots a well-to-do client who grossly disrespected a prostitute, and is then convicted and transferred to the infamous penitentiary. In The Hardy Boys #12: \"Footprints Under the Window\", the Hardys' investigations take them to Cayenne. The 1955 film \"We're No Angels\" involves three prisoners who escape from Devil's Island and settle incognito into a family store in Cayenne." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Minor islands.", "Geology.", "Prehistory.", "History.", "Central Sulawesi.", "Population.", "Religion.", "Administration.", "Flora and fauna.", "Mammals.", "Birds.", "Reptiles.", "Amphibians.", "Freshwater fish.", "Freshwater crustaceans and snails.", "Miscellaneous.", "Conservation.", "Environment.", "Parks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The name \"Sulawesi\" possibly comes from the words \"sula\" (\"island\") and \"besi\" (\"iron\") and may refer to the historical export of iron from the rich Lake Matano iron deposits. The name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name \"Celebes\" was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers. While its direct translation is unclear, it may be considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name \"Sulawesi\".", "Sulawesi is the world's eleventh-largest island, covering an area of. The central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island's peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesi's peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and the Boni. These separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, and by Flores and Timor to the south.", "The Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. The Sangihe Islands and Talaud Islands stretch northward from the northeastern tip of Sulawesi, while Buton Island and its neighbours lie off its southeast peninsula, the Togian Islands are in the Gulf of Tomini, and Peleng Island and Banggai Islands form a cluster between Sulawesi and Maluku. All the above-mentioned islands, and many smaller ones are administratively part of Sulawesi's six provinces.", "The island slopes up from the shores of the deep seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic, mountainous interior. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahassa Peninsula, stretching north to the Sangihe Islands. The northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and Karangetang. According to plate reconstructions, the island is believed to have been formed by the collision of terranes from the Asian Plate (forming the west and southwest) and from the Australian Plate (forming the southeast and Banggai), with island arcs previously in the Pacific (forming the north and east peninsulas). Because of its several tectonic origins, various faults scar the land and as a result the island is prone to earthquakes. Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone. Parts of the island were formerly attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin and became separated from these areas by vicariant processes. In the west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c. 45 Mya. In the east, the traditional view of collisions of multiple micro-continental fragments sliced from New Guinea with an active volcanic margin in West Sulawesi at different times since the Early Miocene c. 20 Mya has recently been replaced by the hypothesis that extensional fragmentation has followed a single Miocene collision of West Sulawesi with the Sula Spur, the western end of an ancient folded belt of Variscan origin in the Late Paleozoic.", "Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c. 30,000 BC on the basis of radiocarbon dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. No earlier evidence of human occupation had at that point been found, but the island almost certainly formed part of the land bridge used for the settlement of Australia and New Guinea by at least 40,000 BC. There is no evidence of \"Homo erectus\" having reached Sulawesi; crude stone tools first discovered in 1947 on the right bank of the Walennae River at Berru, Indonesia, which were thought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis of their association with vertebrate fossils, are now thought to date to perhaps 50,000 BC. Following Peter Bellwood's model of a southward migration of Austronesian-speaking farmers (AN), radiocarbon dates from caves in Maros suggest a date in the mid-second millennium BC for the arrival of a group from east Borneo speaking a Proto-South Sulawesi language (PSS). Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sa'dan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested. Subsequent migrations across the mountainous landscape resulted in the geographical isolation of PSS speakers and the evolution of their languages into the eight families of the South Sulawesi language group. If each group can be said to have a homeland, that of the Bugis – today the most numerous group – was around lakes Témpé and Sidénréng in the Walennaé depression. Here for some 2,000 years lived the linguistic group that would become the modern Bugis; the archaic name of this group (which is preserved in other local languages) was Ugiq. Despite the fact that today they are closely linked with the Makasar, the closest linguistic neighbours of the Bugis are the Toraja. Pre-1200 Bugis society was most likely organised into chiefdoms. Some anthropologists have speculated these chiefdoms would have warred and, in times of peace, exchanged women with each other. Further, they have speculated that personal security would have been negligible and head-hunting an established cultural practice. The political economy would have been a mixture of hunting and gathering and swidden or shifting agriculture. Speculative planting of wet rice may have taken place along the margins of the lakes and rivers. In Central Sulawesi, there are over 400 granite megaliths, which various archaeological studies have dated to be from 3000 BC to AD 1300. They vary in size from a few centimetres to around. The original purpose of the megaliths is unknown. About 30 of the megaliths represent human forms. Other megaliths are in form of large pots (\"Kalamba\") and stone plates (\"Tutu'na\"). In October 2014, it was announced that cave paintings in Maros had been dated as being about 40,000 years old. One of a hand was 39,900 years old, which made it \"the oldest hand stencil in the world\". Dr Maxime Aubert, of Griffith University in Queensland, Australia, said that the minimum age for the outli in Pettakere Cave in Maros, and added: \"Next to it is a pig that has a minimum age of 35,400 years old, and this is one of the oldest figurative depictions in the world, if not the oldest one.\" In 11 December 2019, a team of researchers led by Dr. Maxime Aubert announced the discovery of the oldest hunting scenes in prehistoric art in the world which is more than 44,000 years old from the limestone cave of Leang Bulu’ Sipong 4. Archaeologists determined the age of the depiction of hunting a pig and buffalo thanks to the calcite ‘popcorn’, different isotope levels of radioactive uranium and thorium. In March 2020, two small stone 'plaquettes' were found in the Leang Bulu Bettue cave, dated to a time between 26,000 and 14,000 years ago.", "A bronze Amaravathi statue was discovered at Sikendeng, South Sulawesi near Karama river in 1921 which was dated to 2nd-7th century AD by Bosch (1933) In 1975, smal locally made Buddhist statues from 10th-11th century were also discovered in Bontoharu, on the island of Selayar, South Sulawesi. Starting in the 13th century, access to prestige trade goods and to sources of iron started to alter long-standing cultural patterns and to permit ambitious individuals to build larger political units. It is not known why these two ingredients appeared together; one was perhaps the product of the other. In 1367, several identified polities located on the island were mentioned in the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama dated from the Majapahit period. Canto 14 mentioned polities including Gowa, Makassar, Luwu and Banggai. It seems that by the 14th century, polities in the island were connected in an archipelagic maritime trading network, centered in the Majapahit port in East Java. By 1400, a number of nascent agricultural principalities had arisen in the western Cenrana valley, as well as on the south coast and on the west coast near modern Parepare. The first Europeans to visit the island (which they believed to be an archipelago due to its contorted shape) were the Portuguese sailors Simão de Abreu, in 1523, and Gomes de Sequeira (among others) in 1525, sent from the Moluccas in search of gold, which the islands had the reputation of producing. A Portuguese base was installed in Makassar in the first decades of the 16th century, lasting until 1665, when it was taken by the Dutch. The Dutch had arrived in Sulawesi in 1605 and were quickly followed by the English, who established a factory in Makassar. From 1660, the Dutch were at war with Gowa, the major Makassar west coast power. In 1669, Admiral Speelman forced the ruler, Sultan Hasanuddin, to sign the Treaty of Bongaya, which handed control of trade to the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch were aided in their conquest by the Bugis warlord Arung Palakka, ruler of the Bugis kingdom of Bone. The Dutch built a fort at Ujung Pandang, while Arung Palakka became the regional overlord and Bone the dominant kingdom. Political and cultural development seems to have slowed as a result of the status quo. In 1905 the entire island became part of the Dutch state colony of the Netherlands East Indies until Japanese occupation in the Second World War. During the Indonesian National Revolution, the Dutch Captain 'Turk' Westerling led campaigns in which hundreds, maybe thousands died during the South Sulawesi Campaign. Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949, Sulawesi became part of the federal United States of Indonesia, which in 1950 became absorbed into the unitary Republic of Indonesia.", "The Portuguese were rumoured to have a fort in Parigi in 1555. The Kaili were an important group based in the Palu valley and related to the Toraja. Scholars relate that their control swayed under Ternate and Makassar, but this might have been a decision by the Dutch to give their vassals a chance to govern a difficult group. Padbruge commented that in the 1700s Kaili numbers were significant and a highly militant society. In the 1850s a war erupted between the Kaili groups, including the Banawa, in which the Dutch decided to intervene. A complex conflict also involving the Sulu Island pirates and probably Wyndham (a British merchant who commented on being involved in arms dealing to the area in this period and causing a row). In the late 19th century the Sarasins journeyed through the Palu valley as part of a major initiative to bring the Kaili under Dutch rule. Some very surprising and interesting photographs were taken of shamans called Tadulako. Further Christian religious missions entered the area to make one of the most detailed ethnographic studies in the early 20th century. A Swede by the name of Walter Kaudern later studied much of the literature and produced a synthesis. Erskine Downs in the 1950s produced a summary of Kruyts and Andrianis work: \"The religion of the Bare'e-Speaking Toradja of Central Celebes,\" which is invaluable for English-speaking researchers. One of the most recent publications is \"When the bones are left,\" a study of the material culture of central Sulawesi, offering extensive analysis. Also worthy of study are the brilliant works of Monnig Atkinson on the Wana shamans who live in the Mori area.", "The 2000 census population of the provinces of Sulawesi was 14,946,488, about 7.25% of Indonesia's total population. By the 2010 Census the total had reached 17,371,782, and the latest official estimate (for July 2019) is 19,573,800. The largest city is Makassar.", "Islam is the majority religion in Sulawesi. The conversion of the lowlands of the south western peninsula (South Sulawesi) to Islam occurred in the early 17th century. The kingdom of Luwu in the Gulf of Bone was the first to accept Islam in February 1605; the Makassar kingdom of Goa-Talloq, centred on the modern-day city of Makassar, followed suit in September. However, the Gorontalo and the Mongondow peoples of the northern peninsula largely converted to Islam only in the 19th century. Most Muslims are Sunnis. Christians form a substantial minority on the island. According to the demographer Toby Alice Volkman, 17% of Sulawesi's population is Protestant and less than 2% is Roman Catholic. Christians are concentrated on the tip of the northern peninsula around the city of Manado, which is inhabited by the Minahasa, a predominantly Protestant people, and the northernmost Sangir and Talaud Islands. The Toraja people of Tana Toraja in Central Sulawesi have largely converted to Christianity since Indonesia's independence. There are also substantial numbers of Christians around Lake Poso in Central Sulawesi, among the Pamona speaking peoples of Central Sulawesi, and near Mamasa. Though most people identify themselves as Muslims or Christians, they often subscribe to local beliefs and deities as well. It is not uncommon for both groups to make offerings to local gods, goddesses, and spirits. Smaller communities of Buddhists and Hindus are also found on Sulawesi, usually among the Chinese, Balinese and Indian communities.", "The island was administered as one province between 1945 and 1960. Now, it is subdivided into six provinces: Gorontalo, West Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi and North Sulawesi. West Sulawesi is the newest province, established in 2004. The largest cities on the island are the provincial capitals of Makassar, Manado, Palu, Kendari and Gorontalo.", "Sulawesi is part of Wallacea, meaning that it has a mix of both Indomalayan and Australasian species that reached the island by crossing deep-water oceanic barriers. The flora includes one native eucalypt, \"E. deglupta\". There are 8 national parks on the island, of which 4 are mostly marine. The parks with the largest terrestrial area are Bogani Nani Wartabone with 2,871 km and Lore Lindu National Park with 2,290 km. Bunaken National Park, which protects a rich coral ecosystem, has been proposed as an UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Early in the Pleistocene, Sulawesi had a dwarf elephant and a dwarf form of \"Stegodon\", (an elephant relative, \"S. sompoensis\"); later both were replaced by larger forms. A giant suid, \"Celebochoerus\", was also formerly present. It is thought that many of the migrants to Sulawesi arrived via the Philippines, while Sulawesi in turn served as a way station for migrants to Flores. A Pleistocene faunal turnover is recognised, with the competitive displacement of several indigenous tarsiers by more recently arriving ones and by \"Celebochoerus\" by other medium-sized herbivores like the babirusa, anoa and Celebes warty pig. There are 127 known extant native mammalian species in Sulawesi. A large percentage, 62% (79 species) are endemic, meaning that they are found nowhere else in the world. The largest of these are the two species of anoa or dwarf buffalo. Other artiodactyl species inhabiting Sulawesi are the warty pig and the babirusas, which are aberrant pigs. The only native carnivoran is the Sulawesi palm civet (Asian palm and Malayan civets have been introduced). Primates present include a number of nocturnal tarsiers (\"T. fuscus\", Dian's, Gursky's, Jatna's, Wallace's, the Lariang and pygmy tarsiers) as well as diurnal macaques (Heck's, the booted, crested black, Gorontalo, moor, and Tonkean macaques). While most of Sulawesi's mammals are placental and have Asian relatives, several species of cuscus, arboreal marsupials of Australasian origin, are also present (\"Ailurops ursinus\" and \"Strigocuscus celebensis\", which are diurnal and nocturnal, respectively). Sulawesi is home to a large number of endemic rodent genera. Murid rodent genera endemic to Sulawesi and immediately adjacent islands (such as the Togian Islands, Buton Island, and Muna Island) are \"Bunomys\", \"Echiothrix\", \"Margaretamys\", \"Taeromys\" and \"Tateomys\" as well as the single-species genera \"Eropeplus\", \"Hyorhinomys\", \"Melasmothrix\", \"Paucidentomys\", \"Paruromys\", \"Sommeromys\" and the semiaquatic \"Waiomys\". All nine sciurids are from three endemic genera, \"Hyosciurus\", \"Prosciurillus\" and \"Rubrisciurus\". While over 20 bat species are present on Sulawesi, only a portion of these are endemic: \"Rhinolophus tatar\", \"Scotophilus celebensis\" and the megabats \"Acerodon celebensis\", \"Boneia bidens\", \"Dobsonia exoleta\", \"Harpyionycteris celebensis\", \"Neopteryx frosti\", \"Rousettus celebensis\" and \"Styloctenium wallacei\". Several endemic shrews, the Sulawesi shrew, Sulawesi tiny shrew and the Sulawesi white-handed shrew, are found on the island. Sulawesi has no gliding mammals, being situated between Borneo with its colugos and flying squirrels, and Halmahera with its sugar gliders.", "By contrast, Sulawesian bird species tend to be found on other nearby islands as well, such as Borneo; 31% of Sulawesi's birds are found nowhere else. One endemic (also found on small neighboring islands) is the largely ground-dwelling, chicken-sized maleo, a megapode which sometimes uses hot sand close to the island's volcanic vents to incubate its eggs. An international partnership of conservationists, donors, and local people have formed the Alliance for Tompotika Conservation, in an effort to raise awareness and protect the nesting grounds of these birds on the central-eastern arm of the island. Other endemic birds include the flightless snoring rail, the fiery-browed starling, the Sulawesi masked owl, the Sulawesi myna, the satanic nightjar and the grosbeak starling. There are around 350 known bird species in Sulawesi.", "The larger reptiles of Sulawesi are not endemic and include reticulated and Burmese pythons, the Pacific ground boa, king cobras, water monitors, sailfin lizards, saltwater crocodiles and green sea turtles. An extinct giant tortoise, \"Megalochelys atlas\", was formerly present, but disappeared by 840,000 years ago, possibly because of the arrival of humans. Similarly, komodo dragons or similar lizards appear to have inhabited the island, being among its apex predators. The smaller snakes of Sulawesi include nonendemic forms such as the gliding species \"Chrysopelea paradisi\" and endemic forms such as \"Calamaria boesemani\", \"Calamaria muelleri\", \"Calamaria nuchalis\", \"Cyclotyphlops\", \"Enhydris matannensis\", \"Ptyas dipsas\", \"Rabdion grovesi\", \"Tropidolaemus laticinctus\" and \"Typhlops conradi\". Similarly, the smaller lizards of Sulawesi include nonendemic species such as \"Bronchocela jubata\", \"Dibamus novaeguineae\" and \"Gekko smithii\", as well as endemic species such as \"Lipinia infralineolata\" and \"Gekko iskandari\".", "The amphibians of Sulawesi include the endemic frogs \"Hylarana celebensis\", \"H. macrops\", \"H. mocquardi\", \"Ingerophrynus celebensis\", \"Limnonectes arathooni\", \"L. larvaepartus\", \"L. microtympanum\", \"Occidozyga celebensis\", \"O. semipalmata\" and \"O. tompotika\" as well as the endemic \"flying frogs\" \"Rhacophorus edentulus\" and \"R. georgii\".", "Sulawesi is home to more than 70 freshwater fish species, including more than 55 endemics. Among these are the genus \"Nomorhamphus\", a species flock of viviparous halfbeaks containing 12 species that only are found on Sulawesi (others are from the Philippines). In addition to \"Nomorhamphus\", the majority of Sulawesi's freshwater fish species are ricefishes, gobies (\"Glossogobius\" and \"Mugilogobius\") and Telmatherinid sail-fin silversides. The last family is almost entirely restricted to Sulawesi, especially the Malili Lake system, consisting of Matano and Towuti, and the small Lontoa (Wawantoa), Mahalona and Masapi. Another unusual endemic is \"Lagusia micracanthus\" from rivers in South Sulawesi, which is the sole member of its genus and among the smallest grunters. The gudgeon \"Bostrychus microphthalmus\" from the Maros Karst is the only described species of cave-adapted fish from Sulawesi, but an apparently undescribed species from the same region and genus also exists.", "Many species of \"Caridina\" freshwater shrimp and parathelphusid freshwater crabs (\"Migmathelphusa\", \"Nautilothelphusa\", \"Parathelphusa\", \"Sundathelphusa\" and \"Syntripsa\") are endemic to Sulawesi. Several of these species have become very popular in the aquarium hobby, and since most are restricted to a single lake system, they are potentially vulnerable to habitat loss and overexploitation. There are also several endemic cave-adapted shrimp and crabs, especially in the Maros Karst. This includes \"Cancrocaeca xenomorpha\", which has been called the \"most highly cave-adapted species of crab known in the world\". The genus \"Tylomelania\" of freshwater snails is also endemic to Sulawesi, with the majority of the species restricted to Lake Poso and the Malili Lake system.", "The Indonesian coelacanth and the mimic octopus are present in the waters off Sulawesi's coast.", "Sulawesi island was recently the subject of an Ecoregional Conservation Assessment, coordinated by The Nature Conservancy. Detailed reports about the vegetation of the island are available. The assessment produced a detailed and annotated list of 'conservation portfolio' sites. This information was widely distributed to local government agencies and nongovernmental organizations. Detailed conservation priorities have also been outlined in a recent publication. The lowland forests on the island have mostly been removed. Because of the relative geological youth of the island and its dramatic and sharp topography, the lowland areas are naturally limited in their extent. The past decade has seen dramatic conversion of this rare and endangered habitat. The island also possesses one of the largest outcrops of serpentine soil in the world, which support an unusual and large community of specialized plant species. Overall, the flora and fauna of this unique center of global biodiversity is very poorly documented and understood and remains critically threatened. The islands of Pepaya, Mas and Raja islands, located in Sumalata Village - North Gorontalo Regency (about 30 km from Saronde Island), have been named a nature reserve since the Dutch colonial time in 1936. Four of the only seven species of sea turtles can be found in the islands, the world's best turtle habitat. They include penyu hijau (\"Chelonia midas\"), penyu sisik (\"Eretmochelys imbricata\"), penyu tempayan (\"Caretta caretta\") and penyu belimbing (\"Dermochelys coriacea\"). In 2011, the habitat was threatened by human activities such as illegal poaching and fish bombing activities; furthermore, many coral reefs, which represent a source of food for turtles, have been damaged.", "The largest environmental issue in Sulawesi is deforestation. In 2007, scientists found that 80 percent of Sulawesi's forest had been lost or degraded, especially centered in the lowlands and the mangroves. Forests have been felled for logging and large agricultural projects. Loss of forest has resulted in many of Sulawesi's endemic species becoming endangered. In addition, 99 percent of Sulawesi's wetlands have been lost or damaged. Other environmental threats included bushmeat hunting and mining.", "The island of Sulawesi has six national parks and nineteen nature reserves. In addition, Sulawesi has three marine protected areas. Many of Sulawesi's parks are threatened by logging, mining, and deforestation for agriculture." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery.", "Preparation.", "Bonding.", "Physical properties.", "Changes of state.", "Other.", "Applications.", "Welding.", "Portable lighting.", "Plastics and acrylic acid derivatives.", "Niche applications.", "Natural occurrence.", "Reactions.", "Vinylation: hydration, hydrohalogenation, and related reactions.", "Addition to formaldehyde.", "Carbonylation.", "Organometallic chemistry.", "Acid-base reactions.", "Safety and handling." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, who identified it as a \"new carburet of hydrogen\". It was an accidental discovery while attempting to isolate potassium metal. By heating potassium carbonate with carbon at very high temperatures, he produced a residue of what is now known as potassium carbide, (KC), which reacted with water to release the new gas. It was rediscovered in 1860 by French chemist Marcellin Berthelot, who coined the name \"acétylène\". Berthelot's empirical formula for acetylene (CH), as well as the alternative name \"quadricarbure d'hydrogène\" (\"hydrogen quadricarbide\"), were incorrect because chemists at that time used the wrong atomic mass for carbon (6 instead of 12). Berthelot was able to prepare this gas by passing vapours of organic compounds (methanol, ethanol, etc.) through a red-hot tube and collecting the effluent. He also found that acetylene was formed by sparking electricity through mixed cyanogen and hydrogen gases. Berthelot later obtained acetylene directly by passing hydrogen between the poles of a carbon arc. Commercially available acetylene gas may carry the odors from impurities divinyl sulfide and phosphine.", "Since the 1950s, acetylene has mainly been manufactured by the partial combustion of methane. It is a recovered side product in production of ethylene by cracking of hydrocarbons. Approximately 400,000 tonnes were produced by this method in 1983. Its presence in ethylene is usually undesirable because of its explosive character and its ability to poison Ziegler–Natta catalysts. It is selectively hydrogenated into ethylene, usually using Pd–Ag catalysts. Until the 1950s, when oil supplanted coal as the chief source of reduced carbon, acetylene (and the aromatic fraction from coal tar) was the main source of organic chemicals in the chemical industry. It was prepared by the hydrolysis of calcium carbide, a reaction discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in 1862 and still familiar to students: Calcium carbide production requires extremely high temperatures, ~2000 °C, necessitating the use of an electric arc furnace. In the US, this process was an important part of the late-19th century revolution in chemistry enabled by the massive hydroelectric power project at Niagara Falls.", "In terms of valence bond theory, in each carbon atom the 2s orbital hybridizes with one 2p orbital thus forming an sp hybrid. The other two 2p orbitals remain unhybridized. The two ends of the two sp hybrid orbital overlap to form a strong σ valence bond between the carbons, while on each of the other two ends hydrogen atoms attach also by σ bonds. The two unchanged 2p orbitals form a pair of weaker π bonds. Since acetylene is a linear symmetrical molecule, it possesses the D point group.", "", "At atmospheric pressure, acetylene cannot exist as a liquid and does not have a melting point. The triple point on the phase diagram corresponds to the melting point (−80.8 °C) at the minimal pressure at which liquid acetylene can exist (1.27 atm). At temperatures below the triple point, solid acetylene can change directly to the vapour (gas) by sublimation. The sublimation point at atmospheric pressure is −84.0 °C.", "At room temperature, the solubility of acetylene in acetone is 27.9 g per kg. For the same amount of dimethylformamide (DMF), the solubility is 51 g. At 20.26 bar, the solubility increases to 689.0 and 628.0 g for acetone and DMF, respectively. These solvents are used in pressurized gas cylinders.", "", "Approximately 20% of acetylene is supplied by the industrial gases industry for oxyacetylene gas welding and cutting due to the high temperature of the flame. Combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces a flame of over, releasing 11.8 kJ/g. Oxyacetylene is the hottest burning common fuel gas. Acetylene is the third-hottest natural chemical flame after dicyanoacetylene's and cyanogen at. Oxy-acetylene welding was a popular welding process in previous decades. The development and advantages of arc-based welding processes have made oxy-fuel welding nearly extinct for many applications. Acetylene usage for welding has dropped significantly. On the other hand, oxy-acetylene welding \"equipment\" is quite versatile – not only because the torch is preferred for some sorts of iron or steel welding (as in certain artistic applications), but also because it lends itself easily to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating (for annealing or tempering, bending or forming), the loosening of corroded nuts and bolts, and other applications. Bell Canada cable-repair technicians still use portable acetylene-fuelled torch kits as a soldering tool for sealing lead sleeve splices in manholes and in some aerial locations. Oxyacetylene welding may also be used in areas where electricity is not readily accessible. Oxy-acetylene cutting is used in many metal fabrication shops. For use in welding and cutting, the working pressures must be controlled by a regulator, since above, if subjected to a shockwave (caused, for example, by a flashback), acetylene decomposes explosively into hydrogen and carbon.", "Calcium carbide was used to generate acetylene used in the lamps for portable or remote applications. It was used for miners and cavers before the widespread use of incandescent lighting; or many years later low-power/high-lumen LED lighting; and is still used by mining industries in some nations without workplace safety laws. Carbide lamps were also used extensively as headlights in early motor vehicles and as an early light source for lighthouses.", "Except in China, use of acetylene as a chemical feedstock has declined by 70% from 1965 to 2007 owing to cost and environmental considerations. Acetylene can be semihydrogenated to ethylene, providing a feedstock for a variety of polyethylene plastics. Another major application of acetylene, especially in China is its conversion to acrylic acid derivatives. These derivatives form products such as acrylic fibers, glasses, paints, resins, and polymers.", "In 1881, the Russian chemist Mikhail Kucherov described the hydration of acetylene to acetaldehyde using catalysts such as mercury(II) bromide. Before the advent of the Wacker process, this reaction was conducted on an industrial scale. The polymerization of acetylene with Ziegler–Natta catalysts produces polyacetylene films. Polyacetylene, a chain of CH centres with alternating single and double bonds, was one of the first discovered organic semiconductors. Its reaction with iodine produces a highly electrically conducting material. Although such materials are not useful, these discoveries led to the developments of organic semiconductors, as recognized by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2000 to Alan J. Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa. In the early 20th century acetylene was widely used for illumination, including street lighting in some towns. Most early automobiles used carbide lamps before the adoption of electric headlights. In the 1920s, pure acetylene was experimentally used as an inhalation anesthetic. Acetylene is sometimes used for carburization (that is, hardening) of steel when the object is too large to fit into a furnace. Acetylene is used to volatilize carbon in radiocarbon dating. The carbonaceous material in an archeological sample is treated with lithium metal in a small specialized research furnace to form lithium carbide (also known as lithium acetylide). The carbide can then be reacted with water, as usual, to form acetylene gas to feed into a mass spectrometer to measure the isotopic ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12.", "The energy richness of the C≡C triple bond and the rather high solubility of acetylene in water make it a suitable substrate for bacteria, provided an adequate source is available. A number of bacteria living on acetylene have been identified. The enzyme acetylene hydratase catalyzes the hydration of acetylene to give acetaldehyde: Acetylene is a moderately common chemical in the universe, often associated with the atmospheres of gas giants. One curious discovery of acetylene is on Enceladus, a moon of Saturn. Natural acetylene is believed to form from catalytic decomposition of long-chain hydrocarbons at temperatures of and above. Since such temperatures are highly unlikely on such a small distant body, this discovery is potentially suggestive of catalytic reactions within that moon, making it a promising site to search for prebiotic chemistry.", "", "In vinylation reactions, H-X compounds add across the triple bond. Alcohols and phenols add to acetylene to give vinyl ethers. Thiols give vinyl thioethers. Similarly, vinylpyrrolidone and vinylcarbazole are produced industrially by vinylation of 2-pyrrolidone and carbazole. The hydration of acetylene is a vinylation reaction, but the resulting vinyl alcohol isomerizes to acetaldehyde. The reaction is catalyzed by mercury salts. This reaction once was the dominant technology for acetaldehyde production, but it has been displaced by the Wacker process, which affords acetaldehyde by oxidation of ethylene, a cheaper feedstock. A similar situation applies to the conversion of acetylene to the valuable vinyl chloride by hydrochlorination vs the oxychlorination of ethylene.", "Acetylene adds to ketones and aldehydes in the presence of base catalysts. With carbonyl groups to give α-ethynyl alcohols in ethynylation reactions: Formaldehyde gives sequentially propargyl alcohol and butynediol. 1,4-Butynediol is produced industrially in this way from formaldehyde and acetylene.", "Walter Reppe discovered that in the presence of catalysts, acetylene react to give a wide range of industrially significant chemicals. With carbon monoxide, acetylene reacts to give acrylic acid, or acrylic esters, which can be used to produce acrylic glass:", "Acetylene and its derivatives (2-butyne, diphenylacetylene, etc.) form complexes with transition metals. Its bonding to the metal is somewhat similar to that of ethylene complexes. These complexes are intermediates in many catalytic reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to benzene, tetramerization to cyclooctatetraene, and carbonylation to hydroquinone: In the presence of certain transition metals, alkynes undergo alkyne metathesis. Metal acetylides, species of the formula LM-CR, are also common. Copper(I) acetylide and silver acetylide can be formed in aqueous solutions with ease due to a poor solubility equilibrium.", "Acetylene has a p\"K\" of 25, acetylene can be deprotonated by a superbase to form an acetylide: Various organometallic and inorganic reagents are effective.", "Acetylene is not especially toxic, but when generated from calcium carbide, it can contain toxic impurities such as traces of phosphine and arsine, which give it a distinct garlic-like smell. It is also highly flammable, as are most light hydrocarbons, hence its use in welding. Its most singular hazard is associated with its intrinsic instability, especially when it is pressurized: under certain conditions acetylene can react in an exothermic addition-type reaction to form a number of products, typically benzene and/or vinylacetylene, possibly in addition to carbon and hydrogen. Consequently, acetylene, if initiated by intense heat or a shockwave, can decompose explosively if the absolute pressure of the gas exceeds about. Most regulators and pressure gauges on equipment report gauge pressure, and the safe limit for acetylene therefore is 101 kPa, or 15 psig. It is therefore supplied and stored dissolved in acetone or dimethylformamide (DMF), contained in a gas cylinder with a porous filling (Agamassan), which renders it safe to transport and use, given proper handling. Acetylene cylinders should be used in the upright position to avoid withdrawing acetone during use. Information on safe storage of acetylene in upright cylinders is provided by the OSHA, Compressed Gas Association, United States Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), EIGA, and other agencies. Copper catalyses the decomposition of acetylene, and as a result acetylene should not be transported in copper pipes. Cylinders should be stored in an area segregated from oxidizers to avoid exacerbated reaction in case of fire/leakage. Acetylene cylinders should not be stored in confined spaces, enclosed vehicles, garages, and buildings, to avoid unintended leakage leading to explosive atmosphere. In the US, National Electric Code (NEC) requires consideration for hazardous areas including those where acetylene may be released during accidents or leaks. Consideration may include electrical classification and use of listed Group A electrical components in USA. Further information on determining the areas requiring special consideration is in NFPA 497. In Europe, ATEX also requires consideration for hazardous areas where flammable gases may be released during accidents or leaks." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Portuguese colonization.", "Estado Novo.", "Independence.", "21st century.", "Geography.", "Human geography.", "Metropolitan Luanda.", "Districts.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Places of worship.", "Culture.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Railway.", "Airport.", "Port.", "Road transport.", "Public transport.", "Education.", "Higher education.", "Sports.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda on 25 January 1576 as \"São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda\", with one hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. In 1618, the Portuguese built the fortress called \"Fortaleza São Pedro da Barra\", and they subsequently built two more: Fortaleza de São Miguel (1634) and Forte de São Francisco do Penedo (1765-6). Of these, the Fortaleza de São Miguel is the best preserved. Luanda was Portugal's bridgehead from 1627, except during the Dutch rule of Luanda, from 1640 to 1648, as Fort Aardenburgh. The city served as the centre of slave trade to Brazil from circa 1550 to 1836. The slave trade was conducted mostly with the Portuguese colony of Brazil; Brazilian ships were the most numerous in the port of Luanda. This slave trade also involved local merchants and warriors who profited from the trade. During this period, no large scale territorial conquest was intended by the Portuguese; only a few minor settlements were established in the immediate hinterland of Luanda, some on the last stretch of the Kwanza River. In the 17th century, the Imbangala became the main rivals of the Mbundu in supplying slaves to the Luanda market. In the 1750s, between 5,000 and 10,000 slaves were annually sold. By this time, Angola, a Portuguese colony, was in fact like a colony of Brazil, paradoxically another Portuguese colony. A strong degree of Brazilian influence was noted in Luanda until the Independence of Brazil in 1822. In the 19th century, still under Portuguese rule, Luanda experienced a major economic revolution. The slave trade was abolished in 1836, and in 1844, Angola's ports were opened to foreign shipping. By 1850, Luanda was one of the greatest and most developed Portuguese cities in the vast Portuguese Empire outside Continental Portugal, full of trading companies, exporting (together with Benguela) palm and peanut oil, wax, copal, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, and cocoa, among many other products. Maize, tobacco, dried meat, and cassava flour are also produced locally. The Angolan bourgeoisie was born by this time. In 1889, Governor Brito Capelo opened the gates of an aqueduct which supplied the city with water, a formerly scarce resource, laying the foundation for major growth.", "Throughout Portugal's dictatorship, known as the Estado Novo, Luanda grew from a town of 61,208 with 14.6% of those inhabitants being white in 1940, to a wealthy cosmopolitan major city of 475,328 in 1970 with 124,814 Europeans (26.3%) and around 50,000 mixed race inhabitants. Like most of Portuguese Angola, the cosmopolitan city of Luanda was not affected by the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974); economic growth and development in the entire region reached record highs during this period. In 1972, a report called Luanda the \"Paris of Africa\".", "By the time of Angolan independence in 1975, Luanda was a modern city. The majority of its population was African, but it was dominated by a strong minority of white Portuguese origin. After the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon on April 25, 1974, with the advent of independence and the start of the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), most of the white Portuguese Luandans left as refugees, principally for Portugal, with many travelling overland to South Africa. There was an immediate crisis, however, as the local African population lacked the skills and knowledge needed to run the city and maintain its well-developed infrastructure. The large numbers of skilled technicians among the force of Cuban soldiers sent in to support the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) government in the Angolan Civil War were able to make a valuable contribution to restoring and maintaining basic services in the city. In the following years, however, slums called \"musseques\" — which had existed for decades — began to grow out of proportion and stretched several kilometres beyond Luanda's former city limits as a result of the decades-long civil war, and because of the rise of deep social inequalities due to large-scale migration of civil war refugees from other Angolan regions. For decades, Luanda's facilities were not adequately expanded to handle this huge increase in the city's population.", "After 2002, with the end of the civil war and high economic growth rates fuelled by the wealth provided by the increasing oil and diamond production, major reconstruction started. Luanda has also become one of the world's most expensive cities. The central government supposedly allocates funds to all regions of the country, but the capital region receives the bulk of these funds. Since the end of the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002), stability has been widespread in the country, and major reconstruction has been going on since 2002 in those parts of the country that were damaged during the civil war. Luanda has been of major concern because its population had multiplied and had far outgrown the capacity of the city, especially because much of its infrastructure (water, electricity, roads etc.) had become obsolete and degraded. Luanda has been undergoing major road reconstruction in the 21st century, and new highways are planned to improve connections to Cacuaco, Viana, Samba, and the new airport. Major social housing is also being constructed to house those who reside in slums, which dominate the landscape of Luanda. A large Chinese firm has been given a contract to construct the majority of replacement housing in Luanda. The Angolan minister of health recently stated poverty in Angola will be overcome by an increase in jobs and the housing of every citizen.", "", "Luanda is divided into two parts, the \"Baixa de Luanda\" (lower Luanda, the old city) and the \"Cidade Alta\" (upper city or the new part). The \"Baixa de Luanda\" is situated next to the port, and has narrow streets and old colonial buildings. However, new constructions have by now covered large areas beyond these traditional limits, and a number of previously independent nuclei — like Viana — were incorporated into the city.", "Until 2011, the former Luanda Province comprised what now forms five municipalities. In 2011 the Province was enlarged by the addition of two additional municipalities transferred from Bengo Province, namely Icolo e Bengo, and Quiçama. Excluding these additions, the five municipalities comprise Greater Luanda: Two new municipalities have been created within Greater Luanda since 2017: Talatona and Kilamba-Kiaxi", "The city of Luanda is divided in six urban districts: Ingombota, Angola Quiluanje, Maianga, Rangel, Samba and Sambizanga. In Samba and Sambizanga, more high-rise developments are to be built. The capital Luanda is growing constantly - and in addition, increasingly beyond the official city limits and even provincial boundaries. Luanda is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop. It is also the location of most of Angola's educational institutions, including the private Catholic University of Angola and the public University of Agostinho Neto. It is also the home of the colonial Governor's Palace and the Estádio da Cidadela (the \"Citadel Stadium\"), Angola's main stadium, with a total seating capacity of 60,000.", "Luanda has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: \"BSh\"). The climate is warm to hot but surprisingly dry, owing to the cool Benguela Current, which prevents moisture from easily condensing into rain. Frequent fog prevents temperatures from falling at night even during the completely dry months from May to October. Luanda has an annual rainfall of, but the variability is among the highest in the world, with a co-efficient of variation above 40 percent. Observed records since 1858 range from in 1958 to in 1916. The short rainy season in March and April depends on a northerly counter current bringing moisture to the city: it has been shown clearly that weakness in the Benguela Current can increase rainfall about sixfold compared with years when that current is strong.", "The inhabitants of Luanda are primarily members of African ethnic groups, mainly Ambundu, Ovimbundu, and Bakongo. The official and the most widely used language is Portuguese, although several Bantu languages are also used, chiefly Kimbundu, Umbundu, and Kikongo. The population of Luanda has grown dramatically in recent years, due in large part to war-time migration to the city, which is safe compared to the rest of the country. Luanda, however, in 2006 saw an increase in violent crime, particularly in the shanty towns that surround the colonial urban core. There is a sizable minority population of European origin, especially Portuguese (about 260,000), as well as Brazilians. In recent years, mainly since the mid-2000s, immigration from Portugal has increased due to greater opportunities present in Angola's booming economy. There is a sprinkling of immigrants from other African countries as well, including a small expatriate South African community. A small number of people of Luanda are of mixed race — European/Portuguese and native African. Over the last decades, a significant Chinese community has formed, as has a much smaller Vietnamese community.", "Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples:", "As the economic and political center of Angola, Luanda is similarly the epicenter of Angolan culture. The city is home to numerous cultural institutions, including the Sindika Dokolo Foundation. The city hosts the annual Luanda International Jazz Festival, since 2009. The city is home to numerous museums, including: Other monuments in the city include:", "Around one-third of Angolans live in Luanda, 53% of whom live in poverty. Living conditions in Luanda are poor for most of the people, with essential services such as safe drinking water and electricity still in short supply, and severe shortcomings in traffic conditions. On the other hand, luxury constructions for the benefit of the wealthy minority are booming. Luanda is one of the world's most expensive cities for resident foreigners. New import tariffs imposed in March 2014 made Luanda even more expensive. As an example, a half-litre tub of vanilla ice-cream at the supermarket was reported to cost US$31. The higher import tariffs applied to hundreds of items, from garlic to cars. The stated aim was to try to diversify the heavily oil-dependent economy and nurture farming and industry, sectors which have remained weak. These tariffs have caused much hardship in a country where the average salary was US$260 per month in 2010, the latest year for which data was available. However, the average salary in the booming oil industry was over 20 times higher at US$5,400 per month. Manufacturing includes processed foods, beverages, textiles, cement and other building materials, plastic products, metalware, cigarettes, and shoes/clothes. Petroleum (found in nearby off-shore deposits) is refined in the city, although this facility was repeatedly damaged during the Angolan Civil War of 1975–2002. Luanda has an excellent natural harbour; the chief exports are coffee, cotton, sugar, diamonds, iron, and salt. The city also has a thriving building industry, an effect of the nationwide economic boom experienced since 2002, when political stability returned with the end of the civil war. Economic growth is largely supported by oil extraction activities, although great diversification is taking place. Large investment (domestic and international), along with strong economic growth, has dramatically increased construction of all economic sectors in the city of Luanda. In 2007, the first modern shopping mall in Angola was established in the city at Belas Shopping mall.", "", "Luanda is the starting point of the Luanda railway that goes due east to Malanje. The civil war left the railway non-functional, but the railway has been restored up to Dondo and Malanje.", "The main airport of Luanda is Quatro de Fevereiro Airport, which is the largest in the country. Currently, a new international airport, Angola International Airport is under construction southeast of the city, a few kilometres from Viana, which was expected to be opened in 2011. However, as the Angolan government did not continue to make the payments due to the Chinese enterprise in charge of the construction, the firm suspended its work in 2010.", "The Port of Luanda serves as the largest port of Angola and is one of the busiest ports in Africa.. Major expansion of this port is also taking place. In 2014, a new port is being developed at Dande, about 30 km to the north.", "Luanda's roads are in a poor state of repair, but are currently undergoing an extensive reconstruction process by the government in order to relieve traffic congestion in the city. Major road repairs can be found taking place in nearly every neighbourhood, including a major 6-lane highway connected Luanda to Viana.", "Public transit is provided by the suburban services of the Luanda Railway, by the public company TCUL, and by a large fleet of privately owned collective taxis as white-blue painted minibuses called \"Candongueiro\". Candongueiros are usually Toyota Hiace vans, that are built to carry 12 people, although the candongueiros usually carry at least 15 people. They charge from 100 to 200 kwanzas per trip. They are known to disobey traffic rules, for example not stopping at signs and driving over pavements and aisles. In 2019, the Luanda Light Rail network with an estimated cost of US $3 billion was announced to begin construction in 2020.", "International schools:", "Universities:", "In 2013 Luanda together with Namibe, today's Moçâmedes, hosted the 2013 FIRS Men's Roller Hockey World Cup, the first time that a World Cup of roller hockey was held in Africa. The city is home to the Desportivo do Bengo football club.", "", "Luanda is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and definitions.", "Classification, contradictions and difficulties.", "Omnivorous species.", "General.", "Omnivorous mammals.", "Other species." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"omnivore\" derives from the Latin \"omnis\" (all), and \"vora\", from vorare, (to eat or devour), having been coined by the French and later adopted by the English in the 1800s. Traditionally the definition for omnivory was entirely behavioral by means of simply \"including both animal and vegetable tissue in the diet.\" In more recent times, with the advent of advanced technological capabilities in fields like gastroenterology, biologists have formulated a standardized variation of omnivore used for labeling a species' actual ability to obtain energy and nutrients from materials. This has subsequently conditioned two context specific definitions. The taxonomic utility of omnivore's traditional and behavioral definition is limited, since the diet, behavior, and phylogeny of one omnivorous species might be very different from that of another: for instance, an omnivorous pig digging for roots and scavenging for fruit and carrion is taxonomically and ecologically quite distinct from an omnivorous chameleon that eats leaves and insects. The term \"omnivory\" is also not always comprehensive because it does not deal with mineral foods such as salt licks and the consumption of plant and animal material for medical purposes which would not otherwise be consumed (i.e. zoopharmacognosy) within non-omnivores.", "Though Carnivora is a taxon for species classification, no such equivalent exists for omnivores, as omnivores are widespread across multiple taxonomic clades. The Carnivora order does not include all carnivorous species, and not all species within the Carnivora taxon are carnivorous. (The members of Carnivora are formally referred as carnivorans.) It is common to find physiological carnivores consuming materials from plants or physiological herbivores consuming material from animals, e.g. felines eating grass and deer eating birds. From a behavioral aspect, this would make them omnivores, but from the physiological standpoint, this may be due to zoopharmacognosy. Physiologically, animals must be able to obtain both energy and nutrients from plant and animal materials to be considered omnivorous. Thus, such animals are still able to be classified as carnivores and herbivores when they are just obtaining nutrients from materials originating from sources that do not seemingly complement their classification. For instance, it is well documented that animals such as giraffes, camels, and cattle will gnaw on bones, preferably dry bones, for particular minerals and nutrients. Felines, which are usually regarded as obligate carnivores, occasionally eat grass to regurgitate indigestibles (e.g. hair, bones), aid with hemoglobin production, and as a laxative. Occasionally, it is found that animals historically classified as carnivorous may deliberately eat plant material. For example, in 2013, it was considered that American alligators (\"Alligator mississippiensis\") may be physiologically omnivorous once investigations had been conducted on why they occasionally eat fruits. It was suggested that alligators probably ate fruits both accidentally but also deliberately. \"Life-history omnivores\" is a specialized classification given to organisms that change their eating habits during their life cycle. Some species, such as grazing waterfowl like geese, are known to eat mainly animal tissue at one stage of their lives, but plant matter at another. The same is true for many insects, such as beetles in the family Meloidae, which begin by eating animal tissue as larvae, but change to eating plant matter after they mature. Likewise, many mosquito species in early life eat plants or assorted detritus, but as they mature, males continue to eat plant matter and nectar whereas the females (such as those of \"Anopheles\", \"Aedes\" and \"Culex\") also eat blood to reproduce effectively.", "", "Although cases exist of herbivores eating meat and carnivores eating plant matter, the classification \"omnivore\" refers to the adaptation and main food source of the species in general, so these exceptions do not make either individual animals or the species as a whole omnivorous. For the concept of \"omnivore\" to be regarded as a scientific classification, some clear set of measurable and relevant criteria would need to be considered to differentiate between an \"omnivore\" and other categories, e.g. faunivore, folivore, and scavenger. Some researchers argue that evolution of any species from herbivory to carnivory or carnivory to herbivory would be rare except via an intermediate stage of omnivory.", "Various mammals are omnivorous in the wild, such as species of pigs, badgers, bears, coatis, civets, hedgehogs, opossums, skunks, sloths, squirrels, raccoons, chipmunks, mice, and rats. The hominidae, including humans, chimpanzees, and orangutans, are also omnivores. Most bear species are omnivores, but individual diets can range from almost exclusively herbivorous (hypocarnivore) to almost exclusively carnivorous (hypercarnivore), depending on what food sources are available locally and seasonally. Polar bears are classified as carnivores, both taxonomically (they are in the order Carnivora), and behaviorally (they subsist on a largely carnivorous diet). Depending on the species of bear, there is generally a preference for one class of food, as plants and animals are digested differently. Wolf subspecies (including wolves, dogs, dingoes, and coyotes) eat some plant matter, but they have a general preference and are evolutionarily geared towards meat. Also, the maned wolf is a canid whose diet is naturally 50% plant matter. While most mammals may display \"omnivorous\" behavior patterns depending on conditions of supply, culture, season and so on, they will generally prefer a particular class of food, to which their digestive processes are adapted. Like most arboreal species, most squirrels are primarily granivores, subsisting on nuts and seeds. But like virtually all mammals, squirrels avidly consume some animal food when it becomes available. For example, the American eastern gray squirrel has been introduced by humans to parts of Britain, continental Europe and South Africa. Where it flourishes, its effect on populations of nesting birds is often serious, largely because of consumption of eggs and nestlings.", "Various birds are omnivorous, with diets varying from berries and nectar to insects, worms, fish, and small rodents. Examples include cassowaries, chickens, crows and related corvids, kea, rallidae, and rheas. In addition, some lizards, turtles, fish (such as piranhas and catfish), and invertebrates are also omnivorous. Quite often, mainly herbivorous creatures will eagerly eat small quantities of animal food when it becomes available. Although this is trivial most of the time, omnivorous or herbivorous birds, such as sparrows, often will feed their chicks insects while food is most needed for growth. On close inspection it appears that nectar-feeding birds such as sunbirds rely on the ants and other insects that they find in flowers, not for a richer supply of protein, but for essential nutrients such as cobalt/vitamin b12 that are absent from nectar. Similarly, monkeys of many species eat maggoty fruit, sometimes in clear preference to sound fruit. When to refer to such animals as omnivorous, or otherwise, is a question of context and emphasis, rather than of definition." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Marriage and family.", "Exile and return.", "Going into exile.", "Moscow.", "Lusaka and Botswana.", "Swaziland and Nigeria.", "Zimbabwe.", "Role in African politics.", "Economic policies.", "Mbeki and the Internet.", "Global apartheid.", "Controversies.", "Zimbabwe.", "2002 Presidential elections.", "2005 Parliamentary Elections.", "Dialogue between Zanu-PF and MDC.", "Business response.", "Position on Mugabe.", "SADC facilitator of Zimbabwe power-sharing agreement.", "AIDS.", "Electricity crisis.", "Crime.", "2008 Xenophobia attacks.", "Role in procuring the 2010 World Cup.", "Debate with Archbishop Tutu.", "Mbeki, Zuma, and succession.", "Appeal.", "Resignation.", "2009 general election.", "Recognition.", "Honorary degrees.", "Orders and decorations.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born and raised in Mbewuleni, Cape Province, Union of South Africa, Mbeki is one of four children of Epainette and Govan Mbeki. The economist Moeletsi Mbeki is one of his brothers. His father was a stalwart of the African National Congress (ANC) and the South African Communist Party. He is a native Xhosa speaker and his father Govan named him Thabo after his old close friend Thabo Mofutsanyana. His parents were both teachers and activists in a rural area of strength to the African National Congress, and Mbeki describes himself as \"born into the struggle\"; a portrait of Karl Marx sat on the family mantelpiece, and a portrait of Mohandas Gandhi was on the wall. Mbeki attended primary school in Idutywa and Butterworth and acquired a secondary education at Lovedale, Alice. In 1959, he was expelled from school as a result of", "Mbeki, aged 16, had a child with Olive Mpahlwa named Monwabise Kwanda. Monwabise Kwanda disappeared in 1981", "", "After the banning of the ANC, the organisation decided it would be better for Mbeki to go into exile. In 1962, Mbeki and a group of comrades left South Africa disguised as a football team. They travelled in a minibus to Botswana and flew from there to Tanzania, where Mbeki accompanied Kenneth Kaunda, who later became Zambia's post-independence president, to London. Mbeki stayed with Oliver Tambo, who would later be elected the longest serving president of the ANC in the absence of the jailed Rivonia trialists. Mbeki worked part-time with Tambo and Yusuf Dadoo while studying economics at Sussex University in the coastal town of Brighton. At one stage, Mbeki shared a flat with two other students, Mike Yates and Derek Gunby. Together the trio would become firm friends and frequent a local bar when they were not discussing politics and listening to music. It was here that Mbeki developed a deep love for Brecht and Shakespeare and an appreciation of Yeats. He", "Mbeki was finally given permission to undergo a year of military training at the Lenin International School in Moscow. He arrived in Moscow in February 1969 and became a student at the Lenin Institute, which was established exclusively for communists, the exception being non-communist members of liberation movements who could get ideological training at the Institute. Mbeki excelled at the Institute and regularly addressed the Institutes' weekly assembly. While in Moscow, he continued writing articles, documents and speeches for the ANC and its organs. In June 1969, Mbeki was chosen to be secretary of a high-level SACP delegation to the International Conference of Communist and Workers Parties in Moscow.", "Together with Oliver Tambo, Mbeki left London for Lusaka in April 1971 to take up the position of assistant secretary of the ANC's Revolutionary Council (RC). This was the first time in nine years that Mbeki was setting foot on African soil. The aim of the RC at this time was to bridge an ever-widening gap between the ANC in exile and the people back home. In Lusaka, Mbeki was housed in a secret location in Makeni, south-west of the city. Later, Mbeki moved over to work in the ANC's propaganda section. But he continued to attend RC meetings. Four months after his arrival in Lusaka, Mbeki travelled to Beichlingen to deliver a speech on behalf", "In January 1975, just a few months after his marriage to Zanele, Mbeki was sent to Swaziland to assess the possibility of setting up an ANC frontline base in the country. Ostensibly attending a UN conference, Mbeki was accompanied by Max Sisulu. The duo met with Sisulu's sister, Lindiwe Sisulu, who was studying at the University at Swaziland. Lindiwe set up a meeting for the two at the home of S'bu Ndebele, then a librarian at the university. Mbeki and Sisulu held meetings in Swaziland for a week with South Africans studying there to assess the situation. They returned to Lusaka after a week, when their visas had expired. Mbeki reported back to the ANC that the possibility of establishing an ANC base in Swaziland was promising, especially because of its location, as it was close to Johannesburg and Durban. As a result, Mbeki was sent back to Swaziland to recruit soldiers for the organisation's military wing. In Swaziland, Mbeki recruited hundreds of people into the ANC. He also liaised with Buthelezi and the latter's newly formed Inkatha movement, and set up structures within South Africa.", "Mbeki was sent to Salisbury (renamed to Harare in 1980) immediately after Robert Mugabe took office as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980. On 11 August 1980, Tambo and Mbeki met with Mugabe and his advisor, Emmerson Mnangagwa, in Salisbury. The meeting resulted in MK being allowed to move ammunition and cadres through Zimbabwe. Mugabe guaranteed that his government would assist ANC cooperatives in Zimbabwe. Mbeki, preferring to return to Lusaka, decided to hand over the reins in Zimbabwe to Chris Hani, who was to continue the relationship with Mugabe. In July 1981 Joe Gqabi, the ANC representative in Zimbabwe, was assassinated at his home. The relationship between the ANC and the Zimbabwean government came under strain. During the 1980s, Mbeki became a leading figure in the SACP, rising to the party's central committee by the mid-1980s. The SACP was a vital part of the ANC alliance. In February 1982, Mbeki's brother Jama disappeared. He was later presumed dead. In 1985, PW Botha declared a State of Emergency and gave the army and police special powers. In 1986, the South African Army sent a captain in the South African Defence Force (SADF) to kill Mbeki. The plan was to put a bomb in his house in Lusaka, but the assassin was arrested by the Zambian police before he could go through with the plan. In 1985, Mbeki became the ANC's director of the", "Mbeki has been a powerful figure in African politics, positioning South Africa as a regional power broker and promoting the idea that African political conflicts should be solved by Africans. He headed the formation of both the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and the African Union (AU) and has played influential roles in brokering peace deals in Rwanda, Burundi, Ivory Coast and the Democratic Republic of Congo. He has also tried to popularise the concept of an African Renaissance. He sees African dependence on aid and foreign intervention as a major barrier, and sees structures like NEPAD and the AU as part of a process in which Africa solves its own problems without relying on outside assistance. Mbeki has sometimes been characterised as remote and", "The CIA World Factbook says: \"South African economic policy is fiscally conservative, but pragmatic, focusing on targeting inflation and liberalising trade as means to increase job growth and household income.\" Mbeki, as an ANC", "Mbeki appears to have been at ease with the Internet and willing to quote from it. For instance, in a column discussing Hurricane Katrina, he cited Wikipedia, quoted at length a discussion of Katrina's lessons on American inequality from the Native American publication \"Indian Country Today\", and then included excerpts from a David Brooks column in the \"New York Times\" in a", "Mbeki has used his position on the world stage to call for an end to global apartheid, a term he uses to describe the disparity between a small", "", "South Africa's proximity, strong trade links, and similar struggle credentials place South Africa in a unique position to influence politics in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe's hyperinflation since 2000 was a matter of increasing concern to Britain (as the former colonial power) and other donors to that country. High-ranking diplomatic visits to South Africa repeatedly attempted to persuade Mbeki to take a harder line with Robert Mugabe over violent state-sponsored attacks on political opponents and opposition movements, expropriation of white-owned farms by ZANU-PF allied \"war veterans\", sanctioning against the press, and infringements on the independence of the judiciary. Rather than publicly criticising Mugabe's government, Mbeki chose \"quiet diplomacy\" over \"megaphone diplomacy\" – his term for the West's increasingly forthright condemnation of Mugabe's rule. Mbeki is even quoted claiming \"there is no crisis\" in Zimbabwe, despite increased evidence of political violence and murders, hyperinflation, and the influx of political refugees into South Africa. To quote Mbeki:", "Mugabe faced a critical presidential election in 2002. Concerns over the conduct of the election in Zimbabwe prompted debate within the Commonwealth and led to a difficult decision to suspend Zimbabwe from the organisation. Mbeki supported Mugabe during this period. It is thought that Mbeki viewed Mugabe as \"a victim of imperialist meddling and the opposition Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) as a Western stooge.\" The full meeting of the Commonwealth had failed in a consensus to decide on the issue, and they tasked the previous, present (at the time), and future leaders of Commonwealth (respectively President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, John Howard of Australia, and Mbeki of South Africa) to come to a consensus between them over the issue. On 20 March 2002", "In the face of laws restricting public assembly and freedom of the media, restricting campaigning by the MDC for the 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections, President Mbeki was quoted as saying: \"I have no reason to think that anything will happen... that anybody in Zimbabwe will act in a way that will militate against the elections being free and fair. [...] As far as I know, things like an independent electoral commission, access to the public media, the", "Mbeki attempted to restore dialogue between Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe and the opposition Movement for Democratic Change in the face of denials from both parties. A fact-finding mission in 2004 by Congress of South African Trade Unions to Zimbabwe led to their widely publicised deportation back to South Africa which reopened the debate, even within the ANC, as to whether Mbeki's policy of \"quiet diplomacy\" was constructive. On 5 February 2006 Mbeki said in an interview with SABC television that Zimbabwe had missed a chance to resolve its political crisis in 2004 when secret talks to agree on a new constitution ended in failure. He claimed that he saw a copy", "On 10 January 2006, businessman Warren Clewlow, on the board of four of the top-10 listed companies in SA, including Old Mutual, Sasol, Nedbank and Barloworld, said that government should stop its unsuccessful behind-the-scenes attempts to resolve the Zimbabwean crisis and start vociferously condemning what was happening in that country. Clewlow's sentiments reflected the South", "Mbeki was frequently criticised for not exerting pressure on Mugabe to relinquish power, although he chaired meetings in which the Zimbabwean leader's potential departure from power was negotiated. He rejected calls in May 2007 for tough action against Zimbabwe ahead of a visit by British Prime Minister Tony Blair. He said on 29 July 2007 that Zimbabwe elections in March 2008 must be 'free and fair'. An", "At the end of the fourth day of negotiations, South African President and mediator to Zimbabwe, Thabo Mbeki, announced in Harare that Robert Mugabe of ZANU-PF, professor Arthur Mutambara of MDC-M and Morgan Tsvangirai of MDC-T finally signed the power-sharing agreement – \"memorandum of understanding.\" Mbeki stated: \"An agreement has been reached on all items on the agenda... all of them [Mugabe, Tsvangirai, Mutambara] endorsed the document tonight, and signed it. The formal signing will be done on Monday 10 am. The document will be released then. The ceremony will be attended by the SADC and other African regional and continental leaders. The leaders will spend the next few days constituting the inclusive government to be announced on Monday. The leaders will work very hard to mobilise support for the people to recover. We hope the world will assist so that this political agreement succeeds.\" In the signed historic power deal, Mugabe, on 11 September 2008, agreed to surrender day-to-day control of the government, and the deal was also expected to result in a", "Mbeki's views on the causes of AIDS, and in particular the link between HIV and AIDS, and the treatment of AIDS have been widely criticised. In 1995 the International Conference for People Living with HIV and AIDS was held in South Africa, the first time that the annual conference had been held in Africa. At the time Mbeki was Deputy President and in his official capacity acknowledged the seriousness of the epidemic. The South African Ministry of Health announced that some 850,000 people – 2.1% of the total population – were believed to be HIV-positive. In 2000 the Department of Health outlined a five-year plan to combat AIDS, HIV and sexually transmitted infections. A National AIDS Council was established to oversee the implementation of the plan. However, after becoming President, Mbeki changed tack and represented the views of a small minority of eminent scientists who claimed that AIDS was not caused by HIV. These included Nobel Prize winner Kary Mullis, the U.S.A National Academy of Sciences member Peter Duesberg as well as others with varying degrees of prominence. Mbeki found their views compelling, although the overwhelming majority of scientists disagree with them. On 9 July 2000, at the International AIDS Conference in Durban, President Mbeki made a speech that attracted much criticism in that", "In January 2008 the South African government announced that it would introduce electricity rationing. On 25 January 2008 the country's deepening power crisis was such that South Africa's (and the world's) largest gold and platinum mining companies were forced to shut down operations. Eskom (the national power supplier) and the government both apologised for the blackouts and in his next-to-last State of the Nation speech Mbeki devoted nearly three pages to the electricity crisis, repeating the apologies of Eskom and the government. Mbeki blamed the power shortages on increased demand caused by years of economic growth and the provision of electricity to black townships that were not connected in the apartheid era. But Mbeki also admitted the government had failed to heed warnings from Eskom (the earliest 10 years previously) that without new power stations Eskom might not be able to meet demand by 2007. Each year over the preceding 10 years, Eskom had produced annual Integrated Strategic Electricity Plans each setting out scenarios of future investment requirements to cope with projected increased demand, but although projections", "In 2004 President Thabo Mbeki made an attack on commentators who argued that violent crime was out of control in South Africa, calling them white racists who want the country to fail. He alleged that crime was falling and some journalists were distorting reality by depicting black people as \"barbaric savages\" who liked to rape and kill. Annual statistics published in September 2004 showed that most categories of crime were down, but some had challenged the figures' credibility and said that South Africa remained extremely dangerous, especially for women. In a column for the African National Congress website, the president rebuked the doubters. Mr Mbeki did not name journalist Charlene Smith who had championed victims of sexual violence since writing about her own rape, but quoted a recent article in which she said South Africa had the highest rate of rape and referred (apparently sarcastically) to her as an \"internationally recognised expert on sexual violence\". He said: \"She", "In May 2008 a series of riots took place in a number of townships, mainly in Gauteng Province, which left 42 dead, several hundred injured and several thousand displaced. The root cause of the riot was xenophobic attacks on foreigners, mainly Zimbabweans who had fled their country following the collapse of the Zimbabwean economy. The migrants were blamed for high levels of unemployment, housing shortages and crime.", "It was Mbeki's vision and his African renaissance attitude that had undoubtedly brought the successful bid to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Acknowledging Mbeki's contribution, \"Business Day\" newspaper in Johannesburg said in its editorial opinion \"The fact is that it was the former president's vision of an African renaissance, with South Africa leading the charge to prove to the rest of the world that the continent was not destined to disappoint in perpetuity, that resulted in us persisting in", "In 2004 the Archbishop Emeritus of Cape Town, Desmond Tutu, criticised President Mbeki for surrounding himself with \"yes-men\", not doing enough to improve the position of the poor and for promoting economic policies that only benefited a small black elite. He also accused Mbeki and the ANC of suppressing public debate. Mbeki responded that Tutu had never been an ANC member and defended the debates that took place within ANC branches and other public forums. He also asserted his", "In 2005 Mbeki removed Jacob Zuma from his post as Deputy President of South Africa, after Zuma was implicated in a corruption scandal. In October 2005, some supporters of Zuma (who remained deputy president of the ANC) burned t-shirts portraying Mbeki's picture at a protest. In late 2005, Zuma faced new rape charges, which dimmed his political prospects. There was visible split between Zuma's supporters and Mbeki's allies in the ANC. In February 2006, Mbeki told the SABC that he and the ANC had no intention to change the Constitution of the country to permit him a third term in office. He stated, \"By the end of 2009, I will have been in a senior position in government for 15 years. I think that's too long.\" Mbeki, although barred by the Constitution of South Africa from seeking a third term as president of the country, in 2007 entered the race to be President of the ANC (no term limit exists for the position of ANC president), for a third term, in a close battle with Jacob Zuma. He lost this vote against Jacob Zuma on 18 December 2007 at the ANC conference in Polokwane. Zuma went on to be the ANC's presidential candidate in the 2009 general election.", "On 12 September 2008, Pietermaritzburg High Court Judge Chris Nicholson ruled that Zuma's corruption charges were unlawful on procedural grounds, adding there was reason to believe the charges against Zuma had been politically motivated, thereby clearing the way for Zuma to run for president. Mbeki filed affidavit and applied to the Constitutional Court to appeal this ruling: \"It was improper for the court to make such far-reaching'vexatious,", "\"Note: Unless otherwise specified, the terms \"president\" and \"deputy president\" refer to roles in government, whereas \"ANC president\" or \"ANC deputy president\" refer to roles in the ANC political party.\" Having \"made it a point not to contest this decision\" of the ANC NEC that Mbeki was no longer fit to lead South Africa, he formally announced his resignation on 21 September 2008, at 19:30 South African time (17:30 UTC), as a result of the ANC National Executive Committee's decision no longer to support him in parliament. This came a few days after the dismissal of a trial against ANC President Jacob Zuma on charges of corruption due to procedural errors. Allusions were made in the ruling to possible political interference by Mbeki and others in his prosecution. Parliament convened on 22 September and accepted his resignation with effect from 25 September; however, because an MP for the Freedom Front opposition party declared his objection to the resignation, a debate was set to take place the following day. In cases of such a void in the presidency, the constitution regulates the replacement to serve", "The direction of Mbeki's vote in South Africa's 2009 general election was a matter of discussion among press and public alike. Although Mbeki had completely disassociated himself from party politics subsequent to his resignation, many suggested that Congress of the People (COPE), composed in large part of Mbeki loyalists, would secure his mark on the ballot paper. On Election Day,", "", "Mbeki has received many honorary degrees from South African and foreign universities. Mbeki received an honorary doctorate in business administration from the Arthur D Little Institute, Boston, in 1994. In 1995, he received honorary doctorate from the", "During Mbeki's official visit to Britain in 2001, he was made an honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB). The Mayor of Athens, Dora Bakoyannis, awarded Mbeki with the City of Athens Medal of Honour in 2005. During Mbeki's", "Mbeki was awarded the Good Governance Award in 1997 by the US-based Corporate Council on Africa. He received the Newsmaker of the year award from Pretoria News Press Association in 2000 and repeated the honour in 2008, this time under the auspices of media research company Monitoring South Africa. In honour of his commitment to democracy in the new South Africa, Mbeki was awarded the Oliver Tambo/Johnny Makatini Freedom Award in 2000. Mbeki was awarded the Peace and Reconciliation Award at the Gandhi Awards for Reconciliation in Durban in 2003." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Administration.", "Communes and neighborhoods.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Industry.", "Energy.", "Architecture.", "Culture.", "Music.", "Education.", "Places of worship.", "Transport.", "Healthcare.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The area of the city has evidence of settlements since the Palaeolithic era. The fertile lands of the Niger River Valley provided the people with an abundant food supply and early kingdoms in the area grew wealthy as they established trade routes linking across west Africa, the Sahara, and leading to northern Africa and Europe. The early inhabitants traded gold, ivory, kola nuts, and salt. By the 11th century, the Empire of Ghana became the first kingdom to dominate the area. Bamako had become a major market town, and a centre for Islamic scholars, with the establishment of two universities and numerous mosques in medieval times. The Mali Empire grew during the early Middle Ages and replaced Ghana as the dominant kingdom in west Africa, dominating Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, and Mauritania. In the 14th century, the Mali Empire became increasingly wealthy because of the trade of cotton, gold and salt. This was eventually succeeded by the Songhai Empire and in the 16th century Berber invaders from Morocco destroyed what remained of the kingdoms in Mali and trans-Saharan trade was taken over by sailors. By the late 19th century, the French dominated much of western Africa, and in 1883, present-day Mali became part of the colony of French Sudan, and was its capital in 1908. Cotton and rice farming was encouraged through large irrigation projects and a new railroad connected Mali to Dakar on the Atlantic coast. Mali was annexed then into French West Africa, a federation which lasted from 1895 to 1959. Mali gained independence from France in April 1960, and the Republic of Mali was later established. At this time, Bamako had a population of around 160,000. During the 1960s, the country became socialist and Bamako was subject to Soviet investment and influence. However, the economy declined as state enterprises collapsed and unrest was widespread. Eventually, Moussa Traoré led a successful coup and ruled Mali for 23 years. However his rule was characterised by severe droughts and poor government management and problems of food shortages. In the late 1980s the people of Bamako and Mali campaigned for a free-market economy and multiparty democracy. In 1990, the National Congress for Democratic Initiative (\"Congrès National d'Initiative démocratique\", CNID) was set up by the lawyer Mountaga Tall, and the Alliance for Democracy in Mali (\"Alliance pour la démocratie au Mali\", ADEMA) by Abdramane Baba and historian Alpha Oumar Konaré. These with the \"Association des élèves et étudiants du Mali\" (AEEM) and the Association Malienne des Droits de l'Homme (AMDH) aimed to oust Moussa Traoré. Under the old constitution, all labor unions had to belong to one confederation, the National Union of Malian Workers (UNTM). When the leadership of the UNTM broke from the government in 1990, the opposition grew. Groups were driven by paycuts and layoffs in the government sector, and the Malian government acceding to pressure from international donors to privatise large swathes of the economy that had remained in public hands even after the overthrow of the socialist government in 1968. Students, even children, played an increasing role in the protest marches in Bamako, and homes and businesses of those associated with the regime were ransacked by crowds. On 22 March 1991, a large-scale protest march in central Bamako was violently suppressed, with estimates of those killed reaching 300. Four days later, a military coup deposed Traoré. The \"Comité de Transition pour le Salut du Peuple\" was set up, headed by General Amadou Toumani Touré. Alpha Oumar Konari officially became president on 26 April 1992. On 20 November 2015, two gunmen took 170 people hostage in the Radisson Blu hotel. Twenty-one people‚ including three Chinese businessmen were killed in the \"Bamako hotel attack\" along with the two gunmen during the seven-hour siege.", "Bamako is situated on the Niger River floodplain, which hampers development along the riverfront and the Niger's tributaries. Bamako is relatively flat, except to the immediate north where an escarpment is found, being what remains of an extinct volcano. The Presidential Palace and main hospital are located here. Originally, the city developed on the northern side of the river, but as it grew, bridges were developed to connect the north with the south. The first of these was the Pont des Martyrs (2-lane with two pedestrian sections) and the King Fahd Bridge (four-lane with two motorcycle and two pedestrian sections). Additionally, a seasonal causeway between the eastern neighborhoods of Sotuba and Misabugu was inherited from colonial times (alternated traffic on one lane with five crossing sections). The Sotuba Causeway ( \"Chaussée submersible de Sotuba\" in French, and \"Babilikoroni\" in Bamanankan) is typically under water from July to January. A third bridge (1.4 km long, 24 m wide, four-lane with two motorcycle and two pedestrian sections) is being built at the same location to reduce downtown congestion, notably by trucks.", "Under the Köppen climate classification, Bamako features a tropical savanna climate (Köppen \"Aw\"). Located in the Sudano-Sahelian zone, Bamako is very hot on average all year round with the hottest months being between March and May. The mildest months are between November and February. During the dry season, rainfall is scarce: virtually none falls between November and April due to the dominance of the Saharan anticyclone and the dry trade winds. The rainy season occurs in the summer with the peak occurring with a few storms beginning in May, then transitioning to the monsoon from June to October.", "The District of Bamako has been divided into six communes (distinguished by numbers, and not named) since Ordinance No. 78-34/CNLM of 18 August 1978, and amended by a law in February 1982 establishing the new boundaries of Communes III and IV. Each commune is administered by the municipal council and a mayor elected from among its members. The last elections were held on 26 April 2009 and the Alliance for Democracy in Mali hold the majority of representatives for the communes.", "Commune I has a population of 335,407 people (2009) and covers. It is bounded to the north by the rural commune of Djalakorodji (Kati Cercle), west by the Commune II, north-east by the rural commune of Sangarebougou (Kati Cercle), on the east by the rural commune of Gabakourou and south by the Niger River. Nine neighborhoods comprise this commune: Banconi, Boulkassombougou, Djelibougou, Doumanzana Fadjiguila, Sotuba Korofina North, and South Korofina Sikoroni. Commune II has a population of 159,805 people (2009) and covers. It is bounded to the east by the backwater of Korofina at the west foot of the Point G hill, and to the south by Niger River. The municipality has eleven neighborhoods: Niaréla (the oldest), Bagadadji, Medina-Coura, Bozola, Missira, Hippodrome, Quinzambougou, Bakaribougou, TSF, Industrial Area, and Bougouba. The new Cité du Niger island is also located in the Commune II. The area is the most important in the industry sector in Bamako. Commune III has a population of 128,872 people (2009) and covers. It is bounded on the north by the Kati, east by the Boulevard du Peuple, which separates it from the Commune II, south by the portion of the Niger River, between the Pont des Martyrs and the Motel de Bamako, and west by the Farako River and Avenue Cheick Zayed El Mahyan Ben Sultan with the neighborhood of ACI-2000. Commune III is the administrative and commercial center of Bamako. It accommodates in particular the two largest markets in the capital, the Grand Market and Dibida. Twenty neighborhoods make up this commune and the villages of Koulouninko and Sirakorodounfing were attached to the Commune III. Commune IV has a population of 300,085 people (2009) and covers. It is bounded to the east by Commune III, north, west by Kati Cercle and south by the left bank of the Niger River. Commune IV consists of eight neighborhoods: Taliko, Lassa, Sibiribougou, Djikoroni Para, Sébénikoro, Hamdallaye, Lafiabougou and Kalabambougou. Commune V has a population of 414,668 people (2009) and covers. It is bounded to the north by the Niger River, south by the airport and the commune of Kalabancoro, and to the east by the Commune VI and Niger. It consists of eight neighborhoods: Badalabougou, Sema I, Quartier Mali, Torokorobougou, Baco-Djicoroni, Sabalibougou, Daoudabougou and Kalaban-Coura. Commune VI has a population of 470,269 people (2009) and covers. This is the largest of the communes that make up Bamako. It consists of ten neighborhoods: Banankabougou, Djanékéla, Faladié, Magnambougou, Missabougou, Niamakoro, Sénou, Sogoniko, Sokorodji and Yrimadio. Bamako contains the following neighborhoods (quartiers): ACI-2000, Badalabugu, Bajalan I, Bajalan II, Bako Jikoroni, Bagadaji, Bamako Kura, Bankoni, Bolibana, Bozola, Bugudani, Bulkasumbugu, Dar Salam, N'tomikorobougou, Dawdabugu, Dravela, Fajigila, Falaje, Garantigibugu, Jalakoroji, Janekela, Janjigila, Jelibugu, Jikoroni Para, Jumanzana, Hamdallaye, Hippodrome, Kalaban Koro, Kalaban Kura, Korofina, Kuluba, Kulubleni, Lafiabugu, Madina Kura, Magnambugu (Magnambugu Faso Kanu), Misabugu, Misira, Niarela, Ntomikorobugu, Point G, Quartier du Fleuve, Quartier Mali, Quinzanbugu, Sabalibugu I, Sabalibugu II, Safo, Same, Sangarebugu, Saranbugu, Sebeninkoro, Sikoroni, Sirakoro, Senu, Sibiribugu, Sokoniko, Sokoroji, Sotuba, Titibugu, Torokorobugu, TSF-Sans Fil, Wolofobugu, Yirimanjo, Zone Industrielle", "Bamako has experienced a staggering population growth. In 1884, it had only 2,500 inhabitants, 8,000 in 1908, 37,000 in 1945, and 100,000 in 1960. Today, the population is at least 18 times what it was in 1960, with 1,810,366 recorded at the 2009 census, and continues to attract a rural population in search of work. Including illegal squatters and temporary workers, some experts believe the population today is well over 2 million. This uncontrolled growth has caused significant difficulties in terms of traffic, sanitation (including access to safe water), and pollution. Bamako became the crossroads of West Africa and hosts a diverse population, composed of different ethnic groups in Mali, but also from neighboring countries.", "", "The District of Bamako concentrates 70% of industrial activity in the country. The traditional commercial center of Bamako was located to the north of the river, and contained within a triangle bounded by Avenue du Fleuve, Rue Baba Diarra, and Boulevard du Peuple. This area contains the Marché Rose and Street Market. The downtown area is highly congested, polluted, and expensive, and urbanization is sprawling at a rapid pace within a radius of. The largest urbanized area now lies on the southern bank of the Niger River. A modern central business district is rapidly developing immediately west of the downtown area in the ACI-2000 district, taking advantage of a well-designed geometric layout, legacy of the old airport runways and taxiways. A large administrative area is being developed at the junction between ACI-2000 and the King Fadh Bridge, containing most of the state departments (ministries) and administrative services in a central location. Bamako is also the headquarters of many large companies and administrative institutions. Air Mali (formerly Compagnie Aérienne du Mali) has its head office in Bamako. Bamako received much investment by Saudi Arabia for decades which saw a number of important structures being built. In recent years, China has become an important investor in Bamako, developing its infrastructure and facilities. Agriculture is active in Bamako, with the presence of Bozo fisherman, and it is common to see cattle crossing the streets.", "Much of the electricity is generated from the hydroelectric Sélingué Dam. The drinking water supply in Bamako and Kati is also ensured by a pumping station on the Niger River. However, the capacity of to provide drinking water per day is insufficient for the needs estimated at during the hot season between April and June. During this period, frequent water shortages are experienced. A new pumping station was to open in Kabala in 2009.", "The BCEAO Tower at 20 stories is the tallest building in the West African nation. It sits on the north (\"left\") bank of the River Niger in the city centre. The BCEAO Tower is the Malian headquarters of the Central Bank of West African States, which provides development banking and government financial and currency services in several Francophone West African nations. Classified as Neo-Sudanic architecture, it is modeled on the Sudano-Sahelian architecture of the famous mosques of Djenne and Timbuktu. The building is located in the busy Commune III neighbourhood, where \"Avenue Moussa Tavele\" meets the waterside boulevard between the two main Bamako bridges: King Fahd Bridge a block west and Martyrs Bridge three blocks east. Just to the east of the BCEAO complex, a park and formal garden mark where the diagonally running \"Boulevard du Peuple\" reaches the river. By contrast, small market gardens and launching points or river canoes lie along the river front. The Cité Administrative (Administrative City) is a complex of buildings located just west of the northern end of the King Fahd Bridge. The complex was begun in 2003 by then President Konaré with the help of funding from the government of Libya. The Cité Administrative was completed in 2010 and houses many of the offices of the government.", "The National Library of Mali was first created by the Institut Français d'Afrique Noire, an arm of the French colonial government, in 1944. Following Mali's 1960 independence, this library became the Government Library; it would later be renamed again as the National Library of Mali. In 1968, the library was transferred from its initial home in Koulouba to Ouolofobougou, a section of Bamako. The library holds more than 60,000 works, including books, periodicals, audio documents, videos, and software. These materials are available free to the public, though a small subscription fee is required for borrowing privileges. The library also hosts some of the exhibits for African Photography Encounters, a biannual Bamako photography festival. The National Museum of Mali is an archeological and anthropological museum, presenting permanent and temporary exhibits on the prehistory of Mali, as well as the musical instruments, dress, and ritual objects associated with Mali's various ethnic groups. The National Museum began under French rule as the Sudanese Museum, part of the Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (IFAN) under Théodore Monod. It was opened on 14 February 1953, under the direction of Ukrainian archeologist Yuriy. Shumowskyi. Shumovskyi had worked in the museum for nine years, gathering half (nearly 3,000) of today's finds. With the independence of the Republic of Mali in 1960, the Sudanese Museum became the National Museum of Mali, with the new objectives of promoting national unity and celebrating Malian traditional culture. However, lack of financial means and absence of qualified personnel caused some deterioration in the museum's collections. On 30 March 1956, the National Museum moved into a new cemented structure, created by architect Jean-Loup Pivin from traditional Malian designs. Since the 1996 election of former archaeologist Alpha Oumar Konaré to Mali's presidency, the museum's funding has increased considerably, becoming among the best in West Africa. The museum often hosts part of the biannual African Photography Encounters, photography festival held in Bamako since 1994. Also of note is the Muso Kunda Museum, the Bamako Regional Museum, Bamako Zoo, the Bamako Botanical Gardens, the National Conference Center Tower (NCC), the Souvenir Pyramid, the Independence Monument, Al Quoods Monument, the triangular \"Monument de la paix\", the Hamdallaye obelisk, the Modibo Keita Memorial and many other monuments, the Palais de la Culture Amadou Hampaté Ba and the Point G hill, containing caves with rock paintings. In 1988, Bamako was the location of a WHO conference known as the Bamako Initiative that helped reshape health policy of sub-Saharan Africa. The yearly held Budapest-Bamako rally has the endpoint in Bamako, with the Dakar Rally often passing through Bamako.", "A music boom in Bamako took off in the 1990s, when vocalist Salif Keita and singer-guitarist Ali Farka Touré achieved international fame. It attracted a number of tourists, record producers, and aspiring musicians to the city to try to follow in their footsteps. It is common to see musicians in the streets with \"djembes\" and percussion bands playing traditional Bamana rhythms. The range of ethnicities involved in Bamako's music scene are diverse, including singers and instrumentalists from Mali's myriad ethnic groups; the Tuaregs of the Sahara, the Sonrai of Timbuktu, the Malinkes from the border region south of Bamako, the Dogon cliff dwellers, the Wassalous near the Ivory Coast, the Fulas of central Mali etc. Bars and nightclubs have grown rapidly including Mr. Keita's Mofu and Oumou Sangare's Hotel Wassulu which featured Malian and other west African artists. Notable western artists such as Robert Plant, Ry Cooder, Bonnie Raitt, John Lee Hooker, Damon Albarn and the French Basque star Manu Chao have all visited Bamako to jam and record with notable local musicians.", "In 2011, four universities were founded; the University of Social Sciences and Management of Bamako (USSGB), the University of Humanities and Social Sciences of Bamako (ULSHB), the University of Science, Technology and Technologies of Bamako (USTTB) and the University of Legal and Political Sciences of Bamako (USJPB).", "Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Muslim mosques. There are also Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bamako (Catholic Church), Église Chrétienne Évangélique du Mali (Alliance World Fellowship), Assemblies of God.", "The Dakar-Niger Railway links Bamako to Dakar via Kati, Négala, Kita, and Kayes. In 2015, a rail link to San-Pédro in Ivory Coast is proposed. The road network links Bamako to Koulikoro, Kati, Kolokani, Ségou, and Sikasso. The Bamako-Sénou International Airport is from the city and opened to passengers in 1974. Passenger traffic steadily increased in the early 2000s. Government figures revealed 403,380 passengers in 1999, 423,506 in 2003, 486,526 in 2004, and 516,000 in 2005, and is predicted to reach over 900,000 by 2015 under a low (4%) yearly growth-rate scenario. To date this growth rate has been surpassed. Total air traffic the airport increased by 12.4% in 2007 and 14% in 2008. Most of this increase came in passenger transport, with the number of passengers served increasing by 20% in 2007 and 17% in 2008. Twenty-seven airline carriers operated weekly or better at Bamako-Sénou International Airport in the 2007–2008 period. This continued growth was offset by cargo flights' decline of 16.75% in 2007, and 3.93% in 2008. The highest frequency route is on the Bamako-Dakar sector with 29 weekly non-stop connections. Domestic flights also serve Mali's regional capitals Kayes, Mopti, Timbuktu, Sikasso, Gao, and Kidal. Bamako Senou International Airport is managed by Aéroports du Mali (ADM). Its operations are overseen by the Malian Ministry of Equipment and Transports. Much of the transportation is either by the Niger River, or by paved roads linking Bamako to other major urban areas. Navigating the river is possible from Koulikoro to Mopti and Gao. The bush taxi is one of the main modes of transport. Bamako is situated on both sides of the Niger River and two bridges connect the two banks: the Bridge of Martyrs completed in 1960 and renamed in memory of protesters killed in March 1991 by the regime of Moussa Traoré, and the King Fahd Bridge, named after the Saudi Arabian donor. A third bridge project is currently being funded by the People's Republic of China. Located in Sotuba area, it has the objective to decongest traffic in the city.", "The Point G hospital, built between 1906 and 1913, covers. A former military hospital, it became a civilian hospital shortly before the independence of Mali, and is situated on a hill overlooking Bamako. The second hospital of Bamako is the Gabriel Touré Hospital named after a young doctor and humanist Gabriel Touré who was born in 1910 in Ouagadougou and died in 1935 after having been contaminated by a patient with the pneumonic plague. The hospital was established in 1959. The contract for the building of a new hospital in Bamako, to relieve pressure on the other hospital resources was signed on 27 December 2008. Located in the district of Yirimadio, the department will include a pediatric and obstetrics-gynecology facilities, a department of internal medicine, medical imagery facilities and hospital care with 150 beds to support the emergency services and intensive care. This hospital, like many recent developments in Bamako is financed and equipped with Chinese investment.", "Bamako has provided the backdrop or been the subject of books and films such as \"Bamako\", directed by Abderrahmane Sissako. The film depicts a trial taking place in Bamako, amid the daily life that is going on in the city. In the midst of that trial, two sides argue whether the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, or perhaps corruption, are guilty of the current financial state of many poverty-stricken African countries. The film was first released at the Cannes Film Festival on 21 May 2006 and in Manhattan by New Yorker Films on 14 February 2007 and was the recipient of the first Film Award of the Council of Europe given at the Istanbul International Film Festival in April 2007." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Cultural institutions.", "Natural museums.", "Performing arts.", "Visual arts.", "Sports.", "Venues.", "Government.", "Foreign missions on the island.", "Education and research.", "Colleges and universities.", "Research institutions.", "Public primary and secondary schools.", "Private primary and secondary schools.", "Public libraries.", "Weekend educational programs.", "Media.", "Transportation.", "Air.", "Highways.", "Public transport.", "Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation.", "Bus.", "Rail.", "Bicycle sharing.", "Modal characteristics.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century. After Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikīkī in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu. The capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812. In 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor. More foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu. He and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrew's Cathedral, ʻIolani Palace, and Aliʻiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the islands, with descendants of American missionaries establishing major businesses in downtown Honolulu. Despite the turbulent history of the late 19th century and early 20th century, such as the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, Hawaiʻi's subsequent annexation by the United States in 1898, followed by a large fire in 1900, and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Honolulu remained the capital, largest city, and main airport and seaport of the Hawaiian Islands. An economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaiʻi. Modern air travel brings,, 7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, with 62.3% entering at Honolulu International Airport. Today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaiʻi, with thousands of hotel rooms. The UK consulting firm Mercer, in a 2009 assessment \"conducted to help governments and major companies place employees on international assignments\", ranked Honolulu 29th worldwide in quality of living; the survey factored in political stability, personal freedom, sanitation, crime, housing, the natural environment, recreation, banking facilities, availability of consumer goods, education, and public services including transportation.", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the Urban Honolulu Census-designated place (CDP) has a total area of. of it (88.44%) is land, and of it (11.56%) is water. Honolulu is the most remote major city in the world. The closest location on the mainland United States to Honolulu is the Point Arena Lighthouse in California, at. (Nautical vessels require some additional distance to circumnavigate Makapuʻu Point.) However, islands off the Mexican coast, and part of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska are slightly closer to Honolulu than the mainland. The volcanic field of the Honolulu Volcanics is partially located inside the city.", "Honolulu experiences a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen classification \"BSh\"), with a mostly dry summer season, due to a rain shadow effect. Temperatures vary little throughout the months, with average high temperatures of and average lows of throughout the year. Temperatures reach or exceed on an average 38 days annually, with lows in the upper 50s °F (14–15 °C) occurring once or twice a year. The highest recorded temperature was on September 19, 1994 and August 31, 2019. The lowest recorded temperature was on February 16, 1902, and January 20, 1969. With high temperatures and humidity, there is a vast tropical influence on the climate, although rainfall falls short of that classification. The annual average rainfall is, which mainly occurs during the winter months of October through early April, with very little rainfall during the summer. However, both seasons experience a similar number of rainy days. Light showers occur in summer, while heavier rain falls during winter. Honolulu has an average of 278 sunny days and 90 rainy days per year. Although the city is situated in the tropics, hurricanes are quite rare. The last recorded hurricane that hit near Honolulu was Category 4 Hurricane Iniki in 1992. Tornadoes are also uncommon and usually strike once every 15 years. Waterspouts off the coast are also uncommon, hitting about once every five years. Honolulu falls under the USDA 12a Plant Hardiness zone. The average temperature of the sea ranges from in March to in September.", "The population of Honolulu was 390,738 according to the 2010 U.S. Census. Of those, 192,781 (49.3%) were male and 197,957 (50.7%) were female. The median age for males was 40.0 and 43.0 for females; the overall median age was 41.3. Approximately 84.7% of the total population was 16 years and over; 82.6% were 18 years and over, 78.8% were 21 years and over, 21.4% were 62 years and over, and 17.8% were 65 years and over. In terms of race and ethnicity, 54.8% were Asian, 17.9% were White, 1.5% were Black or African American, 0.2% were American Indian or Alaska Native, 8.4% were Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 0.8% were from \"some other race\", and 16.3% were from two or more races. Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 5.4% of the population. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Honolulu's population as 33.9% white and 53.7% Asian and Pacific Islander. Asian Americans represent the majority of Honolulu's population. The Asian ethnic groups are Japanese (19.9%), Filipinos (13.2%), Chinese (10.4%), Koreans (4.3%), Vietnamese (2.0%), Asian Indians (0.3%), Laotians (0.3%), Thais (0.2%), Cambodians (0.1%), and Indonesians (0.1%). People solely of Native Hawaiian ancestry made up 3.2% of the population. Samoan Americans made up 1.5% of the population, Marshallese people make up 0.5% of the city's population, and Tongan people comprise 0.3% of its population. People of Guamanian or Chamorro descent made up 0.2% of the population and numbered 841 residents. Honolulu's urban area was the fourth densest in the United States according to the 2010 U.S. Census.", "The largest city and airport in the Hawaiian Islands, Honolulu acts as a natural gateway to the islands' large tourism industry, which brings millions of visitors and contributes $10 billion annually to the local economy. Honolulu's location in the Pacific also makes it a large business and trading hub, particularly between the East and the West. Other important aspects of the city's economy include military defense, research and development, and manufacturing. Among the companies based in Honolulu are: Hawaiian Airlines, Island Air, and Aloha Air Cargo are headquartered in the city. Prior to its dissolution, Aloha Airlines was headquartered in the city. At one time Mid-Pacific Airlines had its headquarters on the property of Honolulu International Airport. In 2009, Honolulu had a 4.5% increase in the average price of rent, maintaining it in the second most expensive rental market ranking among 210 U.S. metropolitan areas. Since no national bank chains have any branches in Hawaii, many visitors and new residents use different banks. First Hawaiian Bank is the largest and oldest bank in Hawaii and their headquarters are at the First Hawaiian Center, the tallest building in the State of Hawaii.", "", "The Bishop Museum is the largest of Honolulu's museums. It is endowed with the state's largest collection of natural history specimens and the world's largest collection of Hawaiiana and Pacific culture artifacts. The Honolulu Zoo is the main zoological institution in Hawai'i while the Waikīkī Aquarium is a working marine biology laboratory. The Waikīkī Aquarium is partnered with the University of Hawai'i and other universities worldwide. Established for appreciation and botany, Honolulu is home to several gardens: Foster Botanical Garden, Liliʻuokalani Botanical Garden, Walker Estate, among others.", "Established in 1900, the Honolulu Symphony is the second oldest US symphony orchestra west of the Rocky Mountains. Other classical music ensembles include the Hawaii Opera Theatre. Honolulu is also a center for Hawaiian music. The main music venues include the Hawaii Theatre, the Neal Blaisdell Center Concert Hall and Arena, and the Waikīkī Shell. Honolulu also includes several venues for live theater, including the Diamond Head Theatre and Kumu Kahua Theatre.", "Various institutions for the visual arts are located in Honolulu. The Honolulu Museum of Art is endowed with the largest collection of Asian and Western art in Hawaii. It also has the largest collection of Islamic art, housed at the Shangri La estate. Since the merger of the Honolulu Academy of Arts and The Contemporary Museum, Honolulu (now called the Honolulu Museum of Art Spalding House) in 2011, the museum is also the only contemporary art museum in the state. The contemporary collections are housed at main campus (Spalding House) in Makiki and a multi-level gallery in downtown Honolulu at the First Hawaiian Center. The museum hosts a film and video program dedicated to arthouse and world cinema in the museum's Doris Duke Theatre, named for the museum's historic patroness Doris Duke. The Hawaii State Art Museum (also downtown) boasts pieces by local artists as well as traditional Hawaiian art. The museum is administered by the Hawaii State Foundation on Culture and the Arts. Honolulu also annually holds the Hawaii International Film Festival (HIFF). It showcases some of the best films from producers all across the Pacific Rim and is the largest \"East meets West\" style film festival of its sort in the United States.", "Honolulu's tropical climate lends itself to year-round activities. In 2004, \"Men's Fitness\" magazine named Honolulu the fittest city in the United States. Honolulu has three large road races: Ironman Hawaii was first held in Honolulu. It was the first ever Ironman triathlon event and is also the world championship. The Waikiki Roughwater Swim race is held annually off the beach of Waikiki. Founded by Jim Cotton in 1970, the course is and spans from the New Otani Hotel to the Hilton Rainbow Tower. Fans of spectator sports in Honolulu generally support the football, volleyball, basketball, rugby union, rugby league, and baseball programs of the University of Hawaii at Mānoa. High school sporting events, especially football, are especially popular. Honolulu has no professional sports teams. It was the home of the Hawaii Islanders (Pacific Coast League, 1961–87), The Hawaiians (World Football League, 1974–75), Team Hawaii (North American Soccer League, 1977), and the Hawaiian Islanders (af2, 2002–04). The NCAA football Hawaii Bowl is played in Honolulu. Honolulu has also hosted the NFL's annual Pro Bowl each February from 1980 to 2009. After the 2010 and 2015 games were played in Miami Gardens and Glendale, respectively, the Pro Bowl was once again in Honolulu from 2011 to 2014 with 2016 the most recent. From 1993 to 2008, Honolulu hosted Hawaii Winter Baseball, featuring minor league players from Major League Baseball, Nippon Professional Baseball, Korea Baseball Organization, and independent leagues. In 2018, the Honolulu Little League team qualified for that year's Little League World Series tournament. The team went undefeated en route to the United States championship game, where it bested Georgia's Peachtree City American Little League team 3-0. In the world championship game, the team faced off against South Korea's South Seoul Little League team. Hawaii pitcher Ka'olu Holt threw a complete game shutout while striking out 8, and Honolulu Little League - again by a score of 3-0 - secured the victory, capturing the 2018 Little League World Series championship as well as Hawaii's third overall title at the Little League World Series.", "Venues for spectator sports in Honolulu include: Aloha Stadium, a venue for American football and soccer, is located in Halawa near Pearl Harbor, just outside Honolulu.", "Kirk Caldwell was elected mayor of Honolulu County on November 6, 2012, and began serving as the county's 14th mayor on January 2, 2013. The municipal offices of the City and County of Honolulu, including Honolulu Hale, the seat of the city and county, are located in the Capitol District, as are the Hawaii state government buildings. The Capitol District is within the Honolulu census county division (CCD), the urban area commonly regarded as the \"City\" of Honolulu. The Honolulu CCD is located on the southeast coast of Oahu between Makapuu and Halawa. The division boundary follows the Koolau crestline, so Makapuu Beach is in the Ko'olaupoko District. On the west, the division boundary follows Halawa Stream, then crosses Red Hill and runs just west of Aliamanu Crater, so that Aloha Stadium, Pearl Harbor (with the USS Arizona Memorial), and Hickam Air Force Base are actually all located in the island's Ewa CCD. The Hawaii Department of Public Safety operates the Oahu Community Correctional Center, the jail for the island of Oahu, in Honolulu CCD. The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Honolulu. The main Honolulu Post Office is located by the international airport at 3600 Aolele Street. Federal Detention Center, Honolulu, operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, is in the CDP.", "Several countries have consular facilities in Honolulu. They include consulates of Japan, South Korea, Philippines, Federated States of Micronesia, Australia, and the Marshall Islands.", "", "Colleges and universities in Honolulu include Honolulu Community College, Kapiolani Community College, the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, Chaminade University, and Hawaii Pacific University. UH Mānoa houses the main offices of the University of Hawaii System.", "Honolulu is home to three renowned international affairs research institutions. The Pacific Forum, one of the world's leading Asia-Pacific policy research institutes and one of the first organizations in the United States to focus exclusively on Asia, has its main office on Bishop Street in downtown Honolulu. The East–West Center (EWC), an education and research organization established by the U.S. Congress in 1960 to strengthen relations and understanding among the peoples and nations of Asia, the Pacific, and the United States, is headquartered in Mānoa, Honolulu. The Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies (APCSS), a U.S. Department of Defense institute is based in Waikīkī, Honolulu. APCSS addresses regional and global security issues and supports the U.S. Pacific Command by developing and sustaining relationships among security practitioners and national security establishments throughout the region.", "Hawaii Department of Education operates public schools in Honolulu. Public high schools within the CDP area include Wallace Rider Farrington, Kaiser, Kaimuki, Kalani, Moanalua, William McKinley, and Theodore Roosevelt.", "Private schools include Academy of the Pacific, Damien Memorial School, Hawaii Baptist Academy, Iolani School, Lutheran High School of Hawaii, Kamehameha Schools, Maryknoll School, Mid-Pacific Institute, La Pietra, Punahou School, Sacred Hearts Academy, St. Andrew's Priory School, Saint Francis School, Saint Louis School, the Education Laboratory School, Saint Patrick School, Trinity Christian School, and Varsity International School. Hawaii has one of the nation's highest rate of private school attendance.", "Hawaii State Public Library System operates public libraries. The Hawaii State Library in the CDP serves as the main library of the system, while the Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, also in the CDP area, serves handicapped and blind people. Branches in the CDP area include Aiea, Aina Haina, Ewa Beach, Hawaii Kai, Kahuku, Kailua, Kaimuki, Kalihi-Palama, Kaneohe, Kapolei, Liliha, Mānoa, McCully-Moiliili, Mililani, Moanalua, Wahiawa, Waialua, Waianae, Waikīkī-Kapahulu, Waimanalo, and Waipahu.", "The Hawaii Japanese School – Rainbow Gakuen (ハワイレインボー学園 \"Hawai Reinbō Gakuen\"), a supplementary weekend Japanese school, holds its classes in Kaimuki Middle School in Honolulu and has its offices in another building in Honolulu. The school serves overseas Japanese nationals. In addition Honolulu has other weekend programs for the Japanese, Chinese, and Spanish languages.", "Honolulu is served by one daily newspaper (the \"Honolulu Star-Advertiser\"), \"Honolulu Magazine\", several radio stations and television stations, among other media. Local news agency and CNN-affiliate Hawaii News Now broadcasts and is headquartered out of Honolulu. Honolulu and the island of Oahu has also been the location for many film and television projects, including \"Hawaii Five-0\" and \"Lost\".", "", "Located at the western end of the CDP, Daniel K. Inouye International Airport (HNL) is the principal aviation gateway to the state of Hawaii. Kalaeloa Airport is primarily a commuter facility used by unscheduled air taxis, general aviation and transient and locally based military aircraft.", "Honolulu has been ranked as having the nation's worst traffic congestion, beating former record holder Los Angeles. Drivers waste on average over 58 hours per year on congested roadways. The following freeways, part of the Interstate Highway System serve Honolulu: Other major highways that link Honolulu CCD with other parts of the Island of Oahu are: Like most major American cities, the Honolulu metropolitan area experiences heavy traffic congestion during rush hours, especially to and from the western suburbs of Kapolei, Ewa Beach, Aiea, Pearl City, Waipahu, and Mililani. There is a Hawaii Electric Vehicle Demonstration Project (HEVDP).", "", "In November 2010, voters approved a charter amendment to create a public transit authority to oversee the planning, construction, operation and future extensions to Honolulu's future rail system. The Honolulu Authority for Rapid Transportation (HART) currently includes a 10-member board of directors; three members appointed by the mayor, three members selected by the Honolulu City Council, and the city and state transportation directors. The opening of the Honolulu Rail Transit is delayed until approximately 2020, as HART canceled the initial bids for the first nine stations and intends to rebid the work as three packages of three stations each, and allow more time for construction in the hope that increased competition on smaller contracts will drive down costs; initial bids ranged from $294.5 million to $320.8 million, far surpassing HART's budget of $184 million.", "Established by former Mayor Frank F. Fasi as the replacement for the Honolulu Rapid Transit Company (HRT), Honolulu's TheBus system was honored in 1994–1995 and 2000–2001 by the American Public Transportation Association as \"America's Best Transit System\". TheBus operates 107 routes serving Honolulu and most major cities and towns on Oahu. TheBus comprises a fleet of 531 buses, and is run by the non-profit corporation Oahu Transit Services in conjunction with the city Department of Transportation Services., Honolulu was ranked 4th for highest per-capita use of mass transit in the United States. \"Paratransit Options:\" The island also features TheHandi-Van. available for riders who require para transit operations. To be eligible for these parantransit service, individuals must meet the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). TheHandi-Van has a fare of $2.00, available Mondays - Sundays from 4:00 am – 1:00 am. There is a 24 hours per day service but only within 3/4 of a mile of TheBus route 2 and route 40. TheHandi-Van comprises a fleet of 160 buses. Additionally the parantransit branch also run's Human Services Transportation Coordination (HSTCP), which mainly provides transportation for people with disabilities, older adults, and people with limited incomes, assisted by the Committee for Accessible Transportation (CAT). Both organizations work together to provide transportation for elderly and persons with disabilities.", "Currently, there is no urban rail transit system in Honolulu, although electric street railways were operated in Honolulu by the now-defunct Honolulu Rapid Transit Company prior to World War II. Predecessors to the Honolulu Rapid Transit Company were the Honolulu Rapid Transit and Land Company (began 1903) and Hawaiian Tramways (began 1888). The City and County of Honolulu is currently constructing the rail transit line that will connect Honolulu with cities and suburban areas near Pearl Harbor and in the Leeward and West Oahu regions. The Honolulu High-Capacity Transit Corridor Project is aimed at alleviating traffic congestion for West Oahu commuters while being integral in the westward expansion of the metropolitan area. The project, however, has been criticized by opponents of rail for its cost, delays, and potential environmental impacts, but the line is expected to have large ridership.", "Since June 28, 2017, Bikeshare Hawaii administers the bicycle sharing program in O'ahu while Secure Bike Share operates the \"Biki\" system. Most \"Biki\" stations are located between Chinatown/Downtown and Diamond Head, however an expansion in late 2018 added more stations towards the University of Hawai'i Manoa Campus, Kapi'olani Community College, Makiki, and Kalihi area. The GoBiki.org website has a \"Biki\" stations map.", "According to the 2016 American Community Survey (five-year average), 56 percent of Urban Honolulu residents commuted to work by driving alone, 13.8 percent carpooled, 11.7 used public transportation, and 8.7 percent walked. About 5.7 commuted by bike, taxi, motorcycle or other forms of transportation, while 4.1 percent worked at home. The city of Honolulu has a high percentage of households without a motor vehicle. In 2015, 16.6 percent of Honolulu households lacked a car, which increased slightly to 17.2 percent in 2016 – in comparison, the United States national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Honolulu averaged 1.4 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.", "Honolulu currently has 33 sister cities: Domestic International" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "First settlements.", "Japanese rule.", "Post-war.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Air quality.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Tourism.", "Commemorative sites and museums.", "Taipei 101.", "Performing arts.", "Shopping and recreation.", "Temples.", "Festivals and events.", "Government.", "Garbage recycling.", "Administrative divisions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The spelling Taipei derives from the Wade–Giles romanization \"Tʻai2-pei3\" which means \"the North of Taiwan\" in Chinese. The name could be also romanized as \"Táiběi\" according to Hanyu Pinyin and Tongyong Pinyin. The Empire of Japan acquired Taiwan in 1895 under the Treaty of Shimonoseki after the First Sino-Japanese War. Taiwan became a colony of Imperial Japan with Taihoku (formerly Taipeh-fu) as its capital. The city has also been known as Tai-pak (derived from Taiwanese Hokkien) and Taipeh.", "Prior to the significant influx of Han Chinese immigrants, the region of Taipei Basin was mainly inhabited by the Ketagalan plains aborigines. The number of Han immigrants gradually increased in the early 18th century under Qing Dynasty rule after the government began permitting development in the area. In 1875, the northern part of the island was incorporated into the new Taipeh Prefecture. The Qing dynasty of China made Taipeh-fu the temporary capital of the island in 1887 when it was declared a province (Fukien-Taiwan Province). Taipeh was formally made the provincial capital in 1894. Taipei was renamed to Taihoku in 1895 when the Empire of Japan annexed Taiwan. Under Japanese rule, the city was administered under Taihoku Prefecture. Taiwan's Japanese rulers embarked on an extensive program of advanced urban planning that featured extensive railroad links. A number of Taipei landmarks and cultural institutions date from this period. Following the surrender of Japan to Allies during 1945, effective control of Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China (ROC). After losing mainland China to the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War, the ruling Kuomintang relocated the ROC government to Taiwan and declared Taipei the provisional capital of the ROC in December 1949. Taiwan's Kuomintang rulers regarded the city as the capital of Taiwan Province and their control as mandated by General Order No. 1. In 1990 Taipei provided the backdrop for the Wild Lily student rallies that moved Taiwanese society from one-party rule to multi-party democracy by 1996. The city has ever since served as the seat of Taiwan's democratically elected national government.", "The region known as the Taipei Basin was home to Ketagalan tribes before the eighteenth century. Han Chinese mainly from Anxi and Tong'an of Southern Fujian as well as smaller groups of Hakkas of Qing dynasty China began to settle in the Taipei Basin in 1709. In the late 19th century, the Taipei area, where the major Han Chinese settlements in northern Taiwan and one of the designated overseas trade ports, Tamsui, were located, gained economic importance due to the booming overseas trade, especially that of tea export. In 1875, the northern part of Taiwan was separated from Taiwan Prefecture and incorporated into the new Taipeh Prefecture as a new administrative entity of the Qing dynasty. Having been established adjoining the flourishing townships of Bangka, Dalongdong, and Twatutia, the new prefectural capital was known as \"Chengnei\" (), \"the inner city\", and government buildings were erected there. From 1875 until the beginning of Japanese rule in 1895, Taipei was part of Tamsui County of Taipeh Prefecture and the prefectural capital. In 1885, work commenced to govern the island as a province, and Taipeh was temporarily made the provincial capital. The city officially became the capital in 1894. All that remains from the historical period is the north gate. The west gate and city walls were demolished by the Japanese while the south gate, little south gate, and east gate were extensively modified by the Kuomintang and have lost much of their original character.", "As settlement for losing the First Sino-Japanese War, China ceded the island of Taiwan to the Empire of Japan in 1895 as part of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. After the Japanese take-over, Taipei, romanized into English as Taihoku following the Japanese language pronunciation, was retained as the capital and emerged as the political center of the Japanese Colonial Government. During that time the city acquired the characteristics of an administrative center, including many new public buildings and housing for civil servants. Much of the architecture of Taipei dates from the period of Japanese rule, including the Presidential Office Building which was the Office of the Governor-General of Taiwan. During Japanese rule, Taihoku was incorporated in 1920 as part of Taihoku Prefecture. It included Bangka, Twatutia, and among other small settlements. The eastern village of was annexed into Taihoku City in 1938. Taihoku and surrounding areas were bombed by Allied forces on several occasions. The largest of these Allied air raids, the Taihoku Air Raid, took place on 31 May 1945. Upon the Japanese defeat in the Pacific War and its consequent surrender in August 1945, the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) assumed control of Taiwan. Subsequently, a temporary Office of the Taiwan Province Administrative Governor was established in Taipei City.", "In 1947 the Kuomintang (KMT) government under Chiang Kai-shek declared island-wide martial law in Taiwan as a result of the 28 February Incident, which began with incidents in Taipei but led to an island-wide crackdown on the local population by forces loyal to Chiang. Two years later, on 7 December 1949, Chiang and the Kuomintang forces were forced to flee mainland China by the Communists near the end of the Chinese Civil War. The KMT-led national government that fled to Taiwan declared Taipei to be the provisional capital of a continuing Republic of China, with the official capital at Nanjing (Nanking) even though that city was under Communist control. Taipei expanded greatly in the decades after 1949, and as approved on 30 December 1966, by the Executive Yuan, Taipei was declared a special centrally administered municipality on 1 July 1967, and given the administrative status of a province. In the following year, Taipei City expanded again by annexing Shilin, Beitou, Neihu, Nangang, Jingmei, and Muzha. At that time, the city's total area increased fourfold by absorbing several outlying towns and villages and the population increased to 1.56 million people. The city's population, which had reached one million in the early 1960s, also expanded rapidly after 1967, exceeding two million by the mid-1970s. Although growth within the city itself gradually slowed thereafter — its population had become relatively stable by the mid-1990s – Taipei remained one of the world's most densely populated urban areas, and the population continued to increase in the region surrounding the city, notably along the corridor between Taipei and Keelung. In 1990 Taipei's 16 districts were consolidated into the current 12 districts. Mass democracy rallies that year in the plaza around Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall led to an island-wide transition to multi-party democracy, where legislators are chosen via regularly scheduled popular elections, during the presidency of Lee Teng-Hui.", "Taipei City is located in the Taipei Basin in northern Taiwan. It is bordered by the Xindian River on the south and the Tamsui River on the west. The generally low-lying terrain of the central areas on the western side of the municipality slopes upward to the south and east and especially to the north, where it reaches at Qixing Mountain, the highest (inactive) volcano in Taiwan in Yangmingshan National Park. The northern districts of Shilin and Beitou extend north of the Keelung River and are bordered by Yangmingshan National Park. The Taipei city limits cover an area of, ranking sixteenth of twenty-five among all counties and cities in Taiwan. Two peaks, Qixing Mountain and Mt. Datun, rise to the northeast of the city. Qixing Mountain is located on the Tatun Volcano Group and the tallest mountain at the rim of the Taipei Basin, with its main peak at. Mt. Datun's main peak is. These former volcanoes make up the western section of Yangmingshan National Park, extending from Mt. Datun northward to Mt. Caigongkeng (). Located on a broad saddle between two mountains, the area also contains the marshy Datun Pond. To the southeast of the city lie the Songshan Hills and the Qingshui Ravine, which form a barrier of lush woods.", "Taipei has a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa). Summers are long-lasting, very hot and humid, and accompanied by occasional heavy rainstorms and typhoons; while winters are short, generally warm and generally very foggy due to the northeasterly winds from the vast Siberian High being intensified by the pooling of this cooler air in the Taipei Basin. As in the rest of Northern Taiwan, daytime temperatures of Taipei can often peak above during a warm winter day, while they can dip below that same level during a rainy summer's afternoon. Occasional cold fronts during the winter months can drop the daily temperature by, though temperatures rarely drop below. Extreme temperatures ranged from on 13 February 1901 to on 8 August 2013, while snow has never been recorded in the city besides on mountains located within the city limit such as Yangmingshan. Due to Taiwan's location in the Pacific Ocean, it is affected by the Pacific typhoon season, which occurs between June and October.", "When compared to other Asian cities, Taipei has \"excellent\" capabilities for managing air quality in the city. Its rainy climate, location near the coast, and strong environmental regulations have prevented air pollution from becoming a substantial health issue, at least compared to cities in southeast Asia and industrial China. However, smog is extremely common and there is poor visibility throughout the city after rain-less days. Motor vehicle engine exhaust, particularly from motor scooters, is a source of air pollution in Taipei. There are higher levels of fine particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the mornings because of less air movement; sunlight reduces some pollution.", "Taipei City is home to 2,704,810 people (2015), while the metropolitan area has a population of 7,047,559 people. The population of the city has been decreasing in recent years while the population of the adjacent New Taipei has been increasing. The population loss, while rapid in its early years, has been stabilized by new lower density development and campaigns designed to increase birthrate in the city. The population has begun to rise since 2010. Due to Taipei's geography and location in the Taipei Basin as well as differing times of economic development of its districts, Taipei's population is not evenly distributed. The districts of Daan, Songshan, and Datong are the most densely populated. These districts, along with adjacent communities such as Yonghe and Zhonghe contain some of the most densely populated neighborhoods in the world. In 2008, the crude birth rate stood at 7.88% while the mortality rate stood at 5.94%. A decreasing and rapidly aging population is an important issue for the city. By the end of 2009, one in ten people in Taipei was over 65 years of age. Residents who had obtained a college education or higher accounted for 43.48% of the population, and the literacy rate stood at 99.18%. Like the rest of Taiwan, Taipei is composed of four major ethnic groups: Hoklos, Mainlanders, Hakkas, and aborigines. Although Hoklos and Mainlanders form the majority of the population of the city, in recent decades many Hakkas have moved into the city. The aboriginal population in the city stands at 12,862 (<0.5%), concentrated mostly in the suburban districts. Foreigners (mainly from Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines) numbered 52,426 at the end of 2008.", "As Taiwan's business, financial, and technology hub, Taipei has been at the center of rapid economic development in the country and has now become one of the global cities in technology and electronics. This development is part of the so-called Taiwan Miracle which has seen dramatic growth in the city following foreign direct investment in the 1960s. Taiwan is now a creditor economy, holding one of the world's largest foreign exchange reserves of over US$403 billion as of December 2012. Despite the Asian financial crisis, the economy continues to expand at about 5% per year, with virtually full employment and low inflation. The city's GDP stand at US$327 billion in 2014., the nominal GDP per capita in Taipei city is 5th highest in East Asia, behind Tokyo, Singapore, Osaka, and Hong Kong, but ahead of Seoul, as well as London and Paris, according to \"The Economist\". GDP per capita based on Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) in Taipei in 2015 was US$44173, behind that of Singapore (US$90151 in 2016 from the IMF) and Hong Kong (US$58322 in 2016 from the IMF; also based on PPP). The \"Financial Times\" ranked Taipei highly in economic potential (2nd, behind Tokyo) and business friendliness (4th) in 2015. The city is home to 30 billionaires, the 16th most in the world, ahead of many global cities such as Los Angeles and Sydney. Business Insider also ranks Taipei the 5th most high-tech city globally, the highest in Asia, in 2017. While the IESE Cities in Motion Index 2017 ranks Taipei as the smartest technology city globally. Taipei's main development fields include the information and communications technology (hardware and software), biotechnology, general merchandising (wholesale/retail), financial services, and MICE industries. Most of the country's major firms are based there including Asus, CTBC Bank, Fubon Financial Holding, Tatung Company, D-Link, and others. 5 Global Fortune 500 companies are headquartered in Taipei. The city also attracts many multi-national corporations, international financial institutions, foreign consulates, and business organizations to set up base there. Thus, Taipei has nearly 3,500 registered foreign businesses and attracts over 50% of the total foreign investment in Taiwan. Foreign companies with offices or regional headquarters in Taipei include Google, Microsoft, IBM, Intel, HSBC, Citibank, Facebook, Amazon, Apple, JP Morgan, PwC, and many others. Most financial and foreign firms like to reside in the central business district of Taipei, the Xinyi Special District. With Citi, JP Morgan, DBS Bank, Cathay Life Insurance, Shin Kong Commercial Bank, Hua Nan Bank, and soon Fubon Financial and Nan Shan Life Insurance all establishing skyscrapers in the area. Meanwhile, technology and electronics companies are often colocated in the Neihu Technology Park or the Nankang Software Park. The startup and innovation scene in Taipei is also very vibrant. In 2018 alone, Microsoft announced plans to invest US$34 million to create an artificial intelligence R&D center in Taipei, while Google announced it will hire 300 people and train 5,000 more in artificial intelligence for machines. Taipei is currently Google's biggest engineering site in Asia. IBM also announced in 2018 that it will develop a cloud research lab and expand its R&D center in Taipei with eyes on artificial intelligence, blockchain technology, and cloud computing. According to the 2016 Global Entrepreneurship Development Index, Taipei's entrepreneurial spirit ranks 6th worldwide and 1st in Asia. Taipei has more than 400 startups and numerous incubation centers, accelerators, venture capitals, and angel investors. The city's startup ecosystem is valued at US$580 million by Startup Genome in 2018. Tourism is a small but significant component of the local economy with international visitors totaling almost 3 million in 2008. Taipei has many top tourist attractions and contributes a significant amount to the US$6.8 billion tourism industry in Taiwan.", "", "Tourism is a major part of Taipei's economy. In 2013, over 6.3 million overseas visitors visited Taipei, making the city the 15th most visited globally. The influx of visitors contributed US$10.8 billion to the city's economy in 2013, the 9th highest in the world and the most of any city in the Chinese-speaking world.", "The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall is a famous monument, landmark and tourist attraction that was erected in memory of General Chiang Kai-shek, former President of the Republic of China. The structure stands at the east end of Memorial Hall Square, site of the National Concert Hall and National Theater and their adjacent parks as well as the memorial. The landmarks of Liberty Square stand within sight of Taiwan's Presidential Office Building in Taipei's Zhongzheng District. The National Taiwan Museum sits nearby in what is now 228 Peace Memorial Park and has worn its present name since 1999. The museum is Taiwan's oldest, founded on 24 October 1908 by Taiwan's Japanese colonial government (1895-1945) as the Taiwan Governor's Museum. It was launched with a collection of 10,000 items to celebrate the opening of the island's North-South Railway. In 1915 a new museum building opened its doors in what is now 228 Peace Memorial Park. This structure and the adjacent governor's office (now Presidential Office Building), served as the two most recognizable public buildings in Taiwan during its period of Japanese rule. The National Palace Museum is a vast art gallery and museum built around a permanent collection centered on ancient Chinese artifacts. It should not be confused with the Palace Museum in Beijing (which it is named after); both institutions trace their origins to the same institution. The collections were divided in the 1940s as a result of the Chinese Civil War. The National Palace Museum in Taipei now boasts a truly international collection while housing one of the world's largest collections of artifacts from ancient China. The Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines stands just 200 metres across the road from the National Palace Museum. The museum offers displays of art and historical items by Taiwanese aborigines along with a range of multimedia displays. The Taipei Fine Arts Museum was established in 1983 as the first museum in Taiwan dedicated to modern art. The museum is housed in a building designed for the purpose that takes inspiration from Japanese designs. Most art in the collection is by Taiwanese artists since 1940. Over 3,000 art works are organized into 13 groups. The National Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall near Taipei 101 in Xinyi District is named in honor of a founding father of the Republic of China, Sun Yat-sen. The hall, completed on 16 May 1972, originally featured exhibits that depicted revolutionary events in China at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Today it functions as multi-purpose social, educational, concert and cultural center for Taiwan's citizens. In 2001 a new museum opened as Museum of Contemporary Art Taipei. The museum is housed in a building that formerly housed Taipei City government offices.", "Taipei 101 is a 101-floor landmark skyscraper that claimed the title of world's tallest building when it opened in 2004, a title it held for six years before relinquishing it to the Burj Khalifa in Dubai. Designed by C.Y. Lee & Partners and constructed by KTRT Joint Venture, Taipei 101 measures from ground to top, making it the first skyscraper in the world to break the half-kilometer mark in height. Built to withstand typhoon winds and earthquake tremors, its design incorporates many engineering innovations and has won numerous international awards. Taipei 101 remains one of the tallest skyscrapers in the world and holds LEED's certification as the world's largest \"green\" building. Its shopping mall and its indoor and outdoor observatories draw visitors from all over the world. Taipei 101's New Year's Eve fireworks display is a regular feature of international broadcasts.", "The National Theater and Concert Hall stand at Taipei's Liberty Square and host events by foreign and domestic performers. Other leading concert venues include Zhongshan Hall at Ximending and the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall near Taipei 101. A new venue, the Taipei Performing Arts Center, is under construction and slated to open in 2015. The venue will stand near the Shilin Night Market and will house three theaters for events with multi-week runs. The architectural design, by Rem Koolhaas and OMA, was determined in 2009 in an international competition. The same design process is also in place for a new Taipei Center for Popular Music and Taipei City Museum.", "Taipei is known for its many night markets, the most famous of which is the Shilin Night Market in the Shilin District. The surrounding streets by Shilin Night Market are extremely crowded during the evening, usually opening late afternoon and operating well past midnight. Most night markets feature individual stalls selling a mixture of food, clothing, and consumer goods. Ximending has been a famous area for shopping and entertainment since the 1930s. Historic structures include a concert hall, a historic cinema, and the Red House Theater. Modern structures house karaoke businesses, art film cinemas, wide-release movie cinemas, electronic stores, and a wide variety of restaurants and fashion clothing stores. The pedestrian area is especially popular with teens and has been called the \"Harajuku\" of Taipei. The newly developed Xinyi District is popular with tourists and locals alike for its many entertainment and shopping venues, as well as being the home of Taipei 101, a prime tourist attraction. Malls in the area include the sprawling Shin Kong Mitsukoshi complex, Breeze Center, Bellavita, Taipei 101 mall, Eslite Bookstore's flagship store (which includes a boutique mall), The Living Mall, ATT shopping mall, and the Vieshow Cinemas (formerly known as Warner Village). The Xinyi district also serves as the center of Taipei's active nightlife, with several popular lounge bars and nightclubs concentrated in a relatively small area around the Neo19, ATT 4 FUN and Taipei 101 buildings. Lounge bars such as Barcode and nightclubs such as Spark and Myst are among the most-visited places here. The thriving shopping area around Taipei Main Station includes the Taipei Underground Market and the original Shin Kong Mitsukoshi department store at Shin Kong Life Tower. Other popular shopping destinations include the Zhongshan Metro Mall, Dihua Street and the Guang Hua Digital Plaza. The Miramar Entertainment Park is known for its large Ferris wheel and IMAX theater. Taipei maintains an extensive system of parks, green spaces, and nature preserves. Parks and forestry areas of note in and around the city include Yangmingshan National Park, Taipei Zoo and Da-an Forest Park. Yangmingshan National Park (located north of the central city) is famous for its cherry blossoms, hot springs, and sulfur deposits. It is the home of famous writer Lin Yutang, the summer residence of Chiang Kai-shek, residences of foreign diplomats, the Chinese Culture University, the meeting place of the now defunct National Assembly of the Republic of China, and the Kuomintang Party Archives. The Taipei Zoo was founded in 1914 and covers an area of 165 hectares for animal sanctuary. Bitan is known for boating and water sports. Tamsui is a popular sea-side resort town. Ocean beaches are accessible in several directions from Taipei.", "Taipei has a variety of temples dedicating to Deities from Chinese folk religion, Taoism and Chinese Buddhism. The Bangka Lungshan Temple (), built in 1738 and located in the Wanhua District, demonstrates an example of architecture with southern Chinese influences commonly seen on older buildings in Taiwan. Qingshui Temple () built in 1787 and Qingshan Temple ()together with Lungshan Temple are the three most prominent landmark temples in Bangka or Wanhua District. There are other famous temples include Baoan Temple () located in historic Dalongdong, a national historical site, and Xia Hai City God Temple (), located in the old Dadaocheng community, constructed with architecture similar to temples in southern Fujian. The Taipei Confucius Temple () traces its history back to 1879 during the Qing Dynasty and also incorporates southern Fujian-style architecture. Ciyou Temple () in Songshan District, Guandu Temple () in Beitou District, Xingtian Temple () in Zhongshan District and Zhinan Temple () in Wenshan District are also popular temples for locals and tourists. Xinsheng South Road is known as the \"Road to Heaven\" due to its high concentration of temples, shrines, churches, and mosques. Shandao Temple () built in 1929 and located in Zhongzheng District, is the largest Buddhist temple in Taipei. Fo Guang Shan has a modern temple known as Fo Guang Shan Taipei Vihara () in Xinyi District, while Dharma Drum Mountain has a centre known as Degui Academy () in Zhongzheng District and Nung Chan Monastery () in Beitou District. Linji Huguo Chan Temple () in Zhongshan District was commenced in 1900 and completed in 1911, it is one of the very few Japanese style Buddhist Temples that was well-preserved in Taiwan. Besides large temples, small outdoor shrines to local deities are very common and can be seen on road sides, parks, and neighborhoods. Many homes and businesses may also set up small shrines of candles, figurines, and offerings. Some restaurants, for example, may set up a small shrine to the Kitchen God for success in a restaurant business.", "Many yearly festivals are held in Taipei. In recent years some festivals, such as the Double Ten Day fireworks and concerts, are increasingly hosted on a rotating basis by a number of cities around Taiwan. When New Year's Eve arrives on the solar calendar, thousands of people converge on Taipei's Xinyi District for parades, outdoor concerts by popular artists, street shows, round-the clock nightlife. The high point is the countdown to midnight, when Taipei 101 assumes the role of the world's largest fireworks platform. The Taipei Lantern Festival concludes the Lunar New Year holiday. The timing of the city's lantern exhibit coincides with the national festival in Pingxi, when thousands of fire lanterns are released into the sky. The city's lantern exhibit rotates among different downtown locales from year to year, including Liberty Square, Taipei 101, and Zhongshan Hall in Ximending. On Double Ten Day, patriotic celebrations are held in front of the Presidential Office Building. Other annual festivals include Ancestors Day (Tomb-Sweeping Day), the Dragon Boat Festival, the Zhong Yuan Festival, and the Mid-Autumn Festival (Mooncake Festival). Qing Shan King Sacrificial Ceremony () is a centuries-old grand festival that is held annually in Wanhua District. Taipei regularly hosts its share of international events. The city recently hosted the 2009 Summer Deaflympics. This event was followed by the Taipei International Flora Exposition, a garden festival hosted from November 2010 to April 2011. The Floral Expo was the first of its kind to take place in Taiwan and only the seventh hosted in Asia; the expo admitted 110,000 visitors on 27 February 2011.", "Taipei City is a special municipality which is directly under the Executive Yuan (Central Government) of ROC. The mayor of Taipei City had been an appointed position since Taipei's conversion to a centrally administered municipality in 1967 until the first public election was held in 1994. The position has a four-year term and is elected by direct popular vote. The first elected mayor was Chen Shui-bian of the Democratic Progressive Party. Ma Ying-jeou took office in 1998 for two terms, before handing it over to Hau Lung-pin who won the 2006 mayoral election on 9 December 2006. Both Chen Shui-bian and Ma Ying-Jeou went on to become President of the Republic of China. The incumbent mayor, Ko Wen-je, was elected on 29 November 2014 and took office on 25 December 2014. Based on the outcomes of previous elections in the past decade, the vote of the overall constituency of Taipei City shows a slight inclination towards the pro-KMT camp (the Pan-Blue Coalition); however, the pro-DPP camp (the Pan-Green Coalition) also has considerable support. Ketagalan Boulevard, where the Presidential Office Building and other government structures are situated, is often the site of mass gatherings such as inauguration and national holiday parades, receptions for visiting dignitaries, political demonstrations, and public festivals. The city is also claimed by the People's Republic of China as the \"de jure\" prefecture-level capital city of Taiwan Province.", "Taipei City is also famous for its effort in garbage recycling, which has become such a good international precedent that other countries have sent teams to study the recycling system. After the Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) established a program in 1998 combining the efforts of communities, a financial resource named the Recycling Fund was made available to recycling companies and waste collectors. The EPA also introduced garbage recycling trucks, in effort to raise community recycling awareness, that broadcast classical music (specifically Beethoven's \"Für Elise\" and Tekla Bądarzewska-Baranowska's \"A Maiden’s Prayer\") to announce its arrival to the community. Manufacturers, vendors and importers of recyclable waste pay fees to the Fund, which uses the money to set firm prices for recyclables and subsidize local recycling efforts. Between 1998 and 2008, the recycling rate increased from 6 percent to 32 percent. This improvement enabled the government of Taipei to demonstrate its recycling system to the world at the Shanghai World Expo 2010.", "Taipei City is divided up into 12 administrative districts (). Each district is further divided up into urban villages (), which are further sub-divided up into neighborhoods ().!rowspan=2|Map!!colspan=5|District!!rowspan=2|Population!rowspan=2|Area!!rowspan=2|Postalcode!Name!!Chinese!!Pinyin!!Wade–Giles!!Pe̍h-ōe-jī" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Playing career.", "Club career.", "International career.", "Coaching career.", "Indonesia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "He used to play for FK Austria Wien when he left Austria for the Belgian club Sint-Truiden at the age of 22. After he played eight seasons in Belgian First Division (two with Sint-Truiden, two with Royal Antwerp and four with Standard Liège), Riedl enjoyed a brief spell at FC Metz in France. He came back to Austria after a single season, to play for Grazer AK, and then at Wiener Sportclub and VfB Admira Wacker Mödling. He finished twice as top scorer of the Belgian First Division.", "Riedl has been capped four times for the Austria national football team, making his debut in April 1975 against Hungary.", "As a manager, Riedl has coached Olympique Khouribga (Morocco, 1993–94), Al-Zamalek (Egypt, 1994–95), Al Salmiya (Kuwait, 2001–03), and many national teams, including Austria (1990–92), Liechtenstein (1997–98), Palestine (2004–05), Vietnam (1998–2001, 2003–04, 2005–07), and Laos (2009–10). In the 2007 AFC Asian Cup, he has coached Vietnam to a 2–0 victory over UAE and help the team to get to the quarterfinal for the first time in history. Unfortunately, in late 2007, after the team's disappointing performance in the SEA Games 2007 competition, he was fired and replaced by the Portuguese coach Henrique Calisto. On the October 2008, he returned to Vietnam to coach the Hải Phòng soccer club. However, after only three matches with poor performance, he was dismissed. On 9 July 2009, he signed a contract as head coach of Laos, the contract runs two years.", "On 4 May 2010, Alfred Riedl was named the new coach of Indonesia's national and under-23 sides. He led the Indonesian national team to the 2010 AFF Suzuki Final but lost to Malaysia on 2–4 aggregate score. Then suddenly, on 13 July 2011, he lost his job because of a \"contract dispute\", after a highly publicized political power struggle within the Football Association of Indonesia (PSSI), and was replaced by Wim Rijsbergen. After a return to Laos as technical director and Belgian club Visé as head of youth development, Riedl was reappointed as Indonesia national team head coach on December 2013, signing a 3-year contract. His contract was terminated by mutual consent at the end of 2014, after Indonesia failed to qualify to the knockout stages of the 2014 AFF Suzuki Cup. Riedl then accepted the head coach job of PSM Makassar in early 2015, but resigned on April the same year because of health issues, before the league even starts. Rield returns as the head coach of Indonesia in 2016 on a one-year contract, and this time he guided Indonesia to the finals of 2016 AFF Suzuki Cup, repeating his 2010 performance. After Indonesia lost to Thailand 2-3 on aggregate in the finals, his contract was not renewed by PSSI." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Colonial architecture.", "Economy.", "Sports.", "Education.", "Tourism.", "Transportation.", "Highways.", "Air.", "Bus.", "Cable car system.", "Water supply.", "International relations.", "Twin towns and sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "This area had been the site of an Inca city, located on a major trading route. Although the Spanish conquistadors entered the area in 1535, they did not found La Paz until 1548. Originally it was to be at the site of the Native American settlement, Laja, with the full name of the city being \"Nuestra Señora de La Paz\" (meaning \"Our Lady of Peace\"). The name commemorated the restoration of peace following the insurrection of Gonzalo Pizarro and fellow conquistadors four years earlier against Blasco Núñez Vela, the first viceroy of Peru. The town site was moved a few days later to its present location in the valley of Chuquiago, which is more clement. Control over the former Inca lands had been entrusted to Pedro de la Gasca by the Spanish king (and Holy Roman Emperor) Emperor Charles V. Gasca commanded Alonso de Mendoza to found a new city commemorating the end of the civil wars in Peru; the city of La Paz was founded on October 20, 1548 by Alonzo de Mendoza, with Juan de Vargas appointed as its first mayor. In 1549, Juan Gutierrez Paniagua was commanded to design an urban plan that would designate sites for public areas, plazas, official buildings, and a cathedral. These were meant to express the ideals and relationships of Spanish colonial society. La Plaza de los Españoles, which is known today as the Plaza Murillo, was chosen as the location for government buildings as well as the Metropolitan Cathedral. Spain controlled La Paz with a firm grip and the Spanish king had the last word in all matters political, but consultation was extended, taking months or longer by sea. Indigenous and other unrest was repeated around the turn of the nineteenth century. In 1781, for a total of six months, a group of Aymara people laid siege to La Paz. Under the leadership of Tupac Katari, they destroyed churches and government property. Thirty years later Indians conducted a two-month siege against La Paz. This incident was the setting for the origin of the legend of the Ekeko. In 1809 the struggle for independence from the Spanish rule brought uprisings against the royalist forces. On July 16, 1809 Pedro Domingo Murillo said that the Bolivian revolution was igniting a lamp that nobody would be able to turn off. This uprising formally marked the beginning of the liberation of South America from Spain. The first open rebellions against the Spanish Crown took place in La Paz and the city of Sucre simultaneously. This event is known as the Primer Grito Libertario de América. Pedro Domingo Murillo was hanged at the Plaza de los Españoles that night. After Bolivia gained independence, La Paz named this plaza after him, to commemorate him always. He is remembered as the voice of revolution across South America. In 1825, after the decisive victory of the republicans at Ayacucho over the Spanish army in the course of the Spanish American wars of independence, the city's full name was changed to \"La Paz de Ayacucho\" (meaning \"The Peace of Ayacucho\"). In 1898, La Paz was made the \"de facto\" seat of the national government, with Sucre remaining the nominal historical as well as judiciary capital. This change reflected the shift of the Bolivian economy away from the largely exhausted silver mines of Potosí to the exploitation of tin near Oruro, and resulting shifts in the distribution of economic and political power among various national elites.", "La Paz is built in a canyon created by the Choqueyapu River (now mostly built over), which runs northwest to southeast. The city's main thoroughfare, which roughly follows the river, changes names over its length, but the central tree-lined section running through the downtown core is called the Prado. The geography of La Paz (in particular the altitude) is marked by social differences. The more affluent residents live in the lower, central areas of the city southwest of the Prado. Many middle-class residents live in high-rise condos near the center. Lower-income residents live in makeshift brick houses in the surrounding hills. The satellite city of El Alto, in which the airport is located, is spread over a broad area to the west of the canyon, on the Altiplano. La Paz is renowned for its unique markets, unusual and dramatic topography, and traditional culture. La Paz is located in the valleys of the Andes, close to the Eastern split of the Altiplano region. It is closer to such notable mountains as the Illimani (guardian of La Paz), Huayna Potosi, Mururata, and Illampu. On the Western side of the Altiplano divide, about an hour to the west of the La Paz, is the Sajama Volcano, the tallest mountain in Bolivia and ninth-tallest mountain in the Andes. In July 1994, an earthquake rated at 8.2 struck just north of La Paz. It could be felt near La Paz and caused damage throughout the villages of the area.", "At more than above sea level, higher parts of La Paz have an unusual subtropical highland climate (\"Cwc\", according to the Köppen climate classification), with subpolar oceanic characteristics (less than 4 months have a mean temperature above 10 °C), bordering on a tundra climate (\"ET\"). The whole city has rainy summers and dry winters. Night-time temperatures range from cold to very cold. Snow flurries can occur in winter, especially at dawn and it usually melts before noon. At these high altitudes despite being located only 16 degrees from the equator, the city's average temperature is similar to that of cities such as Bergen, Norway or Tórshavn, Faroe Islands, located as far as 60 and 62 degrees from the equator respectively. The temperatures in the central La Paz, at, and in the \"Zona Sur\" (Southern Zone), at above sea level, are warmer (subtropical highland climate \"Cwb\", according to the Köppen classification). Owing to the altitude of the city, temperatures are consistently cool to mild throughout the year, though the diurnal temperature variation is typically large. The city has a relatively dry climate, with rainfall occurring mainly in the slightly warmer months of November to March. In the highest part of the city, above 4,000 metres, the two cloudiest months are February and March, in late summer, when sunshine averages around 5 hours per day. The two sunniest months are June and July, in winter, when sunshine averages around 8 hours per day. Heavy precipitation typically occurs throughout summer, and often causes destructive mudslides. At an altitude of 3,250 metres, in the southern part of the city, the wettest month is January with a monthly average of, and the driest is July with. The warmest temperature recorded was and the coldest was.", "The city of La Paz has a consistently decreasing volume of colonial buildings, mostly centered around the vicinity of the Plaza Murillo. Due to a lack of funds and the inability of property owners to pay for restorations to colonial buildings, many have been torn down, or are in a dilapidated state. As historic buildings are more expensive to keep, land owners find it less of a burden to construct more modern buildings as opposed to keeping the old ones. Although there has been an increasing number of projects and propositions to restore some of the city's colonial buildings, the future of these historic edifices remains uncertain.", "The economy of La Paz has improved greatly in recent years, mainly as a result of improved political stability. Due to the long period of high inflation and economic struggle faced by Bolivians in the 1980s and early 1990s, a large informal economy developed. Evidence of this is provided by the markets found all around the city. While there are stable markets, almost every street in the downtown area and surrounding neighborhoods has at least one vendor on it. La Paz remains the principal center of manufacturing enterprises that produce finished-product goods for the country, with about two-thirds of Bolivia's manufacturing located nearby. Historically, industry in Bolivia has been dominated by mineral processing and the preparation of agricultural products. However, in the urban centre of La Paz, small plants carry out a large portion of the industry. Food, tobacco products, clothing, various consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural tools are produced. \"The tin quotations from London are watched in La Paz with close interest as an index of the country's prosperity; a third of the national revenue and more than half of the total customs in 1925 were derived from tin; in short, that humble but indispensable metal is the hub around which Bolivia's economic life revolves. The tin deposits of Bolivia, second largest in the world,... invite development.\"", "La Paz is the home of some of the biggest football teams in Bolivia. The city is host to several other teams that play in the first and second divisions such as: With the exception of Deportivo Municipal and Unión Maestranza, all the other teams play the majority of their games in the city stadium, the Estadio Hernando Siles, which also hosts the national football team and international games. Always Ready frequently play at the Estadio Rafael Mendoza which belongs to The Strongest, who rarely use the stadium due to its relatively small capacity.", "The city hosts some of the most important universities of the country:", "La Paz is an important cultural center of Bolivia. The city hosts several cathedrals belonging to the colonial times, such as the San Francisco Cathedral and the Metropolitan Cathedral, this last one located on Murillo Square, which is also home of the political and administrative power of the country. Hundreds of different museums can be found across the city, the most notable ones on Jaén Street, which street design has been preserved from the Spanish days and is home of 10 different museums. The home of the Bolivian government is located on Murillo Square and is known as \"Palacio Quemado\" (\"Burnt Palace\") as it has been on fire several times. The palace has been restored many times since, but the name has remained untouched.", "Automobiles and public transportation are the main means to get into the city. In March 2012, more than 1.5 million vehicles were registered. Heavy traffic is common in the city center and traffic jams occur on peak hours.", "The La Paz-El Alto Highway is a toll road that connects the city of La Paz with the neighboring city of El Alto. It is the city's main highway. It allows easy access to El Alto International Airport. The highway runs 11,7 km and crosses the city of El Alto: The Southern District, one of La Paz's most affluent and commercial neighborhoods, is relatively separated from the rest of the city, including the CBD. The Avenida Costanera and Avenida Kantutani (Costanera and Kantutani Avenues) connect the southern district with the rest of the metropolitan area.", "El Alto International Airport (IATA code: LPB) is La Paz's national and international airport and a principal hub for Línea Aérea Amaszonas and Transporte Aéreo Militar. It also serves as a focus city for Boliviana de Aviación, Bolivia's flag-carrier and largest airline. The airport is located in the city of El Alto and is () south-west of La Paz's city center. At an elevation of, it is the highest international airport and fifth highest commercial airport in the world. The runway has a length of. It is one of Bolivia's three main international gateways, along with Jorge Wilstermann International Airport and Viru Viru International Airport. International carriers serving El Alto International Airport include Avianca, LATAM Airlines and Peruvian Airlines, which offer direct flights from La Paz to cities such as Bogotá, Lima, Santiago and Cusco. However, most international traffic, including flights to Europe, operated out of Viru Viru International Airport in Santa Cruz de la Sierra which is at a much lower altitude and is capable of handling larger aircraft. Airport facilities include ATMs, cafés and restaurants, car rentals, duty-free shops, and free Wi-Fi internet. Additionally, the airport supplies travelers with oxygen for those who suffer from altitude sickness.", "La Paz Bus Station, originally a bus and train station, was built by the French architect Gustave Eiffel. It is the main gateway for inter-city buses with several daily departures to all the main Bolivian cities, and routes to Chile and Peru. The city is connected by road with the city of Oruro from where there are routes to Sucre, Potosí and the south of the country. Another highway branches off before Oruro to reach Cochabamba and Santa Cruz. Roads to the west go to Copacabana and Tiwanaku, near Lake Titicaca, and continue to Cuzco, Peru via the border town of Desaguadero. There are also roads north to get to Yungas crossing the Andes Mountains. Departures to smaller cities and towns within the department use informal stations located in Villa Fátima (departures to Los Yungas, Beni and Pando), Upper San Pedro (for Apolo) and near the General Cemetery (for Copacabana, Lake Titicaca, or via Tiwanaku to Desaguadero on the Peruvian border).", "A system of urban transit aerial cable cars called Mi Teleférico (\"My Cable Car\") was opened in 2014. Currently eight lines are in operation, and three more lines are in the planning stage. The initial three lines were built by the Austrian company Doppelmayr. The first two lines (Red and Yellow) connected La Paz with El Alto. All stations have both a Spanish name and an Aymara name.", "The water supply of La Paz is threatened by the impact of climate change through the melting of glaciers. The city receives its drinking water from three water systems: El Alto, Achachicala and Pampahasi. La Paz shares the first and largest of these systems with its sister city El Alto. All three systems are fed by glaciers and rivers in the Cordillera mountain range. 20-28 % of its water is fed by glaciers, the remainder coming from rainfall and snowmelt. The glaciers recede as a result of climate change, initially increasing water availability during the dry season, but ultimately threatening a substantial decrease in dry season run-off when they completely disappear. A small glacier, the Chacaltaya near El Alto, already disappeared in 2008. The El Alto system receives its water from the Tuni Dam and two water channels. These channels divert water that flows from the Zongo Glacier on the slopes of Huayna Potosi and from Condoriri North of El Alto. The 2.9 km long Zongo glacier retreats at a rate of about 18 meters per year. The Tuni and Condoriri glaciers have lost 39% of their area between 1983 and 2006. According to a study by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), the El Alto system is the least resilient against the impact of climate change among the three systems. The study says that reducing water distribution losses is the most effective short-term strategy to deal with water scarcity. New water sources further to the North in the Cordillera include the Khara Kota and Taypicacha, but they are expensive to develop and their water supply is also affected by glacier melt.", "", "La Paz is part of the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities from October 12, 1982 establishing brotherly relations with the following cities: Additionally, agreement was reached by Twin Cities with: La Paz is also a member of Merco Ciudades, a group of 180 cities within Mercosur, since 1999." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and family.", "Film and television scoring.", "Conducting and performing.", "Legacy.", "Personal life.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Towner Williams was born on February 8, 1932 in Floral Park, New York, to Esther (née Towner) and Johnny Williams, a jazz drummer and percussionist who played with the Raymond Scott Quintet. Williams has said of his lineage, \"My father was a Maine man—we were very close. My mother was from Boston. My father's parents ran a department store in Bangor, Maine, and my mother's father was a cabinetmaker. [...] People with those roots are not inclined to be lazy.\" In 1948 the Williams family moved to Los Angeles where John attended North Hollywood High School, graduating in 1950. He later attended the University of California, Los Angeles, and studied composition privately with the Italian composer Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco. Williams also attended Los Angeles City College for one semester, as the school had a Studio Jazz Band. In 1951 Williams was drafted into the U.S. Air Force, where he played the piano, brass and conducted and arranged music for The U.S. Air Force Band as part of his assignments. In a 2016 interview with the US Air Force band, he recounted having attended basic Air Force training at Lackland base (San Antonio, Texas), after which he served as a pianist and brass player, with secondary duties of making arrangements for three years. He also attended music courses at the University of Arizona as part of his service. In 1955, following his Air Force service, Williams moved to New York City and entered the Juilliard School, where he studied piano with Rosina Lhévinne. During this time Williams worked as a jazz pianist in the city's many jazz clubs. After moving to Los Angeles, he began working as a session musician, most notably for composer Henry Mancini. He worked with Mancini on the \"Peter Gunn\" soundtrack, along with guitarist Bob Bain, bassist Rolly Bundock, and drummer Jack Sperling, many of whom were also featured on the \"Mr. Lucky\" television series. Known as \"Johnny\" during the 1950s and early 1960s, Williams composed the music for many television programs (including several episodes of \"M Squad\"), and served as music arranger and bandleader for a series of popular music albums with the singers Ray Vasquez, and Frankie Laine.", "While skilled in a variety of 20th-century compositional idioms, Williams's most familiar style may be described as a form of neoromanticism, inspired by the late 19th century's large-scale orchestral music—in the style of Tchaikovsky or Richard Wagner and their concept of leitmotif—that inspired his film music predecessors. After his studies at Juilliard and the Eastman School of Music, Williams returned to Los Angeles, where he began working as an orchestrator at film studios. Among other composers, Williams worked with Franz Waxman, Bernard Herrmann, and Alfred Newman, and also with his fellow orchestrators Conrad Salinger and Bob Franklyn. Williams was also a studio pianist, performing on film scores by composers such as Jerry Goldsmith, Elmer Bernstein, and Henry Mancini. With Mancini he recorded the scores of 1959's \"Peter Gunn\", 1962's \"Days of Wine and Roses\", and 1963's \"Charade\". (Williams actually played the well-known opening riff of Mancini's \"Peter Gunn\" theme.) Williams (sometimes credited as \"Johnny Williams\", because of the already established actor of the same name) composed music for various television programs in the 1960s: the pilot episode of \"Gilligan's Island\", \"Bachelor Father\" (1959–60), the \"Kraft Suspense Theatre\", \"Lost in Space\" (1965–68), \"The Time Tunnel\" (1966–67), and \"Land of the Giants\" (the last three created by the prolific TV producer Irwin Allen). Williams's first film composition was for the 1958 B movie \"Daddy-O\", and his first screen credit came two years later in \"Because They're Young\". He soon gained notice in Hollywood for his versatility in composing jazz, piano, and symphonic music. Williams received his first Academy Award nomination for his score for 1967's \"Valley of the Dolls\", and was nominated again for his score for 1969's \"Goodbye, Mr. Chips\". He won his first Academy Award for his score for the 1971 film \"Fiddler on the Roof\". In 1972 he composed the score for the Robert Altman-directed psychological thriller \"Images\" (recorded in collaboration with noted percussionist Stomu Yamashta), which earned him another nomination in the category Best Music, Original Dramatic Score at the 1973 Academy Awards. Williams's prominence grew in the early 1970s thanks to his work for now-film producer Irwin Allen's disaster films. He wrote the scores for 1972's \"The Poseidon Adventure\" and 1974's \"The Towering Inferno\". He also scored Universal's 1974 film \"Earthquake\" for director Mark Robson, completing a \"trinity\" of scores for the decade's highest-grossing \"disaster films\", and the 1972 film \"The Cowboys\", a western starring John Wayne and directed by Mark Rydell. In 1974 director Steven Spielberg approached Williams to compose the music for his feature directorial debut, \"The Sugarland Express\". They teamed up again a year later for Spielberg's second film, \"Jaws\". Widely considered a classic suspense film, its score's ominous, two-note ostinato has become synonymous with sharks and approaching danger. The score earned Williams his second Academy Award, his first for an original composition. Shortly thereafter, Spielberg and Williams began a long collaboration on their next feature film, \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\". During the two-year collaboration, they crafted its distinctive five-note figure that functions both in the background music and as the communications signal of the film's extraterrestrials. Williams also used a system of musical hand signals in the film that were based on hand signs created by John Curwen and refined by Zoltán Kodály. During the same period Spielberg recommended Williams to his friend and fellow director George Lucas, who needed a composer to score his ambitious 1977 space epic film \"Star Wars\". Williams delivered a grand symphonic score in the fashion of Richard Strauss, Antonín Dvořák, and Golden Age Hollywood composers Max Steiner and Erich Wolfgang Korngold. The Star Wars' theme, is among the most widely recognized in film history, and the \"Force Theme\" and \"Princess Leia's Theme\" are well-known examples of leitmotif. Both the film and its score were immensely successful—it remains the highest grossing non-popular music recording of all time—and Williams won another Academy Award for Best Original Score. In 1980 Williams returned to score \"The Empire Strikes Back\", introducing \"The Imperial March\" as the theme for Darth Vader and the Galactic Empire, \"Yoda's Theme\", and \"Han Solo and the Princess\". The original \"Star Wars\" trilogy concluded with the 1983 film \"Return of the Jedi\", for which Williams's score provided most notably the \"Emperor's Theme\", \"Parade of the Ewoks\", and \"Luke and Leia\". Both scores earned him Academy Award nominations. Williams scored the 1976 Alfred Hitchcock film \"Family Plot\". Williams did not much like the film, but did not want to turn down the chance to work for Hitchcock. Hitchcock merely told him to remember one thing, \"Murder can be fun.\" Hitchcock was very satisfied with the result. Williams worked with director Richard Donner to score the 1978 film \"Superman\". The score's heroic and romantic themes, particularly the main march, the Superman fanfare and the love theme, known as \"Can You Read My Mind,\" appeared in the four sequel films. For the 1981 film \"Raiders of the Lost Ark\", created by Lucas and directed by Spielberg, Williams wrote a rousing main theme known as \"The Raiders March\" to accompany the film's hero, Indiana Jones. He composed separate themes to represent the Ark of the Covenant, the character Marion, and the story's Nazi villains. Additional themes were featured in his scores to the subsequent \"Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom\", a prequel (1984), \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\" (1989), and \"Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull\" (2008). Williams composed an emotional and sensitive score to Spielberg's 1982 fantasy film \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\", for which he was awarded a fourth Academy Award. The Spielberg-Williams collaboration resumed with the 1987 film \"Empire of the Sun\", and still continues, spanning genres from science fiction thrillers (1993's \"Jurassic Park)\" to somber tragedies (1993's \"Schindler's List\", 2005's \"Munich)\" to Eastern-tinged melodramas (2005's \"Memoirs of a Geisha\", directed by Rob Marshall) to dramatic war films (1998's \"Saving Private Ryan)\". Spielberg has said, \"I call it an honorable privilege to regard John Williams as a friend.\" In 1999 Lucas launched the first of three prequels to the original \"Star Wars\" trilogy. Williams was asked to score all three, starting with \"\". Along with themes from the previous films, Williams created new themes to be used as leitmotifs in 2002's \"\" and 2005's \"\". Most notable of these was \"Duel of the Fates\", an aggressive choral movement in the style of Verdi's Requiem, utilizing harsh Sanskrit lyrics that broadened the style of music used in the \"Star Wars\" films. Also of note was \"Anakin's Theme\", which begins as an innocent childlike melody and morphs insidiously into a quote of the sinister \"Imperial March.\" For \"Episode II\" Williams composed \"Across the Stars\", a love theme for Padmé Amidala and Anakin Skywalker (mirroring the love theme composed for \"The Empire Strikes Back\"). The final installment combined many of the themes created for the series' previous films, including \"The Emperor's Theme,\" \"The Imperial March\", \"Across the Stars\", \"Duel of the Fates\", \"The Force Theme\", \"Rebel Fanfare\", \"Luke's Theme\", and \"Princess Leia's Theme\", as well as new themes for General Grievous and the film's climax, titled \"Battle of the Heroes\". In the new millennium Williams scored the first three film adaptations of J. K. Rowling's widely successful book series \"Harry Potter\". As with his \"Superman\" theme, the most important theme from Williams's scores for the \"Harry Potter\" films, \"Hedwig's Theme\", was used in the fourth through eighth films (\"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\", \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\", \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\", \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1\" and \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2\"), scored by Patrick Doyle (\"Goblet of Fire\"), Nicholas Hooper (\"Order of the Phoenix\" and \"Half-Blood Prince\") and Alexandre Desplat (\"Deathly Hallows\"). Like the main themes from \"Jaws\", \"Star Wars\", \"Superman\", and \"Indiana Jones\", fans have come to identify the \"Harry Potter\" films with Williams's original compositions. Williams was asked to return to score the film franchise's final installment, \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2\", but director David Yates said that \"their schedules simply did not align\", as he would have had to provide Williams with a rough cut of the film sooner than was possible. In 2002, for the 20th anniversary edition of \"E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial\", Williams composed a reorchestrated score for the Universal Pictures logo segueing to music from the movie. In 2006 \"Superman Returns\" was directed by Bryan Singer, best known for directing the first two films in the \"X-Men\" series. Singer did not request Williams to compose a score for the intentionally Donner-esque film, but he employed the skills of \"X2\" composer John Ottman to incorporate Williams's original \"Superman\" theme as well as those for Lois Lane, Krypton and Smallville. In 2011 the \"Main Title Theme\" and elements of \"Can You Read My Mind\" were used in the final scene of \"Finale,\" the series finale of the WB/CW television series \"Smallville\". Don Davis, recommended by Williams to the producers, performed a similar role for \"Jurassic Park III\". In 2008 Williams returned to the \"Indiana Jones\" series to score the fourth film, \"Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull\". He received a Grammy nomination for his work on the film. \"Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull\" was also the only film score from the \"Indiana Jones\" film series not to be nominated for an Academy Award. Also in 2008 Williams composed music for two documentaries, \"Warner at War\" and \"A Timeless Call\", the latter directed by Spielberg. After a three-year absence from film scoring, in 2011 Williams composed the scores for Spielberg's \"The Adventures of Tintin\" and \"War Horse\". Both scores received overwhelmingly positive reviews and earned Academy Award nominations, the latter also being nominated for a Golden Globe. The Oscar nominations were Williams's 46th and 47th, making him the most nominated musician in Academy Award history (having previously been tied with Alfred Newman's 45 nominations), and the second most nominated overall, behind Walt Disney. Williams won an Annie Award for his score for \"The Adventures of Tintin\". In 2012 he scored Spielberg's film \"Lincoln\" and subsequently received his 48th Academy Award nomination. In February 2013 Williams expressed interest in working on the \"Star Wars\" sequel trilogy, saying: \"Now we're hearing of a new set of movies coming in 2015, 2016... so I need to make sure I'm still ready to go in a few years for what I hope would be continued work with George.\" He also scored the 2013 film \"The Book Thief\", his first collaboration with a director other than Spielberg since 2005. The score earned him an Academy Award, Golden Globe and BAFTA nominations and a Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition. It was his 44th nomination for Best Original Score (and 49th overall), setting a new record for the most nominations in that category (he tied Alfred Newman's record of 43 nominations in 2013). In 2015 Williams scored \"\", earning him his 50th Academy Award nomination. He was also set to write the score for \"Bridge of Spies\" that year, which would have been his 27th collaboration with Spielberg, but in March 2015 it was announced that Thomas Newman would score it instead, as Williams's schedule was interrupted by a minor health issue. This was the first Spielberg film since \"The Color Purple\" (1985) not scored by Williams. In 2016 Williams composed the score for Spielberg's \"The BFG\", which opened in July 2016. In March 2017 Williams scored the animated short film \"Dear Basketball\", directed by Glen Keane and based on a poem by Kobe Bryant. Williams wrote the music for \"\", the eighth episode of the saga, released on December 15, 2017, and its sequel \"Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker\", which was released on December 20, 2019. Also in 2017 he scored Steven Spielberg's drama film \"The Post\". Williams contributed \"The Adventures of Han\" for the 2018 standalone \"Star Wars\" film \"\" while John Powell wrote the film's original score. Williams is attached to score the fifth Indiana Jones film. A three-disc box set compilation of all of Williams's musical scores for Spielberg's films, \"John Williams & Steven Spielberg: The Ultimate Collection\", was released on March 17, 2017, and includes two previous score compilations from 1991 and 1995. Williams's body of work in film composing was featured in the 2017 documentary film \"SCORE: A Film Music Documentary\". In March 2018, Williams announced that following \"\", which was released in December 2019, he would retire from composing music for the \"Star Wars\" franchise: \"We know J. J. Abrams is preparing one \"Star Wars\" movie now that I will hopefully do next year for him. I look forward to it. It will round out a series of nine, that will be quite enough for me.\" In addition, Williams makes a cameo in the film as Oma Tres, a Kijimi bartender. In June 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Williams as one of hundreds of artists whose material was destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "From 1980 to 1993 Williams served as the Boston Pops Orchestra's Principal Conductor, succeeding Arthur Fiedler. Williams never met Fiedler in person but spoke with him by telephone. His arrival as the Pops' new leader in the spring of 1980 allowed him to devote part of the Pops' first PBS broadcast of the season to presenting his new compositions for \"The Empire Strikes Back\". Williams almost ended his tenure with the Pops in 1984 when some players hissed while sight-reading a new Williams composition in rehearsal; Williams abruptly left the session and turned in his resignation. He initially cited mounting conflicts with his film composing schedule, but later admitted a perceived lack of discipline in, and respect from, the Pops' ranks, culminating in this latest instance. After entreaties by the management and personal apologies from the musicians, Williams withdrew his resignation and continued as principal conductor for nine more years. In 1995 he was succeeded by Keith Lockhart, the former associate conductor of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra and Cincinnati Pops Orchestra. Williams is now the Pops' Laureate Conductor, thus maintaining his affiliation with its parent, the Boston Symphony Orchestra (BSO). Williams leads the Pops on several occasions each year, particularly during their Holiday Pops season and typically for a week of concerts in May. He conducts an annual Film Night at both Boston Symphony Hall and Tanglewood, where he frequently enlists the Tanglewood Festival Chorus, the BSO's official chorus. Williams has written many concert pieces, including a symphony; a Concerto for Horn written for Dale Clevenger, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's Principal Hornist; a Concerto for Clarinet written for Michele Zukovsky (the Los Angeles Philharmonic's Principal Clarinetist) in 1991; a sinfonietta for wind ensemble; a cello concerto premiered by Yo-Yo Ma and the Boston Symphony Orchestra at Tanglewood in 1994; concertos for the flute and violin recorded by the London Symphony Orchestra; and a trumpet concerto, which was premiered by The Cleveland Orchestra and their principal trumpet Michael Sachs in September 1996. His bassoon concerto, \"The Five Sacred Trees\", which was premiered by the New York Philharmonic and principal bassoon player Judith LeClair in 1995, was recorded for Sony Classical by Williams with LeClair and the London Symphony Orchestra. Williams was the subject of an hour-long documentary for the BBC in 1980, and was featured in a report on \"20/20\" in 1983. In 1985 Williams was commissioned by NBC to compose a television news music package for various network news spots. The package, which Williams named \"The Mission,\" consists of four movements, two of which are still used heavily by NBC today for \"Today\", \"NBC Nightly News\", and \"Meet the Press\". He composed the \"Liberty Fanfare\" for the Statue of Liberty's rededication, \"We're Lookin' Good!\" for the Special Olympics in celebration of the 1987 International Summer Games, and themes for the 1984, 1988, 1996, and 2002 Olympic Games. His most recent concert work, \"Seven for Luck\", for soprano and orchestra, is a seven-piece song cycle based on the texts of former U.S. Poet Laureate Rita Dove. \"Seven for Luck\" was given its world premiere by the Boston Symphony under Williams with soprano Cynthia Haymon. Williams makes annual appearances with the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl, and took part as conductor and composer in the orchestra's opening gala concerts for the Walt Disney Concert Hall in 2003. In 2004 he both served as the Grand Marshal for the Rose Parade, and directed \"The Star Spangled Banner\" at the Rose Bowl's beginning. In April 2005, Williams and the Boston Pops performed the \"Throne Room Finale\" from \"Star Wars\" at opening day in Fenway Park as the Boston Red Sox, having won their first World Series championship since 1918, received their championship rings. For Game 1 of the 2007 World Series, Williams conducted a brass-and-drum ensemble through a new dissonant arrangement of the \"Star Spangled Banner.\" In February 2004, April 2006, and September 2007, Williams conducted the New York Philharmonic at Avery Fisher Hall in New York City. The initial program was intended to be a one-time special event, and featured Williams's medley of Oscar-winning film scores first performed at the previous year's Academy Awards. Its unprecedented popularity led to two concerts in 2006: fundraising gala events featuring personal recollections by film directors Martin Scorsese and Steven Spielberg. Continuing demand fueled three more concerts in 2007, which all sold out. These featured a tribute to the musicals of film director Stanley Donen, and had the distinction of serving as the New York Philharmonic season's opening event. After a three-season absence, Williams conducted the Philharmonic once again in October 2011. Maestro Williams also conducted the National Symphony Orchestra, the U.S. Army Herald Trumpets, the Joint Armed Forces Chorus, and the Choral Arts Society of Washington performing his new arrangement of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" for its 200th anniversary. The performance was held at \"A Capitol Fourth\", an Independence Day celebration concert in Washington, D.C., on July 4, 2014. On April 13, 2017, at Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Williams performed a surprise concert with the Orlando Philharmonic Orchestra featuring \"Princess Leia's Theme\" (a tribute to the recently deceased Carrie Fisher), \"The Imperial March\" and \"Main Title\" followed by George Lucas saying, \"The secret sauce of Star Wars, the greatest composer-conductor in the universe, John Williams\". The Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra invited Williams to lead concerts in January 2020, his first engagement with a European orchestra, for an all-Williams concert featuring violinist Anne-Sophie Mutter as soloist.", "Williams is regarded as the most influential composer of film scores of all times. His work has influenced other film composers, as well as contemporary classical and popular music. The Norwegian classical composer Marcus Paus has described him as one of his main influences.", "In 1956 Williams married Barbara Ruick, an American actress and singer. They had three children: Jennifer (b. 1956), Mark Towner Williams (b. 1958), and Joseph (b. 1960), the lead singer of Toto. The two remained married until her death in 1974. In 1980, Williams married Samantha Winslow, a photographer.", "John Williams has been nominated for 52 Academy Awards, winning 5; 6 Emmy Awards, winning 3; 25 Golden Globe Awards, winning 4; 71 Grammy Awards, winning 25; and has received 7 British Academy Film Awards. With 52 Oscar nominations, Williams currently holds the record for the most Oscar nominations for a living person, and is the second most nominated person in Academy Awards history behind Walt Disney's 59. Forty-six of Williams's Oscar nominations are for Best Original Score and five are for Best Original Song. He won four Oscars for Best Original Score and one for Best Scoring: Adaptation and Original Song Score \"(Fiddler on the Roof)\". In 1980, Williams received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music. Since 1988, Williams has been honored with 15 Sammy Film Music Awards, the longest-running awards for film music recordings. Williams has been inducted into the American Classical Music Hall of Fame and the Hollywood Bowl Hall of Fame. Williams was honored with the annual Richard Kirk award at the 1999 BMI Film and TV Awards, recognizing his contribution to film and television music. In 2004 he received Kennedy Center Honors. He won a Classic Brit Award in 2005 for his soundtrack work of the previous year. Williams has won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition for his scores for \"Star Wars\", \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\", \"Superman\", \"The Empire Strikes Back\", \"E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial\", \"Angela's Ashes\", \"Munich\", \"Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull\", and \"The Book Thief\". The competition includes not only composers of film scores, but also composers of instrumental music of any genre, including composers of classical fare such as symphonies and chamber music. Williams received an Honorary Doctor of Music degree from Boston College in 1993 and from Harvard University in 2017. In 2003, the International Olympic Committee accorded Williams its highest individual honor, the Olympic Order. In 2009, Williams received the National Medal of Arts in the White House in Washington, D.C. for his achievements in symphonic music for films, and \"as a pre-eminent composer and conductor [whose] scores have defined and inspired modern movie-going for decades.\" Williams was made an honorary brother of Kappa Kappa Psi at Boston University in the late 1980s. In 2012, Williams received the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music. In 2013, Williams was presented with the Ken Burns Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2020, Williams won the Grammy Award for \"Best Instrumental Composition\" for composing \"Star Wars: Galaxy’s Edge Symphonic Suite\", and he received his 52nd Oscar nomination for \"Best Original Score\" at the 92nd Academy Awards for \".\" In 2020, Williams was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award in the category of Arts (jointly with Ennio Morricone)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Childhood.", "Legal studies and work.", "Personal life.", "Early political career.", "1986–2010: Rise within the National Front.", "2010–11: Leadership campaign.", "Controversy.", "Leadership of the National Front.", "De-demonization of the FN.", "First steps as a new leader: 2011.", "First presidential candidacy: 2011–2012.", "Electoral progress: 2012–2016.", "Second presidential candidacy: 2016–2017.", "Leading candidate in polls.", "Campaign.", "Second round.", "Member of Parliament: 2017–present.", "Political positions.", "Media image.", "National media.", "International media.", "Elections contested.", "European elections.", "Parliamentary elections.", "Paris in 1993.", "Lens in 2002.", "Hénin-Beaumont in 2007.", "Hénin-Beaumont in 2012.", "Regional elections.", "Nord-Pas-de-Calais in 1998.", "Île-de-France in 2004.", "Nord-Pas-de-Calais in 2010.", "Municipal elections.", "Hénin-Beaumont in 2008.", "2009 Hénin-Beaumont by-election.", "Political mandates.", "European mandates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Marion Anne Perrine Le Pen was born on 5 August 1968 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, the youngest of three daughters of Jean-Marie Le Pen, a Breton politician and former paratrooper, and his first wife, Pierrette Lalanne. She was baptized 25 April 1969, at La Madeleine by Father Pohpot. Her godfather was Henri Botey, a relative of her father. She has two sisters: Yann and Marie Caroline. In", "Le Pen studied law at Panthéon-Assas University, graduating with a Master of Laws in 1991 and a Master of Advanced Studies (DEA) in criminal law in 1992. Registered at the Paris bar association, she worked", "Le Pen was raised Roman Catholic. In 1995, she married Franck Chauffroy, a business executive who worked for the National Front. She has three children with Chauffroy (Jehanne, Louis, and Mathilde). After her divorce from Chauffroy in 2000, she married Eric Lorio in 2002, the former national secretary of the National Front and a former adviser to the Regional election", "", "Marine Le Pen joined the FN in 1986, at the age of 18. She acquired her first political mandate in 1988 when she was elected a Regional Councillor for Nord-Pas-de-Calais. In the same year, she joined the FN's juridical branch, which she led until 2003. In 2000,", "Early in 2010, Le Pen expressed her intention to run for leader of the FN, saying that she hoped to make the party \"a big popular party that addresses itself not only to the electorate on the right but to all the French people\". On 3 September 2010, she launched her leadership campaign at Cuers, Var. During a meeting in Paris on 14 November 2010, she said that her goal was \"not only to assemble our political family. It consists of shaping the Front National as the center of grouping of the whole French people\", adding that in her view the FN leader should be the party's candidate in the 2012 presidential election. She spent four months campaigning for the FN leadership, holding meetings with FN members in 51 departments. All the other departments were visited", "Marine Le Pen received substantial media attention during the campaign as a result of comments, made during a speech to party members in Lyon on 10 December 2010, in which she compared the blocking of public streets and squares in French cities (in particular rue Myrha in the 18th arrondissement of Paris) for Muslim prayers with the Nazi occupation of France. She said: Her comments were criticised. François Baroin, the government spokesman, rejected her provocation and hatred of others. The Representative Council of French Jewish Institutions (CRIF), the French Council of Muslim Faith (CFCM) and the International League against Racism and Anti-Semitism (LICRA) condemned her statement, and groups including MRAP (Movement Against", "", "Marine Le Pen is often judged to be generally more moderate than her father, Jean-Marie Le Pen. Commentators have highlighted how her calm image contrasts with the stereotypes generally attributed to her political family. At the beginning of her media rise, she often talked about her particular treatment as the daughter of \"Le Pen\" and of the 1976 attack (then the biggest bomb explosion in France since World War II). It has been seen as a way to humanize her party. For example, Bernard-Henri Lévy, a strong opponent of the FN, talked about \"a far-right with a human face\". Journalist Michèle Cotta claims that the fact she is a young woman condemning racism and refusing her father's", "As a president of the Front National, Marine Le Pen currently sits as an \"ex officio\" member among the FN Executive Office (8 members), the Executive Committee (42 members) and the Central Committee (3 \"ex officio\" members, 100 elected members, 20 co-opted members). During her opening speech in Tours on 16 January 2011, she advocated to \"restore the political framework of the national community\" and to implement the direct democracy which enables the \"civic responsibility and the collective tie\" thanks to the participation of public-spirited citizens for the decisions. The predominant political theme was the uncompromising defence of a protective and efficient state, which favours secularism, prosperity and liberties. She also denounced the \"Europe", "On 16 May 2011, Marine Le Pen's presidential candidacy was unanimously approved by the FN Executive Committee. On 10 and 11 September 2011, she launched her presidential campaign in Nice. On 6 October 2011, she held a press conference to introduce the members of her presidential campaign team. In a speech in Paris on 19 November 2011, Le Pen presented the main themes of her presidential campaign: sovereignty of the people and democracy, Europe, re-industrialisation and a strong state, family and education, immigration and assimilation versus communitarianism, geopolitics and international politics. At a press conference on 12 January 2012, she presented a detailed assessment of her presidential project, and", "Following the increase in support for the FN in the presidential election, Le Pen announced the formation an electoral coalition to contest the June 2012 parliamentary elections called the Blue Marine Gathering. Standing as a candidate in the Pas-de-Calais' 11th constituency, Le Pen won 42.36% of the vote, well ahead of the Socialist representative Philippe Kemel (23.50%) and far-left candidate Jean-Luc Mélenchon (21.48%). She was beaten in the second round with 49.86% and filed an appeal with the Constitutional Council, which", "", "Marine Le Pen announced her candidacy for the 2017 French presidential election on 8 April 2016, and from the start maintained high support in opinion polling. She appointed FN Senator David Rachline as her campaign manager. The FN had difficulty finding funding because of the refusal of French banks to provide credit. Instead, the NF borrowed 9 million from the First Czech-Russian Bank in Moscow in 2014, despite European Union sanctions placed on Russia following the annexation of Crimea. In February 2016, the FN asked Russia for another loan, this time of 27 million, but the second loan was not paid. Political analysts suggested that Le Pen's strong position in opinion polls was due to the absence of a primary in her party (consolidating her leadership), the news of the migrant crisis and terrorist attacks in France (reinforcing her political positions) and the very right-wing campaign of Nicolas Sarkozy in the Republican primary (enlarging her themes). In a 2016 interview with the BBC, Le Pen said that Donald Trump's victory in the US Presidential", "On 2 March 2017, the European Parliament voted to revoke Le Pen's immunity from prosecution for tweeting violent imagery. Le Pen had tweeted an image of beheaded journalist James Foley in December 2015, which was deleted following a request from Foley's family. Le Pen also faced prosecution for allegedly spending EU Parliament funds on her own political party; the lifting of her immunity from prosecution did not apply to the ongoing investigation into the misuse of parliamentary funds by the FN. Le Pen met with several incumbent heads of state including Lebanon's Michel Aoun, Chad's Idriss Déby, and Russia's Vladimir Putin. The ground floor of the building which housed Le Pen's campaign headquarters was targeted by an arson attempt during the early morning of 13 April 2017. In 2017, Le Pen argued that France as a nation bore no", "Le Pen won 21.3% of the vote (7.7 million votes) in the first round of the election on 23 April 2017, placing her second behind Macron, who received 24.0%, meaning that they would face each other in the run-off on 7 May. On 24 April 2017, the day after the first round of voting, Le Pen announced that she would temporarily step down as the leader of the NF in an attempt to unite voters. \"The President of the Republic is the president of all the French people, they must bring them all together,\" she said. After progressing to the second round, she said that the campaign was now \"a referendum for or against France\" and tried to convince those voting for the hard-left candidate Jean-Luc Mélenchon to support her. This choice was later criticised by those in her party who believed", "On 18 May 2017, Le Pen announced that she would run as a candidate at the parliamentary elections in the Pas-de-Calais's 11th constituency, in her fifth attempt to be elected as a deputy. She received just under 46% of the vote in the first round, and won the second with just", "Marine Le Pen contends that the FN's immigration programme is better known among the voters; she has thus concentrated on the party's economic and social programmes. Described as more democratic and republican than her nationalist father, Jean-Marie Le Pen, the previous leader of the FN, she has attempted to shift the party's image, based on reformulated policy positions, and has changed some political positions of the party, advocating for civil unions for same-sex couples, accepting unconditional abortion and withdrawing the death penalty from her platform. On economic policy, Le Pen favours protectionism as an alternative to free trade. She supports economic nationalism, the separation of investment and retail banking, and energy diversification, and is opposed to the privatization of public services and social security, speculation on international commodity markets, and the Common Agricultural Policy. Le Pen is opposed to globalization, which she blames for various negative economic trends, and opposes European", "", "Le Pen's appearances on television and radio have played an important role in her political career, and her political activities are regularly covered in the French media. During an appearance on the programme \"Mots croisés\" (Crossed Words) on France 2 on 5 October 2009, Le Pen quoted sections of Frédéric Mitterrand's autobiographical novel \"The Bad Life\", accusing him of having sex with underage boys and engaging in sex tourism, and demanding his resignation as Minister of Culture. According to French political commentator Jérôme Fourquet, the Mitterrand case was Le Pen's media breakthrough. Le Pen appeared several times on \"À vous de juger\" (You Be The Judge), a political discussion show on France 2 hosted by journalist and commentator Arlette Chabot. In her first appearance, on 14 January 2010, Marine Le Pen appeared opposite Éric Besson, Minister of Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Mutually Supportive Development. In her first appearance as", "Le Pen has appeared in the news media of other European countries, Russia, the Middle East, and the United States. She appeared on Quebec web-radio station Rockik in December 2008, Radio Canada in May 2010, and the Israeli radio station 90FM in March 2011. In March 2011, she appeared on the front cover of \"The Weekly Standard\" magazine. She spoke to international journalists at a press conference on 13 January 2012, organised by the European American Press Club. On 21 April 2011, she was featured in", "", "In the 2004 European Parliament election, Le Pen led the FN list in the Île-de-France constituency. The list polled 8.58% (234,893 votes), winning one of fourteen available seats. In the 2009 European parliament election, Le Pen led the FN list in", "", "Le Pen first stood for parliament in the 1993 legislative election, in Paris' 16th constituency (17th arrondissement", "She stood in the 2002 election in Pas-de-Calais' 13th constituency, Lens, an economically deprived socialist stronghold. Le Pen polled 24.24% (10,228", "In the 2007 election, Le Pen and her substitute Steeve Briois stood for the FN in the Pas-de-Calais' 14th constituency, Hénin-Beaumont, a former coal mining area with high unemployment. Le Pen expressed the view that due to unemployment, offshoring and insecurity, the constituency symbolised the major problems of France. Le Pen's campaign committee was led by Daniel Janssens, who had previously served for 24 years as the socialist deputy mayor of Leforest. Le Pen finished second of fourteen candidates", "In the 2012 election, Le Pen, now leader of the FN, stood in Pas-de-Calais' 11th constituency, which now contained Henin-Beaumont following redistricting, where she had got her best results in the presidential election. Her opponents were Philippe Kemel and Jean-Luc Mélenchon. She finished first in the first round on 10 June 2012, with 42.36% (22,280 votes), and was defeated in the second round by Philippe Kemel. In 2014, the Criminal Court of Bethune found Marine Le Pen guilty of electoral fraud, for producing and distributing flyers during the 2012 election purporting to be from electoral opponent Jean-Luc Mélenchon, calling for 'Arab' votes. She was ordered to pay a 10,000 fine.", "", "In the 1998 elections, she was included in the", "In the 2004 elections, she led the FN regional list in Île-de-France and the departmental list in Hauts-de-Seine. Her list polled 12.26% (448,983 votes) in the first round and achieved 10.11% (395,565 votes)", "In the 2010 elections, Marine Le Pen led the FN regional list in Nord-Pas-de-Calais and the departmental list in Pas-de-Calais. In the first round, her list polled 18.31% (224.871 votes) and finished in third position in Nord-Pas-de-Calais. In Pas-de-Calais, her list polled 19.81% (96,556 votes), ahead of the UMP (15.91%, 77,550 votes), and won by a large margin in Hénin-Beaumont (39.08%, 2,949 votes). Le Pen's list achieved the second-highest result of FN regional lists in the country, behind her father Jean-Marie Le Pen's list in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, which received 20.30% (296,283 votes). In Pas-de-Calais, she received a higher share of the vote than Jean-Marie Le Pen had received in the first round of the 2002 presidential election (18.41%, 135,330", "", "Since 2001, Gérard Dalongeville has been the Mayor of Hénin-Beaumont, an economically deprived town in a former coal mining area. A municipal councillor since 1995, Steeve Briois led the FN list with Marine Le", "A municipal by-election was held in Hénin-Beaumont on 28 June and 5 July 2009. As in 2008, Steeve Briois was the FN top candidate with Le Pen in second position. The FN list led by a large margin after the first round, with 39.33% (4,485 votes), and received 47.62% (5,504 votes) in the run-off, with eight councillors elected, though the FN again failed to win the municipality. Briois, Le Pen and the six other FN councillors formed the opposition against the new mayor Daniel Duquenne and his successor Eugène Binaisse. On 24 February 2011, Le Pen resigned as a municipal councillor because of the law on the accumulation of mandates (\"cumul des mandats\"). In a letter entitled \"I stay in Hénin-Beaumont!\", she expressed the view that her political activities would be more effective for the city at regional and European levels than in the municipal council.", "", "Member of the European Parliament in the Île-de-France constituency (20 July 2004 – 13 July 2009): Non-Inscrits (20 July 2004 – 14 January 2007/14" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early examples.", "England.", "Art.", "Study and collection.", "Contemporary bookplates and their collection." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The earliest known marks of ownership of books or documents date from the reign of Amenophis III in Egypt (1391−1353 BCE). However, in their modern form, they evolved from simple inscriptions in books which were common in Europe in the Middle Ages, when various other forms of \"librarianship\" became widespread (such as the use of class-marks, call-numbers, or shelfmarks). The earliest known examples of printed bookplates are German, and date from the 15th century. One of the best known is a small hand-coloured woodcut representing a shield of arms supported by an angel, which was pasted into books presented to the Carthusian monastery of Buxheim by Brother Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach, about the year 1480—the date being fixed by that of the recorded gift. The woodcut, in imitation of similar devices in old manuscripts, is hand-painted. An example of this bookplate can be found in the Farber Archives of Brandeis University. In France the most ancient ex-libris as yet discovered is that of one Jean Bertaud de la Tour-Blanche, the date of which is 1529. Holland comes next with the plate of Anna van der Aa, in 1597; then Italy with one attributed to the year 1622. The earliest known American example is the plain printed label of Stephen Daye, the Massachusetts printer of the Bay Psalm Book, 1642. A sketch of the history of the bookplate, as a symbolical and decorative print used to mark ownership of books, begins in Germany. The earliest examples known are German, but also they are found in great numbers long before the fashion spread to other countries, and are often of the highest artistic interest. Albrecht Dürer is known to have engraved at least six plates (some quite large) between 1503 and 1516, and to have supplied designs for several others. Notable plates are ascribed to Lucas Cranach and to Hans Holbein, and to the so-called \"Little Masters\" (Masters of the small format—the Behams, Virgil Solis, Matthias Zundt, Jost Amman, Saldorfer, Georg Hupschmann and others). The influence of these draftsman over the decorative styles of Germany has been felt through subsequent centuries down to the present day, notwithstanding the invasion of successive Italian and French fashions during the 17th and 18th centuries, and the marked effort at originality of composition observable among modern designers. The ornate and elaborate German style does not seem to have affected neighbouring countries; but as it was undoubtedly from Germany that the fashion for ornamental bookplates spread, the history of German ex-libris remains of great interest to all those who are interested in their development. It was not before the 17th century that printed ex-libris became common in France. Up to that time, the more luxurious habit of blind or gold-stamping the book's binding with a personal device had been more widespread: the supralibros. From the middle of the century, however, the ex-libris proper became quite popular; examples of that period are numerous, and, as a rule, very handsome. It may be here pointed out that the term \"ex-libris\", used as a substantive (\"Exlibris\" (written in one word) in German) found its origin in France.", "In many ways the consideration of the English bookplate, in its numerous styles, from the late Elizabethan to the late Victorian period, is particularly interesting. In all its varieties it reflects with great fidelity the prevailing taste in decorative art at different epochs—as bookplates do in all countries. Of English examples, none thus far seems to have been discovered of older date than the gift plate of Sir Nicholas Bacon; for the celebrated, gorgeous, hand-painted armorial device attached to a folio that once belonged to Henry VIII, and now is located in the King's library, British Museum, does not fall in the category of bookplates in its modern sense. The next is that of Sir Thomas Tresham, dated 1585. Until the last quarter of the 17th century the number of authentic English plates is very limited. Their composition is always remarkably simple, and displays nothing of the German elaborateness. They are as a rule very plainly armorial, and the decoration is usually limited to a symmetrical arrangement of mantling, with an occasional display of palms or wreaths. Soon after the Restoration, however, a bookplate seems to have suddenly become an established accessory to most well-ordered libraries. The first recorded use of the phrase \"book plate\" was in 1791 by John Ireland in \"Hogarth Illustrated\". Bookplates of that period offer very distinctive characteristics. In the simplicity of their heraldic arrangements they recall those of the previous age; but their physiognomy is totally different. In the first place, they invariably display the tincture lines and dots, after the method originally devised in the middle of the century by Petra Sancta, the author of \"Tesserae Gentilitiae,\" which by this time had become adopted throughout Europe. In the second, the mantling assumes a much more elaborate appearance—one that irresistibly recalls that of the periwig of the period surrounding the face of the shield. This style was undoubtedly imported from France, but it assumed a character of its own in England. From then until the dawn of the French Revolution, English modes of decoration in bookplates, as in most other chattels, follow at some years' distance the ruling French taste. The main characteristics of the style which prevailed during the Queen Anne and early Georgian periods are: ornamental frames suggestive of carved oak, a frequent use of fish-scales, trellis or diapered patterns, for the decoration of plain surfaces; and, in the armorial display, a marked reduction in the importance of the mantling. The introduction of the scallop-shell as an almost constant element of ornamentation gives already a foretaste of the Rocaille-Coquille, the so-called \"Chippendale fashions\" of the next reign. During the middle third of the century this rococo style (of which the Convers plate gives a typical sample) affects the bookplate as universally as all other decorative objects. Its chief element is a fanciful arrangement of scroll and shell work with curveting acanthus-like sprays—an arrangement which in the examples of the best period is generally made asymmetrical in order to give freer scope for a variety of countercurves. Straight or concentric lines and all appearances of flat surface are studiously avoided; the helmet and its symmetrical mantling tends to disappear, and is replaced by the plain crest on a fillet. The earlier examples of this manner are tolerably ponderous and simple. Later, however, the composition becomes exceedingly light and complicated; every conceivable and often incongruous element of decoration is introduced, from cupids to dragons, from flowerets to Chinese pagodas. During the early part of George III.'s reign there is a return to greater sobriety of ornamentation, and a style more truly national, which may be called the urn style, makes its appearance. Bookplates of this period have invariably a physiognomy which at once recalls the decorative manner made popular by architects and designers such as Chambers, the Adams, Josiah Wedgwood, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. The shield shows a plain spade-like outline, manifestly based upon that of the pseudo-classic urn then very alive. The ornamental accessories are symmetrical palms and sprays, wreaths and ribands. The architectural boss is also an important factor. In many plates, indeed, the shield of arms takes quite a subsidiary position by the side of the predominantly architectural urn. Some bookplates were issued by institutions, often religious ones, awarding books to individuals to recognise academic performance, good behaviour and the like. These would be inscribed with the name of the individual by hand. Such plates could be very elaborate, or very simple in their design, reflecting the character of the awarding institution. From the beginning of the 19th century, no special style of decoration seems to have established itself. The immense majority of examples display a plain shield of arms with motto on a scroll, and crest on a fillet. At the turn of the 20th century, however, a rapid impetus appears to have been given to the designing of ex-libris; a new era, in fact, had begun for the bookplate, one of great interest. The main styles of decoration (and these, other data being absent, must always in the case of old examples remain the criteria to date) have already been noticed. It is, however, necessary to point out that certain styles of composition were also prevalent at certain periods. Although the majority of the older plates were armorial, there were always pictorial examples as well, and these are the quasi-totality of modern ones. Of this kind the best-defined English genre may be recalled: \"the library interior\"—a term which explains itself—and \"book-piles,\" exemplified by the ex-libris of W. Hewer, Samuel Pepys's secretary. We have also many \"portrait-plates,\" of which, perhaps, the most notable are those of Samuel Pepys himself and of John Gibbs, the architect; \"allegories, \"such as were engraved by Hogarth, Bartolozzi, John Pine and George Vertue; \"landscape-plates, \"by wood-engravers of the Bewick school, &c. In most of these the armorial element plays but a secondary part.", "Until the advent of bookplate collectors and their frenzy for exchange, the devising of bookplates was almost invariably left to the routine skill of the heraldic-stationery salesman. Near the turn of the 20th century, the composition of personal book tokens became recognized as a minor branch of a higher art, and there has come into fashion an entirely new class of designs which, for all their wonderful variety, bear as unmistakable a character as that of the most definite styles of bygone days. Broadly speaking, it may be said that the purely heraldic element tends to become subsidiary and the allegorical or symbolic to assert itself more strongly. Among early 20th-century English artists who have more specially paid attention to the devising of bookplates, may be mentioned C. W. Sherborn, G. W. Eve, Robert Anning Bell, J. D. Batten, Erat Harrison, J. Forbes Nixon, Charles Ricketts, John Vinycomb, John Leighton and Warrington Hogg and Frank C. Papé. The development in various directions of process work, by facilitating and cheapening the reproduction of beautiful and elaborate designs, has no doubt helped much to popularize the bookplate—a thing which in older days was almost invariably restricted to ancestral libraries or to collections otherwise important. Thus the great majority of plates of the period 1880–1920 plates were reproduced by process. Some artists continued to work with the graver. Some of the work they produce challenges comparison with the finest productions of bygone engravers. Of these the best-known are C. W. Sherborn (see Plate) and G. W. Eve in England, and in America J. W. Spenceley of Boston, Mass., K. W. F. Hopson of New Haven, Conn., and E. D. French of New York City.", "Bookplates are very often of high interest (and of a value often far greater than the odd volume in which they are found affixed), either as specimens of bygone decorative fashion or as personal relics of well-known people. However the value attached to book plates, otherwise than as an object of purely personal interest, is comparatively modern. The study of and the taste for collecting bookplates hardly date farther back than the year 1860. The first real impetus was given by the appearance of \"A Guide to the Study of Book-Plates (Ex-Libris), \"by Lord de Tabley (then the Hon. J. Leicester Warren M.A.) in 1880 (published in London by John Pearson of 46 Pall Mall). This work, highly interesting from many points of view, established what is now accepted as the general classification of styles of British ex-libris: \"early armorial\" (i.e., previous to Restoration, exemplified by the Nicholas Bacon plate); \"Jacobean,\" a somewhat misleading term, but distinctly understood to include the heavy decorative manner of the Restoration, Queen Anne and early Georgian days (the Lansanor plate is Jacobean); \"Chippendale\" (the style above described as rococo\", \"tolerably well represented by the French plate of Convers); \"wreath and ribbon, \"belonging to the period described as that of the urn, etc. Since then the literature on the subject has grown considerably. Societies of collectors were founded, first in England in 1891, then in Germany and France, and later in the United States, most of them issuing a journal or archives: \"The Journal of the Ex-libris Society \"(London), the \"Archives de la Société française de collectionneurs d'ex-libris\" (Paris), both of these monthlies; the \"Ex-libris Zeitschrift\" (Berlin), a quarterly. In 1901–1903, the British Museum published the catalog of the 35,000 bookplates collected by Sir Augustus Wollaston Franks (1826–97). Bookplates, of which there are probably far more than a million extant examples worldwide, have become objects of collection. One of the first known English collectors was a Miss Maria Jenkins of Clifton, Bristol, who was active in the field during the second quarter of the 19th century. Her bookplates were later incorporated into the collection of Joseph Jackson Howard. Some collectors attempt to acquire plates of all kinds (for example, the collection of Irene Dwen Andrews Pace, now at Yale University, comprising 250,000 items). Other collectors prefer to concentrate on bookplates in special fields—for example, coats of arms, pictures of ships, erotic plates, chess pieces, legal symbols, scientific instruments, signed plates, proof-plates, dated plates, plates of celebrities, or designs by certain artists.", "Since the 1950s, there has been a renewed interest in the collection of bookplates and in many ways a reorientation of this interest. There are still substantial numbers of collectors for whom the study of bookplates spanning 500 years is a fascinating source of historical, artistic and socio-cultural interest. They have however been joined by a now dominant group of new collectors whose interest is more than anything the constitution—at quite reasonable cost—of a miniature, personalized art-print collection. In this miniature art museum, they gather together the works of their favorite artists. They commission numbered and signed editions of bookplates to their name which are never pasted into books but only serve for exchange purposes. More than 50 \"national\" societies of ex-libris collectors exist, grouped into an International Federation of Ex-libris Societies (FISAE) which organizes worldwide congresses every two years." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "The Schrödinger Hamiltonian.", "One particle.", "Schrödinger equation.", "Dirac formalism.", "Expressions for the Hamiltonian.", "Free particle.", "Constant-potential well.", "Simple harmonic oscillator.", "Rigid rotor.", "Electrostatic or coulomb potential.", "Electric dipole in an electric field.", "Magnetic dipole in a magnetic field.", "Charged particle in an electromagnetic field.", "Energy eigenket degeneracy, symmetry, and conservation laws.", "Hamilton's equations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Hamiltonian is the sum of the kinetic energies of all the particles, plus the potential energy of the particles associated with the system. The expression of the Hamiltonian can take different forms and simplifications taken into account the concrete characteristics of the system under analysis: single or several particles in the system; interaction between particles; kind of potential energy; time varying potential or time independent one; etc.", "", "By analogy with classical mechanics, the Hamiltonian is commonly expressed as the sum of operators corresponding to the kinetic and potential energies of a system in the form where is the potential energy operator and is the kinetic energy operator in which formula_7 is the mass of the particle, the dot denotes the dot product of vectors, and is the momentum operator where a formula_9 is the del operator. The dot product of formula_9 with itself is the Laplacian formula_11. In three dimensions using Cartesian coordinates the Laplace operator is However, complications can arise in the many-body problem. Since the potential energy depends on the spatial arrangement of the particles, the kinetic energy will also depend on the spatial configuration to conserve energy. The motion due to any one particle will vary due to the motion of all the other particles in the system. For this reason cross terms for kinetic energy may appear in the Hamiltonian; a mix of the gradients for two particles: where formula_14 denotes the mass of the collection of particles resulting in this extra kinetic energy. Terms of this form are known as \"mass polarization terms\", and appear in the Hamiltonian of many electron atoms (see below). For formula_15 interacting particles, i.e. particles which interact mutually and constitute a many-body situation, the potential energy function formula_16 is \"not\" simply a sum of the separate potentials (and certainly not a product, as this is dimensionally incorrect). The potential energy function can only be written as above: a function of all the spatial positions of each particle. For non-interacting particles, i.e. particles which do not interact mutually and move independently, the potential of the system is the sum of the separate potential energy for each particle, that is The general form of the Hamiltonian in this case is: where the sum is taken over all particles and their corresponding potentials; the result is that the Hamiltonian of the system is the sum of the separate Hamiltonians for each particle. This is an idealized situation—in practice the particles are almost always influenced by some potential, and there are many-body interactions. One illustrative example of a two-body interaction where this form would not apply is for electrostatic potentials due to charged particles, because they interact with each other by Coulomb interaction (electrostatic force), as shown below.", "The Hamiltonian generates the time evolution of quantum states. If formula_19 is the state of the system at time formula_20, then This equation is the Schrödinger equation. It takes the same form as the Hamilton–Jacobi equation, which is one of the reasons formula_1 is also called the Hamiltonian. Given the state at some initial time (formula_23), we can solve it to obtain the state at any subsequent time. In particular, if formula_1 is independent of time, then The exponential operator on the right hand side of the Schrödinger equation is usually defined by the corresponding power series in formula_1. One might notice that taking polynomials or power series of unbounded operators that are not defined everywhere may not make mathematical sense. Rigorously, to take functions of unbounded operators, a functional calculus is required. In the case of the exponential function, the continuous, or just the holomorphic functional calculus suffices. We note again, however, that for common calculations the physicists' formulation is quite sufficient. By the *-homomorphism property of the functional calculus, the operator is a unitary operator. It is the \"time evolution operator\", or \"propagator\", of a closed quantum system. If the Hamiltonian is time-independent, {formula_28} form a one parameter unitary group (more than a semigroup); this gives rise to the physical principle of detailed balance.", "However, in the more general formalism of Dirac, the Hamiltonian is typically implemented as an operator on a Hilbert space in the following way: The eigenkets (eigenvectors) of formula_1, denoted formula_30, provide an orthonormal basis for the Hilbert space. The spectrum of allowed energy levels of the system is given by the set of eigenvalues, denoted {formula_31}, solving the equation: Since formula_1 is a Hermitian operator, the energy is always a real number. From a mathematically rigorous point of view, care must be taken with the above assumptions. Operators on infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces need not have eigenvalues (the set of eigenvalues does not necessarily coincide with the spectrum of an operator). However, all routine quantum mechanical calculations can be done using the physical formulation.", "Following are expressions for the Hamiltonian in a number of situations. Typical ways to classify the expressions are the number of particles, number of dimensions, and the nature of the potential energy function—importantly space and time dependence. Masses are denoted by formula_7, and charges by formula_35.", "The particle is not bound by any potential energy, so the potential is zero and this Hamiltonian is the simplest. For one dimension: and in higher dimensions:", "For a particle in a region of constant potential formula_38 (no dependence on space or time), in one dimension, the Hamiltonian is: in three dimensions This applies to the elementary \"particle in a box\" problem, and step potentials.", "For a simple harmonic oscillator in one dimension, the potential varies with position (but not time), according to: where the angular frequency \"formula_42\", effective spring constant formula_43, and mass formula_7 of the oscillator satisfy: so the Hamiltonian is: For three dimensions, this becomes where the three-dimensional position vector formula_48 using cartesian coordinates is (formula_49, formula_50, formula_51), its magnitude is Writing the Hamiltonian out in full shows it is simply the sum of the one-dimensional Hamiltonians in each direction:", "For a rigid rotor—i.e., system of particles which can rotate freely about any axes, not bound in any potential (such as free molecules with negligible vibrational degrees of freedom, say due to double or triple chemical bonds), the Hamiltonian is: where formula_55, formula_56, and formula_57 are the moment of inertia components (technically the diagonal elements of the moment of inertia tensor), and formula_58, formula_59 and formula_60 are the total angular momentum operators (components), about the formula_49, formula_50, and formula_51 axes respectively.", "The Coulomb potential energy for two point charges formula_64 and formula_65 (i.e. charged particles, since particles have no spatial extent), in three dimensions, is (in SI units—rather than Gaussian units which are frequently used in electromagnetism): However, this is only the potential for one point charge due to another. If there are many charged particles, each charge has a potential energy due to every other point charge (except itself). For formula_15 charges, the potential energy of charge formula_68 due to all other charges is (see also Electrostatic potential energy stored in a configuration of discrete point charges): where formula_70 is the electrostatic potential of charge formula_68 at formula_72. The total potential of the system is then the sum over formula_73: so the Hamiltonian is:", "For an electric dipole moment formula_76 constituting charges of magnitude formula_35, in a uniform, electrostatic field (time-independent) formula_78, positioned in one place, the potential is: the dipole moment itself is the operator Since the particle is stationary, there is no translational kinetic energy of the dipole, so the Hamiltonian of the dipole is just the potential energy:", "For a magnetic dipole moment formula_82 in a uniform, magnetostatic field (time-independent) formula_83, positioned in one place, the potential is: Since the particle is stationary, there is no translational kinetic energy of the dipole, so the Hamiltonian of the dipole is just the potential energy: For a Spin-1⁄2 particle, the corresponding spin magnetic moment is: where formula_87 is the spin gyromagnetic ratio (a.k.a. \"spin g-factor\"), formula_88 is the electron charge, formula_89 is the spin operator vector, whose components are the Pauli matrices, hence", "For a particle with mass formula_7 and charge formula_35 in an electromagnetic field, described by the scalar potential formula_93 and vector potential formula_94, there are two parts to the Hamiltonian to substitute for. The canonical momentum operator formula_95, which includes a contribution from the formula_94 field and fulfils the canonical commutation relation, must be quantized; where formula_98 is the kinetic momentum operator. The quantization prescription reads so the corresponding kinetic energy operator is and the potential energy, which is due to the formula_93 field, is given by Casting all of these into the Hamiltonian gives", "In many systems, two or more energy eigenstates have the same energy. A simple example of this is a free particle, whose energy eigenstates have wavefunctions that are propagating plane waves. The energy of each of these plane waves is inversely proportional to the square of its wavelength. A wave propagating in the formula_49 direction is a different state from one propagating in the formula_50 direction, but if they have the same wavelength, then their energies will be the same. When this happens, the states are said to be \"degenerate\". It turns out that degeneracy occurs whenever a nontrivial unitary operator formula_106 commutes with the Hamiltonian. To see this, suppose that formula_107 is an energy eigenket. Then formula_108 is an energy eigenket with the same eigenvalue, since Since formula_106 is nontrivial, at least one pair of formula_107 and formula_108 must represent distinct states. Therefore, formula_1 has at least one pair of degenerate energy eigenkets. In the case of the free particle, the unitary operator which produces the symmetry is the rotation operator, which rotates the wavefunctions by some angle while otherwise preserving their shape. The existence of a symmetry operator implies the existence of a conserved observable. Let formula_114 be the Hermitian generator of formula_106: It is straightforward to show that if formula_106 commutes with formula_1, then so does formula_114: Therefore, In obtaining this result, we have used the Schrödinger equation, as well as its dual, Thus, the expected value of the observable formula_114 is conserved for any state of the system. In the case of the free particle, the conserved quantity is the angular momentum.", "Hamilton's equations in classical Hamiltonian mechanics have a direct analogy in quantum mechanics. Suppose we have a set of basis states formula_124, which need not necessarily be eigenstates of the energy. For simplicity, we assume that they are discrete, and that they are orthonormal, i.e., Note that these basis states are assumed to be independent of time. We will assume that the Hamiltonian is also independent of time. The instantaneous state of the system at time formula_20, formula_127, can be expanded in terms of these basis states: where The coefficients formula_130 are complex variables. We can treat them as coordinates which specify the state of the system, like the position and momentum coordinates which specify a classical system. Like classical coordinates, they are generally not constant in time, and their time dependence gives rise to the time dependence of the system as a whole. The expectation value of the Hamiltonian of this state, which is also the mean energy, is where the last step was obtained by expanding formula_127 in terms of the basis states. Each formula_130 actually corresponds to \"two\" independent degrees of freedom, since the variable has a real part and an imaginary part. We now perform the following trick: instead of using the real and imaginary parts as the independent variables, we use formula_130 and its complex conjugate formula_135. With this choice of independent variables, we can calculate the partial derivative By applying Schrödinger's equation and using the orthonormality of the basis states, this further reduces to Similarly, one can show that If we define \"conjugate momentum\" variables formula_139 by then the above equations become which is precisely the form of Hamilton's equations, with the formula_142s as the generalized coordinates, the formula_139s as the conjugate momenta, and formula_144 taking the place of the classical Hamiltonian." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Junior world championships.", "World championships.", "Martin Johansson 2009 WOC injury.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "After 2000, Michal started training on his own. The same year he won two Junior world championships (short distance and relay). Together with the Czech team, he defended the relay gold next year and won individual bronze medals in short and long distance runs.", "His first successes in adult competitions were two gold and one silver medal in University world championships in 2004. However, in 2005 he failed to qualify for the World Orienteering Championship (WOC) and also got a serious ankle injury. Those failures pushed Michal to reconsider his training and to change the club to Swedish Södertalje-Nykvarn Orientering. The changes worked well and Michal progressed to the 4th place at 2006 WOC long distance competition. In 2008 he won his first, and the only so far WOC medal - a silver in the middle distance run. In 8 years through August 2009 he has participated in 96 IOF world ranking races. After WOC 2009, Michal ranked 29th in the world in foot orienteering. His highest rank ever was 8th, in 2008.", "At WOC 2009 in Miskolc, Hungary, during the last leg of the relay race Thierry Gueorgiou (France), Anders Nordberg (Norway), and Smola were close behind the lead runner, Martin Johansson (Sweden), when Johansson suffered a 12 cm deep penetrating trauma from a stick in his right thigh. While Nordberg ran for help, Gueorgiou and Smola stayed with Johansson; they pulled out the stick, harnessed the wound using a shirt and a GPS tracking strap and then carried Johansson to a road. Nordberg brought a physician there.", "Michal is a doctoral student at Tomas Bata University in Zlín at the Faculty of Applied Informatics, Department of Electrotechnics and Measurements. His hobbies include travel, cross-country skiing, cycling, climbing, photography, music and watching movies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Taxonomy.", "Subspecies.", "Phylogeny.", "Characteristics.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Ecology and behavior.", "Hunting and diet.", "Reproduction.", "Threats.", "Conservation status.", "In captivity.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"ocelot\" comes from the Nahuatl word (), which generally refers to the jaguar rather than the ocelot. Another possible origin for the name is the Latin (\"having little eyes\" or \"marked with eye-like spots\"), in reference to the cat's spotted coat. Other vernacular names for the ocelot include (Venezuela), (Argentina), (Panama), (Suriname), (Brazil), (Costa Rica, Panama and Venezuela), (Brazil),,,,, (Belize), (Bolivia) and (Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala and Peru).", "\"Felis pardalis\" was the scientific name proposed for the ocelot by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The genus \"Leopardus\" was proposed by John Edward Gray in 1842 for several spotted cat skins in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London. Several ocelot specimens were described in the 19th and 20th centuries, including:", "In 1919, Allen reviewed the specimens described until 1914, placed them into the genus \"Leopardus\" and recognized nine subspecies as valid taxa based on the colors and spot patterns of skins. In 1941, Pocock reviewed dozens of ocelot skins in the collection of the Natural History Museum and regrouped them to nine different subspecies, also based on their colors and spots. Later authors recognized 10 subspecies as valid. In 1998, results of a mtDNA control region analysis of ocelot samples indicated that four major ocelot groups exist, one each in Central America, northwestern South America, northeastern South America and southern South America south of the Amazon River. A 2010 study of morphological features noted significant differences in the size and color of the Central and South American populations, suggesting they could be separate species. In 2013, a study of craniometric variation and microsatellite diversity in ocelots throughout the range recognized three subspecies: \"L. p. albescens\" from the Texas–Mexico border, \"L. p. pardis\" from Central America and \"L. p. pseudopardalis\" from South America, though \"L. p. mitis\" may comprise the ocelot population in the southern part of South America. In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group noted that up to four subspecies can be identified, but recognized only two as valid taxa. These two taxa differ in morphological features and are geographically separated by the Andes:", "Results of a phylogenetic study indicate that the \"Leopardus\" lineage genetically diverged from the Felidae around 8 million years ago (mya). The ocelot is estimated to have diverged from the margay (\"Leopardus wieldii\") between 2.41 and 1.01 mya. The relationships of the ocelot within the Felidae is considered as follows:", "The ocelot's fur is extensively marked with solid black markings on a creamy, tawny, yellowish, reddish gray or gray background color. The spots on the head and limbs are small, but markings on the back, cheeks and flanks are open or closed bands and stripes. A few dark stripes run straight from the back of the neck up to the tip of the tail. Its neck and undersides are white, the insides of the legs are marked with a few horizontal streaks. Its round ears are marked with a bright white spot. Each ocelot has a unique color pattern which can be used to identify specific individuals. Its fur is short, about long on the belly, but with about long guard hairs on the back. It has 28 to 30 teeth, with the dental formula. Its eyes are brown but reflect golden when illuminated. The body has a notably strong odor. The ocelot is a medium-sized cat with a head-and-body length of between and a tail. It typically reaches at the shoulder. The weight of females ranges between and of males between. Its footprint measures nearly. The ocelot can be easily confounded with the margay (\"Leopardus wiedii\") and the oncilla (\"L. tigrinus\"), though the ocelot is noticeably larger and heavier with a shorter tail. Though all three have rosettes on their coats, the ocelot typically has a more blotched pattern; the oncilla has dark spots on its underbelly unlike the other two. Other differences lie in the facial markings, appearance of the tail and fur characteristics. The ocelot is similar in size to a bobcat (\"Lynx rufus\"), though larger individuals have occasionally been recorded. The jaguar is notably larger and heavier, and has rosettes instead of spots and stripes.", "The ocelot ranges from the southwestern United States to northern Argentina, up to an elevation of. It inhabits tropical forests, thorn forests, mangrove swamps and savannas. A 2019 study in the Brazilian Amazon showed that it prefers habitats with good availability of prey and water, and tends to avoid other predators. It favors areas with dense forest cover and water sources, far from roads and human settlement, avoiding steep slopes and highly elevated areas due to lack of prey. In areas where ocelots coexist with larger predators such as the cougar and human beings, they may tune their active hours to avoid them, and seek dense cover to avoid competitors. It can adapt well to its surroundings; as such, factors other than the aforementioned are not significant in its choice of habitat. It shares a large part of its range with the jaguar, jaguarundi, margay, oncilla and cougar.", "The ocelot is usually solitary and active mainly during twilight and at night. Radio collared individuals in the Cocha Cashu Biological Station in Peru rested during the day and became active earliest in the late afternoon; they moved between 3.2 and 17 hours until dawn and then returned to their dens. During the daytime, it rests on trees, in dens below large trees or other cool, sheltered sites on the ground. It is agile in climbing and leaping, and escapes predators by jumping on trees. It is also an efficient swimmer. It scent-marks its territory by spraying urine. The territories of males are large, while those of females cover. Territories of females rarely overlap, whereas the territory of a male includes those of two to three females. Social interaction between sexes is minimal, though a few adults have been observed together even in non-mating periods, and some juveniles interact with their parents. Data from camera trapping studies confirm that several ocelot individuals deposit scat in one or several communal sites, called latrines. The ocelot can be aggressive in defending its territory, fighting even to death. The population density of ocelots has been observed to be high in areas with high rainfall, and tend to decrease with increasing latitude; highest densities have been recorded in the tropics. In 2014, the ocelot population density in Barro Colorado Island was estimated to be, greater than recorded in northwestern Amazon in Peru in 2010, which was the densest ocelot population recorded thus far. Predators of the ocelot in Texas include the bobcat, cougar, coyote, large raptors, feral dogs and pigs, American alligator, pit viper and human beings.", "Ocelots have been observed to follow scent trails to acquire prey. They walk slowly at a speed of about searching for prey. Alternatively, an ocelot may wait for prey for 30 to 60 minutes at a certain site, and move to another walking at if unsuccessful. An ocelot typically prefers hunting in areas with vegetation cover, avoiding open areas, especially on moonlit nights, so as not to be seen by the prey. As a carnivore it preys on small terrestrial mammals such as rodents, lagomorphs, armadillos, opossums, and also fish, insects, reptiles and small birds. It usually feeds on the kill immediately, but removes bird feathers before. It typically preys on animals that weigh less than, but rarely targets large animals such as deer and peccaries. An ocelot requires of food every day to satisfy its energy requirements. Primates prevail in the diet of ocelots in southeastern Brazil, and iguanas in a tropical deciduous forest in Mexico. The composition of the diet varies by season; in Venezuela, ocelots were found to prefer iguanas and rodents in the dry season and then switch to land crabs in the wet season. In southeastern Brazil, ocelots have a similar prey preference as margays and oncillas. The oncillas focus on tree-living marsupials and birds while the margays are not as selective.", "Both male and female ocelots produce a long-range \"yowl\" in the mating season as well as a short-range \"meow\". Ocelots can mate any time during the year. The peak mating season varies geographically; in Argentina and Paraguay peaks have been observed in autumn, and in Mexico and Texas in autumn and winter. Oestrus lasts four to five days, and recurs every 25 days in a non-pregnant female. A study in southern Brazil showed that sperm production in ocelots, margays and oncillas peaks in summer. Captive ocelots spend more time together when mating; both scent-mark extensively and eat less during this time. Breeding ocelots in captivity is often difficult. A litter of one to three is born after a gestational period of two to three months. Females give birth in dens, usually located in dense vegetation. A newborn kitten weighs. The kitten is born with spots and stripes, though on a gray background; the color changes to golden as the ocelot grows older. A study in southern Texas revealed that a mother keeps a litter in a den for 13 to 64 days, and shifts the young to two or three dens. The kitten's eyes open 15 to 18 days after birth. Kittens begin to leave the den at the age of three months. They remain with their mother for up to two years, and then start dispersing and establishing their own territory. In comparison to other felids, ocelots have a relatively longer duration between births and a narrow litter size. Captive ocelots live for up to 20 years.", "Throughout its range, the ocelot is threatened by loss and fragmentation of habitat. In Texas, the fertile land that supports dense cover and constitutes the optimum habitat for the ocelot is being lost to agriculture. The habitat is often fragmented into small pockets that cannot support ocelots well, leading to deaths due to starvation. Traffic accidents have emerged as a major threat over the years as ocelots try to expand beyond their natural habitat to new areas and get hit by vehicles. In the Atlantic Forest in northeastern Argentina, it is affected by logging and poaching of prey species. The fur trade was a flourishing business in the 1960s and the 1970s that resulted in severe exploitation of felids such as the ocelot and the jaguar. In the 1960s, ocelot skins were among the most highly preferred in the US, reaching an all-time high of 140,000 skins traded in 1970. This was followed by prohibitions on commercial trade of spotted cat skins in several range states such as Brazil and the US, causing ocelot skins in trade to plummet. In 1986, the European Economic Community banned import of ocelot skins, and in 1989, the ocelot was included in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. However, hunting of ocelots for skins has continued and is still a major threat to ocelot survival. Another threat has been the international pet trade; this typically involves capturing ocelot kittens by killing their mothers; these cats are then sold to tourists. Though it is banned in several countries, pet trade survives; in some areas of Central and South America ocelots are still sold in a few local markets.", "The ocelot is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List because of its wide distribution in the Americas. As of 2013, the global population was estimated at more than 40,000 mature individuals, with stable populations in some Amazon basin areas. As of 2012, the ocelot population in Argentina's subtropical regions was estimated to consist of 1,500 to 8,000 mature individuals. It has been recorded in oil palm landscapes and big cattle ranches in the Colombian llanos and inter-Andean valleys. In Texas and northeastern Mexico, ocelot populations have reduced drastically; as of 2014, the population in Texas is estimated to be 50–80 individuals. The reduced numbers have led to increased inbreeding and low genetic diversity. Ocelot hunting has been banned in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, Uruguay and Venezuela; regulations have been placed on hunting in Peru. The US Fish and Wildlife Service, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and The Nature Conservancy are among agencies actively involved in ocelot conservation efforts, such as the protection and regeneration of vegetation in the Rio Grande Valley.", "The American Zoo and Aquarium Association established a Species Survival Plan for the Brazilian ocelot. In 2006, the captive population in North American zoos consisted of 16 ocelots representing six founders and their offspring. Some litters were produced using artificial insemination. The Emperor Valley Zoo in Trinidad keeps foremost confiscated and trapped ocelots.", "Ocelots have been associated with humans since the time of the Aztec and Incan civilizations, who depicted ocelots in their art and mythology. Ocelot bones were made into thin, pointed instruments to pierce ears and limbs for ritual bloodletting. Several figurines depicting ocelots and similar felids are known. In her 1904 work \"A Penitential Rite of the Ancient Mexicans\", archaeologist Zelia Nuttall described a statue depicting an ocelot or a tiger excavated in Mexico City and its relation to the Aztec deity Tezcatlipoca. She argued that the sculpture depicted an ocelot, writing, Moreover, she described a photograph of a seated person to corroborate her claim: Like many other felids, ocelots are occasionally kept as pets. Mindy Stinner (of the Conservators Center, Burlington) notes that ocelots, unlike caracals and servals, might demand a lot of attention from their owners. They have a tendency to chew on or suck on objects, such as fabric and the fingers of their owners; this can lead them to accidentally ingest objects like tennis balls. Agile and playful, pet ocelots can be troublesome to keep due to their habit of leaping around and potentially damaging objects; ocelots may unintentionally injure their owners from bites. Nevertheless, carefully raised ocelots can be highly affectionate to their owners. Painter Salvador Dalí owned a pet ocelot named Babou that was seen with him at many places he visited, including a voyage aboard SS \"France\". When one of the diners at a New York restaurant was alarmed by the ocelot, Dali told her that it was a common domestic cat that he had \"painted over in an op art design\". Opera singer Lily Pons and musician Gram Parsons are also known to have owned ocelots." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Relationship with the CDU.", "Leaders.", "Ministers-President." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Franz Josef Strauß (1915–1988) had left behind the strongest legacy as a leader of the party, having led the party from 1961 until his death in 1988. His political career in the federal cabinet was unique in that he had served four ministerial posts in the years between 1953 and 1969. From 1978 until his death in 1988, Strauß served as the Minister-President of Bavaria. Strauß was the first leader of the CSU to be a candidate for the German chancellery in 1980. In the 1980 federal election, Strauß ran against the incumbent Helmut Schmidt of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), but lost thereafter as the SPD and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) managed to secure an absolute majority together, forming a social-liberal coalition. The CSU has led the Bavarian state government since it came into existence in 1946, save from 1954 to 1957 when the SPD formed a state government in coalition with the Bavaria Party and the state branches of the GB/BHE and FDP. Before the 2008 elections in Bavaria, the CSU perennially achieved absolute majorities at the state level by itself. This level of dominance is unique among Germany's 16 states. Edmund Stoiber took over the CSU leadership in 1999. He ran for Chancellor of Germany in 2002, but his preferred CDU/CSU–FDP coalition lost against the SPD candidate Gerhard Schröder's SPD–Green alliance. In the 2003 Bavarian state election, the CSU won 60.7% of the vote and 124 of 180 seats in the state parliament. This was the first time any party had won a two thirds majority in a German state parliament. \"The Economist\" later suggested that this exceptional result was due to a backlash against Schröder's government in Berlin. The CSU's popularity declined in subsequent years. Stoiber stepped down from the posts of Minister-President and CSU chairman in September 2007. A year later, the CSU lost its majority in the 2008 Bavarian state election, with its vote share dropping from 60.7% to 43.4%. The CSU remained in power by forming a coalition with the FDP. In the 2009 general election, the CSU received only 42.5% of the vote in Bavaria in the 2009 election, which constitutes its weakest showing in the party's history. The CSU made gains in the 2013 Bavarian state election and the 2013 federal election, which were held a week apart in September 2013. The CSU regained their majority in the Bavarian Landtag and remained in government in Berlin. They have three ministers in Angela Merkel's current cabinet, namely Horst Seehofer (Minister of the Interior, Building and Community), Andreas Scheuer (Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure) and Gerd Müller (Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development). The CSU forms after 2018 Bavarian state election on October 14, 2018 a new government with partner Free Voters of Bavaria.", "The CSU is the sister party of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU). Together, they are called The Union. The CSU operates only within Bavaria and the CDU operates in all other states, but not Bavaria. While virtually independent, at the federal level the parties form a common CDU/CSU faction. No Chancellor has ever come from the CSU, although Strauß and Edmund Stoiber were CDU/CSU candidates for Chancellor in the 1980 federal election and the 2002 federal election, respectively, which were both won by the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). Below the federal level, the parties are entirely independent. Since its formation, the CSU has been more conservative than the CDU. The CSU and the state of Bavaria decided not to sign the \"Grundgesetz\" of the Federal Republic of Germany as they could not agree with the division of Germany into two states after World War II. Although Bavaria like all German states has a separate police and justice system (distinctive and non-federal), the CSU has actively participated in all political affairs of the German Parliament, the German government, the German Bundesrat, the parliamentary elections of the German President, the European Parliament and meetings with Mikhail Gorbachev in Russia. Like the CDU, the CSU is pro-European, although some Eurosceptic tendencies were shown in the past.", "", "The CSU has contributed eleven of the twelve Ministers-President of Bavaria since 1945, with only Wilhelm Hoegner (1945–1946, 1954–1957) of the SPD also holding the office." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Early years.", "Study in Paris.", "1925 to 1935.", "1935 to 1950.", "1950s and 1960s.", "Later years.", "Personal life.", "Music.", "Influences.", "Early works.", "Populist works.", "Film scores.", "Later works.", "Critic, writer, teacher.", "Conductor.", "Legacy.", "In popular culture.", "Selected works.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Aaron Copland was born in Brooklyn, New York, on November 14, 1900. He was the youngest of five children in a Conservative Jewish family of Lithuanian origins. While emigrating from Russia to the United States, Copland's father, Harris Morris Copland, lived and worked in Scotland for two to three years to pay for his boat fare to the US. It was there that Copland's father may have Anglicized his surname \"Kaplan\" to \"Copland\", though Copland himself believed for many years that the change had been due to an Ellis Island immigration official when his father entered the country. Copland was however unaware until late in his life", "Copland's passion for the latest European music, plus glowing letters from his friend Aaron Schaffer, inspired him to go to Paris for further study. An article in \"Musical America\" about a summer school program for American musicians at the Fontainebleau School of Music, offered by the French government, encouraged Copland still further. His father wanted him to go to college, but his mother's vote in the family conference allowed him to give Paris a try. On arriving in France, he studied at Fontainebleau with pianist and pedagogue Isidor Philipp and composer Paul Vidal. When Copland found Vidal too much like Goldmark, he switched at the suggestion of a fellow student to Nadia Boulanger, then aged 34. He had initial reservations: \"No one to my knowledge had ever before thought of studying with a woman.\" She interviewed him, and recalled later: \"One could tell his talent immediately.\" Boulanger had as many as 40 students at once and employed a formal regimen that Copland had to follow. Copland found her incisive mind much to his liking and found her ability to critique a composition impeccable. Boulanger \"could always find the weak spot in a place you suspected was weak...", "Instead of wallowing in self-pity and self-destruction like many of the expatriate members of the Lost Generation, Copland returned to America optimistic and enthusiastic about the future, determined to make his way as a full-time composer. He rented a studio apartment on New York City's Upper West Side in the Empire Hotel, close to Carnegie Hall and other musical venues and publishers. He remained in that area for the next thirty years, later moving to Westchester County, New York. Copland lived frugally and survived financially with help from two $2,500 Guggenheim Fellowships in 1925 and 1926 (). Lecture-recitals, awards, appointments, and small commissions, plus some teaching, writing, and personal loans kept him afloat in the subsequent years through World War II. Also important, especially during the Depression, were wealthy patrons who underwrote performances, helped pay for publication of works and promoted musical events and composers. Among those mentors was Serge Koussevitzky, the music", "Around 1935 Copland began to compose musical pieces for young audiences, in accordance with the first goal of American Gebrauchsmusik. These works included piano pieces (\"The Young Pioneers\") and an opera (\"The Second Hurricane\"). During the Depression years, Copland traveled extensively to Europe, Africa, and Mexico. He formed an important friendship with Mexican composer Carlos Chávez and would return often to Mexico for working vacations conducting engagements. During his initial visit to Mexico, Copland began composing the first of his signature works, \"El Salón México\", which he completed in 1936. In it and in \"The Second Hurricane\" Copland began \"experimenting\", as he phrased it, with a simpler,", "In 1950, Copland received a U.S.-Italy Fulbright Commission scholarship to study in Rome, which he did the following year. Around this time, he also composed his Piano Quartet, adopting Schoenberg's twelve-tone method of composition, and \"Old American Songs\" (1950), the first set of which was premiered by Peter Pears and Benjamin Britten, the second by William Warfield. During the 1951–52 academic year, Copland gave a series of lectures under the Charles Eliot Norton Professorship at Harvard University. These lectures were published as the book \"Music and Imagination\". Because of his leftist views, which had included his support of the Communist Party USA ticket during the 1936 presidential election and his strong support of Progressive Party candidate Henry A. Wallace during the 1948 presidential election, Copland was investigated by the FBI during the Red scare of the 1950s. He was included on an", "From the 1960s, Copland turned increasingly to conducting. Though not enamored with the prospect, he found himself without new ideas for composition, saying, \"It was exactly as if someone had simply turned off a faucet.\" He became a frequent guest conductor in the United States and the United Kingdom and made a series of recordings of his music, primarily for Columbia Records. In 1960, RCA Victor released Copland's recordings with the Boston Symphony Orchestra of the orchestral suites from \"Appalachian Spring\" and \"The", "Copland never enrolled as a member of any political party. Nevertheless, he inherited a considerable interest in civic and world events from his father. His views were generally progressive and he had strong ties with numerous colleagues and friends in the Popular Front, including Odets. Early in his life, Copland developed, in Pollack's words, \"a deep admiration for the works of Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser and Upton Sinclair, all socialists whose novels passionately excoriated capitalism's physical and emotional toll on the", "Vivian Perlis, who collaborated with Copland on his autobiography, writes: \"Copland's method of composing was to write down fragments of musical ideas as they came to him. When he needed a piece, he would turn to these ideas (his 'gold nuggets').\" if one or more of these nuggets looked promising, he would then write a piano sketch and eventually work on them at the keyboard. The piano, Perlis writes, \"was so integral to his composing that it permeated his compositional style, not only in the frequent use in the instrument but in more subtle and complex ways\". His habit of turning to the keyboard tended to embarrass Copland until he learned that Stravinsky also did so. Copland would not consider the specific instrumentation for a piece until it was complete and notated. Nor, according to Pollack, did he generally work in linear fashion, from beginning to end of a composition. Instead, he tended to compose whole sections in no particular order and surmise their eventual sequence after all those parts were complete, much like assembling a collage. Copland himself admitted, \"I don't compose. I assemble materials.\" Many times, he included material he had written years earlier. If the situation dictated, as it did with his film scores, Copland could work quickly. Otherwise, he tended to write slowly whenever possible. Even with this deliberation, Copland considered composition, in his words, \"the product of the emotions\", which included \"self-expression\" and \"self-discovery\".", "While Copland's earliest musical inclinations as a teenager ran toward Chopin, Debussy, Verdi and the Russian composers, Copland's teacher and mentor Nadia Boulanger became his most important influence. Copland especially admired Boulanger's total grasp of all classical music, and he was encouraged to experiment and develop a \"clarity of conception and elegance in proportion\". Following her model, he studied all periods of classical music and all forms—from madrigals to symphonies. This breadth of vision led Copland to compose music for numerous settings—orchestra, opera, solo piano, small ensemble, art song, ballet, theater and film. Boulanger particularly emphasized \"la grande ligne\" (the long line), \"a sense of forward motion... the feeling for inevitability, for the creating of an entire piece that could be thought of as a functioning entity\". During his studies with Boulanger in Paris, Copland was excited to be so close to the new post-Impressionistic French music of Ravel, Roussel, and Satie, as well as Les six, a group that included Milhaud, Poulenc, and Honegger. Webern, Berg, and Bartók also impressed him. Copland was \"insatiable\" in seeking out the", "Copland's compositions before leaving for Paris were mainly short works for piano and art songs, inspired by Liszt and Debussy. In them, he experimented with ambiguous beginnings and endings, rapid key changes, and the frequent use of tritones. His first published work, \"The Cat and the Mouse\" (1920), was a piece for piano solo based on the Jean de la Fontaine fable. In \"Three Moods\" (1921), Copland's final movement is entitled \"Jazzy\", which he noted \"is based on two jazz melodies and ought to make the old professors sit up and take notice\". The Symphony for Organ and Orchestra established Copland as a serious modern composer. Musicologist Gayle Murchison cites Copland's use melodic, harmonic and rhythmic elements endemic in jazz, which he would also use in his \"Music for the Theater\" and Piano Concerto to evoke an essentially \"American\" sound. he fuses these qualities with modernist elements such as octatonic and whole-tone scales, polyrhythmic ostinato figures, and dissonant counterpoint. Murchinson points out the influence of Igor Stravinsky in the work's nervous, driving rhythms and some of its", "Copland wrote \"El Salón México\" between 1932 and 1936, which met with a popular acclaim that contrasted the relative obscurity of most of his previous works. Inspiration for this work came from Copland's vivid recollection of visiting the \"Salon Mexico\" dancehall where he witnessed a more intimate view of Mexico's nightlife. Copland derived his melodic material for this piece freely from two collections of Mexican folk tunes, changing pitches and varying rhythms. The use of a folk tune with variations set in a symphonic context started a", "When Hollywood beckoned concert hall composers in the 1930s with promises of better films and higher pay, Copland saw both a challenge for his abilities as a composer as well as an opportunity to expand his reputation and audience for his more serious works. In a departure from other film scores of the time, Copland's work largely reflected his own style, instead of the usual borrowing from the late-Romantic period. He often avoided the full orchestra, and he", "Copland's work in the late 1940s and 1950s included use of Schoenberg's twelve-tone system, a development that he had recognized but not fully embraced. He had also believed the atonality of serialized music to run counter to his desire to reach a wide audience. Copland therefore approached dodecaphony with some initial skepticism. While in Europe in 1949, he heard a number of serial works but did not admire much of it because \"so often it seemed that individuality was sacrificed to the method\". The music of French composer Pierre", "Copland did not consider himself a professional writer. He called his writing \"a byproduct of my trade\" as \"a kind of salesman for contemporary music\". As such, he wrote prolifically about music, including pieces on music criticism analysis, on musical trends, and on his own compositions. An avid lecturer and lecturer-performer, Copland eventually collected his presentation notes into three books, \"What to Listen for in Music\" (1939), \"Our New Music\" (1941), and \"Music and Imagination\" (1952). In the 1980s, he collaborated with Vivian Perlis on a two-volume autobiography, \"Copland: 1900 Through 1942\" (1984) and \"Copland Since 1943\" (1989). Along with the composer's first-person narrative, these two books incorporate 11 \"interludes\" by Perlis and other sections from friends and peers. Some controversy arose over the second volume's increased reliance over the first on old documents for source material. Due to the then-advanced stage of Copland's Alzheimer's and the resulting memory loss, however, this fallback to previous material was inevitable. The use", "Although Copland studied conducting in Paris in 1921, he remained essentially a self-taught conductor with a very personal style. Encouraged by Igor Stravinsky to master conducting and perhaps emboldened by Carlos Chavez's efforts in Mexico, he began to direct his own works on his international travels in the 1940s. By the 1950s, he was also conducting the works of other composers, and after a televised appearance where he directed the New York Philharmonic, Copland became in high demand. He placed a strong emphasis in his programs on 20th-century music and lesser-known composers, and until the 1970s rarely planned concerts to feature", "Copland wrote a total of about 100 works which covered a diverse range of genres. Many of these compositions, especially orchestral pieces, have remained part of the standard American repertoire. According to Pollack, Copland \"had perhaps the most distinctive and identifiable musical voice produced by this country so far, an individuality... that helped define for many what American concert music sounds like at its most characteristic and that exerted enormous influence on multitudes of contemporaries and successors.\" His synthesis of influences and inclinations helped create the \"Americanism\" of his music. The", "Aaron Copland's music has served as the inspiration for a number of", "See also List", "The Aaron Copland Collection and the Online Aaron Copland Collection at the Library of Congress" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Origin and scope.", "Theory and methods.", "Differences with sociology.", "Varieties.", "Relationship with conversation analysis.", "Links with phenomenology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term's meaning can be broken down into its three constituent parts: \"ethno\" – \"method\" – \"ology\", for the purpose of explanation. Using an appropriate Southern California example: \"ethno\" refers to a particular socio-cultural group (for example, a particular, local community of surfers); \"method\" refers to the methods and practices this particular group employs in its everyday activities (for example, related to surfing); and \"ology\" refers to the systematic description of these methods and practices. The focus of the investigation used in our example is the social order of surfing, the ethnomethodological interest is in the \"how\" (the methods and practices) of the production and maintenance of this social order. In essence ethnomethodology attempts to create classifications of the social actions of individuals within groups through drawing on the experience of the groups directly, without imposing on the setting the opinions of the researcher with regards to social order, as is the case with sociological studies.", "The approach was originally developed by Harold Garfinkel, who attributed its origin to his work investigating the conduct of jury members in 1954. His interest was in describing the common sense methods through which members of a jury produce themselves in a jury room \"as a jury\". Thus, their methods for: establishing matters of fact; developing evidence chains; determining the reliability of witness testimony; establishing the organization of speakers in the jury room itself; and determining the guilt or innocence of defendants, etc. are all topics of interest. Such methods serve to constitute the social order of being a juror for the members of the jury, as well as for researchers and other interested parties, in that specific social setting. This interest developed out of Garfinkel's critique of Talcott Parsons' attempt to derive a general theory of society. This critique originated in his reading of Alfred Schutz, though Garfinkel ultimately revised many of Schutz's ideas. Garfinkel also drew on his study of the principles and practices of financial accounting; the classic sociological theory and methods of Durkheim and Weber; and the traditional sociological concern with the Hobbesian \"problem of order\". For the ethnomethodologist, participants produce the order of social settings through their shared sense making practices. Thus, there is an essential natural reflexivity between the activity of making sense of a social setting and the ongoing production of that setting; the two are in effect identical. Furthermore, these practices (or methods) are witnessably enacted, making them available for study. This opens up a broad and multi-faceted area of inquiry. John Heritage writes, \"In its open-ended reference to [the study of] any kind of sense-making procedure, the term represents a signpost to a domain of uncharted dimensions rather than a staking out of a clearly delineated territory.\"", "Ethnomethodology has perplexed commentators, due to its radical approach to questions of theory and method. With regard to theory, Garfinkel has consistently advocated an attitude of ethnomethodological indifference, a principled agnosticism with regard to social theory which insists that the shared understandings of members of a social setting under study take precedence over any concepts which a social theorist might bring to the analysis from outside that setting. This can be perplexing to traditional social scientists, trained in the need for social theory. A multiplicity of theoretical references by Anne Rawls, in her introduction to \"Ethnomethodology's Program\", might be interpreted to suggest a softening of this position towards the end of Garfinkel's life. However, the position is consistent with ethnomethodology's understanding of the significance of \"member's methods\", and with certain lines of philosophical thought regarding the philosophy of science (Polanyi 1958; Kuhn 1970; Feyerabend 1975), and the study of the actual practices of scientific procedure. It also has a strong correspondence with the later philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, especially as applied to social studies by Peter Winch. References are also made in Garfinkel's work to Husserl (Transcendental Phenomenology), Gurwitsch (Gestalt Theory), and, most frequently, of course, to the works of the social phenomenologist Alfred Schutz (Phenomenology of the Natural Attitude), among others. On the other hand, the authors and theoretical references cited by Garfinkel do not constitute a rigorous theoretical basis for ethnomethodology. Ethnomethodology is not Durkheimian, although it shares some of the interests of Durkheim; it is not phenomenology, although it borrows from Husserl and Schutz's studies of the lifeworld (\"Lebenswelt\"); it is not a form of Gestalt theory, although it describes social orders as having Gestalt-like properties; and, it is not Wittgensteinian, although it makes use of Wittgenstein's understanding of rule-use, etc. Instead, these borrowings are only fragmentary references to theoretical works from which ethnomethodology has appropriated theoretical ideas for the expressed purposes of \"doing\" ethnomethodological investigations. Similarly, ethnomethodology advocates no formal methods of enquiry, insisting that the research method be dictated by the nature of the phenomenon that is being studied. Ethnomethodologists have conducted their studies in a variety of ways, and the point of these investigations is \"to discover the things that persons in particular situations \"do\", the methods \"they\" use, to create the patterned orderliness of social life.\" Michael Lynch has noted that: \"Leading figures in the field have repeatedly emphasised that there is no obligatory set of methods [employed by ethnomethodologists], and no prohibition against using any research procedure whatsoever, if it is \"adequate\" to the particular phenomena under study\".", "Since ethnomethodology has become anathema to certain sociologists, and since those practicing it like to perceive their own efforts as constituting a radical break from prior sociologies, there has been little attempt to link ethnomethodology to these prior sociologies. However, whilst ethnomethodology is distinct from sociological methods, it does not seek to compete with it, or provide remedies for any of its practices. The Ethnomethodological approach differs as much from the sociological approach as sociology does from psychology even though both speak of social action. This does not mean that ethnomethodology does not use traditional sociological forms as a sounding board for its own programmatic development, or to establish benchmarks for the differences between traditional sociological forms of study and ethnomethodology as it only means that ethnomethodology was not established in order to: repair, criticize, undermine, or 'poke fun' at traditional sociological forms. In essence the distinctive difference between sociological approaches and ethnomethodology is that the latter adopts a commonsense attitude towards knowledge. In contrast to traditional sociological forms of inquiry, it is a hallmark of the ethnomethodological perspective that it does not make theoretical or methodological appeals to: outside assumptions regarding the structure of an actor or actors' characterisation of social reality; refer to the subjective states of an individual or groups of individuals; attribute conceptual projections such as, \"value states\", \"sentiments\", \"goal orientations\", \"mini-max economic theories of behavior\", etc., to any actor or group of actors; or posit a specific \"normative order\" as a transcendental feature of social scenes, etc. For the ethnomethodologist, the methodic realisation of social scenes takes place within the actual setting under scrutiny, and is structured by the participants in that setting through the reflexive accounting of that setting's features. The job of the Ethnomethodologist is to describe the methodic character of these activities, not account for them in a way that transcends that which is made available in and through the actual accounting practices of the individual's party to those settings. The differences can therefore be summed up as follows:", "According to George Psathas, five types of ethnomethodological study can be identified (Psathas 1995:139–155). These may be characterised as: Further discussion of the varieties and diversity of ethnomethodological investigations can be found in Maynard & Clayman's work.", "The relationship between ethnomethodology and conversation analysis has been contentious at times, given their overlapping interests, the close collaboration between their founders and the subsequent divergence of interest among many practitioners. In as much as the study of social orders is \"inexorably intertwined\" with the constitutive features of talk about those social orders, ethnomethodology is committed to an interest in both conversational talk, and the role this talk plays in the constitution of that order. Talk is seen as indexical and embedded in a specific social order. It is also naturally reflexive to and constitutive of that order. Anne Rawls pointed out: \"Many, in fact most, of those who have developed a serious interest in ethnomethodology have also used conversation analysis, developed by Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson, as one of their research tools.\" On the other hand, where the study of conversational talk is divorced from its situated context—that is, when it takes on the character of a purely technical method and \"formal analytic\" enterprise in its own right—it is not a form of ethnomethodology. The \"danger\" of misunderstanding here, as Rawls notes, is that conversation analysis can become just another formal analytic enterprise, like any other formal method which brings an analytical toolbox of preconceptions, formal definitions, and operational procedures to the situation/setting under study. When such analytical concepts are generated from within one setting and conceptually applied (generalised) to another, the (re)application represents a violation of the strong form of the \"unique adequacy requirement\" of methods.", "Even though ethnomethodology has been characterised as having a \"phenomenological sensibility\", and reliable commentators have acknowledged that \"there is a strong influence of phenomenology on ethnomethodology...\" (Maynard and Kardash 2007:1484), orthodox adherents to the discipline—those who follow the teachings of Garfinkel—do not represent it as a branch, or form, of phenomenology, or phenomenological sociology. The confusion between the two disciplines stems, in part, from the practices of some ethnomethodologists (including Garfinkel), who sift through phenomenological texts, recovering phenomenological concepts and findings relevant to their interests, and then transpose these concepts and findings to topics in the study of social order. Such interpretive transpositions do not make the ethnomethodologist a phenomenologist, or ethnomethodology a form of phenomenology. To further muddy the waters, some phenomenological sociologists seize upon ethnomethodological findings as examples of applied phenomenology; this even when the results of these ethnomethodological investigations clearly do not make use of phenomenological methods, or formulate their findings in the language of phenomenology. So called phenomenological analyses of social structures that do not have prima facie reference to any of the structures of intentional consciousness should raise questions as to the phenomenological status of such analyses. Garfinkel speaks of phenomenological texts and findings as being \"appropriated\" and intentionally \"misread\" for the purposes of exploring topics in the study of social order. These appropriations and methodical \"misread[ings]\" of phenomenological texts and findings are clearly made for the purposes of furthering ethnomethodological analyses, and should not be mistaken for logical extensions of these phenomenological texts and findings. Lastly, there is no claim in any of Garfinkel's work that ethnomethodology is a form of phenomenology, or phenomenological sociology. To state that ethnomethodology has a \"phenomenological sensibility\" or that \"there is a strong influence of phenomenology on ethnomethodology\" is not the equivalent of describing ethnomethodology as a form of phenomenology (see Garfinkel/Liberman 2007:3–7). Even though ethnomethodology is not a form of phenomenology, the reading and understanding of phenomenological texts, and developing the capability of seeing phenomenologically is essential to the actual doing of ethnomethodological studies. As Garfinkel states in regard to the work of the phenomenologist Aron Gurwitsch, especially his \"Field of Consciousness\" (1964: ethnomethodology's phenomenological \"urtext\"): \"you can't do anything unless you do read his texts.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure and properties.", "Uses.", "Polymerization.", "Oxidation.", "Halogenation and hydrohalogenation.", "Alkylation.", "Oxo reaction.", "Hydration.", "Dimerization to butenes.", "Fruit and flowering.", "Niche uses.", "Production.", "Industrial process.", "Laboratory synthesis.", "Biosynthesis.", "Ligand.", "History.", "Nomenclature.", "Safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "This hydrocarbon has four hydrogen atoms bound to a pair of carbon atoms that are connected by a double bond. All six atoms that comprise ethylene are coplanar. The H-C-H angle is 117.4°, close to the 120° for ideal sp2 hybridized carbon. The molecule is also relatively rigid: rotation about the C-C bond is a high energy process that requires breaking the π-bond. The π-bond in the ethylene molecule is responsible for its useful reactivity. The double bond is a region of high electron density, thus it is susceptible to attack by electrophiles. Many reactions of ethylene are catalyzed by transition metals, which bind transiently to the ethylene using both the π and π* orbitals. Being a simple molecule, ethylene is spectroscopically simple. Its UV-vis spectrum is still used as a test of theoretical methods.", "Major industrial reactions of ethylene include in order of scale: 1) polymerization, 2) oxidation, 3) halogenation and hydrohalogenation, 4) alkylation, 5) hydration, 6) oligomerization, and 7) hydroformylation. In the United States and Europe, approximately 90% of ethylene is used to produce ethylene oxide, ethylene dichloride, ethylbenzene and polyethylene. Most of the reactions with ethylene are electrophilic addition.", "Polyethylene consumes more than half of the world's ethylene supply. Polyethylene, also called \"polyethene\" and \"polythene\", is the world's most widely used plastic. It is primarily used to make films in packaging, carrier bags and trash liners. Linear alpha-olefins, produced by oligomerization (formation of short polymers) are used as precursors, detergents, plasticisers, synthetic lubricants, additives, and also as co-monomers in the production of polyethylenes.", "Ethylene is oxidized to produce ethylene oxide, a key raw material in the production of surfactants and detergents by ethoxylation. Ethylene oxide is also hydrolyzed to produce ethylene glycol, widely used as an automotive antifreeze as well as higher molecular weight glycols, glycol ethers and polyethylene terephthalate. Ethylene undergoes oxidation by palladium to give acetaldehyde. This conversion remains a major industrial process (10M kg/y). The process proceeds via the initial complexation of ethylene to a Pd(II) center.", "Major intermediates from the halogenation and hydrohalogenation of ethylene include ethylene dichloride, ethyl chloride and ethylene dibromide. The addition of chlorine entails \"oxychlorination\", i.e. chlorine itself is not used. Some products derived from this group are polyvinyl chloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, methyl chloroform, polyvinylidene chloride and copolymers, and ethyl bromide.", "Major chemical intermediates from the alkylation with ethylene is ethylbenzene, precursor to styrene. Styrene is used principally in polystyrene for packaging and insulation, as well as in styrene-butadiene rubber for tires and footwear. On a smaller scale, ethyltoluene, ethylanilines, 1,4-hexadiene, and aluminium alkyls. Products of these intermediates include polystyrene, unsaturated polyesters and ethylene-propylene terpolymers.", "The hydroformylation (oxo reaction) of ethylene results in propionaldehyde, a precursor to propionic acid and n-propyl alcohol.", "Ethylene has long represented the major nonfermentative precursor to ethanol. The original method entailed its conversion to diethyl sulfate, followed by hydrolysis. The main method practiced since the mid-1990s is the direct hydration of ethylene catalyzed by solid acid catalysts:", "Ethylene is dimerized by hydrovinylation to give \"n\"-butenes using processes licensed by Lummus or IFP. The Lummus process produces mixed \"n\"-butenes (primarily 2-butenes) while the IFP process produces 1-butene. 1-Butene is used as a comonomer in the production of certain kinds of polyethylene.", "Ethylene is a hormone that affects the ripening and flowering of many plants. It it widely used to control the freshness in horticulture and fruits.", "An example of a niche use is as an anesthetic agent (in an 85% ethylene/15% oxygen ratio). Other uses are to hasten the ripening of fruit, and as a welding gas.", "Global ethylene production was 107 million tonnes in 2005, 109 million tonnes in 2006, 138 million tonnes in 2010, and 141 million tonnes in 2011. By 2013, ethylene was produced by at least 117 companies in 32 countries. To meet the ever-increasing demand for ethylene, sharp increases in production facilities are added globally, particularly in the Mideast and in China.", "Ethylene is produced by several methods in the petrochemical industry. A primary method is steam cracking (SC) where hydrocarbons and steam are heated to 750–950 °C. This process converts large hydrocarbons into smaller ones and introduces unsaturation. When ethane is the feedstock, ethylene is the product. Ethylene is separated from the resulting mixture by repeated compression and distillation. In Europe and Asia, ethylene is obtained mainly from cracking naphtha, gasoil and condensates with the coproduction of propylene, C4 olefins and aromatics (pyrolysis gasoline). Other technologies employed for the production of ethylene include oxidative coupling of methane, Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, methanol-to-olefins (MTO), and catalytic dehydrogenation.", "Although of great value industrially, ethylene is rarely synthesized in the laboratory and is ordinarily purchased. It can be produced via dehydration of ethanol with sulfuric acid or in the gas phase with aluminium oxide.", "Ethylene is produced from methionine in nature. The immediate precursor is 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid.", "Ethylene is a fundamental ligand in transition metal alkene complexes. One of the first organometallic compounds, Zeise's salt is a complex of ethylene. Useful reagents containing ethylene include Pt(PPh)(CH) and RhCl(CH). The Rh-catalysed hydroformylation of ethylene is conducted on industrial scale to provide propionaldehyde.", "Some geologists and scholars believe that the famous Greek Oracle at Delphi (the Pythia) went into her trance-like state as an effect of ethylene rising from ground faults. Ethylene appears to have been discovered by Johann Joachim Becher, who obtained it by heating ethanol with sulfuric acid; he mentioned the gas in his \"Physica Subterranea\" (1669). Joseph Priestley also mentions the gas in his \"Experiments and observations relating to the various branches of natural philosophy: with a continuation of the observations on air\" (1779), where he reports that Jan Ingenhousz saw ethylene synthesized in the same way by a Mr. Enée in Amsterdam in 1777 and that Ingenhousz subsequently produced the gas himself. The properties of ethylene were studied in 1795 by four Dutch chemists, Johann Rudolph Deimann, Adrien Paets van Troostwyck, Anthoni Lauwerenburgh and Nicolas Bondt, who found that it differed from hydrogen gas and that it contained both carbon and hydrogen. This group also discovered that ethylene could be combined with chlorine to produce the \"oil of the Dutch chemists\", 1,2-dichloroethane; this discovery gave ethylene the name used for it at that time, \"olefiant gas\" (oil-making gas.) The term olefiant gas is in turn the etymological origin of the modern word \"olefin\", the class of hydrocarbons in which ethylene is the first member. In the mid-19th century, the suffix \"-ene\" (an Ancient Greek root added to the end of female names meaning \"daughter of\") was widely used to refer to a molecule or part thereof that contained one fewer hydrogen atoms than the molecule being modified. Thus, \"ethylene\" () was the \"daughter of ethyl\" (). The name ethylene was used in this sense as early as 1852. In 1866, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann proposed a system of hydrocarbon nomenclature in which the suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine, -one, and -une were used to denote the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogens than their parent alkane. In this system, ethylene became \"ethene\". Hofmann's system eventually became the basis for the Geneva nomenclature approved by the International Congress of Chemists in 1892, which remains at the core of the IUPAC nomenclature. However, by that time, the name ethylene was deeply entrenched, and it remains in wide use today, especially in the chemical industry. Following experimentation by Luckhardt, Crocker, and Carter at the University of Chicago, ethylene was used as an anesthetic. It remained in use through the 1940s use even while chloroform was being phased out. Its pungent odor and its explosive nature limit its use today.", "The 1979 IUPAC nomenclature rules made an exception for retaining the non-systematic name \"ethylene\"; however, this decision was reversed in the 1993 rules, and it remains unchanged in the newest 2013 recommendations, so the IUPAC name is now \"ethene\". Note that in the IUPAC system, the name \"ethylene\" is reserved for the divalent group -CHCH-. Hence, names like \"ethylene oxide\" and \"ethylene dibromide\" are permitted, but the use of the name \"ethylene\" for the two-carbon alkene is not. Nevertheless, use of the name \"ethylene\" for HC=CH is still prevalent among chemists in North America.", "Like all hydrocarbons, ethylene is an asphyxiant and combustible. It is listed as an IARC class 3 carcinogen as there is no evidence at present that it causes cancer in humans." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins and early life.", "King of Hungary.", "Family." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to the anonymous author of the \"Gesta Hungarorum\", Samuel's family descended from two \"Cuman\" chieftains, Ed and Edemen, who received \"a great land in the forest of Mátra\" from Árpád, Grand Prince of the Hungarians around 900. In contrast, the \"Illuminated Chronicle\" and other 14th-century Hungarian chronicles describe Ed and Edemen as the sons of Csaba himself a son of Attila the Hun by a lady from Khwarezm. Since all Hungarian chronicles emphasize the Orientaleither \"Cuman\" or \"Khwarezmian\" origin of Ed and Edemen, Gyula Kristó, László Szegfű and other historians propose that the Aba clan descending from them ruled the Kabars, a people of Khazar origin who joined the Hungarians in the middle of the 9th century, before the Hungarians' arrival in the Carpathian Basin around 895. Kristó argues that both Samuel's Khazar origin and his first name suggest that he was born to a family that adhered to Judaism. Despite the uncertainty over the clan's origins, Samuel undoubtedly descended from a distinguished family, since an unnamed sister of Stephen I, who had in 1000 or 1001 been crowned the first King of Hungary, was given in marriage to a member of the Aba clan around 1009. However, historians still debate whether Samuel himself or Samuel's father married the royal princess. If Samuel was her husband, he must have been born before 990 and converted either from Judaism or paganismto Christianity when he married Stephen I's sister. His Christian credentials are further evidenced by Samuel's establishment of an abbey at Abasár which was recorded by Hungarian chronicles. According to Gyula Kristó and other historians, Samuel's conversion coincided with the creation of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Eger encompassing his domains. Samuel held important offices during the reign of King Stephen. Pál Engel proposes that Abaújvár (\"Aba's new castle\") was named after him, implying that he was also the first \"ispán\", or head, of that fortress and the county surrounding it. Samuel was a member of the royal council and became the first palatine of Hungary. The death of King Stephen on 15 August 1038 led to his nephew, Peter Orseolo of Venice, ascending to the throne. The new monarch preferred his German and Italian courtiers and set aside the native lords, including Samuel. In 1041, discontented Hungarian noblemen expelled King Peter in a coup d'état and elected Samuel king.", "Samuel abolished all laws introduced by Peter the Venetian and had many of his predecessor's supporters killed or tortured. The contemporaneous Hermann of Reichenau even called him \"the tyrant of Hungary\" in his \"Chronicon\". Hungarian chronicles sharply criticized Samuel for socializing with the peasants instead of the nobles. Samuel even abolished some levies payable by the commoners. Following his ousting, Peter the Venetian took refuge in Germany. In response, Samuel stormed Austria in 1042, provoking a retaliatory invasion by the German monarch, Henry III in 1043. It forced Samuel to renounce all Hungarian territories to the west of the rivers Leitha and Morava as well as agree to the payment of a tribute. The funding of the tribute payment was through new taxes on the Christian prelates and seizure of Church estates. This policy caused discontent even among the members of Samuel's own council. He had a number of his councillors executed during Lent. In order to punish the king, Bishop Gerard of Csanád (modern-day Cenad, Romania) refused to perform the annual ceremony of putting the royal crown Gerard upon the monarch's head at Easter. King Henry III again invaded Hungary in 1044 to restore Peter the Venetian. The decisive battle was fought at Ménfő near Győr, where Samuel's army was routed. Samuel's fate following the battle is still uncertain. According to nearly contemporaneous German sources, he was captured in short order and executed on Peter the Venetian's command. However, 14th-century Hungarian chronicles narrate that he fled up the river Tisza where he was seized and murdered by the locals. The latter sources further state that Samuel was first buried in a nearby church, but was later transferred to his family's monastery at Abasár.", "No report on the fate of Samuel's widow and children has been preserved. Even so, historiansincluding Gyula Kristó and László Szegfűsuppose that the powerful Aba family descended from him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synthesis.", "Uses.", "Sweetener.", "Medical applications.", "Laxative.", "Other medical applications.", "Health care, food, and cosmetic uses.", "Miscellaneous uses.", "Medical importance.", "Adverse medical effects.", "Overdose effects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sorbitol may be synthesised via a glucose reduction reaction in which the converted aldehyde group is converted into a hydroxyl group. The reaction requires NADH and is catalyzed by aldose reductase. Glucose reduction is the first step of the polyol pathway of glucose metabolism, and is implicated in multiple diabetic complications. The mechanism involves a tyrosine residue in the active site of aldehyde reductase. The hydrogen atom on NADH is transferred to the electrophilic aldehyde carbon atom; electrons on the aldehyde carbon-oxygen double bond are transferred to the oxygen that abstracts the proton on tyrosine side chain to form the hydroxyl group. The role of aldehyde reductase tyrosine phenol group is to serve as a general acid to provide proton to the reduced aldehyde oxygen on glucose.", "", "Sorbitol is a sugar substitute, and when used in food it has the INS number and E number 420. Sorbitol is about 60% as sweet as sucrose (table sugar). Sorbitol is referred to as a nutritive sweetener because it provides dietary energy: 2.6 kilocalories (11 kilojoules) per gram versus the average 4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) for carbohydrates. It is often used in diet foods (including diet drinks and ice cream), mints, cough syrups, and sugar-free chewing gum. Most bacteria cannot use sorbitol for energy, but it can be slowly fermented in the mouth by \"Streptococcus mutans\", a bacterium that causes tooth decay. In contrast, many other sugar alcohols such as isomalt and xylitol are considered non-acidogenic. It also occurs naturally in many stone fruits and berries from trees of the genus \"Sorbus\".", "", "As is the case with other sugar alcohols, foods containing sorbitol can cause gastrointestinal distress. Sorbitol can be used as a laxative when taken orally or as an enema. Sorbitol works as a laxative by drawing water into the large intestine, stimulating bowel movements. Sorbitol has been determined safe for use by the elderly, although it is not recommended without the advice of a doctor. Sorbitol is found in some dried fruits and may contribute to the laxative effects of prunes. Sorbitol was first discovered in the fresh juice of mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia) berries in 1872. It is also found in the fruits of apples, plums, pears, cherries, dates, peaches and apricots.", "Sorbitol is used in bacterial culture media to distinguish the pathogenic from most other strains of \"E. coli\", because it is usually unable to ferment sorbitol, unlike 93% of known \"E. coli\" strains. A treatment for hyperkalaemia (elevated blood potassium) uses sorbitol and the ion-exchange resin sodium polystyrene sulfonate (tradename Kayexalate). The resin exchanges sodium ions for potassium ions in the bowel, while sorbitol helps to eliminate it. In 2010, the U.S. FDA issued a warning of increased risk for gastrointestinal necrosis with this combination. Sorbitol is also used in the manufacture of softgel capsules to store single doses of liquid medicines.", "Sorbitol often is used in modern cosmetics as a humectant and thickener. It is also used in mouthwash and toothpaste. Some transparent gels can be made only with sorbitol, because of its high refractive index. Sorbitol is used as a cryoprotectant additive (mixed with sucrose and sodium polyphosphates) in the manufacture of surimi, a processed fish paste. It is also used as a humectant in some cigarettes. Beyond its use as a sugar substitute in reduced-sugar foods, Sorbitol is also used as a humectant in cookies and low-moisture foods like peanut butter and fruit preserves. In baking, it is also valuable because it acts as a plasticizer, and slows down the staling process.", "A mixture of sorbitol and potassium nitrate has found some success as an amateur solid rocket fuel. Sorbitol is identified as a potential key chemical intermediate for production of fuels from biomass resources. Carbohydrate fractions in biomass such as cellulose undergo sequential hydrolysis and hydrogenation in the presence of metal catalysts to produce sorbitol. Complete reduction of sorbitol opens the way to alkanes, such as hexane, which can be used as a biofuel. Hydrogen required for this reaction can be produced by aqueous phase catalytic reforming of sorbitol. The above chemical reaction is exothermic, and 1.5 moles of sorbitol generate approximately 1 mole of hexane. When hydrogen is co-fed, no carbon dioxide is produced. Sorbitol based polyols are used in the production of polyurethane foam for the construction industry. It is also added after electroporation of yeasts in transformation protocols, allowing the cells to recover by raising the osmolarity of the medium.", "Aldose reductase is the first enzyme in the sorbitol-aldose reductase pathway responsible for the reduction of glucose to sorbitol, as well as the reduction of galactose to galactitol. Too much sorbitol trapped in retinal cells, the cells of the lens, and the Schwann cells that myelinate peripheral nerves, is a frequent result of long-term hyperglycemia that accompanies poorly controlled diabetes. This can damage these cells, leading to retinopathy, cataracts and peripheral neuropathy, respectively. Aldose reductase inhibitors, which are substances that prevent or slow the action of aldose reductase, are currently being investigated as a way to prevent or delay these complications. Sorbitol is fermented in the colon and produces short-chain fatty acids, which are beneficial to overall colon health.", "People with untreated celiac disease often present sorbitol malabsorption, as a result of the small bowel damage. Sorbitol malabsorption is an important cause for persisting symptoms in patients already on a gluten-free diet. The sorbitol hydrogen breath test has been suggested as a tool to detect celiac disease because of a strict correlation between cut-off value and intestinal lesions. Nevertheless, although it may be indicated for research purposes, it is not yet recommended as a diagnostic tool in clinical practice. It has been noted that the sorbitol added to sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS, used in the treatment of hyperkalemia) can cause complications in the gastrointestinal tract, including bleeding, perforated colonic ulcers, ischemic colitis and colonic necrosis, particularly in patients with uremia. Risk factors for sorbitol-induced damage include immunosuppression, hypovolemia, postoperative setting, hypotension after hemodialysis, and peripheral vascular disease. SPS-sorbitol should therefore be used carefully in the management of hyperkalemia.", "Ingesting large amounts of sorbitol can lead to abdominal pain, flatulence, and mild to severe diarrhea. Habitual sorbitol consumption of over per day as sugar-free gum has led to severe diarrhea, causing unintended weight loss or even requiring hospitalization. In early studies, a dose of 25g of sorbitol, eaten through the day, produced a laxative effect in only 5% of individuals. As a result of the large molecular weight of sorbitol, when large amounts of sorbitol are ingested, only a small amount of sorbitol is absorbed in the small intestine, and most of the sorbitol enters the colon, with consequent gastrointestinal effects." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Stereochemistry.", "Production.", "-(+)-Tartaric acid.", "Racemic tartaric acid.", "\"meso\"-Tartaric acid.", "Reactivity.", "Derivatives.", "Tartaric acid in wine.", "Tartaric acid in fruits.", "Superconductivity.", "Applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Tartaric acid has been known to winemakers for centuries. Written record of its extraction from wine-making residues was made \"circa\" 800 AD, by the alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān. The chemical process for extraction was developed in 1769 by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Tartaric acid played an important role in the discovery of chemical chirality. This property of tartaric acid was first observed in 1832 by Jean Baptiste Biot, who observed its ability to rotate polarized light. Louis Pasteur continued this research in 1847 by investigating the shapes of sodium ammonium tartrate crystals, which he found to be chiral. By manually sorting the differently shaped crystals, Pasteur was the first to produce a pure sample of levotartaric acid.", "Naturally occurring tartaric acid is chiral, and is a useful raw material in organic chemical synthesis. The naturally occurring form of the acid is dextrotartaric acid or -(+)-tartaric acid (obsolete name \"d\"-tartaric acid). Because it is available naturally, it is slightly cheaper than its enantiomer and the meso isomer. The \"dextro\" and \"levo\" prefixes are archaic terms. Modern textbooks refer to the natural form as (2\"R\",3\"R\")-tartaric acid (-(+)-tartaric acid), and its enantiomer as (2\"S\",3\"S\")-tartaric acid (D-(-)-tartaric acid). The \"meso\" diastereomer is (2\"R\",3\"S\")-tartaric acid (which is identical with ‘(2\"S\",3\"R\")-tartaric acid’). Whereas the two chiral stereoisomers rotate plane polarized light in opposite directions, solutions of meso-tartaric acid do not rotate plane-polarized light. The absence of optical activity is due to a mirror plane in the molecule [segmented line in picture below]. Tartaric acid in Fehling's solution binds to copper(II) ions, preventing the formation of insoluble hydroxide salts.", "", "The -(+)-tartaric acid isomer of tartaric acid is industrially produced in the largest amounts. It is obtained from lees, a solid byproduct of fermentations. The former byproducts mostly consist of potassium bitartrate (KHCHO). This potassium salt is converted to calcium tartrate (CaCHO) upon treatment with milk of lime (Ca(OH)): In practice, higher yields of calcium tartrate are obtained with the addition of calcium chloride. Calcium tartrate is then converted to tartaric acid by treating the salt with aqueous sulfuric acid:", "Racemic tartaric acid (\"i.e\".: a 50:50 mixture of -(−)-tartaric acid and -(+)-tartaric acid molecules, racemic acid) can be prepared in a multistep reaction from maleic acid. In the first step, the maleic acid is epoxidized by hydrogen peroxide using potassium tungstate as a catalyst. In the next step, the epoxide is hydrolyzed.", "\"meso\"-Tartaric acid is formed \"via\" thermal isomerization. \"dextro\"-Tartaric acid is heated in water at 165 °C for about 2 days. \"meso\"-Tartaric acid can also be prepared from dibromosuccinic acid using silver hydroxide: \"meso\"-Tartaric acid can be separated from residual racemic acid by crystallization, the racemate being less soluble.", "L-(+)-tartaric acid, can participate in several reactions. As shown the reaction scheme below, dihydroxymaleic acid is produced upon treatment of L-(+)-tartaric acid with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a ferrous salt. Dihydroxymaleic acid can then be oxidized to tartronic acid with nitric acid.", "Important derivatives of tartaric acid include its salts, cream of tartar (potassium bitartrate), Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate, a mild laxative), and tartar emetic (antimony potassium tartrate). Diisopropyl tartrate is used as a co-catalyst in asymmetric synthesis. Tartaric acid is a muscle toxin, which works by inhibiting the production of malic acid, and in high doses causes paralysis and death. The median lethal dose (LD) is about 7.5 grams/kg for a human, 5.3 grams/kg for rabbits, and 4.4 grams/kg for mice. Given this figure, it would take over to kill a person weighing, so it may be safely included in many foods, especially sour-tasting sweets. As a food additive, tartaric acid is used as an antioxidant with E number E334; tartrates are other additives serving as antioxidants or emulsifiers. When cream of tartar is added to water, a suspension results which serves to clean copper coins very well, as the tartrate solution can dissolve the layer of copper(II) oxide present on the surface of the coin. The resulting copper(II)-tartrate complex is easily soluble in water.", "Tartaric acid may be most immediately recognizable to wine drinkers as the source of \"wine diamonds\", the small potassium bitartrate crystals that sometimes form spontaneously on the cork or bottom of the bottle. These \"tartrates\" are harmless, despite sometimes being mistaken for broken glass, and are prevented in many wines through cold stabilization (which is not always preferred since it can change the wine's profile). The tartrates remaining on the inside of aging barrels were at one time a major industrial source of potassium bitartrate. Tartaric acid plays an important role chemically, lowering the pH of fermenting \"must\" to a level where many undesirable spoilage bacteria cannot live, and acting as a preservative after fermentation. In the mouth, tartaric acid provides some of the tartness in the wine, although citric and malic acids also play a role.", "In citrus, fruits produced in organic farming contain higher levels of tartaric acid than fruits produced in conventional agriculture.", "Tartaric acid seems to increase the critical temperature in certain superconductors, by supposedly raising the oxidation grade, while the mechanism of this phenomenom is still not precisely known.", "Tartaric acid and its derivatives have a plethora of uses in the field of pharmaceuticals. For example, it has been used in the production of effervescent salts, in combination with citric acid, to improve the taste of oral medications. The potassium antimonyl derivative of the acid known as tartar emetic is included, in small doses, in cough syrup as an expectorant. Tartaric acid also has several applications for industrial use. The acid has been observed to chelate metal ions such as calcium and magnesium. Therefore, the acid has served in the farming and metal industries as a chelating agent for complexing micronutrients in soil fertilizer and for cleaning metal surfaces consisting of aluminium, copper, iron, and alloys of these metals, respectively." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Proof: affine form.", "Proof with homogeneous coordinates.", "Dual theorem.", "Other statements of the theorem.", "Origins." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "If the affine form of the statement can be proven, then the projective form of Pappus's theorem is proven, as the extension of a pappian plane to a projective plane is unique. Because of the parallelity in an affine plane one has to distinct two cases: formula_25 and formula_26. The key for a simple proof is the possibility for introducing a \"suitable\" coordinate system: Case 1: The lines formula_11 intersect at point formula_28. In this case coordinates are introduced, such that formula_29 (see diagram). formula_30 have the coordinates formula_31. From the parallelity of the lines formula_32 one gets formula_33 and the parallelity of the lines formula_34 yields formula_35. Hence line formula_36 has slope formula_37 and is parallel line formula_38. Case 2: formula_39 (little theorem). In this case the coordinates are chosen such that formula_40. From the parallelity of formula_41 and formula_42 one gets formula_43 and formula_44, respectively, and at least the parallelity formula_45.", "Choose homogeneous coordinates with On the lines formula_47, given by formula_48, take the points formula_49 to be for some formula_51. The three lines formula_52 are formula_53, so they pass through the same point formula_54 if and only if formula_55. The condition for the three lines formula_56 and formula_57 with equations formula_58 to pass through the same point formula_59 is formula_60. So this last set of three lines is concurrent if all the other eight sets are because multiplication is commutative, so formula_61. Equivalently, formula_62 are collinear. The proof above also shows that for Pappus's theorem to hold for a projective space over a division ring it is both sufficient and necessary that the division ring is a (commutative) field. German mathematician Gerhard Hessenberg proved that Pappus's theorem implies Desargues's theorem. In general, Pappus's theorem holds for some projective plane if and only if it is a projective plane over a commutative field. The projective planes in which Pappus's theorem does not hold are Desarguesian projective planes over noncommutative division rings, and non-Desarguesian planes. The proof is invalid if formula_63 happen to be collinear. In that case an alternative proof can be provided, for example, using a different projective reference.", "Because of the principle of duality for projective planes the dual theorem of Pappus is true: If 6 lines formula_64 are chosen alternately from two pencils with centers formula_65, the lines are concurrent, that means: they have a point formula_69 in common.<br> The left diagram shows the projective version, the right one an affine version, where the points formula_65 are points at infinity. If point formula_69 is on the line formula_72 than one gets the \"dual little theorem\" of Pappus' theorem. If in the affine version of the dual \"little theorem\" point formula_69 is a point at infinity too, one gets Thomsen's theorem, a statement on 6 points on the sides of a triangle (see diagram). The Thomsen figure plays an essential role coordinatising an axiomatic defined projective plane. The proof of the closure of Thomsen's figure is covered by the proof for the \"little theorem\", given above. But there exists a simple direct proof, too: Because the statement of Thomsen's theorem (the closure of the figure) uses only the terms \"connect, intersect\" and \"parallel\", the statement is affinely invariant, and one can introduce coordinates such that formula_74 (see right diagram). The starting point of the sequence of chords is formula_75 One easily verifies the coordinates of the points given in the diagram, which shows: the last point coincides with the first point.", "In addition to the above characterizations of Pappus's theorem and its dual, the following are equivalent statements:", "In its earliest known form, Pappus's Theorem is Propositions 138, 139, 141, and 143 of Book VII of Pappus's \"Collection\". These are Lemmas XII, XIII, XV, and XVII in the part of Book VII consisting of lemmas to the first of the three books of Euclid's \"Porisms.\" The lemmas are proved in terms of what today is known as the cross ratio of four collinear points. Three earlier lemmas are used. The first of these, Lemma III, has the diagram below (which uses Pappus's lettering, with G for Γ, D for Δ, J for Θ, and L for Λ). Here three concurrent straight lines, AB, AG, and AD, are crossed by two lines, JB and JE, which concur at J. Also KL is drawn parallel to AZ. Then These proportions might be written today as equations: The last compound ratio (namely JD : GD & BG : JB) is what is known today as the cross ratio of the collinear points J, G, D, and B in that order; it is denoted today by (J, G; D, B). So we have shown that this is independent of the choice of the particular straight line JD that crosses the three straight lines that concur at A. In particular It does not matter on which side of A the straight line JE falls. In particular, the situation may be as in the next diagram, which is the diagram for Lemma X. Just as before, we have (J, G; D, B) = (J, Z; H, E). Pappus does not explicitly prove this; but Lemma X is a converse, namely that if these two cross ratios are the same, and the straight lines BE and DH cross at A, then the points G, A, and Z must be collinear. What we showed originally can be written as (J, ∞; K, L) = (J, G; D, B), with ∞ taking the place of the (nonexistent) intersection of JK and AG. Pappus shows this, in effect, in Lemma XI, whose diagram, however, has different lettering: What Pappus shows is DE.ZH : EZ.HD :: GB : BE, which we may write as The diagram for Lemma XII is: The diagram for Lemma XIII is the same, but BA and DG, extended, meet at N. In any case, considering straight lines through G as cut by the three straight lines through A, (and accepting that equations of cross ratios remain valid after permutation of the entries,) we have by Lemma III or XI Considering straight lines through D as cut by the three straight lines through B, we have Thus (E, H; J, G) = (E, K; D, L), so by Lemma X, the points H, M, and K are collinear. That is, the points of intersection of the pairs of opposite sides of the hexagon ADEGBZ are collinear. Lemmas XV and XVII are that, if the point M is determined as the intersection of HK and BG, then the points A, M, and D are collinear. That is, the points of intersection of the pairs of opposite sides of the hexagon BEKHZG are collinear." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Axioms.", "Variant axiomatizations.", "Metamathematics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The background logic of Q is first-order logic with identity, denoted by infix '='. The individuals, called natural numbers, are members of a set called N with a distinguished member 0, called zero. There are three operations over N: The following axioms for Q are Q1–Q7 in Burgess (2005: 42) (cf. also the axioms of first-order arithmetic). Variables not bound by an existential quantifier are bound by an implicit universal quantifier.", "The axioms in Robinson (1950) are (1)–(13) in Mendelson (1997: 201). The first 6 of Robinson's 13 axioms are required only when, unlike here, the background logic does not include identity. The usual strict total order on N, \"less than\" (denoted by \"<\"), can be defined in terms of addition via the rule. Equivalently, we get a definitional conservative extension of Q by taking \"<\" as primitive and adding this rule as an eighth axiom; this system is termed \"\"Robinson arithmetic\" R\" in Boolos et al. (2002: Sec 16.4). A different extension of Q, which we temporarily call Q+, is obtained if we take \"<\" as primitive and add (instead of the last definitional axiom) the following three axioms to axioms (1)–(7) of Q: Q+ is still a conservative extension of Q, in the sense that any formula provable in Q+ not containing the symbol \"<\" is already provable in Q. (Adding only the first two of the above three axioms to Q gives a conservative extension of Q that is equivalent to what Burgess 2005:56 calls Q*. See also Burgess 2005:230 fn. 24, but note that the second of the above three axioms cannot be deduced from \"the pure definitional extension\" of Q obtained by adding only the axiom.) Among the axioms (1)–(7) of Q, axiom (3) needs an inner existential quantifier. Shoenfield (1967:22) gives an axiomatization that has only (implicit) outer universal quantifiers, by dispensing with axiom (3) of Q but adding the above three axioms with < as primitive. That is, Shoenfield's system is Q+ minus axiom (3), and is strictly weaker than Q+, since axiom (3) is independent of the other axioms (for example, the ordinals less than formula_1 forms a model for all axioms except (3) when \"Sv\" is interpreted as \"v\" + 1). Shoenfield's system also appears in Boolos et al. (2002: Sec 16.2), where it is called the \"\"minimal arithmetic\"\" (also denoted by Q). A closely related axiomatization, that uses \"≤\" instead of \"<\", may be found in Machover (1996:256–57).", "On the metamathematics of Q, see Boolos et al. (2002: chpt. 16), Tarski, Mostowski, and Robinson (1953), Smullyan (1991), Mendelson (1997: 201–03), and Burgess (2005: §§1.5a, 2.2). The intended interpretation of Q is the natural numbers and their usual arithmetic in which addition and multiplication have their customary meaning, identity is equality, and 0 is the natural number zero. Any model (structure) that satisfies all axioms of Q except possibly axiom (3) has a unique submodel (\"the standard part\") isomorphic to the standard natural numbers. (Axiom (3) need not be satisfied; for example the polynomials with non-negative integer coefficients forms a model that satisfies all axioms except (3).) Q, like Peano arithmetic, has nonstandard models of all infinite cardinalities. However, unlike Peano arithmetic, Tennenbaum's theorem does not apply to Q, and it has computable non-standard models. For instance, there is a computable model of Q consisting of integer-coefficient polynomials with positive leading coefficient, plus the zero polynomial, with their usual arithmetic. A notable characteristic of Q is the absence of the axiom scheme of induction. Hence it is often possible to prove in Q every specific instance of a fact about the natural numbers, but not the associated general theorem. For example, 5 + 7 = 7 + 5 is provable in Q, but the general statement \"x\" + \"y\" = \"y\" + \"x\" is not. Similarly, one cannot prove that \"Sx\" ≠ \"x\" (Burgess 2005:56). A model of Q that fails many of the standard facts is obtained by adjoining two distinct new elements a and b to the standard model of natural numbers and defining Sa = a, Sb = b, x + a = b and x + b = a for all x, a + n = a and b + n = b if n is a standard natural number, x·0 = 0 for all x, a·n = b and b·n = a if n is a non-zero standard natural number, x·a = a for all x except x = a, x·b = b for all x except x = b, a·a = b, and b·b = a (Boolos et al, 2002 Sec 16.4). Q is interpretable in a fragment of Zermelo's axiomatic set theory, consisting of extensionality, existence of the empty set, and the axiom of adjunction. This theory is S' in Tarski et al. (1953: 34) and ST in Burgess (2005: 90–91; 223). See general set theory for more details. Q is fascinating because it is a finitely axiomatized first-order theory that is considerably weaker than Peano arithmetic (PA), and whose axioms contain only one existential quantifier, yet like PA is incomplete and incompletable in the sense of Gödel's incompleteness theorems, and essentially undecidable. Robinson (1950) derived the Q axioms (1)–(7) above by noting just what PA axioms are required to prove (Mendelson 1997: Th. 3.24) that every computable function is representable in PA. The only use this proof makes of the PA axiom schema of induction is to prove a statement that is axiom (3) above, and so, all computable functions are representable in Q (Mendelson 1997: Th. 3.33, Rautenberg 2010: 246). The conclusion of Gödel's second incompleteness theorem also holds for Q: no consistent recursively axiomatized extension of Q can prove its own consistency, even if we additionally restrict Gödel numbers of proofs to a definable cut (Bezboruah and Shepherdson 1976; Pudlák 1985; Hájek & Pudlák 1993:387). The first incompleteness theorem applies only to axiomatic systems defining sufficient arithmetic to carry out the necessary coding constructions (of which Gödel numbering forms a part). The axioms of Q were chosen specifically to ensure they are strong enough for this purpose. Thus the usual proof of the first incompleteness theorem can be used to show that Q is incomplete and undecidable. This indicates that the incompleteness and undecidability of PA cannot be blamed on the only aspect of PA differentiating it from Q, namely the axiom schema of induction. Gödel's theorems do not hold when any one of the seven axioms above is dropped. These fragments of Q remain undecidable, but they are no longer essentially undecidable: they have consistent decidable extensions, as well as uninteresting models (i.e., models which are not end-extensions of the standard natural numbers)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The first theorem.", "The second theorem.", "Proof.", "Generalizations.", "In n-dimensions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first theorem states that the surface area \"A\" of a surface of revolution generated by rotating a plane curve \"C\" about an axis external to \"C\" and on the same plane is equal to the product of the arc length \"s\" of \"C\" and the distance \"d\" traveled by the geometric centroid of \"C\": For example, the surface area of the torus with minor radius \"r\" and major radius \"R\" is", "The second theorem states that the volume \"V\" of a solid of revolution generated by rotating a plane figure \"F\" about an external axis is equal to the product of the area \"A\" of \"F\" and the distance \"d\" traveled by the geometric centroid of \"F\". (The centroid of \"F\" is usually different from the centroid of its boundary curve \"C\".) That is: For example, the volume of the torus with minor radius \"r\" and major radius \"R\" is This special case was derived by Johannes Kepler using infinitesimals.", "Let formula_5 be the area of formula_6, formula_7 the solid of revolution of formula_6, and formula_9 the volume of formula_7. Suppose formula_6 starts in the formula_12-plane and rotates around the formula_13-axis. The distance of the centroid of formula_6 from the formula_13-axis is its formula_16-coordinate and the theorem states that To show this, let formula_6 be in the \"xz\"-plane, parametrized by formula_20 for formula_21, a parameter region. Since formula_22 is essentially a mapping from formula_23 to formula_23, the area of formula_6 is given by the change of variables formula: where formula_27 is the determinant of the Jacobian matrix of the change of variables. The solid formula_7 has the toroidal parametrization formula_29 for formula_30 in the parameter region formula_31; and its volume is Expanding, The last equality holds because the axis of rotation must be external to formula_6, meaning formula_35. Now, by change of variables.", "The theorems can be generalized for arbitrary curves and shapes, under appropriate conditions. Goodman & Goodman generalize the second theorem as follows. If the figure \"F\" moves through space so that it remains perpendicular to the curve \"L\" traced by the centroid of \"F\", then it sweeps out a solid of volume \"V\" = \"Ad\", where \"A\" is the area of \"F\" and \"d\" is the length of \"L\". (This assumes the solid does not intersect itself.) In particular, \"F\" may rotate about its centroid during the motion. However, the corresponding generalization of the first theorem is only true if the curve \"L\" traced by the centroid lies in a plane perpendicular to the plane of \"C\".", "In general, one can generate an formula_37 dimensional solid by rotating an formula_38 dimensional solid formula_6 around a formula_40 dimensional sphere. This is called an formula_37-solid of revolution of species formula_40. Let the formula_40-th centroid of formula_6 be defined by formula_45 Then Pappus' theorems generalize to: Volume of formula_37-solid of revolution of species formula_40 <br> = (Volume of generating formula_48-solid) formula_49 (Surface area of formula_40-sphere traced by the formula_40-th centroid of the generating solid) and Surface area of formula_37-solid of revolution of species formula_40 <br> = (Surface area of generating formula_48-solid) formula_49 (Surface area of formula_40-sphere traced by the formula_40-th centroid of the generating solid) The original theorems are the case with formula_58." ] }