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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Rashidun Caliphate (632–661).", "Succession to Muhammad.", "Rashidun Caliphs.", "Ali's caliphate, Hasan and the rise of the Umayyad dynasty.", "Umayyad Caliphate (661–750).", "Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).", "Abbasid Caliphs at Baghdad.", "Under the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo (1261–1517).", "Parallel regional caliphates in the later Abbasid Era.", "Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171).", "Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba (929–1031).", "Almohad Caliphate (1147–1269).", "Ayyubid Caliphate (1171–1260).", "Indian subcontinent.", "Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924).", "Parallel regional caliphates to the Ottomans.", "Bornu Caliphate (1472-1893).", "Yogyakarta Caliphate (1755-2015).", "Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903).", "Toucouleur Empire (1848-1893).", "Khilafat Movement (1919–24).", "Sharifian Caliphate (1924–25).", "Non-political caliphates.", "Sufi caliphates.", "Ahmadiyya Caliphate (1908–present).", "Religious basis.", "Qur'an.", "\"Hadith\".", "Prophesied Caliphate of the Mahdi.", "The \"Sahaba\" of Muhammad.", "Views of Islamic theologians.", "Period of dormancy.", "\"Kalifatstaat\": Federated Islamic State of Anatolia (1994–2001).", "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (2014–present).", "Ahmadiyya view.", "Islamic call.", "Al-Qaeda's Caliphate goals.", "Opposition.", "Government.", "Electing or appointing a Caliph.", "Sunni belief.", "Shi'a belief.", "\"Majlis al-Shura\".", "Accountability of rulers.", "Rule of law.", "Economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title \"malik \"(King, ruler), or another from the same root. The term \"caliph\" (), derives from the Arabic word", "", "", "In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina) took place in the \"Saqifah\" (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca), though this has later become the subject of debate. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another", "Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar, the second caliph, was killed by a Persian named Piruz Nahavandi. His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors (majlis). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. Ali then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Khawarij. Ali's tumultuous rule lasted only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil", "Ali's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife. The Persians, taking advantage of this, infiltrated the two armies and attacked the other army causing chaos and internal hatred between the companions at the Battle of Siffin. The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. In order to avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'awiyah. This caused a faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as the Kharijites, to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali's son Hasan was elected as the next caliph, but abdicated in favor of Mu'awiyah a few months later to avoid any conflict within the Muslims. Mu'awiyah became the sixth caliph, establishing the Umayyad Dynasty, named after the great-grandfather of Uthman and Mu'awiyah, Umayya ibn Abd Shams.", "Beginning with the Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary. Under the Umayyads, the Caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and most of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.17 million square miles (13,400,000 km), making it the largest empire the world had yet seen and the sixth-largest ever to exist in history. Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. However, for a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected", "", "In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of Meccan origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering. Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign. Their major city and capital Baghdad began to flourish as a center of knowledge, culture and trade. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan. The Abbasid Caliphate had however lost its effective power outside Iraq already by c. 920. By 945, the loss of power became official when the Buyids", "In 1261, following the Mongol conquest of Baghdad, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring the re-establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo. The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had little political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir (r. June–November 1261). The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al-Mutawakkil III, who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor Al-Mustamsik, but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517. The Ottoman Great Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al-Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.", "The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of the Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over Al-Andalus, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.", "The Fatimid Caliphate was an Isma'ili Shi'i caliphate, originally based in Tunisia, that extended its rule across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of its caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant and the Hejaz. The Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia and made it their capital city, before conquering Egypt and building the city of Cairo there in 969. Thereafter, Cairo became the capital of the caliphate, with Egypt becoming the political, cultural and religious centre of the state. Islam scholar Louis Massignon dubbed the 4th century AH /10th century CE as the \"Ismaili century in the history of Islam\". The term \"Fatimite\" is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate.", "During the Umayyad dynasty, the Iberian Peninsula was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling from Damascus. The Umayyads lost the position of Caliph in Damascus in 750, and Abd al-Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate. Rulers of the emirate used the title \"emir\" or \"sultan\"", "The Almohad Caliphate (, from Arabic \"\", \"the Monotheists\" or \"the Unifiers\") was a Moroccan Berber Muslim movement founded in the 12th century. The Almohad movement was started by Ibn Tumart among the Masmuda tribes of southern Morocco. The Almohads first established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120. The Almohads succeeded in overthrowing the Almoravid dynasty in governing Morocco by 1147, when Abd al-Mu'min (r. 1130–1163) conquered Marrakech and declared himself Caliph. They then extended their power over all of the Maghreb by 1159. Al-Andalus followed the fate of Africa and all", "The Ayyubid Empire overtook the Fatimids by incorporating the empire into the. However, Saladin himself has been a widely celebrated Caliph in Islamic history.", "After the Umayyad campaigns in India and the conquest on small territories of the western part of the Indian peninsula, early Indian Muslim dynasties founded by the Ghurid dynasty and the Ghaznavids, most notably the Delhi Sultanate. The Indian sultanates did not extensively strive for a caliphate since the Ottoman Empire was already observing the caliphate. Although the Mughal Empire is not recognised as a caliphate, its sixth emperor Muhammad Alamgir Aurangzeb, however, has been often regarded as one of the", "The caliphate was claimed by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire beginning with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389), while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk-ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of Edirne. In 1453, after Mehmed the Conqueror's conquest of Constantinople, the seat of the Ottomans moved to Constantinople, present-day Istanbul. In 1517, the Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire. Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina, which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world. Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the \"de facto\" leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. However, the earlier Ottoman caliphs did not officially bear the title of caliph in their documents of state, inscriptions, or coinage. It was only in the late eighteenth century that the claim to the caliphate was discovered by the sultans to have a practical use, since it allowed them to counter Russian claims to protect Ottoman Christians with their own claim to protect Muslims under Russian rule. According to Barthold, the first time the title of \"caliph\" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious", "", "The Bornu Caliphate, which was headed by the Bornu Emperors, began in 1472. A rump state of the larger Kanem-Bornu Empire, its rulers held the title of Caliph until 1893,", "The Indonesian Sultan of Yogyakarta historically used \"Khalifatullah\" (Caliph of God) as one of his many titles. In 2015 sultan Hamengkubuwono X renounced any claim", "The Sokoto Caliphate was an Islamic state in what is now Nigeria led by Usman dan Fodio. Founded during the Fulani War in the early 19th century,", "The Toucouleur Empire, also known as the Tukular Empire, was one of the Fulani", "The Khilafat Movement was launched by Muslims in British India in 1920 to defend the Ottoman Caliphate at the end of the First World War and it spread throughout the British colonial territories. It was strong in British India where it formed a rallying point for some Indian Muslims as one of many anti-British Indian political movements. Its leaders included Mohammad Ali Jouhar, his brother Shawkat Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Barrister Muhammad Jan Abbasi. For a time it was supported by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee. However, the movement lost its momentum after the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924. After further arrests and flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organisation, the Movement eventually died down and disbanded.", "The Sharifian Caliphate () was an Arab caliphate proclaimed by the Sharifian rulers of Hejaz in 1924 previously known as Vilayet Hejaz, declaring independence from the Ottoman Caliphate. The idea of the Sharifian Caliphate had been floating around since at", "Though non-political, some Sufi orders and the Ahmadiyya movement define themselves as caliphates. Their leaders are thus commonly referred to as \"khalifas\" (caliphs).", "In Sufism, tariqas (orders) are led by spiritual leaders (khilafah ruhaniyyah), the main khalifas, who nominate local khalifas to", "The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is a self-proclaimed Islamic revivalist movement founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, India, who claimed to be the promised Messiah and Mahdi, awaited by Muslims. He also claimed to be a follower-prophet subordinate to Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. The group are traditionally shunned by the majority of Muslims.", "", "The Quran uses the term \"khalifa\" twice. First, in al-Baqara, 30, it refers to God creating humanity as his \"khalifa\" on Earth. Second, in Sad, 26, it addresses King David as God's \"khalifa \"and reminds him of his obligation to rule with justice. In addition, the following excerpt from the", "The following \"hadith\" from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal can be understood to prophesy two eras of Caliphate (both on the lines/precepts of prophethood). In the above, the first era of Caliphate is commonly accepted by Muslims to be", "Many Islamic texts, including several ahadith, state that the Mahdi will be elected caliph", "Al-Habbab Ibn ul-Munthir said, when the Sahaba met in the wake of the death of Muhammad, (at the thaqifa hall) of Bani Sa’ida: Upon this Abu Bakr replied: Then he got up and addressed the Muslims. It has additionally been reported that Abu Bakr went on to say on", "Scholars like Al-Mawardi, Ibn Hazm, Ahmad al-Qalqashandi, and Al-Sha`rani stated that the global Muslim community can have only one leader at any given time. Al-Nawawi and Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad declared it impermissible to give oaths of loyalty to more than one leader. Al-Joziri said: Shia scholars have", "Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate lay dormant and largely unclaimed since the 1920s. For the vast majority of Muslims the caliph, as leader of the ummah, \"is cherished both as memory and ideal\" as a time when Muslims \"enjoyed scientific and military superiority globally\". The Islamic prophet Muhammad is reported to have prophesied:", "The \"\" (\"Caliphate State\") was the name of an Islamist organization in Germany that was proclaimed at an event in Cologne in 1994 and banned in December 2001 after an amendment to the Association Act, which abolished the religious privilege. However, this caliphate was never institutionalized under international law, but only an intention for an Islamic \"state within the state\". The caliphate emerged in 1994 from the \"Federated Islamic State of Anatolia\" (, AFİD), which existed in Germany from 1992 to 1994 as the renaming of the Association of Islamic Associations and", "The group Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn (Al-Qaeda in Iraq) formed as an affiliate of Al-Qaeda network of Islamist militants during the Iraq War. The group eventually expanded into Syria and rose to prominence as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) during the Syrian Civil War. In the summer of 2014, the group launched the Northern Iraq offensive, seizing the city of Mosul. The group declared itself a caliphate under", "The members of the Ahmadiyya community believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate (Arabic: \"Khilāfah\") is the continuation of the Islamic caliphate, first being the \"Rāshidūn\" (rightly guided) Caliphate (of Righteous Caliphs). This is believed to have been suspended with Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad and re-established with the appearance of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908, the founder of the movement) whom Ahmadis identify as the Promised Messiah and Mahdi. Ahmadis maintain that in accordance with Quranic verses (such as ) and numerous ahadith on the issue, \"Khilāfah\" can only be established by God Himself and is a divine blessing given to \"those who believe and work righteousness\" and uphold the unity of God, therefore any movement to establish the \"Khilāfah\" centered on human endeavours alone is bound to fail, particularly when the condition of the people diverges from the ‘precepts of prophethood’ and they are as a result disunited, their inability to establish a \"Khilāfah\" caused fundamentally by the lack of righteousness in them. Although the khalifa is elected it is believed that God himself", "A number of Islamist political parties and mujahideen called for the restoration of the caliphate by uniting Muslim nations, either through political action (e.g., Hizb ut-Tahrir), or through force (e.g., al-Qaeda). Various Islamist movements gained momentum in recent years with the ultimate aim of establishing a Caliphate. In 2014, ISIL/ISIS made a claim to re-establishing the Caliphate. Those advocating the re-establishment of a Caliphate differed in their methodology and approach. Some were locally oriented, mainstream political parties that had no apparent transnational objectives. Abul A'la Maududi believed the caliph was not just", "Al-Qaeda has as one of its clearly stated goals the re-establishment of a caliphate. Its former leader, Osama bin Laden, called for Muslims to \"establish the righteous caliphate of our umma\". Al-Qaeda chiefs released a statement in 2005, under which, in what they call \"phase five\" there will be \"an Islamic state, or caliphate\". Al-Qaeda has named its Internet newscast from Iraq \"The Voice of the Caliphate\". According", "Scholar Olivier Roy writes that \"early on, Islamists replace the concept of the caliphate... with that of the emir.\" There were a number of reasons including \"that according to the classical authors, a caliph must", "", "In his book \"The Early Islamic Conquests\" (1981), Fred Donner argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from", "Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at Saqifah. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler,", "With the exception of Zaidis, Shi'ites believe in the Imamate, a principle by which rulers are Imams who are divinely chosen, infallible and sinless and must come from the \"Ahl al-Bayt\" regardless of majority opinion, shura or election. They claim that before his death, Muhammad had given many indications, in the hadith of the pond of Khumm in particular, that he considered Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, as his successor. For the Twelvers, Ali and his eleven descendants, the twelve Imams, are believed to have been considered, even before their birth, as the only valid Islamic rulers appointed and decreed by God. Shia Muslims believe that all the Muslim caliphs following Muhammad's death to be illegitimate due to their unjust rule and that Muslims have no obligation to follow them, as the only guidance that was left", "The Majlis al-Shura (literally \"consultative assembly\") was a representation of the idea of consultative governance. The importance of this is premised by the following verses of the Qur'an: The majlis is also the means to elect a new caliph. Al-Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one and have sufficient wisdom and judgement to select the best caliph. Al-Mawardi also said that in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis and select a list of candidates for caliph; then the majlis", "Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public the people must obey their laws, but a Caliph or ruler who becomes either unjust or severely ineffective must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura. Al-Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler who deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that oppression by a caliph is sufficient grounds for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, Ibn", "The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability Various Islamic lawyers, however, place multiple conditions and stipulations on the execution of such a law, making it difficult to implement. For example, the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty, and during a time of drought in the Rashidun caliphate, capital punishment was suspended until the effects of the drought passed. Islamic jurists later", "During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, the Caliphate understood that real incentives were needed to increase productivity and wealth and thus enhance tax revenues. A social transformation took place as a result of changing land ownership giving individuals of any gender, ethnic or religious background the right to buy, sell, mortgage and inherit land for farming or any other purpose. Signatures were required on contracts for every major financial transaction concerning agriculture, industry, commerce and employment. Copies of the contract were usually kept by both parties involved. There are similarities between Islamic economics and leftist or socialist economic policies. Islamic jurists have argued that privatization of the origin of oil, gas and other fire-producing fuels, as well as lakes, waterways, and grazing land is forbidden. Some have even claimed that \"Pasture\" might be applied to all agricultural land, though they are in the minority. The principle of public or joint ownership has been drawn by Muslim jurists from the following hadith of Muhammad: \"The Muslims are partners in three, water, pastures and fire\" Islamic jurists hold that \"in water, pastures and fire\" includes other natural resources as well, including petroleum, and they specify that \"pastures\" means land that is not privately owned, where people graze their animals. It does not include privately owned farm land, orchards, groves, etc., as it is a well known fact that the Companions of Prophet Muhammad, held privately owned orchards and farm lands in the first Islamic state at Medina. They also make exceptions in the case of processing, packaging, and selling water, as long as there is no dire need for it by the people. The legal ruling by the majority of ulema is that water is public property, while it is still in the lake, river, etc., but when it is put into a container, it becomes the property of the owner of the vessel. According to Saleh Al-Fawzan, \"If a person has collected water in his vessel or in his pond, then he has taken possession of it and it is permissible for him to sell it, because he has collected it and it has come into his possession, and he has expended effort to acquire it, so it has become his property.\" However, if the Muslim community is in dire need of water, then it must be shared, regardless of whether it came from public waterways or a private well. Aside from similarities to socialism, early forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the Caliphate, since an early market" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Function.", "Flow measurement.", "Control of invasive species.", "Watermills.", "Flood control and altering river conditions.", "Issues.", "Ecology.", "Fish migration.", "Safety.", "Common types.", "Broad-crested.", "Compound.", "V-notch.", "Polynomial." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "There is no single definition as to what constitutes a weir and one English dictionary simply defines a weir as a small dam, likely originating from Middle English \"were\", Old English \"wer\", derivative of root of \"werian,\" meaning \"to defend, dam\".", "Commonly, weirs are used to prevent flooding, measure water discharge, and help render rivers more navigable by boat. In some locations, the terms dam and weir are synonymous, but normally there is a clear distinction made between the structures. Usually, a dam is designed specifically to impound water behind a wall, whilst a weir is designed to alter the river flow characteristics. A common distinction between dams and weirs is that water flows over the top (crest) of a weir or underneath it for at least some of its length. Accordingly, the crest of an overflow spillway on a large dam may therefore be referred to as a weir. Weirs can vary in size both horizontally and vertically, with the smallest being only a few inches in height whilst the largest may be many metres tall and hundreds of metres long. Some common weir purposes are outlined below.", "Weirs allow hydrologists and engineers a simple method of measuring the volumetric flow rate in small to medium-sized streams/rivers or in industrial discharge locations. Since the geometry of the top of the weir is known and all water flows over the weir, the depth of water behind the weir can be converted to a rate of flow. However, this can only be achieved in locations where all water flows over the top of the weir crest (as opposed to around the sides or through conduits or sluices) and at locations where the water that flows over the crest is carried away from the structure. If these conditions are not met, it can make flow measurement complicated, inaccurate, or even impossible. The discharge calculation can be summarised as: Where: However, this calculation is a generic relationship and specific calculations are available for the many different types of weir. Flow measurement weirs must be well maintained if they are to remain accurate.", "As weirs are a physical barrier, they can impede the longitudinal movement of fish and other animals up and down a river. This can have a negative effect on fish species that migrate as part of their breeding cycle (e.g., salmonids), but it also can be useful as a method of preventing invasive species moving upstream. For example, weirs in the Great Lakes region have helped to prevent invasive sea lamprey from colonising farther upstream.", "Mill ponds are created by a weir that impounds water that then flows over the structure. The energy created by the change in height of the water can then be used to power waterwheels and power sawmills, grinding wheels, and other equipment.", "Weirs are commonly used to control the flow rates of rivers during periods of high discharge. Sluice gates (or in some cases the height of the weir crest) can be altered to increase or decrease the volume of water flowing downstream. Weirs for this purpose are commonly found upstream of towns and villages and can either be automated or manually operated. By slowing the rate at which water moves downstream even slightly, a disproportionate effect can be had on the likelihood of flooding. On larger rivers, a weir can also alter the flow characteristics of the waterway to the point that vessels are able to navigate areas previously inaccessible due to extreme currents or eddies. Many larger weirs will have construction features that allow boats and river users to \"shoot the weir\" and navigate by passing up or down stream without having to exit the river. Weirs constructed for this purpose are especially common on the River Thames, and most are situated near each of the river's 45 locks.", "", "Because a weir impounds water behind it and alters the flow regime of the river, it can have an effect on the local ecology. Typically, the reduced river velocity upstream can lead to increased siltation (deposition of fine particles of silt and clay on the river bottom) that reduces the water oxygen content and smothers invertebrate habitat and fish spawning sites. The oxygen content typically returns to normal once water has passed over the weir crest (although it can be hyper-oxygenated), although increased river velocity can scour the river bed causing erosion and habitat loss.", "Weirs can have a significant effect on fish migration. Any weir that exceeds either the maximum height a species can jump or creates flow conditions that cannot be bypassed (e.g., due to excessive water velocity) effectively limits the maximum point upstream that fish can migrate. In some cases this can mean that huge lengths of breeding habitat are lost and over time, this can have a significant impact of fish populations. In many countries, it is now a legal requirement to build fish ladders into the design of a weir that ensure that fish can bypass the barriers and access upstream habitats. Unlike dams, weirs do not usually prevent downstream fish migration (as water flows over the top and allows fish to bypass the structure in that water), although they can create flow conditions that injure juvenile fish. Recent studies suggest that navigation locks have also potential to provide increased access for a range of biota, including poor swimmers.", "Even though the water around weirs can often appear relatively calm, they can be extremely dangerous places to boat, swim, or wade, as the circulation patterns on the downstream side—typically called a hydraulic jump— can submerge a person indefinitely. This phenomenon is so well known to canoeists, kayakers, and others who spend time on rivers that they even have a rueful name for weirs: \"drowning machines\". If caught in this situation, the Ohio DNR recommends that a victim should \"tuck the chin down, draw the knees up to the chest with arms wrapped around them. Hopefully, conditions will be such that the current will push the victim along the bed of the river until swept beyond the boil line and released by the hydraulic.\" The Pennsylvania State Police also recommends to victims, \"curl up, dive to the bottom, and swim or crawl downstream\". As the hydraulic jump entrains air, the buoyancy of the water between the dam and boil line will be reduced by upward of 30%, and if a victim is unable to float, escape at the base of the dam may be the only option for survival.", "There are many different types of weirs and they can vary from a simple stone structure that is barely noticeable, to elaborate and very large structures that require extensive management and maintenance.", "A broad-crested weir is a flat-crested structure, where the water passes over a crest that covers much or all of the channel width. This is one of the most common types of weir found worldwide.", "A compound weir is any weir that comprises several different designs into one structure. They are commonly seen in locations where a river has multiple users who may need to bypass the structure. A common design would be one where a weir is broad-crested for much of its length, but has a section where the weir stops or is 'open' so that small boats and fish can traverse the structure.", "A notch weir is any weir where the physical barrier is significantly higher than the water level except for a specific notch (often V-shaped) cut into the panel. At times of normal flow all the water must pass through the notch, simplifying flow volume calculations, and at times of flood the water level can rise and submerge the weir without any alterations made to the structure.", "A polynomial weir is a weir that has a geometry defined by a polynomial equation of any order \"n\". In practice, most weirs are low-order polynomial weirs. The standard rectangular weir is, for example, a polynomial weir of order zero. The triangular (V-notch) and trapezoidal weirs are of order one. High-order polynomial weirs are providing wider range of Head-Discharge relationships, and hence better control of the flow at outlets of lakes, ponds, and reservoirs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Kings of Wu family tree.", "Culture.", "Literature.", "Language.", "Legacy.", "Connections with Japan.", "Wu in astronomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A founding myth of Wu, first recorded by Sima Qian in the Han dynasty, traced its royal lineage to Taibo, a relative of King Wen of Zhou. According to the \"Records of the Grand Historian\", Taibo was the oldest son of Gugong Danfu and the elder uncle of King Wen who started the Zhou Dynasty. Gugong Danfu had three sons named Taibo, Zhongyong, and Jili. Taibo was the oldest of three brothers, Jili being the youngest. Realizing that his youngest brother, Jili, was favored by his father to inherit the throne of Predynastic Zhou, the older brothers Taibo and Zhongyong left Zhou to avoid conflict and settled southeast to Wu with a group of followers loyal to him and his brother Zhongyong. They established their first capital at Meili (), believed to be today's Meicun in Wuxi. Taibo's youngest brother Jili who was eventually the heir of the throne became the father of King Wen, who is attributed to starting the Zhou dynasty. Little is known about the history of Wu before the Spring and Autumn period. Wu rose to power in the 6th century BC, after it was aided by the State of Jin as a useful ally against the State of Chu. In 584 BC, Wu rebelled against Chu upon the advice of Wuchen, a Jin minister, who defected from Chu. From then on, Wu would become a constant threat to the Chu Kingdom. Wu planted seeds of rebellion amongst Chu's vassals along the Yangtze valley. Wu Zixu, a highly influential Chu politician's mother and brother was murdered by King Ping of Chu and fled to Wu plotting revenge. Wu Zixu later became a trusted advisor of Prince Guang and helped him assassinate his cousin King Liao of Wu and usurp the throne. After the successful assassination of King Liao, Prince Guang ascended the throne and became known as King Helü of Wu. In 506 BCE, during the reign of King Zhao of Chu, King Helü decided to invade Chu. The king personally led the army, along with his younger brother Fugai, Wu Zixu, as well as Sun Tzu, author of \"The Art of War\". Although Chu had a strong army led by Nang Wa and Shen Yinshu, it suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Boju. King Zhao of Chu fled to Sui and the Wu army captured Ying, Chu's capital. After entering Ying, Wu Zixu exhumed King Ping's corpse, and gave it 300 lashes to exact vengeance on for his mother and brother who were murdered by the Chu King. The military victory led to Wu Zixu's elevation to Duke of Shen and his alias Shenxu. After these victories, Wu was briefly the most powerful nation and turned to other campaigns, defeating the State of Qi in 484 BC. King Helü of Wu is considered to be one of the Five Hegemons of China during the Spring and Autumn period due to his military successes at this time with the help of his famous commander/strategist Sun Tzu. Wu is also generally regarded as developing the first Chinese Navy. This Navy was quite complex and had different classes of ships. These \"classes\" of ships were the great wing (da yi), the little wing (xiao yi), the stomach striker (tu wei), the castle ship (lou chuan), and the bridge ship (qiao chuan). These were listed in the \"Yuejueshu\" (\"Lost Records of the State of Yue\") as a written dialogue between King Helü of Wu (r. 514 BC–496 BC) and Wu Zixu (526 BC–484 BC) in which the latter stated: Nowadays in training naval forces we use the tactics of land forces for the best effect. Thus great wing ships correspond to the army's heavy chariots, little wing ships to light chariots, stomach strikers to battering rams, castle ships to mobile assault towers, and bridge ships to light cavalry. Ironically, Wu was later threatened by an upstart state to its own south, Yue; Chu then aided Yue's rise as a counter to Wu. Although Wu won majority of battles against the Yue and captured their King Goujian, Wu failed to completely subjugate Yue, in part because of Fuchai's willingness to let King Goujian live in Wu as his servant. King Goujian suffered for years as Fuchai's servant/slave and planned his revenge. Fuchai under the promise of peace, let Goujian return to Yue, his homeland which later proved to be a fatal mistake for Wu. While Wu was engaged in a military campaign in the north, Goujian enacted his revenge and launched a surprise attack on Wu in 482 BC and conquered the capital. Over the next decade, Wu was unable to recover and Yue absorbed the state in 473 BC. Wu, Yue, and Chu all proclaimed themselves kings in the 6th century BC, showing the drastic weakening of the Zhou court's authority during the Spring and Autumn period. Wu and Yue were masters of metallurgy, fabricating excellent swords with incised messages, geometric patterns, and inlaid gold or silver. Wu and Yue swords tend to use much more tin than copper compared to those of other states. Wu often sent swords as gifts to northern states, such as Qi and Cai. Examples include the spearhead of King Fuchai and the sword of Prince Guang.", "Chinese historical texts linked the kings of Wu to Taibo, the uncle of King Wen of Zhou. Their ancestral name was Ji and their clan name was Gufa. The last king of Wu, King Fuchai had at least four sons, three of whom were named You, Hong and Hui. You was his heir but was killed in one of the battles leading to the defeat of Wu, and Hong became the new heir. After the collapse of the state, the other three sons of Fuchai were exiled. Themselves, their blood relatives and descendants took Wu as their clan name in honor of their fallen kingdom.", "The \"Records of the Grand Historian\" states that the people in Wu wore their hair short and sported tattoos. This observation is likely meant to illustrate their supposed barbarism, as in Sima Qian's time neither men nor women were allowed to cut their hair or otherwise modify their body - doing so was considered an offence against the ancestors from which one had inherited one's physical features. Wu rulers did not receive Chinese-language posthumous names after death.", "Since the famed military strategist Sun Tzu served as a general under King Helü of Wu, his famous military treatise Art of War was probably written in Wu. The military prowess of Wu before their defeat by opportunistic Yue can be partly attributed to this famous commander and his literary work which is still studied around the world.", "The native language of Wu is distinct from Old Chinese spoken by central Chinese states. Historians have linked the language with Austronesian languages, Tai or a distinct Sino-Tibetan language.", "\"Wu\" continues to be used as a name for the region around Suzhou and Shanghai and their regional speech, Wu Chinese. It was employed by other states and princes holding power in the region, most notably Eastern Wu of the Three Kingdoms, and Wu and Wuyue of the Ten Kingdoms.", "Ambassadorial visits to Japan by the later Chinese dynasties Wei and Jin recorded that the Wajin of Japan claimed to be descendants of Taibo of Wu, traditionally believed to be the founder of Wu. Several scholars suggest that the Yamato people and the Imperial House of Japan are descendants of the Wu and possibly Taibo. Many Japanese historians also link the early Japanese Yayoi people to the Baiyue tribes that also include the Wu people.", "Wu, together with Yue, is represented with the star Zeta Aquilae in asterism \"Left Wall\", Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellations)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and diversity.", "Speciation and domestication.", "Breeding.", "Weed forms.", "Names.", "Cultivation.", "Area and yield.", "Ecological requirements.", "Production.", "Pests and diseases.", "Botany.", "Roots.", "Leaves.", "Flowers.", "Fruits.", "Seeds.", "Physiology.", "Uses.", "Nutritional information." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The wild ancestor of cultivated adzuki bean is probably \"Vigna angularis\" var. \"nipponensis\", which is distributed across Japan, Korea, China, Nepal and Bhutan. Speciation between \"Vigna angularis\" var. \"nipponensis\" and \"Vigna angularis\" var. \"angularis\" occurred around years ago. Archaeologists estimate it was domesticated around 3000 BC. However, adzuki beans (as well as soybeans) dating from 3000 BC to 2000 BC are indicated to still be largely within the wild size range. Enlarged seeds occurred during the later Bronze Age or Iron Age, periods with plough use. Domestication of adzuki beans resulted in a trade-off between yield and seed size. Cultivated adzuki beans have fewer but longer pods, fewer but larger seeds, a shorter stature, and also a smaller overall seed yield than wild forms. The exact place of domestication is not known; multiple domestication origins in East Asia (for example Japan, China, and Korea) have been suggested.", "In Japan, the adzuki bean was one of the first crops subjected to scientific plant breeding. Important breeding traits are yield, pureness of the bean colour, and the maturing time. Separate cultivars with smaller seeds and higher biomass are bred for fodder production and as green manure. Locally adapted cultivars are available in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. More than 300 cultivars/landraces/breeding lines are registered in Japan. Moreover, China (Institute of Crop Germplasm Resources (CAAS), Beijing, more than 3700 accessions) and Japan (Tokachi Agricultural Experiment Station, Hokkaido-ken, about 2500 accessions) accommodate large germplasm collections of adzuki bean.", "Weed forms of adzuki bean frequently occur in Japan. The wide spread of weed forms is due to adaptation to human-disturbed habitats, escapes of old cultivars, and natural establishment from derivatives of hybrids between cultivars and wild forms. In contrast to wild forms, the weed forms of adzuki bean are used as a substitute for the cultivated form and consumed as sweet beans, especially if cultivated adzuki beans are attacked by pests. However, in cultivated gardens the weed form is recognized as contamination and lowers the seed quality of adzuki cultivars.", "The name \"adzuki\" (or \"azuki\") is a transliteration of the native Japanese name. Japanese also has a Chinese loanword,, which means \"small bean\", its counterpart being the soybean. It is common to write in kanji but pronounce it as \"azuki\" ', an example of '. In China, the corresponding name () still is used in botanical or agricultural parlance, however, in everyday Chinese, the more common terms are'() and'(), both meaning \"red bean\", because almost all Chinese cultivars are uniformly red. In English-language discussions of Chinese topics, the term \"red bean\" often is used (especially in reference to red bean paste), but in other contexts this usage may cause confusion with other beans that also are red. In normal contexts, \"red cowpeas\" have been used to refer to this bean. In Korean, adzuki beans are called'() and it contrasts with'(, \"bean\"), rather than being considered a type of it.'(\"beans\") without qualifiers usually means soybeans. In Vietnamese it is called'(literally: red bean). In some parts of India, they are referred to as \"red chori\". In Punjabi it is called'and is a common ingredient of chaat. In Marathi, it is known as'(), literally meaning'red cowpea'. In Iraq its name is \"\" () meaning \"red cowpeas\".", "", "The adzuki bean is mainly cultivated in China ( ha), Japan ( ha), South Korea ( ha), and Taiwan ( ha) (data published 2006). The bean is also grown commercially in the US, South America, and India, as well as New Zealand, Kongo, and Angola. In Japan, the adzuki bean is the second most important legume after the soy bean; its 1998 annual yield of this crop was around 100,000 tons. With a consumption of about 140,000 t/year (data published 2006), Japan is also the most important importer of adzuki beans. The imports are received from China, Korea, Colombia, Taiwan, US, Thailand, and Canada. The bean yields per area spread over a broad range due to differing cultivation intensity. Amounts of 4 to 8 dt/ha are reported, but in Japan and China yields between 20 and 30 dt/ha are reached.", "Optimal temperature range for adzuki bean growth is between 15 °C and 30 °C. The crop is not frost-hardy and needs soil temperatures above 6-10 °C (30°-34 °C optimal) for germination. Hot temperatures stimulate vegetative growth and are therefore less favorable for pea production. The adzuki bean is usually not irrigated. Annual rainfall ranges from 500–1750 mm in areas where the bean is grown. The plant can withstand drought but severe reduction in yield is expected. The cultivation of the adzuki bean is possible on preferably well drained soils with pH 5-7.5. Fertilizer application differs widely depending on expected yield but is generally similar to soybean. Due to nodulation with rhizobia nitrogen fixation of up to 100 kg/ha is possible.", "The sowing of the peas is in 2–3 cm depth in rows 30–90 cm apart and 10–45 cm within the row. Rarely seeds are sown by broadcast. The amount of seeds ranges between 8–70 kg/ha. Growth of the crop is slow, therefore weed control is crucial mainly between germination and flowering. Cultivation systems differ largely among different countries. In China adzuki bean is often grown in intercrops with maize, sorghum and millet while in Japan the bean is grown in crop rotations. Harvest of the peas should not be done as long as moisture content of the seed is higher than 16%.", "Fungal and bacterial diseases of the adzuki bean are powdery mildew, brown stem rot, and bacterial blight. Furthermore, pests such as the adzuki pod worm, Japanese butterbur borer, and cutworm attack the crop. The bean weevil is an important storage pest.", "The description of the adzuki bean can vary between authors because there are both wild and cultivated forms of the plant. The adzuki bean is an annual, rarely biennial bushy erect or twining herb usually between 30 and 90 centimeters high. There exist climbing or prostrate forms of the plant. The stem is normally green and sparsely pilose.", "The adzuki bean has a taproot type of root system that can reach a depth of 40–50 cm from the point of seed germination.", "The leaves of the adzuki bean are trifoliate, pinnate and arranged alternately along the stem on a long petiole. Leaflets are ovate and about 5–10 cm long and 5–8 cm wide.", "Adzuki flowers are papilionaceous and bright yellow. The inflorescence is an axillary false raceme consisting of six to ten (two to twenty) flowers.", "Adzuki pods are smooth, cylindrical and thin-walled. The colour of the pods is green turning white to grey as they mature. The size is between 5–13 cm x 0.5 cm with 2 to 14 seeds per pod. Pod shatter during seed ripening and harvesting might be a difficulty under certain conditions.", "The seeds are smooth and subcylindric with a length of 5.0-9.1 mm, width of 4.0-6.3 mm, thickness of 4.1-6.0 mm. The thousand kernel weight is between 50 and 200 g. There are many different seed colours from maroon to blue-black mottled with straw.", "The emergence of the seedlings is hypogeal and takes 7–20 days. Compared to other pulses the growth of the plant is slow. Normally the adzuki plant reaches maturity between 80 and 120 days depending on the cultivar and the environmental conditions. Flowering lasts 30–40 days. Commonly the plant self-pollinates but cross-pollination also exists.", "In East Asian cuisine, the adzuki bean is commonly sweetened before eating. In particular, it often is boiled with sugar, resulting in red bean paste (\"anko\"), a very common ingredient in all of these cuisines. It also is common to add flavoring to the bean paste, such as chestnut. Red bean paste is used in many Chinese dishes, such as tangyuan, zongzi, mooncakes, baozi, and red bean ice. It also serves as a filling in Japanese sweets such as anpan, dorayaki, imagawayaki, manjū, monaka, anmitsu, taiyaki, and daifuku. A more liquid version, using adzuki beans boiled with sugar and a pinch of salt, produces a sweet dish called hong dou tang. Adzuki beans are commonly eaten sprouted or boiled in a hot, tea-like drink. Some East Asian cultures enjoy red bean paste as a filling or topping for various kinds of waffles, pastries, baked buns, or biscuits. Traditionally in Japan, rice with adzuki beans (赤飯; \"sekihan\") is cooked for auspicious occasions. Adzuki beans are used in amanattō and ice cream with the whole bean (such as in the 'Cream & Red Bean' product produced by IMEI) or as paste.", "Cooked adzuki beans are 66% water, 25% carbohydrates, including 7% dietary fiber, 8% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, cooked beans provide 128 calories, a moderate to high content (10% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamin folate (30% DV), and several dietary minerals (11% to 27% DV, table)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Innate and adventitious ideas.", "Philosophy.", "Plato.", "René Descartes.", "John Locke.", "David Hume.", "Immanuel Kant.", "Rudolf Steiner.", "Wilhelm Wundt.", "Charles Sanders Peirce.", "G. F. Stout and J. M. Baldwin.", "In anthropology and the social sciences.", "Semantics.", "Samuel Johnson.", "Relationship of ideas to modern legal time- and scope-limited monopolies.", "Relationship between ideas and patents.", "On susceptibility to exclusive property.", "Relationship between ideas and copyrights.", "Relationship of ideas to confidentiality agreements." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"idea\" comes from Greek ἰδέα \"idea\" \"form, pattern,\" from the root of ἰδεῖν \"idein\", \"to see.\"", "One view on the nature of ideas is that there exist some ideas (called \"innate ideas\") which are so general and abstract that they could not have arisen as a representation of an object of our perception but rather were in some sense always present. These are distinguished from \"adventitious ideas\" which are images or concepts which are accompanied by the judgment that they are caused or occasioned by an external object. Another view holds that we only discover ideas in the same way that we discover the real world, from personal experiences. The view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from nurture (life experiences) is known as \"tabula rasa\" (\"blank slate\"). Most of the confusions in the way ideas arise is at least in part due to the use of the term \"idea\" to cover both the representation perceptics and the object of conceptual thought. This can be always illustrated in terms of the scientific doctrines of innate ideas, \"concrete ideas versus abstract ideas\", as well as \"simple ideas versus complex ideas\".", "", "Plato in Ancient Greece was one of the earliest philosophers to provide a detailed discussion of ideas and of the thinking process (in Plato's Greek the word \"idea\" carries a rather different sense from our modern English term). Plato argued in dialogues such as the \"Phaedo\", \"Symposium\", \"Republic\", and \"Timaeus\" that there is a realm of ideas or forms (\"eidei\"), which exist independently of anyone who may have thoughts on these ideas, and it is the ideas which distinguish mere opinion from knowledge, for unlike material things which are transient and liable to contrary properties, ideas are unchanging and nothing but just what they are. Consequently, Plato seems to assert forcefully that material things can only be the objects of opinion; real knowledge can only be had of unchanging ideas. Furthermore, ideas for Plato appear to serve as universals; consider the following passage from the \"Republic\":", "Descartes often wrote of the meaning of \"idea\" as an image or representation, often but not necessarily \"in the mind\", which was well known in the vernacular. Despite that Descartes is usually credited with the invention of the non-Platonic use of the term, he at first followed this vernacular use. In his \"Meditations on First Philosophy\" he says, \"Some of my thoughts are like images of things, and it is to these alone that the name 'idea' properly belongs.\" He sometimes maintained that ideas were innate and uses of the term \"idea\" diverge from the original primary scholastic use. He provides multiple non-equivalent definitions of the term, uses it to refer to as many as six distinct kinds of entities, and divides \"ideas\" inconsistently into various genetic categories. For him knowledge took the form of ideas and philosophical investigation is the deep consideration of these entities.", "In striking contrast to Plato's use of idea is that of John Locke. In his Introduction to An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke defines \"idea\" as \"that term which, I think, serves best to stand for whatsoever is the object of the understanding when a man thinks, I have used it to express whatever is meant by phantasm, notion, species, or whatever it is which the mind can be employed about in thinking; and I could not avoid frequently using it.\" He said he regarded the book necessary to examine our own abilities and see what objects our understandings were, or were not, fitted to deal with. In his philosophy other outstanding figures followed in his footsteps — Hume and Kant in the 18th century, Arthur Schopenhauer in the 19th century, and Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Karl Popper in the 20th century. Locke always believed in \"good sense\" — not pushing things to extremes and on taking fully into account the plain facts of the matter. He considered his common-sense ideas \"good-tempered, moderate, and down-to-earth.\" As John Locke studied humans in his work “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” he continually referenced Descartes for ideas as he asked this fundamental question: “When we are concerned with something about which we have no certain knowledge, what rules or standards should guide how confident we allow ourselves to be that our opinions are right?” A simpler way of putting it is how do humans know ideas, and what are the different types of ideas. An idea to Locke “can simply mean some sort of brute experience.” He shows that there are “No innate principles in the mind.”. Thus, he concludes that “our ideas are all experiential in nature.” An experience can either be a sensation or a reflection: “consider whether there are any innate ideas in the mind before any are brought in by the impression from sensation or reflection.” Therefore, an idea was an experience in which the human mind apprehended something. In a Lockean view, there are really two types of ideas: complex and simple. Simple ideas are the building blocks for much more complex ideas, and “While the mind is wholly passive in the reception of simple ideas, it is very active in the building of complex ideas...” Complex ideas, therefore, can either be modes, substances, or relations. Modes are when ideas are combined in order to convey new information. For instance, David Banach gives the example of beauty as a mode. He says that it is the combination of color and form. Substances, however, is different. Substances are certain objects, that can either be dogs, cats, or tables. And relations represent the relationship between two or more ideas. In this way, Locke did, in fact, answer his own questions about ideas and humans.", "Hume differs from Locke by limiting \"idea\" to the more or less vague mental reconstructions of perceptions, the perceptual process being described as an \"impression.\" Hume shared with Locke the basic empiricist premise that it is only from life experiences (whether their own or others') that humans' knowledge of the existence of anything outside of themselves can be ultimately derived, that they shall carry on doing what they are prompted to do by their emotional drives of varying kinds. In choosing the means to those ends, they shall follow their accustomed associations of ideas. Hume has contended and defended the notion that \"reason alone is merely the'slave of the passions'.\"", "Immanuel Kant defines an \"idea\" as opposed to a \"concept\". \"Regulative ideas\" are ideals that one must tend towards, but by definition may not be completely realized. Liberty, according to Kant, is an idea. The autonomy of the rational and universal subject is opposed to the determinism of the empirical subject. Kant felt that it is precisely in knowing its limits that philosophy exists. The business of philosophy he thought was not to give rules, but to analyze the private judgement of good common sense.", "Whereas Kant declares limits to knowledge (\"we can never know the thing in itself\"), in his epistemological work, Rudolf Steiner sees \"ideas\" as \"objects of experience\" which the mind apprehends, much as the eye apprehends light. In \"Goethean Science\" (1883), he declares, \"Thinking... is no more and no less an organ of perception than the eye or ear. Just as the eye perceives colors and the ear sounds, so thinking perceives ideas.\" He holds this to be the premise upon which Goethe made his natural-scientific observations.", "Wundt widens the term from Kant's usage to include \"conscious representation of some object or process of the external world\". In so doing, he includes not only ideas of memory and imagination, but also perceptual processes, whereas other psychologists confine the term to the first two groups. One of Wundt's main concerns was to investigate conscious processes in their own context by experiment and introspection. He regarded both of these as \"exact methods\", interrelated in that experimentation created optimal conditions for introspection. Where the experimental method failed, he turned to other \"objectively valuable aids\", specifically to \"those products of cultural communal life which lead one to infer particular mental motives. Outstanding among these are speech, myth, and social custom.\" Wundt designed the basic mental activity apperception — a unifying function which should be understood as an activity of the will. Many aspects of his empirical physiological psychology are used today. One is his principles of mutually enhanced contrasts and of assimilation and dissimilation (i.e. in color and form perception and his advocacy of \"objective\" methods of expression and of recording results, especially in language. Another is the principle of heterogony of ends — that multiply motivated acts lead to unintended side effects which in turn become motives for new actions.", "C. S. Peirce published the first full statement of pragmatism in his important works \"\" (1878) and \"\" (1877). In \"How to Make Our Ideas Clear\" he proposed that a \"clear idea\" (in his study he uses concept and \"idea\" as synonymic) is defined as one, when it is apprehended such as it will be recognized wherever it is met, and no other will be mistaken for it. If it fails of this clearness, it is said to be obscure. He argued that to understand an idea clearly we should ask ourselves what difference its application would make to our evaluation of a proposed solution to the problem at hand. Pragmatism (a term he appropriated for use in this context), he defended, was a method for ascertaining the meaning of terms (as a theory of meaning). The originality of his ideas is in their rejection of what was accepted as a view and understanding of knowledge by scientists for some 250 years, i.e. that, he pointed, knowledge was an impersonal fact. Peirce contended that we acquire knowledge as \"participants\", not as \"spectators\". He felt \"the real\", sooner or later, is information acquired through ideas and knowledge with the application of logical reasoning would finally result in. He also published many papers on logic in relation to \"ideas\".", "G. F. Stout and J. M. Baldwin, in the \"Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology\", define \"idea\" as \"the reproduction with a more or less adequate image, of an object not actually present to the senses.\" They point out that an idea and a perception are by various authorities contrasted in various ways. \"Difference in degree of intensity\", \"comparative absence of bodily movement on the part of the subject\", \"comparative dependence on mental activity\", are suggested by psychologists as characteristic of an idea as compared with a perception. It should be observed that an idea, in the narrower and generally accepted sense of a mental reproduction, is frequently composite. That is, as in the example given above of the idea of a chair, a great many objects, differing materially in detail, all call a single idea. When a man, for example, has obtained an idea of chairs in general by comparison with which he can say \"This is a chair, that is a stool\", he has what is known as an \"abstract idea\" distinct from the reproduction in his mind of any particular chair (see abstraction). Furthermore, a complex idea may not have any corresponding physical object, though its particular constituent elements may severally be the reproductions of actual perceptions. Thus the idea of a centaur is a complex mental picture composed of the ideas of man and horse, that of a mermaid of a woman and a fish.", "Diffusion studies explore the spread of ideas from culture to culture. Some anthropological theories hold that all cultures imitate ideas from one or a few original cultures, the Adam of the Bible, or several cultural circles that overlap. Evolutionary diffusion theory holds that cultures are influenced by one another but that similar ideas can be developed in isolation. In the mid-20th century, social scientists began to study how and why ideas spread from one person or culture to another. Everett Rogers pioneered diffusion of innovations studies, using research to prove factors in adoption and profiles of adopters of ideas. In 1976, in his book \"The Selfish Gene\", Richard Dawkins suggested applying biological evolutionary theories to the spread of ideas. He coined the term \"meme\" to describe an abstract unit of selection, equivalent to the gene in evolutionary biology.", "", "James Boswell recorded Samuel Johnson's opinion about ideas. Johnson claimed that they are mental images or internal visual pictures. As such, they have no relation to words or the concepts which are designated by verbal names.", "", "", "To protect the cause of invention and innovation, the legal constructions of Copyrights and Patents were established. Patent law regulates various aspects related to the functional manifestation of inventions based on new ideas or incremental improvements to existing ones. Thus, patents have a direct relationship to ideas.", "In some cases, authors can be granted limited legal monopolies on the manner in which certain works are expressed. This is known colloquially as copyright, although the term intellectual property is used mistakenly in place of \"copyright\". Copyright law regulating the aforementioned monopolies generally does not cover the actual ideas. The law does not bestow the legal status of property upon ideas per se. Instead, laws purport to regulate events related to the usage, copying, production, sale and other forms of exploitation of the fundamental expression of a work, that may or may not carry ideas. Copyright law is fundamentally different from patent law in this respect: patents do grant monopolies on ideas (more on this below). A copyright is meant to regulate some aspects of the usage of expressions of a work, \"not\" an idea. Thus, copyrights have a negative relationship to ideas. Work means a tangible medium of expression. It may be an original or derivative work of art, be it literary, dramatic, musical recitation, artistic, related to sound recording, etc. In (at least) countries adhering to the Berne Convention, copyright automatically starts covering the work upon the original creation and fixation thereof, without any extra steps. While creation usually involves an idea, the idea in itself does not suffice for the purposes of claiming copyright.", "Confidentiality and nondisclosure agreements are legal instruments that assist corporations and individuals in keeping ideas from escaping to the general public. Generally, these instruments are covered by contract law." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "American Revolution.", "\"Common Sense\" (1776).", "\"The American Crisis\" (1776).", "Foreign affairs.", "Silas Deane affair.", "Public Good.", "Funding the Revolution.", "\"Rights of Man\".", "\"The Age of Reason\".", "Later years.", "Death.", "Ideas.", "Slavery.", "State funded social programs.", "\"Agrarian Justice\".", "Religious views.", "Legacy.", "Abraham Lincoln.", "Thomas Edison.", "South America.", "Memorials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Thomas Paine was born on January 29, 1736 the son of Joseph Pain, a tenant farmer and stay-maker, and Frances () Pain, in Thetford, Norfolk, England. Joseph was a Quaker and Frances an Anglican. Despite claims that Thomas changed the spelling of his family name upon his emigration to America in 1774, he was using \"Paine\" in 1769, while still in Lewes, Sussex. He attended Thetford Grammar School (1744–1749), at a time when there was no compulsory education. At the age of 13, he was apprenticed to his father, a staymaker. Following his apprenticeship, aged 19, Thomas enlisted and briefly served as a privateer, before returning to Britain in 1759. There, he became a master staymaker, establishing a shop in Sandwich, Kent. On September 27, 1759, Thomas Paine married Mary Lambert. His business collapsed soon after. Mary became pregnant; and, after they moved to Margate, she went into early labour, in which she and their child died. In July 1761, Paine returned to Thetford to work as a supernumerary officer. In December 1762, he became an Excise Officer in Grantham, Lincolnshire; in August 1764, he was transferred to Alford, also in Lincolnshire, at a salary of £50 per annum. On August 27, 1765, he was dismissed as an Excise Officer for \"claiming to have inspected goods he did not inspect\". On July 31, 1766, he requested his reinstatement from the Board of Excise, which they granted the next day, upon vacancy. While awaiting that, he worked as a stay-maker. In 1767, he was appointed to a position in Grampound, Cornwall. Later he asked to leave this post to await a vacancy, and he became a schoolteacher in London. On February 19, 1768, he was appointed to Lewes in Sussex, a town with a tradition of opposition to the monarchy and pro-republican sentiments since the revolutionary decades of the 17th century. Here he lived above the 15th-century Bull House, the tobacco shop of Samuel Ollive and Esther Ollive. Paine first became involved in civic matters when he was based in Lewes. He appears in the Town Book as a member of the Court Leet, the governing body for the town. He was also a member of the parish vestry, an influential local church group whose responsibilities for parish business would include collecting taxes and tithes to distribute among the poor. On March 26, 1771, at age 34, he married Elizabeth Ollive, his landlord's daughter. From 1772 to 1773, Paine joined excise officers asking Parliament for better pay and working conditions, publishing, in summer of 1772, \"The Case of the Officers of Excise\", a 12-page article, and his first political work, spending the London winter distributing the 4,000 copies printed to the Parliament and others. In spring 1774, he was again dismissed from the excise service for being absent from his post without permission; his tobacco shop failed, too. On April 14, to avoid debtors' prison, he sold his household possessions to pay debts. On June 4, 1774, he formally separated from his wife Elizabeth and moved to London, where, in September, mathematician, Fellow of the Royal Society, and Commissioner of the Excise George Lewis Scott introduced him to Benjamin Franklin, who suggested emigration to British colonial America, and gave him a letter of recommendation. In October, Paine emigrated to the American colonies, arriving in Philadelphia on November 30, 1774.", "", "Paine has a claim to the title \"The Father of the American Revolution\", which rests on his pamphlets, especially \"Common Sense,\" which crystallized sentiment for independence in 1776. It was published in Philadelphia on January 10, 1776, and signed anonymously \"by an Englishman\". It became an immediate success, quickly spreading 100,000 copies in three months to the two million residents of the 13 colonies. During the course of the American Revolution, a total of about 500,000 copies were sold, including unauthorized editions. Paine's original title for the pamphlet was \"Plain Truth\", but Paine's friend, pro-independence advocate Benjamin Rush, suggested \"Common Sense\" instead. The pamphlet came into circulation in January 1776, after the Revolution had started. It was passed around and often read aloud in taverns, contributing significantly to spreading the idea of republicanism, bolstering enthusiasm for separation from Britain, and encouraging recruitment for the", "In late 1776, Paine published \"The American Crisis\" pamphlet series to inspire the Americans in their battles against the British army. He juxtaposed", "In 1777, Paine became secretary of the Congressional Committee on Foreign Affairs. The following year, he alluded to secret negotiation underway with France in his pamphlets. His enemies denounced his indiscretions. There was scandal; together with Paine's conflict with Robert Morris and Silas Deane it led to Paine's expulsion from the Committee in 1779. However, in 1781, he accompanied John Laurens on his mission to France. Eventually, after much pleading from Paine, New York State recognized his political services by presenting him with an estate at New Rochelle, New York and Paine received money from Pennsylvania and from Congress at Washington's suggestion. During the Revolutionary War, Paine served as an aide-de-camp to the important general, Nathanael Greene.", "In what may have been an error, and perhaps even contributed to his resignation as the secretary to the Committee of Foreign Affairs, Paine was openly critical of Silas Deane, an American diplomat who had been appointed in March 1776 by the Congress to travel to France in secret. Deane's goal was to influence the French government to finance the colonists in their fight for independence. Paine largely saw Deane as a war profiteer who had little respect for principle, having been under the employ of Robert Morris, one of the primary financiers of the American Revolution and working with Pierre Beaumarchais, a French royal agent sent to the colonies by King Louis to investigate the Anglo-American conflict. Paine uncovered the financial connection between Morris, who was Superintendent for Finance of the Continental Congress, and Deane. Paine labeled Deane as unpatriotic, and demanded that there be a public investigation into Morris' financing of the Revolution,", "In 1780, Paine published a pamphlet entitled \"Public Good,\" in which he made the case that territories west of the 13 colonies that had been part of the British Empire belonged after the Declaration of Independence to the American government, and did not belong to any of the 13 states or to any individual speculators. A royal charter of 1609 had granted to the Virginia Company land stretching to the Pacific Ocean. A small group of wealthy Virginia land speculators, including the Washington, Lee, and Randolph families, had taken advantage of this royal charter", "Paine accompanied Col. John Laurens to France and is credited with initiating the mission. It landed in France in March 1781 and returned to America in August with 2.5 million livres in silver, as part of a \"present\" of 6 million and a loan of 10 million. The meetings with the French king were most likely conducted in the company and under the influence of Benjamin Franklin. Upon returning to the United States with this highly welcomed cargo, Thomas Paine and probably Col. Laurens,", "Back in London by 1787, Paine would become engrossed in the French Revolution after it began in 1789, and decided to travel to France in 1790. Meanwhile, conservative intellectual Edmund Burke launched a counterrevolutionary blast against the French Revolution, entitled \"Reflections on the Revolution in France\" (1790), which strongly appealed to the landed class, and sold 30,000 copies. Paine set out to refute it in his \"Rights of Man\" (1791). He wrote it not as a quick pamphlet, but as a long, abstract political tract of 90,000 words which tore apart monarchies and traditional social institutions. On January 31, 1791, he gave the manuscript to publisher Joseph Johnson. A visit by government agents dissuaded Johnson, so Paine gave the book to publisher J. S. Jordan, then went to Paris, per William Blake's advice. He charged three good friends, William Godwin, Thomas Brand Hollis, and Thomas Holcroft, with handling publication details. The book appeared on March 13, 1791 and sold nearly a million copies. It was \"eagerly read by reformers, Protestant dissenters, democrats, London craftsmen, and the skilled factory-hands of the new industrial north\". Undeterred by the government campaign to discredit him, Paine issued his \"Rights of Man, Part the Second, Combining Principle and Practice\" in February 1792. It detailed a representative government with enumerated social programs to remedy the numbing poverty of commoners through progressive tax measures. Radically reduced in price to ensure unprecedented circulation, it was sensational in its impact and gave birth to reform societies. An indictment for seditious libel followed, for both publisher and author, while government agents followed Paine and instigated mobs, hate meetings, and burnings in effigy. A fierce pamphlet war also resulted, in which Paine was defended and assailed in dozens of works. The authorities aimed, with ultimate success, to chase Paine out of Great Britain. He was then tried \"in absentia\" and found", "Paine was arrested in France on December 28, 1793. Joel Barlow was unsuccessful in securing Paine's release by circulating a petition among American residents in Paris. Sixteen American citizens were allowed to plead for Paine's release to the Convention, yet President Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier of the Committee of General Security refused to acknowledge Paine's American citizenship, stating he was an Englishman and a citizen of a country at war with France. Paine himself protested and claimed that he was a citizen of the U.S., which was an ally of Revolutionary France, rather than of Great Britain, which was by that time at war with France. However, Gouverneur Morris, the American minister to France, did not press his claim, and Paine later wrote that Morris had connived at his imprisonment. Paine narrowly escaped execution. A chalk mark was supposed to be left by the gaoler on the door of a cell to denote that the prisoner inside was due to be removed for execution. In Paine's case, the mark had accidentally been made on the inside of his door rather than the outside; this was due to the fact that the door of Paine's cell had been left open whilst the gaoler was making his rounds that day, since Paine had been receiving official visitors. But for this quirk of fate, Paine would have been executed the following morning. He kept his head and survived the few vital days needed to be spared by the fall of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794). Paine was released in November 1794 largely because of the work of the new American Minister to France, James Monroe, who successfully argued the case for Paine's American citizenship. In July 1795, he was re-admitted into the Convention, as were other surviving Girondins. Paine was one of only three députés to oppose the adoption of the new 1795 constitution because it eliminated universal suffrage, which had been proclaimed by the Montagnard Constitution of 1793. In 1796, a bridge he designed was erected over the mouth of the Wear River at Sunderland, Tyne and Wear, England. This bridge, the Sunderland arch, was after the same design as his Schuylkill River Bridge in Philadelphia and it became the prototype for many subsequent voussoir arches made in iron and steel. In addition to receiving a British patent for the single-span iron bridge, Paine developed a smokeless candle and worked with inventor John Fitch in developing steam engines. In 1797, Paine lived in Paris with Nicholas Bonneville and his wife. As well as Bonneville's other controversial guests, Paine aroused the suspicions of authorities. Bonneville hid the Royalist Antoine Joseph Barruel-Beauvert at his home. Beauvert had been outlawed following the coup of 18 Fructidor on September 4, 1797. Paine believed that the United States under President John Adams had betrayed revolutionary France. Bonneville was then briefly jailed and his presses were confiscated, which meant financial ruin. In 1800, still under police surveillance, Bonneville took refuge with his father in Evreux. Paine stayed on with him, helping Bonneville with the burden of translating the \"Covenant Sea\". The same year, Paine purportedly had a meeting with Napoleon. Napoleon claimed he slept with a copy of \"Rights of Man\" under his pillow and went so far as to say to Paine that \"a statue of gold should be erected to you in every city in the universe\". Paine discussed with Napoleon how best to invade England. In December 1797, he wrote two essays, one of which was pointedly named \"Observations on the Construction and Operation of Navies with a Plan for an Invasion of England and the Final Overthrow of the English Government\", in which he promoted the idea to finance 1,000 gunboats to carry a French invading army across the English Channel. In 1804, Paine returned to the subject, writing \"To the People of England on the Invasion of England\" advocating the idea. However, upon noting Napoleon's progress towards dictatorship, he condemned him as \"the completest charlatan that ever existed\". Paine remained in France until 1802, returning to the United States only at President Jefferson's invitation.", "In 1802 or 1803, Paine left France for the United States, also paying the passage for Bonneville's wife Marguerite Brazier and the couple's three sons, Benjamin, Louis and Thomas Bonneville, to whom Paine was godfather. Paine returned to the United States in the early stages of the Second Great Awakening and a time of great political partisanship. The \"Age of Reason\" gave ample excuse for the religiously devout to dislike him and the Federalists attacked him for his ideas of government stated in \"Common Sense,\" for his association with the French Revolution and for", "On the morning of June 8, 1809, Paine died, aged 72, at 59 Grove Street in Greenwich Village, New York City Although the original building is no longer there, the present building has a plaque noting that Paine died at this location. After his death, Paine's body was brought to New Rochelle, but the Quakers would not allow it to be buried in their graveyard as per his last will, so his remains were buried under a walnut tree on his farm. In 1819, English agrarian radical journalist William Cobbett, who in 1793 had published a hostile continuation of Francis Oldys (George", "Biographer Eric Foner identifies a utopian thread in Paine's thought, writing: \"Through this new language he communicated a new vision—a utopian image of an egalitarian, republican society\". Paine's utopianism combined civic republicanism, belief in the inevitability of scientific and social progress and commitment to free markets and liberty generally. The multiple sources of Paine's political theory all pointed to a society based on the common good and individualism. Paine expressed a redemptive futurism or political messianism. Writing that his generation \"would appear to the future as the Adam of a new world\", Paine exemplified British utopianism. Later, his encounters with the Indigenous peoples of the Americas made a deep impression. The ability of the Iroquois to live in harmony with nature while achieving a democratic decision-making process helped him refine his thinking on how to organize society.", "On March 8, 1775, one month after Paine became the editor of \"The Pennsylvania Magazine\", the magazine published an anonymous article titled \"African Slavery in America,\" the first prominent piece in the colonies proposing the emancipation of African-American slaves and the abolition of slavery. Paine is often", "In his \"Rights of Man, Part Second\", Paine advocated a comprehensive program of state support for the population to ensure the welfare of society, including state subsidy for poor people, state-financed universal", "His last pamphlet, \"Agrarian Justice\", published in the winter of 1795, opposed agrarian law and agrarian monopoly and further developed his ideas in the \"Rights of Man\" about how land ownership separated the majority of people from their rightful, natural inheritance and means of independent survival. The U.S. Social Security Administration recognizes \"Agrarian Justice\" as the first American proposal for an old-age pension and basic income or citizen's dividend. Per \"Agrarian Justice\": In advocating the case of the persons thus dispossessed, it is a right, and not a charity... [Government must] create a national fund, out of which there shall be paid to every", "Before his arrest and imprisonment in France, knowing that he would probably be arrested and executed, following in the tradition of early eighteenth-century British deism Paine wrote the first part of \"The Age of Reason\", an assault on organized \"revealed\" religion combining a compilation of the many inconsistencies he found in the Bible. About his own religious beliefs, Paine wrote in \"The Age of Reason\": Though there is no evidence Paine himself was a Freemason, upon his return to America from France he also penned \"An Essay on the Origin of Free-Masonry\" (1803–1805) about Freemasonry being derived from the religion of the ancient Druids. In the essay, he stated: \"The Christian religion is a parody on the worship of the sun, in which they put a man called Christ in", "Historian Jack P. Greene stated: Harvey J. Kaye wrote that through Paine, through his pamphlets and catchphrases such as \"The sun never shined on a cause of greater worth,\" \"We have it in our power to begin the world over again,\" and \"These are the times that try men's souls\" did more than move Americans to declare their independence: John Stevenson argues that in the early 1790s, numerous radical political societies were formed throughout England and Wales in which Paine's writings provided \"a boost to the self-confidence of those seeking to participate in politics for the first time.\" In its immediate effects, Gary Kates argues, \"Paine's vision unified Philadelphia merchants, British artisans, French peasants, Dutch reformers, and radical intellectuals from Boston to Berlin in one great movement.\" His writings in the long term inspired philosophic and working-class radicals in Britain and United States. Liberals, libertarians, left-libertarians, feminists, democratic socialists, social democrats, anarchists, free thinkers and progressives often claim him as an intellectual ancestor. Paine's critique of institutionalized religion and advocacy of rational thinking influenced many British freethinkers in the 19th and 20th centuries, such as William Cobbett, George Holyoake, Charles Bradlaugh, Christopher Hitchens and Bertrand Russell. The quote \"Lead, follow, or get out of the way\" is widely but incorrectly attributed to Paine. It can be found nowhere in his published works.", "In 1835, when Abraham Lincoln was 26 years old, he wrote a defense of Paine's deism. A political associate, Samuel Hill, burned the manuscript to save Lincoln's political career. Historian Roy Basler, the editor of Lincoln's papers, said", "The inventor Thomas Edison said: I have always regarded Paine as one of the greatest of all Americans. Never have we had a sounder intelligence in this republic... It was my good fortune to encounter Thomas Paine's works in my boyhood... it was, indeed, a revelation to me to read that great thinker's views", "In 1811, Venezuelan translator Manuel Garcia de Sena published a book in Philadelphia that consisted mostly of Spanish translations of several of Paine's most important works. The book also included translations of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the U.S. Constitution and the constitutions of five", "The first and longest-standing memorial to Paine is the carved and inscribed 12-foot marble column in New Rochelle, New York, organized and funded by publisher, educator and reformer Gilbert Vale (1791–1866) and raised in 1839 by the American sculptor and architect John Frazee, the Thomas Paine Monument (see image below). New Rochelle is also the original site of Thomas Paine's Cottage, which along with a 320-acre (130 ha) farm were presented to Paine in 1784 by act of the New York State Legislature for his services in the American Revolution. The same site is the home of the Thomas Paine Memorial Museum. Thomas Edison helped to turn the first shovel of earth for the museum which serves as a museum to display both Paine relics as well as others of local historical interest. A large collection of books, pamphlets, and pictures is contained in the Paine library, including many first editions of Paine's works as well as several original manuscripts. The holdings, the subject of a sell-off controversy, were temporarily relocated to the New-York Historical Society and have since been more permanently archived in the Iona College library nearby. Paine was originally buried near the current location of his house and monument upon his death in 1809. The site is marked by a small headstone and burial plaque even though his remains were removed years later. In the 20th century, Joseph Lewis, longtime president of the Freethinkers of America and an ardent Paine admirer, was instrumental in having larger-than-life-sized statues of Paine erected in each of the three countries with which the revolutionary writer was associated. The first, created by Mount Rushmore sculptor Gutzon Borglum, was erected in Paris just before World War II began but not formally dedicated until 1948. It depicts Paine standing before the French National Convention to plead for the life of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Example.", "Schur product theorem.", "In programming languages.", "Applications.", "Analogous operations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "For two matrices and of the same dimension, the Hadamard product formula_1 (or formula_2) is a matrix of the same dimension as the operands, with elements given by For matrices of different dimensions ( and, where or ) the Hadamard product is undefined.", "For example, the Hadamard product for a 3 × 3 matrix with a 3 × 3 matrix is", "The Hadamard product of two positive-semidefinite matrices is positive-semidefinite. This is known as the Schur product theorem, after German mathematician Issai Schur. For two positive-semidefinite matrices and, it is also known that the determinant of their Hadamard product is greater than or equal to the product of their respective determinants:", "Hadamard multiplication is built into certain programming languages under various names. In MATLAB, GNU Octave, GAUSS and HP Prime, it is known as \"array multiplication\", or in Julia \"broadcast multiplication\", with the symbol codice_1. In Fortran, R, APL, J and Wolfram Language (Mathematica), it is done through simple multiplication operator codice_2, whereas the matrix product is done through the function codice_3, codice_4, codice_5, codice_6 and the codice_7 operators, respectively. In Python with the NumPy numerical library or the SymPy symbolic library, multiplication of array objects as codice_8 produces the Hadamard product, but otherwise multiplication as codice_9 or matrix objects codice_10 will produce a matrix product. The Eigen C++ library provides a codice_11 member function for the Matrix class (codice_12), while the Armadillo library uses the operator codice_13 to make compact expressions (codice_14; codice_15 is a matrix product).", "The Hadamard product appears in lossy compression algorithms such as JPEG. The decoding step involves an entry-for-entry product, in other words the Hadamard product. It is used in the machine learning literature, for example to describe the architecture of recurrent neural networks as GRUs or LSTMs.", "Other Hadamard operations are also seen in the mathematical literature, namely the \"Hadamard root\" and \"Hadamard power\" (which are in effect the same thing because of fractional indices), defined for a matrix such that: For and for The \"Hadamard inverse\" reads: A \"Hadamard division\" is defined as:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Modern meaning.", "Related concepts and ambiguities.", "In English.", "In other languages.", "Afrikaans.", "Chinese.", "Hindi.", "German.", "Turkish.", "Japanese and Korean.", "Polynesian languages.", "Tokelauan." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Particles are typically words that encode grammatical categories (such as negation, mood, tense, or case), clitics, or fillers or (oral) discourse markers such as \"well\", \"um\", etc. Particles are never inflected.", "Depending on context, the meaning of the term may overlap with concepts such as \"morpheme\", \"marker\", or even \"adverb\" as in English phrasal verbs such as \"out\" in \"get out\". Under a strict definition, in which a particle must be uninflected, English deictics like \"this\" and \"that\" would not be classed as such (since they have plurals and are therefore inflected), and neither would Romance articles (since they are inflected for number and gender). This assumes that \"any\" function word incapable of inflection is by definition a particle. However, this conflicts with the above statement that particles have no specific lexical function per se, since non-inflecting words that function as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections have a clear lexical function. This disappears if particles are taken to be a separate class of words, where one characteristic (which they share with some words of other classes) is that they do not inflect.", "\"Particle\" is a somewhat nebulous term for a variety of small words that do not conveniently fit into other classes of words. \"The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language\" defines a particle as a \"word that does not change its form through inflection and does not fit easily into the established system of parts of speech\". The term includes the \"adverbial particles\" like \"up\" or \"out\" in verbal idioms (phrasal verbs) such as \"look up\" or \"knock out\"; it is also used to include the \"infinitival particle\" \"to\", the \"negative particle\" \"not\", the \"imperative particles\" \"do\" and \"let\", and sometimes \"pragmatic particles\" like \"oh\" and \"well\".", "", "The following particles can be considered the most prominent in Afrikaans:", "There are three types of zhùcí (助詞; particles) in Chinese: Structural, Aspectual, and Modal. Structural particles are used for grammatical relations. Aspectual particles signal grammatical aspects. Modal particles express linguistic modality. Note that particles are different from zhùdòngcí (助動詞; modal verbs) in Chinese.", "There are different types of particles present in Hindi. Emphatic particles, Limiter particles, Negation particles, Affirmative particles, Honorific particles, Topic-marker particle and Case-marker particles. The main particles in Hindi are given in the table below: The genitive marker in Hindi cannot be considered a particle as per the definition that particles cannot be inflected. The genitive marker का \"(kā)\" inflects for the number and gender of the object it shows possession of. The genitive markers are का \"(kā)\", के \"(ke)\", की \"(kī)\" and कीं / की \"(kī̃ / kī)\" for masculine singular, masculine plural, feminine singular and feminine plural possessives respectively. There are compound postpositions or markers in Hindi (such as, के ऊपर \"(ke ūpar)\" \"above\", के लिए (ke liye), की ओर \"(kī or)\" \"towards\", की वजह से \"(kī vajah se)\" \"because of\") which make use of the genitive markers के \"(ke)\" and की (\"kī\") as their primary stem and hence all such postpositions cannot be considered as particles.", "A German modal particle serves no necessary syntactical function, but expresses the speaker's attitude towards the utterance. Modal particles include \"ja, halt, doch, aber, denn, schon\" and others. Some of these also appear in non-particle forms. \"Aber\", for example, is also the conjunction \"but\". In \"Er ist Amerikaner, aber er spricht gut Deutsch\", \"He is American, but he speaks German well,\" \"aber\" is a conjunction connecting two sentences. But in \"Er spricht aber gut Deutsch!\", the \"aber\" is a particle, with the sentence perhaps best translated as \"What good German he speaks!\" These particles are common in speech but rarely found in written language, except that which has a spoken quality (such as online messaging).", "Turkish particles have no meaning alone; among other words, he takes part in the sentence. In some sources, exclamations and conjunctions are also considered Turkish particles. In this article, exclamations and conjunctions will not be dealt with, but only Turkish particles. The main particles used in Turkish are: Particles can be used with the simple form of the names to which they are attached or in other cases. Some of particles uses with attached form, and some particles are always used after the relevant form. For examples, \"-den ötürü\", \"-e dek\", \"-den öte\", \"-e doğru\": Turkish particles according to their functions. Başka, gayrı, özge using for \"other, another, otherwise, new, diverse, either\" Göre, nazaran, dâir, rağmen using for \"by, in comparison, about, despite\". İçin, üzere, dolayı, ötürü, nâşi, diye using for \"bFor, with, because, because of, how\".", "The term \"particle\" is often used in descriptions of Japanese and Korean, where they are used to mark nouns according to their grammatical case or thematic relation in a sentence or clause. Linguistic analyses describe them as suffixes, clitics, or postpositions. There are sentence-tagging particles such as Japanese and Chinese question markers.", "Polynesian languages are almost devoid of inflection, and use particles extensively to indicate mood, tense, and case. Suggs, discussing the deciphering of the rongorongo script of Easter Island, describes them as all-important. In Māori for example, the versatile particle \"e\" can signal the imperative mood, the vocative case, the future tense, or the subject of a sentence formed with most passive verbs. The particle \"i\" signals the past imperfect tense, the object of a transitive verb or the subject of a sentence formed with \"neuter verbs\" (a form of passive verb), as well as the prepositions \"in\", \"at\" and \"from\".", "In Tokelauan, \"ia\" is used when describing personal names, month names, and nouns used to describe a collaborative group of people participating in something together. It also can be used when a verb does not directly precede a pronoun to describe said pronouns. Its use for pronouns is optional but mostly in this way. \"Ia\" cannot be used if the noun it is describing follows any of the prepositions \"e, o, a\", or \"ko\". A couple of the other ways unrelated to what is listed above that \"ia\" is used is when preceding a locative or place name. However, if \"ia\" is being used in this fashion, the locative or place name must be the subject of the sentence. Another particle in Tokelauan is \"a\", or sometimes \"ā\". This article is used before a person’s name as well as the names of months and the particle \"a te\" is used before pronouns when these instances are following the prepositions \"i\" or \"ki\". \"Ia te\" is a particle used if following the preposition \"ma\"i." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Office and responsibility.", "Master General of the Order of Preachers.", "Cardinalate.", "Papacy.", "Papal election.", "Actions.", "Stories.", "Beatification.", "Papal numbering.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Niccolò Boccasini was born in Treviso to Boccasio, a municipal notary (died 1246), whose brother was a priest; and Ber(n)arda, who worked as a laundress for the Dominican friars of Treviso. Niccolò had a sister, Adelette. The family lived outside the walls of Treviso, in a suburb called S. Bartolommeo. In 1246, a Dominican friar left a sum of money in his will to Bernarda and her children, recently orphaned. A condition was that if Niccolò were to enter the Dominican Order he would receive half of the entire legacy. From the age of six, it seems, Niccolò was destined for the monkish life. His first teacher was his uncle, the priest of S. Andrea. He entered the Order of Preachers in 1254, at the age of fourteen, taking the habit of a novice in his native Treviso. He was taken to Venice by his Prior and presented to the Provincial, who assigned him to the convent of SS. Giovanni e Paolo in Venice. For the next seven years or so, Niccolò pursued his basic education in Venice. Toward the end of this period, he served as tutor to the young sons of Romeo Quirini of Venice, whose brother was a Canon in the Cathedral of Treviso. In 1262, Niccolò was transferred to Milan, to the new \"studium\" of S. Eustorgio. He spent the next six years at S. Eustorgio. By the end of his term at S. Eustorgio he must have become a professed member of the Order of Preachers; the actual date, however, is unknown. As a professed brother he served in the responsible position as a lecturer in the \"studium\" in Venice, that is to say, he was in charge of the elementary education of the brothers in his convent. Each convent had its \"lector\". He served as \"lector\" for fourteen years, from 1268 to 1282, according to Bernardus Guidonis. In 1276 he is attested as being \"lector\" at the Dominican convent in his native Treviso, a post he was still holding in 1280. In February 1282 he is found at Genoa, again as \"lector\". He was not a professor, since he had never taken a university degree, being one of the last popes who was not a university graduate.", "In 1286, at the meeting of the Provincial Chapter, which took place that year in Brescia, Fr. Niccolò was elected Provincial Prior of Lombardy. As Provincial of Lombardy, Fr. Niccolò's lifestyle changed considerably. Instead of being firmly attached to a single convent for years, he would instead become peripatetic, moving from one convent to another on visits of inspection, encouragement and correction. In Lombardy at the time there were some fifty-one convents. He also had responsibility as an Inquisitor, a task for which popes considered Franciscans and Dominicans especially suited. He also had the responsibility of convening the Provincial Chapters. In 1287, the Chapter was at Venice; in 1288, it was at Rimini; in 1289 at the General Chapter, which was held at Trier, Fr. Niccolò was released from the office of Provincial of Lombardy, having completed his three-year term. It is probable that, without office, he returned to a convent, possibly that of Treviso—though the evidence is scanty and based on wills and codicils. He was elected Provincial Prior of Lombardy again, however, at the Provincial Chapter held at Brescia in 1293. In 1294 it was held at Faventia, in 1295 at Verona, and in 1296 at Ferrara, where Fr. Niccolò's successor was elected, since he had a new assignment.", "At the Capitulum Generale of the Order of Preachers, which was held at Strasbourg in 1296, Frater Niccolò of Treviso was elected Master of the Order of Preachers, and issued ordinances that forbade public questioning of the legitimacy of Pope Boniface VIII's papal election (which had taken place on Christmas Eve, 1295) on the part of any Dominican.", "Boccasini was elevated to the cardinalate on 4 December 1298 by Boniface VIII, and assigned the title of Cardinal-Priest of Santa Sabina. He entered the Roman Curia on 25 March 1299 and thus began to receive his share of the profits of the Chamber of the College of Cardinals. He was promoted to the rank of Cardinal-Bishop of the See of Ostia on 2 March 1300 and also received episcopal consecration. On 13 May 1301 he was appointed Apostolic Legate to Hungary. He made his official departure on 22 June 1301 and returned on 10 May 1303. He also served as papal legate to France. When Pope Boniface VIII was seized at Anagni in September 1303, Boccasini was one of only two cardinals to defend the Pope in the Episcopal Palace itself. The other was Pedro Rodriguez, Bishop of Sabina. They were imprisoned for three days. On Monday 10 September they were liberated by forces led by Cardinal Luca Fieschi, and on 14 September the Pope and his retinue returned to Rome, with an escort organized by Cardinal Matteo Rosso Orsini.", "", "The conclave to elect the successor of Boniface VIII was held in the Basilica of Saint John Lateran and the College of Cardinals desired an appropriate candidate who would not be hostile towards King Philip IV of France. After one ballot in a conclave that lasted a day, Boccasini was elected as pope.", "He was quick to release King Philip IV from the excommunication that had been put upon him by Boniface VIII. Nevertheless, on 7 June 1304, Benedict XI excommunicated Philip IV's implacable minister Guillaume de Nogaret and all the Italians who had played a part in the seizure of his predecessor at Anagni. Benedict XI also arranged an armistice between Philip IV of France and Edward I of England. After a brief pontificate that spanned a mere eight months, Benedict XI died suddenly at Perugia. As original reports had it, suspicion fell primarily on Nogaret with the suspicion that his sudden death was caused by poisoning. There is no direct evidence, however, to either support or disprove the contention that Nogaret poisoned the pope. Benedict XI's successor, Clement V was in France when elected and never journeyed to Rome. His successors resided principally in Avignon, inaugurating the period sometimes known as the Babylonian Captivity. He and the French popes who succeeded him were completely under the influence of the kings of France. Benedict XI also celebrated two Consistories for the purpose of creating new cardinals. The first, on 18 December 1303, elevated Fr. Nicholas Alberti da Prato, OP, the Bishop of Spoleto; and Fr. William Macclesfield (Marlesfeld), OP, of Canterbury, Prior of the English Province of the Dominicans. On 19 February 1304 he elevated Walter Winterburn, OP, of Salisbury, the confessor of King Edward I of England, who did not want to part with him, and kept him in England for some time. By the time he arrived in Perugia on 28 November 1304, Pope Benedict was dead. Cardinal Winterburn died at Genoa on 24 September 1305. It cannot escape notice that all three new cardinals were members of the Dominican Order. Benedict XI was the author of a volume of sermons and commentaries on the Gospel of Matthew, the Psalms, the Book of Job, and the Book of Revelation.", "Cardinal Caesar Baronius (1538–1607) wrote that, on the Monday of Easter week in 1304, Benedict XI was celebrating Mass, but a pilgrim interrupted it, because he wanted the pope to hear his confession. Rather than telling him to find another time or another priest to have his confession, the Pope left the Mass to hear his confession and then returned to continue the Mass. This appears to be an anecdote, appropriate for a sermon recommending frequent confession, placed in an age when twice annual confession was the norm. It is unlikely that a pilgrim would attempt to interrupt a Mass, that a priest would interrupt a Mass for some other function, or that the protocols of the papal Court would permit such an unfettered close approach to the pontiff during a sacred service. There is also a story that, at the General Chapter of the Dominicans at Lucca in May 1288, the Provincial of the Roman Province, Thomas de Luni predicted to Fr. Niccolò that he would someday be pope. On another occasion, when he was in Venice, a friar of Torcello predicted that he would be Provincial, Master General, Cardinal and Pope. This is a sort of flattery often used upon, and then anecdotally reported about ecclesiastical persons, after they have reached the height of their eminence. The thousands of times when the prediction does not turn out to be true are not reported. One need not place much significance in such tales.", "Benedict XI earned a reputation for holiness and the faithful came to venerate him. His tomb gained a reputation for the amount of miracles that emerged from the site. Pope Clement XII approved his cultus on 24 April 1736 which acted as his formal beatification. Pope Benedict XIV extended his veneration to the Republic of Venice in 1748 after a request from the Venetians.", "A note on the numbering: Pope Benedict X (1058–1059) is now considered an antipope by the Catholic Church. At the time of Benedict XI's election, however, Benedict X was still considered a legitimate pope, and thus the man the Catholic Church officially considers the tenth true Pope Benedict, Niccolo Boccasini, took the official number XI rather than X. This has advanced the numbering of all subsequent Popes Benedict by one digit. Popes Benedict XI-Benedict XVI are, from an official point of view, the 10th through 15th popes by that name.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career in film production.", "Conflict with Goebbels.", "Postwar." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hippler was born and brought up in Berlin as the son of a petty official. His father died in 1918 in the First World War in France. Hippler resented the Treaty of Versailles and its associated regulations, such as the assignment of the Danzig Corridor, the occupation of the Rhineland and the disarmament of Germany as unjustified humiliation, and rejected the Weimar democracy. In 1925 when he was 17, Hippler joined the Nazi party NSDAP. In 1927, Hippler became a member of the NSD StudentBund - the National Socialist German Students' League. Later he studied law in Heidelberg and Berlin. He was a member of the \"\" dueling society in Heidelberg and the \"Arminia\" dueling society in Berlin. In 1932 he became NSDAP district speaker. In 1933 he was appointed the district and high school group leader for Berlin-Brandenburg in the National Socialist German Students' League. Hippler was a supporter of expressionism. As the leader of the National Socialist German Students' League of Berlin he organised an exhibition in Humboldt University of Berlin for expressionist painters, for which he was vehemently attacked by the Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg. In 1932, Hippler was expelled from the University of Berlin for participating in violent Nazi rallies. On 19 April 1933, the new National Socialist Education Minister Bernhard Rust repealed any disciplinary actions against students associated with the NSDAP, thus reinstating Hippler. On 22 May 1933, he gave a speech initiating a march from the student house in the Oranienburger Straße to Opera Square with books which were then burned. In June 1933 Hippler participated in a violent rally opposite the stock exchange, against Alfred Hugenberg then minister of finance and still Hitler's rival, calling Hitler to disavow him and remove him from power. Hippler was later involved in a dispute over the direction of arts policy. He was satisfied with the anti-Jewish orientation of the arts policy and the consequent banishment of that art from museums and art dealers who had been created by people of Jewish faith. However, in July 1933 at a rally of the National Socialist Student League in the lecture hall of the Berlin University, he criticised the harsh action of some Nazi circles against the German modern artists like Emile Nolde and Barlach, the artists group Die Brücke, which was propagated by elements of the Nazi leadership as part of efforts against the Degenerate Art. Although Goebbels was a lover of Nolde, this direction after a word of argument was in favour of the more radical of Hitler's National Socialists, whose spokesman was Alfred Rosenberg and his Combat League for German Culture. Fritz Hippler earned his PhD in 1934 at the Heidelberg University with Arnold Bergstraesser and a dissertation titled \"State and Society in the Thinking of John Stuart Mill, Karl Marx, and Paul de Lagarde. A contribution to the sociological thinking of the present time\".", "After receiving his doctorate in 1934, Hippler became a lecturer at the German University of Policy in Berlin. From 1936 he worked as assistant to Hans Weidemann working on the production of German newsreels, directed in the Reich Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Here he learned the production of documentaries. In January 1939, he took over Weidemann's position. In August 1939, Goebbels promoted Hippler again. He appointed the 29-year-old Hippler to head the film department at the Reich Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda RMVP. In February 1942, he appointed him to the kingdom of film directors. With these two functions Hippler was one of the most important politicians of the film \"Third Reich\" after Goebbels. In October 1942, he was Director in the RMVP. His task was control, supervision and direction of German filmmaking. In 1938, Hippler was appointed to the rank of SS \"Hauptsturmführer\". According to Veit Harlan, Hippler loved to wear his SS uniform. In his ministerial functions, Hippler continued to produce films. In 1939-40 he was responsible for the propaganda film \"The campaign in Poland\" which ran under the title of \"Baptism of fire\". In 1940, he was responsible for the management and design of the feature-length documentary film \"The Eternal Jew\"—according to Courtade, \"History of Film in the Third Reich\", \"the vilest anti-Semitic Nazi films.\" The film historian Frank Noack assessed \"The Eternal Jew\" as \"probably the most radical inflammatory film of all time\". An article written by Hippler in the magazine \"The film\" about its creation marked Jews as \"parasites of national degeneracy.\" He deliberately filmed conditions within the Warsaw Ghetto to show the starving inhabitants, conditions designed by the Germans to increase the death rate. The film served as a preparation and agreement of the population in the coming holocaust and was mainly used for training of police and SS troops. In the same year, Hippler received from Hitler a secret special endowment of 60,000 Reichsmarks in recognition of his services to the Reich. In addition to \"The Eternal Jew\" Hippler also directed the 1940 propaganda documentary \"Feldzug in Polen\" about the Third Reich's invasion and occupation of Poland in 1939, and \"Die Frontschau (The Frontshow)\", a series of shorts shown to soldiers before being shipped to the Eastern Front. In 1942, Hippler published a book about film theory titled \"Betrachtungen zum Filmschaffen\" (i.e., \"Contemplations on Filmmaking\"), which included a preface by Emil Jannings. By 1943, he was promoted to Obersturmbannführer.", "Goebbels could usually count on his young people. Nevertheless, he frequently criticized their shortcomings. As early as 1939, he recorded in his diaries that Hippler was intelligent but cheeky and totally contradictory. He also stated that Hippler was immature. Goebbels complained repeatedly about the disorganisation of the film department. Hippler suffered apparently with alcohol addiction. Goebbels finally discharged Hippler in June 1943 due to \"mishaps, alcoholism, and family problems”, although Hippler claimed in his diary that he was removed due to his choice of Erich Kaestner for the screenplay of the film \"Münchhausen\" even though several of Kaestner's books and plays had been banned by the Nazis in 1933. After his dismissal, Hippler was accused of falsely denying his partial Jewish descent and demoted from his SS rank. Hippler was sent to an infantry replacement battalion of the country, according to Strauss and underwent mountain infantry training. Then he was again released from active duty and used until February 1945 as a front cameraman in order to produce material for newsreels. On 3 May 1945, he flew into Hamburg as a British prisoner of war.", "After the end of the Second World War, Hippler was interned and sentenced to two years in prison. He was able to stage a comeback after his release. He was interviewed in the Bill Moyers CBS Cable documentary \"A Walk Through the 20th Century\" in 1982. Hippler died on 22 May 2002, aged 92. He is portrayed by Cary Elwes in the 2001 television film \"Uprising\", and by in the 2010 film \"\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Relationship with Heracles." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "As a son of Iphicles, Iolaus was a nephew of Heracles. He often acted as Heracles' charioteer and companion. He was sometimes regarded as Heracles' lover, and the shrine to him in Thebes was a place where male couples worshiped and made vows. The Theban gymnasium was also named after him, and the \"Iolaia\" or \"Iolaea\" (), an athletic festival consisting of gymnastic and equestrian events, was held yearly in Thebes in his honor. The victors at the \"Iolaea\" were crowned with garlands of myrtle. Iolaus provided essential help to Heracles in his battle against the Hydra, his second labor. Seeing that Heracles was being overwhelmed by the multi-headed monster (the Lernaean Hydra), who grew two heads in place of each one cut off, Iolaus helped by cauterizing each neck as Heracles beheaded it. Heracles gave his wife, Megara, age thirty three, to Iolaus, then only sixteen years old – ostensibly because the sight of her reminded him of his murder of their three children. They had a daughter, Leipephilene. He was one of the Heraclidae. Upon Heracles' death, Iolaus lit the funeral pyre. However, according to some mythographers, this was Philoctetes instead. In Sophocles' \"Philoctetes\", Philoctetes was given Herakles' bow and arrow as reward for lighting the funeral pyre. In other versions, it is Poeas. According to Diodorus Siculus, Iolaus was sent by Heracles to Sardinia, together with nine of the sons that he had with the fifty daughters of Thespius (the Thespiades), to colonize the island, giving rise to the Iolei people. Iolaus and the Thespians were buried in Sardinia. Aristotle said that Sardinia had practiced the rite of incubation, which is the liberation ritual of the people who were affected by nightmares and obsessions. These rituals included that the persons suffering from nightmares should sleep next to the tombs of heroes. Simplicius of Cilicia adds, in the eight books of the Commentaries Aristotle, that \"the places where they were deposited and preserved corpses of the nine heroes that Heracles got from the Thespians and who came to Sardinia with the colony of Iolaus, became the famous oracles.\" Solinus says: \"The Iolians, so named by him (Iolaus), added a temple to his tomb, because he had freed Sardinia from many ills\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Versions and interpretations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Python, sometimes written Phython, presided at the Delphic oracle, which existed in the cult center for its mother, Gaia, \"Earth,\" Pytho being the place name that was substituted for the earlier \"Krisa\". Greeks considered the site to be the center of the earth, represented by a stone, the \"omphalos\" or navel, which Python guarded. Python became the chthonic enemy of the later Olympian deity Apollo, who slew it and took over Python's former home and oracle. These were the most famous and revered in the ancient Greek and Roman worlds. Like many monsters, Python was known as Gaia's son and prophesied as Gaia's son. Therefore, Apollo had to eliminate this opponent before establishing his temple in Delphoi.", "There are various versions of Python's birth and death at the hands of Apollo. In the \"Homeric Hymn to Apollo\", now thought to have been composed in 522 BCE when the archaic period in Greek history was giving way to the Classical period, a small detail is provided regarding Apollo's combat with the serpent, in some sections identified as the deadly drakaina, or her parent. The version related by Hyginus holds that when Zeus lay with the goddess Leto, and she became pregnant with Artemis and Apollo, Hera was jealous and sent Python to pursue Leto throughout the lands, to prevent her from giving birth to the twin gods. Thus when Apollo was grown he wanted to avenge his mother's plight and pursued Python, making his way straight for Mount Parnassus where the serpent dwelled, and chased it to the oracle of Gaia at Delphi; there he dared to penetrate the sacred precinct and kill it with his arrows beside the rock cleft where the priestess sat on her tripod. Robert Graves, who habitually read into primitive myths a retelling of archaic political and social turmoil, saw in this the capturing by Hellenes of a pre-Hellenic shrine. \"To placate local opinion at Delphi,\" he wrote in \"The Greek Myths\", \"regular funeral games were instituted in honour of the dead hero Python, and her priestess was retained in office.\" The politics are conjectural, but the myth reports that Zeus ordered Apollo to purify himself for the sacrilege and instituted the Pythian Games, over which Apollo was to preside, as penance for his act. Erwin Rohde wrote that the Python was an earth spirit, who was conquered by Apollo, and buried under the Omphalos, and that it is a case of one god setting up his temple on the grave of another. The priestess of the oracle at Delphi became known as the Pythia, after the place-name Pytho, which Greeks explained as named after the rotting (πύθειν) of the slain serpent's corpse in the strength of Hyperion (day) or Helios (the sun). Karl Kerenyi pointed out that the older tales mentioned two dragons, who were perhaps intentionally conflated; the other was a female dragon (\"drakaina\") named Delphyne in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, with whom dwelt a male serpent named Typhon: \"The narrators seem to have confused the dragon of Delphi, Python, with Typhon or Typhoeus, the adversary of Zeus\". The enemy dragoness \"... actually became an Apollonian serpent, and Pythia, the priestess who gave oracles at Delphi, was named after him. Many pictures show the serpent Python living in amity with Apollo and guarding the Omphalos, the sacred navel stone and midpoint of the earth, which stood in Apollo's temple\" (Kerenyi 1951:136). This myth has been described as an allegory for the dispersal of the fogs and clouds of vapor which arise from ponds and marshes (Python) by the rays of the sun (the arrows of Apollo)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Personal life.", "House of Representatives.", "War of 1812.", "Postwar planning.", "Rhetorical style.", "Secretary of War and postwar nationalism.", "Vice Presidency.", "1824 and 1828 elections and Adams presidency.", "Petticoat affair.", "Nullification.", "Resignation.", "First term in the U.S. Senate.", "Secretary of State.", "Appointment and the Annexation of Texas.", "Election of 1844.", "Second term in the Senate.", "Mexican–American War and Wilmot Proviso.", "Oregon boundary dispute.", "Rejection of the Compromise of 1850.", "Death, last words, and burial.", "Political philosophy.", "Agrarian republicanism.", "Slavery.", "Opposition to the War with Mexico.", "Concurrent majority.", "State sovereignty and the \"Calhoun Doctrine\".", "Legacy.", "Monuments and memorials.", "Film and television.", "Historical reputation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "John Caldwell Calhoun was born in Abbeville District, South Carolina on March 18, 1782, the fourth child of Patrick Calhoun (1727–1796) and his wife Martha (Caldwell). Patrick's father, also named Patrick Calhoun, had joined the Scotch-Irish immigration movement from County Donegal to southwestern Pennsylvania. After the death of the elder Patrick in 1741, the family moved to southwestern Virginia. Following the defeat of British General Edward Braddock at the Battle of the Monongahela in 1755, the family, fearing Indian attacks, moved to South Carolina in 1756. Patrick Calhoun belonged to the Calhoun clan in the tight-knit Scotch-Irish community on the Southern frontier. He was known as an Indian fighter and an ambitious surveyor, farmer, planter and politician, elected to the South Carolina Legislature. As a Presbyterian, he stood opposed to the established Anglican planter elite based in Charleston. He was a Patriot in the American Revolution, and opposed ratification of the federal Constitution on grounds of states' rights and personal liberties. Calhoun would eventually adopt his father's states' rights beliefs. Young Calhoun showed scholastic talent, and although schools were scarce on the Carolina frontier, he was enrolled", "In January 1811, Calhoun married Floride Bonneau Colhoun, a first cousin once removed. She was the daughter of wealthy United States Senator and lawyer John E. Colhoun, a leader of Charleston high society. The couple had 10 children over 18 years: Andrew Pickens Calhoun, Floride Pure, Jane, Anna Maria, Elizabeth, Patrick, John Caldwell Jr., Martha Cornelia, James Edward, and William Lowndes Calhoun. Three girls: Floride Pure, Jane, and Elizabeth, died in infancy. Calhoun's fourth child, Anna Maria, married", "", "With a base among the Irish and Scotch Irish, Calhoun won election to South Carolina's 6th congressional district of the House of Representatives in 1810. He immediately became a leader of the War Hawks, along with Speaker Henry Clay of Kentucky and South Carolina congressmen William Lowndes and Langdon Cheves. Brushing aside the vehement objections of both anti-war New Englanders and arch-conservative Jeffersonians led by John Randolph of Roanoke, they demanded war against Britain to preserve American honor and republican values. They claimed these had been violated by the British refusal to recognize American shipping rights. As a member, and later acting chairman, of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Calhoun played a major role in drafting two key documents in the push for war, the Report on Foreign Relations and the War Report of 1812. Drawing on the linguistic tradition of the Declaration of Independence, Calhoun's committee called for a declaration of war in ringing phrases, denouncing Britain's \"lust for power\", \"unbounded tyranny\", and \"mad ambition\". Historian James Roark says, \"These were fighting words in a war that was in large measure about insult and honor.\" The United States declared war on Britain on June 18, inaugurating the", "Despite American successes, the mismanagement of the Army during the war distressed Calhoun, and he resolved to strengthen and centralize the War Department. The militia had proven itself quite unreliable during the war and Calhoun saw the need for a permanent and professional military force. In 1816 he called for building an effective navy, including steam frigates, as well as a standing army of adequate size. The British blockade of the coast had underscored the necessity of rapid means of internal transportation; Calhoun proposed a system of \"great permanent roads\". The blockade had cut off the import of manufactured items, so he emphasized the need to", "Regarding his career in the House of Representatives, an observer commented that Calhoun was \"the most elegant speaker that sits in the House... His gestures are easy and graceful, his manner forcible, and language elegant; but above all, he confines himself closely to the subject, which he always understands, and enlightens everyone within hearing.\" His talent for public speaking required systematic self-discipline and practice. A later critic noted the sharp contrast between his hesitant conversations and his fluent speaking styles, adding that Calhoun \"had so carefully cultivated his naturally poor voice as to make his utterance clear, full, and distinct in speaking and while not at all musical it yet fell pleasantly on the ear\". Calhoun was \"a", "In 1817, the deplorable state of the War Department led four men to decline offers from President James Monroe to accept the office of Secretary of War before Calhoun finally assumed the role. Calhoun took office on December 8 and served until 1825. He continued his role as a leading nationalist during the Era of Good Feelings. He proposed an elaborate program of national reforms to the infrastructure that he believed would speed economic modernization. His first priority was an effective navy, including steam frigates, and in the second place a standing army of adequate size—and as further preparation for emergency, \"great permanent roads\", \"a certain encouragement\" to manufactures, and a system of internal taxation that would not collapse from a war-time shrinkage of maritime trade, like customs duties. A reform-minded modernizer, Calhoun attempted to institute centralization and efficiency in the Indian Department and in the Army by establishing new coastal and frontier fortifications and building military roads, but Congress either failed to respond to his reforms or responded with hostility. Calhoun's frustration with congressional inaction, political rivalries, and ideological differences spurred him to create the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1824. The responsibilities of the bureau were to manage treaty negotiations, schools, and trade with Indians, in addition to handling all expenditures and correspondence concerning Indian affairs. Thomas McKenney was appointed as the first head of the bureau. As secretary, Calhoun had responsibility for management of Indian affairs. He promoted a plan, adopted by Monroe in 1825, to preserve the sovereignty of eastern Indians by relocating them to western reservations they could control without interference from state governments. In over seven years Calhoun supervised the negotiation and ratification of 40 treaties with Indian tribes. Calhoun opposed the invasion of Spanish Florida launched in 1818 by General Jackson during the First Seminole War, which was done without direct authorization from Calhoun or President Monroe, and in private with other cabinet members, advocated censuring of Jackson as punishment. Calhoun claimed that Jackson had begun a war against Spain in violation of the Constitution", "", "Calhoun was initially a candidate for President of the United States in the election of 1824. Four other men also sought the presidency: Andrew Jackson, Adams, Crawford, and Henry Clay. Calhoun failed to win the endorsement of the South Carolina legislature, and his supporters in Pennsylvania decided to abandon his candidacy in favor of Jackson's, and instead supported him for vice president. Other states soon followed, and Calhoun therefore allowed himself to become a candidate for vice president rather than president. The Electoral College", "Early in Jackson's administration, Floride Calhoun organized Cabinet wives (hence the term \"petticoats\") against Peggy Eaton, wife of Secretary of War John Eaton, and refused to associate with her. They alleged that John and Peggy Eaton had engaged in an adulterous affair while she was still legally married to her first husband, and that her recent behavior was unladylike. The allegations of scandal created an intolerable situation for Jackson. The Petticoat affair ended friendly relations between Calhoun and Jackson. Jackson sided with the Eatons. He and his late wife Rachel Donelson had undergone similar political attacks stemming from their marriage in 1791. The two had married in 1791 not knowing that Rachel's first husband, Lewis Robards, had", "Calhoun had begun to oppose increases in protective tariffs, as they generally benefited Northerners more than Southerners. While he was Vice President in the Adams administration, Jackson's supporters devised a high tariff legislation that placed duties on imports that were also made in New England. Calhoun had been assured that the northeastern interests would reject the Tariff of 1828, exposing pro-Adams New England congressmen to charges that they selfishly opposed legislation popular among Jacksonian Democrats in the west and mid-Atlantic States. The southern legislators miscalculated and the so-called \"Tariff of Abominations\" passed and was signed into law by President Adams. Frustrated, Calhoun returned to his South Carolina plantation, where he anonymously", "As tensions over nullification escalated, South Carolina Senator Robert Y. Hayne was considered less capable than Calhoun to represent South Carolina in the Senate debates, so in late 1832 Hayne resigned to become governor; the South Carolina legislature elected Calhoun as his replacement. On December 28, Calhoun resigned as vice president to become a senator, with a voice in the debates. Van Buren had already been elected as Jackson's new", "When Calhoun took his seat in the Senate on December 29, 1832, his chances of becoming President were considered poor due to his involvement in the Nullification Crisis, which left him without connections to a major national party. After implementation of the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which helped solve the Nullification Crisis, the Nullifier Party, along with other anti-Jackson politicians, formed a coalition known as the Whig Party. Calhoun sometimes affiliated with the Whigs, but chose to remain a virtual independent due to the Whig promotion of federally subsidized \"internal improvements.\" From 1833 to 1834, Jackson was engaged in removing federal funds from the Second Bank of the United States during the Bank War. Calhoun opposed this action, considering it a dangerous expansion of executive power. He called the men of the Jackson administration \"artful, cunning, and corrupt politicians, and not fearless warriors.\" He accused Jackson of being ignorant on financial matters. As evidence, he cited the", "", "When Harrison died in 1841 after a month in office, Vice President John Tyler succeeded him. Tyler, a former Democrat, was expelled from the Whig Party after vetoing bills passed by the Whig congressional majority to reestablish a national bank and raise tariffs. He named Calhoun Secretary of State on April 10, 1844, following the death of Abel P. Upshur in the USS \"Princeton\" disaster. Upshur's loss was a severe blow to the Tyler administration. When Calhoun was nominated as Upshur's replacement, the White House was well-advanced towards securing a treaty of annexation with Texas. The State Department's secret negotiations with the Texas republic had proceeded despite explicit threats from a suspicious Mexican government that an unauthorized seizure of its northern district of Coahuila y Tejas would be equivalent to an act of war. Both the negotiations with", "At the Democratic Convention in Baltimore, Maryland in May 1844, Calhoun's supporters, with Calhoun in attendance, threatened to bolt the proceedings and shift support to Tyler's third party ticket if the delegates failed to produce a pro-Texas nominee. Calhoun's Pakenham letter, and its identification with proslavery extremism, moved the presumptive Democratic Party nominee, the northerner Martin Van Buren, into denouncing annexation. Therefore, Van Buren, already not widely popular in the South, saw his support from that region crippled. As a result, James K. Polk, a pro-Texas Jacksonian and Tennessee politician, won the nomination. Historian Daniel", "", "Calhoun was reelected to the Senate in 1845 following the resignation of Daniel Elliott Huger. He soon became vocally opposed to the Mexican–American War. He believed that it would distort the national character by undermining republicanism in favor of empire and by bringing non-white persons into", "A major crisis emerged from the persistent Oregon boundary dispute between Great Britain and the United States, due to an increasing number of American migrants. The territory included most of present-day British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. American expansionists used the slogan \"54–40 or fight\" in reference to", "The Compromise of 1850, devised by Clay and Stephen A. Douglas, a first-term Democratic senator from Illinois, was designed to solve the controversy over the status of slavery in the vast new territories acquired from Mexico. Many pro-slavery Southerners opposed it, and Calhoun helped organize preparations for the Nashville Convention, which would meet that summer to discuss the possibility of Southern secession. The nearly 68-year old Calhoun had suffered periodic bouts of tuberculosis throughout his life. In March 1850, the disease reached a critical stage. Weeks from death and too feeble to speak, Calhoun wrote a blistering attack on the compromise that would become likely his most famous speech. On March 4, a", "Calhoun died at the Old Brick Capitol boarding house in Washington, D.C., on March 31, 1850, of tuberculosis, at the age of 68. Last words attributed to him were \"The South, the poor South!\" He was interred at St. Philip's Churchyard in Charleston, South Carolina. During the Civil War, a group of Calhoun's friends were concerned about the possible desecration of his grave by Federal troops and, during the night, removed his coffin to a hiding place under the stairs of the church. The next night, his coffin was buried in an unmarked grave near the church, where it remained until 1871, when", "", "Historian LeeH. Cheek, Jr., distinguishes between two strands of American republicanism: the puritan tradition, based in New England, and the agrarian or South Atlantic tradition, which Cheek argues was espoused by Calhoun. While the New England tradition stressed a politically centralized enforcement of moral and religious norms", "Calhoun led the pro-slavery faction in the Senate, opposing both total abolitionism and attempts such as the Wilmot Proviso to limit the expansion of slavery into the western territories. Calhoun's father, Patrick Calhoun, helped shape his son's political views. He was a staunch supporter of slavery who taught his son that social standing depended not merely on a commitment to the ideal of popular self-government but also on the ownership of a substantial number of slaves. Flourishing in a world in which slaveholding was a hallmark of civilization, Calhoun saw little reason to question its morality as an adult. He further believed that slavery instilled in the remaining whites a code of honor that blunted the disruptive potential of private gain and fostered the civic-mindedness that lay near the core of the republican creed. From such a standpoint, the expansion of slavery decreased the likelihood for social conflict and postponed the declension when money would become the only measure of self-worth, as had happened in New England. Calhoun was thus firmly convinced that slavery was the key to the", "Calhoun was consistently opposed to the War with Mexico, arguing that an enlarged military effort would only feed the alarming and growing lust of the public for empire regardless of its constitutional dangers, bloat executive powers and patronage, and saddle the republic with a soaring debt that would disrupt finances and encourage speculation. Calhoun feared, moreover, that Southern slave owners would be shut out of any conquered Mexican territories, as nearly happened with the Wilmot Proviso. He argued that the war would detrimentally lead to the annexation of all of Mexico, which would bring Mexicans into the country, whom he considered deficient in moral and intellectual terms. He said, in a speech on January 4, 1848: Anti-slavery Northerners denounced the war as a Southern conspiracy to expand slavery; Calhoun in turn perceived a connivance of Yankees to destroy the South. By 1847 he decided the Union was threatened by a totally corrupt party system. He believed that in their lust for office, patronage and spoils, politicians in the North pandered to the anti-slavery vote, especially during presidential campaigns, and", "Calhoun's basic concern for protecting the diversity of minority interests is expressed in his chief contribution to political science—the idea of a concurrent majority across different groups as distinguished from a numerical majority. A concurrent majority is a system in which a minority group is permitted to exercise a sort of veto power over actions of a majority that are believed to infringe upon the minority's rights. According to the principle of a numerical majority, the will of the more numerous citizens should", "In the 1840s three interpretations of the constitutional powers of Congress to deal with slavery in territories emerged: the \"free-soil doctrine,\" the \"popular sovereignty position,\" and the \"Calhoun doctrine.\" The Free Soilers stated that Congress had the power to outlaw slavery in the territories. The popular sovereignty position argued that the voters living there should decide. The Calhoun doctrine said that Congress and the citizens of the territories could never outlaw slavery in the territories. In what historian Robert R. Russell calls the \"Calhoun Doctrine,\" Calhoun argued that the Federal Government's role in the territories was only that of the trustee or agent of the several sovereign states: it was obliged not to discriminate among the states and hence was incapable of forbidding the bringing into any territory of anything that was legal property in any state. Calhoun argued that citizens from every state had the", "", "Many different places, streets, and schools were named after Calhoun, as may be seen on the list linked above. Some, such as Springfield, Illinois (1832) and Jackson County, Kansas (1859), were subsequently renamed. The \"Immortal Trio\" (Calhoun, Daniel Webster, and Henry Clay) were memorialized with streets in Uptown New Orleans. In June 2020, the Calhoun Honors College in Clemson, South Carolina was renamed Clemson University Honors College, in response to a petition which was signed by Clemson University former alumni—NFL stars DeAndre Hopkins, Deshaun Watson, and 20,000 others. Against the backdrop of the George Floyd protests, University chairman Smyth McKissick said that \"we must recognize there are central figures in Clemson's history whose ideals, beliefs and actions do not represent the university's core values of respect and diversity.\" The Confederate government honored Calhoun on a 1¢ postage stamp, which", "Calhoun was portrayed by actor Arliss Howard in the 1997 film \"Amistad\". The film depicts", "Calhoun was despised by Jackson and his supporters for his alleged attempts to subvert the unity of the nation for his own political gain. On his deathbed, Jackson regretted that he had not had Calhoun executed for treason. \"My country,\" he declared, \"would have sustained me in the act, and his fate would have been a warning to traitors in all time to come.\" Even after his death, Calhoun's reputation among Jacksonians remained poor. They disparaged him by portraying him as a man thirsty for power, who when he failed to attain it, sought to tear down his country with him. According to Parton, writing in 1860: Calhoun is often remembered for his defense of minority rights, in the context of defending white Southern interests from perceived Northern threats, by use of the \"concurrent majority.\" He is also noted and criticized for his strong defense of slavery. These positions played an enormous role in influencing Southern secessionist leaders by strengthening the trend of sectionalism, thus contributing to the Civil War. During his lifetime and after, Calhoun was seen as one of the Senate's most important figures. In 1957, a Senate committee chaired by John F. Kennedy selected Calhoun as one of the five greatest United" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Family background.", "Childhood, education, early career, and marriage.", "War and after.", "World War II (1941–1945).", "Postwar years (1945–1956).", "Beginnings in public life.", "Political awakening.", "County executive.", "Governor of Maryland (1967–1969).", "Election 1966.", "In office.", "Vice presidential candidate, 1968.", "Background: Rockefeller and Nixon.", "Republican National Convention.", "Campaign.", "Vice Presidency (1969–1973).", "Transition and early days.", "\"Nixon's Nixon\": attacking the left.", "1970: Protesters and midterm elections.", "Re-election in 1972.", "Criminal investigation and resignation.", "Post–resignation.", "Subsequent career: 1973–90.", "Final years and death.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Spiro Agnew's father was born Theophrastos Anagnostopoulos in about 1877, in the Greek town of Gargalianoi. The family may have been involved in olive growing and been impoverished during a crisis in the industry in the 1890s. Anagnostopoulos emigrated to the United States in 1897 (some accounts say 1902) and settled in Schenectady, New York, where he changed his name to Theodore Agnew and opened a diner. A passionate self-educator, Agnew maintained a lifelong interest in philosophy; one family member recalled that \"if he wasn't reading something to improve his mind, he wouldn't read.\" Around 1908, he moved to Baltimore, where", "In accordance with his mother's wishes, the infant Spiro was baptized as an Episcopalian, rather than into the Greek Orthodox Church of his father. Nevertheless, Agnew senior was the dominant figure within the family, and a strong influence on his son. When in 1969, after his Vice Presidential inauguration, Baltimore's Greek community endowed a scholarship in Theodore Agnew's name, Spiro Agnew told the gathering: \"I am proud to say that I grew up in the light of my father. My beliefs are his.\" During the early 1920s, the Agnews prospered. Theodore acquired a larger restaurant, the Piccadilly, and moved the family to a house in the Forest Park northwest section of the city, where Spiro attended Garrison Junior High School and later Forest Park High School. This period of affluence ended with the crash of 1929, and the restaurant closed. In 1931, the family's savings were wiped out when a local bank failed, forcing them to sell the house and move to a small apartment. Agnew later recalled how his father responded to these misfortunes: \"He just", "", "By the time of the marriage, Agnew had been drafted into the U.S. Army. Shortly after the Pearl Harbor attack in December 1941, he began basic training at Camp Croft in South Carolina. There, he met people from a variety of backgrounds: \"I had led a very sheltered life – I became unsheltered very quickly.\" He eventually was sent to the Officer Candidate School at Fort Knox, Kentucky, and on May 24, 1942 (three days before his wedding) he was commissioned as a second lieutenant. After a two-day honeymoon, Agnew returned to Fort Knox. He served there, or at nearby Fort", "On his return to civilian life, Agnew resumed his legal studies, and secured a job as a law clerk with the Baltimore firm of Smith and Barrett. Until now, Agnew had been largely apolitical; his nominal allegiance had been to the Democratic Party, following his father's beliefs. The firm's senior partner, Lester Barrett, advised Agnew that if he wanted a career in politics he should become a Republican. There were already many ambitious young Democrats in Baltimore and its suburbs, whereas competent, personable Republicans were scarcer. Agnew took Barrett's advice; on moving with his wife and children to the Baltimore suburb of Lutherville in 1947, he registered as a Republican, though he did not immediately become involved in politics. In 1947 Agnew graduated as Bachelor of Laws and passed the Maryland bar examination.", "", "Agnew made his first bid for political office in 1956, when he sought to be a Republican candidate for Baltimore County Council. He was turned down by local party leaders, but nevertheless campaigned vigorously for the Republican ticket. The election resulted in an unexpected Republican majority on the council, and in recognition for his party work, Agnew was appointed for a one-year term to the county Zoning Board of Appeals at a salary of $3,600 per year. This quasi-judicial post provided an important supplement to his legal practice, and Agnew welcomed the prestige connected with the appointment. In April 1958, he was reappointed to the Board for a full three-year term and became its chairman. In the November 1960 elections, Agnew decided to seek election to the county circuit court, against the local tradition that sitting judges seeking re-election were not opposed. He was unsuccessful, finishing last of five candidates. This failed attempt raised his profile, and he was regarded by his Democratic opponents as a Republican on", "Agnew's four-year term as county executive saw a moderately progressive administration, which included the building of new schools, increases to teachers' salaries, reorganization of the police department, and improvements to the water and sewer systems. His anti-discrimination bill passed, and gave him a reputation as a liberal, but its impact was limited in a county where the population was 97 percent white. His relations with the increasingly militant civil rights movement were sometimes troubled. In a number of desegregation disputes involving private property, Agnew appeared to prioritize law and order, showing a particular aversion to any kind of demonstration. His reaction to the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Alabama, in which four children died, was to refuse to attend a memorial", "", "As his four-year term as executive neared its end, Agnew knew that his chances of re-election were slim, given that the county's Democrats had healed their rift. Instead, in 1966 he sought the Republican nomination for governor, and with the backing of party leaders won the April primary by a wide margin. In the Democratic party, three candidates—a moderate, a liberal and an outright segregationist—battled for their party's gubernatorial nomination, which to general surprise was won by the segregationist, George P. Mahoney, a perennially unsuccessful candidate for office. Mahoney's candidacy split his party, provoking a third-party candidate, Comptroller of Baltimore City Hyman A. Pressman. In Montgomery County, the state's wealthiest area, a \"Democrats for Agnew\" organization flourished, and liberals statewide flocked to the Agnew standard. Mahoney, a fierce opponent of integrated housing, exploited racial tensions with the", "Agnew's term as governor was marked by an agenda which included tax reform, clean water regulations, and the repeal of laws against interracial marriage. Community health programs were expanded, as were higher educational and employment opportunities for those on low incomes. Steps were taken towards ending segregation in schools. Agnew's fair housing legislation was limited, applying only to new projects above a certain size. These were the first such laws passed south of the Mason–Dixon line. Agnew's attempt to adopt a new state constitution was rejected by the voters in a referendum. For the most part, Agnew remained somewhat aloof from the state legislature, preferring the company", "", "At least until the April 1968 disturbances, Agnew's image was that of a liberal Republican. Since 1964 he had supported the presidential ambitions of Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York, and early in 1968, with that year's elections looming, he became chairman of the \"Rockefeller for President\" citizens' committee. When in a televised speech on March 21, 1968, Rockefeller shocked his supporters with an apparently unequivocal withdrawal from the race, Agnew was dismayed and humiliated; despite his very public role in the Rockefeller campaign, he had received no advance warning of the decision. He took this as a personal insult and as a blow to his credibility. Within days of Rockefeller's announcement, Agnew was being wooed by supporters of the former vice president", "As Nixon prepared for the August 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, he discussed possible running mates with his staff. Among these were Ronald Reagan, the conservative Governor of California; and the more liberal Mayor of New York City, John Lindsay. Nixon felt that these high-profile names could split the party, and looked for a less divisive figure. He did not indicate a preferred choice, and Agnew's name was not raised at this stage. Agnew was intending to go to the convention with his Maryland delegation as a favorite son, uncommitted to any of the main candidates. At the convention, held August 5–8, Agnew abandoned his favorite son status, placing Nixon's name in nomination. Nixon narrowly secured the nomination on the first ballot. In the discussions that followed about", "In 1968, the Nixon-Agnew ticket faced two principal opponents. The Democrats, at a convention marred by violent demonstrations, had nominated Vice President Hubert Humphrey and Maine Senator Edmund Muskie as their standard-bearers. The segregationist former Governor of Alabama, George Wallace, ran as a third-party candidate, and was expected to do well in the Deep South. Nixon, mindful of the restrictions he had labored under as Eisenhower's running mate in 1952 and 1956, was determined to give Agnew a much freer rein and to make", "", "Immediately after the 1968 election, Agnew was still uncertain what Nixon would expect of him as vice president. He met with Nixon several days after the election in Key Biscayne, Florida. Nixon, vice president himself for eight years under Eisenhower, wanted to spare Agnew the boredom and lack of a role he had sometimes experienced in that office. Nixon gave Agnew an office in the West Wing of the White House, a first for a vice president. When they stood before the press after the meeting, Nixon pledged that Agnew would not have to undertake the ceremonial roles usually undertaken by the holders of the vice presidency, but would have \"new duties beyond what any vice president has previously assumed\". Nixon told the press that he planned to make full use of", "The public image of Agnew as an uncompromising critic of the violent protests that had marked 1968 persisted into his vice presidency, and at first, he tried to take a more conciliatory tone, in line with Nixon's own speeches after taking office. Still, he urged a firm line against violence, stating in a speech in Honolulu on May 2, 1969, that \"we have a new breed of self-appointed vigilantes arising—the counterdemonstrators—taking the law into their own hands because officials fail to call law enforcement authorities. We have a vast faceless majority of the American public in quiet fury over the situation—\"and with good reason\".\" On October 14, 1969, the day before the anti-war Moratorium, North Vietnamese premier Pham Van Dong released a letter supporting demonstrations in the United States. Nixon resented this, but on the advice of his aides, thought it best to say nothing, and instead had Agnew give a press conference at the White House,", "Agnew's strong attacks on the administration's opponents, and the flair with which he made his addresses, made him popular as a speaker at Republican fundraising events. He traveled over on behalf of the Republican National Committee in early 1970, speaking at a number of Lincoln Day events, and supplanted Reagan as the party's leading fundraiser. Agnew's involvement had Nixon's strong support. In his Chicago speech, the vice president attacked \"supercilious sophisticates\", while in Atlanta, he promised to continue speaking out lest he break faith with \"the Silent Majority, the everyday law-abiding American who believes his country needs a strong voice to articulate his dissatisfaction with those who seek to destroy our heritage of liberty and our system of justice\". Agnew continued to try to increase his influence with Nixon, against the opposition of Haldeman, who was consolidating his power as the second most powerful person in the administration. Agnew", "Through 1971, it was uncertain if Agnew would be retained on the ticket as Nixon sought a second term in 1972. Neither Nixon nor his aides were enamored of Agnew's independence and outspokenness, and were less than happy at Agnew's popularity among conservatives suspicious of Nixon. The President considered replacing him with Treasury Secretary John Connally, a Democrat and former Governor of Texas. For his part, Agnew was unhappy with many of Nixon's stances, especially in foreign policy, disliking Nixon's rapprochement with China (on which Agnew was not consulted) and believing that", "In early 1972, George Beall, the United States Attorney for the District of Maryland, opened an investigation of corruption in Baltimore County, involving public officials, architects, engineering firms, and paving contractors. Beall's target was the current political leadership in Baltimore County. There were rumors that Agnew might be involved, which Beall initially discounted; Agnew had not been county executive since December 1966, so any wrongdoing potentially committed while he held that office could not be prosecuted because the statute of limitations had expired. As part of the investigation, Lester Matz's engineering firm was served with a subpoena for documents, and through his counsel he sought immunity in exchange for cooperation in the investigation. Matz had been kicking back to Agnew five percent of the value of contracts received through his influence, first county contracts during his term in Towson, and subsequently state contracts while Agnew was", "", "Soon after his resignation, Agnew moved to his summer home at Ocean City. To cover urgent tax and legal bills, and living expenses, he borrowed $200,000 from his friend Frank Sinatra. He had hoped he could resume a career as a lawyer, but in 1974, the Maryland Court of Appeals disbarred him, calling him \"morally obtuse\". To earn his living, he founded a business consultancy, Pathlite Inc., which in the following years attracted a widespread international clientele. Describing his business methods, Agnew said: \"I have one utility, and that's the ability to penetrate to the top people.\" One deal concerned a contract for the supply of uniforms to the Iraqi", "When Nixon died in 1994, his daughters invited Agnew to attend the funeral at Yorba Linda, California. At first he refused, still bitter over how he had been treated by the White House in his final days as vice president; over the years he had rejected various overtures from the Nixon camp to mend fences. He was persuaded to accept the invitation, and received a warm welcome there from his former colleagues. \"I decided after twenty years of resentment to put it aside\", he said. A year later, Agnew appeared at the Capitol in Washington for the dedication of a bust of him, to be placed with those of other vice presidents. Agnew commented: \"I am not blind", "At the time of his death, Agnew's legacy was perceived largely in negative terms. The circumstances of his fall from public life, particularly in the light of his declared dedication to law and order, did much to engender cynicism and distrust towards politicians of every stripe. His disgrace led to a greater degree of care in the selection of potential vice presidents. Most of the running mates selected by the major parties after 1972 were seasoned politicians—Walter Mondale, George H. W. Bush, Lloyd Bentsen, Al Gore, Jack Kemp, Joe Lieberman, Dick Cheney and Joe Biden—some of whom themselves became their party's nominee for president. Some recent historians have seen Agnew as important in the development of the New Right, arguing that he should be honored alongside the acknowledged founding fathers of the movement such as Goldwater and Reagan; Victor Gold, Agnew's former press secretary, considered him the movement's \"John the Baptist\". Goldwater's crusade in 1964, at the height of Johnsonian liberalism, came too early, but by the time of Agnew's election, liberalism was on the wane, and as Agnew moved to the right after 1968, the country moved with him. Agnew's fall shocked and saddened conservatives, but it did not inhibit the growth of the New Right. Agnew, the first suburban politician to achieve high office, helped to popularize the view that much of the national media was controlled by elitist and effete liberals. Levy noted, \"He helped recast the Republicans as a Party of 'Middle Americans' and, even in disgrace, reinforced the public's distrust of government.\" For Agnew himself, despite his rise from his origins in Baltimore to next in line to the presidency, \"there could be little doubt that history's judgment was already upon him, the first Vice President of the United States to have resigned in disgrace. All that he achieved or sought to achieve in his public life... had been buried in that tragic and irrefutable act\". In October 2018, Rachel Maddow wrote and produced a seven-part miniseries, \"Bag Man\", regarding Agnew's downfall. Levy sums up the \"might-have-been\" of Agnew's career thus: It is not a far stretch to imagine that if Agnew had contested corruption charges half as hard as Nixon denied culpability for Watergate – as Goldwater and several other stalwart conservatives wanted him to – today we might be speaking of Agnew-Democrats and Agnewnomics, and deem Agnew the father of modern conservatism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Example.", "Piecewise constant interpolation.", "Linear interpolation.", "Polynomial interpolation.", "Spline interpolation.", "Function approximation.", "Via Gaussian processes.", "Other forms.", "In higher dimensions.", "In digital signal processing.", "Related concepts.", "Generalization." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This table gives some values of an unknown function formula_1. Interpolation provides a means of estimating the function at intermediate points, such as formula_2. We describe some methods of interpolation, differing in such properties as: accuracy, cost, number of data points needed, and smoothness of the resulting interpolant function.", "The simplest interpolation method is to locate the nearest data value, and assign the same value. In simple problems, this method is unlikely to be used, as linear interpolation (see below) is almost as easy, but in higher-dimensional multivariate interpolation, this could be a favourable choice for its speed and simplicity.", "One of the simplest methods is linear interpolation (sometimes known as lerp). Consider the above example of estimating \"f\"(2.5). Since 2.5 is midway between 2 and 3, it is reasonable to take \"f\"(2.5) midway between \"f\"(2) = 0.9093 and \"f\"(3) = 0.1411, which yields 0.5252. Generally, linear interpolation takes two data points, say (\"x\",\"y\") and (\"x\",\"y\"), and the interpolant is given by: This previous equation states that the slope of the new line between formula_6 and formula_7 is the same as the slope of the line between formula_6 and formula_9 Linear interpolation is quick and easy, but it is not very precise. Another disadvantage is that the interpolant is not differentiable at the point \"x\". The following error estimate shows that linear interpolation is not very precise. Denote the function which we want to interpolate by \"g\", and suppose that \"x\" lies between \"x\" and \"x\" and that \"g\" is twice continuously differentiable. Then the linear interpolation error is In words, the error is proportional to the square of the distance between the data points. The error in some other methods, including polynomial interpolation and spline interpolation (described below), is proportional to higher powers of the distance between the data points. These methods also produce smoother interpolants.", "Polynomial interpolation is a generalization of linear interpolation. Note that the linear interpolant is a linear function. We now replace this interpolant with a polynomial of higher degree. Consider again the problem given above. The following sixth degree polynomial goes through all the seven points: Substituting \"x\" = 2.5, we find that \"f\"(2.5) = 0.5965. Generally, if we have \"n\" data points, there is exactly one polynomial of degree at most \"n\"−1 going through all the data points. The interpolation error is proportional to the distance between the data points to the power \"n\". Furthermore, the interpolant is a polynomial and thus infinitely differentiable. So, we see that polynomial interpolation overcomes most of the problems of linear interpolation. However, polynomial interpolation also has some disadvantages. Calculating the interpolating polynomial is computationally expensive (see computational complexity) compared to linear interpolation. Furthermore, polynomial interpolation may exhibit oscillatory artifacts, especially at the end points (see Runge's phenomenon). Polynomial interpolation can estimate local maxima and minima that are outside the range of the samples, unlike linear interpolation. For example, the interpolant above has a local maximum at \"x\" ≈ 1.566, \"f\"(\"x\") ≈ 1.003 and a local minimum at \"x\" ≈ 4.708, \"f\"(\"x\") ≈ −1.003. However, these maxima and minima may exceed the theoretical range of the function—for example, a function that is always positive may have an interpolant with negative values, and whose inverse therefore contains false vertical asymptotes. More generally, the shape of the resulting curve, especially for very high or low values of the independent variable, may be contrary to commonsense, i.e. to what is known about the experimental system which has generated the data points. These disadvantages can be reduced by using spline interpolation or restricting attention to Chebyshev polynomials.", "Remember that linear interpolation uses a linear function for each of intervals [\"x\",\"x\"]. Spline interpolation uses low-degree polynomials in each of the intervals, and chooses the polynomial pieces such that they fit smoothly together. The resulting function is called a spline. For instance, the natural cubic spline is piecewise cubic and twice continuously differentiable. Furthermore, its second derivative is zero at the end points. The natural cubic spline interpolating the points in the table above is given by In this case we get \"f\"(2.5) = 0.5972. Like polynomial interpolation, spline interpolation incurs a smaller error than linear interpolation, while the interpolant is smoother and easier to evaluate than the high-degree polynomials used in polynomial interpolation. However, the global nature of the basis functions leads to ill-conditioning. This is completely mitigated by using splines of compact support, such as are implemented in Boost.Math and discussed in Kress.", "Interpolation is a common way to approximate functions. Given a function formula_13 with a set of points formula_14 one can form a function formula_15 such that formula_16 for formula_17 (that is that formula_18 interpolates formula_19 at these points). In general, an interpolant need not be a good approximation, but there are well known and often reasonable conditions where it will. For example, if formula_20 (four times continuously differentiable) then cubic spline interpolation has an error bound given by formula_21 where formula_22 and formula_23 is a constant.", "Gaussian process is a powerful non-linear interpolation tool. Many popular interpolation tools are actually equivalent to particular Gaussian processes. Gaussian processes can be used not only for fitting an interpolant that passes exactly through the given data points but also for regression, i.e., for fitting a curve through noisy data. In the geostatistics community Gaussian process regression is also known as Kriging.", "Other forms of interpolation can be constructed by picking a different class of interpolants. For instance, rational interpolation is interpolation by rational functions using Padé approximant, and trigonometric interpolation is interpolation by trigonometric polynomials using Fourier series. Another possibility is to use wavelets. The Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula can be used if the number of data points is infinite or if the function to be interpolated has compact support. Sometimes, we know not only the value of the function that we want to interpolate, at some points, but also its derivative. This leads to Hermite interpolation problems. When each data point is itself a function, it can be useful to see the interpolation problem as a partial advection problem between each data point. This idea leads to the displacement interpolation problem used in transportation theory.", "Multivariate interpolation is the interpolation of functions of more than one variable. Methods include bilinear interpolation and bicubic interpolation in two dimensions, and trilinear interpolation in three dimensions. They can be applied to gridded or scattered data.", "In the domain of digital signal processing, the term interpolation refers to the process of converting a sampled digital signal (such as a sampled audio signal) to that of a higher sampling rate (Upsampling) using various digital filtering techniques (e.g., convolution with a frequency-limited impulse signal). In this application there is a specific requirement that the harmonic content of the original signal be preserved without creating aliased harmonic content of the original signal above the original Nyquist limit of the signal (i.e., above fs/2 of the original signal sample rate). An early and fairly elementary discussion on this subject can be found in Rabiner and Crochiere's book \"Multirate Digital Signal Processing\".", "The term \"extrapolation\" is used to find data points outside the range of known data points. In curve fitting problems, the constraint that the interpolant has to go exactly through the data points is relaxed. It is only required to approach the data points as closely as possible (within some other constraints). This requires parameterizing the potential interpolants and having some way of measuring the error. In the simplest case this leads to least squares approximation. Approximation theory studies how to find the best approximation to a given function by another function from some predetermined class, and how good this approximation is. This clearly yields a bound on how well the interpolant can approximate the unknown function.", "If we consider formula_24 as a variable in a topological space, and the function formula_1 mapping to a Banach space, then the problem is treated as \"interpolation of operators\". The classical results about interpolation of operators are the Riesz–Thorin theorem and the Marcinkiewicz theorem. There are also many other subsequent results." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Central theme.", "Within Greek culture.", "In literature and fine arts.", "Literature.", "Arts.", "Related terms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Niobe boasted of her fourteen children, seven male and seven female (the Niobids), to Leto who only had two children, the twins Apollo and Artemis. The number varies in different sources. Her speech which caused the indignation of the goddess was rendered in the following manner: Using arrows, Artemis killed Niobe's daughters and Apollo killed Niobe's sons. According to some versions, at least one Niobid (usually Meliboea, along with her brother Amyclas in other renderings) was spared. Their father, Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo for having sworn revenge. Devastated, Niobe fled back to Mount Sipylus and was turned into stone, and, as she wept unceasingly, waters started to pour from her petrified complexion. Mount Sipylus indeed has a natural rock formation which resembles a female face, and it has been associated with Niobe since ancient times and described by Pausanias. The rock formation is also known as the \"Weeping Rock\" (), since rainwater seeps through its porous limestone. After Niobe's overweening pride in her children, offending Apollo and Artemis, brought about her children’s deaths, Amphion commits suicide out of grief; according to Telesilla, Artemis and Apollo murder him along with his children. Hyginus, however, writes that in his madness he tried to attack the temple of Apollo, and was killed by the god's arrows. The only Niobid spared stayed greenish pale from horror for the rest of her life, and for that reason she was called Chloris (the pale one).", "In his archaic role as bringer of diseases and death, Apollo with his poison arrows killed Niobe's sons and Artemis with her poison arrows killed Niobe's daughters. This is related to the myth of the seven youths and seven maidens who were sent every year to the king Minos of Crete as an offering sacrifice to the Minotaur. Niobe was transformed into a stone on Mount Sipylus in her homeland of Phrygia, where she brooded over the sorrows sent by the gods. In Sophocles' \"Antigone\" the heroine believes that she will have a similar death. The iconic number \"seven\" often appears in Greek legends, and represents an ancient tradition because it appears as a lyre with seven strings in the Hagia Triada sarcophagus in Crete during the Mycenean age. Apollo's lyre had also seven strings.", "", "The story of Niobe, and especially her sorrows, is an ancient one. The context in which she is mentioned by Achilles to Priam in Homer's \"Iliad\" is as a stock type for mourning. Priam is not unlike Niobe in the sense that he was also grieving for his son Hector, who was killed and not buried for several days. Niobe is also mentioned in Sophocles's \"Antigone\" where, as Antigone is marched toward her death, she compares her own loneliness to that of Niobe. Sophocles is said to have also contributed a play titled \"Niobe\" that is lost. The \"Niobe\" of Aeschylus, set in Thebes, survives in fragmentary quotes that were supplemented by a papyrus sheet containing twenty-one lines of text. From the fragments it appears that for the first part of the tragedy the grieving Niobe sits veiled and silent. Furthermore, the conflict between Niobe and Leto is mentioned in one of Sappho's poetic fragments (\"Before they were mothers, Leto and Niobe had been the most devoted of friends.\"). In Latin language sources, Niobe's account is first told by Hyginus in his collection of stories in brief and plain \"Fabulae\". Parthenius of Nicaea records a rare version of the story of Niobe, in which her father is called Assaon and her husband Philottus. The circumstances in which Niobe loses her children are also different, see Niobids#Variant myth. Niobe's iconic tears were also mentioned in Hamlet's soliloquy (Act 1, Scene 2), in which he contrasts his mother's grief over the dead King, Hamlet's father – \"like Niobe, all tears\" – to her unseemly hasty marriage to Claudius. The quotation from Hamlet is also used in Dorothy L. Sayers' novel \"Murder Must Advertise\", in which an advertising agency's client turns down an advertisement using the quotation as a caption. In William Faulkner's novel \"Absalom, Absalom!\" Faulkner compares Ellen, the wife of Sutpen and father of Henry and Judith, to Niobe, \"this Niobe without tears, who had conceived to the demon [Sutpen] in a kind of nightmare\" (Chapter 1). Among works of modern literature which have Niobe as a central theme, Kate Daniels' \"Niobe Poems\" can be cited.", "The subject of Niobe and the destruction of the Niobids was part of the repertory of Attic vase-painters and inspired sculpture groups and wall frescoes as well as relief carvings on Roman sarcophagi. The subject of the Attic calyx-krater from Orvieto conserved in the Musée du Louvre has provided the name for the Niobid Painter. A lifesize group of marble Niobids, including one of Niobe sheltering one of her daughters, found in Rome in 1583 at the same time as the \"Wrestlers\", were taken in 1775 to the Uffizi in Florence where, in a gallery devoted to them, they remain some of the most prominent surviving sculptures of Classical antiquity (\"see below\"). New instances come to light from time to time, like one headless statue found in early 2005 among the ruins of a villa in the Villa dei Quintili just outside Rome. In painting, Niobe was painted by post-Renaissance artists from varied traditions (\"see below\"). An early appearance, \"The Death of Niobe's Children\" by Abraham Bloemaert, was painted in 1591 towards the start of the Dutch Golden Age. The English artist Richard Wilson gained great acclaim for his \"The Destruction of the Children of Niobe\", painted in 1760. Three notable works, all dating from the 1770s, \"Apollo and Diana Attacking Niobe and her Children\" by Anicet-Charles-Gabriel Lemonnier, \"The Children of Niobe Killed by Apollo and Diana\" by Pierre-Charles Jombert and \"Diana and Apollo Piercing Niobe’s Children with their Arrows\" by Jacques-Louis David belong to the tradition of French Baroque and Classicism. \"Niobe\" is an abstract painting by Károly Patkó. In classical music, Italian composer Agostino Steffani (1654 – 1728) dedicated his opera \"Niobe, Queen of Saba\" to her myth.Benjamin Britten based one of his \"Six Metamorphoses after Ovid\" on Niobe. In modern music, Caribou called the last track on his 2007 album \"Andorra\" \"Niobe\". In modern dance, José Limón named a section of his dance theater work \"Dances for Isadora\" as \"Niobe\". The section is a solo for a woman mourning the loss of her children. A marble statue of Niobe is a female lead character in a long-running 1892 farce Niobe (play) by Harry Paulton. In the play she is bought to life by a quaint electrical storm and brings the Edwardian values and relationships in the household to disarray. The season at the London Royal Strand Theatre enjoyed more than five hundred performances. The play is the subject of a musical dedication by Australian composer Thomas Henry Massey. The play was filmed in 1915.", "The choice of \"Niobe\" simply as a name in works of art and literature is not uncommon either. Two minor characters of Greek mythology have the same name (\"see Niobe (disambiguation)\") and the name occurs in several works of the 19th century. More recently, one of the characters in the films \"The Matrix Reloaded\" and \"The Matrix Revolutions\" was also named Niobe. A character named Niobe also appeared in the Rome TV series. The element niobium was so named as an extension of the inspiration which had led earlier to the naming of the element tantalum by Anders Gustaf Ekeberg. On the basis of his argument according to which there were two different elements in the tantalite sample, Heinrich Rose named them after children of Tantalus—niobium and pelopium—although the argument was later contested as far as pelopium was concerned. A mountain in British Columbia, Canada is named Mount Niobe. Four successive ships of the British Royal Navy were called \"HMS Niobe\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Occurrence.", "Terminology.", "Fossils.", "Prehistoric and historic uses.", "Tools.", "Construction.", "Monuments.", "Varieties." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Chert occurs in carbonate rocks as oval to irregular nodules in greensand, limestone, chalk, and dolomite formations as a replacement mineral, where it is formed as a result of some type of diagenesis. Where it occurs in chalk or marl, it is usually called flint. It also occurs in thin beds, when it is a primary deposit (such as with many jaspers and radiolarites). Thick beds of chert occur in deep marine deposits. These thickly bedded cherts include the novaculite of the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas, Oklahoma, and similar occurrences in Texas and South Carolina in the United States. The banded iron formations of Precambrian age are composed of alternating layers of chert and iron oxides. Chert also occurs in diatomaceous deposits and is known as diatomaceous chert. Diatomaceous chert consists of beds and lenses of diatomite which were converted during diagenesis into dense, hard chert. Beds of marine diatomaceous chert comprising strata several hundred meters thick have been reported from sedimentary sequences such as the Miocene Monterey Formation of California and occur in rocks as old as the Cretaceous.", "In petrology the term \"chert\" is used to refer generally to all rocks composed primarily of microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline and microfibrous quartz. The term does not include quartzite. Chalcedony is a microfibrous (microcrystalline with a fibrous structure) variety of quartz. Strictly speaking, the term \"flint\" is reserved for varieties of chert which occur in chalk and marly limestone formations. Among non-geologists, the distinction between \"flint\" and \"chert\" is often one of quality – chert being lower quality than flint. This usage of the terminology is prevalent in North America and is likely caused by early immigrants who brought the terms from England where most true flint (that found in chalk formations) was indeed of better quality than \"common chert\" (from limestone formations). Among petrologists e.g. Philip King, Robert B. Neuman, Jarvis B. Hadley, chalcedony is sometimes considered separately from chert due to its fibrous structure. Since many cherts contain both microcrystalline and microfibrous quartz, it is sometimes difficult to classify a rock as completely chalcedony, thus its general inclusion as a variety of chert.", "The cryptocrystalline nature of chert, combined with its above average ability to resist weathering, recrystallization and metamorphism has made it an ideal rock for preservation of early life forms. For example:", "", "In prehistoric times, chert was often used as a raw material for the construction of stone tools. Like obsidian, as well as some rhyolites, felsites, quartzites, and other tool stones used in lithic reduction, chert fractures in a Hertzian cone when struck with sufficient force. This results in conchoidal fractures, a characteristic of all minerals with no cleavage planes. In this kind of fracture, a cone of force propagates through the material from the point of impact, eventually removing a full or partial cone; this result is familiar to anyone who has seen what happens to a plate-glass window when struck by a small object, such as an air gun projectile. The partial Hertzian cones produced during lithic reduction are called flakes, and exhibit features characteristic of this sort of breakage, including striking platforms, bulbs of force, and occasionally eraillures, which are small secondary flakes detached from the flake's bulb of force. When a chert stone is struck against an iron-bearing surface, sparks result. This makes chert an excellent tool for starting fires, and both flint and common chert were used in various types of fire-starting tools, such as tinderboxes, throughout history. A primary historic use of common chert and flint was for flintlock firearms, in which the chert striking a metal plate produces a spark that ignites a small reservoir containing black powder, discharging the firearm.", "Cherts are subject to problems when used as concrete aggregates. Deeply weathered chert develops surface pop-outs when used in concrete that undergoes freezing and thawing because of the high porosity of weathered chert. The other concern is that certain cherts undergo an alkali-silica reaction with high-alkali cements. This reaction leads to cracking and expansion of concrete and ultimately to failure of the material. In some areas, chert is ubiquitous as stream gravel and fieldstone and is currently used as construction material and road surfacing. Part of chert's popularity in road surfacing or driveway construction is that rain tends to firm and compact chert while other fill often gets muddy when wet.", "Chert has been used in late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century headstones or grave markers in Tennessee and other regions.", "There are numerous varieties of chert, classified based on their visible, microscopic and physical characteristics. Some of the more common varieties are: Other lesser used terms for chert (most of them archaic) include firestone, silex, silica stone, chat, and flintstone." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Seven Weeks War.", "Decline and resurgence.", "Italo-Turkish War.", "World War I.", "Interwar years.", "World War II.", "After World War II.", "Peace treaty.", "Ranks and ratings of the Navy.", "Fleet forces.", "Enlisted ratings, non-commissioned officers and warrant officers.", "Officers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "The \"Regia Marina\" was established on 17 March 1861 following the proclamation of the formation of the Kingdom of Italy. Just as the Kingdom was a unification of various states in the Italian peninsula, so the \"Regia Marina\" was formed from the navies of those states, though the main constituents were the navies of the former kingdoms of Sardinia and Naples. The new Navy inherited a substantial number of ships, both sail- and steam-powered, and the long naval traditions of its constituents, especially those of Sardinia and Naples, but also suffered from some major handicaps. Firstly, it suffered from a lack of uniformity and cohesion; the \"Regia Marina\" was a heterogeneous mix of equipment, standards and practice, and even saw hostility between the officers from the various former navies. These problems were compounded by the continuation of separate officer schools at Genoa and Naples, and were not fully addressed until the opening of a unified Naval Academy at Livorno in 1881. Secondly, unification occurred during a period of rapid advances in naval technology and tactics, as typified by the launch of by France in 1858, and later by the appearance of, and battle between, and in 1862. These innovations quickly made older warships obsolete. Italy did not possess the shipyards or infrastructure to build the modern ships required, but the then Minister for the Navy, Admiral Carlo di Persano, launched a substantial programme to purchase warships from foreign yards.", "The new navy's baptism of fire came on 20 July 1866 at the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence (parallel to the Seven Weeks War). The battle was fought against the Austrian Empire and occurred near the island of Vis in the Adriatic sea. This was one of the few fleet actions of the", "After the war, the \"Regia Marina\" passed through some difficult years as the naval budget was substantially reduced, thus impairing the fleet's efficiency and the pace of new construction; only in the 1870s, under Simone Pacoret de Saint Bon's ministry, did the situation begin to improve. In 1881, the battleship was commissioned, followed in 1882 by the battleship ;", "In 1911 and 1912, the \"Regia Marina\" was involved in the Italo-Turkish War against forces of the Ottoman Empire. As the majority of the Ottoman fleet stayed behind the relative safety of the Dardanelles, the Italians dominated the", "Before 1914, the Kingdom of Italy built six dreadnought battleships: ( as a prototype;, and of the ; and and of the ), but they did not participate in major naval actions in World War I, as they were positioned to intercept a major sortie of the Austro-Hungarian Navy which never came. During the war, the \"Regia Marina\" spent its major efforts in the Adriatic Sea, fighting the Austro-Hungarian Navy. The resulting Adriatic Campaign of World War I consisted mainly of Austro-Hungarian coastal bombardments of Italy's Adriatic coast, and wider-ranging German/Austro-Hungarian submarine warfare into the Mediterranean. Allied forces mainly limited themselves to blockading the German/Austro-Hungarian navies in the Adriatic, which was successful in regards to surface units, but failed", "During the interwar years the Italian government set about modernizing the \"Regia Marina\" in a way that could enable it to reach dominance over the Mediterranean Sea. Italian naval construction was limited by the Washington Naval Conference. The 1922 treaty required a parity in naval forces between the Italian and French navies, with equality in total displacement in battleships and carriers. The treaty influenced the development of the Italian fleet over the years between the two world wars. Between the late twenties and early thirties a construction program began, focusing first on cruisers up to 10,000 tons, followed by the building of destroyers and submarines, and lastly the construction of the new s; plans were also put in place to modernize the and s. Much of these new naval units were responses to French naval constructions, as the Marine nationale was seen until the mid 1930s as the most likely enemy in a hypothetical conflict. The \"Regia Marina\" chose to build fast ships armed with longer ranged guns to give the Italian vessels the ability to minimize close contact with vessels of the Royal Navy, whose crews were more experienced. In theory this would allow them to engage or break off at their own choosing, and would allow them to hit the enemy when he could not yet hit back. New guns were developed with longer ranges than their British counterparts of similar caliber. Speed was emphasized in their new construction. Italian cruisers built in the 1920s, such as were built with a newly designed and relatively thin armour.. This would have a decisive role in a number of naval battles, including the Battle of Cape Spada. Later classes, such as the and classes, were built to a more balanced design with thicker armor. The modernization work on the four Great War era battleships turned into a significant reconstruction project, with only 40% of the original structures being left. The ship's guns were upgraded in main armament, going from 13 guns of 305 mm diameter, to 10 guns of 320 mm diameter. The middle turret and the vessel's central tower were eliminated. To increase speed the coal-fired boilers were replaced with modern oil-fired boilers and ten meters were added to the ship's length to improve the coefficient of fineness. Though the ships were improved, they still were not an equal match for the s and the s, both of which carried larger guns and heavier armour. Though scientific research on tracking devices such as radar and sonar was being conducted in Italian universities and military laboratories by men such as Ugo Tiberio and Guglielmo Marconi, the conservative Italian leadership had little interest in these new technologies, and did not use them to improve the effectiveness of the Italian vessels. This was mainly due to the influence of Admiral Domenico Cavagnari, whom Mussolini appointed as Chief of Staff of the Navy in 1933, and whom he later promoted to Secretary of the Navy. Likewise technological advancement in radio range finders and gunnery control devices for night combat were not incorporated. Regarding such devices, Cavagnari emphasized \"not wanting traps in your way\". Writing to Admiral Iachino, he wrote \"..procedere con estrema cautela nell'accettare brillanti novità tecniche che non siano ancora collaudate da una esperienza pratica sufficientemente lunga..\", which can be translated to \"... proceed with extreme caution regarding brilliant technical innovations that have not yet been tested or with which there is no practical experience.\" Thus, the Italian navy entered the Second World War with a marked technical inferiority to the British Navy. German General Albert Kesselring, overall commander of Axis forces in the Mediterranean, observed that the Italian navy was \"a good weather\" force, unable to operate effectively at night or in heavy seas. Two training ships were built during this period, in addition to the effort to modernize and re-equip the combat vessels of the navy. These were square rigged school ships the \"Regia Marina\" ordered in 1925. The sailing ships followed a design by Lieutenant Colonel Francesco Rotundi of the Italian Navy Engineering Corps, reminiscent of ships of the line from the Napoleonic era. The first of these two ships,, was put into service in 1928 and was used by the Italian Navy for training until 1943. After World War II, this ship was handed over to the Soviet Union as part of war reparations and was shortly afterwards decommissioned. The second ship of the design was. The ship was built in 1930 at the (formerly Royal) Naval Shipyard of Castellammare di Stabia (Naples). She was launched on 22 February 1931, and was put into service in July of that year. She is still being used to this day. In 1928, the unified command of the \"\"Armata Navale\"\" was abolished, and the fleet was divided in two squadrons (\"Squadre navali\"), one based at La Spezia and the other based at Taranto.", "On 10 June 1940, following the German invasion of France and the lowlands, the Kingdom of Italy declared war on France and the United Kingdom and entered World War II. Italy went to war with the fourth largest navy in the world. Italian dictator Benito Mussolini saw the control of the Mediterranean Sea as an essential prerequisite for expanding his \"New Roman Empire\" into Nice, Corsica, Tunis and the Balkans. Italian naval building accelerated during his tenure. Mussolini described the Mediterranean as \"Mare Nostrum\" (Our Sea). Before the declaration of war, Italian ground and air forces prepared to strike at the beaten French forces across the border in the Italian invasion of France. By contrast, the \"Regia Marina\" prepared to secure the lines of communications between Italy, Libya and the East African colonies. The Italian High Command (\"Comando Supremo\") did not approve of the plan devised by the Italian Naval Headquarters (\"Supermarina\") to occupy a weakly defended Malta, which proved a crucial mistake. The British, thinking Malta could not be defended due to the proximity of Italian air bases in Italy, Sicily, and Libya, had put little effort into bolstering the islands' defences. Thus, at the outset of the war there were only 42 anti-aircraft guns on the island and twelve Gloster Sea Gladiators, half sitting in crates at the wharf. Entering the war, the \"Regia Marina\" was operating under a number of limitations. Though significant assets were available to challenge the Royal Navy for control of the Mediterranean, there had been a lack of emphasis on the incorporation of technological advances such as radar and sonar. This meant that in night engagements or foul weather, the Italian ships were unable to detect the approach of their British adversaries. When engaged, they could only range their guns if they were able to visually locate their targets. The \"Regia Marina\" had six battleships with which to contend for control of the Mediterranean, the four most modern of which were being re-fitted at the outbreak of the war. In addition to the six capital ships, the Italians had 19 cruisers, 59 destroyers, 67 torpedo boats, and 116 submarines. Though the \"Regia Marina\" had a number of fast new cruisers with good range in their gunnery, the older classes were lightly built and had inadequate defensive armor. Numerically the Italian fleet was formidable, but there were a large number of older vessels, and the service suffered in general from insufficient time at sea for crew training. Italy's lack of raw materials meant that they would have great difficulty building new ships over the course of the war. Thus, the assets they did have were handled with caution by \"Supermarina\". Whereas Allied commanders at sea had a fair degree of autonomy and discretion to fight their vessels as circumstance allowed, Italian commanders were required to confer with their headquarters before committing their forces in an engagement that might result in their loss. This led to delays in arriving at decisions and actions being avoided, even when the Italians had a clear advantage. An example occurred during \"Operation Hats\", in which the \"Regia Marina\" had superior forces but failed to commit them to take advantage of the opportunity. A further key disadvantage in the convoy support and interception battles that dominated the Battle of the Mediterranean was the intelligence advantage granted to the British in intercepting German \"Ultra\" and, through this, the key information on Italian convoy routes, times of departure, time of arrival, and make up of the convoy. The warships of the \"Regia Marina\" had a general reputation as being well-designed. Italian small attack craft lived up to expectations and were responsible for many successful actions in the Mediterranean. Though Italian warships lacked radar, this was partly offset in fair weather by good optical rangefinder and fire-control systems. The Italian Navy lacked a fleet air arm. The high command had reasoned that since the Italian navy would be operating solely in the Mediterranean, their vessels would never be far from an airfield, thus the time and resources needed to develop a naval air arm could be directed elsewhere. This proved problematic on a number of occasions. Though the Italians did have the aircraft carriers and under construction at the start of the war, neither one was ever completed. Lastly, the lack of natural oil reserves and subsequent shortage of oil precluded extensive fleet operations.", "After the end of hostilities, the \"Regia Marina\" started a long and complex rebuilding process. At the beginning of the war, the \"Regia Marina\" was the fourth largest navy in the world with a mix of modernised and new battleships. The important combat contributions of the Italian naval forces after the signing of the armistice with the Allies on 8 September 1943 and the subsequent cooperation agreement on 23 September", "On 10 February 1947, a peace treaty was signed in Paris between the Italian Republic and the victorious powers of World War II. The treaty was onerous for the Italian Navy. Apart from territorial and material losses, the following restrictions were imposed: The treaty also", "", "", "", "<noinclude" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Course.", "Tibet.", "Assam and adjoining region.", "Bangladesh.", "Basin characteristics.", "Discharge.", "Climate.", "Hydrology.", "Floodplain evolution.", "Flooding.", "Channel morphology.", "River engineering.", "History.", "Earlier history.", "International cooperation.", "Significance to people.", "Development.", "National Waterway 2." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "", "The upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River, known as the Yarlung Tsangpo from the Tibetan language, originates on the Angsi Glacier, near Mount Kailash, located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet. The source of the river was earlier thought to be on the Chemayungdung glacier, which covers the slopes of the Himalayas about southeast of Lake Manasarovar in southwestern Tibet. The river is long, and its drainage area is according to the new findings, while previous documents showed its length varied from 2,900 to 3,350 km and its drainage area between 520,000 and 1.73 million km. This finding has been given by Liu Shaochuang, a researcher with the Institute of Remote Sensing Applications under the analysis using expeditions and satellite imagery from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). From its source, the river runs for nearly in a generally easterly direction between the main range of the Himalayas to the south and the Kailas Range to the north. In Tibet, the Tsangpo receives a number of tributaries. The most important left-bank tributaries are the Raka Zangbo (Raka Tsangpo), which joins the river west of Xigazê (Shigatse), and the Lhasa (Kyi), which flows past the Tibetan capital of Lhasa and joins the Tsangpo at Qüxü. The Nyang Qu (Gyamda) River joins the river from the north at Zela (Tsela Dzong). On the right bank, a second river called the Nyang Qu (Nyang Chu) meets the Tsangpo at Xigazê. After passing Pi (Pe) in Tibet, the river turns suddenly to the north and northeast and cuts a course through a succession of great narrow gorges between the mountainous massifs of Gyala Peri and Namcha Barwa in a series of rapids and cascades. Thereafter, the river turns south and southwest and flows through a deep gorge (the \"Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon\") across the eastern extremity of the Himalayas with canyon walls that extend upward for and more on each side. During that stretch, the river enters northern Arunachal Pradesh state in northeastern India, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River, and turns more southerly.", "The Yarlung Tsangpo enters the state of Arunachal Pradesh in India, where it is called Siang. It makes a very rapid descent from its original height in Tibet and finally appears in the plains, where it is called Dihang. It flows for about southward after which, it is joined by the Dibang River and the Lohit River at the head of the Assam Valley. Below the Lohit, the river is called Brahmaputra and Doima(mother of water) and Burlung-Buthur by native Bodo tribals, it then enters the state of Assam, and becomes very wide—as wide as in parts of Assam. The Dihang, winding out of the mountains, turns towards the southeast and descends into a low-lying basin as it enters northeastern Assam state. Just west of the town of Sadiya, the river again turns to the southwest and is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit, and the Dibang. Below that confluence, about from the Bay of Bengal, the river becomes known conventionally as the Brahmaputra (\"Son of Brahma\"). In Assam, the river is mighty, even in the dry season, and during the rains, its banks are more than apart. As the river follows its braided course through the valley, it receives several rapidly flowing Himalayan streams, including the Subansiri, Kameng, Bhareli, Dhansiri, Manas, Champamati, Saralbhanga, and Sankosh Rivers. The main tributaries from the hills and from the plateau to the south are the Burhi Dihing, the Disang, the Dikhu, and the Kopili. Between Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur Districts, the river divides into two channels—the northern Kherkutia channel and the southern Brahmaputra channel. The two channels join again about downstream, forming the Majuli island, which is the largest river island in the world. At Guwahati, near the ancient pilgrimage centre of Hajo, the Brahmaputra cuts through the rocks of the Shillong Plateau, and is at its narrowest at bank-to-bank. Because of the river's narrow width, the Battle of Saraighat was fought here in March 1671. The first combined rail/road bridge across the Brahmaputra was opened to traffic in April 1962 at Saraighat. The environment of the Brahmaputra floodplains in Assam have been described as the Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests ecoregion.", "In Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra is joined by the Teesta River (or Tista), one of its largest tributaries. Below the Tista, the Brahmaputra splits into two distributary branches. The western branch, which contains the majority of the river's flow, continues due south as the Jamuna () to merge with the lower Ganga, called the Padma River (). The eastern branch, formerly the larger, but now much smaller, is called the lower or Old Brahmaputra (). It curves southeast to join the Meghna River near Dhaka. The Padma and Meghna converge near Chandpur and flow out into the Bay of Bengal. This final part of the river is called Meghna. The Brahmaputra enters the plains of Bangladesh after turning south around the Garo Hills below Dhuburi, India. After flowing past Chilmari, Bangladesh, it is joined on its right bank by the Tista River and then follows a 240 km (150-mi) course due south as the Jamuna River. (South of Gaibanda, the Old Brahmaputra leaves the left bank of the mainstream and flows past Jamalpur and Mymensingh to join the Meghna River at Bhairab Bazar.) Before its confluence with the Ganga, the Jamuna receives the combined waters of the Baral, Atrai, and Hurasagar Rivers on its right bank and becomes the point of departure of the large Dhaleswari River on its left bank. A tributary of the Dhaleswari, the Buriganga (\"Old Ganga\"), flows past Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, and joins the Meghna River above Munshiganj. The Jamuna joins with the Ganga north of Goalundo Ghat, below which, as the Padma, their combined waters flow to the southeast for a distance of about. After several smaller channels branch off to feed the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta to the south, the main body of the Padma reaches its confluence with the Meghna River near Chandpur and then enters the Bay of Bengal through the Meghna estuary and lesser channels flowing through the delta. The growth of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta is dominated by tidal processes. The Ganga Delta, fed by the waters of numerous rivers, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, is the largest river deltas in the world.", "The basin of the Brahmaputra river is 651 334 km and it is a good example of a braided river and meanders quite a bit and frequently forms temporary sand bars. A region of significant tectonic activity has developed in the Jamuna River and is associated with the Himalayan uplift and development of the Bengal foredeep. Several researchers have hypothesized that the underlying structural control on the location of the major river systems of Bangladesh. A zone of'structural weakness' along the present course of the Ganga-Jamuna-Padma Rivers due to either a subsiding trough or a fault at depth has been observed by Morgan and Melntire. (1959). Scijmonsbergen (1999) contends that width changes in the Jamuna may respond to these faults and they may also cause increased sedimentation upstream of the fault. He presented a few images to argue that a fault downstream of the Bangabandhu Multipurpose Bridge has affected channel migration. Huge accumulations of sediment that have been fed from Himalayan erosion has been produced due to the deepening of the Bengal Basin, with the thickness of sediment above the Precambrian basement increasing from a few hundred meters in the shelf region to over 18 km in the Bengal foredeep to the south. The tectonic and climatic context for the large water and sediment discharges in the rivers of Bangladesh was set by the ongoing subsidence in the Bengal Basin, combined with high rates of Himalayan uplift. The control of uplift and subsidence is, however, clear. The courses of the Jamuna and Ganga Rivers are first-order controls due to the fact that they are most influenced by the uplifted Plcistoccnc terraces of the Barind and Madhupur tracts.", "The Ganga-Brahmaputra system has the third-greatest average discharge of the world's rivers—roughly 30,770 m (1,086,500 ft) per second; and the river Brahmaputra alone supplies about 19,800 m (700,000 ft) per second of the total discharge. The rivers' combined suspended sediment load of about 1.87 billion tonnes (1.84 billion tons) per year is the world's highest. In the past, the lower course of the Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. In an 8.8 magnitude earthquake on 2 April 1762, however, the main channel of the Brahmaputra at Bhahadurabad point was switched southwards and opened as Jamuna due to the result of tectonic uplift of the Madhupur tract.", "Rising temperature is one of the major cause of snow-melting at the upper Brahmaputra catchment. The discharge of the river Brahmaputra is highly affected by the melting of snow at the upper part of its catchment. The attenuation of river flow due to the melting of snow in the river Brahmaputra basin affects the downstream discharge of the river. This increase in discharge due to the significant retreat of snow gives rise to severe catastrophic problems such as flood and erosion. The weather is a cold and harsh climate.", "The hydrology of the Brahmaputra River is characterized by its significant rates of sediment discharge, the large and variable flows, along with its rapid channel aggradations and accelerated rates of basin denudation. Over time, the deepening of the Bengal Basin caused by erosion will result in the increase in hydraulic radius, and hence allowing for the huge accumulation of sediments fed from the Himalayan erosion by efficient sediment transportation. The thickness of the sediment accumulated above the Precambrian basement has increased over the years from a few hundred meters to over 18 km in the Bengal fore-deep to the south. The ongoing subsidence of the Bengal Basin and the high rate of Himalayan uplift continues to contribute to the large water and sediment discharges of fine sand and silt, with 1% clay, in the Brahmaputra River. Climatic change plays a crucial role in affecting the basin hydrology. Throughout the year, there is a significant rise in hydrograph, with a broad peak between July and September. The Brahmaputra River experiences two high-water seasons, one in early summer caused by snowmelt in the mountains, and one in late summer caused by runoff from monsoon rains. The river flow is strongly influenced by snow and ice melting of the glaciers, which are located mainly on the eastern Himalaya regions in the upstream parts of the basin. The snow and glacier melt contribution to the total annual runoff is about 27%, while the annual rainfall contributes to about 1.9m and 19,830 m3 /s of discharge. The highest recorded daily discharge in the Brahmaputra at Pandu was 72,726 m3 /s August 1962 while the lowest was 1,757 m3 /s in February 1968. The increased rates of snow and glacial melt are likely to increase summer flows in some river systems for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear and snowfall diminishes. This is particularly true for the dry season when water availability is crucial for the irrigation systems.", "The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed drastically in the past two and a half centuries, moving its river course westwards for a distance of about, leaving its old river course, appropriately named the old Brahmaputra river, behind. In the past, the floodplain of the old river course had soils which were more properly formed compared to graded sediments on the operating Jamuna river. This change of river course resulted in modifications to the soil-forming process, which include acidification, the breakdown of clays and buildup of organic matter, with the soils showing an increasing amount of biotic homogenization, mottling, the coating around Peds and maturing soil arrangement, shape and pattern. In the future, the consequences of local ground subsidence coupled with flood prevention propositions, for instance, localised breakwaters, that increase flood-plain water depths outside the water breakers, may alter the water levels of the floodplains. Throughout the years, bars, scroll bars, and sand dunes are formed at the edge of the flood plain by deposition. The height difference of the channel topography is often not more than 1m-2m. Furthermore, flooding over the history of the river has caused the formation of river levees due to deposition from the overbank flow. The height difference between the levee top and the surrounding floodplains is typically 1m along small channels and 2-3m along major channels. Crevasse splay, a sedimentary fluvial deposit which forms when a stream breaks its natural or artificial levees and deposits sediment on a floodplain, are often formed due to a breach in the levee, forming a lobe of sediments which progrades onto the adjacent floodplain. Lastly, flood basins are often formed between the levees of adjacent rivers.", "During the monsoon season (June–October), floods are a very common occurrence. Deforestation in the Brahmaputra watershed has resulted in increased siltation levels, flash floods, and soil erosion in critical downstream habitat, such as the Kaziranga National Park in middle Assam. Occasionally, massive flooding causes huge losses to crops, life, and property. Periodic flooding is a natural phenomenon which is ecologically important because it helps maintain the lowland grasslands and associated wildlife. Periodic floods also deposit fresh alluvium, replenishing the fertile soil of the Brahmaputra River Valley. Thus flooding, agriculture, and agricultural practices are closely connected. The effects of flooding can be devastating and cause significant damage to crops and houses, serious bank erosive with consequent loss of homesteads, school and land, and loss of many lives, livestock, and fisheries. During the 1998 flood, over 70% of the land area of Bangladesh was inundated, affecting 31 million people and 1 million homesteads. In the 1998 flood which had an unusually long duration from July to September, claimed 918 human lives and was responsible for damaging 16 00 and 6000 km of roads and embankments respectively, and affecting 6000 km of standing crops. The 2004 floods, over 25% of the population of Bangladesh or 36 million people, were affected by the floods; 800 lives were lost; 952 000 houses were destroyed and 1.4 million were badly damaged; 24 000 educational institutions were affected including the destruction of 1200 primary schools, 2 million governments and private tube wells were affected, over 3 million latrines were damaged or washed away, this increases the risks of waterborne diseases including diarrhea and cholera. Also, 1.1 M ha of the rice crop was submerged and lost before it could be harvested, with 7% of the yearly \"aus\" (early season) rice crop lost; 270 000 ha of grazing land was affected, 5600 livestock perished together with 254 00 poultry and 63 MT of lost fish production. Flood-control measures are taken by the water resource department and the Brahmaputra Board, but until now the flood problem remains unsolved. At least a third of the land of Majuli island has been eroded by the river. Recently, it is suggested that a highway protected by concrete mat along the river bank and excavation of the river bed can curb this menace. This project, named the Brahmaputra River Restoration Project, is yet to be implemented by the government. Recently the Central Government approved the construction of Brahmaputra Express Highways.", "The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large-scale avulsion, in the period 1776–1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the \"old Brahmaputra\". The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river's erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land. Several studies have discussed the reasons for the avulsion of the river into its present course, and have suggested a number of reasons including tectonic activity, switches in the upstream course of the Teesta River, the influence of increased discharge, catastrophic floods and river capture into an old river course. From an analysis of maps of the river between 1776 and 1843, it was concluded in a study that the river avulsion was more likely gradual than catastrophic and sudden, and may have been generated by bank erosion, perhaps around a large mid-channel bar, causing a diversion of the channel into the existing floodplain channel. The Brahmaputra channel is governed by the peak and low flow periods during which its bed undergoes tremendous modification. The Brahmaputra's bank line migration is inconsistent with time. The Brahmaputra river bed has widened significantly since 1916 and appears to be shifting more towards the south than towards the north. Together with the contemporary slow migration of the river, the left bank is being eroded away faster than the right bank.", "The Brahmaputra River experiences high levels of bank erosion (usually via slab failure) and channel migration caused by its strong current, lack of riverbank vegetation, and loose sand and silt which compose its banks. It is thus difficult to build permanent structures on the river, and protective structures designed to limit the river's erosional effects often face numerous issues during and after construction. In fact, a 2004 report by the Bangladesh Disaster and Emergency Sub-Group (BDER) has stated that several of such protective systems have 'just failed'. However, some progress has been made in the form of construction works which stabilize sections of the river, albeit the need for heavy maintenance. The Bangabandhu Bridge, the only bridge to span the river's major distributary, the Jamuna, was thus opened in June 1998. Constructed at a narrow braid belt of the river, it is 4.8 km long with a platform 18.5 m wide, and it is used to carry railroad traffic as well as gas, power and telecommunication lines. Due to the variable nature of the river, the prediction of the river's future course is crucial in planning upstream engineering to prevent flooding on the bridge. China had built the Zangmu Dam in the upper course of the Brahmaputra River in the Tibet region and it was operationalised on 13 October 2015.", "", "Early accounts give its name as Dyardanes. In the past, the course of the lower Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. Some water still flows through that course, now called the Old Brahmaputra, as a distributary of the main channel. A question about the river system in Bangladesh is when and why the Brahmaputra changed its main course, at the site of the Jamuna and the \"Old Brahmaputra\" fork that can be seen by comparing modern maps to historic maps before the 1800s. The Brahmaputra likely flowed directly south along its present main channel for much of the time since the last glacial maximum, switching back and forth between the two courses several times throughout the Holocene. One idea about the most recent avulsion is that the change in the course of the main waters of the Brahmaputra took place suddenly in 1787, the year of the heavy flooding of the river Tista. In the middle of the 18th century, at least three fair-sized streams flowed between the Rajshahi and Dhaka Divisions, viz., the Daokoba, a branch of the Tista, the Monash or Konai, and the Salangi. The Lahajang and the Elengjany were also important rivers. In Renault's time, the Brahmaputra as a first step towards securing a more direct course to the sea by leaving the Mahdupur Jungle to the east began to send a considerable volume of water down the Jinai or Jabuna from Jamalpur into the Monash and Salangi. These rivers gradually coalesced and kept shifting to the west till they met the Daokoba, which was showing an equally rapid tendency to cut towards the east. The junction of these rivers gave the Brahmaputra a course worthy of her immense power, and the rivers to right and left silted up. In Renault's Altas they very much resemble the rivers of Jessore, which dried up after the hundred-mouthed Ganga had cut her new channel to join the Meghna at the south of the Munshiganj subdivision. In 1809, Francis Buchanan-Hamilton wrote that the new channel between Bhawanipur and Dewanranj \"was scarcely inferior to the mighty river, and threatens to sweep away the intermediate country\". By 1830, the old channel had been reduced to its present insignificance. It was navigable by country boats throughout the year and by launches only during rains, but at the point as low as Jamalpur it was formidable throughout the cold weather. Similar was the position for two or three months just below Mymensingh also.", "The waters of the River Brahmaputra are shared by China, India, and Bangladesh. In the 1990s and 2000s, there was repeated speculation that mentioned Chinese plans to build a dam at the Great Bend, with a view to diverting the waters to the north of the country. This has been denied by the Chinese government for many years. At the Kathmandu Workshop of Strategic Foresight Group in August 2009 on Water Security in the Himalayan Region, which brought together in a rare development leading hydrologists from the basin countries, the Chinese scientists argued that it was not feasible for China to undertake such a diversion. However, on 22 April 2010, China confirmed that it was indeed building the Zangmu Dam on the Brahmaputra in Tibet, but assured India that the project would not have any significant effect on the downstream flow to India. This claim has also been reiterated by the Government of India, in an attempt to assuage domestic criticism of Chinese dam construction on the river, but is one that remains hotly debated. Recent years have seen an intensification of grassroots opposition, especially in the state of Assam, against Chinese upstream dam building, as well as growing criticism of the Indian government for its perceived failure to respond appropriately to Chinese hydropower plans. In a meeting of scientists at Dhaka at 2010, 25 leading experts from the basin countries issued a Dhaka Declaration on Water Security calling for the exchange of information in low-flow periods, and other means of collaboration. Even though the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention does not prevent any of the basin countries from building a dam upstream, customary law offers some relief to the lower riparian countries. There is also the potential for China, India, and Bangladesh to cooperate on transboundary water navigation.", "The lives of many millions of Indian and Bangladeshi citizens are reliant on the Brahmaputra river. Its delta is home to 130 million people and 600 000 people live on the riverine islands. These people rely on the annual 'normal' flood to bring moisture and fresh sediments to the floodplain soils, hence providing the necessities for agricultural and marine farming. In fact, two of the three seasonal rice varieties (aus and aman) cannot survive without the floodwater. Furthermore, the fish caught both on the floodplain during flood season and from the many floodplain ponds are the main source of protein for many rural populations.", "", "National Waterway 2 (NW2) is 891 km long Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of Brahmaputra River in Assam." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1920–1945: Pre-unification.", "World War II.", "1945–1968.", "1968–present: Unification.", "Aircraft.", "Leased and contractor aircraft.", "Weapons and other equipment.", "Current structure.", "1 Canadian Air Division.", "2 Canadian Air Division.", "Former units.", "Joint Task Force Afghanistan Air Wing.", "Rank structure.", "Non-commissioned members.", "Symbols.", "Badge.", "Roundels." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Canadian Air Force (CAF) was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force that was formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, handing command over later the same year to Air Marshal Lindsay Gordon. The new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Board's Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, surveying and anti-smuggling patrols. In 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, becoming the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). Most of its work was civil in nature; however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air force began to rebuild.", "During the Second World War, the RCAF was a major contributor to the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan and was involved in operations in Great Britain, Europe, the north Atlantic, North Africa, southern Asia, and with home defence. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force. During WWII the Royal Canadian Air Force was headquartered in 20-23 Lincolns Inn Fields, London. A commemorative plaque can be found on the outside of the building.", "After the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. Because of the rising Soviet threat to the security of Europe, Canada joined NATO in 1949, and the RCAF established No. 1 Air Division RCAF consisting of four wings with three fighter squadrons each, based in France and West Germany. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War; however, it did not provide RCAF combat units. Members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command. At the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command (NORAD). Coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s.", "In 1968, the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and Canadian Army were amalgamated to form the unified Canadian Forces. This initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer. The controversial merger maintained several existing organizations and created some new ones: In Europe, No. 1 Air Division, operated Canadair CF-104 Starfighter nuclear strike/attack and reconnaissance under NATO's 4 ATAF; Air Defence Command: operated McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo interceptors, CIM-10 Bomarc missiles and the SAGE radar system within NORAD; Air Transport Command: provided strategic airlift for the NATO and UN Peacekeeping missions; and Training Command. Aviation assets of the Royal Canadian Navy were combined with the RCAF Canadair CP-107 Argus long-range patrol aircraft under Maritime Command. In 1975, the different commands, and the scattered aviation assets, were consolidated under Air Command (AIRCOM). On 9 November 1984, Canada Post issued \"Air Force\" as part of the Canadian Forces series. The stamps were designed by Ralph Tibbles, based on an illustration by William Southern. The 32¢ stamps are perforated 12 x 12.5 and were printed by Ashton-Potter Limited. In the early 1990s, Canada provided a detachment of CF-18 Hornets for the air defence mission in Operation Desert Shield. The force performed combat air patrols over operations in Kuwait and Iraq, undertook a number of air-to-ground bombing missions, and, on one occasion, attacked an Iraqi patrol boat in the Persian Gulf. In the late 1990s, Air Command's CF-18 Hornets took part in the Operation Allied Force in Yugoslavia, and in the 2000s, AIRCOM was heavily involved in the Afghanistan War, transporting troops and assets to Kandahar. Later in the decade-long war, AIRCOM set up a purpose-specific air wing, Joint Task Force Afghanistan Air Wing, equipped with several CH-146 Griffon and CH-147 Chinook helicopters, CC-130 Hercules, CU-161 Sperwer and leased CU-170 Heron UAVs in support of the Canadian Forces and ISAF mission. The wing stood down on 18 August 2011. From 18 March to 1 November 2011, the RCAF was engaged in Operation Mobile, Canada's contribution to Operation Unified Protector in Libya. Seven CF-18 Hornet fighter aircraft and several other aircraft served under Task Force Libeccio as part of the military intervention. On 16 August 2011, the Government of Canada announced that the name \"Air Command\" was being changed to the air force's original historic name: Royal Canadian Air Force (along with the change of name of Maritime Command to Royal Canadian Navy and Land Force Command to Canadian Army). The change was made to better reflect Canada's military heritage and align Canada with other key Commonwealth countries whose military units use the royal designation. The RCAF adopted a new badge in 2013, which is similar to the pre-unification RCAF badge (although placed in the modern frame used for command badges). The Latin motto of Air Command – \"Sic itur ad astra\" – which was the motto of the Canadian Air Force when first formed after the First World War (before it became the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1924) was retained. Though traditional insignia for the RCAF was restored in 2015, there has been no restoration of the traditional uniforms or rank structure of the historical service (apart from a rank of \"Aviator\", which replaced that of \"Private\" in 2015). On 17 April 2014, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that Canada was dispatching six CF-18s and military personnel to assist NATO in operations in Eastern Europe.", "The Royal Canadian Air Force has about 391 aircraft in service, making it the sixth-largest air force in the Americas, after the United States Air Force, United States Navy, United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and Brazilian Air Force.", "The Canadian Forces have leased aircraft from vendors to help transport troops and equipment from Canada and other locations in the past decade. Transport aircraft have been leased as required.", "Weapons systems are used by the CF-18 Hornet, CP-140 Aurora, CH-146 Griffon and the CH-148 Cyclone.", "The Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, located at National Defence Headquarters in Ottawa, commands and provides strategic direction to the Air Force. The commander of 1 Canadian Air Division and Canadian NORAD Region, based in Winnipeg, is responsible for the operational command and control of Air Force activities throughout Canada and worldwide. The RCAF's other Air Division, 2 Canadian Air Division, was established in June 2009, and consists of training establishments. There are 13 wings across Canada, 11 operational and 2 used for training. Wings represent the grouping of various squadrons, both operational and support, under a single tactical commander reporting to the operational commander. Ten wings also include a Canadian Forces base along with other operational and support units. The rank of general is held when an air officer is serving as Chief of the Defence Staff. The Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force holds the rank of lieutenant-general. Divisions are commanded by major-generals. Brigadier-generals are typically second-in-command of a division. Wings are commanded by colonels. Squadrons are commanded by lieutenant-colonels. Majors are typically second-in-command of squadrons, or flight commanders. Captains, lieutenants and second lieutenants are the junior level leaders in RCAF squadrons and headquarters.", "The 1 Canadian Air Division serves as the operational command and control of Air Force activities and is commanded by Major-General J.P.A. Pelletier. The commander of 1 Canadian Air Division also serves as the commander of the Canadian NORAD Region, and as the Joint Force Air Component Commander for the Canadian Joint Operations Command.", "2 Canadian Air Division (2CAD) is primarily responsible for training and education throughout the RCAF. It is currently commanded by Brigadier-General Mario Leblanc. From 2011 to 2013 the commanding officer was Brigadier-General Martin Galvin. The initial announcement of the Division, published after it was created on June 25, 2009, said: Brigadier-General Rick Pitre assumed command of the Canadian Force’s most recent formation, the newly established 2 Canadian Air Division/Air Force Doctrine and Training Division in a formal ceremony at 17 Wing, Winnipeg on Thursday, June 25. The Air Force has embarked on what Brig. Gen. Pitre calls “a new and exciting chapter in our rich air force history.” Commander 2 Canadian Air Division is now responsible for all Air Force doctrine, individual training and education. In addition to the Canadian Aerospace Warfare Centre located at 8 Wing Trenton, Brigadier General Pitre will oversee the conduct and management of training establishments at: 15 Wing Moose Jaw, 16 Wing Borden, and a new Air Force Training Centre comprising several Air Force schools and training institutions. In addition, he will have oversight of training conducted by the Prairie Cadet Region.", "", "As the tasking authority responsible for the Canadian Contracted Air Transport Unit, the wing commander provided advice, co-ordination and supervision over its six leased Mi-8 medium lift helicopters. The air wing had about 450 personnel, serving with the Theatre Support Element in the Persian Gulf region and the Tactical UAV Flight at Kandahar Airfield. The wing officially stood down on 18 August 2011.", "", "On 1 April 2015, the rank structure and insignia changed. The rank of private was replaced with that of aviator. The previously used term \"leading aircraftman\" was considered not to be gender neutral. Insignia were also changed from golden yellow to a pearl-grey colour similar to that worn before unification of Canada's Armed Forces in 1968. A revival of the former rank titles of the RCAF did not occur, however, as such an extensive change was considered \"too complicated and confusing\". Instead, the current rank titles were retained (with the exception of aviator). The Royal Flying Corps, considered to be a predecessor of the RCAF, used rank titles similar to the existing rank titles of the RCAF.", "", "The badge of the Royal Canadian Air Force consists of:", "Roundels used from 1920 until 1945 were usually the same as Royal Air Force roundels although not all variations were used and colours were matched to locally available paints." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types of thermal energy.", "History.", "Thermal power generation efficiency.", "Electricity cost.", "Typical coal thermal power station.", "Boiler and steam cycle.", "Feed water heating and deaeration.", "Boiler operation.", "Boiler furnace and steam drum.", "Superheater.", "Steam condensing.", "Reheater.", "Air path.", "Steam turbine generator.", "Stack gas path and cleanup.", "Fly ash collection.", "Bottom ash collection and disposal.", "Auxiliary systems.", "Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage.", "Fuel preparation system.", "Barring gear.", "Oil system.", "Generator cooling.", "Generator high-voltage system.", "Monitoring and alarm system.", "Battery-supplied emergency lighting and communication.", "Circulating water system." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Almost all coal, petroleum, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power stations are thermal. Natural gas is frequently burned in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine, in the form of hot exhaust gas, can be used to raise steam by passing this gas through a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The steam is then used to drive a steam turbine in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power stations burning coal, fuel oil, or natural gas are often called \"fossil fuel power stations\". Some biomass-fueled thermal power stations have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power stations, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use cogeneration are sometimes referred", "The reciprocating steam engine has been used to produce mechanical power since the 18th century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. When the first commercially developed central electrical power stations were established in 1882 at Pearl Street Station in New York and Holborn Viaduct power station in London, reciprocating steam engines were used. The development of the steam turbine in 1884 provided larger and", "The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station is defined as saleable energy produced as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed. A simple cycle gas turbine achieves energy conversion efficiencies from 20 to 35%. Typical coal-based power plants operating at steam pressures of 170 bar and 570 °C run at efficiency of 35 to 38 %, with state-of-the-art fossil fuel plants at 46% efficiency. Combined-cycle systems can reach higher values. As with all heat engines, their efficiency is limited, and governed by the laws of thermodynamics. The Carnot efficiency dictates that higher efficiencies can be attained by increasing the temperature of the steam. Sub-critical fossil fuel power stations can achieve 36–40% efficiency. Supercritical designs have efficiencies in the low to mid 40% range, with new \"ultra critical\" designs using pressures of 4400 psi (30.3 MPa) and multiple stage reheat reaching 45-48% efficiency. Above the critical point for water of and 3212 psi (22.06", "The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal power station is the result of cost of fuel, capital cost for the plant, operator labour, maintenance, and such factors as ash handling", "For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by installing duplicates of the forced and induced draft fans, air preheaters,", "In the nuclear plant field, \"steam generator\" refers to a specific type of large heat exchanger used in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) to thermally connect the primary (reactor plant) and secondary (steam plant) systems, which generates steam. In a nuclear reactor called a boiling water reactor (BWR), water is boiled to generate steam directly in the reactor itself and there are no units called steam generators. In some industrial settings, there can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called \"heat recovery steam generators\" (HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process, most commonly utilizing hot exhaust from a gas turbine. The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. Geothermal plants do not need boilers because they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids. A fossil fuel steam generator includes an economizer, a steam drum, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to relieve excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air preheater (AP), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse), and the flue-gas stack.", "The boiler feedwater used in the steam boiler is a means of transferring heat energy from the burning fuel to the mechanical energy of the spinning steam turbine. The total feed water consists of recirculated \"condensate\" water and purified \"makeup water\". Because the metallic materials it contacts are subject to corrosion at high temperatures and pressures, the makeup water is highly purified before use. A system of water softeners and ion exchange demineralizers produces water so pure that it coincidentally becomes an electrical insulator, with conductivity in the range of 0.3–1.0 microsiemens per centimeter. The makeup water in a 500 MWe plant amounts to perhaps 120 US gallons per minute (7.6 L/s) to replace water drawn off from the boiler drums for water purity", "The boiler is a rectangular furnace about on a side and tall. Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about in diameter. Fuel such as pulverized coal is air-blown into the furnace through burners located at the four corners, or along one wall, or two opposite walls, and it is ignited to rapidly burn, forming a large fireball at the center. The thermal radiation of the fireball heats the water that circulates through the boiler tubes near the boiler perimeter. The water circulation rate in the boiler is three to four times the throughput. As the water in the boiler circulates it absorbs heat and changes into steam. It is separated from the water inside a drum at the top of the furnace. The saturated", "The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum and from there it goes through downcomers to inlet headers at the bottom of the water walls. From these headers the water rises through the water walls of the furnace where some of it is turned into steam and the mixture of water and steam then re-enters the steam drum. This process may be driven purely by natural circulation (because the water is the downcomers", "Fossil fuel power stations often have a superheater section in the steam generating furnace. The steam passes through drying equipment inside the steam drum on to the superheater, a set of tubes in the furnace. Here the steam picks up more energy from hot", "The condenser condenses the steam from the exhaust of the turbine into liquid to allow it to be pumped. If the condenser can be made cooler, the pressure of the exhaust steam is reduced and efficiency of the cycle increases. The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low-pressure turbine enters the shell, where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausts for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum. For best efficiency, the temperature in", "Power station furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases outside the", "External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The Primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warms the air in the air preheater for better economy. Primary air then passes through the coal pulverizers, and carries the coal dust to the burners for", "The turbine generator consists of a series of steam turbines interconnected to each other and a generator on a common shaft. There is usually a high-pressure turbine at one end, followed by an intermediate-pressure turbine, and finally one, two, or three low-pressure turbines, and the generator. As steam moves through the system and loses pressure and thermal energy, it expands in volume, requiring increasing diameter and longer blades at each succeeding stage to extract the remaining energy. The entire rotating mass may be over 200 metric tons and long. It is so heavy that it must be kept turning slowly even when shut down (at 3 rpm) so that the shaft will not bow even slightly and become unbalanced. This is so important that it is one of only six functions of blackout emergency power batteries on site. (The other five being emergency lighting, communication, station alarms, generator hydrogen seal system, and turbogenerator lube oil.) For a typical late 20th-century power station, superheated steam from the boiler is delivered through diameter piping at and to the high-pressure turbine, where it falls in pressure to and to in temperature through the stage. It exits via diameter cold reheat lines and passes back into the boiler, where the steam is reheated in special reheat pendant tubes back", "As the combustion flue gas exits the boiler it is routed through a rotating flat basket of metal mesh which picks up heat and returns it to incoming fresh air as the basket rotates. This is called the air preheater. The gas exiting the boiler is laden with fly ash, which are tiny spherical ash particles. The flue gas contains nitrogen along with combustion products carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The fly ash is removed by fabric bag filters in baghouses or electrostatic precipitators. Once removed, the fly ash byproduct can sometimes be used in the manufacturing of concrete. This cleaning up of flue gases, however, only occurs in plants that are fitted with the appropriate technology. Still, the majority of coal-fired power stations in the world do not have these facilities. Legislation in Europe has been efficient to reduce flue gas pollution. Japan has been using flue gas cleaning technology for over 30 years and the US has been doing the same for over 25 years. China is now beginning to grapple with the pollution caused by coal-fired power stations. Where required by law, the sulfur and nitrogen oxide pollutants are removed by stack gas scrubbers which use a pulverized limestone or other alkaline wet slurry to remove those pollutants from the exit stack gas. Other devices use catalysts to remove nitrous oxide compounds from the flue-gas stream. The gas travelling up the flue-gas stack may by this time have dropped to about. A typical flue-gas stack may be tall to disperse the remaining flue gas components in the atmosphere. The tallest flue-gas stack in the world is tall at the Ekibastuz GRES-2 Power Station in Kazakhstan. In the United States and a number of other countries, atmospheric dispersion modeling studies are required to determine the flue-gas stack height needed to comply with the local air pollution regulations. The United States also requires the height of a flue-gas stack to comply with what is known as the \"good engineering practice\" (GEP) stack height. In the case of existing flue gas stacks that exceed the GEP stack height, any air pollution dispersion modeling studies for such stacks must use the GEP stack height rather than the actual stack height.", "Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace", "At the bottom of the furnace, there is a hopper for collection of bottom ash. This hopper is kept filled with water to quench the ash", "", "Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of condensate to the boiler, losses due to blowdown and leakages have to be made up to maintain a desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added to the boiler water system. Impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water, and that is done by a water demineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally consists of cation, anion, and mixed bed exchangers. Any", "In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder. The pulverizers may be ball mills, rotating drum grinders, or other types of grinders. Some power stations burn fuel oil rather than", "Barring gear (or \"turning gear\") is the mechanism provided to rotate the turbine generator shaft at a very low speed after unit stoppages. Once the unit is \"tripped\" (i.e., the steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine coasts down towards standstill. When it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too long.", "An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet", "While small generators may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet, larger units generally require special cooling arrangements. Hydrogen gas cooling, in an oil-sealed casing, is used because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces windage losses. This system requires special handling during start-up, with air in the generator enclosure first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that the highly flammable hydrogen", "The generator voltage for modern utility-connected generators ranges from in smaller units to in larger units. The generator high-voltage leads are normally large aluminium channels because of their high current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines. They are enclosed in well-grounded aluminium bus ducts and are supported on suitable insulators.", "Most of the power station operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual intervention may be required.", "A central battery system consisting of lead–acid cell units is provided to supply emergency electric power, when needed, to essential items such", "To dissipate the thermal load of main turbine exhaust steam, condensate from gland steam condenser, and condensate from Low Pressure Heater by providing a" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Subsonic aerodynamics.", "Propulsion.", "Wing design." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Although high speeds are usually desirable in an aircraft, supersonic flight requires much bigger engines, higher fuel consumption and more advanced materials than subsonic flight. A subsonic type therefore costs far less than the equivalent supersonic design, has greater range and causes less harm to the environment. The less harsh subsonic environment also allows a much wider range of aircraft types, such as balloons, airships and rotorcraft, allowing them to fill a much wider range of roles.", "Subsonic flight is characterised aerodynamically by incompressible flow, where dynamic pressure changes due to motion through the air cause the air to flow away from areas of high dynamic pressure to areas of lower dynamic pressure, leaving the static pressure and density of the surrounding air constant. At high subsonic speeds, compressibility effects begin to appear.", "The propeller is one of the most efficient sources of thrust available and is common on subsonic aeroplanes and airships. Sometimes it is enclosed in the form of a ducted fan. At higher subsonic speeds and at high altitudes, such as attained by most airliners, the high-bypass turbofan becomes necessary. Pure jets such as the turbojet and ramjet are inefficient at subsonic speeds and not often used.", "The span and area of a wing are both important to the lift characteristics. They are related by the aspect ratio, which is the ratio of the span, measured from tip to tip, to the average chord, measured from leading edge to trailing edge. The aerodynamic efficiency of a wing is described by its lift/drag ratio, with a wing giving high lift for little drag being the most efficient. A higher aspect ratio gives a higher lift/drag ratio and so is more efficient. The drag of a wing consists of two components, the induced drag, which is related to the production of lift, and the profile drag, largely due to skin friction which is contributed to by the whole wing area. It is therefore desirable for a wing to have the least area compatible with the desired lift characteristics. This is best achieved with a high aspect ratio, and high-performance types often have this kind of wing. But other considerations such as light weight, structural stiffness, manoeuvrability, ground handling and so on often benefit from a shorter span and, consequently a less efficient wing. Small, low-altitude general aviation planes typically have aspect ratios of six or seven; airliners of 12 or more; and high-performance sailplanes of 30 or more. At speeds above the critical Mach number, the airflow begins to become transonic, with local airflow in some places causing small sonic shock waves to form. This soon leads to the shock stall, causing a rapid increase in drag. The wings of fast subsonic craft such as jet airliners tend to be swept in order to delay the onset of these shock waves. In theory, induced drag is at its minimum when the span wise distribution of lift is elliptical. A number of factors influence induced drag, however, and as a practical matter a wing of elliptical planform, like that of the Supermarine Spitfire fighter of World War II, is not necessarily the most efficient. The wings of jet airliners, which are highly optimized for efficiency, are far from elliptical in shape. The ratio of tip chord to root chord is called the taper ratio. Taper has the desirable effect of reducing the root bending stress by shifting the lift inboard, but it has been argued by some noted designers, including John Thorp and Karl Bergey, that an untapered rectangular planform is best for aeroplanes of less than 6,000 pounds gross weight." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Climate.", "Subdivisions.", "Demographics.", "Education.", "Industries.", "Transportation.", "Air.", "Sea." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Hualien County annals () record that the city was called \"Kiray\" () until the early twentieth century. This name refers to the Sakiraya Taiwanese aborigines and their settlement. After Taiwan came under Japanese rule in 1895 its governors sought to change the name because \"Kiray\" is pronounced the same as the Japanese word for. The name was eventually changed to. After World War II the incoming Kuomintang-led Republic of China retained the Kanji spelling but shortened the name to just, or \"Hualien\" via Chinese romanization.", "The Spaniards built mines for gold in Hualien in 1622. Permanent settlements began in 1851, when 2,200 Han Chinese farmers led by Huang A-fong (黃阿鳳) from Taipei arrived at Fengchuan (now the area near Hualien Rear Station). In 1875, more farmers, led by Lin Cang-an (林蒼安) from Yilan, settled at Fengchuan. Settlements in the area remained small by the start of Japanese rule. The city was expanded circa 1912 by its Japanese governors to incorporate \"Guohua\" () and \"Guoan\" () Villages, a region later known as. In 1920, was established, and around 1923 it was extended to, today known as \"New Port\" (), including the Guowei and Guoji Villages. In 1940, the town was upgraded to Karenkō City, Karenkō Prefecture. On 25 October 1945, Taiwan was handed over from Japan to the Republic of China under Kuomintang government. In January 1946, the incoming Kuomintang designated Hualien City a county-controlled city of Hualien County and to be the county seat, an administrative structure that has remained in place since Taiwan's transition to democracy (1990-1996).", "Hualien experiences a tropical rainforest climate (Af) with frequent cyclones so not equatorial. It closely borders on a humid subtropical climate. The city experiences significant rainfall year-round and the temperature there averages. Precipitation in the city averages. January is the city's driest month, while September tends to be the wettest.", "The 45 villages () of the city are divided into six village unions (): (in Hanyu Pinyin) The newest villages from 2002 are Guosheng, Guoxing, Minxiao, and Minzhu.", "Hualien City has 9,000 aboriginal people, making it the city with the largest aboriginal population in Taiwan. The majority of the aborigines that reside in Hualien include the Amis, Atayal, Truku and Bunun. Hualien City is also the most densely populated area in Hualien county.", "There are 3 universities, 12 senior high schools, 4 junior high schools, 16 elementary schools.", "Hualien City is the center of politics, economy and transportation of Hualien County.", "", "Hualien City is served by Hualien Airport located at the neighboring Xincheng Township of Hualien County. The airport is about 10 minutes drive to the city.", "The Port of Hualien is an international port in the city with liners sailing to Japan, Middle East, South East Asia and South Korea." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Description.", "Trojan War.", "Death.", "Palace." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Ajax is the son of Telamon, who was the son of Aeacus and grandson of Zeus, and his first wife Periboea. He is the cousin of Achilles, and is the elder half-brother of Teucer. His given name is derived from the root of \"to lament\", translating to \"one who laments; mourner\". Hesiod, however, includes a story in \"The Great Eoiae\" that indicates Aias received his name when Heracles prayed to Zeus that a son might be born to Telemon and Eriboea. Zeus sent an eagle (\"aietos\" - αετός) as a sign. Heracles then bade the parents call their son Aias after the eagle. Many illustrious Athenians, including Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades and the historian Thucydides, traced their descent from Ajax. On an Etruscan tomb dedicated to Racvi Satlnei in Bologna (5th century BC) there is an inscription that says \"aivastelmunsl\", which means \"[family] of Telamonian Ajax\".", "In Homer's \"Iliad\" he is described as of great stature, colossal frame and strongest of all the Achaeans. Known as the \"bulwark of the Achaeans\", he was trained by the centaur Chiron (who had trained Ajax's father Telamon and Achilles's father Peleus and would later die of an accidental wound inflicted by Heracles, whom he was at the time training), at the same time as Achilles. He was described as fearless, strong and powerful but also with a very high level of combat intelligence. Ajax commands his army wielding a huge shield made of seven cow-hides with a layer of bronze. Most notably, Ajax is not wounded in any of the battles described in the \"Iliad\", and he is the only principal character on either side who does not receive substantial assistance from any of the gods (except for Agamemnon) who take part in the battles, although, in book 13, Poseidon strikes Ajax with his staff, renewing his strength. Unlike Diomedes, Agamemnon, and Achilles, Ajax appears as a mainly defensive warrior, instrumental in the defence of the Greek camp and ships and that of Patroclus' body. When the Trojans are on the offensive, he is often seen covering the retreat of the Achaeans. Significantly, while one of the deadliest heroes in the whole poem, Ajax has no aristeia depicting him on the offensive.", "In the \"Iliad\", Ajax is notable for his abundant strength and courage, seen particularly in two fights with Hector. In Book 7, Ajax is chosen by lot to meet Hector in a duel which lasts most of a whole day. Ajax at first gets the better of the encounter, wounding Hector with his spear and knocking him down with a large stone, but Hector fights on until the heralds, acting at the direction of Zeus, call a draw, with the two combatants exchanging gifts, Ajax giving Hector a purple sash and Hector giving Ajax his sharp sword. The second fight between Ajax and Hector occurs when the latter breaks into the Mycenaean camp, and fights with the Greeks among the ships. In Book 14, Ajax throws a giant rock at Hector which almost kills him. In Book 15, Hector is restored to his strength by Apollo and returns to attack the ships. Ajax, wielding an enormous spear as a weapon and leaping from ship to ship, holds off the Trojan armies virtually single-handedly. In Book 16, Hector and Ajax duel once again. Hector then disarms Ajax (although Ajax is not hurt) and Ajax is forced to retreat, seeing that Zeus is clearly favoring Hector. Hector and the Trojans succeed in burning one Greek ship, the culmination of an assault that almost finishes the war. Ajax is responsible for the death of many Trojan lords, including Phorcys. Ajax often fought in tandem with his brother Teucer, known for his skill with the bow. Ajax would wield his magnificent shield, as Teucer stood behind picking off enemy Trojans. Achilles was absent during these encounters because of his feud with Agamemnon. In Book 9, Agamemnon and the other Mycenaean chiefs send Ajax, Odysseus and Phoenix to the tent of Achilles in an attempt to reconcile with the great warrior and induce him to return to the fight. Although Ajax speaks earnestly and is well received, he does not succeed in convincing Achilles. When Patroclus is killed, Hector tries to steal his body. Ajax, assisted by Menelaus, succeeds in fighting off the Trojans and taking the body back with his chariot; however, the Trojans have already stripped Patroclus of Achilles' armor. Ajax's prayer to Zeus to remove the fog that has descended on the battle to allow them to fight or die in the light of day has become proverbial. According to Hyginus, in total, Ajax killed 28 people at Troy.", "As the \"Iliad\" comes to a close, Ajax and the majority of other Greek warriors are alive and well. When Achilles dies, killed by Paris (with help from Apollo), Ajax and Odysseus are the heroes who fight against the Trojans to get the body and bury it with his companion, Patroclus. Ajax, with his great shield and spear, manages to recover the body and carry it to the ships, while Odysseus fights off the Trojans. After the burial, each claims Achilles' magical armor, which had been forged on Mount Olympus by the smith-god Hephaestus, for himself as recognition for his heroic efforts. A competition is held to determine who deserves the armor. Ajax argues that because of his strength and the fighting he has done for the Greeks, including saving the ships from Hector, and driving him off with a massive rock, he deserves the armor. However, Odysseus proves to be more eloquent, and with the aid of Athena, the council gives him the armor. Ajax, \"Unconquered\", and furious, becomes crazed and slaughters the Achaians' herds of captured livestock, believing them to be his enemies through a trick of Athena. Unable to deal with this dual dishonor, he falls upon his own sword, \"conquered by his [own] sorrow\", and commits suicide. The Belvedere Torso, a marble torso now in the Vatican Museums, is considered to depict Ajax \"in the act of contemplating his suicide\". In Sophocles' play \"Ajax\", a famous retelling of Ajax's demise, after the armor is awarded to Odysseus, Ajax feels so insulted that he wants to kill Agamemnon and Menelaus. Athena intervenes and clouds his mind and vision, and he goes to a flock of sheep and slaughters them, imagining they are the Achaean leaders, including Odysseus and Agamemnon. When he comes to his senses, covered in blood, he realizes that what he has done has diminished his honor, and decides that he prefers to kill himself rather than live in shame. He does so with the same sword which Hector gave him when they exchanged presents. From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus, which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name \"Ai,\" also expressive of lament. His ashes were deposited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory at the entrance of the Hellespont. Ajax's half-brother Teucer stood trial before his father for not bringing Ajax's body or famous weapons back. Teucer was acquitted for responsibility but found guilty of negligence. He was disowned by his father and was not allowed to return to his home, the island of Salamis off the coast of Athens. Homer is somewhat vague about the precise manner of Ajax's death but does ascribe it to his loss in the dispute over Achilles' armor; when Odysseus visits Hades, he begs the soul of Ajax to speak to him, but Ajax, still resentful over the old quarrel, refuses and descends silently back into Erebus. Like Achilles, he is represented (although not by Homer) as living after his death on the island of Leuke at the mouth of the Danube. Ajax, who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of Aeacus and the great-grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero of the island of Salamis, where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called \"Aianteia\" was celebrated in his honour. At this festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which recalls the Roman Lectisternium. The identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted a line in the \"Iliad\" (2.557–558), for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic hero; he was worshiped at Athens, where he had a statue in the market-place, and the tribe \"Aiantis\" was named after him. Pausanias also relates that a gigantic skeleton, its kneecap in diameter, appeared on the beach near Sigeion, on the Trojan coast; these bones were identified as those of Ajax.", "In 2001, Yannos Lolos began excavating a Mycenaean palace near the village of Kanakia on the island of Salamis which he theorized to be the home of the mythological Aiacid dynasty. The multi-story structure covers and had perhaps 30 rooms. The palace appears to have been abandoned at the height of the Mycenaean civilization, roughly the same time the Trojan War may have occurred." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Calculation.", "IAS vs CAS.", "IAS and V speeds.", "IAS and navigation.", "Other airspeeds." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Indicated airspeed measured by pitot-tube can be expressed by following equation delivered from Bernoulli's equation. NOTE: The above equation applies only to conditions that can be treated as incompressible. Liquids are treated as incompressible under almost all conditions. Gases under certain conditions can be approximated as incompressible. See Compressibility. The compression effects can be corrected by use of Poisson constant. This compensation corresponds to Equivalent airspeed. where:", "The IAS is not the actual speed through the air even when the aircraft is at sea level under International Standard Atmosphere conditions (15 °C, 1013 hPa, 0% humidity). The IAS needs to be corrected for known instrument and position errors to show true airspeed under those specific atmospheric conditions, and this is the CAS (Calibrated Airspeed). Despite this the pilot's primary airspeed reference, the ASI, shows IAS (by definition). The relationship between CAS and IAS is known and documented for each aircraft type and model.", "The aircraft's pilot manual usually gives critical V speeds as IAS, those speeds indicated by the airspeed indicator. This is because the aircraft behaves similarly at the same IAS no matter what the TAS is: E.g. A pilot landing at a hot and high airfield will use the same IAS to fly the aircraft at the correct approach and landing speeds as he would when landing at a cold sea level airfield even though the TAS must differ considerably between the two landings. Whereas IAS can be reliably used for monitoring critical speeds well below the speed of sound this is not so at higher speeds. An example: Because (1) the compressibility of air changes considerably approaching the speed of sound, and (2) the speed of sound varies considerably with temperature and therefore altitude; the maximum speed at which an aircraft structure is safe, the never exceed speed (abbreviated \"V\"), is specified at several differing altitudes in faster aircraft's operating manuals, as shown in the sample table below. Ref: \"Pilot's Notes for Tempest V Sabre IIA Engine\" - Air Ministry A.P.2458C-PN", "For navigation, it is necessary to convert IAS to TAS and/or ground speed (GS) using the following method: With the advent of Doppler radar navigation and, more recently, GPS receivers, with other advanced navigation equipment that allows pilots to read ground speed directly, the TAS calculation in-flight is becoming unnecessary for the purposes of navigation estimations. TAS is the primary method to determine aircraft's cruise performance in manufacturer's specs, speed comparisons and pilot reports.", "From IAS, the following speeds can also be calculated: On large jet aircraft the IAS is by far the most important speed indicator. Most aircraft speed limitations are based off IAS, as IAS closely reflects dynamic pressure. TAS is usually displayed as well, but purely for advisory information and generally not in a prominent location. Modern jet airliners also include ground speed (GS) and Machmeter. Ground speed shows the actual speed that the aircraft uses compared to the ground. This is usually connected to a GPS or similar system. Ground speed is just a pilot aid to estimate if the flight is on time, behind or ahead of schedule. It is not used for takeoff and landing purposes, since the imperative speed for a flying aircraft always is the speed against the wind. The Machmeter is, on subsonic aircraft, a warning indicator. Subsonic aircraft must not fly faster than a specific percentage of the speed of sound. Usually passenger airliners do not fly faster than around 85% of speed of sound, or Mach 0.85. Supersonic aircraft, like the Concorde and military fighters, use the Machmeter as the main speed instrument with the exception of take-offs and landings. Some aircraft also have a taxi speed indicator for use on the ground. Since the IAS often starts at around (on jet airliners), pilots may need extra help while taxiing the aircraft on the ground. Its range is around." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Distribution.", "Ecology.", "Lakes.", "Rivers.", "Ponds.", "Artificial Habitats.", "Conservation, Threats and Restoration.", "Cultural." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stems elongated, rising in the water or creeping and rooting at the nodes. Submerged leaves (if present) basal, linear; floating or aerial leaves elliptical to ovate. Flowers hermaphrodite, long-pedunculate in the axils of the floating or aerial leaves. Stamens 6. Carpels 6–15 in an irregular whorl, free, each with 1 ovule; styles apical. Fruitlets achenial, longitudinally many-ribbed, with a short apical beak. 2\"n\" = 42. \"Luronium natans\" can be a difficult plant to identify. It is both very variable and resembles many other aquatic plants with strap-like leaves such as bur-reeds (\"Sparganium\"), young water-plantain plants (\"Alisma\"), arrowheads (\"Sagittaria\"), lesser water-plantain (\"Baldellia\") and mudwort (\"Limosella aquatica\"). The stoloniferous habit is an important distinguishing feature, and the unusual shape of the floating leaves, which are rounded at the tips and tend to taper gradually into the stem, is also helpful. However, floating leaves are not always present, especially in lake populations. Submerged leaves have a characteristic ladder pattern with whitish flecks when seen underwater.", "The range of floating water-plantain is uncertain. It is widely distributed in western and central Europe, with confirmed records from Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. It is also present but rare in northern Spain, the Czech Republic, Norway and Sweden. Further east the distribution is much more uncertain and requires verification. Records from Bulgaria, Italy, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Austria, the Transcarpathian region of the Ukraine and Transylvania either are doubtful or are unconfirmed.", "Floating water-plantain grows predominantly in base-poor lakes, ponds and slow-flowing rivers with low to moderate nutrient levels, although in some cases it appears able to tolerate alkaline systems and / or high nutrient levels. It has proved able to colonise certain man-made freshwater systems.", "Lake populations predominantly occur on silty or peaty substrates, growing at depths up to at least 3.5m. In deeper water it reproduces vegetatively by stolons or production of cleistogamous seed. This often results in populations with low genetic diversity. Shallow water populations produce short-lived flowers which may cross-pollinate. Floating water-plantain appears to require a certain amount of disturbance to survive as it is a poor competitor, and therefore does best in situations where there is a certain amount of disturbance to suppress the growth of competing species. In Llyn Egnant and Llyn Teifi (Wales, UK), which are used as reservoirs for public water supply, floating water-plantain probably benefits from the resulting increase in water level fluctuation, suppressing competition from other aquatic plants and promoting flowering. However, in sites where water level fluctuations are larger in amplitude, \"L. natans\" is absent. Lake populations of this plant are strongly associated with soft-water conditions and low nutrient concentrations.", "In Britain, floating water-plantain is rare in river habitats. River populations in general occur in slow-flowing, low-gradient sections of base-poor rivers along with aquatic plants such as intermediate water-starwort \"Callitriche hamulata\", bog pondweed \"Potamogeton polygonifolius\" and shoreweed \"Littorella uniflora\". These populations are small and associated with upstream lakes that may act as sources of propagules. Riverine populations in France and Denmark are associated with natural river-floodplain systems where new oxbow lakes are constantly being created by erosion and deposition.", "The ecology of floating water-plantain in ponds is not well understood, but generally it seems to require broadly low nutrient, soft water situations with some disturbance, such as lowland heathland pools subject to grazing by livestock.", "In the past, floating water-plantain has proved successful at exploiting certain types of artificial habitats, notably the British canal system and the Dombes traditional fish pond system in France. Both these systems have in common a moderate level of disturbance which helps to suppress competing species that might otherwise exclude it.", "Within Europe, floating water-plantain is listed under Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive and Appendix I of the Bern Convention. Within Britain it is on Schedule 4 of the Conservation (Natural Habitats, etc.) Regulations 1994; Schedule 8 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981, and on the IUCN Red List it is classified as 'Least Concern'(LC). Floating water-plantain seems quite tolerant of acidification, as evidenced by its relative abundance in several Welsh lakes that have suffered severe declines in pH due to acid rain, and also seems able to tolerate moderate water level fluctuation as is seen when certain lakes were converted to reservoirs. Losses have mainly been associated with nutrient enrichment (eutrophication), such as in the Shropshire-Cheshire meres. In the Netherlands, restoration of floating water-plantain and other threatened freshwater plants has been successfully achieved by removing the organic sediment layer and reducing inputs of calcium-rich surface water", "In 2009 it featured on a first class Royal Mail stamp in the series \"Endangered Plants\".It is said to have \"spread eastwards from its core natural habitats in the lakes of Snowdonia and mid Wales in the 19th century, taking advantage of the canal network. In recent decades, however, pollution and recreational boating have led to its disappearance from many lowland waterways\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Epithets.", "Greek myth and epos.", "Homeric \"Hymn to Aphrodite\".", "Homer's \"Iliad\".", "Other sources.", "Roman myth and literature.", "Virgil's \"Aeneid\".", "Other sources.", "Medieval accounts.", "Family and legendary descendants.", "Character and appearance.", "Modern portrayals.", "Literature.", "Opera, film and other media.", "Depictions in art.", "Villa Valmarana." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Aeneas is the Romanization of the Greek (). is first introduced in the \"Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite\" when Aphrodite gives him his name from the adjective \"terrible\"), for the \"terrible grief\" () has caused her. It is a popular etymology for the name, apparently exploited by Homer in the \"Iliad\". Later in the Medieval period there were writers who held that, because the \"Aeneid\" was written by a philosopher, it is meant to be read philosophically. As such, in the \"natural order\", the meaning of Aeneas' name combines Greek (\"dweller\") with (\"body\"), which becomes or \"in-dweller\"—i.e. as a god inhabiting a mortal body. However, there is no certainty regarding the origin of his name.", "In imitation of the \"Iliad\", Virgil borrows epithets of Homer, including: Anchisiades, \"magnanimum\", \"magnus\", \"heros\", and \"bonus\". Though he borrows many, Virgil gives Aeneas two epithets of his own in the \"Aeneid:\" \"pater\" and \"pius\". The epithets applied by Virgil are an example of an attitude different from that of Homer, for whilst Odysseus is (\"wily\"), Aeneas is described as (\"pious\"), which conveys a strong moral tone. The purpose of these epithets seems to enforce the notion of Aeneas' divine hand as father and founder of the Roman race, and their use seems circumstantial: when Aeneas is praying he refers to himself as pius, and is referred to as such by the author only when the character is acting on behalf of the gods to fulfill his divine mission. Likewise, Aeneas is called \"pater\" when acting in the interest of his men.", "", "The story of the birth of Aeneas is told in the \"Hymn to Aphrodite\", one of the major Homeric Hymns. Aphrodite has caused Zeus to fall in love with mortal women. In retaliation, Zeus puts desire in her heart for Anchises, who is tending his cattle among the hills near Mount Ida. When Aphrodite sees him she is smitten. She adorns herself as if for a wedding among the gods and appears before him. He is overcome by her beauty, believing that she is a goddess, but Aphrodite identifies herself as a Phrygian princess. After they make love, Aphrodite reveals her true identity to him and Anchises fears what might happen to him as a result of their liaison. Aphrodite assures him that he will be protected, and tells him that she will bear him a son to be called Aeneas. However, she warns him that he must never tell anyone that he has lain with a goddess. When Aeneas is born, Aphrodite takes him to the nymphs of Mount Ida. She directs them to raise the child to age five, then take him to Anchises. According to other sources, Anchises later brags about his encounter with Aphrodite, and as a result is struck in the foot with a thunderbolt by Zeus. Thereafter he is lame in that foot, so that Aeneas has to carry him from the flames of Troy.", "Aeneas is a minor character in the \"Iliad\", where he is twice saved from death by the gods as if for an as-yet-unknown destiny, but is an honorable warrior in his own right. Having held back from the fighting, aggrieved with Priam because in spite of his brave deeds he was not given his due share of honour, he leads an attack against Idomeneus to recover the body of his brother-in-law Alcathous at the urging of Deiphobus. He is the leader of the Trojans' Dardanian allies, as well as a second cousin and principal lieutenant of Hector, son of the Trojan king Priam. Aeneas's mother Aphrodite frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield, and he is a favorite of Apollo. Aphrodite and Apollo rescue Aeneas from combat with Diomedes of Argos, who nearly kills him, and carry him away to Pergamos for healing. Even Poseidon, who normally favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue after he falls under the assault of Achilles, noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people. Bruce Louden presents Aeneas as a \"type\" in the tradition of Utnapishtim, Baucis and Philemon, and Lot; the just man spared the general destruction. Apollodorus explains that \"...the Greeks let him alone on account of his piety.\"", "The Roman mythographer Gaius Julius Hyginus (c. 64 BCE – CE 17) in his \"Fabulae\" credits Aeneas with killing 28 enemies in the Trojan War. Aeneas also appears in the Trojan narratives attributed to Dares Phrygius and Dictys of Crete.", "The history of Aeneas was continued by Roman authors. One influential source was the account of Rome's founding in Cato the Elder's \"Origines\". The Aeneas legend was well known in Virgil's day and appeared in various historical works, including the \"Roman Antiquities\" of the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus (relying on Marcus Terentius Varro), \"Ab Urbe Condita\" by Livy (probably dependent on Quintus Fabius Pictor, fl. 200 BCE), and Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus (now extant only in an epitome by Justin).", "The \"Aeneid\" explains that Aeneas is one of the few Trojans who were not killed or enslaved when Troy fell. Aeneas, after being commanded by the gods to flee, gathered a group, collectively known as the Aeneads, who then traveled to Italy and became progenitors of Romans. The Aeneads included Aeneas's trumpeter Misenus, his father Anchises, his friends Achates, Sergestus, and Acmon, the healer Iapyx, the helmsman Palinurus, and his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus, Julus, or Ascanius Julius). He carried with him the Lares and Penates, the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to Italy. Several attempts to find a new home failed; one such stop was on Sicily, where in Drepanum, on the island's western coast, his father, Anchises, died peacefully. After a brief but fierce storm sent up against the group at Juno's request, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at Carthage after six years of wanderings. Aeneas had a year-long affair with the Carthaginian queen Dido (also known as Elissa), who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. A marriage of sorts was arranged between Dido and Aeneas at the instigation of Juno, who was told that her favorite city would eventually be defeated by the Trojans' descendants. Aeneas's mother Venus (the Roman adaptation of Aphrodite) realized that her son and his company needed a temporary respite to reinforce themselves for the journey to come. However, the messenger god Mercury was sent by Jupiter and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, compelling him to leave secretly. When Dido learned of this, she uttered a curse that would forever pit Carthage against Rome, an enmity that would culminate in the Punic Wars. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself with the same sword she gave Aeneas when they first met. After the sojourn in Carthage, the Trojans returned to Sicily where Aeneas organized funeral games to honor his father, who had died a year before. The company traveled on and landed on the western coast of Italy. Aeneas descended into the underworld where he met Dido (who turned away from him to return to her husband) and his father, who showed him the future of his descendants and thus the history of Rome. Latinus, king of the Latins, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled Trojans and let them reorganize their lives in Latium. His daughter Lavinia had been promised to Turnus, king of the Rutuli, but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land – namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of Juno, who was aligned with King Mezentius of the Etruscans and Queen Amata of the Latins. Aeneas's forces prevailed. Turnus was killed, and Virgil's account ends abruptly.", "The rest of Aeneas's biography is gleaned from other ancient sources, including Livy and Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\". According to Livy, Aeneas was victorious but Latinus died in the war. Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, Anna Perenna, who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. After Aeneas's death, Venus asked Jupiter to make her son immortal. Jupiter agreed. The river god Numicus cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and Venus anointed him with ambrosia and nectar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god Jupiter Indiges.", "Snorri Sturlason, in the Prologue of the Prose Edda, tells of the world as parted in three continents: Africa, Asia and the third part called Europe or Enea. Snorri also tells of a Trojan named Munon or Menon, who marries the daughter of the High King (Yfirkonungr) Priam called Troan and travels to distant lands, marries the Sybil and got a son, Tror, who, as Snorri tells, is identical to Thor. This tale resemble some episodes of the Aeneid. Continuations of Trojan matter in the Middle Ages had their effects on the character of Aeneas as well. The 12th-century French \"Roman d'Enéas\" addresses Aeneas's sexuality. Though Virgil appears to deflect all homoeroticism onto Nisus and Euryalus, making his Aeneas a purely heterosexual character, in the Middle Ages there was at least a suspicion of homoeroticism in Aeneas. The \"Roman d'Enéas\" addresses that charge, when Queen Amata opposes Aeneas's marrying Lavinia, claiming that Aeneas loved boys. Medieval interpretations of Aeneas were greatly influenced by both Virgil and other Latin sources. Specifically, the accounts by Dares and Dictys, which were reworked by 13th-century Italian writer Guido delle Colonne (in \"Historia destructionis Troiae\"), colored many later readings. From Guido, for instance, the Pearl Poet and other English writers get the suggestion that Aeneas's safe departure from Troy with his possessions and family was a reward for treason, for which he was chastised by Hecuba. In \"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight\" (late 14th century) the Pearl Poet, like many other English writers, employed Aeneas to establish a genealogy for the foundation of Britain, and explains that Aeneas was \"impeached for his perfidy, proven most true\" (line 4).", "Aeneas had an extensive family tree. His wet-nurse was Caieta, and he is the father of Ascanius with Creusa, and of Silvius with Lavinia. Ascanius, also known as Iulus (or Julius), founded Alba Longa and was the first in a long series of kings. According to the mythology outlined by Virgil in the \"Aeneid,\" Romulus and Remus were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother Rhea Silvia, making Aeneas the progenitor of the Roman people. Some early sources call him their father or grandfather, but considering the commonly accepted dates of the fall of Troy (1184 BCE) and the founding of Rome (753 BCE), this seems unlikely. The Julian family of Rome, most notably Julius Cæsar and Augustus, traced their lineage to Ascanius and Aeneas, thus to the goddess Venus. Through the Julians, the Palemonids make this claim. The legendary kings of Britain – including King Arthur – trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, Brutus.", "Aeneas's consistent epithet in Virgil and other Latin authors is \"pius\", a term that connotes reverence toward the gods and familial dutifulness. In the \"Aeneid\", Aeneas is described as strong and handsome, but neither his hair colour nor complexion are described. In late antiquity however sources add further physical descriptions. The \"De excidio Troiae\" of Dares Phrygius describes Aeneas as \"auburn-haired, stocky, eloquent, courteous, prudent, pious, and charming\". There is also a brief physical description found in 6th century AD John Malalas' \"Chronographia\": \"Aeneas: short, fat, with a good chest, powerful, with a ruddy complexion, a broad face, a good nose, fair skin, bald on the forehead, a good beard, grey eyes.\"", "", "Aeneas and Dido are the main characters of a 17th-century broadside ballad called \"The Wandering Prince of Troy\". The ballad ultimately alters Aeneas's fate from traveling on years after Dido's death to joining her as a spirit soon after her suicide. In modern literature, Aeneas is the speaker in two poems by Allen Tate, \"Aeneas at Washington\" and \"Aeneas at New York\". He is a main character in Ursula K. Le Guin's \"Lavinia\", a re-telling of the last six books of the \"Aeneid\" told from the point of view of Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus of Latium. Aeneas appears in David Gemmell's \"Troy\" series as a main heroic character who goes by the name Helikaon. In Rick Riordan's book series, \"The Heroes of Olympus\", Aeneas is regarded as the first Roman demigod, son of Venus rather than Aphrodite Will Adams' novel \"City of the Lost\" assumes that much of the information provided by Virgil is mistaken, and that the true Aeneas and Dido did not meet and love in Carthage but in a Phoenician colony at Cyprus, on the site of the modern Famagusta. Their tale is interspersed with that of modern activists who, while striving to stop an ambitious Turkish Army general trying to stage a coup, accidentally discover the hidden ruins of Dido's palace.", "Aeneas is a title character in Henry Purcell's opera \"Dido and Aeneas\" (c. 1688), and Jakob Greber's (\"Aeneas in Carthage\") (1711), and one of the principal roles in Hector Berlioz' opera \"Les Troyens\" (c. 1857), as well as in Metastasio's immensely popular opera libretto Didone abbandonata. Canadian composer James Rolfe composed his opera \"Aeneas and Dido\" (2007; to a libretto by André Alexis) as a companion piece to Purcell's opera. Despite its many dramatic elements, Aeneas's story has generated little interest from the film industry. Ronald Lewis portrayed Aeneas in \"Helen of Troy\", directed by Robert Wise, as a supporting character, who is a member of the Trojan Royal family, and a close and loyal friend to Paris, and escapes at the end of the film. Portrayed by Steve Reeves, he was the main character in the 1961 sword and sandal film \"Guerra di Troia\" (\"The Trojan War\"). Reeves reprised the role the following year in the film \"The Avenger\", about Aeneas's arrival in Latium and his conflicts with local tribes as he tries to settle his fellow Trojan refugees there. Giulio Brogi, portrayed as Aeneas in the 1971 Italian TV miniseries series called \"Eneide\", which gives the whole story of the Aeneid, from Aeneas escape from to Troy, to his meeting of Dido, his arrival in Italy, and his duel with Turnus. The most recent cinematic portrayal of Aeneas was in the film \"Troy\", in which he appears as a youth charged by Paris to protect the Trojan refugees, and to continue the ideals of the city and its people. Paris gives Aeneas Priam's sword, in order to give legitimacy and continuity to the royal line of Troy – and lay the foundations of Roman culture. In this film, he is not a member of the royal family and does not appear to fight in the war. In the role-playing game \"\" by White Wolf Game Studios, Aeneas figures as one of the mythical founders of the Ventrue Clan. in the action game \"\", Aeneas is a playable character. The game ends with him and the Aeneans fleeing Troy's destruction and, spurned by the words of a prophetess thought crazed, goes to a new country (Italy) where he will start an empire greater than Greece and Troy combined that shall rule the world for 1000 years, never to be outdone in the tale of men (The Roman Empire). In the 2018 TV miniseries \"\", Aeneas is portrayed by Alfred Enoch.", "Scenes depicting Aeneas, especially from the Aeneid, have been the focus of study for centuries. They have been the frequent subject of art and literature since their debut in the 1st century.", "The artist Giovanni Battista Tiepolo was commissioned by Gaetano Valmarana in 1757 to fresco several rooms in the Villa Valmarana, the family villa situated outside Vicenza. Tiepolo decorated the \"palazzina\" with scenes from epics such as Homer's \"Iliad\" and Virgil's \"Aeneid\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Danae was the daughter and only child of King Acrisius of Argos by his wife Queen Eurydice or Aganippe. In some accounts, she had a sister, Evarete, wife of King Oenomaus of Pisa and mother of Hippodamia.", "Disappointed by his lack of male heirs, King Acrisius asked the oracle of Delphi if this would change. The oracle announced to him that he would never have a son, but his daughter would, and that he would be killed by his daughter's son. At the time, Danae was childless and, meaning to keep her so, King Acrisius shut her up in a bronze chamber to be constructed under the court of his palace (other versions say she was imprisoned in a tall brass tower with a single richly adorned chamber, but with no doors or windows, just a sky-light as the source of light and air). She was buried in this tomb, never to see the light again. However, Zeus, the king of the gods, desired her, and came to her in the form of golden rain which streamed in through the roof of the subterranean chamber and down into her womb. Soon after, their child Perseus was born. Unwilling to provoke the wrath of the gods or the Furies by killing his offspring and grandchild, King Acrisius cast Danaë and Perseus into the sea in a wooden chest. The sea was calmed by Poseidon and, at the request of Zeus, the pair survived. They were washed ashore on the island of Seriphos, where they were taken in by Dictys – the brother of King Polydectes – who raised Perseus to manhood. The King was charmed by Danaë, but she had no interest in him. Consequently, he agreed not to marry her only if her son would bring him the head of the Gorgon Medusa. Using Athena's shield, Hermes's winged sandals and Hades' helmet of invisibility, Perseus was able to evade Medusa's gaze and decapitate her. Later, after Perseus brought back Medusa's head and rescued Andromeda, the oracle's prophecy came true. He started for Argos, but learning of the prophecy, instead went to Larissa, where athletic games were being held. By chance, an aging Acrisius was there and Perseus accidentally struck him on the head with his javelin (or discus), fulfilling the prophecy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "How many quantum numbers exist?", "Electron in an atom.", "Specificity.", "Common terminology.", "Principal quantum number.", "Azimuthal quantum number.", "Magnetic quantum number.", "Spin quantum number.", "Rules.", "Background.", "Total angular momenta numbers.", "Total momentum of a particle.", "Nuclear angular momentum quantum numbers.", "Elementary particles.", "Multiplicative quantum numbers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The question of \"how many quantum numbers are needed to describe any given system\" has no universal answer. Hence for each system, one must find the answer for a full analysis of the system. A quantized system requires at least one quantum number. The dynamics (time evolution) of any quantum system are described by a quantum Hamiltonian,. There is one quantum number of the system corresponding to the energy; that is to say, the eigenvalue of the Hamiltonian. There is also one quantum number for each linearly independent operator that commutes with the Hamiltonian. A complete set of commuting observables (CSCO) that commute with the Hamiltonian grant the quantum system all its quantum numbers. To each operator of the CSCO corresponds a quantum number choosing one of its eigenvalues, so these are all the quantum numbers that the system can have. In general, there is more than one way to choose a linearly independent complete set of commuting operators. Consequently, different sets of quantum numbers may be used for the description of the same system in different situations.", "Four quantum numbers can describe an electron in an atom completely: The spin-orbital interaction, however, relates these numbers. Thus, a complete description of the system can be given with fewer quantum numbers, if orthogonal choices are made for these basis vectors.", "It is important to specify the electron being referred to. This may, for example, be the highest occupied orbital electron; the actual differentiating electron; or the differentiating electron according to the \"aufbau\" approximation. In lanthanum, for example, the electrons involved are in the 6s; 5d; and 4f orbitals, respectively. In this case the principle quantum numbers are 6, 5, and 4. The \"differentiating electron\" means the electron that differentiates an element from the previous one.", "The model used here describes electrons using four quantum numbers,,,,, given below. It is also the common nomenclature in the classical description of nuclear particle states (e.g. protons and neutrons). A quantum description of molecular orbitals require different quantum numbers, because the Hamiltonian and its symmetries are quite different.", "This describes the electron shell, or energy level, of an electron. The value of ranges from 1 to the shell containing the outermost electron of that atom, that is For example, in caesium (Cs), the outermost valence electron is in the shell with energy level 6, so an electron in caesium can have an value from 1 to 6. For particles in a time-independent potential (see Schrödinger equation), it also labels the th eigenvalue of Hamiltonian (), that is, the energy, with the contribution due to angular momentum (the term involving ) left out. So this number depends only on the distance between the electron and the nucleus (that is, the radial coordinate ). The average distance increases with. Hence quantum states with different principal quantum numbers are said to belong to different shells.", "Also known as the (angular quantum number or orbital quantum number), this describes the subshell, and gives the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum through the relation In chemistry and spectroscopy, is called an s orbital, a p orbital, a d orbital, and an f orbital. The value of ranges from 0 to, so the first p orbital () appears in the second electron shell (), the first d orbital () appears in the third shell (), and so on: A quantum number beginning in = 3,\"\" = 0, describes an electron in the s orbital of the third electron shell of an atom. In chemistry, this quantum number is very important, since it specifies the shape of an atomic orbital and strongly influences chemical bonds and bond angles. The azimuthal quantum number can also denote the number of angular nodes present in an orbital. For example, for p orbitals, and thus the amount of angular nodes in a p orbital is 1.", "This describes the specific orbital (or \"cloud\") within that subshell, and yields the \"projection\" of the orbital angular momentum \"along a specified axis\": The values of range from to, with integer intervals: The s subshell () contains only one orbital, and therefore the of an electron in an s orbital will always be 0. The p subshell () contains three orbitals (in some systems, depicted as three \"dumbbell-shaped\" clouds), so the of an electron in a p orbital will be −1, 0, or 1. The d subshell () contains five orbitals, with values of −2, −1, 0, 1, and 2.", "This describes the spin (intrinsic angular momentum) of the electron within that orbital, and gives the projection of the spin angular momentum along the specified axis: In general, the values of range from to, where is the spin quantum number, an intrinsic property of particles: An electron has spin number, consequently will be ±, referring to \"spin up\" and \"spin down\" states. Each electron in any individual orbital must have different quantum numbers because of the Pauli exclusion principle, therefore an orbital never contains more than two electrons.", "There are no universal fixed value for and values. Rather, the and values are arbitrary. The only requirement is that the naming schematic used within a particular set of calculations or descriptions must be consistent (e.g. the orbital occupied by the first electron in a p orbital could be described as or or, but the value of the next unpaired electron in that orbital must be different; yet, the assigned to electrons in other orbitals again can be or or ). These rules are summarized as follows: Example: The quantum numbers used to refer to the outermost valence electrons of a carbon (C) atom, which are located in the 2p atomic orbital, are; (2nd electron shell), (p orbital subshell),, (parallel spins). Results from spectroscopy indicated that up to two electrons can occupy a single orbital. However two electrons can never have the same exact quantum state nor the same set of quantum numbers according to Hund's rules, which addresses the Pauli exclusion principle. A fourth quantum number, representing spin with two possible values was added as an \"ad hoc\" assumption to resolve the conflict; this supposition could later be explained in detail by relativistic quantum mechanics and from the results of the renowned Stern–Gerlach experiment.", "Many different models have been proposed throughout the history of quantum mechanics, but the most prominent system of nomenclature spawned from the Hund-Mulliken molecular orbital theory of Friedrich Hund, Robert S. Mulliken, and contributions from Schrödinger, Slater and John Lennard-Jones. This system of nomenclature incorporated Bohr energy levels, Hund-Mulliken orbital theory, and observations on electron spin based on spectroscopy and Hund's rules.", "", "When one takes the spin–orbit interaction into consideration, the and operators no longer commute with the Hamiltonian, and their eigenvalues therefore change over time. Thus another set of quantum numbers should be used. This set includes For example, consider the following 8 states, defined by their quantum numbers: The quantum states in the system can be described as linear combination of these 8 states. However, in the presence of spin–orbit interaction, if one wants to describe the same system by 8 states that are eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian (i.e. each represents a state that does not mix with others over time), we should consider the following 8 states:", "In nuclei, the entire assembly of protons and neutrons (nucleons) has a resultant angular momentum due to the angular momenta of each nucleon, usually denoted. If the total angular momentum of a neutron is and for a proton is (where for protons and neutrons happens to be again (\"see note\")), then the nuclear angular momentum quantum numbers are given by: \"Note: \"The orbital angular momenta of the nuclear (and atomic) states are all integer multiples of ħ while the intrinsic angular momentum of the neutron and proton are half-integer multiples. It should be immediately apparent that the combination of the intrinsic spins of the nucleons with their orbital motion will always give half-integer values for the total spin,, of any odd-A nucleus and integer values for any even-A nucleus. Parity with the number is used to label nuclear angular momentum states, examples for some isotopes of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), and sodium (Na) are; The reason for the unusual fluctuations in, even by differences of just one nucleon, are due to the odd and even numbers of protons and neutrons – pairs of nucleons have a total angular momentum of zero (just like electrons in orbitals), leaving an odd or even number of unpaired nucleons. The property of nuclear spin is an important factor for the operation of NMR spectroscopy in organic chemistry, and MRI in nuclear medicine, due to the nuclear magnetic moment interacting with an external magnetic field.", "Elementary particles contain many quantum numbers which are usually said to be intrinsic to them. However, it should be understood that the elementary particles are quantum states of the standard model of particle physics, and hence the quantum numbers of these particles bear the same relation to the Hamiltonian of this model as the quantum numbers of the Bohr atom does to its Hamiltonian. In other words, each quantum number denotes a symmetry of the problem. It is more useful in quantum field theory to distinguish between spacetime and internal symmetries. Typical quantum numbers related to spacetime symmetries are spin (related to rotational symmetry), the parity, C-parity and T-parity (related to the Poincaré symmetry of spacetime). Typical internal symmetries are lepton number and baryon number or the electric charge. (For a full list of quantum numbers of this kind see the article on flavour.)", "A minor but often confusing point is as follows: most conserved quantum numbers are additive, so in an elementary particle reaction, the \"sum\" of the quantum numbers should be the same before and after the reaction. However, some, usually called a \"parity\", are multiplicative; i.e., their \"product\" is conserved. All multiplicative quantum numbers belong to a symmetry (like parity) in which applying the symmetry transformation twice is equivalent to doing nothing (involution)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Publication and reception.", "Pre-release history.", "Critical reception.", "Awards.", "Sales.", "Editions.", "Adaptations.", "Film.", "Video games.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Harry is back at the Dursleys' for the summer holidays, where he sees on Muggle television that a convict named Sirius Black has escaped from prison. After the Dursley's Aunt Marge personally insults Harry, Harry accidentally inflates her, then runs away from home, fearing expulsion from school. After being picked up by the Knight Bus, meeting Stan Shunpike, and encountering a large black dog that seems to be watching him, he travels to the Leaky Cauldron, where Cornelius Fudge, the Minister for Magic, asks Harry to stay in Diagon Alley for his own protection. While there, he reunites with his best friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. Before leaving for Hogwarts, Harry learns from Arthur Weasley that Sirius Black is a convicted murderer from the wizarding world and that Black has escaped from the wizard prison Azkaban to kill Harry. On the way to Hogwarts, a Dementor (an Azkaban prison guard that feeds on positive thoughts) boards the train, causing Harry to relive his parents' deaths before fainting. The new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Remus Lupin, protects Harry, Ron, and Hermione from the Dementor. They later learn Dementors will be patrolling the school in an attempt to catch Black. Although Professor Lupin is popular with his students, the Potions master, Snape, seems to hate him. While Third Years are allowed to visit the all-wizarding village of Hogsmeade on holiday, Harry is blocked from going because he has no permission slip from his legal guardian. Fred and George Weasley give him the Marauder's Map, which is enchanted to show all passages and people on Hogwarts grounds, to sneak out. Lupin later catches Harry with the map and reveals that it was made by his friend group, the Marauders, back in their school days. During a Quidditch match, Harry faints and falls off his broomstick after Dementors invade the field. Dumbledore did not want the dementors to enter Hogwarts and was furious. His Nimbus 2000 is blown away and smashed by the Whomping Willow, a violent tree in the grounds. Afterward, Professor Lupin teaches Harry how to defend himself from Dementors using the Patronus charm. Harry wants to be taught by Lupin because he made the dementors go away on the train to Hogwarts. Ron and Hermione's friendship later suffers when Ron believes Hermione's cat, Crookshanks, to have eaten his rat, Scabbers. Hermione also gets Harry's new anonymously given Christmas present, a top-of-the-range Firebolt broomstick, confiscated for fear it might be jinxed by Sirius Black. Hermione becomes severely stressed by her many classes, some of which seem to occur at the same time, a detail which she refuses to explain to Harry and Ron. Meanwhile, Hagrid's hippogriff Buckbeak is in danger of being executed by the Ministry of Magic after injuring Draco Malfoy, who provoked Buckbeak. His father Lucius Malfoy tries to obtain justice for his son's injury. Despite Hermione's and Ron's efforts to defend the hippogriff, they and Harry seemingly hear Buckbeak executed as they leave Hagrid's hut. While visiting Hagrid's, however, Hermione discovers Scabbers hiding there. Hagrid gives Scabbers back to Ron and Hermione tells Ron to apologize for blaming her cat for eating him. Scabbers escapes from Ron, who gives chase. The large black dog appears and attacks Ron, then drags him into a tunnel under the Whomping Willow. Crookshanks (who seems to be in league with the dog), Harry, and Hermione follow them through the tunnel and to the Shrieking Shack, a haunted house in Hogsmeade. They discover that the dog is Sirius Black in animal form. Harry disarms Black and intends to kill him but finds he cannot. Lupin enters and embraces Black as a friend. He explains that, although he believed Black to have betrayed the Potters, he realises now that it was Peter Pettigrew. He admits he is a werewolf and that, while at school, the Marauders (Black, Pettigrew, and Harry's father, James Potter) learned to transform into animals to keep Lupin company during his transformations. Lupin explains that Scabbers is Pettigrew in his animal form. Pettigrew faked his own death, framing Black for the murders, and has been hiding from Black since his escape from Azkaban. Snape, who still holds a childhood grudge against Lupin and his friends, arrives to apprehend Black but is knocked unconscious by Harry, Ron, and Hermione, who now believe Black to be innocent. Lupin and Black transform Pettigrew into human form and prepare to kill him, but Harry stops them because he feels his father would not have wanted it. He convinces Lupin and Black to send Pettigrew to Azkaban instead. As they attempt to bring Pettigrew back to Hogwarts, the full moon transforms Lupin into a wolf. Lupin, not in his own mind, attacks them. In the confusion, Pettigrew transforms into a rat and escapes. Harry, Hermione, and Black are chased to the shore of the lake, where they are set upon by Dementors. They are rescued by a Patronus cast by a figure on the opposite shore, whom Harry thinks is his father. Reawakening later in the hospital wing, Harry and Hermione are told that Black has been sentenced to have his soul sucked out by Dementors, a fate worse than death known as the Dementor's Kiss. Professor Dumbledore tells Harry and Hermione to use Hermione's time-turner, a device she has been using to attend her simultaneous classes, to go back in time and save Buckbeak and Sirius. They rescue Buckbeak from execution and later watch themselves attacked by Dementors at the lake. Harry realises that the figure he saw was not his father but himself, and he casts the Patronus charm that drives away the Dementors. Harry and Hermione ride Buckbeak to the tower where Black is being held and break him out. Black escapes on Buckbeak. Harry and Hermione return to the hospital wing to close the timeline. Enraged by the escape of Black, Snape lets slip that Lupin is a werewolf, forcing him to resign. Harry returns to Kings Cross with his friends and receives a letter from Black, giving him permission to visit Hogsmeade next year.", "", "\"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\" is the third book in the \"Harry Potter\" series. The first, \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" (\"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\" in the US), was published by Bloomsbury on 26 June 1997 and the second, \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\", was published on 2 July 1998. Rowling started to write the \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" the day after she finished \"The Chamber of Secrets\". Rowling's favorite aspect of this book was introducing the character Remus Lupin, Rowling additionally said in 2004 that \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" was \"the best writing experience I ever had...I was in a very comfortable place writing (number) three. Immediate financial worries were over, and press attention wasn't yet by any means excessive\".", "Gregory Maguire wrote a review in \"The New York Times\" for \"Prisoner of Azkaban\": in it he said, \"So far, in terms of plot, the books do nothing new, but they do it brilliantly...so far, so good.\" In a newspaper review in \"The New York Times\", it was said that \"'The Prisoner of Azkaban' may be the best 'Harry Potter' book yet\". A reviewer for KidsReads said, \"This crisply-paced fantasy will leave you hungry for the four additional Harry books that J.K. Rowling is working on. Harry's third year is a charm. Don't miss it.\" \"Kirkus Reviews\" did not give a starred review but said, \"a properly pulse-pounding climax...The main characters and the continuing story both come along so smartly...that the book seems shorter than its page count: have readers clear their calendars if they are fans, or get out of the way if they are not.\" Martha V. Parravano also gave a positive review for \"The Horn Book Magazine\", calling it \"quite a good book.\" In addition, a \"Publishers Weekly\" review said, \"Rowling's wit never flags, whether constructing the workings of the wizard world...or tossing off quick jokes...The Potter spell is holding strong. However, Anthony Holden, who was one of the judges against \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" for the Whitbread Award, was negative about the book, saying that the characters are \"all black-and-white\", and the \"story-lines are predictable, the suspense minimal, the sentimentality cloying every page\".", "\"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\" won several awards, including the 1999 Booklist Editors' Choice Award, the 1999 Bram Stoker Award for Best Work for Young Readers, the 1999 FCGB Children's Book Award, the 1999 Whitbread Book of the Year for children's books., and the 2000 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel. It was also nominated for the 2000 Hugo Award for Best Novel, the first in the series nominated, but lost to \"A Deepness in the Sky\". \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" additionally won the 2004 Indian Paintbrush Book Award and the 2004 Colorado Blue Spruce Young Adult Book Award. Additionally, it was named an American Library Association Notable Children's Book in 2000 as well as one of their Best Books for Young Adults. As with the previous two books in the series, \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize Gold Medal for children aged 9–11 and made the top of the New York Times Best Seller list. In both cases, it was the last in the series to do so. However, in the latter case, a Children's Best Sellers list was created just before the release of \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" in July 2000 in order to free up more room on the original list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 24 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.", "\"Prisoner of Azkaban\" sold more than 68,000 copies in the UK within three days of publication, which made it the fastest selling British book of the time. The sales total by 2012 is said by \"The Guardian\" to be 3,377,906.", "\"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\" was released in hardcover in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September. The British paperback edition was released on 1 April 2000, while the US paperback was released 2 October 2001. Bloomsbury additionally released an adult edition with a different cover design to the original, in paperback on 10 July 2004 and in hardcover on October 2004. A hardcover special edition, featuring a green border and signature, was released on 8 July 1999. In May 2004, Bloomsbury released a Celebratory Edition, with a blue and purple border. On 1 November 2010, they released the 10th anniversary Signature edition illustrated by Clare Mellinsky and in July 2013 a new adult cover illustrated by Andrew Davidson, both these editions were designed by Webb & Webb Design Limited. Beginning on 27 August 2013, Scholastic will release new covers for the paperback editions of \"Harry Potter\" in the United States to celebrate 15 years of the series. The covers were designed by the author and illustrator Kazu Kibuishi. An illustrated version of \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\" was released on October 3, 2017, and was illustrated by Jim Kay who illustrates the previous two instalments. This includes over 115 new illustrations and will be followed by Illustrated editions of the following 4 novels in the future.", "", "The film version of \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\" was released in 2004 and was directed by Alfonso Cuarón from a screenplay by Steve Kloves. The film débuted at number one at the box office and held that position for two weeks. It made a total of $796.7 million worldwide, which made it the second highest-grossing film of 2004 behind \"Shrek 2\". However, among all eight entries in the \"Harry Potter\" franchise, \"Prisoner of Azkaban\" grossed the lowest, yet among critics and fans, the film is said to be one of the best in the franchise. The film ranks at number 471 in \"Empire\" magazine's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.", "Three unique video games by different developers were released in 2004 by Electronic Arts, loosely based on the book:", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Names.", "Related deities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", Ninsun is depicted as a human queen who lives in Uruk with her son as king. Since the father of Gilgamesh was former king Lugalbanda, it stands to reason that Ninsun procreated with Lugalbanda to give birth. She assists her son in his adventure by providing him with the meanings of his dream in the beginning. Also in the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", Ninsun is summoned by Gilgamesh and Enkidu to help pray to the god Utu to help the two on their journey to the Country of the Living to battle Humbaba.", "In the Tello relief at ancient Lagaš, dating to ca. 2150 BC, her name is written in cuneiform The meaning of \"sumun\" in Sumerian is \"wild cow\" and her name is also attested as. \"Nin-sumunak\", revealing its origin as a genitive phrase meaning \"lady of the wild cows\". The sign was formerly read, leading to the widespread usage of the name \"Ninsun\". Other names include \"Rimat-Ninsun (\"from Akkadian \"rimātu\" \"cattle\")\",\" the \"August Cow\", the \"Wild Cow of the Enclosure\", and \"The Great Queen\".", "In Sumerian mythology, Ninsun was originally called \"Gula\" until her name was later changed to \"Ninisina\". Later, Gula became identified with the Babylonian goddess Nintinugga. According to \"Pabilsag's Journey to Nibru,\" Ninsun was originally named \"Nininsina\". According to the ancient Babylonian text, Nininsina wedded Pabilsag near a riverbank and gave birth to Damu as a result of the union. Other sources give Gunura as Ninsun's husband and Damu's father." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plying handspun yarns.", "Regular plying.", "Navajo plying.", "Machined yarns.", "Novelty yarns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "When hand-spinning, there are two common ways to ply a balanced yarn: regular and Navajo. When spinning fleece into yarn, the fleece must be scoured and vegetable matter removed. The fleece is carded or combed and then spun into singles. These singles are used to create the finished yarn in a process known as plying. The purpose of plying singles is to strengthen them so that they do not break while knitting or crocheting them. Most spinners (who use spinning wheels) ply from bobbins. This is easier than plying from balls because there is less chance for the yarn to become tangled and knotted if it is simply unwound from the bobbins. So that the bobbins can unwind freely, they are put in a device called a Lazy Kate, or sometimes simply \"kate\". The simplest lazy kate consists of wooden bars with a metal rod running between them. Most hold three or four bobbins. The bobbin sits on the metal rod. Other lazy kates are built with devices that create an adjustable amount of tension, so that if the yarn is jerked, a whole bunch of yarn is not wound off, then wound up again in the opposite direction. Some spinning wheels come with a built-in lazy kate.", "Regular plying consists of taking 2 or more singles and twisting them together, the opposite way. This can be done on either a spinning wheel or a spindle. The most important thing to remember though is that the twist must go the opposite direction. If in spinning the single the wheel was spinning clockwise (which is called a \"Z\" twist, as on any given side the fibres appear to cross diagonally in the same direction as the diagonal of a \"Z\"), in order to ply it the wheel must spin counter-clockwise (an \"S\" twist). This is because otherwise you are not balancing the twist, just twisting it more. The concept is similar to when a heavily twisted piece of yarn is folded, and it twists up on itself. It is most common for singles to be spun with a \"Z\" twist, and then plied with an \"S\" twist. FORMULA FOR S / Z TWIST : CONSIDERING PRIMARY TWIST IS S AND SECONDARY TWIST IS Z, The relationship between S and Z twist is as follows : S:Z = 1:0.8 in regular plying, this formula will make the final thread balanced. When plying, the singles are kept separate, either with the fingers or with a tool. This tool can be anything from the top of a salt dispenser, and the singles threaded through the holes, or a specially carved piece of wood with holes in it. The singles are kept separate to ensure that they do not get tangled and so the tension can be controlled.", "Navajo plying (also known as chain plying) consists of making large loops, similar to crocheting. Only one single is necessary, and if the single is already dyed, this technique allows it to be plied without ruining the color scheme. The spinner first makes an 8-inch (200 mm) loop through the loop on the end of the leader. (A leader is the string left on the bobbin, which the new yarn is spun from.) Then the spinner starts spinning all three strands together in the opposite direction than that they were spun in. When only 2 to remain of the loop, a new, 7-inch (180 mm) loop of yarn is pulled through the loop, and spinning continues. This process is repeated until the yarn is all plied. This technique allows the spinner to try to match up thick and thin spots in the yarn, thus making for a smoother end product.", "Machines that ply yarn use the'regular' method mentioned above. The main difference is that gears control the intake, making sure that the strands all have the same tension and the same length. Other than that, the process for plying is exactly the same as when hand done.", "Many novelty yarns make use of special plying techniques to gain their special effects. By varying the tension in the strands, or the relative sizes of the strands, or many other factors different effects can be achieved. For example, when a soft, thick strand is plied against a tightly twisted thin strand, the resulting yarn spirals. Another example is bouclé, which is a yarn where one strand is held loosely and allowed to make loops on the other yarn while plying." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Bosch and the Third Reich." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bosch was born in Albeck, a village to the northeast of Ulm in southern Germany as the eleventh of twelve children. His parents came from a class of well-situated farmers from the region. His father, a freemason, was unusually highly educated for someone of his class, and placed special importance on a good education for his children. From 1869 to 1876, Bosch attended the Realschule (secondary-technical school) in Ulm, and then took an apprenticeship as a precision mechanic. After his school and practical education, Bosch spent a further seven years working at diverse companies in Germany, the United States (for Thomas Edison in New York), and the UK (for the German firm Siemens). On 15 November 1886, he opened his own \"Workshop for Precision Mechanics and Electrical Engineering\" in Stuttgart. A year later, he made a decisive improvement to an unpatented magneto ignition device made by the engine manufacturer Deutz, providing his first business success. The purpose of the device was to generate an electric spark to ignite the air–fuel mixture in a stationary engine. In 1897, Bosch was the first to adapt a magneto to a vehicle engine. In doing so, he solved one of the greatest technical problems faced by the nascent automotive industry. The invention of the first commercially viable high-voltage spark plug as part of a magneto-based ignition system by Robert Bosch's engineer Gottlob Honold in 1902 was a key stage in the development of the internal combustion engine. Before the 19th century ended, Bosch expanded his operations beyond Germany. The company established a sales office in the UK in 1898, and other European countries soon after. The first sales office and the first factory in the U.S. were opened in 1906 and 1910 respectively. By 1913, the company had branch operations in America, Asia, Africa, and Australia, and was generating 88% of its sales outside Germany. In rapid succession in the years following the First World War, Bosch launched innovations for the motor vehicle, including diesel fuel injection in 1927. In the 1920s the global economic crisis caused Bosch to begin a rigorous program of modernization and diversification in his company. In only a few years' time, he succeeded in turning his company from a small automotive supplier into a multinational electronics group. From the beginning, Bosch was greatly concerned about promoting occupational training. Prompted by his awareness of social responsibility, he was one of the first industrialists in Germany to introduce the eight-hour work day, followed by other social benefits for his associates. Robert Bosch did not wish to profit from the armaments contracts awarded to his company during WWI. Instead, he donated several million German marks to charitable causes. A hospital that he gave to the city of Stuttgart opened in 1940. In the 1920s and 1930s, Robert Bosch was politically active. As a liberal businessman, he sat on a number of economic committees. He devoted a great deal of energy and money to the cause of bringing about reconciliation between Germany and France. He hoped this reconciliation would bring about lasting peace in Europe and lead to the creation of a European economic area.", "The Nazi regime in Germany brought Bosch's peacemaking efforts to an abrupt end. The Bosch company accepted armaments contracts and employed an estimated 20,000 forced laborers (including some 1200 concentration camp inmates who were \"brutally abused at the Langenbielau plant\") during the war. At the same time, Bosch supported the resistance against Adolf Hitler and together with his closest associates saved victims of Nazi persecution from deportation. On his eightieth birthday, Bosch was awarded the title \"Pionier der Arbeit\" (Pioneer of Labor) by Hitler and when he died a year later was afforded a state funeral by the Third Reich. Bosch was keenly interested in agricultural issues and owned a farm south of Munich. He was also a passionate hunter. When he died in 1942, he was survived by four children from two marriages. A son from his first marriage died in 1921 following a protracted illness. In 1937, Bosch had restructured his company as a private limited company (close corporation). He had established his last will and testament, in which he stipulated that the earnings of the company should be allocated to charitable causes. At the same time, his will sketched the outlines of the corporate constitution, which was formulated by his successors in 1964 and is still valid today. He was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1984." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Qing Dynasty.", "Empire of Japan.", "Republic of China.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Administrative divisions.", "Transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Yilan Plain in which the city is located has historically been referred to as Kapalan (), Kapsulan (; also 甲子蘭), Komalan (), etc. These names, as well as that of Yilan itself, were given to the sites by the Kavalan tribe of Taiwanese aborigines. Later arrivals included Han Chinese settlers during the Qing Dynasty in China (1802) and settlers from Okinawa during Taiwan's Japanese era (1895-1945).", "In 1810 under Qing dynasty rule, a formal administration office was established at Wuwei (五圍) and \"Komalan Subprefecture\" () was at the present day location of Yilan City. Construction of the city wall was completed a year later. After a few years once the basic infrastructure was ready, the city assumed the political, economical, cultural and educational center for the Lanyang Plain. In 1878, Komalan was a large rice production area commonly called \"Kapsulan\", and became a district called \"Gilan Hsien\". It was one of the three new districts that constituted the new Taipeh Prefecture.", "According to the 1904 census, the population of \"Giran\" town was about 15,000.", "After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Yilan City was created in January 1946 as a county-controlled city the county seat of the newly created Yilan County and continue to become the political, economical and cultural centers of the region.", "Yilan City is located on Lanyang Plain with an average altitude of 7.38 meters above sea level.", "Yilan City experiences a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and hot, humid summers.", "Yilan City consists of 38 villages and 478 neighborhoods, including:", "Yilan City is accessible by Yilan Station of the Taiwan Railways." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Transliterations.", "Meaning and effects.", "Semantic.", "According to the \"Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra\".", "In Tibetan Buddhism.", "According to Trijang Rinpoche.", "Variations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "In English, the mantra is variously transliterated, depending on the schools of Buddhism as well as individual teachers. Most authorities consider \"maṇipadme\" to be one compound word rather than two simple words. Sanskrit writing does not have capital letters and this means that capitalisation of transliterated mantras varies from all caps, to initial caps, to no caps. The all-caps rendering is typical of older scholarly works, and Tibetan Sadhana texts.", "", "Mantras may be interpreted by practitioners in many ways, or even as mere sequences of sound whose effects lie beyond strict semantic meaning. The middle part of the mantra, ', is often interpreted as being in the locative case, \"jewel in the lotus,\" Sanskrit'\"jewel, gem, cintamani\" and the locative of'\"lotus\". The Lotus is a symbol present throughout Indian religion, signifying purity (due to its ability to emerge unstained from the mud) and spiritual fruition (and thus, awakening). \"Maṇipadme\" is preceded by the'syllable and followed by the \"\" syllable, both interjections without linguistic meaning, but widely known as divine sounds. However, according to Donald Lopez (citing Tibetan grammatical sources) it is much more likely that'is in fact a vocative, addressing a bodhisattva called ', \"Jewel-Lotus\"- an alternative epithet of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. Damien Keown also notes that another theory about the meaning of this mantra is that it actually invokes a female deity named Manipadmi. This is due to evidence from texts like the \"Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra\" which depict the mantra as a female deity. Also, as noted by Studholme, if the word is read as a vocative, it is most likely in the feminine grammatical gender, because if masculine, it would be a highly irregular form. Thus as Lopez notes, the original meaning of the mantra could in fact be an invocation of \"she of the lotus jewel\", who is the \"vidya\" (wisdom) and consort of Avalokiteshvara and is equivalent to Shakti's role \"vis a vis\" Shiva. Regarding the relationship between the jewel and the lotus, Sten Konow argued that it could either refer to \"a lotus that is a jewel\" or to \"a jewel in the lotus\". He argues that the second explanation makes more sense, indicating Shaivite influence through the imagery of the lingam (penis) and the yoni (vagina), both also terms associated with mani and padma respectively. Thus the mantra could in fact mean \"O, she with the jewel in her lotus\". According to Alexander Studholme however, the meaning of \"manipadme\" \"should be parsed as a tatpurusa, or “determinative,” compound in the (masculine or neuter) locative case\", meaning “in the jewel-lotus,” or “in the lotus made of jewels,” which refers to:the manner in which buddhas and bodhisattvas are said to be seated in these marvelous blooms and, in particular, to the manner in which more mundane beings are believed to appear in the pure land of the buddhas. Given the predominance, in the \"Kāraṇḍavyūha\" and in the Mahayana in general, of the religious goal of the pure land of Amitabha, it may be safely assumed that \"\" would have been quite naturally associated with the mode of the rebirth of human beings there. The recitation of, then, the bringing to mind of the name of the Buddhist isvara, includes a declaration of the manner in which a person is reborn in Sukhavati: “in the jewel lotus.”", "The first known description of the mantra appears in the \"Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra\" (“The Basket’s Display”, c. 4-5th centuries), which is part of certain Mahayana canons such as the Tibetan. In this sutra, Shakyamuni Buddha states, \"This is the most beneficial mantra. Even I made this aspiration to all the million Buddhas and subsequently received this teaching from Buddha Amitabha.\" The sutra promotes the recitation of this mantra as a means to liberation. It states that whoever knows (\"janati\") the mantra will know liberation as a fully enlightened Buddha. It also states that initiation into the mantra by a qualified preceptor (which is said to be a lay \"dharmabhanaka, vidyadhara or mahasiddha\") is an important requirement for practicing this mantra. In the sutra, Avalokitesvara says that the mantra should not be given to one who has not seen the mandala. This initiation is said to be open to all Buddhists regardless of class and gender, whether they be of the Mahayana or Hinayana, but not to \"tirthikas\". The \"Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra\" also sees the mantra as the pith or condensed expression of all \"eighty four thousand Dharmas.\" Because of this it is called “the grain of rice of the Mahayana”, and reciting it is equivalent to reciting numerous sutras. Thus, according to Studholme, the significance of the mantra in the \"Kāraṇḍavyūha\" is mainly that it is the \"innermost heart\" of Avalokitesvara, and therefore is \"a means both of entering into the presence of Avalokitesvara and of appropriating some of the bodhisattva’s power.\" Its practice is said to lead numerous positive qualities including: In this sutra, the \"sadaksari mahavidya\" (six syllabled great \"vidya\") also appears as a goddess, “autumn yellow” in color, with four arms, with two arms holding a lotus and prayer beads, and the other two in anjali mudra. According to Studholme, these features are similar to the way the mantra \"Om nama shivaya\" is depicted in Shaiva texts, since \"both are concise \"vidyas\", the \"hrdayas\" [heart] of their respective \"isvaras\", sui generis means of attaining liberation, universally available, though of rare value and somewhat secret. Both are also, it has been argued, conceived of as forms of \"pranava\" [divine sound].\" The \"Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra\" was translated into Chinese in the 11th or 12th century and it is part of the Chinese Buddhist canon.", "The 11th century Bengali master Atiśa Dīpaṃkara Śrījñāna who was influential in bringing Buddhism to Tibet, also wrote a short treatise on the mantra, called the \"Arya-sad-aksari-sadhana.\" Some Buddhist scholars argue that the mantra as practiced in Tibetan Buddhism was based on the \"Sadhanamala\", a collection of \"sadhana\" or spiritual practices, published in the 12th century. However, according to Peter Alan Roberts, \"the primary source for Tibetan Avalokitesvara practices and teachings\" is the 11th century \"Mani Kabum\". Donald Lopez writes that according to a 17th century work by the prime minister of the fifth Dalai Lama, the meaning of the mantra is said to be \"O, you who have the jewel and the lotus.\" That \"manipadme\" is in the vocative case is also supported by a 9th century Tibetan grammatical treatise. Lopez also notes that the majority of Tibetan Buddhist texts have regarded the translation of the mantra as secondary, focusing instead on the correspondence of the six syllables of the mantra to various other groupings of six in the Buddhist tradition. For example, in the \"Chenrezig Sadhana\", Tsangsar Tulku Rinpoche expands upon the mantra's meaning, taking its six syllables to represent the purification of the six realms of existence:", "The tutor to the present Dalai Lama, Trijang Rinpoche (1901-1981) wrote a commentary on the mantra which states: Regarding mani padme, \"Jewel Lotus\" or \"Lotus Jewel\" is one of the names of the noble Avalokitesvara. The reason that he is called by that is that, just as a lotus is not soiled by mud, so the noble Avalokitesvara himself has, through his great wisdom, abandoned the root of samsara, all the stains of the conception of true existence together with its latencies. Therefore, to symbolize that he does not abide in the extreme of mundane existence, he holds a white lotus in his hand...He joins the palms of his two upper hands, making the gesture of holding a jewel to symbolize that, like a wish-granting jewel, he eliminates all the oppression of suffering for all sentient beings and bestows upon them all temporary and ultimate benefit and bliss.", "As Bucknell \"et al.\" (1986, p. 15.) say, the complete Avalokiteshvara Mantra includes a final \"hrīḥ\" (, ), which is iconographically depicted in the central space of the syllabic mandala as seen in the ceiling decoration of the Potala Palace. The full mantra in Tibetan is thus: ཨོཾ་མ་ཎི་པདྨེ་ཧཱུྃ་ཧྲཱིཿ The \"hrīḥ\" is not always vocalized audibly and may be resonated \"internally\" or \"secretly\" through intentionality. According to Sam Van Schaik, Tibetan works from Dunhuang which was a major cult center of Avalokitesvara, contain numerous mantras associated with this figure, the six syllable mantra only being one of many. Some of these are lesser known variations on the six syllable mantra such as: \"Om vajra yaksa mani padme hum.\" Another variation, noted by Peter Alan Roberts, is \"Om manipadme hum mitra svaha\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Anchoring junctions.", "Desmosomes.", "Hemidesmosomes.", "Adherens junctions.", "Communicating (gap) junctions.", "Tight junctions.", "Proteins.", "Roles.", "Tricellular junctions.", "Cell junction molecules.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "4", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In vertebrates, there are three major types of cell junction: Invertebrates have several other types of specific junctions, for example septate junctions or the \"C. elegans\" apical junction. In multicellular plants, the structural functions of cell junctions are instead provided for by cell walls. The analogues of communicative cell junctions in plants are called plasmodesmata.", "Cells within tissues and organs must be anchored to one another and attached to components of the extracellular matrix. Cells have developed several types of junctional complexes to serve these functions, and in each case, anchoring proteins extend through the plasma membrane to link cytoskeletal proteins in one cell to cytoskeletal proteins in neighboring cells as well as to proteins in the extracellular matrix. Three types of anchoring junctions are observed, and differ from one another in the cytoskeletal protein anchor as well as the transmembrane linker protein that extends through the membrane: Anchoring-type junctions not only hold cells together but provide tissues with structural cohesion. These junctions are most abundant in tissues that are subject to constant mechanical stress such as skin and heart.", "Desmosomes, also termed as maculae adherentes, can be visualized as rivets through the plasma membrane of adjacent cells. Intermediate filaments composed of keratin or desmin are attached to membrane-associated attachment proteins that form a dense plaque on the cytoplasmic face of the membrane. Cadherin molecules form the actual anchor by attaching to the cytoplasmic plaque, extending through the membrane and binding strongly to cadherins coming through the membrane of the adjacent cell.", "Hemidesmosomes form rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix components such as the basal laminae that underlie epithelia. Like desmosomes, they tie to intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm, but in contrast to desmosomes, their transmembrane anchors are integrins rather than cadherins.", "Adherens junctions share the characteristic of anchoring cells through their cytoplasmic actin filaments. Similarly to desmosomes and hemidesmosomes, their transmembrane anchors are composed of cadherins in those that anchor to other cells and integrins in those that anchor to extracellular matrix. There is considerable morphologic diversity among adherens junctions. Those that tie cells to one another are seen as isolated streaks or spots, or as bands that completely encircle the cell. The band-type of adherens junctions is associated with bundles of actin filaments that also encircle the cell just below the plasma membrane. Spot-like adherens junctions help cells adhere to extracellular matrix both in vivo and in vitro where they are called focal adhesions. The cytoskeletal actin filaments that tie into adherens junctions are contractile proteins and in addition to providing an anchoring function, adherens junctions are thought to participate in folding and bending of epithelial cell sheets. Thinking of the bands of actin filaments as being similar to 'drawstrings' allows one to envision how contraction of the bands within a group of cells would distort the sheet into interesting patterns", "Communicating junctions, or gap junctions allow for direct chemical communication between adjacent cellular cytoplasm through diffusion without contact with the extracellular fluid. This is possible due to six connexin proteins interacting to form a cylinder with a pore in the centre called a connexon. The connexon complexes stretches across the cell membrane and when two adjacent cell connexons interact, they form a complete gap junction channel. Connexon pores vary in size, polarity and therefore can be specific depending on the connexin proteins that constitute each individual connexon. Whilst variation in gap junction channels do occur, their structure remains relatively standard, and this interaction ensures efficient communication without the escape of molecules or ions to the extracellular fluid. Gap junctions play vital roles in the human body, including their role in the uniform contractile of the heart muscle. They are also relevant in signal transfers in the brain, and their absence shows a decreased cell density in the brain. Retinal and skin cells are also dependent on gap junctions in cell differentiation and proliferation.", "Found in vertebrate epithelia, tight junctions act as barriers that regulate the movement of water and solutes between epithelial layers. Tight junctions are classified as a paracellular barrier which is defined as not having directional discrimination; however, movement of the solute is largely dependent upon size and charge. There is evidence to suggest that the structures in which solutes pass through are somewhat like pores. Physiological pH plays a part in the selectivity of solutes passing through tight junctions with most tight junctions being slightly selective for cations. Tight junctions present in different types of epithelia are selective for solutes of differing size, charge, and polarity.", "There have been approximately 40 proteins identified to be involved in tight junctions. These proteins can be classified into four major categories; scaffolding proteins, signalling proteins, regulation proteins, and transmembrane proteins. It is believed that claudin is the protein molecule responsible for the selective permeability between epithelial layers.", "A three-dimensional image is still yet to be achieved and as such specific information about the function of tight junctions is yet to be determined.", "Tricellular junctions seal epithelia at the corners of three cells. Due to the geometry of three-cell vertices, the sealing of the cells at these sites requires a specific junctional organization, different from those in bicellular junctions. In vertebrates, components tricellular junctions are tricellulin and lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptors. In invertebrates, the components are gliotactin and anakonda. Tricellular junctions are also implicated in the regulation of cytoskeletal organization and cell divisions. In particular they ensure that cells divide according to the Hertwig rule. In Drosophila epithelium, during cell divisions tricellular junctions establish physical contact with spindle apparatus through astral microtubules. Tricellular junctions exert a pulling force on the spindle apparatus and serve as a geometrical clues to determine orientation of cell divisions.", "The molecules responsible for creating cell junctions include various cell adhesion molecules. There are four main types: selectins, cadherins, integrins, and the immunoglobulin superfamily. Selectins are cell adhesion molecules that play an important role in the initiation of inflammatory processes. The functional capacity of selectin is limited to leukocyte collaborations with vascular endothelium. There are three types of selectins found in humans; L-selectin, P-selectin and E-selectin. L-selectin deals with lymphocytes, monocytes and neutrophils, P-selectin deals with platelets and endothelium and E-selectin deals only with endothelium. They have extracellular regions made up of an amino-terminal lectin domain, attached to a carbohydrate ligand, growth factor-like domain, and short repeat units (numbered circles) that match the complementary binding protein domains. Cadherins are calcium-dependent adhesion molecules. Cadherins are extremely important in the process of morphogenesis – fetal development. Together with an alpha-beta catenin complex, the cadherin can bind to the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton of the cell. This allows for homophilic cell–cell adhesion. The β-catenin–α-catenin linked complex at the adherens junctions allows for the formation of a dynamic link to the actin cytoskeleton. Integrins act as adhesion receptors, transporting signals across the plasma membrane in multiple directions. These molecules are an invaluable part of cellular communication, as a single ligand can be used for many integrins. Unfortunately these molecules still have a long way to go in the ways of research. Immunoglobulin superfamily are a group of calcium independent proteins capable of homophilic and heterophilic adhesion. Homophilic adhesion involves the immunoglobulin-like domains on the cell surface binding to the immunoglobulin-like domains on an opposing cell’s surface while heterophilic adhesion refers to the binding of the immunoglobulin-like domains to integrins and carbohydrates instead. Cell adhesion is a vital component of the body. Loss of this adhesion effects cell structure, cellular functioning and communication with other cells and the extracellular matrix and can lead to severe health issues and diseases.", "3. From CCH(2010)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Federation.", "Federal legislature.", "Subsequent developments.", "Velvet divorce." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "For nearly all of its existence as an independent nation, Czechoslovakia had been a unitary state; the lone exception being the \"Czecho-Slovakia era\" immediately prior to World War II. The concentration of governmental authority in Prague was a source of discontent within Slovakia throughout the 1960s. As part of the Prague Spring reforms, Communist Party leader Alexander Dubcek, himself a Slovak, sought to grant more autonomy to the Slovaks. Indeed, the resulting reform was virtually the only product of the Prague Spring to survive. The promulgation of the Constitutional Law of Federation amended fifty-eight articles of the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia concerning the structure of government. The Czechoslovak state was declared to be a federation of \"two equal fraternal nations,\" the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic, each with its own national administration paralleling and, at least in theory, equal in status to the federal government. Dual citizenship was established (Article 5 (3): \"Every Czechoslovak citizen is at the same time a citizen of the Czech Socialist Republic or the Slovak Socialist Republic\"), and many of the former functions of the central government were instead placed under the jurisdiction of the two national governments. The federal government retained exclusive jurisdiction over foreign affairs, national defense, federal reserves, and national resources and held joint jurisdiction in a number of other matters, but the extent of the federalization reform was sweeping.", "The most significant and lasting change under the 1968 constitutional law was the replacement of the unicameral National Assembly with a bicameral legislature known as the Federal Assembly. The two bodies, given equal authority, were the Chamber of the People, which was identical to the old National Assembly, and the Chamber of the Nations, which contained an equal number of Czechs and Slovaks. Together with a provision (Article 42) that certain decisions required the majority consent of each half (Czech and Slovak) of the Chamber of the Nations, and a provision (Article 41) that constitutional amendments, organic laws, the election of the president and declarations of war required a three-fifths supermajority not only in the Chamber of the People but also of each half (Czech and Slovak) of the Chamber of the Nations, this institutional reform was designed to end Slovak fear of Czech domination of the legislative branch of the government.", "It soon became clear, however, that many aspects of the 1968 federalization were politically, as well as administratively, impractical. Political power remained firmly centralized in the Communist Party (proposals to federalize the party were dropped after the 1968 Soviet invasion in Czechoslovakia), and the administration of two economic systems, two police systems, and the like proved unworkable. As a result, July 1971 amendments to the 1968 Constitutional Law of Federation unified the administration of these and other government functions, ended the practice of dual citizenship and, most important, authorized the federal government to interfere with and invalidate measures of the national governments (similarly to president's rule in India and federal intervention in Argentina). Although most of the structures of the 1968 reform remained intact, observers of the Czechoslovak system of government in the 1970s agreed that federalism remained little more than a facade after the enactment of the 1971 constitutional amendments. In May 1975, the 1968 Constitutional Law of Federation was further amended to allow Gustáv Husák to take over the presidency from the ailing Ludvík Svoboda.", "The constitutional law was superseded by the new Constitution of the Czech Republic and the Constitution of Slovakia that came to force on January 1st, 1993, after the effectively negotiated dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The Constitutional Act on the Czechoslovak Federation hadn't foreseen any dissolution and didn't discuss any rights of the nations for self-determination. The Slovak National Council's Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Nation approved in July 1992 was therefore unconstitutional – at least the planned outcomes were indisputably unconstitutional. That declaration and its conflict with the constitutional system of Czechoslovakia has persuaded most of the Czech and Slovak politicians that negotiations about the dissolution had become unavoidable." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formative years (1978–1982).", "Paul Raven joins and new direction (1982–1988).", "Revised line-up (1989–1991).", "Pandemonium–Democracy (1992–1996).", "Reformation and the death of Paul Raven (2002–2007).", "Reunion of the original line-up (2008–present).", "Style and influences.", "Legacy.", "Film.", "Members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Paul Ferguson was the drummer in the band of Mataya Clifford (a.k.a. Mat Stagger) when he met Jaz Coleman (from Cheltenham, Gloucestershire) in Notting Hill, London. In October 1978, after Coleman was briefly the keyboard player in that band, he and Ferguson left to form Killing Joke. They placed an advertisement in \"Melody Maker\", which attracted guitarist Geordie Walker and bassist Youth. Coleman said their manifesto at the time was to \"define the exquisite beauty of the atomic age in terms of style, sound and form\". Coleman gave an explanation concerning their name: \"The killing joke is like when people watch something like Monty Python on the television and laugh, when really they're laughing at themselves. It's like a soldier in the first world war. He's in the trench, he knows his life is gone and that within the next ten minutes he's gonna be dead... and then suddenly he realises that some cunt back in Westminster's got him sussed - 'What am I doing this for? I don't want to kill anyone, I'm just being controlled'.\" The band played their debut gig on 4 August 1979 at Brockworth, Whitcombe Lodge supporting the Ruts and the Selecter. By September 1979, shortly before the release of their debut EP, \"Turn to Red\", they started the Malicious Damage record label with graphic artist Mike Coles as a way to press and sell their music; Island Records distributed the records (and released their debut single \"Nervous System\"), until Malicious Damage switched to E.G. Records with distribution through Polydor from 1980. Killing Joke's early material \"fused together elements of punk, funk and dub reggae\". \"Turn to Red\" came to the attention of BBC Radio 1 DJ John Peel, who was keen to champion the band's urgent new sound and gave them extensive airplay. An \"NME\" concert review said that \"their sound is a bit like early [Siouxsie and the] Banshees without the thrilling, amoral imagination\". Concerning their live performances, it was said that \"the only animation on stage is provided by Jaz who crouches behind his synthesizer, making forays like a Neanderthal man gripped by a gesturing, gibbering fury\". The songs on the 1980 \"Wardance/Pssyche\" single were described as \"heavy dance music\" by the press. The band had changed their sound into something denser, more aggressive and more akin to heavy metal. Their debut album, \"Killing Joke\", was released in October 1980; the band had considered calling it \"Tomorrow's World\". The press started to criticize them for the lack of new material appearing on the B-sides of singles, which often featured different mixes. The group preferred to carry on working into the studio and released \"What's THIS For...!\" just eight months after \"Killing Joke\", in June 1981. For this second album, they hired sound engineer Nick Launay, who had previously recorded with Public Image Ltd. They toured extensively throughout the UK during this time, and both fans of post-punk and heavy metal took interest in Killing Joke via singles such as \"Follow the Leaders\". Killing Joke also became notorious largely due to the controversies that arose from their imagery. The images that appeared on their records and stage set were often bizarre and potentially shocking and inflammatory. Critics noted the band's black humour and the use of musical and visual shock tactics to create a reaction. The \"Wardance\" sleeve had already depicted Fred Astaire dancing in a war field. One promotional poster featured an original photo, erroneously believed to be of Pope Pius XI. The picture was of German abbot Alban Schachleiter walking among rows of Nazi brownshirts offering Hitler salutes and appearing to return the salute; it was later used for the cover of the band's compilation album \"Laugh? I Nearly Bought One!\". \"Revelations\" was recorded in 1982 in Germany near Cologne with producer Conny Plank, who had previously worked for Neu! and Kraftwerk. The album was supported by a pair of performances on BBC Radio's \"The John Peel Show\" and a slot on UK TV show \"Top of the Pops\" for \"Empire Song\". It was the first time that one of their albums had entered the top 20 of the UK Albums Chart: \"Revelations\" peaked at No. 12 at its release. Members of the band, especially Coleman, had become immersed in the occult, particularly the works of occultist Aleister Crowley. In February of that year, Coleman, with Walker following shortly after, moved to Iceland to survive the Apocalypse, which Coleman predicted was coming soon. While in Iceland, Coleman and Walker worked with musicians from the band Þeyr in the project Niceland. Youth, who had stayed in England, left the band after a few months. He then began the band Brilliant with Ferguson, but the latter defected and travelled to Iceland to rejoin Killing Joke with new bassist Paul Raven.", "The new Killing Joke line-up recorded again with Plank, yielding the single \"Birds of a Feather\" and a six-track 10\" EP\" Ha!\", recorded live at Larry's Hideaway in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in August. 1983's \"Fire Dances\" continued a more melodic style, including the album's title track and sole single, \"Let's All Go (To the Fire Dances)\". Another non-album single, \"Me or You?\", was released in October. The former was also the first Killing Joke single to be promoted with a music video. The following year brought the arrival of producer Chris Kimsey, who had previously worked with the Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin. The first releases with Kimsey were \"Eighties\" (April 1984) and \"A New Day\" (July 1984). The band achieved mainstream success in January 1985 with the single \"Love Like Blood\", which blended goth and new wave to pop and rock; it peaked at No. 16 in the UK charts. In Europe, it reached the No. 5 position in the Netherlands and No. 8 in Belgium. This song and the earlier single \"Eighties\" were both included on their fifth album, \"Night Time\", released later that year. Retrospectively reviewed as \"relentlessly catchy\" and \"anthemic\", the album emphasized Coleman's increasingly melodic vocals and reached No. 11 in the UK albums chart, their highest position to date. \"Night Time\" also became an international success, staying in the Dutch charts for nine weeks, reaching the top 10, and peaking at No. 8 in New Zealand during a 14 week stay. The band, still on the E.G. label, then quit their distribution deal with Polydor and signed a new one with Virgin Records. The following album, \"Brighter than a Thousand Suns\" (1986) was also produced by Kimsey and saw the band's style develop further. The label rejected Kimsey's original mixes and had the album re-mixed against the wishes of the band, in an attempt to achieve more commercial success. The results have been retrospectively described as over-polished and buried in reverb. Despite the intentions of the label, the album was a commercial failure compared to \"Night Time\", failing to reach the top 50 in the UK charts. Its two singles fared little better: \"Adorations\" narrowly missed the UK Top 40 and \"Sanity\" peaked at number 70. However, the band continued touring successfully until the end of the year. The intended mixes of \"Brighter Than A Thousand Suns\" were finally restored on the 2008 re-release, to much more favourable response than its original release. In 1987, Coleman and Walker began working on a new project, which was presented by Coleman and Walker as a studio project to the rest of the band. Raven took part in the sessions but ultimately asked for his name to be removed from the album credits. Ferguson recorded drums in Berlin but, according to Coleman, was dismissed because he wasn't able to manage the precise timings. Raven denied this version of events, stating, \"I know Paul and when he does something he does it properly. If it wasn't right he would have stayed there 'til it was\". Session player Jimmy Copley was brought in to provide the drumming on the album, along with percussion player Jeff Scantlebury. Raven and Ferguson quit Killing Joke shortly afterwards, with Raven purportedly calling Coleman and Walker \"a pair of ego-strokers\". Coleman then delivered a lecture at London's Courtauld Institute about his method behind the songs, expounding on its origins in gematria and the occult, while Walker and Scantlebury provided a minimal acoustic musical backing. A recording of this event was released as \"The Courtauld Talks\". The resulting album, \"Outside the Gate\", released the following June, is Killing Joke's most controversial work to date due to its complex synth instrumentation and stylistic departure. It entered the UK Albums Chart at number 92 and stayed for just one week. No gigs were played in support of the album and it was not released in the USA. Virgin dropped the band two months later, by which time Coleman and Walker had become embroiled in a lengthy legal battle to extricate themselves from their contract with E.G.", "Towards the end of 1988, Coleman and Walker revived the band and began looking for full-time bass players and drummers. First on board was drummer Martin Atkins, who had gained notability in Public Image Ltd. A suitable bass player proved more difficult. Former Smiths member Andy Rourke was hired, then dismissed after only three days. Eventually the band settled on Welsh bass player Dave \"Taif\" Ball, and played their first gigs in almost two years in December 1988. Touring continued across the UK, Europe and the US until August 1989, when the band took a break to record new material in Germany and allow Coleman time to record \"Songs from the Victorious City\" with Anne Dudley of Art of Noise. For reasons which remain unclear, the German sessions were shelved and bass player Taif left the band. He was replaced by former member Paul Raven and the revised line-up began recording again, this time in London. The result was Killing Joke's eighth album, \"Extremities, Dirt & Various Repressed Emotions\", released on the German Noise International label in 1990. It marked a return to a heavier, industrial sound. Atkins continued with Walker, Raven and the band's live keyboard player, John Bechdel, as the short-lived Murder, Inc., recruiting Scottish vocalist Chris Connelly and reuniting with Ferguson as second drummer.", "A Killing Joke anthology, \"Laugh? I Nearly Bought One!\", was released in 1992; during its production, Walker became reacquainted with Youth, who suggested that they reform the band with himself back on bass. That same year, two singles (on cassette and CD) appeared featuring the early songs \"Change\" and \"Wardance\" remixed by Youth, who was by then a successful producer. \"Pandemonium\" was released in 1994 on Youth's Butterfly Recordings label, featuring a heavy and diverse new style. Tom Larkin, of New Zealand band Shihad, performed drums on the album. Coleman had earlier produced Shihad's 1993 debut album, but relations later soured due to a dispute over Coleman's producer's fee. \"Pandemonium\" also featured several Egyptian musicians that Coleman had previously worked with on \"Songs from the Victorious City\", including percussionist Hossam Ramzy and violinist Aboud Abdel Al., and earned Killing Joke a memorable \"Top of the Pops\" appearance for the single \"Millennium\", which was a UK Top 40 hit (the album itself made the Top 20). The title track was also released as a single and made the UK Top 30. The album itself became Killing Joke's best-selling work. In 1995, the band recorded the song \"Hollywood Babylon\" for the soundtrack of Paul Verhoeven's movie \"Showgirls\". A follow-up album, \"Democracy\", was released in 1996 and also produced by Youth. \"Democracy\" introduced acoustic guitar to several songs and featured more explicitly political lyrics. The title track was released as a single and made the UK Top 40. Much of \"Pandemonium\" and all of \"Democracy\" featured session drummer Geoff Dugmore, who also played live with the band during this era. Nick Holywell-Walker joined the band on keyboards and programming for 11 years from 1994 to 2005, notably on \"Democracy\" and \"XXV Gathering\". Youth bowed out of live performance early in the \"Democracy\" tour and was replaced by Troy Gregory, previously of Prong. After the \"Democracy\" tour, the band went on their longest hiatus to date. Coleman and Youth produced a string of orchestral rock albums based on the music of classic rock artists such as Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd and the Doors. Coleman became Composer in Residence for New Zealand and Czech symphony orchestras, and made his acting debut with the main role in the film \"Rok ďábla\" (\"Year of the Devil\") by Czech filmmaker Petr Zelenka.", "In 2002, Coleman, Walker and Youth recorded their second self-titled album with special guest Dave Grohl on drums. Produced by Andy Gill and released to much acclaim in 2003, it was heralded as a powerful addition to their earlier classics. In 2003, the band played at the biggest open air festival in Europe - Przystanek Woodstock in Poland. The War on Terror and the invasion of Iraq were cited as major factors in their reforming, reflected in the lyrical content of much of the album, based on themes of war, government control and Armageddon. The album, which fell just short of the UK Top 40 and spawned two singles, \"Loose Cannon\" (a UK Top 25 hit) and \"Seeing Red\". The songs were all credited to Coleman/Walker/Youth/Gill, although Raven's name is also on the list of musicians on the liner notes, marking his return to the band after more than a decade. The album was accompanied by a tour of the United States, Europe and Australia in 2003-2004, with ex-Prong drummer Ted Parsons on board. In February 2005, now with young drummer Ben Calvert (Twin Zero, Sack Trick), Killing Joke played two consecutive shows at London's Shepherds Bush Empire to commemorate their 25th anniversary. DVD and CD recordings from these concerts were released in the fall of the same year as \"XXV Gathering: The Band that Preys Together Stays Together\". In June, remastered and expanded editions of \"Pandemonium\" and \"Democracy\", were released by Cooking Vinyl. These were followed in July by remasters of their first four albums (\"Killing Joke\" to \"Ha!\") on EMI, who by then owned the E.G. Records catalogue. The second batch of EMI remasters would not appear until January 2008. That year, Reza Udhin joined the band on keyboards when they supported Mötley Crüe's British tour; they then began work on their next album in Prague. Killing Joke's contribution to the world of rock was recognised when they were awarded the \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" at the 2005 \"Kerrang\" Awards. The band recorded the new album in \"Hell\", the basement rehearsal space of Studio Faust Records in Prague, opting for simplicity and raw energy through the use of live takes with a minimum of overdubs. The result was \"Hosannas from the Basements of Hell\", released in April 2006, which made the UK Top 75. During a European tour in April 2006, Paul Raven abruptly departed after a few dates to tour with Ministry, and was temporarily replaced by Kneill Brown. In October, it was announced that Coleman had been chosen as Composer in Residence for the European Union, to be commissioned to write music for special occasions. Early in 2007, Killing Joke released three archival collections. The first, \"Inside Extremities\", was a double album of material taken from the band's preparations for the \"Extremities\" album, including rehearsals, rare mixes, previously unheard track \"The Fanatic\" and a full live show from the \"Extremities\" tour. This was followed by two volumes of \"Bootleg Vinyl Archive\", each consisting of a 3-CD box set of live bootleg recordings originally released on vinyl in the 1980s, plus the Astoria gig from the \"Pandemonium\" tour (which was voted one of the greatest gigs of all time by \"Kerrang\"). The 1990 album \"Extremities, Dirt & Various Repressed Emotions\", which had long been out of print, was reissued in remastered form. On 20 October, Paul Raven died of heart failure prior to a recording session in Geneva, Switzerland. In his honour, Coleman composed the track \"The Raven King\", which appeared on the next album. In 2008, the second batch of albums, from \"Fire Dances\" to \"Outside the Gate\", was reissued in remastered form with bonus tracks.", "After the death of Raven, the original line-up of Coleman, Youth, Walker and Ferguson reunited. Coleman told \"Terrorizer\" magazine how the return of Ferguson came up after 20 years of absence: \"Everything came together when we all met at...Raven's funeral. It was funny the unifying effect it had on all of us. It made us realise our mortality and how important Killing Joke is to all of us.\" They assembled in Granada, Spain, to prepare a world tour consisting of two nights in various capital cities of the world, playing a programme of four complete albums. Recordings of the rehearsals were later released as \"Duende - The Spanish Sessions\". The first night was dedicated to their first two albums, \"Killing Joke\" and \"What's THIS For...!\", while the second night featured large parts of \"Pandemonium\" plus some early Island singles. The world tour began in September in Tokyo and concluded in Chicago in October. An album of radio session recordings, \"The Peel Sessions 1979–1981\", was released in September 2008. This was the second time all 17 tracks were released in their live session form. The band then appeared at several festivals, including All Tomorrow's Parties, Sonisphere Festival, and Rebellion Festival, headlining the latter. They also performed in the Big Top Tent at the 2009 Isle of Wight Festival after being hand-picked by Tim Burgess, frontman for the Charlatans. During October and November 2009, they recorded the album \"Absolute Dissent\" (2010), marking the band's 30th anniversary. It was preceded by the \"In Excelsis\" EP in June 2010. In November, the band received the \"Innovator Award\" at the 2010 \"Classic Rock\" Roll of Honour; the award was presented to Killing Joke by Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin, who stated, \"I go back a long way with Jaz Coleman and the band. I used to go and see the band, and it was a band that really impressed me because Geordie's guitar sound was just really, really strong. And they were really tribal, the band, and it was really intense. It was just really good to hear something like that during the 80s, which sort of caved in a bit with haircuts and synthesizers\". The band were also honoured by \"Metal Hammer\" at their annual awards, receiving the Album of the Year award for \"Absolute Dissent\". In 2012, the group released \"MMXII\". It reached No. 44 upon its first week of release, the band's highest UK chart placement since their eponymous 2003 album of 2003, as well as charting across Europe. In April 2015, two limited-edition Record Store Day double LPs, \"Live at the Hammersmith Apollo 16.10.2010 Volume 1\" and \"Live at the Hammersmith Apollo 16.10.2010 Volume 2\", were issued for independent record stores in the UK. The band released their 15th studio album, \"Pylon\", in October 2015. The deluxe edition contained five additional tracks. A nine-date British tour followed to promote the record. \"Pylon\" entered the UK albums chart at No. 16, becoming the band's first UK Top 20 album since 1994. In November 2016, the band played at the Brixton Academy in London, before embarking on a European tour, their longest to date. In 2018, the band did a worldwide tour to celebrate their 40th anniversary.", "The band called their sound \"tension music\". Co-founder Ferguson described it as \"the sound of the earth vomiting. I’m never quite sure whether to be offended by the question of 'are we punk' or not, because, I loved punk music, but we weren't. And I think our influences were beyond punk. Obviously before punk, there was Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath and there was Yes even and King Crimson, and those had all influenced me as a player, and the other guys would say other things, but I'm sure they were all part of their history as well\". Coleman's \"menacing\" vocal style and \"terrifying growl\" have been compared to Motörhead's Lemmy. In the first part of their career, Coleman also played synth while singing, adding electronic atonal sounds to create a disturbing atmosphere. Walker's guitar style is metallic and cold. Walker stated that \"the guitar should convey some sort of emotion\". He cited Siouxsie and the Banshees's original guitarist John McKay who \"came out with these chord structures that I found very refreshing\". According to critic Simon Reynolds, Walker took Keith Levene's guitar sound from PiL to another, almost inhuman and extreme level. Ferguson's tribal drum style has been compared to early Siouxsie and the Banshees. Coleman had stated in early 1980 that Ferguson listened to the Banshees.", "Killing Joke have inspired artists of different genres. They have been namechecked by several heavy rock bands such as Metallica and Soundgarden. Metallica covered \"The Wait\" and James Hetfield picked Coleman as one of his favourite singers. Soundgarden cited them as one of their main influences when they started playing. Helmet covered \"Primitive\" in 1993. Faith No More stated that all of their members liked the group, qualifying them as a \"great band\". Walker's style inspired Kurt Cobain's work with Nirvana, according to Bill Janovitz of AllMusic, with the use of a metallic sound mixed with a shimmering chorused effect. Foo Fighters, Nirvana drummer Grohl's subsequent band, covered \"Requiem\" in 1997. Metal band Fear Factory covered \"Millenium\" in 2005. Jane's Addiction said that the group was one of their influences; singer Perry Farrell was inspired by the percussive and tribal aspect of their music. The band have inspired many industrial bands, including Nine Inch Nails and Ministry. They have been cited by Trent Reznor, Nine Inch Nails's leader, who mentioned his interest in their early material, and said that he studied their music. Al Jourgensen of Ministry described himself as a \"big fan\" of the group. Marilyn Manson listened to them during his formative years. Godflesh frontman Justin Broadrick was particularly influenced by their early releases containing dub versions. The group has also been cited by alternative music acts such as My Bloody Valentine and LCD Soundsystem. Shoegazing guitarist and composer Kevin Shields of My Bloody Valentine mentioned the band and specifically praised Walker's touch, which he described as \"this effortless playing producing a monstruous sound\". In 2002, James Murphy of dance-punk band LCD Soundsystem sampled the music of \"Change\" on his debut single, \"Losing My Edge\".", "Killing Joke were the subject of a feature-length documentary film, \"The Death and Resurrection Show\" (2013), by Shaun Pettigrew. The film was shown in various festivals between 2013 and 2014. Co-produced by Coleman, it combined archive footage of Killing Joke over the previous decades with tour footage, recording sessions and interviews with subjects including the members of the band, Jimmy Page, Dave Grohl, Peter Hook and Alex Paterson. \"The Death and Resurrection Show\" was broadcast on Sundance TV and was then released on DVD via the film's website in 2017. \"Uncut\" rated it 9 out of 10, saying \"Shaun Pettigrew's film mixes outlandish anecdotes, arcane philosophy and blistering music\".", "Current members Former members Additional musicians" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation (1976–1977).", "\"The Scream\" and \"Join Hands\" (1978–1979).", "\"Kaleidoscope\", \"Juju\" and \"A Kiss in the Dreamhouse\" (1980–1982).", "\"Hyæna\", \"Tinderbox\" and \"Through the Looking Glass\" (1983–1987).", "\"Peepshow\" (1988–1990).", "\"Superstition\", \"The Rapture\" and break-up (1991–1999).", "2000s–present.", "Musical style.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Siouxsie Sioux and Steven Severin met at a Roxy Music concert in September 1975, at a time when glam rock had faded and there was nothing new coming through with which they could identify. From February 1976, Siouxsie, Severin and some friends began to follow an unsigned band, the Sex Pistols. Journalist Caroline Coon dubbed them the \"Bromley Contingent\", as most of them came from the Bromley region of South London, a label Severin came to despise. \"There was no such thing, it was just a bunch of people drawn together by the way they felt and they looked\". They were all inspired by the Sex Pistols and their uncompromising attitude. When they learned that one of the bands scheduled to play the 100 Club Punk Festival, organised by Sex Pistols manager Malcolm McLaren, were pulling out from the bill at the last minute, Siouxsie suggested that she and Severin play, even though they had no band name or additional members. Two days later, the pair appeared at the festival held in London on 20 September 1976. With two borrowed musicians at their side, Marco Pirroni on guitar and John Simon Ritchie (already commonly known as Sid Vicious) on drums, their set consisted of a 20-minute improvisation based on \"The Lord's Prayer\". While the band intended to split up after the gig, they were asked to play again. Two months later, Siouxsie and Severin recruited drummer Kenny Morris and guitarist Pete Fenton. After playing several gigs in early 1977, they realised that Fenton did not fit in because he was \"a real rock guitarist\". John McKay finally took his place in July. Their first live appearance on television took place in November on Manchester's Granada, on Tony Wilson's TV show \"So It Goes\". They then recorded their first John Peel session for BBC radio in which they premiered a new song \"Metal Postcard\", introducing a \"motorik austerity\" in the drums patterns.. The band described their music as \"cold, machine-like and passionate at the same time\". Appearing on the front cover of UK weekly \"Sounds\" magazine, Vivien Goldman wrote: \"they sound like a 21st century industrial plant\".", "While the band sold-out venues in London in early 1978, they still had problems getting the right recording contract that could give them \"complete artistic control\". Polydor finally offered this guarantee and signed them in June. Their first single, \"Hong Kong Garden\", featuring a xylophone motif, reached the top 10 in the UK shortly after. A \"NME\" review hailed it as \"a bright, vivid narrative, something like snapshots from the window of a speeding Japanese train, power charged by the most original, intoxicating guitar playing I heard in a long, long time\". The band released their debut album, \"The Scream\", in November 1978. Nick Kent of \"NME\" said of the record: \"The band sounds like some unique hybrid of the Velvet Underground mated with much of the ingenuity of \"Tago Mago\"-era Can, if any parallel can be drawn\". At the end of the article, he added this remark: \"Certainly, the traditional three-piece sound has never been used in a more unorthodox fashion with such stunning results\". The Banshees' second album, \"Join Hands\", was released in 1979. In \"Melody Maker\", Jon Savage described \"Poppy Day\" as \"a short, powerful evocation of the Great War graveyards\", and \"Record Mirror\" described the whole record as a dangerous work that \"should be heard\". The Banshees embarked on a major tour to promote the album. A few dates into the tour in September, Morris and McKay left an in-store signing after an argument and quit the band. In need of replacements to fulfill tour dates, the Banshees' manager called drummer Budgie, formerly with the Slits, and asked him to audition. Budgie was hired, but Siouxsie and Severin had no success auditioning guitarists. Robert Smith of the Cure offered his services in case they could not find a guitarist (his group were already the support band on the tour), so the band held him to it after seeing too many \"rock virtuosos\". The tour resumed in September and after the last concert, Smith returned to the Cure.", "Drummer Budgie became a permanent member, and the band entered the studios to record the single \"Happy House\" with guitarist John McGeoch, then still a member of Magazine. Their third album, \"Kaleidoscope\", released in 1980, saw the Banshees exploring new musical territories with the use of other instruments like synthesizers, sitars and drum machines. The group initially had a concept of making each song sound completely different, without regard to whether or not the material could be performed in concert. \"Melody Maker\" described the result as \"a kaleidoscope of sound and imagery, new forms, and content, flashing before our eyes\". \"Kaleidoscope\" was a commercial success, peaking at number 5 in the UK albums chart. This lineup, featuring McGeoch on guitar, toured the United States for the first time in support of the album, playing their first shows in New York City in November 1980. For \"Juju\" (1981), the band took a different approach and practised the songs in concert first before recording them. \"Juju\", according to Severin, became an unintentional concept album that \"drew on darker elements\". \"Sounds\" hailed it as \"intriguing, intense, brooding and powerfully atmospheric\". The album later peaked at number 7 in the UK albums chart and became one of their biggest sellers. McGeoch's guitar contributions on \"Juju\" would be later praised by Johnny Marr of the Smiths. During the 1981 accompanying tour, Siouxsie and Budgie secretly became a couple. At the same time, they also began a drum-and-voice duo called the Creatures, releasing their first EP, \"Wild Things\". The Banshees followed in 1982 with the psychedelic \"A Kiss in the Dreamhouse\". The record, featuring strings on several numbers, was an intentional contrast to their previous work, with Severin later describing it as a \"sexy album\". The British press greeted it enthusiastically. Richard Cook finished his \"NME\" review with this sentence: \"I promise...this music will take your breath away\". At that time, McGeoch was struggling with alcohol problems, and was hospitalised on his return to a promotional trip from Madrid. The band fired him shortly thereafter. Severin asked Robert Smith to take over guitarist duties again; Smith accepted and rejoined the group in November 1982.", "During 1983, the band members worked on several side projects; Siouxsie and Budgie composed the first Creatures album, \"Feast\", while Severin and Smith recorded as the Glove. Smith then insisted on documenting his time with the Banshees, so the group released a cover version of the Beatles' \"Dear Prudence\" in September 1983. It became their biggest hit, reaching number 3 on the UK Singles Chart. They also released a live album, \"Nocturne\", and completed their sixth studio album, \"Hyæna\". Shortly before its release in May 1984, Smith left the group, citing health issues due to an overloaded schedule, being in two bands at once. Ex-Clock DVA guitarist John Valentine Carruthers replaced him. The Banshees then reworked four numbers from their repertoire, augmented by a string section, for \"The Thorn\" EP. \"NME\" praised the project at its release: \"The power of a classical orchestra is the perfect foil for the band's grindingly insistent sounds\". The new Banshees lineup spent much of 1985 working on a new record, \"Tinderbox\". The group finished the song \"Cities in Dust\" before the album, so they rushed its release as a single prior to their longest tour of the UK. \"Tinderbox\" was finally released in April 1986. \"Sounds\" magazine noted: \"\"Tinderbox\" is a refreshing slant on the Banshees' disturbing perspective and restores their vivid shades to pop's pale palette\". Due to the length of time spent working on \"Tinderbox\", the group desired spontaneity and decided to record an album of cover songs, \"Through the Looking Glass\", in 1987. \"Mojo\" magazine later praised their version of \"Strange Fruit\". After the album's release, the band realised Carruthers was no longer fitting in and decided to work on new material as a trio.", "Following a lengthy break, the band recruited multi-instrumentalist Martin McCarrick and guitarist Jon Klein. The quintet recorded \"Peepshow\" in 1988, with non-traditional rock instrumentation including cello and accordion. \"Q\" magazine praised the album in its 5-star review: \"\"Peepshow\" takes place in some distorted fairground of the mind where weird and wonderful shapes loom\". The first single, \"Peek-a-Boo\", was seen by critics as a \"brave move\" with horns and dance elements. \"Sounds\" wrote: \"The snare gets slapped, Siouxsie's voice meanders all around your head and it all comes magically together\". \"Peek-a-Boo\" was their first real breakthrough in the United States. After the tour, the band decided to take a break, with Siouxsie and Budgie recording as the Creatures and releasing their most critically acclaimed album to date, \"Boomerang\", and Severin and McCarrick working on material together.", "In 1991, Siouxsie and the Banshees returned with the single \"Kiss Them for Me\", mixing strings over a dance rhythm laced with exotica. The group collaborated with the then unknown Asian Tabla player Talvin Singh, who also sang during the bridge. The single received glowing reviews and later peaked in the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 at number 23, allowing them to reach a new audience. The album \"Superstition\" followed shortly afterwards, and the group toured the US as second headliners of the inaugural Lollapalooza tour. The following year, the Banshees were asked to compose \"Face to Face\" as a single for the film \"Batman Returns\", at director Tim Burton's request. In 1993, the Banshees recorded new songs based on string arrangements, but quickly stopped the sessions to play festivals abroad. On their return home, they hired former Velvet Underground member John Cale to produce the rest of the record. At its release, 1995's \"The Rapture\" was described by \"Melody Maker\" as \"a fascinating, transcontinental journey through danger and exotica\". A few weeks after its release, Polydor dropped the band from its roster and Klein was replaced on the band's last tour in 1995 by ex-Psychedelic Furs guitarist Knox Chandler. In April 1996, the Banshees disbanded after 20 years of working together. Siouxsie and Budgie announced that they would carry on recording as the Creatures. In 1999, they released the album \"Anima Animus\" to critical acclaim.", "In 2002, Universal Music kicked off the band's remastered back catalogue by releasing \"The Best of Siouxsie and the Banshees\". In April, Siouxsie, Severin, Budgie and Chandler reunited briefly for the Seven Year Itch tour, which spawned the \"Seven Year Itch\" live album and DVD in 2003. The day after their last concert in Tokyo, Japan, Siouxsie and Budgie stayed in town on their own and entered into a recording studio as the Creatures. Their fourth and final studio album, \"Hái!\", came out a few months later. In 2004, \"Downside Up\", a box set that collected all of the Banshees' B-sides and \"The Thorn\" EP, was released. \"The Times\" wrote in its review: \"for here is a group that never filled B-sides with inferior, throwaway tracks. Rather they saw them as an outlet for some of their most radical and challenging work\". In 2006, the band's first four records were remastered and compiled with previously unreleased bonus tracks. Several recordings made for the John Peel radio show from 1978 to 1986 were also compiled on \"\". AllMusic described the first session as \"a fiery statement of intent\" and qualified the other performances as \"excellent\". The second batch of remasters, concerning the 1982–1986 era, was issued in April 2009. It included four other reissues (including their highly regarded \"A Kiss in the Dreamhouse\" from 1982). The \"At the BBC\" box set, containing a DVD with all of the band's UK live television performances and three CDs with in-concert recordings, was also released in June of the same year. In April 2014, their debut single \"Hong Kong Garden\" was reissued on double 7-inch vinyl. It was announced that this would be part of a three-year plan with Universal. In late October, their last four studio albums (1987's \"Through the Looking Glass\", 1988's \"Peepshow\", 1991's \"Superstition\" and 1995's \"The Rapture\") were reissued on CD in remastered versions with bonus tracks. Siouxsie and Severin curated a compilation CD called \"It's a Wonderfull Life\" for the monthly magazine \"Mojo\", issued in September with Siouxsie on the front cover. On this CD, the pair honoured several composers of film music and classical music that had inspired them. In 2015, after releasing another compilation called \"Spellbound: The Collection\", which included singles, album tracks and B-sides, the band reissued 1979's \"Join Hands\" on vinyl for Record Store Day, with different cover artwork. A CD box set titled \"Classic Album Selection Volume One\" was released in January 2016, containing their first six albums newly remastered by Kevin Metcalfe. \"Classic Album Selection Volume Two\", including the other last six albums, followed in April. A vinyl picture disc edition of \"The Scream\" was released in November. A vinyl reissue series on Polydor of all of the band's albums, remastered from the original 1⁄4\" tapes in 2018 by Miles Showell and cut at half speed at Abbey Road Studios, began in August with \"Tinderbox\", \"Juju\", \"Through the Looking Glass\" and \"Join Hands\". The second batch of vinyl reissues, released in September, included \"Superstition\", \"A Kiss in the Dreamhouse\" and \"The Scream\". The third batch, arriving in December, contained \"The Rapture\", \"Peepshow\", \"Kaleidoscope\" and \"Hyæna\". A blue vinyl edition of \"The Scream\", limited to 1,000 copies, was also released in November for the 40th anniversary of the album, on indie only record stores' websites.", "Siouxsie and the Banshees have been described as developing \"a form of post-punk discord full of daring rhythmic and sonic experimentation\". \"The Times\" wrote that \"The Banshees stand proudly [... as] one of the most audacious and uncompromising musical adventurers of the post-punk era\". With some of their darkest material, the band also helped spawn the gothic scene. The band is also considered a new wave act. They were also one of the first alternative bands; music historian Peter Buckley pointed out that they were at \"the very front of the alternative-rock scene\". In 1988, \"Peek-a-Boo\" was the very first track to top the US Modern Rock chart after \"Billboard\" launched this chart in the first week of September to list the most played songs on alternative and college radio stations. Simon Goddard wrote that the \"Banshees - Mk II would become one of the biggest alternative pop groups of the 1980s\". \"Spin\" described them as \"alternative rockers\" in 1991 when referring to their presence in the top 40 chart. Noting the band's participation in the first Lollapalooza festival, journalist Jim Gerr saw them as one of the \"elements of the alternative rock community\". \"Mojo\" retrospectively presented them as one of \"alternative rock's iconic groups\".", "Siouxsie and the Banshees have had an impact on many later genres including post-punk, new wave, synth pop, gothic rock, alternative music, shoegazing and trip-hop, influencing a wide range of musicians including Joy Division, the Cure, the Smiths, Depeche Mode, PJ Harvey, Radiohead, Tricky and LCD Soundsystem. Joy Division's Peter Hook, who saw the group in concert in Manchester in 1977, said: \"Siouxsie and the Banshees were one of our big influences [...] The Banshees first LP was one of my favourite ever records, the way the guitarist and the drummer played was a really unusual way of playing and this album showcases a landmark performance\". Joy Division producer Martin Hannett saw a difference between the Banshees' first main lineup and the other bands of 1977: \"Any harmonies you got were stark, to say the least, except for the odd exception, like Siouxsie. They were interesting\". The Cure's leader, Robert Smith, declared in 2003: \"Siouxsie and the Banshees and Wire were the two bands I really admired. They meant something.\" He also pinpointed what the 1979 \"Join Hands\" tour brought him musically. \"On stage that first night with the Banshees, I was blown away by how powerful I felt playing that kind of music. It was so different to what we were doing with the Cure. Before that, I'd wanted us to be like the Buzzcocks or Elvis Costello, the punk Beatles. Being a Banshee really changed my attitude to what I was doing\". The two songwriters of the Smiths cited the band; singer Morrissey said that \"Siouxsie and the Banshees were excellent\", and that \"they were one of the great groups of the late 1970s, early 1980s\". He also said in 1994, \"If you study modern groups, those who gain press coverage and chart action, none of them are as good as Siouxsie and the Banshees at full pelt. That's not dusty nostalgia, that's fact\". When asked \"who do you regret not going to see live\", guitarist Johnny Marr replied \"Siouxsie and the Banshees mk 1. But mk 2 were even better\". Marr mentioned his liking for John McGeoch and his contribution to the single \"Spellbound\". Marr qualified it as \"clever\" with a \"really good picky thing going on which is very un-rock'n'roll\". Smiths' historian Goddard wrote that Marr \"praise[d] the McGeoch-era Banshees as a significant inspiration\". U2 cited Siouxsie and the Banshees as a major influence and selected \"Christine\" for a \"Mojo\" compilation. The Edge was the presenter of an award given to Siouxsie at the \"Mojo\" ceremony in 2005. In December 1981, Dave Gahan of Depeche Mode named the Banshees as one of his three favourite bands along with Sparks and Roxy Music. Gahan later hailed the single \"Candyman\" at its release, saying, \"This is a great Banshees record[...], I like their sound\". Jim Reid of the Jesus and Mary Chain selected \"Jigsaw Feeling\" from \"The Scream\" as being among his favourite songs. Thurston Moore of Sonic Youth cited \"Hong Kong Garden\" in his top 25 all-time favourite songs, and Kevin Shields of My Bloody Valentine also mentioned them as being among his early influences. Dave Navarro of Jane's Addiction once noted a parallel between his band and the Banshees: \"There are so many similar threads: melody, use of sound, attitude, sex-appeal. I always saw Jane's Addiction as the masculine Siouxsie and the Banshees\". Primal Scream's Bobby Gillespie liked the group's ability to produce pop songs while transmitting something subversive. He said, \"They were outsiders bringing outsider subjects to the mainstream. We’re not trying to rip off the Banshees, but that's kind of where we’re coming from\". The Banshees have been hailed by other acts. Thom Yorke related that seeing Siouxsie on stage in concert in 1985 inspired him to become a performer. Radiohead cited McGeoch-era Siouxsie records when mentioning the recording of the song \"There There\", and rehearsed Banshees' material prior to their 2008 tour. Jeff Buckley, who took inspiration from several female vocalists, covered \"Killing Time\" (from the \"Boomerang\" album) on various occasions. Buckley also owned all the Banshees' albums in his record collection. Suede singer Brett Anderson named \"Juju\" as one of his favourite records. Red Hot Chili Peppers performed \"Christine\" in concert, and their guitarist John Frusciante cited the Banshees in interviews. Garbage singer Shirley Manson stated, \"I learned how to sing listening to \"The Scream\" and \"Kaleidoscope\". Today, I can see and hear the Banshees' influence all over the place\". Siouxsie has also been praised by other female singers including PJ Harvey and Courtney Love. PJ Harvey has stated, \"It's hard to beat Siouxsie Sioux, in terms of live performance. She is so exciting to watch, so full of energy and human raw quality\", and selected Siouxsie's album \"Anima Animus\" in her top 10 albums of 1999. The band had a strong effect on two important trip hop acts. Tricky covered \"Tattoo\" to open his second album, \"Nearly God\"; the original 1983 proto-trip-hop version of that song aided Tricky in the creation of his style. Massive Attack, sampled \"Metal Postcard\" on the song \"Superpredators\", recorded prior to their \"Mezzanine\" album. Air's Jean-Benoît Dunckel cited the group as one of his three main influences. Billy Corgan of the Smashing Pumpkins cited the Banshees as an important influence on his music. Faith No More covered \"Switch\" in concert and cited \"The Scream\" as one of their influences. The Banshees continue to influence younger musicians. Singer James Murphy was marked by certain Banshees albums during his childhood. His band LCD Soundsystem covered \"Slowdive\" as a B-side to the single \"Disco Infiltrator\". The Beta Band sampled \"Painted Bird\" on their track \"Liquid Bird\" from the \"Heroes to Zeros\" album. TV on the Radio said that they have always tried to make a song that begins like \"Kiss Them for Me\" where all of a sudden, there's an \"element of surprise\" with \"a giant drum coming in\". Santigold based one of her songs around the music of \"Red Light\". \"'My Superman' is an interpolation of 'Red Light'\". Indie folk group DeVotchKa covered the ballad \"The Last Beat of My Heart\" at the suggestion of Arcade Fire singer Win Butler; it was released on the \"Curse Your Little Heart\" EP. Gossip named the Banshees as one of their major influences during the promotion of their single \"Heavy Cross\". British indie band Bloc Party took inspiration from \"Peek-a-Boo\" and their singer Kele Okereke stated about that Banshees' single: \"it sounded like nothing else on this planet. This is [...] a pop song that they put out in the middle of their career [...] to me it sounded like the most current but most futuristic bit of guitar-pop music I've heard\". A Perfect Circle's Billy Howerdel said that the Banshees was \"top three favorite bands for me\". The Weeknd sampled different parts of \"Happy House\" for his song \"House of Balloons\", and also used the chorus of the initial version." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Size.", "Shaft.", "Spine.", "GPI rating.", "Footed arrows.", "Barreled arrow shafts.", "Arrowhead.", "Fletchings.", "Wraps.", "Nocks.", "Finishes and cresting." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The oldest evidence of stone-tipped projectiles, which may or may not have been propelled by a bow (c.f. atlatl), dating to c. 64,000 years ago, were found in Sibudu Cave, current South Africa. Arrowheads made from animal bones have been discovered in the Fa Hien Cave in Sri Lanka which are also the oldest evidence for the use of arrows outside of Africa dating to c. 48,000 years ago. The oldest evidence of the use of bows to shoot arrows dates to about 10,000 years ago; it is based on pinewood arrows found in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg. They had shallow grooves on the base, indicating that they were shot from a bow. The oldest bow so far recovered is about 8,000 years old, found in the Holmegård swamp in Denmark. Archery seems to have arrived in the Americas with the Arctic small tool tradition, about 4,500 years ago.", "Arrow sizes vary greatly across cultures, ranging from eighteen inches to six feet (45 cm to 150 cm). However, most modern arrows are to ; most war arrows from an English ship sunk in 1545 were. Very short arrows have been used, shot through a guide attached either to the bow (an \"overdraw\") or to the archer's wrist (the Turkish \"siper\"). These may fly farther than heavier arrows, and an enemy without suitable equipment may find himself unable to return them.", "The shaft is the primary structural element of the arrow, to which the other components are attached. Traditional arrow shafts are made from strong, lightweight wood, bamboo or reeds, while modern shafts may be made from aluminium, carbon fibre reinforced plastic, or a combination of materials. Such shafts are typically made from an aluminium core wrapped with a carbon fibre outer. A traditional premium material is Port Orford Cedar.", "The stiffness of the shaft is known as its \"spine\", referring to how little the shaft bends when compressed, hence an arrow which bends less is said to have more spine. In order to strike consistently, a group of arrows must be similarly spined. \"Center-shot\" bows, in which the arrow passes through the central vertical axis of the bow riser, may obtain consistent results from arrows with a wide range of spines. However, most traditional bows are not center-shot and the arrow has to deflect around the handle in the archer's paradox; such bows tend to give most consistent results with a narrower range of arrow spine that allows the arrow to deflect correctly around the bow. Bows with higher draw weight will generally require stiffer arrows, with more spine (less flexibility) to give the correct amount of flex when shot.", "The weight of an arrow shaft can be expressed in GPI (grains per inch). The length of a shaft in inches multiplied by its GPI rating gives the weight of the shaft in grains. For example, a shaft that is long and has a GPI of 9.5 weighs. This does not include the other elements of a finished arrow, so a complete arrow will be heavier than the shaft alone.", "Sometimes a shaft will be made of two different types of wood fastened together, resulting in what is known as a footed arrow. Known by some as the finest of wood arrows, footed arrows were used both by early Europeans and Native Americans. Footed arrows will typically consist of a short length of hardwood near the head of the arrow, with the remainder of the shaft consisting of softwood. By reinforcing the area most likely to break, the arrow is more likely to survive impact, while maintaining overall flexibility and lighter weight.", "A barreled arrow shaft is one that tapers in diameter bi-directionally. This allows for an arrow that has an optimum weight yet retains enough strength to resist flex. A Qing dynasty arrow shaft was examined by archery enthusiast Peter Dekker and found to exhibit the following qualities: The resultant point-of-balance of the arrow shaft was thus 38.5% of the length of the arrow from the tip. Barreled arrow shafts are considered the zenith of pre-industrial archery technology, reaching their peak design among the Ottomans.", "The arrowhead or projectile point is the primary functional part of the arrow, and plays the largest role in determining its purpose. Some arrows may simply use a sharpened tip of the solid shaft, but it is far more common for separate arrowheads to be made, usually from metal, horn, or some other hard material. Arrowheads are usually separated by function: Arrowheads may be attached to the shaft with a cap, a socketed tang, or inserted into a split in the shaft and held by a process called hafting. Points attached with caps are simply slid snugly over the end of the shaft, or may be held on with hot glue. Split-shaft construction involves splitting the arrow shaft lengthwise, inserting the arrowhead, and securing it using a ferrule, sinew, or wire.", "Fletchings are found at the back of the arrow and act as airfoils to provide a small amount of force used to stabilize the flight of the arrow. They are designed to keep the arrow pointed in the direction of travel by strongly damping down any tendency to pitch or yaw. Some cultures, for example most in New Guinea, did not use fletching on their arrows. Also, arrows without fletching (called bare shaft) are used for training purposes, because they make certain errors by the archer more visible. Fletchings are traditionally made from feathers (often from a goose or turkey) bound to the arrow's shaft, but are now often made of plastic (known as \"vanes\"). Historically, some arrows used for the proofing of armour used copper vanes. Flight archers may use razor blades for fletching, in order to reduce air resistance. With conventional three-feather fletching, one feather, called the \"cock\" feather, is at a right angle to the nock, and is normally nocked so that it will not contact the bow when the arrow is shot. Four-feather fletching is usually symmetrical and there is no preferred orientation for the nock; this makes nocking the arrow slightly easier. Natural feathers are usually prepared by splitting and sanding the quill before gluing. Further, the feather may be trimmed to shape, die-cut or burned by a hot electrically-heated wire. It's crucial that all the feathers of an arrow have the same drag, so manual trimming is rarely used by modern fletchers. The burning-wire method is popular because different shapes are possible by bending the wire, and the fletching can be symmetrically trimmed after gluing by rotating the arrow on a fixture. Some fletchings are dyed. Two-toned fletchings usually make each fletching from two feathers knit together. The front fletching is often camouflaged, and the rear fletching bright so that the archer can easily track the arrow. Artisans who make arrows by hand are known as \"fletchers,\" a word related to the French word for arrow, \"flèche.\" This is the same derivation as the verb \"fletch,\" meaning to provide an arrow with its feathers. Glue and thread are the traditional methods of attaching fletchings. A \"fletching jig\" is often used in modern times, to hold the fletchings in exactly the right orientation on the shaft while the glue hardens. Whenever natural fletching is used, the feathers on any one arrow must come from the same wing of the bird. The most common being the right-wing flight feathers of turkeys. The slight cupping of natural feathers requires them to be fletched with a right-twist for right wing, a left-twist for left wing. This rotation, through a combination of gyroscopic stabilization and increased drag on the rear of the arrow, helps the arrow to fly straight away. Artificial \"helical\" fletchings have the same effect. Most arrows will have three fletches, but some have four or even more. Fletchings generally range from in length; flight arrows intended to travel the maximum possible distance typically have very low fletching, while hunting arrows with broadheads require long and high fletching to stabilize them against the aerodynamic effect of the head. Fletchings may also be cut in different ways, the two most common being \"parabolic\" (i.e. a smooth curved shape) and \"shield\" (i.e. shaped as one-half of a very narrow shield) cut. In modern archery with screw-in points, right-hand rotation is generally preferred as it makes the points self-tighten. In traditional archery, some archers prefer a left rotation because it gets the hard (and sharp) quill of the feather farther away from the arrow-shelf and the shooter's hand. A flu-flu is a form of fletching, normally made by using long sections of full length feathers taken from a turkey, in most cases six or more sections are used rather than the traditional three. Alternatively two long feathers can be spiraled around the end of the arrow shaft. The extra fletching generates more drag and slows the arrow down rapidly after a short distance, about or so. Flu-Flu arrows are often used for hunting birds, or for children's archery, and can also be used to play Flu-Flu Golf.", "Wraps are thin pre-cut sheets of material, often vinyl or plastic, used to wrap the nock end of an arrow, primarily as an aid in bonding vanes and feather fletching to the shaft. Wraps can also make the future removal of vanes and fletching-glue much easier. Additionally, they add a decorative aspect to arrow building, which provides archers an opportunity to personalize their arrows. Brightly colored wraps can also make arrows much easier to find in the brush, and to see in downrange targets.", "In English it is common to say \"nock an arrow\" when one readies a shot. A nock is a notch in the rearmost end of an arrow. It helps keep the arrow correctly rotated. It also keeps the arrow from slipping sideways during the draw or after the release. It also helps maximize the arrow's energy (i.e. its range and lethality) by helping an archer place the arrow at the fastest-moving place on the bowstring. Some archers mark the nock position with beads, knots or wrappings of thread. The main purpose of a nock is to control the rotation of the arrow. Arrows bend when released. If the bend hits the bowstave, the arrow's aim will be thrown off. Wooden arrows have a preferred bending-plane. Synthetic arrows have a designed bending plane. Usually this plane is determined by the grain of the wood of the arrow, or the structure of a synthetic arrow. The nock's slot should be rotated at an angle chosen so that when the arrow bends, it avoids or slides on the bowstave. Almost always this means that the slot of the nock must be perpendicular to the wood's grain, viewed from behind. \"Self nocks\" are slots cut in the back of the arrow. These are simple, but can break at the base of the slot. Self nocks are often reinforced with glued servings of fiber near the base of the slot. The sturdiest nocks are separate pieces made from wood, plastic, or horn that are then attached to the end of the arrow. Modern nocks, and traditional Turkish nocks, are often constructed so as to curve around the string or even pinch it slightly, so that the arrow is unlikely to slip off. Ancient Arab archery sometimes used \"nockless arrows.\" In shooting at enemies, Arabs saw them pick up Arab arrows and shoot them back. So Arabs developed bowstrings with a small ring tied where the nock would normally be placed. The rear end of the arrow would be sharpened to a point, rather than slit for a nock. The rear end of the arrow would slip into the ring. The arrow could be drawn and released as usual. Then the enemy could collect the arrows, yet not shoot them back with a conventional bow. Also, since there was no nock, the nock could not break, and the arrow was less expensive. A piece of battle advice was to have several rings tied to the bowstring in case one broke. A practical disadvantage compared to a nock would be preserving the optimal rotation of the arrow, so that when it flexes, it does not hit the bowstave. The bend direction of the arrow might have been indicated by its fletching.", "Arrows are usually finished so that they are not softened by rain, fog or condensation. Traditional finishes are varnishes or lacquers. Arrows sometimes need to be repaired, so it's important that the paints be compatible with glues used to attach arrowheads, fletchings and nocks. For this reason, arrows are rarely protected by waxing. Crests are rings or bands of paint, often brightly colored, applied to arrows on a lathe-like tool called a cresting machine, usually for the purpose of personalization. Like wraps, cresting may also be done to make arrows easier to see." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "British.", "American.", "Canadian.", "Coat and colour.", "Temperament.", "Health and lifespan.", "Common health problems.", "Grooming.", "Activities.", "Origins and history.", "In the United Kingdom.", "In Scotland.", "In the United States.", "In Canada." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Golden Retriever is a medium-large, strongly built breed with a dense, water-repellant wavy coat. As a dog with origins in pedigree breeding, and owing to its widespread historical popularity, some regional variations have emerged in the breed; therefore, the three subtypes of the Golden Retriever reflect the typical variations in dimensions and coat. However, all Golden Retrievers are blonde, yellow, or gold in colour, and all subtypes are susceptible to the same health problems.", "British-type Golden Retrievers are prevalent throughout Europe and Australia. The skull is broader and the forequarters are more muscular than in other types. The muzzle is balanced and well chiseled. The coat is generally lighter in colour than in the American types. Males stand between at the withers; females are between. Acceptable or expected weights are not specified in the UK standard, but the Kennel Club standard calls for a level topline and straight hindquarters without the slight rear angulation found in American lines. The eyes are round and dark, which is in contrast to the triangular or slanted composition of their American counterparts. British Golden Retrievers can have a coat colour of any shade of gold or cream; red or mahogany are not permitted. Originally, cream was an unacceptable colour in the UK standard, but the standard was revised in 1936 to include cream. At the time of this revision, the exclusion of cream as a colour was agreed to as a mistake, as the original \"yellow\" retrievers of the 19th century were actually lighter in colour than was permitted by the standards used before 1936. As with American lines, white is an unacceptable colour in the show ring. The British Kennel Club standard is used in all countries except the US and Canada. Golden retrievers have muscular bodies with great endurance, owing to their origins as hunting and gundogs.", "American types are lankier and less muscular than other types, males stand between in height at the withers; females are tall. Their coats are darker in colour and occur in various shades of lustrous gold with moderate feathering. When trotting, they have a free, smooth, powerful, and well-coordinated gait; as the dog runs, its feet converge towards the center of the line of balance. The American standard also makes requirements about the proportion, substance, head and skull, neck, body, topline, forequarters, and hindquarters; in these respects, the American-type Retriever is the same as Golden Retrievers that conform to other national standards. American breeders of Golden Retrievers sometimes import their dogs from Britain to take advantage of the temperament and appearance of the British types.", "The Canadian Golden Retriever has a thinner and darker coat and stands taller than other types. Males stand in height at withers; and females. Weight for males is between 29–34 kg (65-75 lb); and females between 27–32 kg (60-70 lb).", "As indicated by their name, their coats occur in light golden to dark golden colours. The topcoat is water-resistant and slightly wavy, and sheds in small amounts throughout the year. The undercoat is soft and keeps the retriever cool in summer and warm in winter; it sheds in the spring and fall. It usually lies flat against the belly. The Golden's coat should never be too long, as this may prove to be a disservice to it in the field, especially when retrieving game. Golden Retrievers have mild feathering on the backs of their fore legs and heavier feathering on the fronts of their necks, backs of their thighs and the bottoms of their tails. The American Kennel Club (AKC) standard states the coat is a \"rich, lustrous golden of various shades\", disallowing extremely light or extremely dark coats. This leaves the outer ranges of coat colour up to a judge's discretion when competing in conformation shows. Therefore, \"pure white\" and \"red\" are unacceptable, as is black. The Kennel Club (UK) also permits cream as an acceptable coat colour. Judges may also disallow Goldens with pink noses, or those lacking pigment. The Golden's coat can also be mahogany, referred to as \"redhead\", although this is not accepted in the British show ring. As a Golden grows older, its coat can become darker or lighter, along with a noticeable whitening of the fur on and around the muzzle. Puppy coats are usually much lighter than their adult coats, but a puppy with darker ear tips may indicate a darker adult colour.", "The temperament of the Golden Retriever is a hallmark of the breed, and is described in the standard as \"kindly, friendly and confident\". Golden Retrievers make good family pets, particularly as they are patient with children. They are not \"one-man dogs\" and are generally equally amiable with both strangers and those familiar to them. Their trusting, gentle disposition makes them a poor guard dog. Any form of unprovoked aggression or hostility towards either people, dogs or other animals, whether in the show ring or community, is considered unacceptable in a Golden Retriever and is not in keeping with the character of the breed, nor should a Golden Retriever be unduly timid or nervous. The typical Golden Retriever is calm, naturally intelligent and biddable, and with an exceptional eagerness to please. Golden Retrievers are also noted for their intelligence. The breed ranks fourth in Stanley Coren's \"The Intelligence of Dogs\" – following the Border Collie, Poodle, and German Shepherd – as one of the brightest dogs ranked by obedience-command trainability. Typical Golden Retrievers are active and fun-loving animals with the exceptionally patient demeanour befitting a dog bred to sit quietly for hours in a hunting blind. Adult Goldens love to work, and have a keen ability to focus on a given task. They will work until they collapse, so care should be taken to avoid overworking them. Other characteristics related to their hunting heritage are a size suited for scrambling in and out of boats and an inordinate love for water. Golden Retrievers are exceptionally trainable—due to their intelligence, athleticism and desire to please their handlers—and excel in obedience trials. They are also very competitive in agility and other performance events. Harsh training methods are unnecessary, as Golden Retrievers often respond very well to positive and upbeat training styles. Golden Retrievers are compatible with other dogs, cats, and most livestock. They are particularly valued for their high level of sociability towards people, calmness, and willingness to learn. Because of this, they are commonly used as guide dogs, mobility assistance dogs, and search and rescue dogs.", "The average lifespan for a Golden Retriever is about 11 to 12 years. The breed is susceptible to specific ailments, so pets should be taken to a veterinarian for yearly checkups. Golden Retrievers are known to have genetic disorders and other diseases. Hip dysplasia is common in the breed; when buying a puppy, the pedigree should be known and be examined by the OFA or by PennHIP for hip disease. Obesity is also common in the breed because Golden Retrievers love to eat. Puppies should eat about three cups of food a day and adults three to five cups, depending on the food and how active the dog is.", "Cancer is the breed's biggest killer, causing 61.4% of American Golden deaths according to a 1998 health study conducted by the Golden Retriever Club of America. The most common is hemangiosarcoma, followed by lymphosarcoma, mast cell tumour, and osteosarcoma. A 2004 survey by the UK Kennel Club puts this number at 38.8%. Although most puppies are screened for the disorders before being sold (by reputable breeders), hip and elbow dysplasia afflict one-fifth of dogs. Eye diseases are also possible in the breed; cataracts are the most common eye disease, but they can also be afflicted with progressive retinal atrophy, glaucoma, distichiasis, entropion, corneal dystrophy, and retinal dysplasia. They may suffer from heart disease, especially subvalvular aortic stenosis, and cardiomyopathy and joint diseases, including patella luxation, osteochondritis, panosteitis, and cruciate ligament rupture. Their long hair also gets knotted up under the ears and longer hairs on their belly and legs if not groomed, these dreads can be cut out with scissors with slow rapid cuts. They can cause pain and discomfort and if left too long will get more matted. In addition to the heavy shedding they experience (and their constant lighter shedding throughout the year), Golden Retrievers can suffer from skin diseases; the most prevalent skin problem is allergies (often leading to acute moist dermatitis or \"hot spots\"), with the most common allergy being to fleas. They can also suffer from seborrhoea, sebaceous adenitis, self-inflicted lick granuloma, and haemophilia.", "Golden Retrievers require regular grooming and occasional baths. Their coats shed somewhat during the year, but are known to shed profusely twice a year. They also need to have their ears cleaned regularly, or ear infections might occur. While shedding is unavoidable, frequent grooming (daily to weekly) lessens the amount of hair shed by the animal. Severe shedding resulting in bald patches can be indicative of stress or sickness.", "The Golden Retriever's eagerness to please has made it a consistent, top performer in the obedience and agility rings. Its excellent swimming ability makes it proficient at dock jumping. A natural retrieving ability means it is also competitive in flyball and field trials. The first three dogs ever to achieve the AKC Obedience Champion title were Golden Retrievers; the first of the three was a female named 'Ch. Moreland's Golden Tonka'. Since Golden Retrievers are so trainable, they are used for many important jobs, such as guide dogs for blind people, drug or bomb sniffing at airports, or helping to rescue people from earthquakes and other natural disasters. This breed is also used in water rescue/lifesaving, along with the Leonberger, Newfoundland and Labrador Retriever dogs", "The Golden Retriever was originally bred in Scotland in the mid-19th century. At that time, wildfowl hunting was a popular sport for the wealthy Scottish elite, but the existing retriever breeds were inadequate for retrieving downed game from both water and land. Retrieving from both land and water was necessary because the hunting grounds of the time were pocketed with marshy ponds and rivers. Consequently, the best water spaniels were crossed with the existing retrievers, resulting in the establishment of the breed today known as the Golden Retriever. The Golden Retriever was first developed near Glen Affric in Scotland, at \"Guisachan\", the highland estate of Dudley Marjoribanks, 1st Baron Tweedmouth. The breed is thought to have originated from the now-extinct Russian tracker dog. Improvements in guns during the 1800s resulted in more fowl being downed during hunts at greater distances and over increasingly difficult terrain, leading to more birds being lost in the field. Because of this improvement in firearms, a need for a specialist retriever arose, as training setter and pointer breeds in retrievals was found to be ineffective. Thus, work began on the breeding of the dog to fill this much-needed role. The original cross was of a yellow-coloured retriever, 'Nous', with a Tweed Water Spaniel female dog, 'Belle'. The Tweed Water Spaniel is now extinct, but was then common in the border country. Marjoribanks had purchased Nous in 1865 from an unregistered litter of otherwise black wavy-coated retriever pups. In 1868, this cross produced a litter that included four pups; these four became the basis of a breeding program which included the Irish Setter, the sandy-coloured Bloodhound, the St. John's water dog of Newfoundland, and two more wavy-coated black retrievers. The bloodline was also inbred and selected for trueness to Marjoribanks' idea of the ultimate hunting dog. His vision included a more vigorous and powerful dog than previous retrievers, one that would still be gentle and trainable. Russian sheepdogs are not mentioned in these records, nor are any other working dog breeds. The ancestry of the Golden Retriever is all sporting dogs, in line with Marjoribanks' goals. The Golden Retriever was active and powerful and had a gentle mouth for retrieving games while on hunts.", "Golden Retrievers were first accepted for registration by The Kennel Club in 1903, as Flat Coats – Golden. They were first exhibited in 1908, and in 1911 were recognized as a breed referred to as Retriever (Golden and Yellow).", "In July 2006, the Golden Retriever Club of Scotland organized a gathering of Golden Retriever enthusiasts at the ancestral home, Guisachan House. A photograph taken by photographer Lynn Kipps to commemorate the occasion captured 188 Golden Retrievers, and so holds the record for the most Golden Retrievers in one image.", "It took another 14 years for the breed to be recognized in America, and in 1925, the American Kennel Club did so. In 1938, the Golden Retriever Club of America was founded. Golden Retrievers are ranked number two for American Kennel Club Registrations. As of the year 1999, 62,652 have been registered and the only breed above them is the Labrador Retriever. According to the purebred dog guide recognized by the American Kennel Club, Golden Retrievers are judged based on a variety of traits: colour, coat, ears, feet, nose, body, etc.", "The Honourable Archie Marjoribanks took a Golden Retriever to Canada in 1881, and registered \"Lady\" with the AKC in 1894. These are the first records of the breed in these two countries. The breed was first registered in Canada in 1927, and the Golden Retriever Club of Ontario (GRCO) was formed in 1958. The cofounders of the GRCO were Cliff Drysdale, an Englishman who had brought over an English Golden, and Jutta Baker, daughter-in-law of Louis Baker, who owned Northland Kennels. The GCRO in later years expanded to become the Golden Retriever Club of Canada." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Capacity.", "Engine and hull.", "Sailing schedules." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Emma Mærsk\" was built at the Odense Steel Shipyard in Denmark. In June 2006, during construction, welding work caused a fire within the superstructure. It spread rapidly through the accommodation section and bridge, which delayed her completion by six to seven weeks. She was named in a ceremony on 12 August 2006, after Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller's late wife, Emma. She set sail on her maiden voyage on 8 September 2006 at 02:00 hours from Aarhus, calling at Gothenburg, Bremerhaven, Rotterdam, Algeciras, the Suez Canal, and arrived in Singapore on 1 October 2006 at 20:05 hours. She sailed the next day for Yantian in Shenzhen, then Kobe, Nagoya, arriving at Yokohama on 10 October 2006, and returning via Shenzhen, Hong Kong, Tanjung Pelepas, the Suez Canal, Felixstowe, Rotterdam, Bremerhaven, Gothenburg to Aarhus, arriving on 11 November 2006 at 16:00 hours. In 2008, the ship was featured on an episode of the television documentary series \"Mighty Ships\", during a voyage between Malaysia and Spain. In 2011, the National Bank of Denmark issued a 20 DKK commemorative coin for her. Going eastwards on 1 February 2013, she suffered a damaged stern thruster and took on so much water in the Suez Canal that she became unmaneuverable. Tugs, anchors and the wind took her to Port Said to offload 13,500 containers, drain her and be investigated by divers. She had not been in danger of sinking. On 15 February 2013, Maersk Line confirmed that she was about to leave Port Said under tow to a yard for further assessment and repair. On 25 February she reached the yard of Palermo, Sicily, where she was scheduled to stay for four months. The flooded engine was disassembled, repaired and assembled, and in August 2013, she was in service again after a DKK 250 million (roughly US$44.5m) repair.", "Originally Maersk reported a capacity of 11,000 TEU (twenty-foot equivalent units) as the maximum capacity of fully loaded 14 ton containers, according to Maersk company's then method of calculating capacity, which, at her introduction into service, was about 1,400 more containers than any other ship. However, Maersk also acknowledges the standard method of defining capacity, stating 14,770 TEU. By normal calculations, she has a capacity significantly greater than reported—between 13,500 and 15,200 TEU. The difference between the official and estimated numbers is because Maersk calculates the capacity of a container ship by weight (in this case, 14 tons/container), i.e. 11,000+ containers, of which 1,000 can be refrigerated containers. Other companies calculate capacity according to the maximum number of containers that can be carried irrespective of weight, always greater than the number calculated by the Maersk method. As of 2012, the E-class is still the largest by full-weight 14-tonne capacity. \"Marco Polo\" can carry 10,000 14-t containers, 16,020 if not fully loaded. On 21 February 2011, Maersk ordered a family of ten even larger ships from Daewoo, the Maersk Triple E class, with a capacity of 18,000 containers. A further ten ships were ordered in June 2011. The first was delivered in 2013.", "She is powered by a Wärtsilä-Sulzer 14RTFLEX96-C engine, the world's largest single diesel unit, weighing 2,300 tonnes and capable of when burning of heavy fuel oil per hour. At economical speed, fuel consumption is 0.260 bs/hp·hour (1,660 gal/hour). She has features to lower environmental damage, including exhaust heat recovery and cogeneration. Some of the exhaust gases are returned to the engine to improve economy and lower emissions, and some are passed through a steam generator which then powers a Peter Brotherhood steam turbine and electrical generators. This creates an electrical output of 8.5 MW, equivalent to about 12% of the main engine power output. Some of this steam is used directly as shipboard heat. Five diesel generators together produce 20.8 MW, giving a total electric output of 29 MW. Two 9 MW electric motors augment the power on the 150 meter main propeller shaft, the longest in the world. Two bow and two stern thrusters provide port manoeuvrability, and two pairs of stabilizer fins reduce rolling. A special silicone-based paint, instead of biocides used by much of the industry, keeps barnacles off of the hull. This increases her efficiency by reducing drag while also protecting the ocean from biocides that may leak. The paint is credited with lowering the water drag enough to save 1,200 tonnes of fuel per year. The ship has a bulbous bow, a standard feature for cargo ships. The turning diameter at is. The engine is near midship to make best use of the rigidity of the hull and to maximize capacity. When the ship rolls 20 degrees, the bridge sways 35 metres.", "Her regular round trip is between northern Europe and the far east via the English Channel, the Strait of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal, calling at Ningbo, Xiamen, Hong Kong (westbound), Yantian (westbound), Algeciras (westbound), Rotterdam, Bremerhaven, Algeciras (eastbound), Yantian (eastbound), Hong Kong (eastbound), and Ningbo. , the schedule included Gdańsk, Aarhus, and Gothenburg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Middle Age tradition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "After his abduction and rape of Chrysippus, Laius married Jocasta. Laius received an oracle from Delphi which told him that he must not have a child with his wife, or the child would kill him and marry her; in another version, recorded by Aeschylus, Laius is warned that he can only save the city if he dies childless. One night, Laius became drunk and fathered Oedipus with Jocasta. Jocasta handed the newborn infant over to Laius. Jocasta or Laius pierced and pinned the infant's ankles together. Laius instructed his chief shepherd, a slave who had been born in the palace, to expose the infant on Mount Cithaeron. Laius' shepherd took pity on the infant and gave him to another shepherd in the employ of King Polybus of Corinth. Childless, Polybus and his Queen, Merope (according to Sophocles, or Periboea according to Pseudo-Apollodorus), raised the infant to adulthood. Oedipus grew up in Corinth under the assumption that he was the biological son of Polybus and his wife. Hearing rumors about his parentage, he consulted the Delphic Oracle. Oedipus was informed by the Oracle that he was fated to kill his father and to marry his mother. Fearing for the safety of the only parents known to him, Oedipus fled from Corinth before he could commit these sins. During his travels, Oedipus encountered Laius on the road. After a heated argument regarding right-of-way, Oedipus killed Laius, unknowingly fulfilling the first half of the prophecy. Oedipus continued his journey to Thebes and discovered that the city was being terrorized by the sphinx. Oedipus solved the sphinx's riddle, and the grateful city elected Oedipus as its new king. Oedipus accepted the throne and married Laius' widowed queen Jocasta, Oedipus’ actual mother, thereby fulfilling the second half of the prophecy. Jocasta bore her son four children: two girls, Antigone and Ismene, and two boys, Eteocles and Polynices. Differing versions exist concerning the latter part of Jocasta's life. In the version of Sophocles, when his city was struck by a plague, Oedipus learned that it was divine punishment for his patricide and incest. Hearing this news, Jocasta hanged herself. But in the version told by Euripides, Jocasta endured the burden of disgrace and continued to live in Thebes, only committing suicide after her sons killed one another in a fight for the crown (see Seven Against Thebes). In both traditions, Oedipus gouges out his eyes; Sophocles has Oedipus go into exile with his daughter Antigone, but Euripides and Statius have him residing within Thebes' walls during the war between Eteocles and Polynices.", "She is remembered in \"De Mulieribus Claris\", a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Recut contents.", "Presentation and revisions.", "\"Loose Change: 1st Edition\" (2005).", "\"Loose Change: 2nd Edition Recut\" (2006).", "\"Loose Change: Final Cut\" (2007).", "\"Loose Change 9/11: An American Coup\" (2009).", "\"Loose Change 9/11\" (2015).", "\"Loose Change 2nd Edition: HD\" (2017).", "Release and reception.", "Criticism.", "Music.", "\"The Beats of Loose Change\".", "\"More Beats of Loose Change\".", "\"Loose Change 9/11: An American Coup - Official Soundtrack\".", "In other media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In May 2003, when researching for a fictional screenplay based on the 9/11 attacks, writer Dylan Avery felt there was enough evidence to support the 9/11 conspiracy theories that the attacks were orchestrated by members of the United States government, and started working on a non-fiction version. In April 2005, the first edition of \"Loose Change\" was made available for free on the Internet and was given a limited DVD release with 50,000 sold and 100,000 given away. It cost around $2,000 to make and was made primarily on Avery's laptop computer, featuring a distinctive soundtrack produced by DJ Skooly. Avery's childhood friend, Korey Rowe, left the service of the United States Army in June 2005 to assist with the marketing of the movie. Soon after Avery decided that, \"There was new information that needed to be added and improvements made,\" and so began creating \"Loose Change: 2nd Edition\". Rowe assumed the role of producer, and Jason Bermas, a graphic designer, worked as production assistant. This edition cost around $6,000. It was originally released in December 2005, but was re-released in June 2006 as \"Loose Change: 2nd Edition Recut\". Before the release of this edition, Avery, Rowe and Bermas set up an independent movie production company called Louder than Words, an organization that identifies with the 9/11 Truth Movement. In April 2009 the rights to Loose Change were bought by Microcinema International DVD. In August 2006, Rowe was featured in an article admitting to the inaccuracy found in \"Loose Change\", such as inaccurately stating a B-52 flew into the Empire State Building (it was actually a B-25 in the 1940s). \"We don't ever come out and say that everything we say is 100 percent. We know there are errors in the documentary, and we've actually left them in there so that people discredit us and do the research for themselves.\" In 2007, media entrepreneur Mark Cuban was going to distribute \"Loose Change\", entrepreneur Matthew Brown would finance, and Charlie Sheen was going to narrate the film. However, this did not happen; Fox News political talk show host Bill O'Reilly interviewed Cuban on his radio show and said Sheen's career would be over if he narrated it. The third edition of the movie, \"Loose Change Final Cut\", was released in November 2007. According to the Loose Change website, this edition \"is substantially different from \"Loose Change\" and \"Loose Change 2nd Edition Recut\" in the way it presents the information surrounding 9/11/2001. However, it remains true to the spirit that has made \"Loose Change\" what it is today.\" Professor David Ray Griffin was brought on as script consultant, and radio host Alex Jones and Tim Sparke of Mercury Media served as executive producers. Due to an estimated cost of $200,000, this version is the first that is not available for free online, although it is in fact available for free on Google Video and YouTube in a lower quality version. This edition is over two hours in length, substantially longer than previous versions. Director Avery, producer Rowe and entrepreneur Matthew Brown released a new film through their production company, Collective Minds Media Company, entitled \"Loose Change 9/11: An American Coup\" on September 22, 2009. The film is distributed by Microcinema International. It is narrated by Daniel Sunjata, and explores historical events leading to 9/11 and its aftermath. It was financed by Joel Bachar and Patrick Kwiatkowski of Microcinema International, and its world premiere was on September 9, 2009 at the 9/11 Film Festival at the Grand Lake Theater in Oakland, California.", "\"Loose Change 2nd Edition Recut\" (2006) opens with a brief description of past suspicious and questionable motives in the history of American government. This discussion mentions Operation Northwoods, a plan put forward during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 to launch false flag terrorist attacks against the United States and blame them on Cuba as a pretext to invade that country. Focus is particularly directed at the previously proposed plans to substitute real commercial airliners with pilotless drone aircraft in order to investigate the plausibility of covertly using them as weapons while maintaining the cover of an accident. Attention is also given to the \"Project for the New American Century\", a neo-conservative think-tank that released a report in 2000 titled \"\"Rebuilding America's Defenses\"\". In particular the film points out a line from that report that states: It also highlights the fact that during the same year the report was released, the Pentagon conducted the first of two training exercises that simulated a Boeing 757 crashing into the building. It also says that from September 6 to September 10, an unusual amount of put options were placed on the stock of American Airlines, Boeing and United Airlines. The opening montage intertwines clips of the collapse of the twin towers and building 7 with a Hunter S. Thompson interview, who talks about the motive, the public version of 9/11, and answered a question saying \"Absolutely,\" that this worked in the favor of the Bush administration. This is followed by an examination of the attacks on the Pentagon. The film opposes the official story of Flight 77 hitting the Pentagon, alleging that the path of destruction does not match what a 757 would leave. In particular it claims that the size of the hole in the Pentagon, a lack of debris and, little landscape damage seem inconsistent with prior airliner crashes. It also alleges that too few parts were recovered from the crash site to reliably ascertain that they were of a Boeing 757, and that a flywheel observed at the site seemed too small to have been part of the aircraft's engine turbine. Experts officially declared that the wheel was part of the APU, but others say it didn't come from the APU of a 757 but likely from an E-3 Sentry aircraft. The film also claims that the alleged hijacker-pilot Hani Hanjour had difficulty operating basic controls on a small Cessna that he rented at a flight school, and that perhaps not even an experienced pilot could have manoeuvred the reflex angle of turn at the airspeed and altitude at which the aircraft approached the Pentagon, without going into a high speed stall. The film mentions three cameras on nearby buildings that allegedly caught the entire incident at the Pentagon on film, which it says the government confiscated and has refused to release in full. The next section focuses on the destruction of the World Trade Center. The film favors the controlled demolition theory of the destruction of World Trade Centers 1, 2 and 7. It cites as evidence eyewitness reports from a janitor, firemen, and other people near the buildings who heard bangs, many of them describing them as explosions as well as videotapes that show windows far below the burning floors blow out during the collapse, and seismograph results recorded during the collapse compared to the collapse of other similar buildings. The film claims that WTC 1, 2 and 7 were the first steel frame buildings in history to collapse due to fire. Another allegation centers on an audio recording that the film claims contains two distinct explosions at the time of the impact. The film also posits that the official story of the collapse ignores the laws of physics. In particular, the video alleges that the fires inside the twin towers were not hot enough to bring the buildings down. An audio tape is presented in which the Captain of Ladder 7 claims that the fires can be brought under control by two lines and it is mentioned that building 7 had taken only minor damage before its own collapse. These allegations follow a listing of buildings that burned longer than the Twin Towers and did not fall. For Flight 93, the video ignores the mainstream theory of passengers crashing the plane to instead allege that it landed safely at Cleveland Hopkins Airport where it was evacuated by government personnel into an unused NASA research center. As evidence, the film contains photographs and eyewitness reports of the crash site, media reports of a corresponding and bizarre evacuation at Cleveland Hopkins Airport, oddities in the transcripts of cell-phone calls supposedly placed from the plane during the hijacking, and the sighting of the tail number of Flight 93 on an aircraft in use at a later date. The film follows this with a miscellaneous listing of allegations. It claims that cell phone calls could not be made from American Airlines flights at the time of the crash—asking why American Airlines had to install a system in their own airplanes to allow the reception of cellular signals within the planes if they could do this regardless on September 11. It suggests that calls from passengers and crew were faked using sophisticated voice-morphing technology developed by the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico—and that the December 13, 2001 video of Osama Bin Laden claiming responsibility for the attacks was also faked, featuring what appeared to be an overweight lookalike version of Bin Laden. Finally it alleges that of the list of hijackers the government initially released, many were not in the planes and therefore survived September 11, 2001 and may even still be alive. In the end, the film gives financial motives for people it says would have benefited from launching the attacks. It first mentions Larry Silverstein, who stood to receive a substantial insurance payout after the attacks due to a specific anti-terrorism clause. It makes other allegations of insider trading and Halliburton's benefiting from the subsequent launch of America's \"War on Terror\".", "Although each version of the film asserts that the events of 9/11 were essentially an \"inside job\", there were significant revisions between the particular theories that different editions posited. For example:", "The first edition, \"Loose Change\", suggested that there was an unusual device (which the filmmakers refer to as a \"pod\") under the fuselage of the plane that struck the South Tower of the World Trade Center. The \"pod\" was presented as evidence that the planes involved in the attack were replaced with remote-controlled drones. Another film \"\" delves into the topic of the commercial airlines being military airlines with \"pods\". Official flight records were also presented as evidence that the aircraft involved are still in active service, though it is stated that the producers do not know what happened to the passengers of the flights. This information is omitted from all subsequent versions.", "\"Loose Change: 2nd Edition Recut\" is one hour and 29 minutes in length. The film consists of Dylan Avery narrating over photographs and news footage relating to 9/11, with an underscore of hip hop and other urban style music. Avery does not appear in the video itself, though he is shown in the bonus features. Video and still footage used includes considerable video content from CNN, MSNBC NBC, and Fox News, as well as a number of other sources. On May 26, 2006, a letter was sent to Avery alleging copyright and trademark infringement in \"Loose Change 2nd Edition\" resulting from the use of footage from French filmmakers the Naudet brothers. The letter states that Avery used copyrighted images from the film \"9/11\" and that those images violate the Lanham Act \"by suggesting that the Naudet brothers or Mr. Hanlon have endorsed or sponsored the controversial views in your film.\" The letter concludes: \"Accordingly, we hereby demand that you confirm to us within three (3) business days of the receipt of this letter that you have removed all footage taken from our clients' 9/11 film from your \"Loose Change\" film, including from the version of your film that can be downloaded on the Internet, the DVD version of your film and anywhere else you have used or are using our clients' footage.\" Avery announced that the recut version of the 2nd edition would omit some of the infringing material. The end of the film shows a clip from The American Scholar's Symposium that was aired on C-SPAN on June 25, 2006 at the Sheraton Hotel in Los Angeles. Jason Bermas, wearing the signature \"Investigate 9/11\" T-shirt that he designed, is describing their plans to peacefully demonstrate at Ground Zero on September 11, 2006. The credits music was \"Remo Conscious\"' \"We Know\".", "With new distributors, \"Loose Change: Final Cut\" was an attempt to remove all the speculative points from previous versions and weave the reported facts into this version. For instance, references that Flight 93 diverted to Cleveland Hopkins Airport, calls from the plane using voice-morphing technology, and the stance that a missile hit the Pentagon were removed from this version. Avery asserted that this was the film he wanted to make due to the new information he found out later and due to the funding and distribution he was offered; in addition, with many firefighters, survivors and witnesses going to him about events of that day, he felt it was necessary to update the film. David Ray Griffin was a script consultant and radio host Alex Jones was associated with the production of this film as well. This was over two hours long, had a new musical score, and included additional interviews and new information that was not available in the prior versions. The film was split up into the following acts and chapters:", "\"Loose Change 9/11: An American Coup\" was the 2009 edition that was written, directed, and edited by Dylan Avery. Unlike the previous editions, this was narrated by actor Daniel Sunjata. Original music was composed by Mic Cartier and the music/score used in previous versions were not used. This version started with a history of false flag operations. The graphics, interviews, and footage were changed and updated. There were interviews with Stephen Jones about the alleged nano-thermite residue found at the bottom of World Trade Centers 1, 2, and 7. In addition, near the end of the film, there was an exclusive interview with Barry Jennings, an eyewitness who had been trapped in building 7, who claimed to have heard explosions and \"stepped over bodies\", and questioned why and how World Trade Center 7 was brought down. The film also notes the coincidence of Jennings' death occurring two days prior to the National Institute of Standards and Technology building 7 report release date, as well as the fact that Jennings' testimony contradicts the \"official explanation\" that there were no deaths or witnesses of explosions in building 7. It goes on to state that a private investigator was hired to investigate his death, which was prompted with a reply stating that the case was referred to the police, that a full refund is given, and to not email about that individual again. The final segment of the film talked about former major general of the United States Marine Corps Smedley Butler and the Business Plot, which claims that wealthy businessmen backed by mainstream media and corporations approached him to overthrow then United States president Franklin D. Roosevelt and install a fascist regime. The credits music was \"Remo Conscious\"'s \"Welcome To The Aftermath\", which prominently features the verse \"9/11 was an inside job\".", "On December 15, 2015, Journeyman Pictures re-released \"Loose Change\" as a condensed, high-definition version of \"Loose Change 9/11: An American Coup\". According to the producers Dylan Avery and Korey Rowe, this edition included the new released video by NIST, a new ending and a much shorter duration made for a digital platform.", "On September 7, 2017, \"Loose Change 2nd Edition\" was released on YouTube via Loose Change's official YouTube channel. The movie was remastered into high-definition, graphics were updated, and new text was added to most of the movie. The audio from the original 2005 movie remained, however. The credits music to this updated version of \"Loose Change\" was \"Remo Conscious\"'s \"Lies\".", "In North America it aired on Fox TV affiliates, but received further screenings internationally. On September 10, 2006 BNN (Bart's Neverending Network) Nederland 3 and Portuguese public TV Station RTP aired Loose Change in prime time hours. RTP aired it again on for September 17, 2006. FreeLooseChange is an initiative in Berlin, Germany. One-hundred shops, galleries, theatres and a daily newspaper office so far distributed 50,000 free DVDs featuring the documentaries \"Loose Change\" and \"Terrorstorm\" by Alex Jones in German language versions. An August 2006 \"Vanity Fair\" article suggested that \"Loose Change\" \"just might be the first Internet blockbuster.\" Millions more have viewed the film via unaffiliated websites. More than one million copies of the DVD have been sold, and many more have been given away. The film has been broadcast on state media outlets in Belgium, Ireland and Portugal. According to \"Broadcast magazine\", the video was to have a special screening at the UK Houses of Parliament on June 14, 2006. Michael Meacher, the British MP who had considered sponsoring the screening, decided against it. On September 11, 2006, Dylan Avery and Jason Bermas appeared on \"Democracy Now! the War and Peace Report\", to debate with James Meigs and David Dunbar, two of the editors of \"Popular Mechanics\" and the book \"Debunking 9/11 Myths\".", "Journalists, researchers, social critics,as well as scientists and engineers, and members of the 9/11 Truth movement have spoken out against the film's claims about the September 11 attacks. \"Loose Change\" has been subject to criticism from a variety of sources. In March 2007, the United States Department of State published an article called \"Loose Change Debunked\" that says the movie makes \"sloppy mistakes\". The article is highly critical of the evidence cited to support the claim that Flight 77 did not hit the Pentagon, and it criticizes the controlled demolition hypothesis of the World Trade Center claiming that, \"Demolition professionals say controlled demolition of the Towers that day would have been impossible.\" The article goes on to say: It also notes that \"Loose Change\" has also been criticized by other members of the 9/11 Truth Movement, referring specifically to the critique \"Sifting Through Loose Change\". Michael Green, a member of the 9/11 Truth Movement, has analyzed the film and is critical of many of its claims and methods. Several independent researchers have also written critiques of the film. Prominent social commentator Noam Chomsky has argued that any scientists with plausible evidence would have gone through the traditional channels of scientific journals to convince other professionals, and that such a course of action is extremely low-risk for the scientist. In May 2006, the blog \"Screw Loose Change\" was created to criticize the claims in the film. Another analysis of the film has been created by the \"Internet Detectives\". Many of the critiques argue that \"Loose Change\" quote mines, uses unreliable or out-of-date sources, and cherry-picks evidence to claim that there are serious problems with official accounts of the events of September 11. One of the many aspects these critiques focus on is \"Loose Change's\" analysis of the collapse of the World Trade Center. The comparison to other notable high-rise fires that did not lead to collapse ignores differences in building design, significant WTC structural damage, and compromised fireproofing, as most steel loses over half its strength at. The comparison with Madrid's Windsor Tower fails to note its steel-supported perimeter floors that collapsed during the fire. Kevin Ryan, described by \"Loose Change\" as working for Underwriters Laboratories (UL), was actually employed in a water-testing subsidiary. Furthermore, UL does not certify structural steel, and ASTM E119 certification is not meant to predict performance in real uncontrolled fires. The NIST found no evidence of any firm having conducted tests on WTC materials in the past. Another expert quoted, Van Romero, has clarified that he was misquoted by the \"Albuquerque Journal\"; he had actually said that it \"looked like\" explosives took down the WTC. When the misquote was printed, he felt his \"scientific reputation was on the line.\" On September 11, 2006, the public-TV network program \"Democracy Now!\" broadcast a discussion between two \"Loose Change\" creators and two editors from \"Popular Mechanics\", where they debated at considerable length various aspects of the documentary. Jason Bermas claimed United Flight 93 did not crash into the field, and classified \"Popular Mechanics\" as a publication in the spirit of Hearst's \"yellow journalism\". George Monbiot, political activist and columnist for the Guardian, wrote an article on the improbability of the conspiracies cited in \"Loose Change\", and then wrote a follow-up article in response to negative comments from some of his readers. On \"SModcast\", Kevin Smith discussed \"Loose Change\" and other conspiracy videos about aliens and various things. However, he maintains that he enjoys the film purely as entertainment, and does not believe or agree with the theories presented in the film. \"The Best Page in the Universe\" parodied the movie with a short video, \"Unfastened Coins\", that \"exposes\" a \"Titanic\"-sinking conspiracy, and an article mocking the logic of conspiracy theories in the film. The History Channel aired a two-hour episode entitled \"The 9/11 Conspiracies: Fact or Fiction?\" featuring interviews with the creators of \"Loose Change\". Mark Cuban, who was going to distribute the film, told the Dallas News \"I don’t believe the movie. Not at all.\" Financier Matthew Brown shared similar remarks though \"supports free speech, even when I vehemently disagree.\" In Britain, BBC's documentary television show \"The Conspiracy Files\" aired two documentaries focused on 9/11 and the conspiracy theories surrounding the collapse of WTC7. Several claims made by \"Loose Change\" were investigated and specifically rejected. Dylan Avery was interviewed for the program, which cast him in a negative light.", "", "A gapless album soundtrack for \"Loose Change: 2nd Edition\" was released in December 2006 by now-defunct company \"Third i Records\" and features hip-hop music by various artists. \"The Beats of Loose Change\" featured music by \"DJ Skooly\", who was Dylan Avery's roommate Dustin Marshall along with Marshall's friends' work: Josue Guadalupe (\"Swae Da Ricanstrukta\") and Nick Hernandez (\"Nick Tha 1da\"). \"The Beats of Loose Change\" also included vocals from the film. The \"Loose Change: 2nd Edition\" DVD release had optional \"music-only\" and \"vocals-only\" features for the film.", "\"More Beats of Loose Change\" featured music from \"Loose Change: The Final Cut\" and was a rare album release that featured new music with a primary focus on a hip-hop score. There were also full submitted rock and rap tracks. This was another \"gapless album\" and was also noted as \"More Beats of Loose Change: The Loose Change 3rd Edition Soundtrack\". This album also included key quotes and narration that was used in the film. The track \"Opinions\" was also on the original \"Beats of Loose Change\" as \"What They Saw\". Also, the track \"Hani Hanjour\" may share the same title as a track from \"The Beats of Loose Change\", but it was a complete different melody. The \"Loose Change: Final Cut\" DVD release also had optional \"music-only\" and \"vocals-only\" features for the film.", "Original music for the 2009 revision \"Loose Change 9/11: An American Coup\" was composed by \"Mic Cartier\". On June 24, 2018, the official soundtrack to this movie was released on CD Baby and subsequently to other streaming websites.", "In 2008, film director David Lynch was interviewed on Dutch television about \"Loose Change\", to which he said that the film made him look at what he thought he saw, that he now had questions and \"... no answers.\" In his book \"American Conspiracies\", specifically in Chapter 12 (\"What really happened on September 11?\"), former Governor of Minnesota Jesse Ventura wrote that he urged \"everyone to see\" the documentary \"Loose Change\". The version Ventura saw was the 2007 (Final Cut) and he wrote that from the film, he was \"amazed at the many firefighters and other eyewitnesses who talked about a whole series of explosions before and during the collapse of the buildings.\" In 2011, film writer and director Kevin Smith stated that he \"loved\" \"Loose Change\" and said it was a compelling watch. In 2012, Smith said \"Loose Change\" was a \"gripping, well-made film\", \"excellent filmmaking\", but said he did not know if any of it was true." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Adventures.", "Advice." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Nestor was the son of Neleus and Chloris. His wife was either Eurydice or Anaxibia; their children included Peisistratus, Thrasymedes, Pisidice, Polycaste, Perseus, Stratichus, Aretus, Echephron, and Antilochus. In late accounts, Nestor had a daughter Epicaste who became the mother of Homer by Telemachus.", "", "Originally from Gerenia, Nestor was an Argonaut, helped fight the centaurs, and participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar. He became the King of Pylos after Heracles killed Neleus and all of Nestor's siblings. He and his sons, Antilochus and Thrasymedes, fought on the side of the Achaeans in the Trojan War. Though Nestor was already very old when the war began, he was noted for his bravery and speaking abilities. In the \"Iliad\", he often gives advice to the younger warriors and advises Agamemnon and Achilles to reconcile. He is too old to engage in combat himself, but he leads the Pylian troops, riding his chariot, and one of his horses is killed by an arrow shot by Paris. He also had a solid gold shield. Homer frequently calls him by the epithet \"the Gerenian horseman.\" At the funeral games of Patroclus, Nestor advises Antilochus on how to win the chariot race. Antilochus was later killed in battle by Memnon. In the \"Odyssey,\" Nestor and those who were part of his army had safely returned to Pylos, having chosen to leave Troy immediately after plundering the city rather than staying behind with Agamemnon to appease Athena, who was angered by the heinous actions of some of the Greeks (probably Ajax the Lesser). Odysseus's son Telemachus travels to Pylos to inquire about the fate of his father. Nestor receives his friend's son, Telemachus, kindly and entertains him lavishly but is unable to furnish any information on his father's fate. Also appearing in the \"Odyssey\" are Nestor's wife Eurydice and their remaining living sons: Echephron, Stratius, Aretus, Thrasymedes and Peisistratus. Nestor also had two daughters named Pisidice and Polycaste.", "Nestor's advice in the \"Iliad\", while always respected by his listeners due to his age and experience, is always tempered with a sub-text of humor at his expense due to his boastfulness, as he is never able to dispense the advice without first spending several paragraphs recounting his own heroic actions in the past when faced with similar circumstances. In the \"Odyssey\", too, Homer's admiration of Nestor is tempered by some humor at his expense: Telemachus, having returned to Nestor's home from a visit to Helen of Troy and Menelaus (where he has sought further information on his father's fate), urges Peisistratus to let him board his vessel immediately to return home rather than being subjected to a further dose of Nestor's rather overwhelming sense of hospitality. Peisistratus readily agrees, although ruefully stating that his father is bound to be furious when he learns of Telemachus's departure. Nestor's advice in the \"Iliad\" has also been interpreted to have sinister undertones. For example, when Patroclus comes to Nestor for advice in Book 11, Nestor persuades him that it is urgent for him to disguise himself as Achilles. Karl Reinhardt argues that this is contrary to what Patroclus really originally wanted – in fact, he is only there to receive information on behalf of Achilles about the wounded Machaon. Reinhardt notes that an \"unimportant errand left behind by an all-important one... Patroclus' role as messenger is crucial and an ironic purpose permeates the encounter.\" Homer offers contradictory portrayals of Nestor as a source of advice. On one hand, Homer describes him as a wise man; Nestor repeatedly offers advice to the Achaeans that has been claimed to be anachronistic in Homer's time – for example, arranging the armies by tribes and clans or effectively using chariots in battle. Yet at the same time Nestor's advice is frequently ineffective. Some examples include Nestor accepting without question the dream Zeus plants in Agamemnon in Book 2 and urging the Achaeans to battle, instructing the Achaeans in Book 4 to use spear techniques that in actuality would be disastrous, and in Book 11 giving advice to Patroclus that ultimately leads to his death. Yet Nestor is never questioned and instead is frequently praised. Hanna Roisman explains that the characters in the \"Iliad\" ignore the discrepancy between the quality of Nestor's advice and its outcomes because, in the world of the Iliad, \"outcomes are ultimately in the hands of the ever arbitrary and fickle gods... heroes are not necessarily viewed as responsible when things go awry.\" In the \"Iliad\", people are judged not necessarily in the modern view of results, but as people. Therefore, Nestor should be viewed as a good counselor because of the qualities he possesses as described in his introduction in Book 1 – as a man of \"sweet words,\" a \"clear-voiced orator,\" and whose voice \"flows sweeter than honey.\" These are elements that make up Nestor, and they parallel the elements that Homer describes as part of a good counselor at \"Iliad\" 3.150–152. Therefore, \"the definition tells us that Nestor, as a good advisor, possesses the three features... that it designates.\" Nestor is a good counselor inherently, and the consequences of his advice have no bearing on that, a view that differs from how good counselors are viewed today." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family history.", "Early life.", "Second World War.", "Activities in 1939–1940.", "Operation Barbarossa, 1941.", "Tunisia, 1942.", "In the resistance, 1943–44.", "20 July plot.", "Assassination attempt.", "Execution.", "Assessment.", "Family." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stauffenberg's full name was Claus Philipp Maria Justinian, followed by the noble title of \"Count of Stauffenberg\". He was born in the Stauffenberg Castle Jettingen between Ulm and Augsburg, in the eastern part of Swabia, at that time in the Kingdom of Bavaria, part of the German Empire. Stauffenberg was the third of four sons, including the twins Berthold and Alexander and his own twin brother Konrad Maria, who died in Jettingen one day after birth on 16 November 1907. His father was Alfred Klemens Philipp Friedrich Justinian, the last of the Kingdom of Württemberg. Stauffenberg's mother was Caroline Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg, née Gräfin von Üxküll-Gyllenband, the daughter of Alfred Richard August Graf von Üxküll-Gyllenband and Valerie Gräfin von The titles \"Graf\" and \"Gräfin\" define count and countess, respectively. Schenk (i.e., cupbearer/butler) was an additional hereditary noble title. The ancestral castle of the nobility was the last part of the title, which was Schenk Graf von \"Stauffenberg\" and used as part of the name. The Stauffenberg family is one of the oldest and most distinguished aristocratic Catholic families of southern Germany. Among his maternal Protestant ancestors were several famous Prussians, including Field Marshal August von Gneisenau. On 11 November 1919, a new constitutional law, as part of the Weimar Republic, abolished the privileges of nobility. Article 109 also stated, \"Legal privileges or disadvantages based on birth or social standing are to be abolished. Noble titles form part of the name only; noble titles may not be granted any more.\"", "In his youth, he and his brothers were members of the, a German Scout association and part of the German Youth movement. Like his brothers, he was carefully educated and inclined toward literature, but eventually took up a military career. In 1926, he joined the family's traditional regiment, the (17th Cavalry Regiment) in Bamberg. It was around this time that the three brothers were introduced by Albrecht von Blumenthal to the poet Stefan George's influential circle, \"Georgekreis\", from which many notable members of the German resistance later emerged. George dedicated \"Das neue Reich\" (\"the new Empire\") in 1928, including the \"Geheimes Deutschland\" (\"secret Germany\") written in 1922, to Berthold. Stauffenberg was commissioned as a (second lieutenant) in 1930. He studied modern weapons at the in Berlin-Moabit, but remained focused on the use of horses—which continued to carry out a large part of transportation duties throughout World War II—in modern warfare. His regiment became part of the German 1st Light Division under General Erich Hoepner, who had taken part in the plans for the September 1938 German Resistance coup, cut short by Hitler's unexpected diplomatic success in the Munich Agreement. The unit was among the Wehrmacht troops that moved into Sudetenland following its annexation to the Reich as per the Munich Agreement. Although Stauffenberg agreed with the Nazi Party's racist and nationalistic aspects and had supported the German colonization of Poland and made extremist remarks regarding Polish Jews, he never became a member. During the German presidential election, 1932, he voiced support for Hitler: Moreover, Stauffenberg remained a practicing Catholic. Stauffenberg vacillated between a strong dislike of Hitler's policies and a respect for what he perceived to be Hitler's military acumen. Stauffenberg became even more disassociated with the party after The Night of the Long Knives and Kristallnacht proved Hitler had no intentions to pursue justice. On top of this, the growing systematic ill-treatment of Jews and suppression of religion had offended Stauffenberg's strong sense of Catholic morality and justice.", "", "Following the outbreak of war in 1939, Stauffenberg and his regiment took part in the attack on Poland. He supported the occupation of Poland and its handling by the Nazi regime and the use of Poles as slave workers to achieve German prosperity as well as German colonization and exploitation of Poland. The deeply rooted belief common in the German aristocracy was that the Eastern territories, populated predominantly by Poles and partly absorbed by Prussia in partitions of Poland, but taken from the German Empire after World War I, should be colonized as the Teutonic Knights had done in the Middle Ages. Stauffenberg said, \"It is essential that we begin a systemic colonization in Poland. But I have no fear that this will not occur\". While his uncle, Nikolaus Graf von Üxküll-Gyllenband, together with Fritz-Dietlof von der Schulenburg, had approached him before to join the resistance movement against the Hitler regime, it was only after the Polish campaign that Stauffenberg began to consider it. Peter Yorck von Wartenburg and Ulrich Schwerin von Schwanenfeld urged him to become the adjutant of Walther von Brauchitsch, then Supreme Commander of the Army, in order to participate in a coup against Hitler. Stauffenberg declined at the time, reasoning that all German soldiers had pledged allegiance not to the institution of the presidency of the German, but to the person of Adolf Hitler, due to the introduced in 1934. Stauffenberg's unit was reorganized into the 6th Panzer Division, and he served as an officer on its General Staff in the Battle of France, for which he was awarded the Iron Cross First Class.", "Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, began on 22 June 1941. (\"Army High Command\"; OKH) directed operations on the Eastern Front. Stauffenberg had been transferred to the organizational department of OKH during the idle months of the so-called Phoney War (1939–1940, before the Battle of France). Stauffenberg did not engage in any coup plotting at this time. However, the Stauffenberg brothers (Berthold and Claus) maintained contact with anti-regime figures such as the Kreisau Circle and former commanders like Hoepner. They also included civilians, even social democrats like Julius Leber, in their scenarios for an administration after Hitler. According to Hoffman (p. 131, 1988), citing Brigadier (ret.) Oskar Alfred-Berger's letters, Stauffenberg had commented openly on the ill-treatment of the Jews when he \"expressed outrage and shock on this subject to fellow officers in the General Staff Headquarters in Vinnitsa (Ukraine) during the summer of 1942.\" Stauffenberg's friend, Major Joachim Kuhn, was captured by the Red Army. During interrogation on 2 September 1944, Kuhn claimed that Stauffenberg had told him in August 1942 that \"They are shooting Jews in masses. These crimes must not be allowed to continue.\" After his arrest in July 1944, Stauffenberg's older brother Berthold told the Gestapo that: \"He and his brother had basically approved of the racial principle of National Socialism, but considered it to be and.\"", "In November 1942, the Allies landed in French North Africa, and the 10th Panzer Division occupied Vichy France (Case Anton) before being transferred to fight in the Tunisia Campaign, as part of the. In 1943, Stauffenberg was promoted to (lieutenant-colonel of the general staff), and was sent to Africa to join the 10th Panzer Division as its Operations Officer in the General Staff (Ia). On 19 February, Rommel launched his counter-offensive against British, American and French forces in Tunisia. The Axis commanders hoped to break rapidly through either the Sbiba or Kasserine Pass into the rear of the British 1st Army. The assault at Sbiba was halted, so Rommel concentrated on Kasserine Pass where primarily the Italian 7th Bersaglieri Regiment and 131st Armoured Division Centauro had defeated the American defenders. During the fighting, Stauffenberg drove up to be with the leading tanks and troops of the 10th Panzer Division. The division, together with the 21st Panzer Division, took up defensive positions near Mezzouna on 8 April. On 7 April 1943, Stauffenberg was involved in driving from one unit to another, directing their movement. Near Mezzouna, his vehicle was part of a column strafed by Kittyhawk (P-40) fighter bombers of the Desert Air Force – most likely from No. 3 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force – and he received multiple severe wounds. Stauffenberg spent three months in a hospital in Munich, where he was treated by Ferdinand Sauerbruch. Stauffenberg lost his left eye, his right hand, and two fingers on his left hand. He jokingly remarked to friends never to have really known what to do with so many fingers when he still had all of them. For his injuries, Stauffenberg was awarded the Wound Badge in Gold on 14 April and for his courage the German Cross in Gold on 8 May.", "For rehabilitation, Stauffenberg was sent to his home, Schloss Lautlingen (today a museum), then still one of the Stauffenberg castles in southern Germany. The Torfels near Meßstetten Bueloch had been visited many times. Initially, he felt frustrated not to be in a position to stage a coup himself. But by the beginning of September 1943, after a somewhat slow recovery from his wounds, he was propositioned by the conspirators and was introduced to Henning von Tresckow as a staff officer to the headquarters of the (\"Replacement Army\" – charged with training soldiers to reinforce first line divisions at the front), located on the (later ) in Berlin. There, one of Stauffenberg's superiors was General Friedrich Olbricht, a committed member of the resistance movement. The had a unique opportunity to launch a coup, as one of its functions was to have Operation Valkyrie in place. This was a contingency measure to let it assume control of the in the event that internal disturbances blocked communications to the military high command. The \"Valkyrie\" plan had been agreed to by Hitler but was secretly changed to sweep the rest of his regime from power in the event of his death. In 1943, Henning von Tresckow was deployed on the Eastern Front, giving Stauffenberg control of the resistance. Tresckow did not return to Germany, as he committed suicide at Królowy Most, Poland in 1944, after learning of the plot's failure. A detailed military plan was developed not only to occupy Berlin, but also to take the different headquarters of the German army and of Hitler in East Prussia by military force after the suicide assassination attempt by Axel von dem Bussche in late November 1943. Stauffenberg had von dem Bussche transmit these written orders personally to Major Kuhn once he had arrived at \"Wolfsschanze\" (Wolf's Lair) near Rastenburg, East Prussia. However, von dem Bussche had left the Wolfsschanze for the eastern front, after the meeting with Hitler was cancelled, and the attempt could not be made. Kuhn became a prisoner of war of the Soviets after the 20 July plot. He led the Soviets to the hiding place of the documents in February 1945. In 1989, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev presented these documents to then-German chancellor Dr. Helmut Kohl. The conspirators' motivations have been a matter of discussion for years in Germany after the war. Many thought the plotters wanted to kill Hitler in order to end the war and to avoid the loss of their privileges as professional officers and members of the nobility. On D-Day, 6 June 1944, the Allies had landed in France. Stauffenberg, like most other German professional military officers, had absolutely no doubt that the war was lost. Only an immediate armistice could avoid more unnecessary bloodshed and further damage to Germany, its people, and other European nations. However, in late 1943, he had written out demands with which he felt the Allies had to comply in order for Germany to agree to an immediate peace. These demands included Germany retaining its 1914 eastern borders, including the Polish territories of Wielkopolska and Poznań. Other demands included keeping such territorial gains as Austria and the Sudetenland within the Reich, giving autonomy to Alsace-Lorraine, and even expansion of the current wartime borders of Germany in the south by annexing Tyrol as far as Bozen and Meran. Non-territorial demands included such points as refusal of any occupation of Germany by the Allies, as well as refusal to hand over war criminals by demanding the right of \"nations to deal with its own criminals\". These proposals were only directed to the Western Allies – Stauffenberg wanted Germany only to retreat from western, southern and northern positions, while demanding the right to continue military occupation of German territorial gains in the east.", "As early as September 1942 Stauffenberg was considering Hans Georg Schmidt von Altenstadt, author of \"Unser Weg zum Meer\", as a replacement for Hitler. From the beginning of September 1943 until 20 July 1944, Stauffenberg was the driving force behind the plot to assassinate Hitler and take control of Germany. His resolve, organisational abilities, and radical approach put an end to inactivity caused by doubts and long discussions on whether military virtues had been made obsolete by Hitler's behaviour. With the help of his friend Henning von Tresckow, he united the conspirators and drove them into action. Stauffenberg was aware that, under German law, he was committing high treason. He openly told young conspirator Axel von dem Bussche in late 1943, (\"I am committing high treason with all means at my disposal...\"). He justified himself to Bussche by referring to the right under natural law () to defend millions of people's lives from the criminal aggressions of Hitler. Only after the conspirator General Helmuth Stieff on 7 July 1944 had declared himself unable to assassinate Hitler on a uniforms display at Klessheim castle near Salzburg, Stauffenberg decided to personally kill Hitler and to run the plot in Berlin. By then, Stauffenberg had great doubts about the possibility of success. Tresckow convinced him to go on with it even if it had no chance of success at all, \"The assassination must be attempted. Even if it fails, we must take action in Berlin\", as this was the only way to prove to the world that the Hitler regime and Germany were not one and the same and that not all Germans supported the regime. Stauffenberg's part in the original plan required him to stay at the Bendlerstraße offices in Berlin, so he could phone regular army units all over Europe in an attempt to convince them to arrest leaders of Nazi political organisations such as the (SD) and the Gestapo. Unfortunately, when General Helmuth Stieff, Chief of Operation at Army High Command, who had regular access to Hitler, backtracked from his earlier commitment to assassinate Hitler, Stauffenberg was forced to take on two critical roles: kill Hitler far from Berlin trigger the military machine in Berlin during office hours of the very same day. Beside Stieff, he was the only conspirator who had regular access to Hitler (during his briefings) by mid-1944, as well as being the only officer among the conspirators thought to have the resolve and persuasiveness to convince German military leaders to throw in with the coup once Hitler was dead. This requirement greatly reduced the chance of a successful coup.", "After several unsuccessful attempts by Stauffenberg to encounter Hitler, Göring and Himmler at the same time, he went ahead with the attempt at on 20 July 1944. Stauffenberg entered the briefing room carrying a briefcase containing two small bombs. The location had unexpectedly been changed from the subterranean to Albert Speer's wooden hut due to the heat on this summer's day. He left the room to arm the first bomb with specially adapted pliers. This was a difficult task for him as he had lost his right hand and had only three fingers on his left hand. A guard knocked and opened the door, urging him to hurry as the meeting was about to begin. As a result, Stauffenberg was able to arm only one of the bombs. He left the second bomb with his, Werner von Haeften, and returned to the briefing room, where he placed the briefcase under the conference table, as close as he could to Hitler. Some minutes later, he excused himself and left the room. After his exit, the briefcase was moved by Colonel Heinz Brandt. When the explosion tore through the hut, Stauffenberg was convinced that no one in the room could have survived. Although four people were killed and almost all survivors were injured, Hitler himself was shielded from the blast by the heavy, solid-oak conference table leg, which Colonel Brandt had placed the briefcase bomb behind, and was only slightly wounded. Stauffenberg and Haeften quickly left and drove to the nearby airfield. After his return to Berlin, Stauffenberg immediately began to motivate his friends to initiate the second phase: the military coup against the Nazi leaders. When Joseph Goebbels announced by radio that Hitler had survived and later, after Hitler spoke on the state radio, the conspirators realised that the coup had failed. They were tracked to their offices and overpowered after a brief shoot-out, during which Stauffenberg was wounded in the shoulder.", "In an attempt to save his own life, co-conspirator General Friedrich Fromm, Commander-in-Chief of the Replacement Army present in the Bendlerblock (Headquarters of the Army), charged other conspirators in an impromptu court martial and condemned the ringleaders of the conspiracy to death. Stauffenberg, his aide 1st Lieutenant Werner von Haeften, General Friedrich Olbricht, and Colonel Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim were executed before 1:00 in the morning (21 July 1944) by a makeshift firing squad in the courtyard of the Bendlerblock, which was lit by the headlights of a truck. Stauffenberg was third in line to be executed, with Lieutenant von Haeften after. However, when it was Stauffenberg's turn, Lieutenant von Haeften placed himself between the firing squad and Stauffenberg, and received the bullets meant for Stauffenberg. When his turn came, Stauffenberg spoke his last words, (\"Long live our sacred Germany!\"), or, possibly, (\"Long live the secret Germany!\"), in reference to Stefan George and the anti-Nazi circle. Fromm ordered that the executed officers (his former co-conspirators) receive an immediate burial with military honours in the Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof in Berlin's Schöneberg district. The next day, however, Stauffenberg's body was exhumed by the SS, stripped of his medals and insignia, and cremated. Another central figure in the plot was Stauffenberg's eldest brother, Berthold Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg. On 10 August 1944, Berthold was tried before Judge-President Roland Freisler in the special \"People's Court\" (). This court was established by Hitler for political offences. Berthold was one of eight conspirators executed by slow strangulation in Plötzensee Prison, Berlin, later that day. Before he was killed, Berthold was strangled and then revived multiple times. The entire execution and multiple resuscitations were filmed for Hitler to view at his leisure. More than 200 were condemned in show trials and executed. Hitler used the 20 July Plot as an excuse to destroy anyone he feared would oppose him. The traditional military salute was replaced with the Nazi salute. Eventually, over 20,000 Germans were killed or sent to concentration camps in the purge.", "One of the few surviving members of the German resistance, Hans Bernd Gisevius portrays Colonel Stauffenberg, whom he met in July 1944, as a man driven by reasons which had little to do with Christian ideals or repugnance of Nazi ideology. In his autobiographical \"Bis zum bitteren Ende\" (\"To the Bitter End\"), Gisevius writes: Historian Peter Hoffman questions Gisevius's evaluations based on the latter's brief acquaintance with Stauffenberg, misreporting of Stauffenberg's actions, and apparent rivalry with him: British historian Richard J. Evans, in his books on the Third Reich, covered various aspects of Stauffenberg's beliefs and philosophy. He wrote an article originally published in \"Süddeutsche Zeitung\", 23 January 2009 entitled \"Why did Stauffenberg plant the bomb?\" which states, \"Was it because Hitler was losing the war? Was it to put an end to the mass murder of the Jews. Or was it to save Germany's honour? The overwhelming support, toleration, or silent acquiescence\" from the people of his country for Hitler, which was also being heavily censored and constantly fed propaganda, meant any action must be swift and successful. Evans writes, \"Had Stauffenberg's bomb succeeded in killing Hitler, it is unlikely that the military coup planned to follow it would have moved the leading conspirators smoothly into power\". However, Karl Heinz Bohrer, a cultural critic, literary scholar, publisher, criticized Evans' views in an article originally published in the \"Süddeutsche Zeitung\", 30 January 2010. Although agreeing that Evans is historically correct in much of his writing, Bohrer feels that Evans twists time lines and misrepresents certain aspects. He wrote of Evans, \"In the course of his problematic argument he walks into two traps: 1. by contesting Stauffenberg's \"moral motivation\"; 2. by contesting Stauffenberg's suitability as role model.\" He further writes, \"If then, as Evans notes with initial objectivity, Stauffenberg had a strong moral imperative – whether this stemmed from an aristocratic code of honour, Catholic doctrine or Romantic poetry – then this also underpinned his initial affinity for National Socialism which Stauffenberg misinterpreted as'spiritual renewal'\". In 1980, the German government established a memorial for the failed anti-Nazi resistance movement in a part of the Bendlerblock, the remainder of which currently houses the Berlin offices of the German Ministry of Defense (whose main offices remain in Bonn). The was renamed the, and the Bendlerblock now houses the Memorial to the German Resistance, a permanent exhibition with more than 5,000 photographs and documents showing the various resistance organizations at work during the Hitler era. The courtyard where the officers were shot on 21 July 1944 is now a memorial site, with a plaque commemorating the events and a bronze figure of a young man with his hands symbolically bound which resembles Count von Stauffenberg.", "Stauffenberg married Nina Freiin von Lerchenfeld on 26 September 1933 in Bamberg. They had five children: Berthold; Heimeran; Franz-Ludwig; Valerie; and Konstanze, who was born in Frankfurt on the Oder after Stauffenberg's execution. Berthold, Heimeran, Franz-Ludwig and Valerie, who were not told of their father's deed, were placed in a foster home for the remainder of the war and were forced to use new surnames, as became considered taboo. Nina died at the age of 92 on 2 April 2006 at Kirchlauter near Bamberg, and was buried there on 8 April. Berthold went on to become a general in West Germany's post-war. Franz-Ludwig became a member of both the German and European parliaments, representing the Christian Social Union in Bavaria. In 2008, Konstanze von Schulthess-Rechberg wrote a best-selling book about her mother, \"Nina Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design.", "Operational history.", "Czech Republic.", "Iraq.", "Spain.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Immediately after the 1989 Velvet Revolution, the president of Czechoslovakia Václav Havel declared a demobilisation of the Czechoslovak defence industry. Nevertheless, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Czech company Aero Vodochody continued developing the basic L-39 Albatros design with a view toward greater export. The resulting L-39MS, later designed as L-59 Super Albatros, featured a more powerful turbofan engine, advanced avionics, and has been bought in quantity by Egypt and Tunisia. In 1993 a group of Czech military experts launched a project of production of a modern domestic fighter to replace the obsolete Soviet aircraft. Since the proposed Aero L-X supersonic fighter development proved to be financially demanding (up to US$2 billion), the less costly L-159 subsonic attack aircraft was approved for procurement instead. Conducted between the years 1994 and 1997, the technical development of L-159 ALCA in Aero Vodochody consisted primarily of building one L-159 two-seat prototype based on the L-59 airframe utilizing western engine, avionics and weapon systems, with Rockwell Collins (eventually Boeing) as the avionics integrator. In 1995, the Czech government ordered a fleet of 72 L-159A single-seat aircraft at a cost around 50 billion CZK. The contract was signed on 4 July 1997. The number of aircraft to be delivered was based upon the size of the Czech Air Force at that time, taking into account the necessity to replace MiG-23BN and Su-22 fighter-bombers and Su-25 attack aircraft. Due to the cost of the project, the Czech government decided that a strategic partner, the Boeing Company, would be invited to join with the Aero Vodochody in the venture in May 1998. However, in October 2004, Boeing withdrew from the company and the government announced that the Aero Vodochody was to be privatised. In October 2006, it was sold to Penta Investments. The maiden flight of the first L-159 prototype (5831, \"376 white\") occurred on 2 August 1997 with a two-seat version. On 18 August 1998 the single-seat L-159A prototype (5832, \"356 white\") first flew; it was completed to Czech customer specifications. 10 April 2000 marked the first delivery of L-159A to the Czech Air Force. Prototype (6073) of the two-seat L-159B variant first flew on 1 June 2002. In 2009, Aero Vodochody selected V-Dot Systems (split off from Boeing) as the L-159 avionics integrator. V-Dot will replace the Honeywell multi-function displays (MFD) and upgrade the mission processors to support new functions.", "The L-159 ALCA is designed for the principal role of light combat aircraft (single-seat L-159A variant) or light attack jet and advanced/lead-in fighter trainer (two-seat L-159B and T variants). Design of the L-159 was derived from the L-39/59 in terms of aerodynamic configuration but a number of changes were made to improve its combat capabilities. These include strengthening of the airframe, reinforcing of the cockpit with composite and ceramic ballistic armour and enlargement of the aircraft's nose to accommodate the radar. Compared to the L-59, the number of underwing pylons was increased from four to six, and a new hardpoint under the fuselage was added instead of a GSh-23L cannon. The aircraft is powered by the non-afterburning Honeywell/ITEC F124-GA-100 turbofan engine with a maximum thrust of 28 kN. Almost 2,000 litres of fuel are stored in eight internal tanks (six in the fuselage, two at the wingtips) with up to four external drop tanks (two 500 L and two 350 L tanks) carried under the wings. The lightly armoured cockpit is equipped with a VS-2B ejection seat capable of catapulting the pilot at a zero flight level and zero speed. The aircraft's avionics, based on the MIL-STD-1553 databus, include Selex Navigation and Attack Suite, Ring Laser Gyro based Inertial Navigation System (INS) and Global Positioning System (GPS). Flight data are displayed both on the FV-3000 head-up display (HUD) and two multi-function displays (MFD). Communications are provided by a pair of Collins ARC-182 transceivers. Self-protection of the L-159 is ensured by the Sky Guardian 200 radar warning receiver (RWR) and the Vinten Vicon 78 Series 455 chaff and flare dispenser. L-159A and T2 variants are equipped with the Italian FIAR Grifo L multi-mode Doppler radar for all-weather, day and night operations. All variants of L-159 are equipped with a total of seven hardpoints (one under-fuselage and six under-wing mountings), capable of carrying external loads up to 2,340 kg. The aircraft can be equipped with a variety of weapons ranging from unguided bombs and rocket pods to air-to-ground and air-to-air guided missiles or with special devices to conduct aerial reconnaissance or electronic warfare. For example, it is capable of carrying advanced targeting pods including the AN/AAQ-28(V) LITENING.", "", "The Czech Air Force is the primary operator, receiving the latest avionics upgrades. In 1995, the Czech government ordered 72 aircraft, but after review, opted to reduce the fleet size to 24 with the remaining aircraft to be placed in storage. As of 2016, the Czech Air Force has 16 L-159A and 5 L-159T1 aircraft in service. On 1 June 2016, Aero Vodochody received an order to upgrade an initial batch of 16 L-159 aircraft.", "In 2015, Iraq signed a deal for 14 L-159 aircraft (12 L-159As and 2 L-159T1s). The first two Czech L-159s were delivered to Iraq on 5 November 2015. In May 2016, L-159 aircraft were used by the Iraqi Air Force to attack ISIL positions in Fallujah. In October and November 2016, L-159 aircraft operated by Squadron No 115 were deployed in the battle against the ISIS at the Southern outskirts of Mosul.", "In 2009, EADS-CASA of Spain exchanged with the CzAF four CASA C-295 for three L-159As, two L-159T1s and 130 million Euros. Later the two L-159T1s were returned by EADS-CASA to the Czech Republic as compensation for the C-295M not meeting the counter measures requirements of the CzAF at the time of delivery. This problem has been solved by EADS-CASA three years later and the remaining three L-159As resold by EADS-CASA to Lewis Fighter Fleet LLC.", "Draken International Inc., a civilian U.S. company that cooperates with the US military for the training of American pilots, will buy 21 planes in total. Aero Vodochody handed over the first L-159 aircraft to Draken International on 30 September 2015. Lewis Fighter Fleet LLC has purchased 3 L-159A aircraft. These aircraft were bought from EADS-CASA in July 2013." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Preparations.", "Opposing forces.", "Battle of the Oder–Neisse.", "Encirclement of Berlin.", "Battle in Berlin.", "Battle outside Berlin.", "North.", "South.", "Surrender.", "Aftermath.", "Commemoration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On 12 January 1945, the Red Army began the Vistula–Oder Offensive across the Narew River; and, from Warsaw, a three-day operation on a broad front, which incorporated four army Fronts. On the fourth day, the Red Army broke out and started moving west, up to per day, taking East Prussia, Danzig, and Poznań, drawing up on a line east of Berlin along the Oder River. The newly created Army Group Vistula, under the command of \"Reichsführer-SS\" Heinrich Himmler, attempted a counter-attack, but this had failed by 24 February. The Red Army then drove on to Pomerania, clearing the right bank of the Oder River, thereby reaching into Silesia. In the south the Siege of Budapest took place. Three German divisions' attempts to relieve the encircled Hungarian capital city failed, and Budapest fell to the Soviets on 13 February. Adolf Hitler insisted on a counter-attack to recapture the Drau-Danube triangle. The goal was to secure the oil region of Nagykanizsa and regain the Danube River for future operations, but the depleted German forces had been given an impossible task. By 16 March, the German", "The Soviet offensive into central Germany, what later became East Germany, had two objectives. Stalin did not believe the Western Allies would hand over territory occupied by them in the post-war Soviet zone, so he began the offensive on a broad front and moved rapidly to meet the Western Allies as far west as possible. But the overriding objective was to capture Berlin. The two goals were complementary because possession of the zone could not be won quickly unless Berlin were taken. Another consideration was that Berlin itself held useful post-war strategic assets, including Adolf Hitler and the German nuclear weapons program. On 6 March, Hitler appointed Lieutenant General Helmuth Reymann commander of the Berlin Defence Area, replacing Lieutenant General Bruno Ritter von Hauenschild. On 20 March, General Gotthard Heinrici was appointed Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Vistula replacing Himmler. Heinrici was one of the best defensive tacticians in the German army, and he immediately started to lay defensive plans. Heinrici correctly assessed that the main Soviet thrust would be made over the Oder River and along the main east-west Autobahn. He decided not to try to defend the banks of the Oder with anything more than a light skirmishing screen. Instead, Heinrici arranged for engineers to fortify the Seelow", "Northern Sector", "The sector in which most of the fighting in the overall offensive took place was the Seelow Heights, the last major defensive line outside Berlin. The Battle of the Seelow Heights, fought over four days from 16 until 19 April, was one of the last pitched battles of World War II: almost one million Red Army soldiers and more than 20,000 tanks and artillery pieces were deployed to break through the \"Gates to Berlin\", which were defended by about 100,000 German soldiers and 1,200 tanks and guns. The Soviet forces led by Zhukov broke through the defensive positions, having suffered about 30,000 dead, while 12,000 German personnel were killed. During 19 April, the fourth day, the 1st Belorussian Front broke through the final line of the Seelow Heights; and nothing but broken German formations lay between them and Berlin. The 1st", "On 20 April 1945, Hitler's 56th birthday, Soviet artillery of the 1st Belorussian Front began shelling Berlin and did not stop until the city surrendered. The weight of ordnance delivered by Soviet artillery during the battle was greater than the total tonnage dropped by Western Allied bombers on the city. While the 1st Belorussian Front advanced towards the east and north-east of the city, the 1st Ukrainian Front pushed through the last formations of the northern wing of Army Group Centre and passed north of Juterbog, well over halfway to the American front line on the river Elbe at Magdeburg. To the north between Stettin and Schwedt, the 2nd Belorussian Front attacked the northern flank of Army Group Vistula, held by Hasso von Manteuffel's III Panzer Army. The next day, Bogdanov's 2nd Guards Tank Army advanced nearly north of Berlin and then attacked south-west of Werneuchen. The Soviet plan was to encircle Berlin first and then envelop the IX Army. The command of the German V Corps, trapped with the IX Army north of Forst, passed from the IV Panzer Army to the IX Army. The corps was still holding on to the Berlin-Cottbus highway front line. Field Marshal Ferdinand Schörner's Army Group Centre launched a counter-offensive aimed at breaking through to Berlin from the south and making a successful initial incursion (the Battle of Bautzen) in the 1st Ukrainian Front region, engaging the 2nd Polish Army and elements of the Red Army's 52nd Army and 5th Guards Army. When the old southern flank of the IV Panzer Army had some local successes counter-attacking north against the 1st Ukrainian Front, Hitler gave orders that showed his grasp of military reality was completely gone. He ordered the IX Army to hold Cottbus and set up a front facing west. Then they were to attack the Soviet columns advancing north. This would supposedly allow them to form a northern pincer that would meet the IV Panzer Army coming from the south and envelop the 1st Ukrainian Front before destroying it. They were to anticipate a southward attack by the III Panzer Army and be ready to be the southern arm of a pincer attack that would envelop 1st Belorussian Front, which would be destroyed by SS-General Felix Steiner's Army Detachment advancing from north of Berlin.", "The forces available to General Weidling for the city's defence included roughly 45,000 soldiers in several severely depleted German Army and Waffen-SS divisions. These divisions were supplemented by the police force, boys in the compulsory Hitler Youth, and the \"Volkssturm\". Many of the 40,000 elderly men of the \"Volkssturm\" had been in the army as young men and some were veterans of World War I. Hitler appointed \"SS Brigadeführer\" Wilhelm Mohnke the Battle Commander for the central government district that included the Reich Chancellery and \"Führerbunker\". He had over 2,000 men under his command. Weidling organised the defences into eight sectors designated 'A' through to 'H' each one commanded by a colonel or a general, but most had no combat experience. To the west of the city was the 20th Infantry Division. To the north of the city was the 9th Parachute Division. To the north-east of the city was the Panzer Division \"Müncheberg\". To the south-east of the city and to the east of Tempelhof Airport was the 11th SS Panzergrenadier Division \"Nordland\". The reserve, 18th Panzergrenadier Division, was in Berlin's central district. On 23 April, Berzarin's 5th Shock Army and Katukov's 1st Guards Tank Army assaulted Berlin from the south-east and, after overcoming a counter-attack by the German LVI Panzer Corps, reached the Berlin S-Bahn ring railway on the north side of the Teltow Canal by the evening of 24 April. During the same period, of all the German forces ordered to reinforce the inner defences of the city by Hitler, only a small contingent of French SS volunteers under the command of \"SS Brigadeführer\" Gustav Krukenberg arrived in Berlin. During 25 April, Krukenberg was appointed as the commander of Defence Sector C, the sector under the most pressure from the Soviet assault on the city. On 26 April, Chuikov's 8th Guards Army and the 1st Guards Tank Army fought their way through the southern suburbs and attacked Tempelhof Airport, just inside the S-Bahn defensive ring, where they met stiff resistance from the \"Müncheberg\" Division. But by 27 April, the two understrength divisions (\"Müncheberg\" and \"Nordland\") that were defending the south-east, now facing five Soviet armies—from east to west, the 5th Shock Army, the 8th Guards Army, the 1st Guards Tank Army and Rybalko's 3rd Guards Tank Army (part of the 1st Ukrainian Front)—were forced back towards the centre, taking up new defensive positions around Hermannplatz. Krukenberg informed General Hans Krebs, Chief of the General Staff of (OKH) that within 24 hours the \"Nordland\" would have to fall back to the centre sector Z (for \"Zentrum\"). The Soviet advance to the city centre was along these main axes: from the south-east, along the Frankfurter Allee (ending and stopped at the Alexanderplatz); from the south along Sonnenallee ending north of the Belle-Alliance-Platz, from the south ending near the Potsdamer Platz and from the north ending near the Reichstag. The Reichstag, the Moltke bridge, Alexanderplatz, and the Havel bridges at Spandau saw the heaviest fighting, with house-to-house and hand-to-hand combat. The foreign contingents of the SS fought particularly hard, because they were ideologically motivated and they believed that they would not live if captured.", "At some point on 28 April or 29 April, General Heinrici, Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Vistula, was relieved of his command after disobeying Hitler's direct orders to hold Berlin at all costs and never order a retreat, and was replaced by General Kurt Student. General Kurt von Tippelskirch was named as Heinrici's interim replacement until Student could arrive and assume control. There remains some confusion as to who was in command, as some references say that Student was captured by the British and never arrived. Regardless of whether von Tippelskirch or Student was in command of Army Group Vistula, the rapidly deteriorating situation that the Germans faced meant that Army Group Vistula's coordination of the armies under its nominal command during the last few days of the war was of little significance. On the evening of 29 April, Krebs contacted General Alfred Jodl (Supreme Army Command) by radio: In the early morning of 30 April, Jodl replied to Krebs:", "While the 1st Belorussian Front and the 1st Ukrainian Front encircled Berlin, and started the battle for the city itself, Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front started his offensive to the north of Berlin. On 20 April between Stettin and Schwedt, Rokossovsky's 2nd Belorussian Front attacked the northern flank of Army Group Vistula, held by the III Panzer Army. By 22 April, the 2nd Belorussian Front had established a bridgehead on the east bank of the Oder that was over deep and was heavily engaged with the III Panzer Army. On 25 April, the", "The successes of the 1st Ukrainian Front during the first nine days of the battle meant that by 25 April, they were occupying large swathes of the area south and south-west of Berlin. Their spearheads had met elements of the 1st Belorussian Front west of Berlin, completing the investment of the city. Meanwhile, the 58th Guards Rifle Division of the 5th Guards Army in 1st Ukrainian Front made contact with the 69th Infantry Division (United States) of the United States First Army near Torgau, on the Elbe River. These manoeuvres had broken the German forces south", "On the night of 2–3 May, General von Manteuffel, commander of the III Panzer Army along with General von Tippelskirch, commander of the XXI Army, surrendered to the US Army. Von Saucken's II Army,", "According to Grigoriy Krivosheev's work based on declassified archival data, Soviet forces sustained 81,116 dead for the entire operation, which included the battles of Seelow Heights and the Halbe; another 280,251 were reported wounded or sick during the operational period. The operation also cost the Soviets about 1,997 tanks and SPGs. Krivosheev noted: \"All losses of arms and equipment are counted as irrecoverable losses, i.e. beyond economic repair or no longer serviceable\". Soviet estimates based on kill claims placed German losses at 458,080 killed and 479,298 captured, but German research puts the number of dead at approximately 92,000 – 100,000. The number of civilian casualties is unknown, but 125,000 are estimated to have perished during the entire operation. In those areas that the Red Army had captured and before the fighting in the centre of the city had stopped, the Soviet authorities took measures to start restoring essential services. Almost all transport in and out of the city had been rendered inoperative, and", "All told, 402 Red Army personnel were bestowed the USSR's highest degree of distinction, the title Hero of the Soviet Union (HSU), for their valor in Berlin's immediate suburbs and in the city itself. Marshals of the Soviet Union Zhukov and Konev received their third and second HSU awards respectively, for their roles in the battle's outcome. Combat medic Guards Senior Sergeant Lyudmila S. Kravets, was the Battle of Berlin's only female HSU recipient for her valorous actions while serving in 1st Rifle Battalion, 63rd Guards Rifle Regiment, 23rd Guards Rifle Division (subordinate to 3rd Shock Army). Additionally, 280 Red Army enlisted personnel would earn the Soviet Order of Glory First Class and attain status as Full Cavaliers of the Order of Glory for their heroism during the Battle of Berlin. In Soviet society, Full Cavaliers of the Order of Glory were accorded the same rights and privileges as those accorded to Heroes of the Soviet Union. 1,100,000 Soviet personnel who took part in the capture of Berlin from 22 April to 2 May 1945 were awarded with the Medal \"For the Capture of Berlin\". The design of the Victory Banner to be used for celebrations of the Soviet Victory Day was defined by a federal law of Russia on 7 May 2007. Poland's official Flag Day is held each year on 2 May, the last day of the battle in Berlin, when the Polish Army hoisted its flag on the Berlin Victory Column." ] }

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{ "title": [ "PCX image formats.", "PCX file format.", "Image data layout.", "Image data compression.", "Color palette." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "PCX was designed during the early development of PC display hardware and most of the formats it supported are no longer used, Table A shows a list of the most commonly used PCX formats. Contemporary image editing programs may not read PCX files that match older hardware. PCX is supported by common image processing software including ACDSee, GIMP, ImageMagick, IrfanView, LView, Netpbm, PaintShop Pro, Photoshop, Visio, PMview, XnView and GraphicConverter. In version 2.1.4 FFmpeg could encode and decode the PCX pixel formats \"rgb24, rgb8, bgr8, rgb4_byte, bgr4_byte, gray, pal8,\" and \"monob\". There is a multi-page version of PCX, used by some computer fax and document management programs, with file extension codice_1. A DCX file consists of a header introducing a set of following PCX files.", "PCX files were designed for use on IBM-compatible PCs and always use little endian byte ordering. A PCX file has three main sections, in the following order The PCX file header contains an identifier byte (value 10), a version number, image dimensions, 16 palette colors, number color planes, bit depth of each plane, and a value for compression method. PCX version numbers range from 0 to 5, this originally denoted the version of the PC Paintbrush program used to create the PCX file. The header always has space for 16 colors though the number of colors used depends upon the bit depth of the image. The header is 74 bytes long and the image data begins 128 bytes after the start of the file, the 54 bytes between are not used. The header is composed of 18 fields: All PCX files use the same compression scheme and the compression value is always 1. No other values have been defined and there are no uncompressed PCX files. One source claims that 0 (uncompressed) is \"allowed, but not much software supports it\".", "PCX image data is stored in rows or scan lines in top-down order. If the image has multiple planes, these are stored by plane within row, such that all the red data for row 0 are followed by all the green data for row 0, then all the blue data, then alpha data. This pattern is repeated for each line as shown in Table B. When an image is less than 8 bits per pixel, each line is padded to the next byte boundary. For example, if an image has 1 plane of 1-bit data (monochrome) with a width of 22 pixels, each row will be 3 bytes long, having 24 bits per row with 2 bits unused.", "PCX image data are compressed using run-length encoding (RLE), a simple lossless compression algorithm that collapses a series of three or more consecutive bytes with identical values into a two-byte pair. The two most-significant bits of a byte are used to determine whether the given data represent a single pixel of a given palette index or color value, or an RLE pair representing a series of several pixels of a single value: Compared to the maximum run length of 128, possible with TGA RLE compression, the PCX run-length encoding offers a larger single-pixel value range, while the maximum run length is restricted to 63. Due to the use of the two most-significant bits as flags, pixel values from 192 to 255 (with their most-significant bit already set) must be stored in an RLE byte pair, even when they only occur one or two pixels in succession, whereas color indexes 0 to 191 can be stored directly \"or\" in RLE byte pairs (whichever is more space-efficient); therefore, the actual compression ratio could be optimized with proper sorting of palette entries, though this is not feasible where the file must share its color palette with other images. For example, a palette could be optimized with the most commonly used colors occurring in palette positions 0 to 191 and the least common colors allocated to the remaining quarter of the palette. Another inefficiency with the RLE algorithm is that it is possible to store chunks with a length of 0, which allows whitespace in the file. This allowed PCX files to be decompressed slightly faster on the processors it was originally intended for. This quirk could be used for steganography. The PCX compression algorithm requires very little processor power or memory to apply, a significant concern with the computer systems when it was designed. As computers and display hardware grow more sophisticated, the PCX algorithm becomes less space-efficient. Compression algorithms used by newer image formats are more efficient when compressing images such as photographs, and dithered or otherwise complex graphics.", "A PCX file has space in its header for a 16 color palette. When 256-color VGA hardware became available there was not enough space for the palette in a PCX file; even the 54 unused bytes after the header would not be enough. The solution chosen was to put the palette at the end of the file, along with a marker byte to confirm its existence. If a PCX file has a 256-color palette, it is found 768 bytes from the end of the file. In this case the value in the byte preceding the palette should be 12 (0x0C). The palette is stored as a sequence of RGB triples; its usable length is defined by the number of colors in the image. Colors values in a PCX palette always use 8 bits, regardless of the bit depth of the image." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The geological phenomenon.", "Gases.", "Flora.", "Tourism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As the gases erupt from 3000 metres deep towards the surface, through the underground layers of clay and water, they push up underground salty water and mud, so that they overflow through the mouths of the volcanoes, while the gas emerges as bubbles. The mud dries off at the surface, creating a relatively solid conical structure resembling a real volcano. The mud expelled by them is cold, as it comes from inside the Earth's continental crust layers, and not from the mantle. The reservation is unique in Romania. Elsewhere in Europe, similar phenomena can be observed in Italy (northern Apennines and Sicily), Ukraine (in the Kerch Peninsula), Russia (in the Taman Peninsula) as well as Azerbaijan.", "There are several sites (the main tourist sites being Pâclele Mari and Pâclele Mici), and gas analysis shows that the composition varies from site to site, but is mainly methane, with 10-25% Helium, and 2-15% nitrogen. Some carbon dioxide was also detected. More details are given in Etiope et al.", "The mud volcanoes create a strange lunar landscape, due to the absence of vegetation around the cones. Vegetation is scarce because the soil is very salty, an environmental condition in which few plants can survive. However, this kind of environment is good for some rare species of plants, such as \"Nitraria schoberi\" and \"Obione verrucifera\".", "The phenomenon can be observed on two separate locations near the Berca commune, dubbed \"the Little Mud Volcanoes\" and \"The Big Mud Volcanoes\". The volcanoes themselves are surrounded by 'badlands' of water-cut ravines. Admission fees are charged (4 RON/adult in 2017) and (since you're walking on a crust of dried mud) access is only permitted on dry days." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Latin Church.", "The term \"acolyte\".", "Female altar servers.", "Duties at Mass.", "Vestments.", "Byzantine Rite.", "Other churches." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "While the function of altar server is commonly associated with children, it can be and is carried out by people of any age or dignity. \"Mass should not be celebrated without a minister, or at least one of the faithful, except for a just and reasonable cause.\"", "As in other churches, altar servers are sometimes called acolytes in the Latin Church. Pope Benedict XVI spoke of Saint Tarcisius as \"presumably an acolyte, that is, an altar server\". However, within the Latin Church, the term \"acolyte\" is also used in a more restricted sense, often specified as \"instituted acolyte\", to mean an adult man who has received the instituted ministry of that name. Acolytes in this narrower sense are not necessarily preparing for ordination as deacons and priests. They are authorized to carry out some functions, in particular that of cleansing the Eucharistic vessels, that are not entrusted to ordinary servers. Those who are to be ordained to the diaconate must be instituted as acolytes at least six months previously. This ministry was long classified in the Latin Church as a minor order, as by the Council of Trent. The \"General Instruction of the Roman Missal\", which does not use the term \"server\" and instead speaks of altar servers generically among \"other ministers\", treats in detail of the functions of the \"acolyte\", often specifying \"instituted acolyte\".", "The 1983 Code of Canon Law altered the juridical situation: without distinguishing between male and female, it declared: \"Lay persons can fulfill the function of lector in liturgical actions by temporary designation. All lay persons can also perform the functions of commentator or cantor, or other functions, according to the norm of law.\" On 30 June 1992, the Pontifical Council for the Interpretation of Legislative Texts issued an authentic interpretation of that canon declaring that service of the altar is one of the \"other functions\" open to lay persons in general, without distinguishing between male and female. In reference to this authentic interpretation, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments sent on 15 March 1994 a circular letter to presidents of episcopal conferences, clarifying that the canon in question is only of permissive character. It does not require the use of female altar servers. It is thus for each diocesan bishop to decide whether to allow them in his diocese. A later document, from 2001, states that, even if a bishop permits female altar servers, the priest in charge of a church in that diocese is not obliged to recruit them, since nobody, male or female, has a \"right\" to become an altar server. The document also states that \"it will always be very appropriate to follow the noble tradition of having boys serve at the altar\". As priests in charge of churches are not obliged to avail of a diocesan bishop's permission in this matter, those belonging to traditionalist Catholic groups such as the FSSP and the Institute of Christ the King and some other priests do not. In the United States the Diocese of Lincoln, Nebraska became in 2006 the only diocese in the country that did not allow females to be altar servers, after the only other holdout ended its prohibition on female altar servers.", "In the absence of instituted acolytes, some of their functions at Mass may be carried out by altar servers.", "The vestment common to all ordained and instituted ministers of whatever rank is an alb, which is to be tied at the waist with a cincture unless the alb is made to fit without cincture. Acolytes, readers and other lay ministers (such as altar servers) may wear either an alb or other appropriate attire as determined by the local episcopal conference. All who wear an alb should use a cincture and an amice, unless the form of the alb makes these unnecessary. Servers often wear cassock and surplice, with black and red being the most common colors for a server's cassock.", "In the Byzantine Rite, altar servers assist the higher clergy during services. They might carry the cross, candles or liturgical fans in processions and entrances; maintain the censer, ensuring it has enough live charcoal, loading it with incense and handing it to the priest or deacon when required; preparing the hot water (\"zeon\") in time for it to be added to the chalice at the Divine Liturgy; prepare the antidoron for the people to receive after Holy Communion; and any other necessary tasks so that the priest need not be distracted during the service. An altar server is vested in the sticharion only. In the early Church, before someone could be a server he had to be tonsured. Nowadays, in many places it is not necessary to be tonsured before one is allowed to serve (since the tonsure must be done by a bishop or higher-ranking priest). The rites of \"Setting Aside a Taper-bearer\" and \"Tonsuring a Reader\" have now been combined into one service. It is the custom in some traditions, such as the Greek Orthodox or Melkite Catholic, to allow tonsured altar servers to also vest in the orarion, worn crossed over the back like that of a subdeacon but with the ends hanging parallel in front. Among the Russians, however, the orarion is not usually worn by servers, but only by duly ordained subdeacons and deacons, with the exception that laymen who are blessed to perform some of the functions of subdeacons may sometimes be blessed to wear the orar. Before vesting, the server must fold his sticharion and bring it to the priest for him to bless. The priest blesses and lays his hand on the folded sticharion. The server kisses the priest's hand and the Cross on the vestment, and then withdraws to vest. Any server who has not been tonsured must remove the sticharion when he receives Holy Communion, because communicants receive the Mysteries according to their order within the Church (so tonsured clergy vest while laymen remove their vestments). Before divesting at the end of the service, the server must receive the priest's blessing. The minimum age varies by local circumstance, but boys must be mature enough to carry out their duties without disrupting the sanctity of the altar. Although it is common in North America for boys to act as altar servers, in some places this practice is virtually unknown and these duties are always carried out by adult men. In other places where altar servers are normally boys, adult men will not vest if called upon to serve. In yet other places, boys are not permitted to serve in the Altar on reaching their teens on the grounds that the young man is no longer innocent enough to serve in the altar. Altar servers, regardless of age, are subject to all the normal restrictions for those not of higher clerical position. Anyone who is bleeding, or has an open sore, is not permitted to enter the altar. They may not touch the altar table or anything on it under any circumstances, nor the prothesis without a blessing. They may not touch the sacred vessels, the chalice and diskos (paten) at any time. They may not stand directly in front of the altar table or pass between the front of it and the iconostasis, but must cross between the altar and the High Place if they need to move to the opposite side. In general, women do not serve in the altar except in women's monasteries. In that case they do not receive the clerical tonsure (though they must be tonsured nuns), and do not vest in the sticharion, but wear their normal religious habit for attending services, and serve at a certain distance from the actual altar table. Normally, only older nuns may serve in the altar; but the Hegumenia (Abbess) is permitted to enter even if she is younger. A few parishes have begun to use women as altar servers.", "In many Anglican churches, and Lutheran churches, all who serve in the above positions are called acolytes. In Anglo-Catholic and some Episcopal Churches however, the vast majority of roles associated with an altar server are the same as those in the Catholic Church, and the same titles for each individual role are retained from Catholic tradition – mostly restored during the Oxford Movement in the 19th century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "A life with a plan.", "Relationship with Henriette Vogel and murder-suicide.", "Literary works.", "Work in rhetoric.", "Philosophical essays.", "\"On the Gradual Production of Thoughts Whilst Speaking\".", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Kleist was born into the von Kleist family in Frankfurt an der Oder in the Margraviate of Brandenburg. After a scanty education, he entered the Prussian Army in 1792, served in the of 1796, and retired from the service in 1799 with the rank of lieutenant. He studied law and philosophy at the Viadrina University and in 1800 received a subordinate post in the Ministry of Finance at Berlin. In the following year, Kleist's roving, restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a lengthened leave of absence he visited Paris and then settled in Switzerland. There he found congenial friends in Heinrich Zschokke and (1777–1819), son of the poet Christoph Martin Wieland; and to them he read his first drama, a gloomy tragedy, \"\" (1803). In the autumn of 1802, Kleist returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller, and Wieland in Weimar, stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again proceeded to Paris, and returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was transferred to the Domänenkammer (department for the administration of crown lands) at Königsberg. On a journey to Dresden in 1807, Kleist was arrested by the French as a spy; he remained a close prisoner of France in the Fort de Joux. On regaining his liberty, he proceeded to Dresden, where, in conjunction with Adam Heinrich Müller (1779–1829), he published the journal \"Phöbus\" in 1808. In 1809 Kleist went to Prague, and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810/1811) the \"\". Captivated by the intellectual and musical accomplishments of the terminally ill Henriette Vogel, Kleist, who was himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed to do her bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution by first shooting Vogel and then himself on the shore of the Kleiner Wannsee (Little Wannsee) near Potsdam, on 21 November 1811. According to the \"Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition\", \"Kleist's whole life was filled by a restless striving after ideal and illusory happiness, and this is largely reflected in his work. He was by far the most important North German dramatist of the Romantic movement, and no other of the Romanticists approaches him in the energy with which he expresses patriotic indignation.\"", "In the spring of 1799, the 21-year-old Kleist wrote a letter to his half-sister in which he found it \"incomprehensible how a human being can live without a life plan\" (\"Lebensplan\"). In effect, Kleist sought and discovered an overwhelming sense of security by looking to the future with a definitive plan for his life. It brought him happiness and assured him of confidence, especially knowing that life without a plan only saw despair and discomfort. The irony of his later suicide has been the fodder of his critics.", "Kleist met Henriette Vogel in 1809 through his friend Adam Müller and a friendship flourished between them. They shared a fondness for music, and according to Ernest Peguilhen, Henriette Vogel asked her friend to explain to her the art of war, as well as to teach her fencing, for the dramatist had been a soldier. The relationship between the two became more intimate in the autumn of 1811. According to their contemporaries, there was no fire of passion but a purely spiritual love. It was Adam Müller's point of view, who in fact had been in love with Henriette for a while. Marie von Kleist, who was the most important sponsor and confidant of Heinrich von Kleist, also made sure that this claim was widely spread. On November 21, 1811, the two traveled from Berlin to Wannsee. Prior to their departure, they both penned farewell letters, which along with an account of the final night they spent at the inn Gasthof Stimming, are now part of world literature. Upon their arrival in the vicinity of the Wannsee in Potsdam, Kleist first shot Henriette and then turned the gun on himself. They were buried together in a common grave at Kleine Wannsee (Bismarckstrasse), which has become a tourist attraction. It was redesigned by the time of the bicentenary of their deaths. On that occasion direct access from Wannsee station to the grave was built. The gravestone, erected by the Nazis in 1936, was turned round and now shows engraved original text written by Max Ring and the Pater Noster's request: \"forgive us our guilt\" as well as the names and data of Henriette Vogel and Heinrich von Kleist.", "His first tragedy was \"The Schroffenstein Family\" (\"Die Familie Schroffenstein\"). The material for the second, \"Penthesilea\" (1808), queen of the Amazons, is taken from a Greek source and presents a picture of wild passion. More successful than either of these was his romantic play, \"Käthchen of Heilbronn\" (\"Das Käthchen von Heilbronn\") (1808), a poetic drama full of medieval bustle and mystery, which retained its popularity for many years. In comedy, Kleist made a name with \"The Broken Jug\" (\"Der zerbrochne Krug\") (1808), while \"\" (1808), an adaptation of Molière's comedy, received critical acclaim long after his death. Of Kleist's other dramas, \"Die Hermannsschlacht\" (1809) is a dramatic work of anti-Napoleonic propaganda, written as Austria and France went to war. It has been described by Carl Schmitt as the \"greatest partisan work of all time\". In it he gives vent to his hatred of his country's oppressors. This, together with the drama \"The Prince of Homburg\" (\"Prinz Friedrich von Homburg oder die Schlacht bei Fehrbellin\"), which is among his best works, was first published by Ludwig Tieck in Kleist's \"Hinterlassene Schriften\" (1821). \"Robert Guiskard\", a drama conceived on a grand plan, was left a fragment. Kleist was also a master in the art of narrative, and of his \"Gesammelte Erzählungen\" (\"Collected Short Stories\") (1810–1811), \"Michael Kohlhaas\", in which the famous Brandenburg horse dealer in Martin Luther's day is immortalized, is one of the best German stories of its time. \"The Earthquake in Chile\" (\"Das Erdbeben in Chili\") and \"St. Cecilia, or the Power of Music\" (\"Die heilige Cäcilie oder die Gewalt der Musik\") are also fine examples of Kleist's story telling as is \"The Marquise of O\" (\"Die Marquise von O\"). His short narratives influenced those of Kafka and the novellas of the Austrian writer Friedrich Halm. He also wrote patriotic lyrics in the context of the Napoleonic Wars.", "Kleist's work also delved into the realm of rhetoric. Most notable for his use of error and understanding its importance, Kleist's devices used were misspeaking, misunderstanding, mistaken identities, and other confusions of the sort. In his works one can see the most prevalent use of rhetoric within \"Penthesilea\". In the story moments of violence, seduction and war all hinge upon errors in language. Through these errors, Kleist shows how error can influence everyday situation and can be the causation of serious problems. As a sum, Kleist's use of error explores what one can make of ironic errors within speech.", "Kleist is also famous for his essays on subjects of aesthetics and psychology which, to the closer look, show a keen insight into the metaphysical questions discussed by philosophers of his time, such as Kant, Fichte and Schelling.", "In the first of his larger essays, \"On the Gradual Production of Thoughts Whilst Speaking\" (\"\"), Kleist claims that most people are advised to speak only about what they already understand. Instead of talking about what you already know, Kleist admonishes his readers to speak to others with \"the sensible intention of instructing yourself.\" Fostering a dialogue through the art of \"skillful questioning\" is the key behind achieving a rational or enlightened state of mind. And yet, Kleist employs the example of the French Revolution as the climactic event of the Enlightenment era whereby man broke free from his dark and feudal chains in favor of liberty, equality, fraternity. It is not that easy though for Kleist. Man cannot simply guide himself into the future with a rational mind as his primary tool. Therefore, Kleist strongly advocates for the usefulness of reflection \"ex post facto\" or after the fact. In doing so, man will be able to mold his collective consciousness in a manner conducive to the principles of free will. By reflecting after the fact, man will avoid the seemingly detestable inhibitions offered in rational thought. In other words, the will to power has \"its splendid source in the feelings,\" and thus, man must overcome his \"struggle with Fate\" with a balanced mixture of wisdom and passion.", "His \"Gesammelte Schriften\" were published by Ludwig Tieck (3 vols. 1826) and by Julian Schmidt (new ed. 1874); also by Franz Muncker (4 vols. 1882); by Theophil Zolling (4 vols. 1885); by K. Siegen, (4 vols. 1895); and in a critical edition by Erich Schmidt (5 vols. 1904–1905). His \"Ausgewählte Dramen\" were published by K. Siegen (Leipzig, 1877); and his letters were first published by Eduard von Bülow, \"Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Briefe\" (1848)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "World War I.", "Inter-war years.", "World War II.", "Invasion of the Soviet Union.", "Before Moscow.", "Rzhev.", "Kursk and Orel.", "Estonia.", "Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland.", "Normandy.", "Retreat to Germany.", "Battle of the Bulge.", "Defeat at the Ruhr.", "Suicide.", "Generalship.", "Limitations.", "Strengths.", "Assessment.", "Relationship with Hitler.", "Model and Nazism.", "References.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Model's decision to burn all his personal papers at the end of World War II means relatively little is known about his early years. Born to a music teacher in Genthin, Saxony, he belonged to a lower-middle class, non-military family. Following schooling at the \"Bürgerschule\" (citizen school) in Genthin, he graduated with his \"Abitur\" from the \"Domgymnasium\" Naumburg, a humanities-oriented secondary school, on Easter 1909. He entered the army officer cadet school (\"Kriegsschule\") in Neisse (now Nysa, Poland) in 1909, where he was an unexceptional student, and was commissioned a lieutenant (\"Leutnant\") in the 52nd Infantry Regiment \"von Alvensleben\" in 1910. He made few friends among his fellow officers and soon became known for his ambition, drive, and blunt outspokenness. These were characteristics that would mark his entire career.", "In World War I, the 52nd Infantry Regiment formed part of the 5th Division which fought on the Western Front. Model served as the adjutant of his regiment's 1st Battalion. In May 1915, he was severely wounded near Arras, and in October he won the Iron Cross, First Class. His deeds brought him to the attention of his divisional commander who, despite misgivings about his \"uncomfortable subordinate\", recommended Model for a posting on the German General Staff. Among", "By the end of the war, Model had gained a reputation as a capable officer with great potential. Early on in his military career, Model had written a book on the Prussian general August Neidhardt von Gneisenau. In addition, he was already known to Hans von Seeckt, head of the slimmed-down Reichswehr, from his staff postings during the war, and he was equipped with an excellent reference from Major-General Franz von Rantau, commander of the 36th Reserve Division. It was thus no surprise that he was one of the 4,000 officers retained in the Reichswehr. Model generally kept away from politics in the chaotic period that marked the birth of the Weimar Republic, although as an army officer he was involved in the bloody", "Model spent the first year of World War II as a chief of staff, first of IV Corps during the invasion of Poland, and then of Sixteenth Army during the Battle of France. He was promoted to lieutenant general (\"Generalleutnant\") in April 1940, and earned his first senior command posting in November that year, when he was assigned to lead the 3rd Panzer Division. He immediately proceeded to ignore all formalities of organization and command, which endeared him to his men and exasperated his staff—who often had to clean up the mess he left behind. He also instituted a combined arms training programme where his men were thrown together in various ad-hoc groupings regardless of their parent unit: tankers would train with infantry, engineers with recon units, and so on. Model thus anticipated by some months the regular German use of Kampfgruppen in World War II. While this would become routine later on, it was still not a universal practice in the Wehrmacht in late 1940 and early 1941.", "For Operation Barbarossa, the 3rd Panzer Division was assigned to the XXIV Panzer Corps, itself part of the Second Panzer Group, commanded by Heinz Guderian. The campaign opened on 22 June 1941, with Guderian urging his divisions forward at breakneck speed. This suited Model, and by 4 July, his advance elements leading the panzer group's charge had reached the Dnieper, an exploit that earned him the Knight's Cross. Crossing it in strength was another matter, however, as the Red Army was prepared to defend the river line. 3rd Panzer's vanguard was thrown back by the Soviet 21st Army, and it was not until 10 July that the Germans were in a position to force a crossing. For this operation, Model, now reinforced with additional troops, reorganized his command into", "Shortly thereafter, Model was promoted to \"General der Panzertruppe\" (general) and placed in command of XLI Panzer Corps, which was embroiled in Operation Typhoon, the assault on Moscow. The attack had begun on 2 October 1941, and Model arrived at his new command on 14 November, in the midst of the battle. The corps, part of Georg-Hans Reinhardt's Third Panzer Group, was located at Kalinin, 160 km (100 mi) northwest of Moscow. It was worn out, at the end of a long and tenuous supply line (Model had been promoted on 28 October, and needed two weeks just to get to Kalinin), and the cold weather was starting to hamper the Germans. Nevertheless, morale remained high, and the final push towards Moscow began shortly after his arrival. Model was a whirlwind of energy, touring the front and exhorting his troops to greater efforts: he also ran roughshod over the niceties of protocol and chains of command, and, in general, left his staff trailing in his wake. By 5 December, XLI Panzer Corps' 6th Panzer Division had reached Iohnca, just from the Kremlin.", "Model's success in holding his front had not gone unnoticed, and in January 1942 he was placed in charge of the Ninth Army occupying the Rzhev salient, leapfrogging at least 15 more senior commanders in Army Group Centre alone. Just prior to his departure for the front, the new army commander had held lengthy consultations with both Hitler and Halder. They impressed upon Model that great firmness would be necessary to save the army from destruction, and his vehement tone in reply so impressed Hitler that upon the General's departure he remarked: \"Did you see that eye? I trust that man to do it, but I wouldn't want to serve under him\". When Model took over, his sector was in a shambles: the Kalinin Front had broken through the line and was threatening the Moscow–Smolensk", "On 5 July 1943, Model led the northern assault on Kursk during Operation Citadel, a plan which had caused great controversy within the German high command. Günther von Kluge and Erich von Manstein, commanding Army Groups Centre and South respectively, had originally urged that the salient be attacked in May, before the Soviets could prepare their defences. Others, including Heinz Guderian, felt that attacking was unnecessary, since it would occasion heavy tank losses and thus upset plans for increasing German armored strength. Model was also skeptical of the plan's chances, pointing out that Konstantin Rokossovsky's Central Front was strongly dug in and outnumbered him two to one in", "Model's relief is believed not to have been a sign that he had lost Hitler's confidence, but rather that he had gained it, the Führer wanting him available should another emergency break out which needed his attention. Thus, on 31 January 1944, he was urgently sent to command Army Group North, which, two weeks earlier, had seen its stranglehold on Leningrad broken by the Volkhov, Leningrad and 2nd Baltic Fronts. The situation was dire: the Eighteenth Army had been shattered into three parts and on the same time, the front had virtually dissolved. The army group's previous commander, Georg von Küchler, had pleaded for permission to withdraw to the Panther Line in Estonia, which was still only half-completed at that stage. Model immediately cracked down on such talk, instituting a new policy he called Shield and Sword (\"Schild und Schwert\"). Under this doctrine, ground would only temporarily be ceded, to gather reserves for an immediate counter-attack that would drive the Red Army", "On 30 March 1944, Model was placed in command of Army Group North Ukraine in Galicia, which was withdrawing under heavy pressure from Zhukov's 1st Ukrainian Front. He replaced Manstein, who had fallen out of favour with Hitler. Despite Manstein's previous victories, the Führer wanted someone whom he anticipated would be unyielding in defence. On 28 June, Model was sent to rescue Army Group Centre, which had been torn apart by Operation Bagration, the Soviet offensive in Belorussia. The Ninth Army (Model's old command) and Fourth Army were trapped, and the Red Army was about to liberate Minsk. Despite the catastrophic situation, Model believed he could still hold Minsk, but this would require Fourth Army to break out of its pocket, and reinforcements to counter-attack the Soviet advance. The reinforcements, in turn, could only be obtained by pulling back, thus shortening the line and freeing up troops. The general consensus is that the German position was doomed, regardless of what", "On 17 August 1944, Model received from Hitler Diamonds to go with his Knight's Cross with Oakleaves and Swords, in reward for his shoring up of the Eastern Front. Simultaneously, he was transferred to the west, replacing Kluge as commander-in-chief of Army Group B and OB West. The front in Normandy had collapsed after nearly two months of severe fighting, the U.S. Third Army was driving for the Seine, and an Army group was in danger of being annihilated in the Falaise pocket. Model's first order was that Falaise be defended, which did not impress his staff. However, he quickly changed his mind, convincing Hitler to authorize the immediate escape of the German Seventh Army and Panzer Group Eberbach—something that Kluge, with his limited political clout,", "On 17 September, his lunch was interrupted when the British 1st Airborne Division dropped into the town launching Operation Market Garden, the Allied attempt to capture the bridges on the lower Rhine, Maas and Waal. Model initially thought they were trying to capture him and his staff, but the soon-apparent scale of the assault quickly convinced him otherwise. When he perceived what the Allies' real objective was, he ordered the II SS Panzer Corps into action. The corps, containing the 9th SS Panzer and 10th SS Panzer Divisions refitting after Normandy, had been overlooked by Allied intelligence. Whilst still seriously understrength, it was composed of veterans and was a deadly threat to lightly equipped paratroopers. 9th SS Panzer took on the British at Arnhem, while the 10th moved south to defend the bridge at Nijmegen. Model believed that the situation represented not just a threat, but also an opportunity to counter-attack and possibly clear the Allies out of the Southern Netherlands. Towards this end, he forbade SS General Willi Bittrich and", "Following the Wehrmacht's victory at \"Operation Market Garden\", Hitler decided to launch a last-ditch offensive in the West aiming to catch the Anglosphere forces by surprise, with the objective of retaking Antwerp, striking the seam between the British and Americans that leads to political as well as military disharmony between the Allies, isolate the 21st Army Group, thereby allowing their encirclement and destruction before the American leadership (particularly the political leadership) could react and erasing the enemy ground threat to the Ruhr. Model, along with all the other commanders involved, believed this", "The failure of \"Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein\" marked the end of Model's special relationship with Hitler, who on 21 January 1945 issued an order that all the divisions of Army Group B would thenceforth be personally responsible to him to limit Model's operational freedom of decision. Any suggestion of its withdrawal back to the river Rhine to obtain a better fighting position – given the Third Reich's weakening strength against the Allied torrent of men and material - was forbidden, and it was ordered to conduct its actions from now on upon the strategic basis of not yielding an inch of ground and an abandonment of tactical manoeuvre. By mid-March Model and Army Group B had been forced back in fighting of attrition with the Americans across the Rhine river into Germany itself after the stunning failure to destroy the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen. On April 1 Army Group B found itself completely surrounded in the Ruhr by the U.S. First", "Model's decision ended the war for his men, but he had little desire to witness the aftermath of defeat. He said to his staff before dissolving his command: \"Has everything been done to justify our actions in the light of history? What can there be left for a commander in defeat? In antiquity they took poison\". His decision to commit suicide was sealed when he learned that the Soviets had indicted him for war", "", "Unlike Erwin Rommel, another field marshal who preferred to lead from the front, Walter Model was almost universally disliked by those who had to work with him. For example, when he was made commander of the XLI Panzer Corps in 1941, the entire corps staff asked to be transferred. He made a habit of being abusive and foul-mouthed, micromanaging his subordinates, changing plans without consultation, and bypassing the chain of command when it suited him. He was oblivious to the niceties of etiquette, often reprimanding or castigating his officers in public. When he departed Army Group North in March 1944 after being sent to Ukraine, the army group's chief of staff remarked, \"the 'Swine' is gone\". It was a reference to Model's nickname among his staffers, that he had earned during his time at XLI Panzer Corps, namely 'Frontline Pig' (\"Frontschwein\"). He", "Model is regarded as being an excellent defensive commander of the Third Reich, and having an \"outstanding talent for improvisation\". At 3rd Panzer Division he was a pioneer in the use of Kampfgruppen, which would soon become standard practice for the Germans. He had a formidable memory and eye for detail, which allowed him to dominate his staff officers, especially those in charge of specialist areas such as artillery, transport and communications. Before the war he was put in charge of analyzing technical advances at home and abroad and his enthusiasm for innovation earned him the nickname \"Armee Modernissimus\" (\"the army modernization fanatic\"). Model fought nearly all his battles in the northern and central parts of the Eastern Front; he was never", "", "Before the war, Model had been content to leave politics to the politicians, preferring instead to concentrate on military affairs. Despite this, he became one of the Wehrmacht's field marshals most closely identified with Hitler. Postwar opinions on him have varied. Some historians have called him \"blindly loyal\", a \"convinced Nazi\" or a \"zealous disciple\" of Hitler; others see in Model a coldly calculating opportunist who used the Führer to his advantage, whether or not he was committed to him or the ideals of Nazism; some regard him as \"apolitical to a fault\", loyal to Hitler but never sycophantic. The contradictions between his Lutheran", "Many of Model's fellow officers considered him a Nazi. He frequently harangued his troops to have faith in the Führer and uphold the virtues of National Socialism. He accepted the offer of \"SS-Gruppenführer\" Hermann Fegelein to appoint a Waffen-SS officer as his adjutant at Army Group North in 1944, after the \"Heerespersonalamt\" had refused him an adjutant, and filled the \"Nationalsozialistischer Führungsoffizier\" (NSFO, essentially a Nazi political commissar) post at Army Group B that had been vacant before his arrival. His habit of parroting the Führer's orders caused him to be viewed as a sycophant, even if he often undermined or ignored those orders in practice. Following the July", "", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Description.", "Architecture.", "Location." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kašperk Castle was founded in 1356 by Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV to protect Czech borders. Historians and scholars believe the castle was built, primarily, for three reasons. The first was about security. Bohemia needed to bolster their border defense against Bavaria. Secondly, the castle's location was chosen so as to allow for absolute control over the gold-rich region near Kašperské Hory. The third reason for building Kašperk Castle was because Kašperk lay in the path of the \"Golden Route,\" a trade route that connected Bohemia and Bavaria to the affluent areas of western Europe. A royal castle in name and status, the Kašperk Castle, however, had no royal occupant. The castle was given over to the king's pledge holders. Along with the castle, the occupant of the Kašperk castle also received from the king the authority over administrative and judicial matters in the region of Prácheň, which encompassed a significant part of southwestern Bohemia. The Kašperk Castle's first pledge holders were the second archbishop of Prague and the first Czech cardinal, Jan Očko of Vlašim. From 1411–1454 Kašperk Castle was in the hands of the house of Zmrzlík of Svojšín and Orlík. The father and son of this house, both named Peter, oversaw a relatively peaceful time in the castle's history. Peter, the father,was a royal moneyer. He and his son were followers of Utraquism, which was also endorsed by the Hussite. It was this allegiance of the Peters that the Hussites never attacked the castle. The younger Peter, on the other hand, made numerous raids on the neighboring catholic Bavaria. During the mid-15th century ownership of the Kašperk Castle passed to the hands of the powerful Šternberkové family of Šternberk. The family held immense sway over the region. This powerful and lucrative position in the region made Zdeněk of Šternberk ambitious, and in 1465 he led an armed revolt against King George of Poděbrady. The Kašperk Castle abruptly became a strategic citadel. With the castle becoming involved in the fighting, the garrison occupying it readied themselves against an onslaught by the king's forces. In order to bolster their defenses, a small fortress was hastily constructed. Ruins situated to the castle's east are believed to be the remains of that fortress, which today is referred to as the Deserted Fort. In July 1940, when the \"Donau-Zeitung\" referred to a folklore of three \"Nornen\", the writer alluded to sisters who once lived at the Castle, and cheated the blind one out of her fortune.", "The central part of the castle consists of two residential towers and an oblong palace which was built between them.", "The architecture of the palace was designed to give the castle the utmost security and ability to function as a stronghold. The central part of the castle was built away from the outer walls. To further make the castle resistant to raids, the front walls of the towers, which rise, were kept devoid of openings, except the bay window in the western tower. This design was adopted to make the castle less susceptible to attacks.", "A road runs to within of the castle, where there is a parking. The road to the castle passes through the towns of Kašperské Hory and Nezdice. Tourists also have the option to walk to the castle. Several trails branch out from Kašperské Hory. Railway lines and bus routes also pass near the castle. The railway station is at Sušice, and buses are available from there to Kašperské Hory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology: introduced species and subsets.", "Invasive species.", "Nature of introductions.", "Intentional introductions.", "Motivations for intentional introductions.", "Human enjoyment.", "Addressing environmental problems.", "Unintentional introductions.", "Introduced plants.", "Introduced animals.", "Most commonly introduced species.", "Genetics.", "On a planetary body." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The formal definition of an introduced species, from the United States Environmental Protection Agency, is \"A species that has been intentionally or inadvertently brought into a region or area. Also called an exotic or non-native species.\" There are many terms associated with introduced species that represent subsets of introduced species, and the terminology associated with introduced species is now in flux for various reasons. Examples of these terms are \"acclimatized\", \"adventive\", \"naturalized\", and \"immigrant\" species but those terms refer to a subset of introduced species. The term \"invasive\" is used to describe introduced species when the introduced species causes substantial damage to the area in which it was introduced. Subset descriptions: General description of introduced species: In the broadest and most widely used sense, an introduced species is synonymous with \"non-native\" and therefore applies as well to most garden and farm organisms; these adequately fit the basic definition given above. However, some sources add to that basic definition \"and are now reproducing in the wild\", which removes from consideration as \"introduced\" species that were raised or grown in gardens or farms that do not survive without tending by people. With respect to plants, these latter are in this case defined as either \"ornamental\" or \"cultivated\" plants.", "Introduction of a species outside its native range is all that is required to be qualified as an \"introduced species\" such that one can distinguish between introduced species that may not occur except in cultivation, under domestication or captivity whereas others become established outside their native range and reproduce without human assistance. Such species might be termed \"naturalized\", \"established\", \"wild non-native species\". If they further spread beyond the place of introduction and cause damage to nearby species, they are called \"invasive\". The transition from introduction, to establishment and to invasion has been described in the context of plants. Introduced species are essentially \"non-native\" species. Invasive species are those introduced species that spread widely or quickly and cause harm, be that to the environment, human health, other valued resources, or the economy. There have been calls from scientists to consider a species \"invasive\" only in terms of their spread and reproduction rather than the harm they may cause. According to a practical definition, an invasive species is one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location, spreading (invading) by natural means. The term is used to imply both a sense of urgency and actual or potential harm. For example, U.S. Executive Order 13112 (1999) defines \"invasive species\" as \"an alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health\". The biological definition of invasive species, on the other hand, makes no reference to the harm they may cause, only to the fact that they spread beyond the area of original introduction. Although some argue that \"invasive\" is a loaded word and harm is difficult to define, the fact of the matter is that organisms have and continue to be introduced to areas in which they are not native, sometimes with but usually without much regard to the harm that could result. From a regulatory perspective, it is neither desirable nor practical to list as undesirable or outright ban all non-native species (although the State of Hawaii has adopted an approach that comes close to this). Regulations require a definitional distinction between non-natives that are deemed especially onerous and all others. Introduced \"pest species\" that are \"officially listed\" as invasive, best fit the definition of an \"invasive species\". Early detection and rapid response is the most effective strategy for regulating a pest species and reducing economic and environmental impacts of an introduction In Great Britain, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 prevents the introduction of any animal not naturally occurring in the wild or any of a list of both animals or plants introduced previously and proved to be invasive.", "By definition, a species is considered \"introduced\" when its transport into an area outside of its native range is human mediated. Introductions by humans can be described as either intentional or accidental. Intentional introductions have been motivated by individuals or groups who either (1) believe that the newly introduced species will be in some way beneficial to humans in its new location or, (2) species are introduced intentionally but with no regard to the potential impact. Unintentional or accidental introductions are most often a byproduct of human movements, and are thus unbound to human motivations. Subsequent range expansion of introduced species may or may not involve human activity.", "Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become successfully established in two ways. In the first case, organisms are purposely released for establishment in the wild. It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become established upon release, and if not initially successful, humans have made repeated introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in the wild. In these cases it is clear that the introduction is directly facilitated by human desires. In the second case, species intentionally transported into a new region may escape from captive or cultivated populations and subsequently establish independent breeding populations. Escaped organisms are included in this category because their initial transport to a new region is human motivated.", "Economic: Perhaps the most common motivation for introducing a species into a new place is that of economic gain. Non-native species can become such a common part of an environment, culture, and even diet that little thought is given to their geographic origin. For example, soybeans, kiwi fruit, wheat, honey bees, and all livestock except the American bison and the turkey are non-native species to North America. Collectively, non-native crops and livestock account for 98% of US food. These and other benefits from non-natives are so vast that, according to the Congressional Research Service, they probably exceed the costs. Other examples of species introduced for the purposes of benefiting agriculture, aquaculture or other economic activities are widespread. Eurasian carp was first introduced to the United States as a potential food source. The apple snail was released in Southeast Asia with the intent that it be used as a protein source, and subsequently to places like Hawaii to establish a food industry. In Alaska, foxes were introduced to many islands to create new populations for the fur trade. About twenty species of African and European dung beetles have established themselves in Australia after deliberate introduction by the Australian Dung Beetle Project in an effort to reduce the impact of livestock manure. The timber industry promoted the introduction of Monterey pine (\"Pinus radiata\") from California to Australia and New Zealand as a commercial timber crop. These examples represent only a small subsample of species that have been moved by humans for economic interests. The rise in the use of genetically modified organisms has added another potential economic advantage to introducing new/modified species into different environments. Companies such as Monsanto that earn much of their profit through the selling of genetically modified seeds has added to the controversy surrounding introduced species. The effect of genetically modified organisms varies from organism to organism and is still being researched today, however the rise of genetically modified organisms has added complexity to the conversations surrounding introduced species.", "Introductions have also been important in supporting recreation activities or otherwise increasing human enjoyment. Numerous fish and game animals have been introduced for the purposes of sport fishing and hunting. The introduced amphibian (\"Ambystoma tigrinum\") that threatens the endemic California salamander (\"Ambystoma californiense\") was introduced to California as a source of bait for fishermen. Pet animals have also been frequently transported into new areas by humans, and their escapes have resulted in several successful introductions, such as those of feral cats and parrots. Many plants have been introduced with the intent of aesthetically improving public recreation areas or private properties. The introduced Norway maple for example occupies a prominent status in many of Canada's parks. The transport of ornamental plants for landscaping use has and continues to be a source of many introductions. Some of these species have escaped horticultural control and become invasive. Notable examples include water hyacinth, salt cedar, and purple loosestrife. In other cases, species have been translocated for reasons of \"cultural nostalgia,\" which refers to instances in which humans who have migrated to new regions have intentionally brought with them familiar organisms. Famous examples include the introduction of common starlings to North America by Englishman Eugene Schieffelin, a lover of the works of Shakespeare and the chairman of the American Acclimatization Society, who, it is rumoured, wanted to introduce all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare's plays into the United States. He deliberately released eighty starlings into Central Park in New York City in 1890, and another forty in 1891. Yet another prominent example of an introduced species that became invasive is the European rabbit in Australia. Thomas Austin, a British landowner had rabbits released on his estate in Victoria because he missed hunting them. A more recent example is the introduction of the common wall lizard to North America by a Cincinnati boy, George Rau, around 1950 after a family vacation to Italy.", "Intentional introductions have also been undertaken with the aim of ameliorating environmental problems. A number of fast spreading plants such as kudzu have been introduced as a means of erosion control. Other species have been introduced as biological control agents to control invasive species and involves the purposeful introduction of a natural enemy of the target species with the intention of reducing its numbers or controlling its spread. A special case of introduction is the reintroduction of a species that has become locally endangered or extinct, done in the interests of conservation. Examples of successful reintroductions include wolves to Yellowstone National Park in the U.S., and the red kite to parts of England and Scotland. Introductions or translocations of species have also been proposed in the interest of genetic conservation, which advocates the introduction of new individuals into genetically depauperate populations of endangered or threatened species.", "Unintentional introductions occur when species are transported by human vectors. Increasing rates of human travel are providing accelerating opportunities for species to be accidentally transported into areas in which they are not considered native. For example, three species of rat (the black, Norway and Polynesian) have spread to most of the world as hitchhikers on ships, and arachnids such as scorpions and exotic spiders are sometimes transported to areas far beyond their native range by riding in shipments of tropical fruit. There are also numerous examples of marine organisms being transported in ballast water, one being the zebra mussel. Over 200 species have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay in this manner making it the most heavily invaded estuary in the world. There is also the accidental release of the Africanized honey bees (AHB), known colloquially as \"killer bees\" or Africanized bee to Brazil in 1957 and the Asian carps to the United States. The insect commonly known as the brown marmorated stink bug (\"Halyomorpha halys\") was introduced accidentally in Pennsylvania. Another form of unintentional introductions is when an intentionally introduced plant carries a parasite or herbivore with it. Some become invasive, for example the oleander aphid, accidentally introduced with the ornamental plant, oleander. Most accidentally or intentionally introduced species do not become invasive as the ones mentioned above. For instance Some 179 coccinellid species have been introduced to the U.S. and Canada; about 27 of these non-native species have become established, and only a handful can be considered invasive, including the intentionally introduced \"Harmonia axyridis\", multicolored Asian lady beetle. However the small percentage of introduced species that become invasive can produce profound ecological changes. In North America \"Harmonia axyridis\" has become the most abundant lady beetle and probably accounts for more observations than all the native lady beetles put together.", "Many non-native plants have been introduced into new territories, initially as either ornamental plants or for erosion control, stock feed, or forestry. Whether an exotic will become an invasive species is seldom understood in the beginning, and many non-native ornamentals languish in the trade for years before suddenly naturalizing and becoming invasive. Peaches, for example, originated in China, and have been carried to much of the populated world. Tomatoes are native to the Andes. Squash (pumpkins), maize (corn), and tobacco are native to the Americas, but were introduced to the Old World. Many introduced species require continued human intervention to survive in the new environment. Others may become feral, but do not seriously compete with natives, but simply increase the biodiversity of the area. Dandelions are also introduced species to North America. A very troublesome marine species in southern Europe is the seaweed \"Caulerpa taxifolia\". \"Caulerpa\" was first observed in the Mediterranean Sea in 1984, off the coast of Monaco. By 1997, it had covered some 50 km2. It has a strong potential to overgrow natural biotopes, and represents a major risk for sublittoral ecosystems. The origin of the alga in the Mediterranean was thought to be either as a migration through the Suez Canal from the Red Sea, or as an accidental introduction from an aquarium. Another troublesome plant species is the terrestrial plant \"Phyla canescens,\" which was intentionally introduced into many countries in North America, Europe, and Africa as an ornamental plant. This species has become invasive in Australia, where it threatens native rare plants and causes erosion and soil slumping around river banks. It has also become invasive in France where it has been listed as an invasive plant species of concern in the Mediterranean region, where it can form monocultures that threaten critical conservation habitats. Japanese knotweed grows profusely in many nations. Human beings introduced it into many places in the 19th century. It is a source of resveratrol, a dietary supplement.", "Most introduced species do not become invasive. Examples of introduced animals that have become invasive include the gypsy moth in eastern North America, the zebra mussel and alewife in the Great Lakes, the Canada goose and gray squirrel in Europe, the muskrat in Europe and Asia, the cane toad and red fox in Australia, nutria in North America, Eurasia, and Africa, and the common brushtail possum in New Zealand. In Taiwan, the success of introduced bird species was related to their native range size and body size; larger species with larger native range sizes were found to have larger introduced range sizes. One notoriously devastating introduced species is the small Indian mongoose (\"Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus\"). Originating in a region encompassing Iran and India, it was introduced to the West Indies and Hawaii in the late 1800s for pest control. Since it has thrived on prey unequipped to deal with its speed, nearly leading to the local extinction of a variety of species. In some cases, introduced animals may unintentionally promote the cause of rewilding. For example, escaped horses and donkeys that have gone feral in the Americas may play ecological roles similar to those of the equids that became extinct there at the end of the Pleistocene.", "Some species, such as the brown rat, house sparrow, ring-necked pheasant, and European starling, have been introduced very widely. In addition there are some agricultural and pet species that frequently become feral; these include rabbits, dogs, ducks, goats, fish, pigs, and cats.", "When a new species is introduced, the species could potentially breed with members of native species, producing hybrids. The effect of the creating of hybrids can range from having little effect, a negative effect, to having devastating effects on native species. Potential negative effects include hybrids that are less fit for their environment resulting in a population decrease. This was seen in the Atlantic Salmon population when high levels of escape from Atlantic Salmon farms into the wild populations resulted in hybrids that had reduced survival. Potential positive effects include adding to the genetic diversity of the population which can increase the adaptation ability of the population and increase the number of healthy individuals within a population. This was seen in the introduction of guppies in Trinidad to encourage population growth and introduce new alleles into the population. The results of this introduction included increased levels of heterozygosity and a larger population size.", "It has been hypothesized that invasive species of microbial life could contaminate a planetary body after the former is introduced by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberately or unintentionally." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Basic concepts and nomenclature.", "Singly linked list.", "Doubly linked list.", "Multiply linked list.", "Circular linked list.", "Sentinel nodes.", "Empty lists.", "Hash linking.", "List handles.", "Combining alternatives.", "Tradeoffs.", "Linked lists vs. dynamic arrays.", "Singly linked linear lists vs. other lists.", "Doubly linked vs. singly linked.", "Circularly linked vs. linearly linked.", "Using sentinel nodes.", "Linked list operations.", "Linearly linked lists.", "Singly linked lists.", "Circularly linked list.", "Algorithms.", "Linked lists using arrays of nodes.", "Language support.", "Internal and external storage.", "Related data structures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Linked lists were developed in 1955–1956 by Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw and Herbert A. Simon at RAND Corporation as the primary data structure for their Information Processing Language. IPL was used by the authors to develop several early artificial intelligence programs, including the Logic Theory Machine, the General Problem Solver, and a computer chess program. Reports on their work appeared in IRE Transactions on Information Theory in 1956, and several conference proceedings from 1957 to 1959, including Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference in 1957 and 1958, and Information Processing (Proceedings of the first UNESCO International Conference on Information Processing) in 1959. The now-classic diagram consisting of blocks representing list nodes with arrows pointing to successive list nodes appears in \"Programming the Logic Theory Machine\" by Newell and Shaw in Proc. WJCC, February 1957. Newell and Simon were recognized with the ACM Turing Award in 1975 for having \"made basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human cognition, and list processing\". The problem of machine translation for natural language processing led Victor Yngve at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to use linked lists as data structures in his COMIT programming language for computer research in the field", "Each record of a linked list is often called an 'element' or 'node'. The field of each node that contains the address of the next node is usually called the 'next link' or 'next pointer'. The remaining fields are known as the 'data', 'information', 'value', 'cargo', or 'payload' fields. The 'head' of a list is its first node. The 'tail' of a list may refer either to the rest of the list after the head, or to the last node in the list. In Lisp and some derived languages, the next node may be called the 'cdr' (pronounced \"could-er\") of the list, while the payload of the head node may be called the 'car'.", "Singly linked lists contain nodes which have a data field as well as 'next' field, which points to the next node in line of nodes. Operations that", "In a 'doubly linked list', each node contains, besides the next-node link, a second link field pointing to the 'previous' node in the sequence. The two links may be called 'forward('s') and 'backwards', or 'next' and 'prev'('previous'). A technique known as XOR-linking allows a doubly", "In a'multiply linked list', each node contains two or more link fields, each field being used to connect the same set of data records in a different order of same set(e.g., by name,", "In the last node of a list, the link field often contains a null reference, a special value is used to indicate the lack of further nodes. A less common convention is to make it point to the first node", "In some implementations an extra'sentinel' or 'dummy' node may be added before the first data record or after the last one. This", "An empty list is a list that contains no data records. This is usually the same as", "The link fields need not be physically part of the nodes. If the data records are stored", "Since a reference to the first node gives access to the whole list, that reference is often called the 'address', 'pointer', or 'handle' of the list. Algorithms that manipulate linked lists usually get such handles to", "The alternatives listed above may be arbitrarily combined in almost every way,", "As with most choices in computer programming and design, no method is well suited to all circumstances. A linked list data structure might work well in one case, but cause problems in another. This is a list of some of the common tradeoffs involving linked list structures.", "A \"dynamic array\" is a data structure that allocates all elements contiguously in memory, and keeps a count of the current number of elements. If the space reserved for the dynamic array is exceeded, it is reallocated and (possibly) copied, which is an expensive operation. Linked lists have several advantages over dynamic arrays. Insertion or deletion of an element at a specific point of a list, assuming that we have indexed a pointer to the node (before the one to be removed, or before the insertion point) already, is a constant-time operation (otherwise without this reference it is O(n)), whereas insertion in a dynamic array at random locations will require moving half of the elements on average, and all the elements in the worst case. While one can \"delete\" an element from an array in constant time", "While doubly linked and circular lists have advantages over singly linked linear lists, linear lists offer some advantages that make them preferable in some situations. A singly linked linear list is a recursive data structure, because it contains a pointer to a \"smaller\" object of the same type. For that reason, many operations on singly linked linear lists (such as merging two lists, or enumerating the elements in reverse order) often have very simple recursive algorithms, much simpler than any solution using iterative commands. While those recursive solutions can be adapted for doubly linked and circularly linked lists, the procedures generally need extra arguments and more complicated base cases. Linear singly linked lists also allow tail-sharing, the use of a", "Double-linked lists require more space per node (unless one uses XOR-linking), and their elementary operations are more expensive; but they are often easier to manipulate because they allow fast and easy sequential access to the list in both directions. In a doubly linked list, one can insert or delete a node in", "A circularly linked list may be a natural option to represent arrays that are naturally circular, e.g. the corners of a polygon, a pool of buffers that are used and released in FIFO (\"first in, first out\") order, or a set of processes that should be time-shared in round-robin order. In these applications, a pointer to any node serves as a handle to the whole list. With a circular list, a pointer to the last node gives easy access also to the first node, by following one link. Thus, in applications that require access to both ends of the list (e.g., in the", "Sentinel node may simplify certain list operations, by ensuring that the next or previous nodes exist for every element, and that even empty lists have at least one node. One may also use a sentinel node at the end of the list, with an appropriate data field, to eliminate some end-of-list tests. For example, when scanning the list looking for a node with a given value \"x\", setting the sentinel's data field to \"x\" makes it unnecessary to test for end-of-list inside the loop. Another example is the merging two sorted lists: if their sentinels have data fields set to +∞, the choice of the next output node does not need special handling", "When manipulating linked lists in-place, care must be taken to not use values that you have invalidated in previous assignments. This makes algorithms for inserting or deleting linked list nodes somewhat subtle. This section gives pseudocode for adding or removing nodes from singly, doubly, and circularly linked lists in-place. Throughout we will use \"null\" to refer to an end-of-list marker or sentinel, which may be implemented in a number of ways.", "", "Our node data structure will have two fields. We also keep a variable \"firstNode\" which always points to the first node in the list, or is \"null\" for an empty list. Traversal of a singly linked list is simple, beginning at the first node and following each \"next\" link until we come to the end: The following code inserts a node after an existing node in a singly linked list. The diagram shows how it works. Inserting a node before an existing one cannot be done directly; instead, one must keep track of the previous node and insert a node after it. Inserting at the beginning of the list requires a separate function. This requires updating \"firstNode\". Similarly, we have functions for removing the node \"after\" a given node, and for removing a node from the beginning of", "In a circularly linked list, all nodes are linked in a continuous circle, without using \"null.\" For lists with a front and a back (such as a queue), one stores a reference to the last node in the list. The \"next\" node after the last node is the first node. Elements can be added to the back of the list and removed from the front in constant time. Circularly linked lists can be either singly or doubly linked. Both types of circularly linked lists benefit from the ability to traverse the full list beginning at any given node. This often allows us to avoid storing \"firstNode\" and \"lastNode\", although if the list may be empty we need a special representation for the empty list, such as a \"lastNode\" variable which points to some node in the list or is \"null\" if it's empty; we use such a \"lastNode\" here. This representation significantly simplifies adding and removing nodes with a non-empty list, but empty lists are then a special case.", "Assuming that \"someNode\" is some node in a non-empty circular singly linked list, this code iterates through that list starting with \"someNode\": Notice that the test \"while node ≠ someNode\" must be at the end of the loop. If the test was moved to the beginning of the loop, the procedure would fail whenever the list had only one node. This function inserts a node \"newNode\" into a circular linked list after a given node \"node\". If \"node\" is null, it assumes that the list is empty. Suppose that \"L\" is a variable pointing to the last node of a circular linked list (or null if the list is empty). To append \"newNode\" to the \"end\" of the list, one may do To insert \"newNode\" at the \"beginning\" of the list, one may do", "Languages that do not support any type of reference can still create links by replacing pointers with array indices. The approach is to keep an array of records, where each record has integer fields indicating the index of the next (and possibly previous) node in the array. Not all nodes in the array need be used. If records are also not supported, parallel arrays can often be used instead. As an example, consider the following linked list record that uses arrays instead of pointers: A linked list can be built by creating an array of these structures, and an integer variable to store the index of the first element. Links between elements are formed by placing the array index of the next (or previous) cell into the", "Many programming languages such as Lisp and Scheme have singly linked lists built in. In many functional languages, these lists are constructed from nodes, each called a \"cons\" or \"cons cell\". The cons has two fields: the \"car\", a reference to the", "When constructing a linked list, one is faced with the choice of whether to store the data of the list directly in the linked list nodes, called \"internal storage\", or merely to store a reference to the data, called \"external storage\". Internal storage has the advantage of making access to the data more efficient, requiring less storage overall, having better locality of reference, and simplifying memory management for the list (its data is allocated and deallocated at the same time as the list nodes). External storage, on the other hand, has the advantage of being more generic, in that the same data structure and machine code can be used for a linked list no matter what the size of the data is. It also makes it easy to place the same data in multiple linked lists. Although with internal storage the same data can be placed in multiple lists by including multiple \"next\" references in the node data structure, it would then be necessary to create separate routines to add or delete cells based on each field. It is possible to create additional linked lists of elements that use internal storage by using external storage, and having the cells of the additional linked lists store references to the nodes of the linked list containing the data. In general, if a set of data structures needs to be included in linked lists, external storage is the best approach. If a set of data structures need to be included in only one linked list, then internal storage is slightly better, unless a generic linked list package using external storage is available. Likewise, if different sets of data that can be stored in the same data structure are to be included in a single linked list, then internal storage would be fine. Another approach that can be used with some languages involves having different data structures, but all have the initial fields, including the \"next\" (and \"prev\" if double linked list) references in the same location. After defining separate structures for each type of data, a generic structure can be defined that contains the minimum amount of data shared by all the other structures and contained at the top (beginning) of the structures. Then generic routines can be created that use the minimal structure to perform linked list type operations, but separate routines can then handle the specific data. This approach is often used in message parsing routines, where several types of messages are received, but all start with the same set of fields, usually including a field for message type. The generic routines are used to add new messages to a queue when they are received, and remove them from the queue in order to process the message. The message type field is then used to call the correct routine to process the specific type of message.", "Both stacks and queues are often implemented using linked lists, and simply restrict the type of operations which are supported. The skip list is a linked list augmented with layers of pointers for quickly jumping over large numbers of elements, and then descending to the next layer. This process continues down to the bottom layer, which is the actual list. A binary tree can be seen as a type of linked list where the elements are themselves linked lists of the same nature. The result is that each node may include a reference to the first node of one or two other linked lists, which, together with their contents, form the subtrees below that node. An unrolled linked list is a linked list in which each node contains an array of data values. This leads to improved cache performance, since more list elements are contiguous in memory, and reduced memory overhead, because less metadata needs to be stored for each element of the list. A hash table may use linked lists to store the chains of items that hash to the same position in the hash table. A heap shares some of the ordering properties of a linked list, but is almost always implemented using an array. Instead of references from node to node, the next and previous data indexes are calculated using the current data's index. A self-organizing list rearranges its nodes based on some heuristic which reduces search times for data retrieval by keeping commonly accessed nodes at the head of the list." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Invasive species.", "Description.", "Ecological aspects.", "Distribution.", "Cultivation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Stratiotes aloides\" has been found in the Trent River in eastern Ontario, Canada.", "\"Stratiotes aloides\" has a rosette of serrated leaves, lanceolate, up to 30 cm long in tufts. White flowers are up to 45 mm across with many stamens in the male plantsare produced in the summer.", "In the summer this plant floats on the water surface with the leaves just above the surface. In the autumn they become covered with a slimy secretion (calcium carbonate) and the whole plant sinks to the bottom to rise again in the spring. Fossils have been found of this plant. Plants are dioecious, male and female plants must be grown if seed is required. Only the female plant occurs naturally in Britain, though plants with hermaphrodite flowers are also found occasionally. Seed is never set in Britain, the plants increasing mainly by offsets.", "In Ireland found in shallow waters where it was introduced.Apparently now extinct in the north-east of Ireland.Rare in east England.", "Most suitable for the cool aquarium or pond. Propagation from runners which form from the centre of the rosette of leaves. The herb has had a high reputation for treating wounds, especially when these are made by an iron implement. It is applied externally. The plant is also said to be of use in the treatment of St. Anthony's fire and also of bruised kidneys." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terms.", "Process.", "Tools and gravers or burins.", "Tool geometry.", "Tool sharpening.", "Artwork design.", "Handpieces.", "Cutting the surface.", "Finishing.", "Modern hand engraving.", "Machine engraving.", "Computer-aided machine engraving.", "History.", "Music engraving.", "Applications today.", "Creating tone.", "Biblical references.", "Noted engravers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Other terms often used for printed engravings are copper engraving, copper-plate engraving or \"line engraving\". Steel engraving is the same technique, on steel or steel-faced plates, and was mostly used for banknotes, illustrations for books, magazines and reproductive prints, letterheads and similar uses from about 1790 to the early 20th century, when the technique became less popular, except for banknotes and other forms of security printing. Especially in the past, \"engraving\" was often used very loosely to cover several printmaking techniques, so that many so-called engravings were in fact produced by totally different techniques, such as etching or mezzotint. \"Hand engraving\" is a term sometimes used for engraving objects other than printing plates, to inscribe or decorate jewellery, firearms, trophies, knives and other fine metal goods. Traditional engravings in printmaking are also \"hand engraved\", using just the same techniques to make the lines in the plate.", "Each graver is different and has its own use. Engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin, or graver, to cut the design into the surface, most traditionally a copper plate. However, modern hand engraving artists use burins or gravers to cut a variety of metals such as silver, nickel, steel, brass, gold, titanium, and more, in applications from weaponry to jewellery to motorcycles to found objects. Modern professional engravers can engrave with a resolution of up to 40 lines per mm in high grade work creating game scenes and scrollwork. Dies used in mass production of molded parts are sometimes hand engraved to add special touches or certain information such as part numbers. In addition to hand engraving, there are engraving machines that require less human finesse and are not directly controlled by hand. They are usually used for lettering, using a pantographic system. There are versions for the insides of rings and also the outsides of larger pieces. Such machines are commonly used for inscriptions on rings, lockets and presentation pieces.", "Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types. The burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. The angle tint tool has a slightly curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, used to do fill work on larger areas or to create uniform shade lines that are fast to execute. Ring gravers are made with particular shapes that are used by jewelry engravers in order to cut inscriptions inside rings. Flat gravers are used for fill work on letters, as well as \"wriggle\" cuts on most musical instrument engraving work, remove background, or create bright cuts. Knife gravers are for line engraving and very deep cuts. Round gravers, and flat gravers with a radius, are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts (also called bright-cut engraving), as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. Square or V-point gravers are typically square or elongated diamond-shaped and used for cutting straight lines. V-point can be anywhere from 60 to 130 degrees, depending on purpose and effect. These gravers have very small cutting points. Other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used for texturing effects. Burnishing tools can also be used for certain stone setting techniques. Musical instrument engraving on American-made brass instruments flourished in the 1920s and utilizes a specialized engraving technique where a flat graver is \"walked\" across the surface of the instrument to make zig-zag lines and patterns. The method for \"walking\" the graver may also be referred to as \"wriggle\" or \"wiggle\" cuts. This technique is necessary due to the thinness of metal used to make musical instruments versus firearms or jewelry. Wriggle cuts are commonly found on silver Western jewelry and other Western metal work.", "Tool geometry is extremely important for accuracy in hand engraving. When sharpened for most applications, a graver has a \"face\", which is the top of the graver, and a \"heel\", which is the bottom of the graver; not all tools or application require a heel. These two surfaces meet to form a point that cuts the metal. The geometry and length of the heel helps to guide the graver smoothly as it cuts the surface of the metal. When the tool's point breaks or chips, even on a microscopic level, the graver can become hard to control and produces unexpected results. Modern innovations have brought about new types of carbide that resist chipping and breakage, which hold a very sharp point longer between resharpening than traditional metal tools.", "Sharpening a graver or burin requires either a sharpening stone or wheel. Harder carbide and steel gravers require diamond-grade sharpening wheels; these gravers can be polished to a mirror finish using a ceramic or cast iron lap, which is essential in creating bright cuts. Several low-speed, reversible sharpening system made specifically for hand engravers are available that reduce sharpening time. Fixtures that secure the tool in place at certain angles and geometries are also available to take the guesswork from sharpening to produce accurate points. Very few master engravers exist today who rely solely on \"feel\" and muscle memory to sharpen tools. These master engravers typically worked for many years as an apprentice, most often learning techniques decades before modern machinery was available for hand engravers. These engravers typically trained in such countries as Italy and Belgium, where hand engraving has a rich and long heritage of masters.", "Design or artwork is generally prepared in advance, although some professional and highly experienced hand engravers are able to draw out minimal outlines either on paper or directly on the metal surface just prior to engraving. The work to be engraved may be lightly scribed on the surface with a sharp point, laser marked, drawn with a fine permanent marker (removable with acetone) or pencil, transferred using various chemicals in conjunction with inkjet or laser printouts, or stippled. Engraving artists may rely on hand drawing skills, copyright-free designs and images, computer-generated artwork, or common design elements when creating artwork.", "Originally, handpieces varied little in design as the common use was to push with the handle placed firmly in the center of the palm. With modern pneumatic engraving systems, handpieces are designed and created in a variety of shapes and power ranges. Handpieces are made using various methods and materials. Knobs may be handmade from wood, molded and engineered from plastic, or machine-made from brass, steel, or other metals. The most widely known hand engraving tool maker, GRS Tools in Kansas is an American-owned and operated company that manufacture handpieces as well as many other tools for various applications in metal engraving.", "The actual engraving is traditionally done by a combination of pressure and manipulating the work-piece. The traditional \"hand push\" process is still practiced today, but modern technology has brought various mechanically assisted engraving systems. Most pneumatic engraving systems require an air source that drives air through a hose into a handpiece, which resembles a traditional engraving handle in many cases, that powers a mechanism (usually a piston). The air is actuated by either a foot control (like a gas pedal or sewing machine) or newer palm / hand control. This mechanism replaces either the \"hand push\" effort or the effects of a hammer. The internal mechanisms move at speeds up to 15,000 strokes per minute, thereby greatly reducing the effort needed in traditional hand engraving. These types of pneumatic systems are used for power assistance only and do not guide or control the engraving artist. One of the major benefits of using a pneumatic system for hand engraving is the reduction of fatigue and decrease in time spent working. Hand engraving artists today employ a combination of hand push, pneumatic, rotary, or hammer and chisel methods. Hand push is still commonly used by modern hand engraving artists who create \"bulino\" style work, which is highly detailed and delicate, fine work; a great majority, if not all, traditional printmakers today rely solely upon hand push methods. Pneumatic systems greatly reduce the effort required for removing large amounts of metal, such as in deep relief engraving or Western bright cut techniques.", "Finishing the work is often necessary when working in metal that may rust or where a colored finish is desirable, such as a firearm. A variety of spray lacquers and finishing techniques exist to seal and protect the work from exposure to the elements and time. Finishing also may include lightly sanding the surface to remove small chips of metal called \"burrs\" that are very sharp and unsightly. Some engravers prefer high contrast to the work or design, using black paints or inks to darken removed (and lower) areas of exposed metal. The excess paint or ink is wiped away and allowed to dry before lacquering or sealing, which may or may not be desired by the artist.", "Because of the high level of microscopic detail that can be achieved by a master engraver, counterfeiting of engraved designs is well-nigh impossible, and modern banknotes are almost always engraved, as are plates for printing money, checks, bonds and other security-sensitive papers. The engraving is so fine that a normal printer cannot recreate the detail of hand engraved images, nor can it be scanned. In the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, more than one hand engraver will work on the same plate, making it nearly impossible for one person to duplicate all the engraving on a particular banknote or document. The modern discipline of hand engraving, as it is called in a metalworking context, survives largely in a few specialized fields. The highest levels of the art are found on firearms and other metal weaponry, jewellery, and musical instruments. In most commercial markets today, hand engraving has been replaced with milling using CNC engraving or milling machines. Still, there are certain applications where use of hand engraving tools cannot be replaced.", "In some instances, images or designs can be transferred to metal surfaces via mechanical process. One such process is roll stamping or roller-die engraving. In this process, a hardened image die is pressed against the destination surface using extreme pressure to impart the image. In the 1800s pistol cylinders were often decorated via this process to impart a continuous scene around its surface.", "Engraving machines such as the K500 (packaging) or K6 (publication) by Hell Gravure Systems use a diamond stylus to cut cells. Each cell creates one printing dot later in the process. A K6 can have up to 18 engraving heads each cutting 8.000 cells per second to an accuracy of.1 μm and below. They are fully computer-controlled and the whole process of cylinder-making is fully automated. It is now common place for retail stores (mostly jewellery, silverware or award stores) to have a small computer controlled engrave on site. This enables them to personalise the products they sell. Retail engraving machines tend to be focused around ease of use for the operator and the ability to do a wide variety of items including flat metal plates, jewelry of different shapes and sizes, as well as cylindrical items such as mugs and tankards. They will typically be equipped with a computer dedicated to graphic design that will enable the operator to easily design a text or picture graphic which the software will translate into digital signals telling the engraver machine what to do. Unlike industrial engravers, retail machines are smaller and only use one diamond head. This is interchangeable so the operator can use differently shaped diamonds for different finishing effects. They will typically be able to do a variety of metals and plastics. Glass and crystal engraving is possible, but the brittle nature of the material makes the process more time consuming. Retail engravers mainly use two different processes. The first and most common 'Diamond Drag' pushes the diamond cutter through the surface of the material and then pulls to create scratches. These direction and depth are controlled by the computer input. The second is 'Spindle Cutter'. This is similar to Diamond Drag, but the engraving head is shaped in a flat V shape, with a small diamond and the base. The machine uses an electronic spindle to quickly rotate the head as it pushes it into the material, then pulls it along whilst it continues to spin. This creates a much bolder impression than diamond drag. It is used mainly for brass plaques and pet tags. With state-of-the-art machinery it is easy to have a simple, single item complete in under ten minutes. The engraving process with diamonds is state-of-the-art since the 1960s. Today laser engraving machines are in development but still mechanical cutting has proven its strength in economical terms and quality. More than 4,000 engravers make approx. 8 Mio printing cylinders worldwide per year.", "\"For the printing process, see intaglio (printmaking). For the Western art history of engraved prints, see old master print and line engraving\"The first evidence for humans engraving patterns is a chiselled shell, dating back between 540,000 and 430,000 years, from Trinil, in Java, Indonesia, where the first Homo erectus was discovered. Hatched banding upon ostrich eggshells used as water containers found in South Africa in the Diepkloof Rock Shelter and dated to the Middle Stone Age around 60,000 BC are the next documented case of human engraving. Engraving on bone and ivory is an important technique for the Art of the Upper Paleolithic, and larger engraved petroglyphs on rocks are found from many prehistoric periods and cultures around the world. In antiquity, the only engraving on metal that could be carried out is the shallow grooves found in some jewellery after the beginning of the 1st Millennium B.C. The majority of so-called engraved designs on ancient gold rings or other items were produced by chasing or sometimes a combination of lost-wax casting and chasing. Engraved gem is a term for any carved or engraved semi-precious stone; this was an important small-scale art form in the ancient world, and remained popular until the 19th century. However the use of glass engraving, usually using a wheel, to cut decorative scenes or figures into glass vessels, in imitation of hardstone carvings, appears as early as the first century AD, continuing into the fourth century CE at urban centers such as Cologne and Rome, and appears to have ceased sometime in the fifth century. Decoration was first based on Greek mythology, before hunting and circus scenes became popular, as well as imagery drawn from the Old and New Testament. It appears to have been used to mimic the appearance of precious metal wares during the same period, including the application of gold leaf, and could be cut free-hand or with lathes. As many as twenty separate stylistic workshops have been identified, and it seems likely that the engraver and vessel producer were separate craftsmen. In the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate and inscribe metalwork. It is thought that they began to print impressions of their designs to record them. From this grew the engraving of copper printing plates to produce artistic images on paper, known as old master prints, in Germany in the 1430s. Italy soon followed. Many early engravers came from a goldsmithing background. The first and greatest period of the engraving was from about 1470 to 1530, with such masters as Martin Schongauer, Albrecht Dürer, and Lucas van Leiden. Thereafter engraving tended to lose ground to etching, which was a much easier technique for the artist to learn. But many prints combined the two techniques: although Rembrandt's prints are generally all called etchings for convenience, many of them have some burin or drypoint work, and some have nothing else. By the nineteenth century, most engraving was for commercial illustration. Before the advent of photography, engraving was used to reproduce other forms of art, for example paintings. Engravings continued to be common in newspapers and many books into the early 20th century, as they were cheaper to use in printing than photographic images. Many classic postage stamps were engraved, although the practice is now mostly confined to particular countries, or used when a more \"elegant\" design is desired and a limited color range is acceptable. Modifying the relief designs on coins is a craft dating back to the 18th century and today modified coins are known colloquially as hobo nickels. In the United States, especially during the Great Depression, coin engraving on the large-faced Indian Head nickel became a way to help make ends meet. The craft continues today, and with modern equipment often produces stunning miniature sculptural artworks and floral scrollwork. During the mid-20th century, a renaissance in hand-engraving began to take place. With the inventions of pneumatic hand-engraving systems that aided hand-engravers, the art and techniques of hand-engraving became more accessible.", "The first music printed from engraved plates dates from 1446 and most printed music was produced through engraving from roughly 1700–1860. From 1860–1990 most printed music was produced through a combination of engraved master plates reproduced through offset lithography. The first comprehensive account is given by Mme Delusse in her article \"Gravure en lettres, en géographie et en musique\" in Diderot's Encyclopedia. The technique involved a five-pointed raster to score staff lines, various punches in the shapes of notes and standard musical symbols, and various burins and scorers for lines and slurs. For correction, the plate was held on a bench by callipers, hit with a dot punch on the opposite side, and burnished to remove any signs of the defective work. The process involved intensive pre-planning of the layout, and many manuscript scores with engraver's planning marks survive from the 18th and 19th centuries. By 1837 pewter had replaced copper as a medium, and Berthiaud gives an account with an entire chapter devoted to music (\"Novel manuel complet de l'imprimeur en taille douce\", 1837). Printing from such plates required a separate inking to be carried out cold, and the printing press used less pressure. Generally, four pages of music were engraved on a single plate. Because music engraving houses trained engravers through years of apprenticeship, very little is known about the practice. Fewer than one dozen sets of tools survive in libraries and museums. By 1900 music engravers were established in several hundred cities in the world, but the art of storing plates was usually concentrated with publishers. Extensive bombing of Leipzig in 1944, the home of most German engraving and printing firms, destroyed roughly half the world's engraved music plates.", "Examples of contemporary uses for engraving include creating text on jewellery, such as pendants or on the inside of engagement- and wedding rings to include text such as the name of the partner, or adding a winner's name to a sports trophy. Another application of modern engraving is found in the printing industry. There, every day thousands of pages are mechanically engraved onto rotogravure cylinders, typically a steel base with a copper layer of about 0.1 mm in which the image is transferred. After engraving the image is protected with an approximately 6 μm chrome layer. Using this process the image will survive for over a million copies in high speed printing presses. Some schools throughout the world are renowned for their teaching of engraving, like the École Estienne in Paris.", "In traditional engraving, which is a purely linear medium, the impression of half-tones was created by making many very thin parallel lines, a technique called hatching. When two sets of parallel-line \"hatchings\" intersected each other for higher density, the resulting pattern was known as \"cross-hatching\". Patterns of dots were also used in a technique called stippling, first used around 1505 by Giulio Campagnola. Claude Mellan was one of many 17th-century engravers with a very well-developed technique of using parallel lines of varying thickness (known as the \"swelling line\") to give subtle effects of tone (as was Goltzius) – see picture below. One famous example is his \"Sudarium of Saint Veronica\" (1649), an engraving of the face of Jesus made from a single spiraling line that starts at the tip of Jesus's nose.", "The earliest allusion to engraving in the Bible may be the reference to Judah's seal ring (Ge 38:18), followed by (Ex 39.30). Engraving was commonly done with pointed tools of iron or even with diamond points. (Jer 17:1). Each of the two onyx stones on the shoulder-pieces of the high priest’s ephod was engraved with the names of six different tribes of Israel, and each of the 12 precious stones that adorned his breastpiece was engraved with the name of one of the tribes. The holy sign of dedication, the shining gold plate on the high priest's turban, was engraved with the words: \"Holiness belongs to Adonai.\" Bezalel, along with Oholiab, was qualified to do this specialized engraving work as well as to train others.—Ex 35:30–35; 28:9–12; 39:6–14, 30.", "Prints: Of gems: Of guns: Of coins: Of postage stamps: Of pins:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "World War I.", "Interwar period.", "World War II.", "Stalingrad.", "Crisis.", "Capitulation.", "After Stalingrad and postwar." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Paulus was born in Guxhagen and grew up in Kassel, Hesse-Nassau, the son of a treasurer. He tried, unsuccessfully, to secure a cadetship in the Imperial German Navy and briefly studied law at Marburg University. Many English language sources and publications from the 1940s to the present day give Paulus' family name the prefix \"von\". For example: Mark Arnold-Forster's \"The World At War\", companion volume to the documentary of the same name, Stein and Day, 1973, pp. 139–42; other examples are Allen and Muratoff's \"The Russian Campaigns of 1941-1943,\" published in 1944 and Peter Margaritis (2019). This is incorrect, as Paulus' family was never part of the nobility, and Antony Beevor refers to his \"comparatively humble birth\" (like Rommel's family; their \"sole similarity\").", "After leaving the university without a degree, he joined the 111th Infantry Regiment as an officer cadet in February 1910. On 4 July 1912 he married the Romanian, the sister of a colleague who served in the same regiment. When World War I began, Paulus' regiment was part of the thrust into France, and he saw action in the Vosges and around Arras in the autumn of 1914. After a leave of absence due to illness, he joined the \"Alpenkorps\" as a staff officer, serving in France, Romania and Serbia. By the end of the war, he was a captain.", "After the Armistice, Paulus was a brigade adjutant with the Freikorps. He was chosen as one of only 4,000 officers to serve in the Reichswehr, the defensive army that the Treaty of Versailles had limited to 100,000 men. He was assigned to the 13th Infantry Regiment at Stuttgart as a company commander. He served in various staff positions for over a decade (1921–33). In 1920s, as part of the military cooperation between Weimar Republic and Soviet Union to escape Treaty of Versailles, Paulus presented guest lectures in Moscow, Soviet Union. Later, Paulus briefly commanded a motorized battalion (1934–35) before being named chief of staff for Panzer headquarters in October 1935. This was a new formation under the direction of Oswald Lutz that directed the training and development of the \"Panzerwaffen\", or tank forces of the German army.", "In February 1938 Paulus was appointed \"Chef des Generalstabes\" to Gen. Heinz Guderian's new XVI Armeekorps (Motorisiert), which replaced Lutz's command. Guderian described him as \"brilliantly clever, conscientious, hard working, original and talented\" but had severe doubts about his decisiveness, toughness and lack of command experience. He remained in that post until May 1939, when he was promoted to major general and became chief of staff for the German Tenth Army, with which he saw service in Poland. The unit was renamed the Sixth Army and engaged in the spring offensives of 1940 through the Netherlands and Belgium. Paulus was promoted to lieutenant general in August 1940. The following month he was named deputy chief of the German General Staff (Oberquartiermeister I). In that role he helped draft the plans for the invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa.", "In November 1941, after German Sixth Army's commander Field Marshal Walther von Reichenau—Paulus' patron—became commander of the entire Army Group South, Paulus, who had never commanded a larger unit than a battalion prior to this time, was promoted to \"General der Panzertruppe\" and became commander of the Sixth Army. However, he only took over his new command on 20 January, six days after the sudden death of Reichenau, leaving him on his own and without the support of his more experienced sponsor. Paulus led the drive on Stalingrad during that summer. His troops fought Soviet forces defending Stalingrad over three months in increasingly brutal urban warfare. In November 1942, when the Soviet Red Army launched a massive counter-offensive, code-named Operation Uranus, Paulus found himself surrounded by an entire Soviet Army Group. Paulus did not request to evacuate the city when the counter-offensive began. Paulus followed Adolf Hitler's orders to hold his forces' position in Stalingrad under all circumstances, despite the fact that he was completely surrounded by strong Soviet forces. Operation Winter Storm, a relief effort by Army Group Don under Field Marshal Erich von Manstein, was launched in December. Following his orders, Paulus prepared to cooperate with the offensive by trying to break out of Stalingrad. In the meantime, he kept his entire army in fixed defensive positions. Manstein told Paulus that the relief would need assistance from the Sixth Army, but the order to initiate the breakout never came. Paulus remained absolutely firm in obeying the orders he had been given. Manstein's forces were unable to reach Stalingrad on their own and their efforts were eventually halted due to Soviet offensives elsewhere on the front. Kurt Zeitzler, the newly appointed chief of the Army General Staff, eventually got Hitler to allow Paulus to break out—provided he continue to hold Stalingrad, an impossible task. For the next two months Paulus and his men fought on. However, the lack of food and ammunition, equipment attrition and the deteriorating physical condition of the German troops gradually wore down the German defense. With the new year Hitler promoted Paulus to Colonel General. Regarding the resistance to capitulate, according to Adam, Paulus stated", "On 7 January 1943 General Konstantin Rokossovsky, commander of the Red Army on the Don front, called a cease-fire and offered Paulus' men generous surrender terms: normal rations, medical treatment for the ill and wounded, permission to retain their badges, decorations, uniforms and personal effects. As part of his communication, Rokossovsky advised Paulus that he was in an impossible situation. Paulus requested permission from Hitler to surrender. Even though it was obvious the Sixth Army was in an untenable position, the German Army High Command rejected Paulus' request, stating, \"Capitulation out of the question. Every day that the army holds out longer helps the whole front and draws away the Russian divisions from it.\" After a heavy Soviet offensive overran the last emergency airstrip in Stalingrad on 25 January, the Soviets again offered Paulus a chance to surrender. Paulus radioed Hitler once again for permission. Telling Hitler that collapse was \"inevitable,\" Paulus stressed that his men were without ammunition or food, and he was no longer able to command them. He also said that 18,000 men were wounded and were in immediate need of medical attention. Once again, Hitler rejected Paulus' request out of hand, and ordered Paulus to hold Stalingrad to the death. On 30 January Paulus informed Hitler that his men were only hours from collapse. Hitler responded by showering a raft of field promotions by radio on Paulus' officers to build up their spirits and steel their will to hold their ground. Most significantly, he promoted Paulus to field marshal. In deciding to promote him, Hitler noted that there was no known record of a Prussian or German field marshal ever having surrendered. The implication was clear: Paulus was to commit suicide. Hitler implied that if Paulus allowed himself to be taken alive, he would shame Germany's military history.", "Paulus and his staff were captured on the morning of 31 January 1943. The events of that day were recorded by Col. Wilhelm Adam, one of Paulus' aides and an adjutant in the XXIII Army Corps, in his personal diary: On 2 February 1943 the remainder of Sixth Army capitulated. Upon finding out about Paulus' \"surrender\", Hitler flew into a rage and vowed never to appoint another field marshal again. He would, in fact, go on to appoint another seven field marshals during the last two years of the war. Speaking about the surrender of Paulus, Hitler told his staff: Paulus, a Roman Catholic, was opposed to suicide. During his captivity, according to Gen. Max Pfeffer, Paulus said of Hitler's expectation: \"I have no intention of shooting myself for this Bohemian corporal.\" Another general told the NKVD (the public and secret police organisation of the Soviet Union) that Paulus had told him about his promotion to field marshal and said, \"It looks like an invitation to commit suicide, but I will not do this favor for him.\" Paulus also forbade his soldiers from standing on top of their trenches in order to be shot by the enemy. Shortly before surrendering, Paulus sent his wedding ring back to his wife on the last plane departing his position. He had not seen her since 1942 and would not see her again, as she died in 1949 while he was still in captivity.", "At first Paulus refused to collaborate with the Soviets. However, after the attempted assassination of Hitler on 20 July 1944, he became a vocal critic of the Nazi regime while in Soviet captivity, joining the Soviet-sponsored National Committee for a Free Germany appealing to Germans to surrender. He later acted as a witness for the prosecution at the Nuremberg Trials. He was allowed to move to the German Democratic Republic in 1953, two years before the repatriation of the remaining German POWs. During the Nuremberg Trials, Paulus was asked about the Stalingrad prisoners by a journalist. He told the journalist to tell the wives and mothers that their husbands and sons were well. Of the 91,000 German prisoners taken at Stalingrad, half had died on the march to Siberian prison camps, and nearly as many died in captivity; only about 6,000 survived and returned home. From 1953-56 he lived in Dresden, East Germany, where he worked as the civilian chief of the East German Military History Research Institute. In late 1956 he developed amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and became progressively weaker. He died within a few months, in Dresden, on 1 February 1957, 14 years and one day after his surrender at Stalingrad. As part of his last will and testament, his body was transported to Baden-Baden, West Germany, to be buried at the \"Hauptfriedhof\" (main cemetery) next to his wife, who had died eight years earlier in 1949, not having seen her husband since his departure for the Eastern Front in the summer of 1942." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Rivalry of twins.", "Bellerophon.", "Madness of Proetides.", "Other tales." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Proetus' father was Abas, son of the last surviving Aegyptiad Lynceus and the Danaid Hypermnestra, had ruled over Argos and married Aglaea or Ocalea, who bore him twin sons, Proetus and Acrisius. Proetus had also an illegitimate brother named Lyrcus, son of his father by an unknown woman. According to one source, Proetus was father of Perseus. By his wife, Antea or Stheneboea, Proetus became the father of three daughters (the so-called Proitides) and a son Megapenthes. The daughters' names are Lysippe, Iphinoe, and Iphianassa in the \"Bibliotheca\"; Servius calls the last two Hipponoe and Cyrianassa, whereas Aelian only mentions two, Elege and Celaene.", "", "Proetus and Acrisius quarreled continually ever since they still were in the womb that they even carried on with the rivalry into their adult years, inventing shields or bucklers in the process. In one tradition, the conflict was reiterated when Proetus seduced Acrisius' daughter (and his own niece) Danae. Proetus started out as king of Argos, and held the throne for about seventeen years, but Acrisius defeated him on the war and exiled him. Proetus then fled to King Jobates (Iobates) or Amphianax in Lycia, and married his daughter Antea or Stheneboea. Jobates, thereupon, attempted to restore Proetus to his kingdom by armed force. After the war had gone on for a while the kingdom was divided in two. Acrisius then shared his kingdom with his brother, surrendering to him Tiryns and the eastern half of Argolis, i.e. the Heraeum, Midea and the coast of Argolis. Tiryns was said to be fortified by the Cyclopes.", "When Bellerophon came to Proetus to be purified of a murder which he had committed, the wife of Proetus fell in love with him, and invited him to come to her: but, as Bellerophon refused to comply with her desire, she charged him before Proetus with having made improper proposals to her. Proetus then sent Bellerophon to Iobates in Lycia, with a letter in which Iobates was desired to murder Bellerophon. Iobates challenged Bellerophon to several seemingly impossible tasks which Bellerophon did complete.", "When Proetus' daughters arrived at the age of maturity, they were stricken with madness, the cause of which is differently stated by different authors; some say that it was a punishment inflicted upon them by Dionysus, because they had despised his worship. Others have assumed the troubles arose by Hera, because they presumed to be more beautiful than the goddess, or perhaps because they had stolen some of the gold off her statue. In this state of madness they wandered through Peloponnesus. Melampus promised to cure them, if Proetus would give him one third of his kingdom. As Proetus refused to accept these terms, the madness of his daughters not only increased, but was communicated to the other Argive women also, so that they murdered their own children and ran about in a state of frenzy. Proetus then declared himself willing to listen to the proposal of Melampus; but the latter now also demanded for his brother Bias an equal share of the kingdom of Argos. Proetus consented and Melampus, having chosen the most robust among the young men, gave chase to the mad women, amid shouting and dancing, and drove them as far as Sicyon. During this pursuit, Iphinoe, one of the daughters of Proetus, died, but the two others were cured by Melampus by means of purifications, and were then married to Melampus and Bias. There was a tradition that Proetus had founded a sanctuary of Hera, between Sicyon and Titane, and one of Apollo at Sicyon. The place where the cure was effected upon his daughters is not the same in all traditions, some mentioning the well Anigros, others the well Cleitor in Arcadia, or Lusi in Arcadia. Some even state that the Proetides were cured by Asclepius or that they were cured in the Cave of the Lakes.", "In one account, Proetus had yet another daughter, Nyctaea, who fled from her own father's attempts of violation and was changed by Athena into an owl; her story is a variant for that of Nyctimene. According to Ovid, Proetus ended up changed into stone by Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius (who had eventually got expelled by Proetus), upon being made by him to see the head of Medusa. Later Proetus' son, Megapenthes, exchanged kingdoms with Perseus." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot synopsis.", "Productions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In early 17th century France, the poor but virile d'Artagnan travels to Paris to join the Musketeers (the King's bodyguard). He meets and falls in love with Lady Constance Bonacieux, a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne. Meanwhile, Cardinal Richelieu learns that the Queen has given a diamond heart brooch, which was a present to her from the King, as a token of love to the Duke of Buckingham. Richelieu suggests that the King ask the Queen to wear it at a planned royal gala. Richelieu dispatches the Comte de Rochefort and Milady de Winter to London to recover the gem, which he plans to unveil at the gala in order to reveal that the Queen has been unfaithful. The Queen asks her lady-in-waiting, Constance Bonacieux, to involve the Musketeers in the jewel's speedy recovery so that she might foil the plot. But when the Musketeers reach London, they are too late: Lady de Winter has arrived first. D’Artagnan uses his seductive charms upon Milady de Winter and steals the bauble. After a rousing sword fight, the Musketeers kill de Rochefort and rush back to Paris just in time to bring the jewel to the gala. King Louis fastens it to the Queen's shoulder just as he did when he first gave it to her. The 1984 revival deleted many of the original songs, added other Friml songs, and moved others to different positions in the story. The original Broadway production was produced by Florenz Ziegfeld, directed by librettist McGuire, and choreographed by Albertina Rasch. It opened on March 13, 1928 at the Lyric Theatre and ran for 318 performances. The cast included Dennis King as d'Artagnan, Douglass R. Dumbrille as Athos, Detmar Poppen as Porthos, Joseph Macaulay as Aramis, Clarence Derwent as Louis XIII of France, Vivienne Segal as Constance Bonacieux, and Reginald Owen as Cardinal Richelieu. King reprised his role for a 1930 West End production at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane that ran for 242 performances. The cast also included Marie Ney as Lady De Winter, Jerry Verno as Planchet, Webster Booth as The Duke of Buckingham and Arthur Wontner as Cardinal Richelieu. A 1984 revival with a new book by Mark Bramble was directed by Tom O'Horgan, but shortly before opening, Joe Layton replaced O'Horgan. The dance choreography was by Lester Wilson. After 15 previews, it opened on November 11 at The Broadway Theatre. It closed after just 9 performances despite a cast that included Michael Praed as d'Artagnan, Chuck Wagner as Athos, Ron Taylor as Porthos, Brent Spiner as Aramis, Roy Brocksmith as Louis XIII, Liz Callaway as Lady Constance Bonacieux, Marianne Tatum as Milady de Winter and Ed Dixon as Cardinal Richelieu. Tatum was nominated for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical. In his review in \"The New York Times\", Frank Rich commented:", "\"\"The Three Musketeers\" is a good-natured attempt to jazz up Rudolf Friml's Dumas-inspired operetta... much as the New York Shakespeare Festival retooled \"The Pirates of Penzance\" a few seasons ago. But this time the source material is many rungs below Gilbert and Sullivan – and the new accouterments add no wit, style, sexiness or show-biz dazzle.... Mark Bramble['s]... idea of writing a musical book... is to minimize the book. The baroque plot of \"The Three Musketeers\" is so frenetically and confusingly conveyed that no child is likely to understand who the Duke of Buckingham is, or why Cardinal Richelieu is such a pill, or why everyone is chasing after a diamond brooch throughout Act II.... The title characters... often seem like interchangeable stand-ins for the Three Stooges.... Joe Layton has tried to give the show the illusion of excitement by staging it at a frantic pace and by sending the actors running up and down the aisles... [but] everyone seems to be scurrying pointlessly about just to keep busy. After a while, the company begins to look like a road troupe of \"Camelot\" on amphetamines.\" A South Korean production ran from December 15, 2010 to mid-January 2011 starring Kyuhyun and Jay \"Typhoon\" Kim rotating as D'Artagnan, along with Dana Hong at Chungmu Arts Hall in Seoul. Another production ran from November 3, 2011 to late December 2011, starring Heo Young-saeng and Oh Won-bin alternating as D'Artagnan." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "History.", "Predecessors.", "Establishment.", "Formula." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Hijri era is calculated according to the Islamic lunar calendar and not the Julian or Gregorian solar one. It thus does not begin on January 1, 1 CE, but on the first day of the month of Muharram, which occurred in 622 CE. Its Julian equivalent was April 19. The date of the Hijra itself did not form the Islamic New Year. Instead, the system continues the earlier ordering of the months, with the Hijra occurring around the 8th day of Rabi al-Awwal, 66 days into the first year.", "", "By the age of Muhammad, there was already an Arabian lunar calendar, with named months. Likewise, the years of its calendar used conventional names rather than numbers: for example, the year of the birth of Muhammad and of Ammar ibn Yasir (570 CE) was known as the \"Year of the Elephant\". The first year of the Hijra (622-23 CE) was named the \"Permission to Travel\" in this calendar.", "17 years after the Hijra, a complaint from Abu Musa Ashaari prompted the caliph Umar to abolish the practice of named years and to establish a new calendar era. Umar chose as epoch for the new Muslim calendar the hijrah, the emigration of Muhammad and 70 Muslims from Mecca to Medina. Tradition credits Othman with the successful proposal, simply continuing the order of the months that had already been established, beginning with Muharram. Adoption of this calendar was then enforced by Umar.", "Different \"approximate\" conversion formulas between the Gregorian (AD or CE) and Islamic calendars (AH) are possible: or Given that the Islamic New Year does not begin January 1 and that a Hijri year is 11 days shorter than a Common Era year, there is no direct correspondence between years of the two eras. A given Hijri year will usually fall in two successive Western years. A Western year will always fall in two or occasionally three successive Hijri years. For example, the year 2008 CE maps to the last week of AH 1428, all of 1429, and the first few days of 1430. Similarly, the year 2041 CE will correspond with the last few days of AH 1462, all of 1463, and the first week of 1464." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "\"Institutio Oratoria\".", "Placement of Quintilian's rhetoric.", "Influence of Quintilian." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Quintilian was born c. 35 in \"Calagurris\" (Calahorra, La Rioja) in Hispania. His father, a well-educated man, sent him to Rome to study rhetoric early in the reign of Nero. While there, he cultivated a relationship with Domitius Afer, who died in 59. \"It had always been the custom... for young men with ambitions in public life to fix upon some older model of their ambition... and regard him as a mentor\". Quintilian evidently adopted Afer as his model and listened to him speak and plead cases in the law courts. Afer has been characterized as a more austere, classical, Ciceronian speaker than those common at the time of Seneca the Younger, and he may have inspired Quintilian's love of Cicero. Sometime after Afer's death, Quintilian returned to Hispania, possibly to practice law in the courts of his own province. However, in 68, he returned to Rome as part of the retinue of Emperor Galba, Nero's short-lived successor. Quintilian does not appear to have been a close advisor of the Emperor, which probably ensured his survival after the assassination of Galba in 69. After Galba's death, and during the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors which followed, Quintilian opened a public school of rhetoric. Among his students were Pliny the Younger, and perhaps Tacitus. The Emperor Vespasian made him a \"consul.\" The emperor \"in general was not especially interested in the arts, but... was interested in education as a means of creating an intelligent and responsible ruling class\". This subsidy enabled Quintilian to devote more time to the school, since it freed him of pressing monetary concerns. In addition, he appeared in the courts of law, arguing on behalf of clients. Of his personal life, little is known. In the \"Institutio Oratoria\", he mentions a wife who died young, as well as two sons who predeceased him. Quintilian retired from teaching and pleading in 88, during the reign of Domitian. His retirement may have been prompted by his achievement of financial security and his desire to become a gentleman of leisure. Quintilian survived several emperors; the reigns of Vespasian and Titus were relatively peaceful, but that of Domitian was reputed to be difficult. Domitian's cruelty and paranoia may have prompted the rhetorician to distance himself quietly. The emperor does not appear to have taken offence as he made Quintilian tutor of his two grand-nephews in 90 AD. He is believed to have died sometime around 100, not having long survived Domitian, who was assassinated in 96.", "The only extant work of Quintilian is a twelve-volume textbook on rhetoric entitled \"Institutio Oratoria\" (generally referred to in English as the \"Institutes of Oratory\"), published around AD 95. This work deals not only with the theory and practice of rhetoric, but also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself, providing advice that ran from the cradle to the grave. An earlier text, \"De Causis Corruptae Eloquentiae\" (\"On the Causes of Corrupted Eloquence\") has been lost, but is believed to have been \"a preliminary exposition of some of the views later set forth in [\"Institutio Oratoria\"]\". In addition, there are two sets of declamations, \"Declamationes Maiores\" and \"Declamationes Minores\", which have been attributed to Quintilian. However, there is some dispute over the real writer of these texts: \"Some modern scholars believe that the declamations circulated in his name represent the lecture notes of a scholar either using Quintilian's system or actually trained by him\".", "\"Institutio Oratoria\" (English: \"Institutes of Oratory\") is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was published around year 95 AD. The work deals also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself. In this work, Quintilian establishes that the perfect orator is first a good man, and after that he is a good speaker. He also believed that a speech should stay genuine to a message that is \"just and honorable\". Coherently, this came to be known as his good man theory, embracing the message that if one cannot be genuinely good, then one cannot be a good speaker for the people. This theory also revolves around being of service to the people. A good man is one who works for the good of the people and the prosperity of society. Quintilian published \"Institutio Oratoria\" in the last years of Domitian’s rule of the empire. He had worked alongside Domitian, but as he began to write more and ease away from Emperor Domitian’s complete power, the emperor did not seem to mind as he was so impressed with Quintilian, he hired him to be a tutor for his family because of Quintilian’s devotion to education. Domitian was in the harshest period of his rule, and almost no one had the courage to speak any idea that was unlike his, but Quintilian did. He spoke as an orator in the tradition of Cicero, such as had not been seen since the beginning of the reign of Augustus. Rather than pleading cases, as an orator of his era might have been expected to do, he concentrated on speaking in more general terms about how sound rhetoric influences the education of the people.", "Quintilian cites many authors in the \"Institutio Oratoria\" before providing his own definition of rhetoric. His rhetoric is chiefly defined by Cato the Elder’s \"vir bonus, dicendi peritus\", or “the good man skilled at speaking”. Later he states: “I should like the orator I am training to be a sort of Roman Wise Man”. Quintilian also “insists that his ideal orator is no philosopher because the philosopher does not take as a duty participation in civic life; this is constitutive of Quintilian's (and Isocrates' and Cicero's) ideal orator\". Though he calls for imitation, he also urges the orator to use this knowledge to inspire his own original invention. No author receives greater praise in the \"Institutio Oratoria\" than Cicero: \"For who can instruct with greater thoroughness, or more deeply stir the emotions? Who has ever possessed such a gift of charm?\". Quintilian's definition of rhetoric shares many similarities with that of Cicero, one being the importance of the speaker's moral character. Like Cicero, Quintilian also believes that “history and philosophy can increase an orator’s command of \"copia\" and style;\" they differ in that Quintilian “features the character of the orator, as well as the art”. In Book II, Quintilian sides with Plato’s assertion in the \"Phaedrus\" that the rhetorician must be just: “In the \"Phaedrus\", Plato makes it even clearer that the complete attainment of this art is even impossible without the knowledge of justice, an opinion in which I heartily concur\". Their views are further similar in their treatment of “(1) the inseparability, in more respects than one, of wisdom, goodness, and eloquence; and (2) the morally ideological nature of rhetoric. [...] For both, there are conceptual connections between rhetoric and justice which rule out the possibility of [an] amorally neutral conception of rhetoric. For both, rhetoric is ‘speaking well,’ and for both ‘speaking well’ means speaking justly\".", "The influence of Quintilian's masterwork, \"Institutio Oratoria\", can be felt in several areas. First of all, there is his criticism of the orator Seneca the Younger. Quintilian was attempting to modify the prevailing imperial style of oratory with his book, and Seneca was the principal figure in that style's tradition. He was more recent than many of the authors mentioned by Quintilian, but his reputation within the post-classical style necessitated both his mention and the criticism or back-handed praise that is given to him. Quintilian believed that “his style is for the most part corrupt and extremely dangerous because it abounds in attractive faults”. Seneca was regarded as doubly dangerous because his style was sometimes attractive. This reading of Seneca “has heavily coloured subsequent judgments of Seneca and his style\". Quintilian also made an impression on Martial, the Latin poet. A short poem, published in 86, was addressed to him, and opened, \"Quintilian, greatest director of straying youth, / you are an honour, Quintilian, to the Roman toga\". However, one should not take Martial's praise at face value, since he was known for his sly and witty insults. The opening lines are all that are usually quoted, but the rest of the poem contains lines such as \"A man who longs to surpass his father’s census rating\" (6). This speaks of Quintilian's ambitious side and his drive for wealth and position. After his death, Quintilian's influence fluctuated. He was mentioned by his pupil, Pliny, and by Juvenal, who may have been another student, “as an example of sobriety and of worldly success unusual in the teaching profession”. During the 3rd to 5th centuries, his influence was felt among such authors as St. Augustine of Hippo, whose discussion of signs and figurative language certainly owed something to Quintilian, and to St. Jerome, editor of the Vulgate Bible, whose theories on education are clearly influenced by Quintilian's. The Middle Ages saw a decline in knowledge of his work, since existing manuscripts of \"Institutio Oratoria\" were fragmented, but the Italian humanists revived interest in the work after the discovery by Poggio Bracciolini in 1416 of a forgotten, complete manuscript in the monastery of St. Gall, which he found \"buried in rubbish and dust\" in a filthy dungeon. The influential scholar Leonardo Bruni, considered the first modern historian, greeted the news by writing to his friend Poggio: It will be your glory to restore to the present age, by your labour and diligence, the writings of excellent authors, which have hitherto escaped the researches of the learned... Oh! what a valuable acquisition! What an unexpected pleasure! Shall I then behold Quintilian whole and entire, who, even in his imperfect state, was so rich a source of delight?... But Quintilian is so consummate a master of rhetoric and oratory, that when, after having delivered him from his long imprisonment in the dungeons of the barbarians, you transmit him to this country, all the nations of Italy ought to assemble to bid him welcome... Quintilian, an author whose works I will not hesitate to affirm, are more an object of desire to the learned than any others, excepting only Cicero's dissertation \"De Republica.\" The Italian poet Petrarch addressed one of his letters to the dead to Quintilian, and for many he “provided the inspiration for a new humanistic philosophy of education”. This enthusiasm for Quintilian spread with humanism itself, reaching northern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Martin Luther, the German theologian and ecclesiastical reformer, \"claimed that he preferred Quintilian to almost all authors, 'in that he educates and at the same time demonstrates eloquence, that is, he teaches in word and in deed most happily'\". The influence of Quintilian's works is also seen in Luther's contemporary Erasmus of Rotterdam. He above all shaped the implicit depth of humanism and had studied at Steyn. It has been argued by a musicologist, Ursula that the composition of Johann Sebastian Bach's \"Das Musikalische Opfer\" (The Musical Offering, BWV 1079), was closely connected with the \"Institutio Oratoria\". Among Bach's duties during his tenure at Leipzig (1723–1750) was teaching Latin; his early training included rhetoric. (Philologist and Rector of the Leipzig Thomasschule, Johann Matthias Gesner, for whom Bach composed a cantata in 1729, published a substantial Quintilian edition with a long footnote in Bach's honor.) After this high point, Quintilian's influence seems to have lessened somewhat, although he is mentioned by the English poet Alexander Pope in his versified \"An Essay on Criticism\": <poem>In grave Quintilian’s copious works we find The justest rules and clearest method join’d (lines 669–70).</poem> In addition, “he is often mentioned by writers like Montaigne and Lessing... but he made no major contribution to intellectual history, and by the nineteenth century he seemed to be... rather little read and rarely edited”. However, in his celebrated \"Autobiography,\" John Stuart Mill (arguably the nineteenth-century's most influential English intellectual) spoke highly of Quintilian as a force in his early education. He wrote that Quintilian, while little-read in Mill's day due to \"his obscure style and to the scholastic details of which many parts of his treatise are made up,\" was \"seldom sufficiently appreciated.\" \"His book,\" Mill continued, \"is a kind of encyclopaedia of the thoughts of the ancients on the whole field of education and culture; and I have retained through life many valuable ideas which I can distinctly trace to my reading of him...\". He was also highly praised by Thomas De Quincey: \"[F]or elegance and as a practical model in the art he was expounding, neither Aristotle, nor any less austere among the Greek rhetoricians, has any pretensions to measure himself with Quintilian. In reality, for a triumph over the difficulties of the subject, and as a lesson on the possibility of imparting grace to the treatment of scholastic topics, naturally as intractable as that of Grammar or Prosody, there is no such chef-d'oeuvre to this hour in any literature, as the Institutions of Quintilian\". In more recent times, Quintilian appears to have made another upward turn. He is frequently included in anthologies of literary criticism, and is an integral part of the history of education. He is believed to be the \"earliest spokesman for a child-centered education\" (141), which is discussed above under his early childhood education theories. As well, he has something to offer students of speech, professional writing, and rhetoric, because of the great detail with which he covers the rhetorical system. His discussions of tropes and figures also formed the foundation of contemporary works on the nature of figurative language, including the post-structuralist and formalist theories. For example, the works of Jacques Derrida on the failure of language to impart the truth of the objects it is meant to represent would not be possible without Quintilian's assumptions about the function of figurative language and tropes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Concept.", "Examples.", "Anticipatory assimilation to an adjacent segment.", "Anticipatory assimilation at a distance.", "Lag assimilation to an adjacent segment.", "Lag assimilation at a distance.", "Coalescence (fusion)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The physiological or psychological mechanisms of coarticulation are unknown; coarticulation is often loosely referred to as a segment being \"triggered\" by an assimilatory change in another segment. In assimilation, the phonological patterning of the language, discourse styles and accent are some of the factors contributing to changes observed. There are four configurations found in assimilations: Although all four occur, changes in regard to a following adjacent segment account for virtually all assimilatory changes (and most of the regular ones). Assimilations to an adjacent segment are vastly more frequent than assimilations to a non-adjacent one. These radical asymmetries might contain hints about the mechanisms involved, but they are not obvious. If a sound changes with reference to a following segment, it is traditionally called \"regressive assimilation\"; changes with reference to a preceding segment are traditionally called \"progressive\". Many find these terms confusing, as they seem to mean the opposite of the intended meaning. Accordingly, a variety of alternative terms have arisen—not all of which avoid the problem of the traditional terms. Regressive assimilation is also known as right-to-left, leading, or anticipatory assimilation. Progressive assimilation is also known as left-to-right, perseveratory, preservative, lagging or lag assimilation. The terms anticipatory and lag are used here. Occasionally, two sounds (invariably adjacent) may influence one another in reciprocal assimilation. When such a change results in a single segment with some of the features of both components, it is known as coalescence or fusion. Assimilation occurs in two different types: complete assimilation, in which the sound affected by assimilation becomes exactly the same as the sound causing assimilation, and partial assimilation, in which the sound becomes the same in one or more features, but remains different in other features. Tonal languages may exhibit tone assimilation (tonal umlaut, in effect), while sign languages also exhibit assimilation when the characteristics of neighbouring cheremes may be mixed.", "", "Anticipatory assimilation to an adjacent segment is the most common type of assimilation by far, and typically has the character of a conditioned sound change, i.e., it applies to the whole lexicon or part of it. For example, in English, the place of articulation of nasals assimilates to that of a following stop (\"handkerchief\" is pronounced, \"handbag\" in rapid speech is pronounced ). In Italian, voiceless stops assimilated historically to a following : Italian \"otto\", \"letto\" and \"sotto\" are examples of historical restructuring, i.e. Italian \"otto\" and the others no longer contain /kt/ pronounced [tt], but phonetic [tt] as a frequent assimilation of /kt/ was reinterpreted over time as reflecting /tt/. The structural sequence /kt/ is all but absent in Italian, since all items in popular speech underwent the same restructuring, /kt/ > /tt/. On the rare occasion that Italian /kt/ is encountered, however, the same phonetic assimilation that triggered the restructuring can occur. For example, the medical term \"ictus\"'stroke', a relatively recent direct borrowing from Latin, is usually pronounced [ˈiktus] in deliberate speech, but [ˈittus] is frequent in more casual registers.", "Anticipatory assimilation at a distance is rare, and usually merely an accident in the history of a specific word. However, the diverse and common assimilations known as umlaut, wherein the phonetics of a vowel are influenced by the phonetics of a vowel in a following syllable, are both commonplace and in the nature of sound laws. Such changes abound in the histories of Germanic languages, Romance, Insular Celtic, Albanian, and many others. Examples: in the history of English, a back vowel becomes front if a high front vowel or semivowel (*i, ī, j) is in the following syllable, and a front vowel becomes higher, if it is not already high: Contrariwise, Proto-Germanic and > respectively before in the following syllable (Germanic a-mutation), although this had already happened significantly earlier: Another example of a regular change is the sibilant assimilation of Sanskrit, wherein if there were two different sibilants as the onset of successive syllables, a plain was always replaced by the palatal :", "Lag assimilation to an adjacent segment is tolerably common, and often has the nature of a sound law. Proto-Indo-European becomes in both Germanic and Italic. Thus \"hill\" > PreLat. > Lat. ; > PGmc > OE > \"hill\". The enclitic form of English \"is\", eliding the vowel, becomes voiceless when adjacent to a word-final voiceless non-sibilant. Thus \"it is\", \"that is\" > \"it's\", \"that's\". In Polish, regularly becomes after a voiceless obstruent: Because of a similar process, Proto-Indo-Iranian became in Avestan. E.g. Old Avestan 'horse' corresponds to Sanskrit.", "Lag assimilation at a distance is rare, and usually sporadic (except when part of something bigger, as in the Sanskrit - example, above): Greek > Lat. \"lily\". In vowel harmony, a vowel's phonetics is often influenced by that of a preceding vowel. Thus, for example, most Finnish case markers come in two flavors, with (written ) and (written ) depending on whether the preceding vowel is back or front. However, it is difficult to know where and how in the history of Finnish an actual \"assimilatory change\" took place. The \"distribution\" of pairs of endings in Finnish is just that, and is not in any sense the operation of an assimilatory innovation (though probably the outbirth of such an innovation in the past).", "Proto-Italic > Latin, as in \"twice\" > Lat.. Also, Old Latin > Latin \"war\". Proto-Celtic shows up in Old Irish in initial position as, thus \"sister\" > OIr, > *\"swinea\"- > *\"swine\" \"nipple\" >. However, when preceded by a vowel, the *\"sw\" sequence becomes : \"my sister\", \"a cow with three teats\". There is also the famous change in P-Celtic of -> \"p\". Proto-Celtic also underwent the change -> \"b\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "History.", "Varieties.", "Quality factors and cost.", "Industry.", "China.", "Iran.", "Israel.", "Italy.", "Madagascar.", "Malaysia.", "Moldova (Transnistria).", "North America.", "Russia.", "Saudi Arabia.", "Spain.", "United Kingdom.", "Uruguay.", "Ecology.", "Extraction.", "Preparation.", "Substitutes.", "Storage and nutritional information." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization, roe from any fish not belonging to the Acipenseriformes order (including Acipenseridae, or sturgeon \"sensu stricto\", and Polyodontidae or paddlefish) are not caviar, but \"substitutes of caviar.\" This position is also adopted by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the World Wide Fund for Nature, the United States Customs Service, and France. The term \"caviar\" is sometimes used as a euphemism to describe dishes that are perceived to resemble caviar, such as \"eggplant caviar\" (made from eggplant) and \"Texas caviar\" (made from black-eyed peas).", "Caviar and sturgeon from the Sea of Azov began reaching the tables of aristocratic and noble Byzantine Greeks in the 10th century, after the commencement of large-scale trading between the Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus'.", "The main types of caviar are Beluga, Sterlet, Kaluga hybrid, American osetra, Ossetra, Siberian sturgeon and Sevruga. The rarest and costliest is from beluga sturgeon that swim in the Caspian Sea, which is bordered by Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan. Wild caviar production was suspended in Russia between 2008 and 2011 to allow wild stocks to replenish. Azerbaijan and Iran also allow the fishing of sturgeon off their coasts. Beluga caviar is prized for its soft, extremely large (pea-size) eggs. It can range in color from pale silver-gray to black. It is followed by the small golden sterlet caviar which is rare and was once reserved for Russian, Iranian and Austrian royalty. Next in quality is the medium-sized, light brown to rich brown Ossetra, also known as Russian caviar. Others in the quality ranking are the gray sevruga caviar, the Chinese Kaluga caviar, and the American osetra. The Siberian variety with black beads is similar to sevruga and is popular because of its reduced (5 years) harvest period, but it has a higher brine content than other kinds. The Chinese Kaluga hybrid varies in color from dark gray to light golden green and is a close cousin of beluga caviar.", "An expensive caviar example at sold for £20,000 (then US$34,500) is the Iranian 'Almas' product (from, \"diamond\") produced from the eggs of a rare albino sturgeon between 60–100 years old from the southern Caspian Sea. Wild beluga sturgeon caviar from the Caspian Sea was priced in 2012 at $16,000 per. Cheaper alternatives have been developed from the roe of whitefish and the North Atlantic salmon. Conventional sturgeon caviar was priced in 2014 at about $105 per and from albino sturgeon up to $800 per ounce. Other quality factors are texture – with firmness having higher quality value – flavor qualities, such as creaminess, butter taste, and brine or mild fish finish, and whether the caviar was taken from the fish by massage (higher value) rather than by killing it.", "", "China has emerged as the leading producer, accounting for 60% of the world production in caviar. The largest caviar company in the world is the Chinese brand Kaluga Queen, which cultivates sturgeon at Qiandao Lake in Zhejiang.", "Iran is a substantial producer of caviar. Iranian caviar is collected from sturgeons near Bandar Torkaman.", "Kibbutz Dan in Israel produces 4 tons of caviar a year. The farm is fed by the Dan River, a tributary of the Jordan River.", "Beluga sturgeon were common in the Po river in Italy in the 16th century, and were used to produce caviar. Cristoforo da Messisbugo in his book \"Libro novo nel qual si insegna a far d'ogni sorte di vivanda\", Venice, 1564, at page 110, gave the first recorded recipe in Italy about extraction of the eggs from the roe and caviar preparation \"to be consumed fresh or to preserve\". The writer and voyager Jérôme Lalande in his book \"\"Voyage en Italie\"\", Paris, 1771, vol. 8 page 269, noted that many sturgeon were caught in the Po delta area in the territory of Ferrara. In 1753 a diplomatic war broke out between the Papal States, governing the Ferrara territory, and the Venetian Republic about sturgeon fishing rights in the Po river, the border between the two states. From about 1920 and until 1942 there was a shop in Ferrara, named \"Nuta\" from the nickname of the owner Benvenuta Ascoli, that processed all the sturgeons caught in the Po river for caviar extraction, using an elaboration of the original Messisbugo recipe, and shipped it to Italy and Europe. Production was sporadically continued by a new owner until 1972, when sturgeon stopped swimming up the Po river. Since 2015, some sturgeon have reappeared in the Po. Currently, Italian caviar is obtained almost entirely from bred sturgeons. The caviar production is concentrated predominantly in Brescia, which is considered the capital of Italian caviar: in this area, in Calvisano, is located the world's largest sturgeons farm that produces annually 25 tonnes of caviar. Italian caviar is generally the most sold and appreciated in the world: Italy is the world's leading producer.", "Madagascar is the first African country that produces and exports caviar since 2018.", "In Malaysia, caviar production is relatively new and smaller in scale. Caviar is harvested from farmed sturgeon fish in Tanjung Malim, Perak. The caviar produced here is marketed as \"tropical caviar\". The first Malaysian brand of tropical caviar was launched in March 2019.", "In recent years Transnistria built and put into operation a modern sturgeon complex for caviar production, producing natural black caviar of sterlet, bester, Russian sturgeon, and beluga. The design capacity of the fish-breeding zone is equal to 50-80 tons of commodity fish and 5 tons of caviar a year.", "In the early 20th century, Canada and the United States were the major caviar suppliers to Europe; they harvested roe from the lake sturgeon in the North American midwest, and from the shortnose sturgeon and the Atlantic sturgeon spawning in the rivers of the Eastern coast of the United States. The American caviar industry got started when Henry Schacht, a German immigrant, opened a business catching sturgeon on the Delaware River. He treated his caviar with German salt and exported a great deal of it to Europe. At around the same time, sturgeon was fished from the Columbia River on the west coast, also supplying caviar. At the time, American caviar was so plentiful that it was given away at bars with the intent of inducing or prolonging thirst in patrons. Today, the shortnose sturgeon is rated \"Vulnerable\" in the IUCN Red List of endangered species and rated \"Endangered\" per the Endangered Species Act. With the depletion of Caspian and Black Sea caviar, production of farmed or \"sustainable\" caviar has greatly increased. In particular, northern California is reported to account for 70% to 80% of U.S. production. In Canada, a sturgeon farm called Target Marine Hatcheries is now the first producer of organic caviar in North America called \"Northern Divine\".", "In the wake of over-fishing, the harvest and sale of black caviar was banned in Russia in 2007. The ban on sturgeon fishing in the Caspian Sea has led to the development of aquaculture as an economically viable means of commercial caviar production.", "Caviar Court, in Dammam, Saudi Arabia, was established in 2001 and began harvesting caviar in 2007. It produced about five tons per year in 2011 and is building a larger facility in Abu Dhabi hoping to produce 35 tons by 2015.", "The 17th-century book \"Don Quixote\" mentions \"cavial\" in a banquet of German pilgrims. Until 1992, sturgeons and caviar were collected at the lower parts of rivers Guadalquivir, Ebro, Duero and Tajo. From 1932 to 1970, the Ybarra family had a factory in Coria del Río. Overfishing, pollution and the Alcalá del Río dam eliminated the wild population of \"Acipenser naccarii\". In Spain, a fish farm called Caviar de Riofrío produces organic caviar at Loja, Granada, Andalusia.", "The British Royal family has held a long affinity with the sturgeon since 1324, when Edward II decreed it a Royal fish, whereby all sturgeons found within the foreshore of the Kingdom are decreed property of the monarch.", "As well as Canada and the United States, Uruguay has become a major producer and exporter.", "Over-fishing, smuggling and pollution caused by sewage entry into the Caspian Sea have considerably reduced the sea's sturgeon population. In September 2005, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service banned the import of Caspian Sea Beluga caviar to protect the endangered Beluga sturgeon; a month later, the ban was extended to include Beluga caviar from the entire Black Sea basin. In January 2006, the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) supported an international embargo on caviar export. In January 2007, this ban was partly lifted, allowing the sale of 96 tons of caviar, 15% below the official 2005 level. In July 2010, Russia and some other CIS countries restarted the export of caviar. The 2010 quotas allow for the export of three tons of beluga, 17 tons of sevruga and 27 tons of osetra. In September 2010, Kazakhstan launched a state monopoly brand, Zhaik Balyk, from the Kazakh word for the Ural River. Under the CITES agreement, Kazakhstan was granted the right to produce 13 out of the 80 tons allowed up until 28 February 2011.", "Commercial caviar production historically involved stunning the fish and extracting the ovaries. Another method of extracting caviar is by performing a caesarean section, which allows the female to continue producing roe. Other farmers use a process called \"stripping\", which extracts the caviar from the fish via a small incision made along the urogenital muscle when the fish is deemed to be ready to be processed. An ultrasound is used to determine the correct timing. Removing the caviar by massage may yield higher quality and a more sustainable source.", "Preparation follows a sequence that has not significantly changed over the last century. First, the ovaries are removed from a sedated female sturgeon and passed through a sieve to remove the membrane. Freed roes are rinsed to wash away impurities. Roes are now ready to become caviar by adding a precise amount of salt for taste and preservation. The fresh product is tasted and graded according to quality. Finally, the golden eggs are packed into lacquer-lined tins that will be further processed or sold directly to customers.", "In coastal British Columbia, Fraser River white sturgeon are sustainably farmed to produce caviar. A sturgeon caviar imitation is a black or red coloured lumpsucker caviar sold throughout Europe in small glass jars. In Sweden and Finland the roes of many fish species including vendace, burbot, salmon and common whitefish are also commonly eaten in a similar manner as caviar. They are not caviar'substitutes', however, but enjoyed in their own right. There are also kosher and vegan caviar substitutes made of seaweeds such as \"Laminaria hyperborea\". They closely resemble beluga caviar in appearance and are either used as a food prop for television and film, or enjoyed by vegetarians and other people throughout the world. Another common technique is to use spherification of liquids to recreate the texture, albeit not the flavour, of caviar. In Scandinavia, a type of sandwich spread is available, made from smoked cod roe and other ingredients, which is referred to as \"smörgåskaviar\" (meaning \"sandwich caviar\"). Outside Scandinavia, the product is referred to as \"creamed smoked roe\" or in French as \"Caviar de Lysekil\".", "Caviar is extremely perishable and must be kept refrigerated until consumption. Pasteurized caviar has a slightly different texture. It is less perishable and may not require refrigeration before opening. Pressed caviar is composed of damaged or fragile eggs and can be a combination of several different roes. It is specially treated, salted, and pressed. Although a spoonful of caviar supplies the adult daily requirement of vitamin B, it is also high in cholesterol and salt. 1 tablespoon (16 g) of caviar contains:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Bishop of Várad.", "Administrator of Olomouc.", "Franciscan monk." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "John Filipec was raised in a humble utraquist family. After attending school in Prostějov, he became clerk of the Moravian governor in Olomouc. In this position, he met king Matthias Corvinus, when the latter took possession of Olomouc. Matthias recommended John as secretary to the Voivode of Transylvania. As a companion of the voivode, John then recommended the election of Matthias as king to the Estates of Bohemia. This was perhaps the reason why Matthias appointed John as his advisor and negotiator in 1472 and as Governor of Silesia in 1480. Filipec served as chief justice for a short time in 1486.", "Although John had not been ordained as a priest, Matthias Corvinus obtained a dispensation from Pope Sixtus IV, allowing him to appoint John as bishop of Várad in 1476. John was consecrated as bishop on 23 May 1477. After his appointment as bishop, John still worked for Matthias, who appointed him as Chancellor in 1478. Later that year, John tried to reconcile between Matthias and the Utraquist Estates. In 1380, he mediated in a conflict between King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and the Utraquist citizens of Prague. In 1481, Matthias appointed him governor of the Duchy of Jawor.", "After the death of bishop Protasius of Olomouc in 1482, the cathedral chapter could not agree on the election of a successor. Normally King Matthias, as ruler of Moravia, would appoint the candidate proposed by the chapter. In the absence of a bishop, the diocese was administered by the canon (priest)s Johann Pauswangel, Alex von Iglau and Heinrich von Zwole. In 1484, the chapel elected, at the request of the King, John as a permanent administrator. As administrator, John introduced economic measures to counter the destruction brought about by the Hussite Wars. He improved the administration, and repaid the mortgages on several properties and the episcopal city of Mohelnice. He restored the Cathedral of Olomouc and other episcopal buildings and expanded the castles at Vyškov and Mírov. He promoted humanism in Moravia by founding a printing company in Brno, which published important humanistic works. John was accused of advocacy for the utraquist case and Pope Innocent VIII ordered an investigation by the papal nuncio in Buda. John was relieved of his duties as administrator of Olomouc and Bishop János Vitéz of Sirmium (a nephew of Archbishop János Vitéz of Esztergom) was appointed as the new administrator. However, János Vitéz never travelled to Olomouc to take possession of his new diocese. On 26 August 1488, John requested permission to resign as administrator and enter a monastery. The pope gave his permission on 3 June 1489 and appointed Ardicino della Porta as the new administrator. However, King Matthias rejected the request and Ardicino never went to Olomouc. King Matthias died and was succeeded by King Vladislaus II, who gave John on 21 September 1490 permission to resign, on the condition that he would continue to act as royal advisor and diplomat. In 1491, John founded a Franciscan monastery in Uherské Hradiště. In 1492, he founded another one in Jawor in Silesia. In the same year, he initiated the move of the Augustinian All Saints' monastery from Lanškroun to Olomouc.", "In 1493, John brought his financial affairs in order and on 20 May 1492, he joined the Franciscan Order in Olomouc. He took his vows on 10 June in Wrocław. From 1492 to 1500, he lived in the monastery of Jawor. He then moved to Olomouc and finally to Uherské Hradiště. Even as a monk, he acted as a royal advisor until his death. In 1494, he took part in the negotiations with the utraquists in Prague about the reinstatement of the Catholic church. In 1508, he negotiated the resolution of a conflict between the Bohemian estates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "He was born on the January 26, 1906 in the village Dombóvár in today's Hungary. His parents, native Slovaks came from Šurany. He studied at the Military Academy in Hranice, in 1927 received the rank of lieutenant of artillery. In 1937 he received the rank of captain. He served as a staff officer in Trenčín. Belonged to a group of an anti-Nazi oriented officers. Since January 1944 he was appointed chief of staff of the Slovak Ground Forces in Banská Bystrica, where he gathered a group of influential anti-nazi oriented officers sustaining contact with the Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London. He was the supreme military leader of the uprising from April 27, 1944 (while the uprising was still in preparation) until the arrival of Division General Rudolf Viest on October 7, 1944. After start of Slovak insurrection on August 29, 1944 Golian took command of Slovak forces in central Slovakia, from the headquarters in Banská Bystrica. His units should serve only as a support for two Slovak divisions in eastern Slovakia which should secure connection with Soviet Red Army. However organization of insurgence in the eastern Slovakia failed and German forces disarmed both Slovak divisions without resistance. From the beginning of September Golian along with his staff organized defense of Slovak units encircled in central Slovakia. According to the testimony of his Chief of staff Major Július Nosko, Golian assumed that insurgents defense against the German attacks could not last more than 14 days. On October 7, 1944 Golian was replaced in command of the insurrection forces by general Viest. Afterwards, General Ján Golian served as Viest's deputy. Despite fierce fighting, the outnumbered and surrounded insurrectionist army could not resist well-equipped and better trained German forces. When Viest and Golian ordered their remaining units to start a guerrilla war on October 27, 1944, they did not know that it would be the last order they issued. Both Generals were captured by German special forces on November 3, 1944 in Pohronský Bukovec. He was detained in the Flossenbürg concentration camp at the end of the war. Information about him in the last days of the war has vanished. It is believed that he was tortured and then murdered in Flossenbürg together with General Viest. Golian was officially listed as missing for 2 years after the war." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Plot introduction.", "Plot summary.", "Development.", "Themes.", "Publication and reception.", "UK/US release.", "Launch publicity.", "Critical reception.", "Awards and honours.", "Adaptations.", "Film.", "Video game.", "Relation to \"Harry Potter and the Cursed Child\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Throughout the three previous novels in the \"Harry Potter\" series, the main character, Harry Potter, has struggled with the difficulties of growing up and the added challenge of being a famed wizard. When Harry was a baby, Lord Voldemort, the most powerful dark wizard in history, killed Harry's parents but was mysteriously defeated after unsuccessfully trying to kill Harry, though his attempt left a lightning-shaped scar on Harry's forehead. This results in Harry's immediate fame and his being placed in the care of his abusive Muggle (non-magical) aunt and uncle, Petunia and Vernon Dursley, who have a son named Dudley. On Harry's eleventh birthday, he learns he is a wizard from Rubeus Hagrid, Keeper of Keys and Grounds at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, and enrols in Hogwarts. He befriends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger and confronts Lord Voldemort, who is trying to regain power. In Harry's first year, he has to protect the Philosopher's Stone from Voldemort and one of his faithful followers at Hogwarts. After returning to school after summer break, students at Hogwarts are attacked by the legendary monster of the Chamber of Secrets after the Chamber is opened. Harry ends the attacks by killing a Basilisk and thwarting another attempt by Lord Voldemort to return to full strength. The following year, Harry hears he has been targeted by escaped mass murderer Sirius Black. Despite stringent security measures at Hogwarts, Harry encounters Black at the end of his third year and learns Black was framed and is actually Harry's godfather. He also learns that it was his father's old school friend Peter Pettigrew who betrayed his parents.", "In a prologue, which Harry sees through a dream, the 3 Riddles are murdered. But they weren't poisoned or hurt in anyway. They were in perfect health but when they died, they had a petrified face. Everyone suspects the caretaker Frank Bryce, but he was released. Later on (in Harry's dream) Frank Bryce, Muggle caretaker of an abandoned mansion known as the Riddle House, is murdered by Lord Voldemort after stumbling upon him and Wormtail. Harry is awoken by his scar hurting. The Weasleys invite Harry and Hermione Granger to the Quidditch World Cup, to which they travel using a Portkey, meeting Cedric Diggory, a Hufflepuff sixth-year, on the way. In the match, Ireland triumph over Bulgaria, despite the skill of Bulgaria's star seeker, Viktor Krum. Various Ministry of Magic employees at the World Cup discuss Bertha Jorkins, a Ministry worker who has gone missing. Her head-of-department, the charismatic Ludo Bagman, is unconcerned. After the match, hooded and masked Death Eaters, followers of Voldemort, attack the camp site, causing terror and abusing the Muggle campsite owners. The Dark Mark is fired into the sky, causing mass panic. Harry discovers that his wand is missing. It is later found in the possession of Winky, Barty Crouch's house elf, and the wand is found to have been used to cast the Mark. Although very few believe Winky could have conjured the Mark, Barty Crouch dismisses Winky from his service. Hermione, angry at this injustice, forms a society to promote house elf rights, known as S.P.E.W. (Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare). At Hogwarts, Professor Dumbledore announces that Alastor \"Mad-Eye\" Moody will be the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher for the year. Dumbledore also announces that Hogwarts will host a revival of the Triwizard Tournament, in which a champion of Hogwarts will compete against champions from two other European wizarding schools: Beauxbatons Academy, and Durmstrang Institute. The champions are chosen by the Goblet of Fire from names dropped into it. Because Harry is under 17 (the age of majority in the wizarding world), he is disallowed from entering. At Halloween, the Goblet of Fire picks Fleur Delacour from Beauxbatons Academy, Viktor Krum, the Bulgaria seeker that played at the Quiditch World Cup, from Durmstrang Institute, and Cedric Diggory from Hogwarts to compete in the tournament. Unexpectedly, however, it also chooses Harry as a fourth champion. Despite anger from the Beauxbatons and Durmstrang contingents, Harry's being chosen magically binds him to compete, forcing him to be an unwilling participant in the Tournament. Very few people believe Harry's protests that he did not put his own name in; Ron, envious of Harry again being the centre of attention, accuses Harry of lying and breaks up their friendship. In their first Defence Against the Dark Arts lesson, Professor Moody introduces the class to the Unforgivable Curses: the Imperius Curse, through which a wizard can be controlled as another wills; the Cruciatus Curse, which causes immense pain; and \"Avada Kedavra\", the killing curse. A tabloid-style reporter, Rita Skeeter, starts writing scandalous articles of half-truths and outright fabrications in \"The Daily Prophet\" about those at Hogwarts, starting with Harry. Because of the Prophet's high readership, her words hold a lot of sway among the wizarding population. Despite champions not being allowed to know, Hagrid covertly reveals to Harry that the first task is to get past a dragon. Madame Maxime, the headmistress of Beauxbatons, and Professor Karkaroff, headmaster of Durmstrang, also discover this. Sure that they will tell their respective champions, Harry informs Cedric about the dragons in the interest of fairness. Harry struggles to think of a way past a dragon, until Moody suggests flying. Hermione helps him to perfect a Summoning Charm, which he uses to summon his Firebolt broomstick and fly past the dragon to retrieve a golden egg, receiving high marks from the judges. Ron and Harry subsequently reconcile, Ron now understanding the full danger of the tournament. Harry's egg is supposed to contain a clue to the next task, but when opened it merely shrieks loudly. Hermione infiltrates the school kitchen as part of her house elf welfare campaign (in which she is finding few allies and much resistance). She takes Harry and Ron there to meet Dobby, who now works there after his freeing in Harry's second year. They also find a distraught Winky, who is seriously depressed after being sacked. Dobby is the only known house elf to appreciate his freedom, despite his hardworking nature; the others reject Hermione's idea of payment and holidays, which they find distressing. The students are informed of the Yule Ball, a Triwizard Tournament tradition, which requires Harry to find a partner with whom to open the dance. He eventually asks Cho Chang, a Ravenclaw fifth-year with whom he is smitten, but she has already agreed to go with Cedric. Ultimately, Harry asks Parvati and Padma Patil to go with him and Ron. Hermione, offended that Ron did not consider her except as a last resort, attends with Viktor Krum, causing intense jealousy in Ron. At the ball, Cedric tells Harry to take the egg into the bath in the prefects' bathroom to work out the clue, but Harry is reluctant to accept the advice because he is jealous over Cho. Rita Skeeter writes an article revealing Hagrid's half-giant parentage (though it is a mystery how she found out), a taboo in the wizarding world. After Hermione confronts her, Skeeter writes articles painting Hermione as Harry's unfaithful girlfriend. After masses of hate mail, Hermione swears revenge on Skeeter. The trio secretly meet Sirius at Hogsmeade, who tells them that Barty Crouch was fanatical about catching dark wizards, often stooping to the same level to punish them. This culminated in Crouch sending his own son to Azkaban. His son later died there. Sirius suspects that someone is attempting to attack Harry through the Tournament and make it look like an accident. He suspects Karkaroff, who is a former Death Eater who walked free. Finally acting on Cedric's tip, Harry takes the egg to the prefects' bathroom by night, where with help from Moaning Myrtle he listens to the egg underwater. There, the shrieks become the words of a song, which tells Harry that the task is to recover something dear to him from Merpeople at the bottom of the lake in the grounds. While sneaking back to Gryffindor Tower under his invisibility cloak, he sees Barty Crouch in Snape's office on the Marauder's Map, despite Crouch supposedly being too ill to judge the Triwizard Tournament. While investigating, Harry falls into a trick step and drops the egg, which shrieks loudly and attracts Filch, Snape (who has had potion ingredients stolen), and Moody. Moody's magical eye sees Harry stuck in the stair under his cloak, but Moody covers for him, then borrows the Marauder's Map. Harry, Ron, and Hermione are unable to find a way to survive underwater for the second task, leaving Harry panic-stricken. He is rescued on the morning of the task by Dobby, who gives him some Gillyweed that he heard Moody and Professor Sprout talking about. The Gillyweed gives Harry flippers and gills and allows him to find Ron at the bottom of the lake. However, he refuses to leave the hostages belonging to the other champions behind, and insists on rescuing Fleur's sister when Fleur does not arrive. Although Harry finishes last, the judges (apart from Karkaroff) still award him high marks for'moral fibre.' One month before the final task, Harry and Krum are talking near the Forbidden Forest when they encounter Barty Crouch, who stopped appearing to work at the Ministry several months ago. Although insane, in moments of clarity he confesses to have done'something terrible,' that Bertha Jorkins is dead, and begs for Dumbledore. Leaving Krum with Crouch, Harry fetches Dumbledore but returns to find Krum stunned and Crouch gone, Krum claiming that Crouch attacked him from behind. Moody gives chase but does not find Crouch. During a Divination lesson, Harry experiences another dream involving Voldemort punishing Wormtail for a'mistake.' Harry tells Dumbledore about this, and stumbles upon a memory-keeping device in Dumbledore's office, a Pensieve. Inside the Pensieve, he discovers that Ludo Bagman was accused and acquitted of Death Eater activity, and that Barty Crouch's son was sent to Azkaban for supposedly helping to torture Neville Longbottom's parents into insanity. Harry prepares for the final task, a hedge maze filled with dangerous creatures and obstacles, the goal being to reach the Triwizard Cup at the centre. Inside the maze, Harry stuns Krum, who was using the Cruciatus Curse on Cedric. Helping each other, the two reach the Cup. They agree to touch it at the same time and become joint winners. However, on touching it they discover that it is a Portkey that transports them to a graveyard. There, Wormtail appears, kills Cedric using Voldemort's wand, and ties up Harry. Wormtail uses Harry's blood, Tom Riddle Sr.'s bone, and his own hand to restore Lord Voldemort to a body. Voldemort, alive again, summons his Death Eaters, berates them for believing him dead, and mentions that he has a single 'faithful servant' concealed at Hogwarts, who has led Harry to the graveyard for the resurrection. He tortures Harry, then challenges him to a duel to prove his prowess. However, when he and Harry fire spells at each other, their wands connect unexpectedly, causing echoes of Voldemort's previous magic to appear, including manifestations of Cedric and Harry's parents. These echoes provide a distraction for Harry, who escapes with Cedric's body to the Cup, which takes him back to Hogwarts. Under the panic caused by his arrival, Moody takes a traumatised Harry to his office. He reveals himself to be Voldemort's 'faithful servant.' He explains that he put Harry's name into the Goblet of Fire under a different school and has been guiding him through the tournament to ensure he would touch the Cup first: he gave him the hint about flying, staged a conversation about Gillyweed in front of Dobby, cursed obstacles from outside the hedge maze, and used the Imperius Curse on Krum to force him to curse Cedric. As Moody prepares to kill Harry, Professors Dumbledore, McGonagall, and Snape intervene and stun Moody. Slowly, Moody changes appearance to become Barty Crouch Jr., the supposedly long-dead son of Barty Crouch Sr., who was using Polyjuice Potion to impersonate Moody. Using Veritaserum, a truth potion, they learn that Barty Crouch Sr. rescued his son from Azkaban as a favour to his dying wife: the Crouch Jr. who died in Azkaban was his mother, disguised under Polyjuice Potion. Crouch Jr. was kept imprisoned at home. Winky convinced Crouch Sr. to allow Crouch Jr. to see the Quidditch World Cup, where he stole Harry's wand, escaped, and conjured the Dark Mark. Wormtail, meanwhile, had captured Bertha Jorkins, who had once seen Crouch Jr. at home and been bewitched to forget. This allowed Voldemort to discover Crouch Jr.'s whereabouts, then formulate a plan to install Crouch at Hogwarts and lead Harry to him. Crouch Sr. was imprisoned by Wormtail, and when he escaped to Hogwarts, Crouch Jr. killed him. Dumbledore explains that Harry's and Voldemort's wands connected because they share a core of a feather from the same phoenix, coincidentally Dumbledore's own phoenix Fawkes. Dumbledore announces Lord Voldemort's return to the school. However, many people, including Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge, refuse to believe it. Fudge hastily has the Dementor's Kiss performed on Crouch Jr., who is thus unable to give testimony proving Voldemort's return. Dumbledore puts his own anti-Voldemort plans into action. Hermione discovers Rita Skeeter is an unregistered Animagus who can take the form of a beetle, allowing her to eavesdrop on secrets. She blackmails Skeeter to force her to stop writing her libelous stories. Not wanting his tournament winnings, Harry gives all one thousand Galleons to Fred and George to start their joke shop, and returns home with the Dursleys.", "\"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" is the fourth book in the \"Harry Potter\" series. The first, \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", was published by Bloomsbury on 26 June 1997. The second, \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\", was published on 2 July 1998. The third, \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\", followed on 8 July 1999. \"Goblet of Fire\" is almost twice the size of the first three books (the paperback edition was 636 pages). Rowling stated that she \"knew from the beginning it would be the biggest of the first four.\" She said there needed to be a \"proper run-up\" for the conclusion and rushing the \"complex plot\" could confuse readers. She also stated that \"everything is on a bigger scale,\" which was symbolic, as Harry's horizons widened both literally and metaphorically as he grew up. She also wanted to explore more of the magical world. Until the official title's announcement on 27 June 2000, the book was called by its working title, 'Harry Potter IV.' Previously, in April, the publisher had listed it as \"Harry Potter and the Doomspell Tournament\". However, J. K. Rowling expressed her indecision about the title in an \"Entertainment Weekly\" interview. \"I changed my mind twice on what [the title] was. The working title had got out — \"Harry Potter and the Doomspell Tournament\". Then I changed \"Doomspell\" to \"Triwizard Tournament\". Then I was teetering between \"Goblet of Fire\" and \"Triwizard Tournament\". In the end, I preferred \"Goblet of Fire\" because it's got that kind of \"cup of destiny\" feel about it, which is the theme of the book.\" Rowling mentioned that she originally wrote a Weasley relative named Malfalda, who, according to Rowling, \"was the daughter of the'second cousin who's a stockbroker' mentioned in \"Philosopher's Stone\". This stockbroker had been very rude to Mr. and Mrs. Weasley in the past, but now he and his (Muggle) wife had inconveniently produced a witch, they came back to the Weasleys asking for their help in introducing her to wizarding society before she starts at Hogwarts.\" Malfalda was supposed to be a Slytherin and was to fill in the Rita Skeeter subplot, but she was eventually removed because \"there were obvious limitations to what an eleven year old closeted at school could discover.\" Rowling considered Rita Skeeter to be \"much more flexible.\" Rowling also admitted that the fourth book was the most difficult to write at the time because she noticed a giant plot hole halfway through writing. In particular, Rowling had trouble with the ninth chapter, \"The Dark Mark,\" which she rewrote 13 times.", "Jeff Jensen, who interviewed Rowling for \"Entertainment Weekly\" in 2000, pointed out that bigotry is a big theme in the \"Harry Potter\" novels and \"Goblet of Fire\" in particular. He mentioned how Voldemort and his followers are prejudiced against Muggles and how, in \"Goblet of Fire,\" Hermione forms a group to liberate Hogwarts' house-elves who have \"been indentured servants so long they lack desire for anything else.\" When asked why she explored this theme, Rowling replied, She also commented that she did not feel this was too \"heavy\" for children, as it was one of those things that a \"huge number of children at that age start to think about.\"", "", "\"Goblet of Fire\" was the first book in the Harry Potter series to be released in the United States on the same date as the United Kingdom, on 8 July 2000, strategically on a Saturday so children did not have to worry about school conflicting with buying the book. It had a combined first-printing of over five million copies. It was given a record-breaking print run of 3.9 million. Three million copies of the book were sold over the first weekend in the US alone. FedEx dispatched more than 9,000 trucks and 100 planes to fulfil book deliveries. The pressure in editing caused a mistake which shows Harry's father emerging first from Voldemort's wand; however, as confirmed in \"Prisoner of Azkaban\", James died first, so then Harry's mother ought to have come out first. This was corrected in later editions.", "To publicise the book, a special train named \"Hogwarts Express\" was organised by Bloomsbury, and run from King's Cross to Perth, carrying J.K. Rowling, a consignment of books for her to sign and sell, also representatives of Bloomsbury and the press. The book was launched on 8 July 2000, on platform 1 at King's Cross – which had been given \"Platform \" signs for the occasion – following which the train departed. En route it called at Didcot Railway Centre,, the Severn Valley Railway, (overnight stop), Manchester, Bradford,, the National Railway Museum (overnight stop), Newcastle, Edinburgh, arriving at Perth on 11 July. The locomotive was \"West Country\" class steam locomotive no. 34027 \"Taw Valley\", which was specially repainted red for the tour; it later returned to its normal green livery (the repaints were requested and paid for by Bloomsbury). The coaches of the train included a sleeping car. A Diesel locomotive was coupled at the other end, for use when reversals were necessary, such as the first stage of the journey as far as Ferme Park, just south of. The tour generated considerably more press interest than the launch of the film \"Thomas and the Magic Railroad\" which was premiered in London the same weekend.", "\"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" has received mostly positive reviews. In \"The New York Times\" Book Review, author Stephen King stated the \"Goblet of Fire\" was \"every bit as good as Potters 1 through 3\" and praised the humour and subplots, although he commented that \"there's also a moderately tiresome amount of adolescent squabbling...it's a teenage thing\". \"Kirkus Reviews\" called it \"another grand tale of magic and mystery...and clicking along so smoothly that it seems shorter than it is\". However, they commented that it did tend to lag, especially at the end where two \"bad guys\" stopped the action to give extended explanations, and that the issues to be resolved in sequels would leave \"many readers, particularly American ones, uncomfortable\". For \"The Horn Book Magazine\", Martha V. Parravano gave a mixed review, saying \"some will find [it] wide-ranging, compellingly written, and absorbing; others, long, rambling, and tortuously fraught with adverbs\". A \"Publishers Weekly\" review praised the book's \"red herrings, the artful clues and tricky surprises that disarm the most attentive audience\" and saying it \"might be her most thrilling yet.\" Writing for \"The New Yorker\", Joan Acocella noted that \"where the prior volumes moved like lightning, here the pace is slower, the energy more dispersed. At the same time, the tone becomes more grim.\" Kristin Lemmerman of CNN said that it is not great literature: 'Her prose has more in common with your typical beach-blanket fare and the beginning contained too much recap to introduce characters to new readers, although Rowling quickly gets back on track, introducing readers to a host of well-drawn new characters.' Writing for Salon.com, Charles Taylor was generally positive about the change of mood and development of characters. \"Entertainment Weekly\" reviewer Kristen Baldwin gave \"Goblet of Fire\" the grade of A-, praising the development of the characters as well as the many themes presented. However, she did worry that a shocking climax may be a \"nightmare factory\" for young readers.", "\"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" won several awards, including the 2001 Hugo Award for Best Novel. It won the 2002 Indian Paintbrush Book Award, the third after \"Philosopher's Stone\" and \"Prisoner of Azkaban\". The novel also won an Oppenheim Toy Portfolio Platinum Award for one of the best books, who claimed it was \"more intense than the first three books\". In addition, \"Entertainment Weekly\" listed \"Goblet of Fire\" in second place on their list of \"The New Classics: Books – The 100 best reads from 1983 to 2008\". The Guardian ranked \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" #97 in its list of 100 Best Books of the 21st Century.", "", "\"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" was adapted into a film, released worldwide on 18 November 2005, which was directed by Mike Newell and written by Steve Kloves. The film grossed $102.7 million for the opening weekend, and eventually grossed $896 million worldwide. The film was also nominated for Best Art Direction at the 78th Academy Awards.", "It was also made into a video game for PC, PlayStation 2, Nintendo DS, Nintendo GameCube, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, and PlayStation Portable by Electronic Arts. It was released just before the film.", "Much of the plot of \"Harry Potter and the Cursed Child\" involves revisiting scenes from \"Goblet of Fire\", with younger protagonists born long after these events travelling back in time in a misguided effort to change history and save Cedric Diggory - which only leads to them damaging events in the present and worsening the situation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Members.", "History.", "Origin of the name.", "Pre-Ivy League.", "History of the athletic league.", "19th and early 20th centuries.", "Post-World War II.", "Academics.", "Admissions.", "Prestige.", "Collaboration.", "Culture.", "Fashion and lifestyle.", "Social elitism.", "U.S. presidents in the Ivy League.", "Student demographics.", "Geographic distribution.", "Socioeconomics and social class.", "Competition and athletics.", "Championships.", "NCAA team championships.", "Other Ivies.", "Ivy Plus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Ivy League universities have some of the largest university financial endowments in the world, allowing the universities to provide abundant resources for their academic programs,", "", "Students have long revered the ivied walls of older colleges. \"Planting the ivy\" was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s. In 1893, an alumnus told \"The Harvard Crimson\", \"In 1850, class day was placed upon the University Calendar.... the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time.\" At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873 and that practice was formally designated as \"Ivy Day\" in 1874. Ivy planting ceremonies are reported for Yale, Simmons, Bryn Mawr and many others. Princeton's \"Ivy Club\" was founded in 1879. The first usage of \"Ivy\" in reference to a group of colleges is from sportswriter Stanley Woodward (1895–1965). The first known instance of the term \"Ivy League\"", "Seven out of the eight Ivy League schools were founded before the American Revolution; Cornell was founded just after the American Civil War. These seven were the primary colleges in the Northern and Middle Colonies, and their early faculties and founding boards were largely drawn from other Ivy League institutions. There were also some British graduates from the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, the University of St. Andrews, the University of Edinburgh, and elsewhere on their boards. Similarly,", "", "The first formal athletic league involving eventual Ivy League schools (or any US colleges, for that matter) was created in 1870 with the formation of the Rowing Association of American Colleges. The RAAC hosted a de facto national championship in rowing during the period 1870–1894. In 1895, Cornell, Columbia, and Penn founded the Intercollegiate Rowing Association, which remains the oldest collegiate athletic organizing body in the US. To this day, the IRA Championship Regatta determines the national champion in rowing and all of the Ivies are regularly invited to compete. A basketball", "In 1945 the presidents of the eight schools signed the first \"Ivy Group Agreement\", which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the football teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents' Agreement of 1916. The Ivy Group Agreement established the core tenet that an applicant's ability to play on a team would not influence admissions decisions: In 1954, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports, effective with the 1955–56 basketball season. This is generally reckoned as the formal formation of the Ivy League. As part of the transition, Brown, the only Ivy that hadn't joined the EIBL, did so for the 1954–55 season. A year later, the Ivy League absorbed the EIBL. The Ivy League claims the EIBL's history as its own. Through the EIBL, it is the oldest basketball conference in Division I. As late as the 1960s many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become coeducational. Before", "", "The Ivy League schools are highly selective, with their acceptance rates being approximately 10% or less at all of the universities. Admitted students come", "Members of the League have been highly ranked by various university rankings. All of the Ivy League schools are consistently ranked within the top 20 national universities by the \"U.S.", "Collaboration between the member schools is illustrated by the student-led Ivy Council that meets in the fall and spring of each year, with representatives from every Ivy League school. The governing body of the Ivy League is the Council of Ivy Group", "", "Different fashion trends and styles have emerged from Ivy League campuses over time, and fashion trends such as Ivy League and preppy are styles often associated with the Ivy League and its culture. Ivy League style is a style of men's dress, popular during the late 1950s, believed to have originated on Ivy League campuses. The clothing stores J. Press and Brooks Brothers represent perhaps the quintessential Ivy League dress manner. The Ivy League style is said to be the predecessor to the preppy style of dress. Preppy fashion started around 1912 to the late 1940s and 1950s as the Ivy League style of dress. J. Press represents the quintessential preppy clothing brand, stemming from", "The Ivy League is often associated with the upper class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community of the Northeast, Old Money, or more generally, the American upper middle and upper classes. Although most Ivy League students come from upper middle- and upper-class families, the student body has become increasingly more economically and ethnically diverse. The universities provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students. Several reports suggest, however, that the proportion of students from less-affluent families remains low. Phrases such as \"Ivy League snobbery\" are ubiquitous in nonfiction and fiction writing of the early and mid-twentieth century. A Louis Auchincloss character dreads \"the aridity of snobbery which he knew infected the Ivy League colleges\". A business writer, warning in 2001 against discriminatory hiring, presented a cautionary example of an attitude to avoid (the bracketed phrase is his): The phrase \"Ivy League\" historically has been perceived as connected not only with academic excellence but also with social elitism. In 1936, sportswriter John Kieran noted that", "Of the 45 men who have served as President of the United States, 16 have graduated from an Ivy League university. Of them, eight have degrees from Harvard, five from Yale, three from Columbia, two from", "", "Students of the Ivy League largely hail from the Northeast, largely from the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia areas. As all eight Ivy League universities are within the Northeast, it is no surprise that most graduates", "Students of the Ivy League, both graduate and undergraduate, come primarily from upper middle and upper class families. In recent years, however, the universities have looked towards increasing socioeconomic and class diversity, by providing greater financial aid packages to applicants from lower, working, and lower middle class American families. In 2013, 46% of Harvard undergraduate students came from families in the top 3.8% of all American households (i.e., over $200,000 annual income). In 2012, the bottom 25%", "Ivy champions are recognized in sixteen men's and sixteen women's sports. In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other; for example, the six league members who participate in ice hockey do so as members of ECAC Hockey, but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year. In one sport, rowing, the Ivies recognize team champions for each sex in both heavyweight and lightweight divisions. While the Intercollegiate Rowing Association governs all four sex- and bodyweight-based divisions of rowing, the only one that is sanctioned by the NCAA is women's heavyweight. The Ivy League was the last Division I basketball conference to institute a conference postseason tournament; the first tournaments for men and women were held at the end of the 2016–17 season. The tournaments only award the Ivy League automatic bids for the NCAA Division I Men's and Women's Basketball Tournaments; the official conference championships continue to be awarded based solely on regular-season results. Before the 2016–17 season, the automatic bids were based solely on regular-season record, with a one-game playoff (or series of one-game playoffs if more than two teams were tied) held to determine the automatic bid. The Ivy League is one of only two Division I conferences which award their official basketball championships solely on regular-season results; the other is the Southeastern Conference. Since its inception, an Ivy League school has yet to win either the men's or women's Division I NCAA Basketball Tournament. On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams. All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools. Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based (financial aid). In addition, the Ivies have a rigid policy against redshirting, even for medical reasons; an athlete loses a year of eligibility for every year enrolled at an Ivy institution. Additionally, the Ivies prohibit graduate students from participating in intercollegiate athletics, even if they have remaining athletic eligibility. Ivy League teams' non-league games are often against the members of the Patriot League, which have similar academic standards and athletic scholarship policies (although unlike the Ivies, the Patriot League allows both redshirting and play by eligible graduate students). In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships and lowered academic standards for athletes, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country. In particular, Princeton won 26 recognized national championships in college football (last in 1935), and Yale won 18 (last in 1927). Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as Alabama, which has won 15, Notre Dame, which claims 11 but is credited by many sources with 13, and USC, which has won 11. Yale, whose coach Walter Camp was the \"Father of American Football,\" held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire 20th century, but was finally passed by Michigan on November 10, 2001. Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Penn each have over a dozen former scholar-athletes enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame. Currently Dartmouth holds the record for most Ivy League football titles, with 18, followed closely by Harvard and Penn, each with 17 titles. In addition, the Ivy League has produced Super Bowl winners Kevin Boothe (Cornell), two-time Pro Bowler Zak DeOssie (Brown), Sean Morey (Brown), All-Pro selection Matt Birk (Harvard), Calvin Hill (Yale), Derrick Harmon (Cornell) and 1999 \"Mr. Irrelevant\" Jim Finn (Penn). Beginning with the 1982 football season, the Ivy League has competed in Division I-AA (renamed FCS The Ivy League teams are eligible for the FCS tournament held to determine the national champion, and the league champion is eligible for an automatic bid (and any other team may qualify for an at-large selection) from the NCAA. However, since its inception in 1956, the Ivy League has not played any postseason games due to concerns about the extended December schedule's effects on academics. (The last postseason game for a member was, the 1934 Rose Bowl, won by For this reason, any Ivy League team invited to the FCS playoffs turns down the bid. The Ivy League plays a strict 10-game schedule, compared to other FCS members' schedules of 11 (or, in some seasons, 12) regular season games, plus post-season, which expanded in 2013 to five rounds with 24 teams, with a bye week for the top eight teams. Football is the only sport in which the Ivy League declines to compete for a national title. In addition to varsity football, Penn, Princeton and Cornell also field teams in the 10-team Collegiate Sprint Football League, in which all players must weigh 178 pounds or less. Penn and Princeton are the last remaining founding members of the league from its 1934 debut, and Cornell is the next-oldest, joining in 1937. Yale and Columbia previously fielded teams in the league but no longer do so.", "", "This list, which is current through July 1, 2015, includes NCAA championships and women's AIAW championships (one each", "The term \"Ivy\" is sometimes used to connote a positive comparison to or an association with the Ivy League, often along academic lines. The term has been used to describe the Little Ivies, a grouping of small liberal arts colleges in the Northeastern United States. Other uses include the Southern Ivies, Hidden Ivies, and the Public Ivies. The 2007 edition of \"Newsweek's How to Get Into College Now\", the editors designated 25 schools as \"New Ivies.\"", "The term \"Ivy Plus\" is sometimes used to refer to the Ancient Eight plus several other schools for purposes of alumni associations, university consortia, or endowment comparisons. In his book \"Untangling the Ivy League\", Zawel writes, \"The" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "General operations.", "Forklift control and capabilities.", "Design types.", "Low lift truck.", "Towing tractor.", "Stacker.", "Reach truck.", "Counterbalanced forklift.", "Sideloader.", "Telescopic handler.", "Order picking truck.", "Articulated very narrow aisle counterbalanced trucks.", "Guided very narrow aisle truck.", "Guided very narrow aisle order picking truck.", "Truck-mounted forklift/sod loader.", "Specialized trucks.", "Articulated counterbalance trucks.", "Guided very narrow aisle trucks.", "Marina forklifts.", "Omnidirectional trucks.", "UL 558 safety rated trucks.", "UL 583 safety rated trucks.", "Explosion proof trucks.", "Automated forklift trucks.", "Methods of propulsion.", "Internal combustion.", "Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).", "Battery electric.", "Hydrogen fuel cell.", "Counterbalanced forklift components.", "Attachments.", "Replacing or adding attachments.", "Lift truck associations and organizations.", "Forklift safety.", "Standards.", "Driver safety.", "Forklift training in the United States.", "Forklift training in the United Kingdom.", "Forklift training in Australia.", "Forklift training in New Zealand.", "Unit standards.", "Attachments.", "Safety Products.", "Pedestrian Detection Systems.", "Ultrasound Radars.", "RF Systems.", "Manufacturers' worldwide ranking." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The middle nineteenth century through the early 20th century saw the developments that led to today's modern forklifts. The forerunners of the modern forklift were manually powered hoists that were used to lift loads. In 1906, the Pennsylvania Railroad introduced battery powered platform trucks for moving luggage at their Altoona, Pennsylvania, train station. World War I saw the development of different types of material handling equipment in the United Kingdom by Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies of Ipswich. This was in part due to the labor shortages caused by the war. In 1917, Clark in the United States began developing and using powered tractor and powered lift tractors in their factories. In 1919, the Towmotor Company, and Yale & Towne Manufacturing in 1920, entered the lift truck market in the United States. Continuing development and expanded use of the forklift continued through the 1920s and 1930s. The introduction of hydraulic power and the development of the first electric power forklifts, along with the use of standardized pallets in the late 1930s, helped to increase the popularity of forklift trucks. The start of World War II, like World War I before, spurred the use of forklift trucks in the war effort. Following the war, more efficient methods for storing products in warehouses were being implemented. Warehouses needed more maneuverable forklift trucks that could reach greater heights and new forklift models were made that filled this need. For example, in 1954, a British company named Lansing Bagnall, now part of KION Group, developed what was claimed to be the first narrow aisle electric reach truck. The development changed the design of warehouses leading to narrower aisles and higher load stacking that increased storage capability. During the 1950s and 1960s, operator safety became a concern due to the increasing lifting heights and capacities. Safety features such as load backrests and operator cages, called overhead guards, began to be added to forklifts produced in this era. In the late 1980s, ergonomic design began to be incorporated in new forklift designs to improve operator comfort, reduce injuries and increase productivity. During the 1990s, exhaust emissions from forklift operations began to be addressed which led to emission standards being implemented for forklift manufacturers in various countries. The introduction of AC power forklifts, along with fuel cell technology, are also refinements in continuing forklift development.", "Forklifts are rated for loads at a specified maximum weight and a specified forward center of gravity. This information is located on a nameplate provided by the manufacturer, and loads must not exceed these specifications. In many jurisdictions, it is illegal to alter or remove the nameplate without the permission of the forklift manufacturer. An important aspect of forklift operation is that it must have rear-wheel steering. While this increases maneuverability in tight cornering situations, it differs from a driver’s traditional experience with other wheeled vehicles. While steering, as there is no caster action, it is unnecessary to apply steering force to maintain a constant rate of turn. Another critical characteristic of the forklift is its instability. The forklift and load must be considered a unit with a continually varying center of gravity with every movement of the load. A forklift must never negotiate a turn at speed with a raised load, where centrifugal and gravitational forces may combine to cause a disastrous tip-over accident. The forklift is designed with a load limit for the forks which is decreased with fork elevation and undercutting of the load (i.e., when a load does not butt against the fork \"L\"). A loading plate for loading reference is usually located on the forklift. A forklift should not be used as a personnel lift without the fitting of specific safety equipment, such as a \"cherry picker\" or \"cage\". Forklifts are a critical element of warehouses and distribution centers. It’s imperative that these structures be designed to accommodate their efficient and safe movement. In the case of Drive-In/Drive-Thru Racking, a forklift needs to travel inside a storage bay that is multiple pallet positions deep to place or retrieve a pallet. Often, forklift drivers are guided into the bay through guide rails on the floor and the pallet is placed on cantilevered arms or rails. These maneuvers require well-trained operators. Since every pallet requires the truck to enter the storage structure, damage is more common than with other types of storage. In designing a drive-in system, dimensions of the fork truck, including overall width and mast width, must be carefully considered.", "Forklift hydraulics are controlled either with levers directly manipulating the hydraulic valves or by electrically controlled actuators, using smaller \"finger\" levers for control. The latter allows forklift designers more freedom in ergonomic design. Forklift trucks are available in many variations and load capacities. In a typical warehouse setting, most forklifts have load capacities between one and five tons. Larger machines, up to 50 tons lift capacity, are used for lifting heavier loads, including loaded shipping containers. In addition to a control to raise and lower the forks (also known as blades or tines), the operator can tilt the mast to compensate for a load's tendency to angle the blades toward the ground and risk slipping off the forks. Tilt also provides a limited ability to operate on non-level ground. Skilled forklift operators annually compete in obstacle and timed challenges at regional forklift rodeos.", "", "Powered pallet truck, usually electrically powered. Low lift trucks may be operated by a person seated on the machine, or by a person walking alongside, depending on the design.", "May be internal combustion engine or electrically powered.", "Usually electrically powered. A stacker may be operated by a person seated on the machine, or by a person walking alongside, depending on the design.", "Variant on a Rider Stacker forklift, designed for small aisles, usually Electrically Powered, named because the forks can extend to reach the load. There are two variants, moving carriage, which is common in North America, and moving mast which is common in the rest of the world, and generally regarded as safer", "Comes in Stand on End Control, Stand on Center Control, and Sit Down Center Control, which is the most numerous", "Comes in Stand on End Control, and Sit Down End Control, which is the most numerous. It may be electrically powered, or have an internal combustion engine. Engines may be diesel, kerosene, gasoline, natural gas, butane, or propane fueled, and may be either two-stroke spark ignition, four stroke spark ignition (common), two-stroke compression ignition, and four-stroke compression ignition (common). North American Engines come with advanced emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries such as Iran or Russia will typically have no emission control systems. Some sideloaders have hybrid drivetrains.", "Comes in Stand on Center Control, and Sit Down Center Control, which is the most numerous. Usually has an Internal Combustion Engine. Engines are almost always diesel, but sometimes operate on kerosene, and sometimes use propane injection as a power boost. Some old units are two-stroke compression ignition, most are four-stroke compression ignition (common). North American Engines come with advanced emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries like Iran or Russia will typically have no emission control systems. Some Telescopic handlers have Hybrid drivetrains.", "Similar to a reach truck, except the operator either rides in a cage welded to the fork carriage or walks alongside, dependent on design. If the operator is riding in the order picking truck, they wear a specially designed safety harness to prevent falls. A special toothed grab holds the pallet to the forks. The operator transfers the load onto the pallet one article at a time by hand. This is an efficient way of picking less-than-pallet-load shipments and is popular for use in large distribution centers.", "Sometimes called \"Flexi or Bendi Trucks\" after two of the largest manufacturers. Comes in stand on center control, and sit down center control, which is the most numerous. May have an internal combustion engine or an electric motor. Electric motors are the most common. Engines may be diesel, kerosene, gasoline, natural gas, butane, or propane fueled, and may be either two-stroke spark ignition, four-stroke spark ignition (common), two-stroke compression ignition, and four-stroke compression ignition (common). North American engines come with advanced emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries such as Iran or Russia will typically have no emission control systems. Some units have hybrid drivetrains. Unlike standard counterbalance and reach forklifts, These forklifts are steered via the front swivel articulation of the forklift and are therefore much different to manoeuvre than regular forklifts and additionally have no pantograph feature for retrieving stock in narrow aisles.", "A counterbalance type Sit Down Rider Electric Forklift fitted with a specialized mast assembly. The mast is capable of rotating 90 degrees, and the forks can then advance like on a reach mechanism, to pick full pallets. Because the forklift does not have to turn, the aisles can be exceptionally narrow, and if wire guidance is fitted in the floor of the building the machine can almost work on its own. Masts on this type of machine tend to be very high. The higher the racking that can be installed, the higher the density the storage can reach. This sort of storage system is popular in cities where land prices are really high, as by building the racking up to three times higher than normal and using these machines, it is possible to stock an incredible amount of material in what appears to be a small space.", "Counterbalance type Order Picking Truck similar to the guided very narrow aisle truck, except that the operator and the controls which operate the machine are in a cage welded to the mast. The operator wears a restraint system to protect him against falls. Otherwise the description is the same as guided very narrow aisle truck.", "Comes in sit down center control. Usually has an internal combustion engine. Engines are almost always diesel, but sometimes operate on kerosene, and sometimes use propane injection as a power boost. Some old units are two-stroke compression ignition, most are four-stroke compression ignition (common). North American engines come with advanced emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries such as Iran or Russia will typically have no emission control systems.", "At the other end of the spectrum from the counterbalanced forklift trucks are more 'high end' specialty trucks", "These are, unlike most lift trucks, front-wheel steer and are a hybrid VNA (very narrow aisle) truck designed to be both able to offload trailers and place the load in narrow aisle racking. Increasingly these trucks are able to compete in terms of pallet storage density, lift heights and pallet throughput with guided very narrow aisle trucks, while also being capable of loading trucks, which VNA units are incapable of doing.", "These are rail- or wire-guided and available with lift heights up to 40 feet non-top-tied and 98 feet top-tied. Two forms are available:'man-down' and'man-riser', where the operator elevates with the load for increased visibility or for multilevel 'break bulk' order picking. This type of truck, unlike articulated narrow aisle trucks, requires a high standard of floor flatness.", "These lifts are found in places like marinas and boat storage facilities. Featuring tall masts, heavy counterweights, and special paint to resist seawater-induced corrosion, they are used lift boats in and out of storage racks. Once out, the forklift can place the boat into the water, as well as remove it when the boating activity is finished. Marina forklifts are unique among most other forklifts in that they feature a \"negative lift\" cylinder. This type of cylinder allows the forks to actually descend lower than ground level. Such a functionality is necessary, given that the ground upon which the forklift operates is higher than the water level below. Additionally, marina forklifts feature some of the longest forks available, with some up to 24 feet long. The forks are also typically coated in rubber to prevent damage to the hull of the boats that rest on them. Manufacturers of marina forklifts include Wiggins, Hoist, and Toyota.", "Omnidirectional technology (such as Mecanum wheels) can allow a forklift truck to move forward, diagonally and laterally, or in any direction on a surface. An omnidirectional wheel system is able to rotate the truck 360 degrees in its own footprint or strafe sideways without turning the truck cabin. One example is the Airtrax Sidewinder. This forklift truck has also made an appearance in the TV series called 'Mythbusters'.", "In North America, some internal combustion powered industrial vehicles carry Underwriters Laboratories ratings that are part of UL 558. Industrial trucks that are considered \"safety\" carry the designations GS (Gasoline Safety) for gasoline powered, DS (Diesel Safety) for diesel powered, LPS (Liquid Propane Safety) for liquified propane or GS/LPS for a dual fuel gasoline/liquified propane powered truck. UL 558 is a two-stage Safety Standard. The basic standard, which is G, D, LP, and G/LP is what Underwriter's Laboratories considers the bare minimum required for a lift truck. This is a voluntary standard, and there is no requirement in North America at least by any Government Agency for manufacturers to meet this standard. The slightly more stringent GS, DS, LPS, and GP/LPS, or Safety standard does provide some minimal protection, however it is extremely minimal. In the past Underwriter's Laboratory offered specialty EX and DX safety certifications. If you require higher levels of protection you must contact your local Underwriter's Laboratory Office and ask them what the correct safety standard is for your workplace.", "UL 583 is the Electric equivalent of UL 558. As with UL 558 it is a two-stage standard.", "These are for operation in potentially explosive atmospheres found in chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, food and drink, logistics or other industries handling flammable material. Commonly referred to as Pyroban trucks in Europe, they must meet the requirements of the ATEX 94/9/EC Directive if used in Zone 1, 2, 21 or 22 areas and be maintained accordingly.", "In order to decrease work wages, reduce operational cost and improve productivity, automated forklifts have also been developed.", "", "Engines may be diesel, kerosene, gasoline, natural gas, butane, or propane fueled, and may be either two-stroke spark ignition, four stroke spark ignition (common), two-stroke compression ignition, and four-stroke compression ignition (common). North American Engines come with advanced emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries such as Iran or Russia will typically have no emission control systems.", "These forklifts use an internal combustion engine modified to run on LPG. The fuel is often stored in a gas cylinder mounted to the rear of the truck. This allows for quick changing of the cylinder once the LPG runs out. LPG trucks are quieter than their diesel counterparts, while offering similar levels of performance.", "Powered by lead-acid batteries or, increasingly, lithium-ion batteries, include: cushion tire forklifts, scissor lifts, order pickers, stackers, reach trucks and pallet jacks. Electric forklifts are primarily used indoors on flat, even surfaces. Batteries prevent the emission of harmful fumes and are recommended for indoor facilities, such as food-processing and healthcare sectors.", "Fuel cell forklifts are powered by a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. The reaction is used to generate electricity which can then be stored in a battery and subsequently used to drive electric motors to power the forklift. This method of propulsion produces no local emissions, can be refueled in 3 minutes, and are often used in refrigerated warehouses as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures.", "A typical counterbalanced forklift contains the following components:", "Below is a list of common forklift attachments: Any attachment on a forklift will reduce its nominal load rating, which is computed with a stock fork carriage and forks. The actual load rating may be significantly lower.", "It is possible to replace an existing attachment or add one to a lift that doesn't already have one. Considerations include forklift type, capacity, carriage type, and number of hydraulic functions (that power the attachment features). As mentioned in the preceding section, replacing or adding an attachment may reduce (down-rate) the safe lifting capacity of the forklift truck (See also General operations, below). Forklift attachment manufacturers offer online calculators to estimate the safe lifting capacity when using a particular attachment. However, only the forklift truck manufacturer can give accurate lifting capacities. Before installing any attachment contact your local authorized dealer of your forklift brand and ask them to begin re-rating your lift according to the attachment you want to install. Once re-rated the forklift should have a new factory authorized specification plate, to replace the original plate, installed showing the new rating for the lift. In the context of attachment, a hydraulic function consists of a valve on the forklift with a lever near the operator that provides two passages of pressurized hydraulic oil to power the attachment features. Sometimes an attachment has more features than your forklift has hydraulic functions and one or more need to be added. There are many ways of adding hydraulic functions (also known as adding a valve). The forklift manufacturer makes valves and hose routing accessories, but the parts and labor to install can be prohibitively expensive. Other ways include adding a solenoid valve in conjunction with a hose or cable reel that diverts oil flow from an existing function. However, hose and cable reels can block the operator's view and are problematic, easily damaged.", "There are many national as well as continental associations related to the industrial truck industry. Some of the major organizations are listed as: There are many significant contacts among these organizations and they have established joint statistical and engineering programs. One program is the \"World Industrial Trucks Statistics (WITS)\" which is published every month to the association memberships. The statistics are separated by area (continent), country and class of machine. While the statistics are generic and do not count production from most of the smaller manufacturers, the information is significant for its depth. These contacts have brought to a common definition of a Class System to which all the major manufacturers adhere.", "", "Forklift safety is subject to a variety of standards worldwide. The most important standard is the ANSI B56—of which stewardship has now been passed from the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) to the Industrial Truck Standards Development Foundation (ITSDF) after multi-year negotiations. ITSDF is a non-profit organization whose only purpose is the promulgation and modernization of the B56 standard. Other forklift safety standards have been implemented in the United States by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and in the United Kingdom by the Health and Safety Executive.", "In many countries, forklift truck operators must be trained and certified to operate forklift trucks. Certification may be required for each individual class of lift that an operator would use. Forklift training has many names, such as forklift licensing or forklift certification. Whichever term is used, training must adhere to federal or national standards. Health care providers do not recommend that workers who drive or use heavy equipment such as forklifts treat chronic or acute pain with opioids.", "In the United States, workplace forklift training is governed federally by OSHA the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. In 1999, OSHA updated its 29 CFR 1910.178 regulations governing \"Powered Industrial Trucks\" (the term OSHA uses to include forklifts among other types of industrial vehicles.) A major component of these regulations deals with forklift operator training. The standard requires employers to develop and implement a training program based on the general principles of safe truck operation, the types of vehicle(s) being used in the workplace, the hazards of the workplace created by the use of the vehicle(s), and the general safety requirements of the OSHA standard. OSHA believes that trained operators must know how to do the job properly and do it safely as demonstrated by workplace evaluation. Formal (lecture, video, etc.) and practical (demonstration and practical exercises) training must be provided. Employers must also certify that each operator has received the training and evaluate each operator at least once every three years. Prior to operating the truck in the workplace, the employer must evaluate the operator's performance and determine the operator to be competent to operate a powered industrial truck safely. Refresher training is needed whenever an operator demonstrates a deficiency in the safe operation of the truck.", "In the UK, the Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations state that operators of forklift trucks must be adequately trained, the general standards of that training and good operating practice are found in the HSE Code of Practice 117 (Third edition) issued in 2013. Third party organisations have developed de facto 'best practice' standards for forklift training, commonly referred to in the UK as a 'forklift licence', these are no longer recognised as proof of training as defined in the COP 117 (third edition) and as such training is not a legal requirement as is commonly believed. Organised training however helps to demonstrate that an employer has taken steps to ensure its 'duty of care' in the unfortunate event of an accident. In the UK, forklift training is carried out by a number of different voluntary standard training organisations, They can be directly recognised by the HSE who have formed a new organisation known as \"Accrediting Body Association Work place transport 2012\". In all cases qualified forklift instructors must be registered with at least one of the voluntary training organisations. Although RTITB operators are registered on a database which has to be a 3 yearly basis, the amount of time determined between refresher courses is subject to the H&S Executive, Insurance companies or company policies. The H&S Executive (HSG136 Workplace Transport Safety) does recommend re-training/testing every 3 to 5 years. Forklift instructors throughout the UK tend to operate either as small independent training companies or as a part of a larger training provider. Training is delivered in one of two ways; on-site (sometimes referred to as in-house training) where training is delivered to a clients' premises making use of their own equipment, or off-site (public courses) at a training centre. Training centres offer the opportunity for the unemployed with little or no forklift operating experience to achieve a certificate of competence and increase their employment opportunities. Training certification standards at schools tends to follow closely the standard required by their individual Training Standards Accrediting Body to which they are affiliated. It is not unusual for a Training school to be registered with one or more body at any one time. The British Industrial Truck Association (BITA) categorises the different forklift truck types into groups and assigned a unique identifier to each classification. Known as the ‘BITA List’ it has become accepted as a standard in the UK. Forklift training certificates display the appropriate BITA classification to clearly identify the confines of the certification.", "Prior to 2011 all States and Territories of Australia independently regulated occupational health and safety in that state, including forklift licensing. Whilst the Occupational Health and Safety laws of the different states were based on similar underlying principles there were differences between the various jurisdictions in the detail and application of those Occupational Health and Safety laws. In 2008 the Inter-Governmental Agreement for Regulatory and Operational Reform in Occupational Health and Safety was formed between the Commonwealth of Australia and the six states and two territories of Australia to formalize cooperation between these jurisdictions on the harmonization of Occupational Health and Safety legislation. As a result, the national Model Work Health and Safety Act (WHS) was enacted following a review of work health and safety laws across Australia; said review involved significant public consultations effort. This act was finalized in June 2011. This act formed a framework for the individual jurisdictions to enact supporting legislation, as the individual jurisdictions are tasked with managing State and Territory Occupational Health and Safety laws, including the issue of licences coming under the legislation. Each individual state and territory issue licences in their own jurisdiction, including what is known as \"high-risk work licences\" for high-risk work. Forklift licences are classed as \"high-risk work licences\". To obtain a forklift licence in any State or Territory an applicant must undertake a training course with an approved training organisation and then, on completion of the course, apply to the appropriate State or Territory for a forklift licence. The unit of competence is known as the National High Risk Licence Unit of Competence TLILIC2001 – Licence to Operate a Forklift Truck, or in the case of an LO licence Unit of Competence TLILIC2002 – Licence to Operate an Order Picking Forklift Truck. There is a fee attached which varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Forklift licences issued in one jurisdiction are recognized in all. Licence cancellation in one jurisdiction is also recognized in all.", "Forklift operator training is divided into two types: The operator's certificate is based on the Approved Code of Practice for Training Operators and Instructors of Powered Industrial Lift Trucks ('ACOP') published in 1995 by the then Department of Labour. It gives permission for operators to operate a forklift in an enclosed space (i.e. a space not considered to be a 'road'). To use a forklift on a public road, the operator must obtain a forklift (F) endorsement on their driver licence. Operators with a class 1 (car) licence and an F endorsement may only operate forklifts up to 18,000 kg gross laden weight, while those holding a class 2 (medium rigid) licence and an F endorsement can operate a forklift of any gross laden weight. The ACOP is a set of best practices, guidelines and recommendations for training a forklift operator. However, training can be tailored to the operator's specific needs and the attachments they use, as required under the Health and Safety at Work Act 2015. Training consists of a theory session delivered in-person or online followed by a brief practical assessment of 15–20 minutes. If the ACOP guidelines are followed this consists of a stacking and destacking pallets at low, medium and high levels, as well as driving forwards and in reverse around a coned figure-of-eight while carrying a load.", "Unit standards are available for forklift training but are not required. The primary unit standard is US10851.", "The ACOP deals specifically with a forklift operator using only the standard forks. Forklift attachments, such as barrel clamps, fork extensions, rotators and personnel cages are covered under a separate unit standard (US10852). It is not mandatory to achieve a unit standard; a company can simply induct the operator on the attachments used.", "A number of solutions can be found on the market today to reduce occupational hazards caused by forklifts.", "These are proximity sensors that detect objects and pedestrians from a few centimeters to several meters. The sensor makes the difference between a person and an object and alerts the driver without useless alarms. Based on stereovision, an algorithm analyses on real time if a person is in a blind zone of the forklift.", "Ultrasonic sensors are proximity sensors that detect objects at distances ranging from a few centimeters to several meters. The sensor beeps and measures the time it takes for the signal to return. It does not discriminate between people and objects. Any obstacle located behind the truck will be detected. Normally, this type of sensor is used only for detection in rear areas.", "These are solutions that alert forklift drivers of the people found in its vicinity. Pedestrians must carry a radio frequency device (electronic tags) which, emit a signal when a truck detects them, alerting the driver of the potential risk of an accident. It detects both in the front and at the back and it differentiates between people and the usual obstacles found in warehouses. For this reason, the driver is only alerted when there is a pedestrian near the truck. There are different solutions on the market:", "Every year Modern Materials publishes a Top 20 Global Ranking of Forklift Manufacturers by sales in dollars. A modified copy of the report is below in a sortable table." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General description.", "History.", "Technical activities.", "Greek state broadcaster controversy of 2013.", "Members.", "Associate Members.", "Approved participant members.", "Organised events.", "Eurovision Song Contest.", "Let the Peoples Sing.", "Jeux Sans Frontières.", "Eurovision Young Musicians.", "Eurovision Young Dancers.", "Euroclassic Notturno.", "Junior Eurovision Song Contest.", "Eurovision Dance Contest.", "Eurovision Magic Circus Show.", "Eurovision Choir.", "European Sports Championships." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "EBU members are public service media (PSM) broadcasters whose output is made, financed and controlled by the public, for the public. PSM broadcasters are often established by law but are non-partisan, independent and run for the benefit of society as a whole. EBU members come from as far north as Iceland and as far south as Egypt, from Ireland in the west and Azerbaijan in the east, and almost every nation from geographical Europe in between. Associate Members are from countries and territories beyond Europe, such as Canada, Japan, Mexico, India and China. Associate members from the United States include ABC, CBS, NBC, CPB, NPR, APM and the only individual station, Chicago-based classical music radio WFMT. Membership is for media organisations whose countries are within the European Broadcasting Area (EBA), as defined by the International Telecommunication Union, or who are members of the Council of Europe. Members benefit from: The EBU's highest-profile production is the Eurovision Song Contest. The EBU also organises the Eurovision Dance Contest, the Junior Eurovision Song Contest, the Eurovision Young Dancers competition, and other competitions which are modeled along similar lines. Radio collaborations include Euroclassic Notturno – an overnight classical music stream, produced by BBC Radio 3 and broadcast in the United Kingdom as \"Through the Night\" – and special theme days, such as the annual Christmas music relays from around Europe. The EBU is a member of the International Music Council. Most EBU broadcasters have group deals to carry major sporting events including the FIFA World Cup and the inaugural European Championships. Another annually recurring event which is broadcast across Europe through the EBU is the Vienna New Year's Concert. Eurovision Media Services is the business arm of the EBU and provides first-class media services for many media organisations and sports federations around the world. The theme music played before EBU broadcasts are Marc-Antoine Charpentier's \"Prelude to Te Deum\". It is well known to Europeans as it is played before and after the Eurovision Song Contest and other important events.", "The EBU was a successor to the International Broadcasting Union (IBU) that was founded in 1925 and had its administrative headquarters in Geneva and technical office in Brussels. It fostered programming exchanges between members and mediated technical disputes between members that were mostly concerned with frequency and interference issues. It was in effect taken over by Nazi Germany during the Second World War and when the conflict ended in the eyes of the Allies it was a compromised organisation that they could not trust. In the spring of 1946, representatives of the Soviet radio committee proposed forming a new organisation; however, at the same time preparations were being made for an inter-governmental “European Broadcasting Conference” (EBC) in Copenhagen in 1948 to draw up a new plan for frequency use in the European Broadcasting Area (EBA). It was considered necessary to have an organisation that could implement the “Copenhagen Wavelength Plan” but there was disagreement among broadcasters and particularly a fear expressed by the BBC that a new association might be dominated by the USSR and its proposal to give each of its constituent states one vote. France proposed that it would have four votes with the inclusion of its North African colonies. The United Kingdom felt it would have little influence with just one vote. On 27 June 1946, the alternative International Broadcasting Organisation (IBO) was founded with 26 members and without British participation. The following day the IBU met in General Assembly and an attempt was made to dissolve it but failed; though 18 of its 28 members left to join the IBO. For a period of time in the late 1940s both the IBU and IBO vied for the role of organising frequencies but Britain decided to be in involved in neither. The BBC attempted but failed to find suitable working arrangements with them. However, for practical purposes, the IBO rented the IBU technical centre in Brussels and employed its staff. The BBC then proposed a new solution based on the IBO changing its constitution so there will be only one member per ITU country, thus ensuring a Western majority over the USSR and its satellite states. In August 1949 a meeting took place in Stresa, Italy but it resulted in disagreement between delegates on how to resolve the problems. One proposal was for the European Broadcasting Area to be replaced by one that would exclude Eastern Europe, the Levant and North Africa. After Stresa, a consensus emerged among the Western Europeans to form a new organisation and the BBC proposed it be based in London. Meetings in Paris on 31 October and 1 November 1949 sealed the fate of the IBU and IBO, but it was decided not to allow West Germany to be a founder of the new organisation. On 13 February 1950 the European Broadcasting Union had its first meeting with 23 members from the ITU defined European Broadcasting Area at the Imperial Hotel in Torquay, England, United Kingdom. The first president was Ian Jacob of the BBC who remained at the helm for 10 years while its operation was largely dominated by the BBC due to its financial, technical and staff input. The most important difference between the EBU and its predecessors was that EBU membership was for broadcasters and not governments. Early delegates said EBU meetings were cordial and professional and very different from the abrupt tone of its predecessors. West Germany was admitted in 1951 and a working relationship forged with the USSR's Organisation for International Radio and TV (OIRT) which existed in parallel with the EBU until its merger in 1993. In 1967, the first concert in the International Concert Season of the European Broadcasting Union was broadcast from the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London.", "The objective of the EBU's technical activities is simply to assist EBU Members (see below) in this period of unprecedented technological changes. This includes the provision of technical information to Members via conferences and workshops, as well as in written form (such as the EBU Technical Review, and the EBU tech-\"i\" magazine). The EBU also encourages active collaboration between its Members on the basis that they can freely share their knowledge and experience, thus achieving considerably more than individual Members could achieve by themselves. Much of this collaboration is achieved through Project Groups which study specific technical issues of common interest: for example, EBU Members have long been preparing for the revision of the 1961 Stockholm Plan. The EBU places great emphasis on the use of open standards. Widespread use of open standards (such as MPEG-2, DAB, DVB, etc.) ensures interoperability between products from different vendors, as well as facilitating the exchange of programme material between EBU Members and promoting \"horizontal markets\" for the benefit of all consumers. EBU Members and the EBU Technical Department have long played an important role in the development of many systems used in radio and television broadcasting, such as: The EBU has also actively encouraged the development and implementation of:", "On 11 June 2013, the Greek government shut down the state broadcaster ERT, at short notice, citing government spending concerns related to the Euro crisis. In response, the European Broadcasting Union set up a makeshift studio on the same day, near the former ERT offices in Athens, in order to continue providing EBU members with the news-gathering and broadcast relay services which had formerly been provided by ERT. The EBU put out a statement expressing its \"profound dismay\" at the shutdown, urged the Greek Prime Minister \"to use all his powers to immediately reverse this decision\" and offered the \"advice, assistance and expertise necessary for ERT to be preserved\". Starting on 4 May 2014, the New Hellenic Radio, Internet and Television broadcaster began nationwide transmissions, taking over ERT's vacant active membership slot in the EBU. On 11 June 2015, two years after ERT's closure, NERIT SA renamed as ERT SA which reopened with a comprehensive program in all radio stations (with nineteen regional, two world-range and five pan-Hellenic range radio stations) and four TV channels ERT1, ERT2, ERT3 and ERT HD (now ERT Sports HD).", "The Member list, comprises the following 72 broadcasting companies from 56 countries.", "Any group or organisation from an International Telecommunication Union (ITU) member country, which provides a radio or television service outside of the European Broadcasting Area, are permitted to submit applications to the EBU for Associate Membership. Countries which have this status also pay an annual fee to maintain this status. It was also noted by the EBU that any country that is granted Associate Member status does not include any access into the Eurovision events (with the exceptions of Australia, who have participated in the Eurovision Song Contest and the Junior Eurovision Song Contest since 2015, Canada in Eurovision Young Dancers between 1987 and 1989 and Kazakhstan, who have participated in Junior Eurovision since 2018). The list of Associate Members of EBU comprised the following 34 broadcasting companies from 21 countries.", "Any groups or organisations from a country with International Telecommunication Union (ITU) membership, which does not qualify for either the EBU's Active or Associate memberships, but still provide a broadcasting activity for the EBU, are granted a unique Approved Participants membership, which lasts approximately five years. An application for this status may be submitted to the EBU at any given time, providing an annual fee is paid. The following seven EBU broadcast members had status as Approved Participants in May 2016.", "The EBU in co-operation with the respective host broadcaster organises competitions and events in which its members can participate if they wish to do so. These include:", "The Eurovision Song Contest () is an annual international song competition between EBU Members, that was first held in Lugano, Switzerland, on 24 May 1956. Seven countries participated – each submitting two songs, for a total of 14. This was the only contest in which more than one song per country was performed: since 1957 all contests have allowed one entry per country. The 1956 contest was won by the host nation, Switzerland. The most recent host city was Tel Aviv, Israel, where the Netherlands won the competition.", "Let the Peoples Sing is a biennial choir competition, the participants of which are chosen from radio recordings entered by EBU radio members. The final, encompassing three categories and around ten choirs, is offered as a live broadcast to all EBU members. The overall winner is awarded the \"Silver Rose Bowl\".", "Jeux Sans Frontières (, or Games Without Borders) was a Europe-wide television game show. In its original conception, it was broadcast from 1965 to 1999 under the auspices of the EBU. The original series run ended in 1982 but was revived in 1988 with a different complexion of nations and was hosted by smaller broadcasters.", "Eurovision Young Musicians is a competition for European musicians that are between the ages of 12 and 21 years old. It is organised by the EBU and is a member of EMCY. The first competition was held in Manchester, the United Kingdom on 11 May 1982. The televised competition is held every two years, with some countries holding national heats. Since its foundation in 1982, the Eurovision Young Musicians competition has become one of the most important music competitions on an international level.", "The Eurovision Young Dancers is a biennial dance showcase broadcast on television throughout Europe. The first competition was held in Reggio Emilia, Italy on 16 June 1985. It uses a format similar to the Eurovision Song Contest, every country that is a member of the EBU has had the opportunity to send a dance act to compete for the title of \"Eurovision Young Dancer\". The competition is for solo dancers and all contestants must be between the ages of 16 and 21 years and not professionally engaged.", "Euroclassic Notturno is a six-hour sequence of classical music recordings assembled by BBC Radio from material supplied by members of the EBU and streamed back to those broadcasters by satellite for use in their overnight classical-music schedules. The recordings used are taken not from commercial CDs but from earlier (usually live) radio broadcasts.", "Junior Eurovision Song Contest (), is an annual international song competition, that was first held in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 15 November 2003. Sixteen countries participated – each submitting one song, for a total of 16 entries. The 2003 Contest was won by Croatia and the current winner is Poland.", "The Eurovision Dance Contest (not to be confused with the \"Eurovision Young Dancers Competition\") was an international dancing competition that was held for the first time in London, the United Kingdom on 1 September 2007. The competition was repeated in 2008 when it was held in Glasgow, United Kingdom, but has not been held since.", "The Eurovision Magic Circus Show was an entertainment show organised by the EBU, which took place in 2010, 2011 and 2012 in Geneva. Children aged between 7-14 representing 8 countries within the EBU membership area, performed a variety of circus acts at the \"Geneva Christmas Circus\" (). The main show was also accompanied by the \"Magic Circus Show Orchestra\".", "The inaugural Eurovision Choir featuring non-professional choirs selected by EBU Members, took place on 22 July 2017 in Riga, hosted by the Latvian broadcaster Latvijas Televīzija (LTV). 9 countries took part in the first edition. Carmen Manet from Slovenia was the first winner.", "The European Sports Championships is a multi-sport event involving some of the leading sports in Europe. The European Governing Bodies for athletics, aquatics, cycling, rowing, golf, gymnastics and triathlon, will coordinate their individual championships as part of the first edition in the summer of 2018, hosted by the cities of Berlin (already chosen as the host for the 2018 European Athletics Championships) and Glasgow (already chosen as the host for the 2018 European Aquatics Championships, and which will now also host the events of the other sports)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Style.", "Live performances.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Speaking to \"Kerrang!\" in 2008, band founder Tuomas Holopainen reminisced that the band got really ambitious after the debut album \"that was never meant to be released as a proper record. It happened almost by accident, so we decided to put everything into making \"Oceanborn\" great.\" He added: According to \"Kerrang!\", \"for all its Royal Albert Hall grandiosity, \"Oceanborn\" was actually recorded in a Finnish school.\"", "This album marked a definitive change in musical scope for Nightwish from their folk-laden roots in \"Angels Fall First\", showcasing a more bombastic, power metal-oriented sound with faster tempos, harmonic guitar/keyboard leads, and plenty of double-bass-heavy drumwork. During that time, Stratovarius was Holopainen's biggest inspiration, hence the power metal sound of the album. \"Oceanborn\"'s sound hearkens a more dramatic approach in the overall musical scope, mostly relegated to the symphonic keyboard work and lead singer Tarja Turunen's vocals. According to Mape Ollila, who penned the band's biography: Along with Therion's \"Theli\", the album came to be known as one of the cornerstones of the emerging genre of symphonic metal. Most of the lyrics are fantasy-themed, with tracks like \"Swanheart\" and \"Walking in the Air\", a cover from the animated TV special \"The Snowman\", as typical examples; however, the song \"Gethsemane\", has a more religious feel to it. In addition, there are also some theatrical tracks like \"Devil & the Deep Dark Ocean\". \"Oceanborn\" is among their darkest albums, making use of the harsh vocals of Tapio Wilska in the songs \"The Pharaoh Sails to Orion\" and \"Devil & the Deep Dark Ocean\".", "Since the album's release, \"Sacrament of Wilderness\" has remained a fan-favorite at concerts, and it was still performed often until 2003. In 2007 it returned to the setlist but after 2008, it wasn't performed again until the \"\" in 2018. Both \"Sleeping Sun\" and \"Walking in the Air\" have also been performed often on shows. \"Walking in the Air\" returned to the live set list of the band on September 19, 2009 at Hartwall Areena, as an acoustic song sung by then-vocalist Anette Olzon. Having been dropped from their live shows since Turunen's dismissal in 2005, \"Stargazers\" returned to the live set list on the \"Endless Forms Most Beautiful World Tour\", with Floor Jansen as their newest singer in 2015. In recent years, former vocalist Tarja Turunen released covers from two Oceanborn songs: \"Stargazers\", on a live version (recorded March 27, 2011) that can be heard on the CD/DVD Luna Park Ride; and \"Swanheart\", also a live recording (April 2013) with Tarja performing accompanied by a symphonic orchestra, choir and Mike Terrana on drums, that can be heard on the CD/DVD Beauty and the Beat (Tarja album).", "Credits for \"Oceanborn\" adapted from liner notes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Symbols.", "Colors.", "Crest.", "Anthem.", "Mascot.", "Records and statistics.", "Most appearances.", "Top goalscorers.", "Honours.", "Trebles and Doubles.", "Other Featured Campaigns.", "Grounds and facilities.", "Administration and finances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cruzeiro's history is traced back to the Italian community living in Belo Horizonte, a city where already some Italian immigrants lived and their desire to set up a football club. Similar to the Italians of São Paulo (who founded Palestra Itália, now known as Palmeiras) the people of Belo Horizonte wanted the Italian colonies in Minas Gerais to have its own club as well. In the sporting goods and footwear Augustine Ranieri's factory, located on the street of Caetés, it was decided the foundation of the club should tackle the three major capital: Atlético Mineiro, America-MG and Yale. Was born at that moment, the \"Società Sportiva Palestra Italia\", established on January 2, 1921. The meeting was attended by 95 founders present the shield and uniform that made reference to the Italian colors, and whose SSPI description would be recorded in the center shell. Another decision was that only members of the Italian colony could wear the shirt. Aurelio Noce was elected the first President. The Palestra Italia emerged as the representative of the Italian colony. And is characterized as a team of Italian descent, Palestra also stood out by having elements of the Belo Horizonte working class, unlike Atlético and América, who had their consisting squad of college students coming from influential and wealthy families of the city. The idea of the club being created took a big step when Yale, a sports team from the city, went through an administrative crisis. When some players left Yale over a dispute (Yale, which itself had connections to the Italian community), some went on to found the all Italian, Sociedade Esportiva Palestra Itália of Belo Horizonte. Until 1925 the club would only allow Italian men to participate, despite other teams in the nation accepting people of all skin colors and ethnicities. Palestra debuted in the Prado Mineiro Stadium with a 2–0 win in a friendly on April 3, 1921, against a combination from Nova Lima. The Nova Lima team united players from two teams from the city: Villa Nova, and Palmeiras, another team form Nova Lima. However the first official match of Palestra was in a 3–0 win over future archrivals Clube Atlético Mineiro. In January 1942, Brazil entered World War II and a decree of the federal government forbade the use of terms from enemy nations in entities, institutions, establishments, etc. With this, the Italian name was removed and the club could no longer call themselves Palestra Italia. The name was changed to Sociedade Esportiva Palestra Mineiro. Around six months later, the president Ennes Cyro Poni called a general assembly for October 7 and suggested the name Ypiranga. Between October 3 and 7, the local media published the new name thinking it would be approved. In assembly, the counselors and associates kept professional system and approved changing club's name and colors. Yale and Ypiranga were suggested, but Cruzeiro Esporte Clube was chosen to honor the biggest symbol of Brazil, the constellation of Crux. The idea was from Oswaldo Pinto Coelho. However, the club kept playing as \"Palestra Mineiro\" until 1943, when the local Federation approved the new statutes. The approved colors were blue and white, chosen as a compromise to appease the Italian factions within the club management, as it was both representative of the Brazilian flag and the Italian football national team (blue is the color of House of Savoy, who ruled Italy from 1861 to 1946). With the inauguration of the Mineirão in 1965, Cruzeiro entered one of the most successful periods in its history, in which the club won five Campeonato Mineiro titles in a row, and went on to win its first national title, the 1966 Taça Brasil (the highest honor in Brazilian football at that time) beating Santos of Pelé in the final. Cruzeiro won the first leg 6–2 at the Mineirão, and the second leg 3–2 in São Paulo. In the 1974 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A Cruzeiro were runner-up for the first time, after losing to Vasco in the finals. Later in 1975, Cruzeiro were runner-up in the Campeonato Brasileiro again, this time losing to Internacional. In 1976, Cruzeiro won its first Copa Libertadores de América, over River Plate of Argentina. Cruzeiro went on to be runners-up of the same competition in 1977, being defeated in the finals by Boca Juniors, also of Argentina. After winning the 1976 Copa Libertadores, they participated in the 1976 Intercontinental Cup, now renamed the FIFA Club World Championship, for the first time and tied Bayern Munich 0–0 at the Mineirão, but lost 2–0 to Bayern in the Olympiastadion. After tasting success in the 1960s and 1970s, Cruzeiro entered a dark period in the 1980s. With the exception of a couple of Campeonato Mineiro wins, the club won no other championships in the 1980s, and had its worst performances in the Campeonato Brasileiro, 33rd in 1984 and 29th in 1985. The 1980s was the only decade Cruzeiro did not participate once in the Copa Libertadores since the tournament's creation in 1960. The club were invited to Europe in 1988 by Scottish side Celtic to play a friendly as part of the Glasgow club's centenary celebrations. In the 1990s a new era began, and a 15-year sequence of at least one title per year was initiated. This included six of the club's seven international championships and a Campeonato Brasileiro (2003). In December 2010 the CBF (the governing body of Brazilian football) also recognized Cruzeiro as Brazilian champion of 1966, for having beaten Santos of Pelé: 6–2 in Belo Horizonte and 2–3 in São Paulo. The club's biggest exploit in the 21st century happened when it won the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A. With 100 points earned during the season, and just over 100 goals scored in 46 matches, it was one of the most successful campaigns ever by a club in a Brazilian championship. In 2003, besides winning the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, Cruzeiro also won the Copa do Brasil and the Campeonato Mineiro, to become the only Brazilian team to win the triple crown. From 2003 to 2012 Cruzeiro have only won one major tournament (four times): the Campeonato Mineiro (2004, 2006, 2008, 2009). However the club finished in the top five of the Campeonato Brasileiro in 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010, guaranteeing a spot in the Copa Libertadores for four consecutive years (2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011). In 2010, after a great campaign in the Campeonato Brasileiro Serie A, Cruzeiro took the second place and qualified for the Copa Libertadores da America for 2011. Cruzeiro's biggest success in recent years was reaching the finals of the 2009 Copa Libertadores, however, they lost to Estudiantes de La Plata 2–1. After a disastrous 2011 season, escaping relegation only in the last round after a triumphant 6–1 against arch-rival Atlético, Gilvan Tavares became president for the 2012-2013-2014 triennium. 2012 was slightly better than 2011, but still Cruzeiro won no titles. In 2013 Cruzeiro lost Campeonato Mineiro again, despite displaying a good game against smaller clubs. Copa do Brasil started promising but Cruzeiro was knocked out by future champion Flamengo in the quarterfinals. After the elimination Cruzeiro went all in to Campeonato Brasileiro and was crowned champion for the third time, this time four rounds before the championship ended, playing an offensive and intense game that led many, including press and runners-up, to attribute the title many rounds before the mathematical confirmation. Cruzeiro's 2014 season was even more successful. It started with Cruzeiro winning the Campeonato Mineiro without losing a single match in the whole competition. In the Copa Libertadores da America, Cruzeiro was knocked out, in the quarter finals, by future champion San Lorenzo de Almagro, being the last remaining Brazilian team in the competition. This loss did not prevent Cruzeiro to lead the Campeonato Brasileiro for almost the whole competition, being crowned champion for the fourth time and becoming the second team not from Rio de Janeiro nor Sao Paulo to win the Campeonato Brasileiro twice in a row. Cruzeiro also got to the final of the Copa do Brasil, but lost both matches to rival Atlético Mineiro.", "", "When Cruzeiro was still known as Palestra Italia, the home shirt colour was green. The first home kit was an improvised dark green shirt, with white shorts and green stockings. Cruzeiro used this kit in their first professional game on April 3, 1921, in the Prado Mineiro Stadium, with a 2–0 win over the Villa Nova/Palmeiras combined team, of Nova Lima. In 1928 the shirt became a lighter tone of green, with a white neck design and red cuffs. The shorts continued to be white, but the green stockings now had red and white details, similar to that of the Italian flag. This particular uniform was used up until 1940. The light green color of the shirt would later give the team the nickname \"periquito\", Portuguese for parakeet. In 1940 there was a big change to the shirt. The shirt began to feature horizontal stripes, with the club crest in the center. This was the shirt used to win the 1940 Campeonato da Cidade – now known as the Campeonto Mineiro – after the club had been unable to win the tournament for ten years. The club also began to be called \"tricolor\" instead of \"periquito\". In 1942 Cruzeiro played one game under the name Ypiranga, and for this game a blue shirt with a central horizontal stripe was used. In 1943 Cruzeiro played its first game under its current name. The shirt used then was an all blue shirt with a large white v-neck (scapular) design. The shorts and stockings were white. In 1950, due to bad stadium lighting, Cruzeiro began to use an all-white shirt during night games. The shirt, which featured blue details and blue shorts and white stockings, was used for nine years. In 1956, Cruzeiro used, for a short while, a new shirt that was made up of white and blue horizontal stripes. The uniform was not used in many games. There was a change to the shirt in 1959; the shirt became all blue, a design that would influence later shirts. In the 1959 shirt, instead of using its normal crest Cruzeiro simply used the five stars, in the crest, loose on the shirt. The shirt made its debut in the Estádio dos Tecelões, in a friendly match against Renascença, on September 19. In 1984 Cruzeiro had the first ever company logo on its shirt; it was the shirt manufacturer's logo, which was Topper. In the same year Cruzeiro had its first shirt sponsor, Medradao. Medradao was only used on the away shirts", "The first Palestra Itália crest was a rhombus whose top half was red and bottom half was green (both colors of the Italian flag). In the center of the crest was a white circle with the letters P and I inside it. The following year, 1922, the club's crest maintained its rhombus shape, but was now completely white, with the letter P, S and I, inscribed within it in green. In 1923, the crest lost its rhombus shape and instead just had the green letters S, P and I. From 1928–1939 the crest was identical to the first crest in 1921. Just one year later the crest became a little different: the top half was green and the bottom half was red, similar to the crests from 1921 and 1929–1939, but instead of green letters in its center, it now had the letters S, P and I in yellow. The crest introduced in 1940 would be the last for Palestra, because the club would soon become Cruzeiro. Cruzeiro's first crest was introduced in 1950 and was very simple: a blue circle, with a white border, inside of which were five white stars, positioned to look like the Southern Cross. This first crest was used for over nine years, until 1959. In 1959 the crest changed, now with a white border around the crest with the words \"\"-CRUZEIRO ESPORTE CLUBE-BELO HORIZONTE\"\" in blue. This version of the crest was used until 1996, making it the longest-used crest by Cruzeiro. In the same year, Cruzeiro removed BELO HORIZONTE from the crest; this format was used until 2005. In 2006 to honor its successful 2003 season, a crown was added on top of the crest, to symbolize the triple crown. Cruzeiro has not always used its official crest on its shirt. In 1959, instead of using its crest, the club opted to simply put the five stars from the Southern Cross on its shirt. This was done until 2000, when the actual crest was again used. In 2002 and in part of 2003 the loose stars were used. Part way through 2003 a new shirt that contained the actual crest was introduced, but instead of just using the regular crest the shirt featured two Copa Libertadores trophies on top of the crest. In 2004 a similar design was used, but now featured a crown, symbolic of the Triple Crown on top of the two trophies. Since 2007 the club has used the \"loose stars\" design on home shirts. None of these designs actually became the official club crest.", "The club's anthem, \"Hino ao Campeão\", was written by Jadir Ambrósio in 1966, in homage to the team of his heart. He never meant for it to become the official anthem, but when fans started hearing it they liked it enough to adapt it as the new anthem.", "Cartoonist Fernando Pieruccetti, more popularly known as \"Mangabeira\", created the club's mascot, a \"raposa\" (Portuguese for fox) in the 1940s, as he did for other football clubs from Minas Gerais state league. Mangabeira took inspiration from the club's ex-president, Mario Grosso. \"He was a director who let no one trick him. He was sly, agile, intelligent and skillful like a fox.\" In the 2000s, Cruzeiro has made the \"Raposão\" (Big Fox) its biggest mascot, appearing at all home games and cheering with the crowd while wearing the club's colors. In 2010, Raposão won Rede Globo's Competição de Mascotes (Mascot Competition), held in their Sunday sports show Esporte Espetacular. The program united 20 mascots from the biggest Brazilian teams and had them competing in series of challenges. Raposão won all of the events and was crowned as Brazil's Best Mascot. In 2012, Cruzeiro introduced a \"junior mascot\", named \"Raposinho\" (Little Fox), a smaller version of \"Raposão\".", "", "The player with the most appearances for Cruzeiro is Fábio with a stunning record of 800 appearances, having been with the team since 2005, beating former midfielder Zé Carlos, with 619 appearances, between 1965 and 1977. In third place on that list is 1971's Bola de Ouro Winner, \"The Prince\" Dirceu Lopes, while the fourth place belongs to former Brazilian international and 1970 FIFA World Cup champion Wilson Piazza. The fifth overall player, and second goalkeeper with the most appearances for Cruzeiro is the notorious Raul Plassman, who played a total of 557 games with the team. The non-Brazilian with the most appearances for the club is the Argentine Roberto Perfumo who made 138 appearances for the club between 1971 and 1974.", "Brazilian hall-of-famer and 1970 FIFA World Cup winner Tostão has scored the most goals for Cruzeiro, 249 between 1963 and 1972, having appeared on 378 matches for Cruzeiro (12th overall). He beats Dirceu Lopes by 25 goals on that list, which also has old-timer Niginho (207 goals) closing the top 3, being the only ones with over 200 goals for Cruzeiro. Ninão holds the record for goals scored in a single match: 10 in Cruzeiro's 14–0 win over Alves Nogueira during Campeonato da Cidade on June 17, 1928. Nelinho holds the record for most goals scored from penalties: 38; and the record for goals scored from fouls: 42. Walter Montillo's 39 goals make him the non-Brazilian with the most goals for Cruzeiro, a record that would belong to Bolivia national football team vice-captain and striker Marcelo Moreno with 48 goals or Spanish 1930's striker Fernando Carazo, with 44 goals, had they not become Brazilian nationals.", "", "Trebles – Domestic Triple Crown Doubles – \"Domestic Double\" – \"Continental Double\"", "– Copa Libertadores de América: – Campeonato Brasileiro Série A: – Copa do Brasil – Supercopa Sudamericana: – Supercopa Masters: – Campeonato Mineiro:", "Cruzeiro's first stadium was the Estádio do Prado Mineiro, which belonged to the \"Federação Mineira de Futebol\" (FMF). The club's first game at the stadium was 2–0 win over a Villa Nova/Palmeiras combine team from Nova Lima on 3 April 1921. Cruzeiro would use the stadium until 1923 when the club built its own stadium, Estádio do Barro Preto. On July 23, 1923 Cruzeiro debuted at the stadium in a 2–2 tie with Flamengo. In 1945 the stadium went through renovations and would become at that time the largest stadium in the state with a capacity of 15,000 and later on would become known as Estádio Juscelino Kubitscheck (or Estádio JK). Cruzeiro would use the stadium until 1965, when the Mineirão was opened. In 1983 the stadium was torn down and one of the club's social clubs (\"Sede Campestre\") was built there. Since 1965 Cruzeiro play their home games at Estádio Governador Magalhães Pinto, often referred to as just Mineirão in Belo Horizonte, MG. Cruzeiro shares the stadium with rivals Atlético Mineiro. The stadium does not belong to Cruzeiro, rather it belongs to the state of Minas Gerais (through a land grant from the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais) and is administrated by Minas Arena, a private company, on lease from the state since 2013. The stadium, which was built in 1963, had an original capacity of about 130,000, but over the years that capacity has been reduced, and currently it seats 64,800. Named after former Minas Gerais governor José de Magalhães Pinto, it took over 4,000 workers to build the stadium. The period after the stadium's inauguration is often called \"Era Mineirão\" (\"Mineirão Era\"), which saw Cruzeiro gain national and international prominence. Cruzeiro also holds the attendance record at the stadium, when 132,834 spectators watched Cruzeiro beat Villa Nova in the 1997 Campeonato Mineiro final. Cruzeiro have had plans to build a new stadium, especially under president Alvimar de Oliveira Costa's tenure. However the state of Minas asked Cruzeiro to stay at the stadium, and after president Zezé Perrella came to the presidency in 2009, plans for a new stadium virtually disappeared. The Mineirão was selected as a host stadium for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, with renovations beginning on June 25, 2010 and is projected to be completed by December 2012. After the stadiums closing, Cruzeiro began playing home games at the Arena do Jacaré and Ipatingão stadiums, both outside the city of Belo Horizonte. Independência stadium is also being renovated and Cruzeiro will start playing homes games there in 2011 until the Mineirão is ready in 2012. The club has private ownership of other facilities though, including two training facilities (Toca da Raposa I, which serves the youth division and Toca da Raposa II for the senior squad), an administrative headquarters and two social club facilities. Cruzeiro has often been praised for having one of the leading infrastructure systems in Brazil.", "Cruzeiro's bylaw refers to the club being a non-profit organization, where the real owner are \"sócios\" (literally, \"partners\") or members (who pay an annual fee). This means that unlike some European clubs and North American sport franchises, the club cannot be sold (Article 1, § 4). Cruzeiro also acts as a social club, which sócios get access to. Currently there are six thousand paying sócios (twenty thousand including family members). Sócios are not to be confused with \"sócios do futebol\" (\"football members\") who pay an annual fee for privileges such as season tickets, but are not allowed to vote for club officials. Those who have been sócios for over a year, form the \"general assembly\" (\"Assembleia Geral\") and may vote for club officials (Article 5). After two years of membership, sócios can nominate themselves for the \"consul\" (\"Conselho\") (Article 16). Only members who have been part of the consul for at least ten years may run for the presidency and vice-presidency (Article 26, § 1). Wagner Pires de Sá is the current club president. Cruzeiro was the fifth richest Brazilian club in 2009 in terms of revenue with about R$121.3 million. This is a 29% increase from a 2008 revenue of R$94.1 million and a 56% increase from a 2007 revenue of R$77.6 million. Much of Cruzeiro's revenue comes through the selling of players, between 2004 and 2008 the club sold R$181 million (€68.6 million) worth of player, ranking third in Brazil (although player sales for other teams were considered between 2003 and 2008). Cruzeiro also relies on sponsorship and currently has three shirt sponsors: Banco BMG (front and upper back), Ricardo Eletro (sleeves) and Questão de Estilo Jeans (lower back) and although the club does not release any official figures on sponsorship, the deals are speculated to be worth a total of about R$15 million annually. Kit supplier Reebok reported pays R$8 million annually. From ticket sales the club will make around R$27 million in 2010. In 2009 ticket sales generated R$18 million Cruzeiro is one of the most financially stable Brazilian football clubs. As of 2009 Cruzeiro debts total R$97.7 million (€43.8). This puts the club 13th among the most in-debt club in Brazil. Among Brazil's most prominent clubs only São Paulo has less debt. The club's current debt is also a decrease from a 2008 debt of R$131.6 million (€50.8). In 2009 the club was ranked as the seventh most valuable club in Brazil, being worth R$139 million (€55 million). In 2008, the annual salary for the club's players totaled €6.2 million, significantly less than its European counterparts. Originally Palestra's support came from the Italian immigrant community. The working class identity remained when the club became known as Cruzeiro, and the supporters spread beyond the Italian community. The club's main rival is Atlético Mineiro, but other rivals include América, Vasco da Gama, São Paulo, Palmeiras (the other major team in Brazil with Italian origins), Corinthians, and Grêmio. A 2010 survey showed Cruzeiro's fan base had an average monthly family income of R$1,342.45. For comparison this is slightly lower than Atlético Mineiro (R$1,353.28). The highest was Internacional (R$1,657.69), and the lowest was Flamengo (R$1,149.09). On July 14, 2008 law number 9,590/2008 sanctioned \"Cruzeiro and Cruzeirense Day\" in Belo Horizonte which will be celebrated every 2 January." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "First World War.", "Czechoslovakia.", "Slovak Republic.", "Exile.", "Slovak National Uprising.", "Honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "His father Gustáv Viest was a craftsman, later he was an employee of the town office. His mother Jana (born Grnáčová) came from a family of tailors. He has two brothers (Ivan and Dušan) and two sisters (Oľga and Anna). He studied at local elementary Lutheran school and later at high school in Revúca. His older brother Ivan studied in Budapest. The whole family moved to Budapest in 1905 after the death of their father. Their household became a place where several nationally conscious people met in time of their studies. He studied building construction and worked briefly for a construction company in Budapest. In October 1911, he joined the army as a volunteer in the 7th infantry regiment in Graz. He finished his military service and became a cadet on September 1, 1912.", "He joined the army again during the general mobilization on August 1, 1914. He started as a squad commander and continued as a company commander from November 1914. He was captured during the Russian offensive near Krakow on November 24, 1914. Because of his strong Slavic feeling, he joined the Serbian army on August 1, 1915, then he fought with Serbian volunteers regiment against Bulgarians. He was injured but after healing he returned to Serbian units. In February 1917, he requested to be assigned to Belgorod to form Czechoslovak legions. From June 1917, he served as a second lieutenant and organized the recruitment of volunteers. In 1919, he became commander of the Czechoslovak camp for Slovaks in Irkutsk. The new soviet government did not allow legionaries to return home by the shortest way and Viest with others had to fight his way home cross Siberia. He returned home through Japan, USA and Canada in 1920.", "When he returned to Czechoslovakia, he entered the general staff course and started his professional career as a major. He graduated from the Military Academy in Prague. In the interwar period, he worked on several military and diplomatic positions (military attaché in Hungary and Poland) and intelligence services. In 1933 he was promoted to the position of brigade general and in 1938 to divisional general. He was the first and the only Slovak who reached the position of general in the interwar Czechoslovak Army. After the Munich Agreement in 1938, he disagreed with the radicalization of the political scene in Slovakia and with negative events like the formation of the Hlinka Guard and seditious anti-Czech propaganda. As a Slovak with the highest position in the army, he was delegated by central government for negotiations with Hungary in Komárno led by the new prime minister of autonomous Slovakia Jozef Tiso. Viest warned him about the negative impacts of radicalization to the security of the state. According to Viest's memoir, general Lev Prchala offered him to perform military cataclysm and take power in November 1938, but Viest considered it too dangerous because formation of borders was not finished yet.", "Rudolf Viest belonged to a group of anti-Fascist officers and was against the break-up of Czechoslovakia into Slovakia and the protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. On March 14, 1939, he signed a memorandum against the creation of the Slovak republic delivered to The Slovak Assembly shortly after the declaration of independence. The new regime did not persecute him, but offered him the function of inspector-general of the Slovak Army. He accepted the function after the promise of the minister of defense Ferdinand Čatloš that he would not be in contact with Germans. He was keeping contact with the Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London and he was a member of the resistance movement \"Obrana národa\" (Defense of Nation). At the same time he contributed a large sum for the economic development of the First Slovak Republic. Hungary, not being satisfied with territorial gains from the First Vienna Award, attacked Slovakia on March 23, 1939. Viest became a member of the common Slovak-Hungarian commission which was responsible for establishing a new border. According to his memoirs, he finally decided to emigrate during escalation of German-Polish conflict in August 1939. He used for this purpose the official meeting of the commission in Budapest (August 28, 1939 - September 2, 1939). He got a visa from the Romanian embassy in Budapest and moved to Bucharest where he obtained a false French passport from the French embassy with the help of his Czechoslovak contact. Due to his function of general inspector he had access to all secret materials, however investigation did not prove that he took any of them. Viest was sentenced to death, degradation to the lowest army position and loss of state citizenship on March 28, 1942.", "On September 13, he arrived in Paris. He became a member of the Czechoslovak national committee and commander of the Czechoslovak army in exile. From January 1, 1940, he was commander of the Czechoslovak Army Ground Forces, later transformed to the 1st Czechoslovak Division in France. After the Nazi occupation of France in June 1940, he moved to Britain and joined Edvard Beneš on July 10. On October 10, 1940, he became a member of the Council of State and minister on October 27, 1940. On May 8, 1940, he became deputy of minister of national defense in Czechoslovak government-in-exile.", "On May 8, 1944, Czechoslovak representatives signed an agreement with the Soviet Union which guaranteed the Soviets would pass the administration of liberated territory to the exiled government in London. Rudolf Viest became the deputy delegate for liberated territory responsible for this task, and in August 1944 traveled with the Czechoslovak delegation to the Soviet Union. After the start of the Slovak National Uprising on August 29, 1944, Ján Golian became the commander of the 1st Czechoslovak Army in Slovakia and urged the government-in-exile to send Viest to support the uprising. Viest returned to Slovakia during the night of October 6–7, 1944 to take official command of the uprising, and was made a member of the Slovak National Council on October 13. By the time Viest arrived to take command, achieving the original goals of the uprising was already likely unrealistic given internal infighting. On October 18, 1944, the German Army started a general offensive focused on eliminating resistance in the Slovak territory held by the insurgents. As the situation collapsed, Viest issued a final order from Donovaly during the night of 27-28 October for his forces to switch to guerrilla warfare. This order had only symbolic value, since the army as an organized unit had already ceased to exist, and the order could not be delivered to all troops due to disrupted communication lines. Viest tried to escape from German encirclement and reach the Red Army. On November 3, 1944, he was captured with Golian in Pohronský Bukovec. They were taken first to Banská Bystrica and then to Bratislava. On November 10, they were transported to Vienna on Himmler's order, and then taken to Berlin. There they were interrogated by the SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt in a prison on Prinz-Albert-Straße, but were treated decently. During the entire period Viest continued to declare support for the restoration of Czechoslovakia and democracy. Information about his last days is unclear. Viest probably died with other Slovak generals (Augustín Malár, Ján Golian and Štefan Jurech) in the Flossenbürg concentration camp sometime in 1945. While the camp remained in operation until April 1945, records covering the possible execution of the Slovak generals are missing. It is also possible that Viest and other Slovak generals survived the war, yet died later after being transferred to the Soviet Union. After his death, he was honored in memoriam with the Order of Slovak National Uprising 1st class (1945), the Czechoslovak Military Cross (1945), and many other honors awarded by Czechoslovakia and other countries, listed below. In 1945, Viest was also promoted posthumously to the rank of General in the Czechoslovak Army.", "Czechoslovak: Slovak: Czech: Polish: Yugoslavian: Serbian: French: British:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Game overview.", "Game structure.", "Divisional organization.", "The season.", "Roles within the game.", "SoccerProject Football Association.", "The community." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As with any normal management game, users gain control over their team, both economically and tactically. Once a user registers for the game, s/he takes over a previously-vacated team (controlled by the AI), which then gets reset (a new set of players is generated, bearing the nationality the user chose to represent, budget and stadium size are reset to the basic default) and gets to name it, alongside the stadium. As the game progresses, and in order to achieve their goals, managers must learn to choose the ideal line-ups for matches, embark on the transfer market buying and selling players, improve their stadium and facilities, always keeping an eye on the finances and staff.", "", "Unlike other games of its genre, in SoccerProject teams are not assigned to leagues only with teams from their own nation. Rather, to accommodate nations with a small number of managers, and to avoid having the problem of having to refuse managers from one determinate nation due to lack of space, the leagues in SoccerProject are global. That is, teams from all nations compete directly with one another. As such, the game is based on one sole league pyramid, compressing divisions labelled by letters, from A to H, with A being the highest. With every step in the ladder, the number of leagues triples - i.e. there is one league in Division A, three in Division B, nine in Division C, and so forth. The winner of Division A is considered the 'winner' of that SoccerProject season. Leagues in SoccerProject are contested by 16 teams. After league play is concluded, the top two teams are promoted to the higher division and the six bottom teams are relegated to the lower division (except, of course, the ones in, respectively, Divisions A and H). Even with this organization model, some large enough communities will hold their own 'national championships'. A significant number of users will arrange friendly matches between their teams and the results, after being tallied, will return the unofficial 'national champion'.", "SoccerProject presents itself as a heavy-paced game, when compared to others. A full season (or, within the game, a year) lasts only nine weeks. All leagues within the game consist of sixteen teams, all playing each other twice during the course of the season, rendering a total of 30 league games per season for every team. League games are played on every weekday, except Wednesdays, which means a league season is finished after eight weeks. Additionally, a SoccerProject Cup is played. In it, all human-controlled teams take part, and works as a single-elimination tournament. Cup rounds take place on Wednesdays and Saturdays, until the final week of every season, where the last five rounds take place. As the game was originally started by Belgian users, it is not unnatural that, at the beginning, most of the top teams have come from there. In fact, Belgian teams dominated the Division A and the SP Cup during its early years. However, with the surge of new managers from a wider array of nations, this has become less and less so. League and cup games are played at 04:00 (CET and server time). It is not possible for users to log in while the games are being played. During the course of the day, there are four other time slots, during which teams may, if they choose so, play friendly matches or tournaments. Alongside these competitions, the community organizes other, unofficial, tournaments. The two best-known and most sought-after are the SoccerProject Champions League (SPCL) and the SoccerProject UEFA Cup (SPUC) (despite the name, teams from nations not affiliated with UEFA are also permitted to take part). The national coordinators of every interested nation nominate a number of teams (which varies depending on past results) to represent their nation in the competition. Teams in Divisions A, B and C take part in the SPCL; teams from other divisions take part in the SPUC. These competitions are sponsored by the Lithuanian SoccerProject community, which pays for a SPFA subscription for the winning managers.", "It is possible to encounter several roles within the game, on various levels. Users in these positions are, like other users, in control of their own team.", "In order to counter server costs and other expenses, SoccerProject allows its users to support the game financially, and become virtual members of the SoccerProject Football Association. Such will not improve the quality of the team or make it perform better, but it will make the gaming experience more enjoyable. Those features include getting rid of publicitary ads, assigning nicknames and choosing squad numbers for players, issuing press announcements, getting a trophy cabinet, and more.", "Being first released in Belgium, the game's initial user base came from there. For a long time, this had been the largest nation in terms of registered managers, until being surpassed by the Czech Republic, which now boasts 11000+ users. Other nations with a considerable number of users within the game, and with a heavy presence within the SP community, include Romania, Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania and The Netherlands. Occasionally (often once every year) users from those nations will organize national meetings and reunite." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Status.", "Geography.", "Adjacent cities.", "Districts.", "Climate.", "History.", "Roman period.", "Middle Ages.", "Industrial revolution.", "World War II.", "Post-World War II period.", "Demographics.", "Turkish community.", "Transport.", "Duisburg Port.", "Roads.", "Public transport.", "Media.", "Culture.", "Sport.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Duisburg is a city in Germany’s Rhineland, the fifth largest of the nation’s most populous federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Its 500,000 inhabitants rank after Cologne, Düsseldorf, Dortmund and Essen, and make it Germany's 15th largest city. Located at the confluence of the Rhine river and its tributary the Ruhr river, it lies in the west of the Ruhr urban area, Germany's largest, of which it is the third largest city after Dortmund and Essen. The Ruhr itself lies within the larger Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Region, one of Europe's largest conurbations. The city lies on both sides of the Rhine, with the city centre and most boroughs on the river's right bank, and is the only city of the Rhine-Ruhr region lying on both the Rhine and Ruhr rivers. Duisburg is one of the largest cities in the Meuse-Rhenish (closely related to Dutch) dialect area and the largest in the South Guelderish area (north of the Uerdingen Isogloss). Duisburg has the world's largest inland port, \"Duisburg-Ruhrorter Häfen\", in Duisburg-Ruhrort. Germany's third largest and the Rhine-Ruhr region's main airport, Düsseldorf Airport, lies nearby the city, in Düsseldorf-Lohausen. With 42,747 students, the University of Duisburg-Essen is Germany's ninth largest university. It has campuses in Essen and Duisburg, and a university hospital in Essen. Duisburg is a result of numerous incorporations of surrounding towns and smaller cities. The city is renowned for its steel industry. All blast furnaces in the Ruhr are now located in Duisburg. In 2000, 49% of all hot metal and 34.4% of all pig iron in Germany were produced here. It also has a large brewery, König. In the early Middle Ages, it was a royal court of the Franks, first mentioned in writing in 883.", "Duisburg is in the Lowland Rhine area at the confluence of the Rhine and Ruhr and near the outskirts of the Bergisches Land. The city spreads along both sides of these rivers.", "The following cities border Duisburg (clockwise starting from north-east): Oberhausen, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Ratingen, Düsseldorf, Meerbusch, Krefeld, Moers, Rheinberg, and Dinslaken.", "Since 1 January 1975, Duisburg has been divided into seven districts or boroughs (Stadtbezirk) from the north to the south:", "Duisburg has an oceanic climate (Köppen: \"Cfb\").", "The first syllable of the name of the city could go back to the Proto-Indo-European root \"*dheus-\", meaning something like \"wet area\" or \"flood plain\". Duisburg therefore could mean \"fortified place in the floodplain\". Another interpretation assumes that the name is derived from the Old German \"duis\" which means \"hill\". Duisburg could mean something like \"castle on the hill\". Thus, a place on a hill overlooking the Rhine, that could refer to the area of the present Town Hall. Duisburggau (Diuspurgau) was also the name of the medieval Gau (country subdivision) on the Lower Rhine. A legend recorded by Johannes Aventinus (fl. 1525) holds that Duisburg, (along with Deutz, Cologne, Duisdorf in Bonn, and Doesburg in the Netherlands, all on the Rhine's right bank) was built by the namesake Tuisto, mythical progenitor of Germans, ca. 2395 BC. There is nothing to establish any historical basis for such an early founding of Duisburg, which would have made it among the earliest cities in Europe.", "Latest archaeological studies show that the present-day market-place was already in use in the first century. It has been the major central trading place of the city since the 5th century. The city itself was located at the \"Hellweg\", an important medieval trade route, and at a ford across the Rhine. The Romans already guarded the ford.", "Due to the town's favorable geographic position a palatinate was built and the town was soon granted the royal charter of a free city. Duisburg became a member of the Hanseatic League. Around 1000 the river Rhine moved westward from the city. This put an end to the city's development as a trading town and it soon grew into a quiet rural city. The productions of cartographer Gerardus Mercator and the foundation of a university in 1655 established the city's renown as \"Educated Duisburg\" (\"Duisburgum Doctum\").", "The rise of tobacco and textile industries in the 18th century made Duisburg an industrial center. Big industrial companies such as iron and steel producing firms (Thyssen and Krupp) influenced the development of the city within the Prussian Rhine Province. Large housing areas near production sites were being built as workers and their families moved in.", "A major logistical center in the Ruhr and location of chemical, steel and iron industries, Duisburg was a primary target of Allied bombers. As such, it is considered by some historians to be the single most heavily bombed German city by the Allies during World War II, with industrial areas and residential blocks targeted by Allied incendiary bombs. On the night of 12–13 June 1941, British bombers dropped a total of 445 tons of bombs in and around Duisburg. As part of the Battle of the Ruhr, another British raid of 577 bombers destroyed the old city between 12–13 May 1943 with 1,599 tons of bombs. During the bombing raids, 96,000 people were made homeless with countless lives lost. In 1944 the city was again badly damaged as a total of 2,000 tons of bombs were dropped on 22 May. On 14 October, the tonnage was repeated with 2,018 tons when Halifax, Lancaster, and Mosquito bombers appeared over Duisburg as part of Operation Hurricane. This daylight raid was followed by a night attack; over 24 hours about 9,000 tons of HE and incendiaries had been dropped on Duisburg. Numerous similar attacks followed until the end of 1944. The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Duisburg in April 1945. The US 17th Airborne Division, acting as regular infantry and not in a parachute role, met only scattered resistance in the vicinity and captured the city on 12 April 1945. On 8 May 1945 the ADSEC Engineer Group A, led by Col. Helmer Swenholt, commanding officer of the 332nd Engineer General Service Regiment, constructed a railway bridge between Duisburg and Rheinhausen across the Rhine. It was 860 meters long, and constructed in six days, fifteen hours and twenty minutes, a record time. It was named the \"Victory Bridge\".", "A total of 299 bombing raids had almost completely destroyed the historic cityscape. 80% of all residential buildings had been destroyed or partly damaged. Almost the whole of the city had to be rebuilt, and most historic landmarks had been lost. Beginning in the mid-1960s, the decline of Duisburg's steel and mining industry caused a significant loss of residents. While in 1975 approximately 590,000 people were living in Duisburg, the number has shrunk to 518,000 in 1985. Duisburg celebrated its 1100th anniversary in 1983. The city's population recovered a little in the following years, up to 537,000 in 1992. It declined to 488,000 in 2011. On 19 July 2004, it was hit by a tornado. The municipal theater and parts of the city center were damaged. The city hosted the 7th World Games in 2005. In 2010, 21 people died because of a mass panic at the Love Parade; over 500 people were injured.", "In 2010, Duisburg had a population of 489,600, a slight decrease since 2006. Population structure of non-German residents: Circa 2010 there were 568 citizens of the PRC in Duisburg, while circa 2018 there were about 1,136.", "Duisburg is home to 85,000 people of Turkish origin. Other estimates suggest that the Turkish population is as large as 100,000 The new Merkez Mosque, one of the largest Muslim places of worship in Western Europe, was built with help by the way of contribution of 3.2 million euro from the EU and the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Asiye Nur Fettahoğlu, a Turkish-German actress, was born in Duisburg on November 12, 1980.", "", "Duisburg Inner Harbour is the largest inland port in the world. It is officially regarded as a \"seaport\" because seagoing river vessels go to ports in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. Numerous docks are mostly located at the mouth of the Ruhr where it joins the Rhine. Each year more than 40 million tonnes of various goods are handled with more than 20,000 ships calling at the port. The public harbor facilities stretch across an area of. There are 21 docks covering an area of and of wharf. The area of the Logport Logistic Center Duisburg stretches across an area of. With 2.5 million TEU it is also the largest inland container port based on 2011 figures. A number of companies run their own private docks and 114 million tonnes of goods yearly (2010) are handled in Duisburg in total.", "Duisburg is served by several autobahns, with 3 east–west routes and 2 north–south routes. A3 forms a bypass east of the city and mostly serves through traffic. A59 runs parallel to A3 and serves the city from north to south with 14 interchanges, much more than most other cities in the Ruhr area. The A40 and A42 are two east–west routes that serve central and northern Duisburg. Autobahn A40 also serves major through traffic from the Netherlands to Berlin and points east. A short spur, A524 serves southern Duisburg. Most Autobahns have six lanes or are upgraded to six lanes (A59). Apart from the autobahns, no Bundesstraßen serve the city directly. B8 runs through the city, but uses A59's alignment. B288 runs in the extreme south of the city, and serves traffic to and from Krefeld. Several bridges span the Rhine, most prominently the A40 and A42 bridges, but also the L287 suspension bridge and the L237 arch bridge, a three-lane bridge with 2 lanes per peak direction with dynamic lane usage.", "Duisburg Hbf is served by the InterCityExpress and InterCity long-distance network of the Deutsche Bahn, in addition lines and of the S-Bahn line connect Duisburg with other cities of the Rhine-Ruhr area. The Duisburg Stadtbahn, the Duisburg tramway network, and a bus system, all operated by the Duisburger Verkehrsgesellschaft provide local services. Stadtbahn line U79, the so-called D-Bahn, is a connection to the neighbouring city of Düsseldorf and is operated jointly with the Rheinbahn of Düsseldorf. All S-Bahn, Stadtbahn and bus lines operate under the umbrella of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Ruhr", "There are several newspapers reporting on local events and politics, including the \"Westdeutsche Allgemeine\" (WAZ), the \"Neue Ruhr Zeitung\" (NRZ) and the \"Rheinische Post\" (RP). The local radio station \"Radio Duisburg\" was the first local radio broadcaster in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It started broadcasting in 1990. There is a local television station (\"STUDIO 47\"), which was the first local station to broadcast in North Rhine-Westphalia. It started broadcasting in 2006. In its Duisburg studios the WDR produces a local programme for the city of Duisburg and the Lower Rhine region north of Düsseldorf. WDR is part of the German television and radio network ARD.", "Duisburg hosts a comprehensive range of cultural facilities and events. A highlight is the annual \"Duisburger Akzente\", a festival focusing on modern social, political and cultural topics. Besides Düsseldorf Duisburg is a residence of the Deutsche Oper am Rhein, one of the major opera houses in Germany. The Duisburg Philharmonic Orchestra is one of Germany's orchestras with an international reputation. Thanks to its history as a harbor city and a trade and industrial center Duisburg offers a variety of architectural places of interest, such as the German Inland Waterways Museum. The spectrum goes from old churches such as \"St Johann Baptist\" in Duisburg-Hamborn, which was built in 900, to modern age buildings like Micro-Electronic-Centrum in Duisburg-Neudorf, built in 1995. Another subject of interest is the Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord an abandoned industrial complex open to the public and an Anchor Point of ERIH, The European Route of Industrial Heritage. The city center locates the Wilhelm Lehmbruck Museum, the municipal theatre and the shopping street known as \"fountain mile\". The city also contains two botanical gardens, the Botanischer Garten Duisburg-Hamborn and the Botanischer Garten Kaiserberg, as well as a number of municipal parks. On 24 July 2010, 21 people were killed and hundreds injured in the city during the Love Parade disaster. The Love Parade was an electronic dance music festival and technoparade.", "Duisburg is involved in many kinds of sports. Nevertheless, most important for its inhabitants is the local football club MSV Duisburg. Recently, with the new MSV Arena the city received a brand new sports stadium for various kinds of sports such as football and American football. During the summer months of 2005 the World Games took place in Duisburg. During the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Duisburg was the stage for preparation of the Portuguese team and the residence of the Italian football team, who won the cup in the final match against France. Duisburg is also known for its Rhein-Ruhr-Marathon, its rowing and canoeing regattas and the world championships that take place there regularly. Other popular sports are icehockey, baseball, American football, water polo and hockey.", "", "Duisburg is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Reproduction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Symbion was discovered in 1995 by Reinhardt Kristensen and Peter Funch on the mouthparts of the Norway lobster (\"Nephrops norvegicus\"), and other, related, species have since been discovered on: The genus is so named because of its commensal relationship with the lobster (a form of symbiosis) – it feeds on the leftovers from the lobster's own meals. The genus Symbion are peculiar microscopic animals, with no obvious close relatives, and which was therefore given its own phylum, called Cycliophora. The phylogenetic position of \"Symbion\" remains unclear: originally the phyla Ectoprocta and Entoprocta were considered possible relatives of \"Symbion\", based on structural similarities. However, genetic studies suggest that \"Symbion\" may be more closely related to Gnathifera.", "\"Symbion pandora\" has a bilateral, sac-like body with no coelom. There are three basic life stages:", "\"Symbion\" reproduce both asexually and sexually, and has a complex reproduction cycle, a strategy evolved to produce as many offspring as possible that can survive and find a new host when the lobster they live on shed its shell. The asexual individuals are the largest ones. The sexual individuals doesn't eat. During fall they make copies of themselves, where a new individual grows inside the parent body, one offspring at the time. The new offspring attach themselves to an available spot on the lobster, begins to feed and eventually start making new copies of themselves. In early winter, the asexual animals starts producing males. When the male is born, it crawls away from the parent and glue itself to another asexual individual. Once attached, the male produce two dwarf males inside its body, which turns into a hollow pouch. Each of the two dwarf males are about hundred times smaller than the asexual individual they are attached to, and their body starts out with about 200 cells, but this number has been reduced to just 47 by the time they reach maturity. 34 of the cells form its nervous system, and three more becomes sensory cells used to help them feel their surroundings. Eight cells becomes mucus glands, which produce mucus that helps them move across the surface. The final two cells form the testes, which make the sperm that fertilize the female’s egg. Most of the cells of the dwarf males also lose their nucleus, and make them shrink to almost half their size, which is an adaptation that allows two mature individuals to fit inside the body of the parent male. Two males increases the chances to fertilize a female. By late winter, when the large feeding individuals in the colony have males attached to their bodies, they start making females. Each female has a single egg inside them. When she is about the be born, one of the two dwarf males fertilize her when she comes out. The fertilized female find herself a place on the host's whiskers where she attach herself. Inside her the developing embryo extracts all the nutrients it needs to grow from its mother, and by the time it is ready to be born, all that remains of the mother is an empty husk. This new offspring is a strong swimmer unlike all the other forms in the colony, and those who succeeds in finding a new host will attach themselves to its mouthparts, where it will grow a stomach and mouthparts, morphing into a large, feeding and asexual type, starting the cycle all over again. The larval stage may be unscientifically referred to as sea worms." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and prehistory.", "Geography.", "Governance.", "Leisure and culture.", "Economy.", "Local areas.", "Religion.", "Transport.", "Public transport.", "East Kilbride bus station.", "Cycling.", "Landmarks.", "Dollan Aqua Centre.", "Long Calderwood Farm.", "St. Brides's Church.", "Langlands Moss.", "Parks and sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The earliest known evidence of occupation in the area dates as far back as the late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, as archaeological investigation has demonstrated that burial cairns in the district began as ceremonial or ritual sites of burial during the Neolithic, with the use of cup-marked, and other inscribed stones at key elevated sites, only to be later built upon with earth and re-used for burial into the Bronze Age. These findings have found further support through ongoing research indicating that many East Kilbride Cairns first noticed by the Reverend David Ure in his \"History of Rutherglen and East Kilbride\" (1793), are embedded, alongside other monuments, into a ritual landscape related to ancestor cults and relationships with key topographical features and annual solar events. A flint arrow head was discovered by Allan Forrest, a then child resident whilst groundworks were taking place in his family's garden at Glen Bervie, St Leonards in 1970 which later was identified as dating to 1500 BC (Bronze Age). Ancient graves have also been found near the Kype Water to the south of the town near Strathaven, and Roman coins, lamps, and footwear have also been found in the area. East Kilbride traditionally takes its name from an Irish saint named St Bride (or Brigit), who was alleged to have founded a monastery for nuns and monks in Kildare in Leinster, Ireland, in the 6th century. Dál Riatan monks afterwards introduced her order to Scotland. The anglicisation \"Kil\" takes its root from the early Celtic monastics that St. Brigit is representative of: the Culdees or \"Céli Dé\". The \"Céile Dé\" were 'the clients or companions of God'. In modern Gaelic, \"Cille Bhrìghde\" translates similarly as 'the clients or companions of Brigit', and can be interpreted as the 'church of Bride' or 'burial place dedicated to Bride'. Alternatively the later dedication may commemorate the Scottish St Bryde, born in 451 AD and then dying at Abernethy 74 years later. Culdee type Christian settlements were essential to the spread of the Celtic church in Scotland, with small pagan sites being converted and chapels or cells forming little more than crude shelters, or timber and turf buildings with crude circular enclosures. The evidence of Culdee type small-scale habitation is supported by the number of early stone cross sites around East Kilbride, and their associated holy fonts, springs, and both with pre-canonisation saintly dedications. The original parish church was located on what is believed to be the site of a pre-Christian sacred area, which is possibly the origin of the association with St. Brigit, since the site may be dedicated to the Celtic goddess Brigid, whose traditions have been continued through the reverence of St. Brigit brought on by the Celtic Church. Many sites in mainland Britain associated with Saint Bridget involve early dedications to sacred wells, the number of which in East Kilbride may indicate that the chosen site for the early Christian settlement centered around a sacred spring, although such a feature has not yet been identified close to the church. East Kilbride grew from a small village of around 900 inhabitants in 1930 to eventually become a large burgh. The rapid industrialisation of the twentieth century underpins this growth and left much of the working population throughout Scotland's Central Belt, from Glasgow to Edinburgh, living in the housing stock built at the end of the previous century. The Great War postponed any housing improvements, as did the Treaty of Versailles and the period of post-war settlement it created. In turn, this was followed by the Great Depression. After the Second World War, Glasgow, already suffering from chronic housing shortages, incurred bomb damage from the war. From this unlikely backdrop a new dawn emerged which would bring East Kilbride to its unlikely success. In 1946, the Clyde Valley Regional Plan allocated sites where overspill satellite \"new towns\" could be constructed to help alleviate the housing shortage. Glasgow would also undertake the development of its peripheral housing estates. East Kilbride was the first of six new towns in Scotland to be designated, in 1947, followed by Glenrothes (1948), Cumbernauld (1956), Livingston (1962), Irvine (1964) and Stonehouse (1972), although Stonehouse new town was never built. The town has been subdivided into residential precincts, each with its own local shops, primary schools and community facilities. The housing precincts surround the shopping centre, which is bound by a ring road. Industrial estates are concentrated on the outskirts of the town, in northern, western and southern directions. The Calderglen gorge bordering the eastern fringe of East Kilbride, was celebrated in a high number of printed works as a picturesque forest and'magnificent in its grouping of craggy heights, sprinkled with trees and [...] the richly wooded and festooned valley', and with 'delightful cascades', and described as indescribable, or as 'the GRAND, the ROMANTIC, and BEAUTIFUL' - the latter being the only part of David Ure's book where he emphasised the descriptive characteristics of a place in bold characters. The northern part of the gorge and adjoining Calderwood, the gorge's namesake, was the home of an ancient family known as the 'Maxwells of Calderwood' who resided in Calderwood Castle, and were the oldest branch of the Maxwells of Pollok. The remnants of Calderwood Castle were demolished in 1951 and only a few parts of the structure remain. \"Calderglen Heritage\" formally constituted in early 2017 as a body to protect, record, and restore local and national interest in the areas of the former Calderwood and Torrance estates of Calderglen. The story of how workers at the Rolls Royce factory in East Kilbride prevented engines for military jets being serviced and supplied between 1974 until 1978 to the Chilean military dictatorship is told in the 2018-released documentary, Nae Pasaran. The factory itself was scheduled for closure in 2018. It has since been demolished and the land it was built on is now having housing built on it.", "East Kilbride forms part of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. However, the urban area is not directly connected to any other, being designed from the outset to serve as a self-contained town with some commute requirements to Glasgow. The hamlets of Nerston, Kittochside, Auldhouse and Jackton which were once separate settlements are now on the periphery of the expanding town. The nearest Glasgow district of Castlemilk is about 3 miles to the north-west, with the village of Carmunnock in between (a bypass has been built in recent years to remove Glasgow traffic from Carmunnock). Rutherglen and Cambuslang lie about the same distance to the north-east and are linked to East Kilbride via the Dual carriageway A749 road which continues into Glasgow. Clarkston and Busby are also about 3 miles away to the north-west, with Thorntonhall much closer. Eaglesham lies to the west (again this is about 3 miles from East Kilbride centre). Another modern bypass keeps East Kilbride traffic heading for the M77 motorway away from Eaglesham. The closest town to the south of East Kilbride is Strathaven, about 7 miles away. The majority of land in the area in between is taken up by Whitelee Wind Farm on the moorland hills to the southwest, including Elrig close to where one of the principal feeder burns of the Calder Water originates. Hamilton, the administrative headquarters for South Lanarkshire Council is about 5 miles to the east of East Kilbride. The road linking the towns also leads via Blantyre and with links to Bothwell and ultimately to the M74 motorway.", "From 1975 East Kilbride lent its name to a local government district in the Strathclyde region. From creation until 1980 the East Kilbride district council was governed by the Scottish National Party (SNP), subsequently, until dissolution, the district was under the control of Labour. In 1996, administrative functions were taken over by the South Lanarkshire unitary council. There is an East Kilbride constituency of the Scottish Parliament. From the opening of the Scottish Parliament, the constituency was represented by Andy Kerr MSP (Labour), until May 2011 when the seat was won by Linda Fabiani MSP (Scottish National Party). East Kilbride was formerly a constituency of the UK Parliament. In 2005 it was replaced by the constituency of East Kilbride, Strathaven and Lesmahagow. The seat was held from 1987 to 2010 by Labour politician, Adam Ingram. In the 2010 election Labour politician, Michael McCann, previously a South Lanarkshire Councillor was elected as the MP for the area. In the 2015 election, Lisa Cameron for the SNP was elected as part of the landslide victory the party had in Scotland, the seat was held with a reduced majority in 2017.", "East Kilbride as a new town was designed to provide elements culture, sport, and heritage for residents so as to create a sense of belonging and place. Key cultural facilities in the town include the Dollan Aqua centre. This building is regarded as an outstanding and rare example of a mid 20th century public amenity building in a striking internationally inspired design. It was the first champion-sized swimming pool in Scotland and was inspired by Pier Luigi Nervi's Olympic complex in Rome; it is also very similar to the Olympic complex built for the 1964 Japanese Olympic Games. The town is also home to the popular arts and performance venue The East Kilbride Arts Centre, as well as the longstanding Village Theatre. The town contains several open pockets of land which have been utilised as outdoor football pitches, public parks, a boating loch, several sports centres, 3G pitches, three golf courses. East Kilbride is home to the National Museum of Rural life, located at Wester Kittochside farm. A visit gives an opportunity for visitors to get back to the land and experience the traditional way of life as it was on the rural and partly mechanised Scottish farm of the 1950s. The only other museum in East Kilbride was the Hunter House Museum, which closed after the financial crash to later open again as a cafe. East Kilbride Central Library holds the reference collections and some archival materials representing some of the history of both East Kilbride new town and the earlier village, whilst South Lanarkshire Archives based as College Milton holds more extensive original documents for public consultation. The town also hosted the National Mòd in 1975.", "The town centre is occupied by a large shopping centre comprising 6 linked malls, developed in phases. The malls are known by local residents as \"The Centre\". The six malls are The Plaza (development started in 1972), Princes Mall (1984), Olympia (1988), Southgate (1989), Princes Square (1997) and Centre West (2003). The shopping centre has come under recent criticism for losing major retail chains in light of rising rental prices. This coupled with the Centre West expansion and decreasing shopper numbers has allowed swathes of properties within the centre to remain closed for months at a time, notably on the first floor of Centre West and the Plaza. A £400m redevelopment of East Kilbride shopping centre was approved in 2006 by South Lanarkshire Council. The plan proposed demolishing some existing buildings to create a new civic centre, health centre, library and shopping facilities. It would also see a \"landmark\" arts and culture complex with a 1,000-seat theatre, a 500-seat conference centre, a museum and a new town square. However, the project has been indefinitely delayed. A branch of the government's Department for International Development is located on the western edge of East Kilbride at Hairmyres. The newly renovated Olympia opened late 2016, renamed \"The Hub\". It contains several restaurants and a new'sky trail' with a soft play area above the ice rink.", "East Kilbride is divided into a number of smaller neighbourhoods bordered by main through-roads. Part of the new town design was that each of these would be a self-contained entity, with local shops and primary schools, and accessed safely via paths and underpasses separate from main roads. This is true for the original areas of the town but newer developments, such as Stewartfield, Lindsayfield and Mossneuk do not adhere to this model.", "There are approximately 30 Christian churches in East Kilbride. This includes nine Church of Scotland churches, three Baptist churches, and four Roman Catholic churches. St. Bride's RC church is a category A listed building. St. Mark's Episcopal church is situated in the Murray. There is one Lutheran parish of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of England, which is located in the Westwoodhill area. An Evangelical Christian congregation is also located in the Westwood area. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints meeting hall is situated in Vancouver Drive, Westwood. Two congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses share a Kingdom Hall near the centre of the town. The Christadelphians meet in Calderwood Community Centre. There are two United Reformed Churches, one in the Village, and one in the Murray. In the Greenhills area is a congregation of the Methodist church, whose premises are currently shared by the Seventh Day Adventist church.", "East Kilbride is connected to Glasgow city centre by road and rail. Three main roads connect East Kilbride with surrounding suburbs and the city, one being the A727 (formerly A726) leading west to Busby and on to Clarkston Toll. Another route being the A749 which runs north into Rutherglen. Recently, the addition of the Glasgow Southern Orbital road links the west of the town directly with Newton Mearns and the M77. This road has taken over the designation A726. Similar to other New Towns, the road network within the area is populated by many roundabouts; Glaswegians jokingly refer to East Kilbride as \"Polo mint City\" after the round, mint sweet. The main dual carriageway road running north–south through the town is known as the Kingsway, while the main east–west road is known as the Queensway.", "East Kilbride bus station, at the East Kilbride Shopping Centre, was rebuilt in June 2005 with modern facilities, including 14 rapid drive-through stances, allowing quick turnover of buses. East Kilbride railway station is situated in the Village, about a 10-minute walk from the bus station. Trains depart to Glasgow Central railway station every half-hour, with a journey time of about 27 minutes. The town is also served by Hairmyres railway station in Hairmyres. East Kilbride's primary bus operator is First Glasgow which provides regular services to the city centre, Busby, Clarkston, Castlemilk, Rutherglen, Blantyre, Hamilton, Motherwell and to many other destinations across Greater Glasgow. Stagecoach West Scotland provide a half-hourly to hourly service to Ayr. Arriva Scotland West ran an hourly 600 service to the Airport via: Busby, Clarkston, Giffnock, Thornliebank, Silverburn Centre, Hurlet, and Paisley, but this was discontinued in late 2009. McGill's Bus Services and local company, Whitelaws Coaches, also run services in the area.", "East Kilbride bus station is managed and operated by the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport. It is situated by East Kilbride Shopping Centre and is situated right outside the Princes Mall section of the Shopping Centre, and is easily accessible from the Olympia Arcade section also. It is approximately a 10-minute walk from the town's rail station. The current bus station went under a major £4 million expansion and re-planning of the existing site to form 14 rapid drive-through stances with new travel centre and CAB facility at the eastern gateway to the Town Centre. The bus station was designed by the architectural firm CDA. The brief given to the designers was that they were \"to achieve a fast turn around of buses, safe pedestrian/vehicular segregation and a secure and accessible environment set within an attractive urban realm\". The new bus station was officially opened on 3 June 2005. There are 14 stances (stands) at the bus station that are equipped with electronic displays showing the next few departures. There is also a Travel Centre which is open Monday to Saturdays between 0830 and 1730. The operators at the bus station are First Glasgow, Stagecoach West Scotland, Citylink.", "Many of the busy roundabouts in East Kilbride feature underpasses which allow pedestrians and cyclists safe access across roads. On 19 June 2009, National Cycling Route 756, connecting East Kilbride and Rutherglen with the City Boundary, was opened. In November 2007, South Lanarkshire Council published three cycle routes, named the \"East Kilbride Cycle Network\" which start at the East Kilbride Shopping Centre in the centre of the town and are signposted. Route One is route is to Strathaven, via Newlandsmuir; Route Two to St. Leonard's Shopping Centre, and Route Three is to Calderglen Country Park. Incidentally East Kilbride prior to new town development was a prized health resort, with cycling being a popular pastime there from the late 19th to early 20th centuries.", "A seated statue of Sir Walter Scott, at the corner of Old Coach Rd and Markethill Rd, is locally known as \"The White Man\". Outside the Montgomery Arms in the village is a loupin'-on-stane or mounting block. The National Museum of Rural Life is a museum and working farm, featuring the farm seat of Wester Kittochside as it appeared in the 1950s, and with traditional types of various farm methods on display. The land was gifted by the last of a long line of the 'Reids of Kittochside' to the National Trust, and the Museum is currently run by National Museums of Scotland in partnership with the National Trust for Scotland. The James Hamilton Heritage Park is a manmade loch with watersports facilities and surrounding nature sanctuary. It is overlooked by Mains Castle, a privately owned tower house and former seat of the Lordship of Kilbride. The castle is situated beside the Laigh Mains Motte, the predecessor site of the early stronghold of Kilbride built by the Valloines family and later occupied by the Comyns, before it was confiscated by Robert the Bruce and later came into the possession of the Lindsays. St Bride's Church, by modernist architects Gillespie, Kidd and Coia, was built 1957–1964.", "One of the most significant buildings of an earlier phase of development was Dollan Baths leisure complex (opened 1968) which has category A listed status. The Dollan Baths are the subject of a local urban myth, which told that the pool was built 5 cm short of Olympic size. In fact, the pool was built as long, but is only six lanes wide, rather than the Olympic standard of 50m and ten lanes wide. The Aqua Centre re-opened on 28 May 2011 after a major refurbishment costing £6.5 million. Facilities include swimming pool with moveable floor, health suite and fitness gym. The famous glass wall allowing views from the reception area into the pool remains.", "Formerly Hunter House Museum, the building contained exhibits relating to the medical and veterinary pioneers, Drs William and John Hunter, who were born on the estate. In recent years the Hunter House was bought by the neighbouring Calderwood Baptist Church, with the building being refurbished, and is now used for meetings, groups and functions, as well as housing some exhibits from its previous life as a museum. The building's main daily function is as a café.", "St. Bride's Church is one of the buildings in East Kilbride and was designed by the architects Gillespie, Kidd and Coia and built between 1957 and 1964.", "A local nature reserve which comprises a Lowland Raised Peat Bog, a UK BAP priority habitat. The reserve is owned by South Lanarkshire Council and maintained by The Friends of Langlands Moss L.N.R. A boardwalk allowed visitors to walk over the reserve safely while observing the wildlife which lives on the Moss prior to its destruction in 2016. Many species there occur only in bog habitats, making the site one of special interest. Located just south of East Kilbride, the reserve is accessed easiest by car from the A726 heading towards Langlands Golf Course & Auldhouse.", "East Kilbride YM FC is the town's oldest football club, founded in 1921. They currently have three men's, under-17's and veterans' sides. EKYM are also part of the East Kilbride YMC Community Club which encompasses East Kilbride YM, East Kilbride Youth Club FC and East Kilbride Girls providing a football pathway from under-5's to adults. East Kilbride Thistle Juniors also operate from The Show Park in The Village. East Kilbride from the Scottish Lowland Football League, is based in the town, and play at the K Park Training Academy at Calderglen Country Park. East Kilbride RFC were formed in 1968 and are based at the Torrance House Arena, at Calderglen Country Park. From 1976 they rose steadily through the leagues, peaking for three years in Premier 2. They now play in the West Regional League 1, the fourth tier of club rugby. They run two senior men's teams and numerous youth teams which are linked to the local schools. Current Scotland national player, Alasdair Strokosch, played through all the youth levels at EKRFC. East Kilbride Lawn Tennis Club is one of the oldest tennis club in Scotland. East Kilbride Pirates are the country's top American Football team and play in the BAFA Community Leagues. EK82 Handball Club Founded in 1972, they train at the John Wright Sports Centre and the Alistair McCoist Complex. They play in the Scottish National League. Athletics in the town is covered by three athletics clubs: Whitemoss, East Kilbride and Calderglen. Both Whitemoss and East Kilbride Athletic Club are based at the John Wright EKNC, East Kilbride Netball Club, founded 1968, they train Alistair McCoist Complex, with a current membership of 76 players, under 13's, under 15's, under 17's and seniors with two current Scotland National players." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Illustrator and military artist." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born Alphonse-Marie-Adolphe Deneuville to wealthy parents at Saint-Omer, Pas-de-Calais, earned his degree of \"bachelier ès-lettres\", and in spite of family opposition, he entered (1856) the naval school at Lorient; it was there that his artistic instincts started. He was discouraged by several painters of repute, but he was admitted to work in the studio of François-Edouard Picot; he did not remain there long. He was painting by himself when he produced his first picture, \"The Fifth Battalion of Chasseurs at the Gervais Battery\" (Malakoff). In 1860 Neuville painted an \"Episode of the taking of Naples by Garibaldi\" for the Artists' Club in the rue de Provence, and sent to the Paris Salon in 1861 \"The Guard Chasseurs in the Trenches of the Mamelon Vert\".", "He participated in illustrating the Pierre-Jules Hetzel's editions of \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea\". He also illustrated \"Le Tour du monde\" and François Guizot's \"History of France\". At the same time he painted a number of remarkable pictures: \"The Attack in the Streets of Magenta by Zouaves and the Light Horse\" (1864), \"A Zouave Sentinel\" (1865), \"The Battle of San Lorenzo\" (1867), and \"Dismounted Cavalry crossing the Tchernaia\" (1869). In these he showed peculiar insight into military life. His full power was reached after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. The long-term French reaction was revanchism: a deep sense of bitterness, hatred, and demand for revenge against Germany, especially because of the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat were in high demand, such as \"The Spy\" by de Neuville. He then aimed at depicting in his works the episodes of that war, and began by representing the \"Bivouac before Le Bourget\" (1872). His fame spread rapidly and was increased by \"The Last Cartridges\" (1873), memorializing an episode involving the Blue Division of the French marines, in which it is easy to discern the vast difference between the conventional treatment of military subjects, as practised by Horace Vernet, and that of a man who had lived the life that he painted. \"Fight on a Railroad\" (1874) was equally successful, and was followed by the \"Attack on a House at Villersexel\" (1875) and the \"Railway Bridge at Styring\" (1877). In 1878, the painter exhibited (not at the Great Exhibition) \"Le Bourget\", the \"Surprise at Daybreak\", \"The Intercepted Despatch-bearer\", and a considerable number of drawings. He also exhibited in London some episodes of the Zulu War. Fifty thousand people paid to see his impression of \"The Defence of Rorke's Drift\" (1880), which the infant Art Gallery of New South Wales in Sydney paid a large sum to acquire. In 1881, he was made an officer of the Légion d'honneur for \"The Cemetery of Saint-Privat\", \"The Despatch-bearer\", and \"Huns in the Battle of Chalon\". During these years Neuville was at work with Édouard Detaille on an important although less artistic work, \"The Panorama of Rézonville\". Neuville died in Paris on May 18, 1885. At the sale of his works the state purchased for the Palais du Luxembourg the paintings \"Bourget\" and \"Attack on a Barricaded House\", watercolor \"The Parley\", and the drawing \"Turco in Fighting Trim\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Before 1962.", "New Town.", "Livingston Development Corporation.", "Geography.", "Districts.", "Employment.", "Town centre and shopping.", "Shopping centres.", "Shops.", "Transport.", "Road.", "Buses.", "Walking / cycling.", "Rail.", "Airports.", "Media.", "Governance.", "Local.", "Scottish Parliament.", "House of Commons.", "European Parliament.", "Education.", "Libraries.", "Weekend education.", "Health.", "St John's Hospital, Livingston.", "Culture and recreation.", "Youth activities.", "Sports.", "Livingston FC.", "Livingston Cricket Club.", "Religion.", "Christianity.", "Other religions.", "Town twinnings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The area around Livingston was previously an important shale oil area, the world's first oil boom occurred in West Lothian. This was based on oil extracted from shale, and by 1870 over 3 million tons of shale were being mined each year in the area around Livingston. Output declined with the discovery of liquid oil reserves around the world in the early 1900s, but shale mining only finally ceased in 1962. The \"bings\" that characterise oil shale mining in West Lothian have largely been flattened. Two shale bings nearby are scheduled monuments - Five Sisters and Greendykes, Broxburn In 1898 Livingston had several houses, a Church of Scotland church, a United Free church and a school. Around 1 mile north of Livingston there was a railway station in a settlement called Livingston Station which is now part of Deans. The old part of Livingston is now called Livingston Village.", "Livingston was built as part of the New Towns Act of 1946, in part to ease overcrowding in Glasgow. Livingston was the fourth new town of five. The others were East Kilbride, Glenrothes, Cumbernauld and Irvine. Livingston was designated as a New Town on 16 April 1962. The first people moved into Livingston in April 1966. Three villages (Livingston Village and Livingston Station in the old parish of Livingston and Bellsquarry in the parish of Mid Calder) and numerous farmsteads remain islands of old buildings within the new developments. In 1984 Livingston gained its first railway station on the Shotts Line called Livingston South which was followed by Livingston North on the Edinburgh to Bathgate Line in 1986. These stations replaced the former Livingston and Newpark stations which had closed before the construction of the town. In 1995 Livingston gained its professional football team, Livingston F.C. which was essentially the relocation of Meadowbank Thistle F.C. from Edinburgh.", "In order to build, manage and promote Livingston a quango organisation was formed, the Livingston Development Corporation. Sir David Lowe a local large scale farmer and businessman was appointed chairman. The first tenants to be housed by 1964. The corporation guided Livingston until its mandate expired on 22 March 1997 and the town was transferred to West Lothian Council. The last major construction operation carried out by the LDC was the Almondvale Stadium. Construction in Livingston has continued under the management Of West Lothian Council.", "Livingston is the 8th largest settlement and the 3rd largest town in Scotland, it is also the 171st largest settlement in the United Kingdom. It lies 30 miles away from Glasgow and 15 miles from Edinburgh. It has the River Almond flowing through the town centre which is what the old Almondvale Centre was named after.", "The districts which make up Livingston include:", "The area where Livingston now sits was historically dominated by oil shale mining, which is evident from the bings which still exist on much of the surrounding landscape. The designation of Livingston in the 1960s attracted new light industries to the area, with high technology and pharmaceutical companies moving into the town. Livingston formed a major hub in Scotland's Silicon Glen. Like most other areas this went into a slow decline with the closures of companies including Motorola and NEC. Several multi-national companies still have factories in the town. Sky UK is the largest private sector employer in West Lothian with a range of offices and contact centres. Other large employers include those in the retail sector and in the health care sector the National Health Service, Q Squared Solutions and Quintiles IMS. Witherby Seamanship, established in 1740, is one of the oldest publishers in the United Kingdom. Their offices and warehouse is located in Livingston.", "Livingston town centre sits on the southern edge of the Almond Valley. It is bounded by a ring road and has been purposely planned, distinguishing it from West Lothian's other town centres. Howden Park is located immediately north of the town centre. Livingston is the sub-regional centre serving West Lothian. It features one of the largest indoor shopping and leisure complexes in Scotland, The Centre (formerly Almondvale Shopping Centre) and the Livingston Designer Outlet (formerly McArthurGlen Designer Outlet Centre). The Centre was completed in its current guise on 16 October 2008. The total development has around 155 shops and eating establishments. The Centre has a winter garden, an outdoor restaurant area, and several famous shopping names. The designer outlet mall, Livingston Designer Outlet, contains a VUE multiplex cinema, a food court with many chain fast-food outlets, bars, restaurants and cafés, as well as around 100 popular outlet stores. Livingston town centre has an abundance of car parking. The south western edge of the town centre is dominated by retail parks. These contain a number of well-known retailers such as Pets at Home, PC World & Currys as well as fast-food outlets including: KFC and Frankie & Benny's. Until 2016, there was also a large B&Q in the south-west of the town centre, as well as a large Morrisons supermarket; which remains open. The Homebase store closed in July 2010 and Argos moved to premises across the road. The former Homebase and Argos stores were converted into a large Sainsbury's supermarket that opened in December 2010. Also in the town centre, are discount supermarkets such as Aldi, and a Lidl which is located beside the Almondvale Stadium. Livingston's town centre also contains a large number of offices. Private sector offices are also concentrated at the eastern and western edges of the centre and along the Almondvale Boulevard. Other facilities in the centre include: hotels, a swimming pool and local authority gym, restaurants, pubs and a club called EQHQ (formerly Club Earth). Almondvale Football Stadium and West Lothian College are located at the north western edge of the town centre.. The Livingston Civic Centre was completed in June 2009 and officially opened by then-First Minister Alex Salmond on 25 November 2009. The Civic Centre is located just north of The Centre on the bank of the River Almond. It was home to the divisional headquarters of Lothian and Borders Police until the creation of Police Scotland in 2013, as well as the sheriff and justice of the peace, West Lothian Council, the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, the Scottish Children's Reporter Administration, Lothian and Borders Fire and Rescue Service and the West Lothian Community Health and Care Partnership. Neighbourhood Shopping Centres are located at strategic points around the town. The first of these to be built was The Mall at Craigshill. This was followed by the Carmondean Centre in Deans and groupings of shops in Ladywell and Murieston.. There was formerly a bus station located just outside the designer outlet centre, but was shut down some years ago due to being in a run-down state.", "Livingston has three major shopping centres, and another three medium large retail parks and a cluster of small local stores located throughout the different areas. The first phase of the Livingston's shopping centres was completed in 1976 to facilitate the needs of the local residents and workers at The Centre; known as the \"Livingston Centre\" at that point. The first major refurbishment was completed in 1988 by Land Securities. The centre was extended by in 1996, creating phase 2 of the already very successful development, bringing the size of the centre to over. It was then renamed \"The Almondvale Centre\" In early 1999, construction started on phase 3 of the development with the construction of McArthur Glen Designer Outlet Centre, (now renamed to Livingston Designer Outlet in 2007) and was opened in October 2000, with other work continuing into 2001. This development opened up over eighty new shops, twenty bars and restaurants, a fitness suite, 4,000 new car parking spaces and an eight-screen Vue Cinemas cinema complex. In early 2007, another fifteen shops were constructed within the centre replacing the \"At home\" area. Many businesses within this unit never re-opened in a new single unit. During this time, Asda constructed a new supercentre at the other end of the shopping centre in place of the old Woolco store (which had also been used as a Gateway hypermarket before Asda acquired the firm in late-1989). This Asda supercentre is one of the largest Asda stores in Scotland, along with the Edinburgh and Bridge of Dee, Aberdeen supercentres. Phase 4 of the development started in March 2007 which saw the old Safeway, (which had ceased trading since Morrisons built their new store in October 2005) demolished along with its car park. The car park between Almondvale Shopping Centre and the Designer Outlet was also removed. In its place, the new development was constructed until it opened in October 2008. Phase 4 was originally intended to be called 'The Elements', however Land Securities changed the name of it and the older centre to 'the centre' in time for the new centre being completed in October 2008. The centre contains 35 shop units, with Marks & Spencer and Debenhams as anchor stores. Within this development, there will be social areas, bars, restaurants and a Winter Garden, bringing the Almondvale Centre Development to over a million sq. ft. The old Safeway car park has been developed into a three-storey car park providing another free 1,500 spaces, with a state-of-the-art security system.", "Livingston now has over 250 different retail units within Almondvale, including Debenhams, Next, Marks & Spencer, H&M, River Island, Waterstones, Asda Supercentre, Chiquito, Wetherspoons, ASK, Wagamama, McDonald's, Game, HMV, Argos, Wilkos, Yankee Candle, Poundland, Burger King, Subway, Greggs, B&M, Icelandand Pizza Hut. As of January 2018 only 141 of these retail units are occupied by businesses or have been merged. For more information including old pictures and history of the centre visit Livingstoni Online Community Website", "", "Livingston has excellent connections to the central Scotland road network. The M8 bounds Livingston in the north. The A899 dual carriageway spine road passes north south along Livingston's eastern edge and connects the M8 in the north to the A71 in the south and has the A89 to the west.", "Livingston has a central bus terminal located on Almondvale Avenue between the two shopping centres in the town centre. This provides regular services to surrounding towns and villages. First Scotland East and Lothian Country Buses are the main bus operator in Livingston, other operators include E&M Horsburgh, Blue Bus, SD Travel and Stagecoach. Livingston has buses to Edinburgh, Glasgow, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, Lanark, Fife, Falkirk and most West Lothian towns and villages. There are 7 stances at the bus terminal.", "Livingston has an excellent 'core path network' which is shared use, and available to pedestrians, and cyclists. It connects all of the main areas of the town with shopping, and work areas. It is for the most part 'off-road', and uses an extensive network of under/over pass systems to keep pedestrians and cyclists away from motorised traffic.", "Livingston has three railway stations;, and Uphall Station. Livingston North is located adjacent to the Carmondean Shopping Centre between Eliburn and Deans and is on the North Clyde Line and with the completion of the Airdrie-Bathgate Rail Link, on 12 December 2010 Livingston North is now served by trains running to and. Livingston South is located at the Murieston Shops and is on the Shotts Line and has trains running between and via.", "Livingston is west of Edinburgh Airport and east of Glasgow Airport both of which have regular flights to British and international destinations.", "The local newspaper covering Livingston is the West Lothian Courier. There was previously a Livingston Post newspaper which was stopped in the early 1990s. There was also a newspaper called West Lothian Herald & Post but that ceased to print in July 2011. DEDRIDGE GRAPEVINE is a voluntary community magazine, 3,000 copies per month, delivered free of charge to each house in Dedridge, run and edited by Kathleen Ross-Hale since 1976. Livingston previously had its own Radio Station called River FM that was broadcast from the Almondvale Stadium. River FM broadcast from 1 September 2003 until it was shut down on 29 January 2007. Current local radio includes the local BBC station BBC Radio station is BBC Radio Scotland and Local Commercial radio includes Capital Scotland and 97.3 Forth One. Livingston also has a Hospital Radio station called Radio Grapevine which broadcasts to St John's Hospital. Livingston is covered by the BBC Scotland and STV Central regions.", "", "Livingston is the administrative centre of West Lothian Council. Within West Lothian, Livingston is covered by three multi-member wards each electing four councillors. They are Livingston North, Livingston South and East Livingston and East Calder wards. Many of the responsibilities of West Lothian Council were previously the responsibility of the Livingston Development Corporation.", "Livingston is in the Almond Valley constituency for the Scottish Parliament, and the Member of the Scottish Parliament is Angela Constance of the Scottish National Party. Livingston is also covered by the Lothian electoral region which gives the area seven additional MSPs.", "Livingston has its own constituency in the House of Commons; Livingston, and is represented by the Scottish National Party Member of Parliament Hannah Bardell. Livingston for the majority of its existence has returned Labour MPs since the town was founded in 1962. However, in the election of 2015, the constituency voted in Hannah Bardell of the SNP as their member for Parliament. For the 1983 general election Livingston gained its own constituency at Westminster. The first MP elected for Livingston was Robin Cook who held the seat for six consecutive elections and held many government positions most notably Foreign Secretary between 1997 and 2001. In 2005 Robin Cook suddenly died of a heart attack and a by-election was called and won by the Labour Jim Devine. Devine was deselected in 2009 after being caught up in the 2009 expenses scandal. The current Member of Parliament for Livingston is Hannah Bardell of the SNP who won the seat in the 2015 general election.", "Before Brexit, Livingston was part of the Scotland European Parliament constituency. It was represented by six MEPs, the nearest ones to Livingston were Alyn Smith (SNP), Struan Stevenson (Conservative) who were both based in Edinburgh and David Martin (Labour) who was based in Roslin. Livingston used to be part of the Lothians European Parliament constituency.", "", "Livingston has three public libraries:", "The Scotland Japanese School (スコットランド日本語補習授業校 \"Sukottorando Nihongo Hoshū Jugyō Kō\"), a weekend Japanese school, is held at St. Margaret's Academy in Livingston. It first opened in 1982 and moved to Livingston in April 2003.", "Livingston is part of the NHS Lothian region in NHS Scotland. Livingston previously had a psychiatric hospital with general hospital in the Dechmont area of the town called Bangour Village Hospital, The hospital opened in 1904, and started closing in the 1990s. It closed completely in 2004 after the remaining services were transferred to St John's Hospital.", "Livingston has a large hospital called St John's Hospital in the Howden. The hospital has its own Accident and Emergency and has 550 beds and opened in 1989.", "", "Livingston has its own Air Training Corps squadron, 2535 (Livingston) Squadron (located in Craigshill) and Army Cadet Force unit (based at Dedridge). The town also has Cubs, Scouts, Boys' Brigade, Brownies and Guides units, and other organisations such as LGBT Youth Scotland and the Youth Action Project (WLYAP), and Firefly Youth Theatre (formerly West Lothian Youth Theatre) also operate in the area. The youth action project involves a music session and many gigs and is widely attended by many teenagers from the surrounding area. A leisure swimming pool and a Multiplex cinema are located in the town centre. The Livingston Skatepark opened in 1981, at a time when most commercial skateparks were closing and was one of the most important facilities in Britain during a critical period in the development of skateboarding. It is an example of a free, unsupervised facility which achieved international status.", "The town has a local cricket club, Livingston Cricket Club, a rugby union club, Livingston Rugby Football Club, a professional football club, Livingston F.C., and a junior football club, Livingston United. Livingston is also home to; two competitive swimming clubs, the Livingston & District Dolphins and the Aquanauts of Livingston; Livingston and West Lothian Hockey Club, which has several men's and women's teams and provides junior coaching; West Lothian Wolves Basketball Club, with men and women's teams at all age groups and two track and field athletics clubs Livingston & District AAC, and Lothian RC. Livingston also has a number of youth football teams with the most successful being Murieston United who have teams ranging from the ages of under 9s to under 21s. They have some notable former players: Scott Arfield, Chris Innes, Derek Fleming and Gary Wales.", "Livingston F.C., known to locals as \"\"Livi\"\" or \"\"The Lions\"\", are the most notable football team in the town. They were formed in 1995 on the relocation of Edinburgh-based side Meadowbank Thistle. The stadium opened in November 1995, but the Livingston name had already been adopted some months earlier when the club was still playing at its former home Meadowbank Stadium in Edinburgh. Although they were playing in the Scottish Third Division in their first season in Livingston, six years later the club was promoted to the Scottish Premier League, finished third in their first season and qualifying for the UEFA Cup. Relegation to the Scottish First Division in 2006 came after the club entered administration in 2004 as well as other financial problems. In 2009 they narrowly avoided going out of business and as a result were placed back in the Third Division. The Lions managed to gain promotion to the Scottish Second Division the following year, and returned to the First Division after back to back league championships, on 6 August 2011. They currently compete in the top tier of Scottish Football (Ladbrokes Premiership)", "Livingston also has a cricket club known as the Kingfishers which fields teams for juniors and seniors and has fielded professional paid players. The club plays in the East of Scotland Cricket Association and is based in Murieston. Livingston Cricket Club was founded in 1981 by Dr Salem Patel and Doug Druce, playing its first match in August of that year in Armadale. The club joined the East League for the 1982 season, winning Grade D and promotion. In 1983 the club came second to Kirkcaldy's 2nd XI in Grade C which was enough to win election to Division 4 following league reconstruction. Home games that season were played at Bankton Mains in Murieston. The changing facilities were a wooden Wimpey hut which was eventually flame-grilled by Burger King at the second attempt. With no changing facilities for 1984 all matches had to be played away from home while renovations took place at Bangour Hospital sports field to enable cricket to be played there for the first time since the 1950s. The club remained at Bangour from 1985 to the end of the 1998 season. By 1985 the increasing number of players enabled the club to start a 2nd XI which joined Grade D of the East League. The 1st XI remained in Division 4 until winning the league in 1992. In 1994 sponsorship by the Livingston Development Corporation enabled the club to successfully negotiate the big step up to Division 2 where half of the clubs employed paid professional players. West Indian Mark Harper became the club's first paid player and regularly set new batting records throughout the season. The creation of the National leagues in 1996 and the subsequent re-organisation of feeder leagues saw Livingston become a Division 1 club due to reconstruction of the East League. In 1999 we finished third, our highest league position to date. This coincided with a move back into Livingston to a large new ground in the Murieston area. Temporary pavilion facilities and the recent run of wet summers added to the fact that the ground is over 500 ft above sea level mean that Dresselrigg has yet to realise its full potential. Being almost in the foothills of the Pentlands, rainfall is heavier and the growing season considerably shorter than most of the other grounds in the Central Belt which causes major problems in getting the ground ready for play in April. From May 2002 to August 2004 a concerted effort was made to source funding and construct a permanent pavilion. The Gerry Toms Pavilion was officially opened on 22 August 2004.", "", "Uniquely in Scotland, Livingston was from its formation designated an \"Ecumenical Parish\" in a joint initiative by the Church of Scotland, Scottish Episcopal Church, Methodist Church in Great Britain and the Congregational Union of Scotland (which subsequently united with the United Reformed Church). The Ecumenical Parish has six places of worship. Apart from the Ecumenical Parish, Livingston Old Parish is a congregation solely within the Church of Scotland. There are also churches of other denominations, notably the Catholic Church, the Baptist Church (who have two congregations in Dedridge and Ladywell), Jehovah's Witnesses (who have two congregations: Livingston Deans and Livingston Dedridge) and the Free Church. The Church of Jesus Christ Latter Day Saints has a branch in Deans. In Livingston there are three Catholic Churches. Saint Peters, in Carmondean, Saint Andrews in Craigshill, and St Philips in Dedridge.", "There is a mosque in the Craigshill area of the town called Livingston Mosque and Community Centre and also another within the Deans area. In recent years Jehovah Witnesses have built a Kingdom Hall in Eliburn.", "Livingston is twinned with: https://web.archive.org/web/20130605203544/http://www.westlothian.gov.uk/media/downloaddoc/1799479/Applying_for_a_House/Housingapplication2011" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Post Reformation history.", "Post-Industrial Revolution.", "New Town history.", "Modern times.", "Industry.", "Environment.", "Awards.", "Sport and leisure.", "Transport.", "Media.", "Governance.", "Education.", "Historical.", "Religion.", "On film and TV.", "Wardpark Studios.", "Areas of the town.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Cumbernauld's history stretches at least to Roman times, as Westerwood was a Roman fort on the Antonine Wall, the furthest and most northerly boundary of the Roman Empire. Two Roman temporary camps have been discovered and digitally reconstructed east of the fort, at Tollpark (now covered by Wardpark North) and at Garnhall, similar to the two at Dullatur. One of the most discussed Roman finds from Cumbernauld is a sandstone slab depicting Triton and a naked, kneeling captive. It was found on a farm at Arniebog (between the runway of Cumbernauld Airport and Westerwood Golf Course). The slab can now be viewed at the Hunterian Museum in Glasgow along with an uninscribed altar from Arniebog and other artefacts like the inscribed altar, and statuette found at Castlecary and an older copy of the Bridgeness", "James V is recorded as staying for a couple of days at the castle around 14 December 1529. In November 1542, Malcolm Fleming, Lord Chamberlain of Scotland to King James V, was taken prisoner by the English at the Battle of Solway Moss, but released at a ransom of 1,000 marks, paid on 1 July 1548. Mary, Queen of Scots visited the castle and reportedly planted a sweet chestnut tree in the grounds in 1561; she's also said to have planted a yew tree at Castlecary Castle, only a mile or two away, which still grows", "Workers laboured on about 40–50 farms and details from 1839 have been recorded for both arable and livestock farming. Some of them were said to make a \"very considerable income\" for their owners. Weaving was an important part of the town's industry particularly during the Industrial Revolution. Irvine records that in 1841 a fifth of the whole population of 4501 people worked on about 600 hand looms. Cotton weaving was not a lucrative profession; in fact cottage workers struggled to make ends meet especially when competing with ongoing industrialisation. In October 1878, this was compounded by the failure of the Bank of Glasgow in", "Cumbernauld was designated a New Town on 9 December 1955. This being in the post-war era there are abundant film, photographic and paper records of this which are now being digitised. There was an inaugural ceremony on 28 June 1957 with Viscount Muirshiel, Secretary of State for Scotland of which some silent, colour footage survives. See the On film and TV section for link to this and other footage from this period. After the Second World War, Glasgow was suffering from a chronic shortage of housing and those that did survive the German bombing, were often of poor quality and had residents", "The Modern era for the town can be dated from the disbanding of the C.D.C. in 1996. Since then, the outlook has changed dramatically and the New Town has won a number of very unflattering awards including \"Urban Realm's\" \"Plook on a Plinth\" in both 2001, and 2005. In December 2005, the entire Town Centre won a public nomination for demolition in the Channel 4 series \"Demolition\", where it was voted \"the worst building in Britain\". As a result of this, it was featured on the BBC", "Some well-known companies use Cumbernauld as a base including Mackintosh, and Farmfoods who operate in Blairlinn. Cumbernauld in the last few years has seen a surge of business activity with the OKI UK headquarters moving across town to Westfield close to Yaskawa Electronics. Irn-bru makers A.G. Barr also has its world headquarters in the Westfield part of the town. The", "Cumbernauld consists of more than 50% green space, and was designed to incorporate green spaces as a resource for the community. The Scottish Wildlife Trust owns four wildlife reserves in the town – Cumbernauld Glen, Luggiebank Wood, Forest Wood, and Northside Wood. These habitats include ancient Oak forest (with attendant bluebell displays in early summer) and large areas of Scots Pine coverage. Cumbernauld (like Ben Lomond) lies on the Scottish watershed, the drainage divide which separates river systems that flow to the east from those that flow to the west. There are two main waterways which flow out of Cumbernauld: the Red Burn (from which the town's Gaelic name is derived) and the Luggie Water (immortalised by David Gray). The Red Burn flows through the Glen and there are walkways alongside this and the Bog Stank. There is also a footpath along the Glencryan Burn with miles of pathways up towards Pallacerigg and Fannyside Lochs. Fannyside Muir,", "In 1967 the Institute of American Architects voted Cumbernauld the world's best new town conferring the Reynold's Memorial Award. Cumbernauld is a two-time winner of the Carbuncle Awards in 2001 and 2005. The town has since received the award of 'Best Town' at the Scottish Design Awards 2012.", "Cumbernauld hosts Clyde F.C, who play football in the Scottish League Two and reside at Broadwood Stadium, which has been their home since they relocated from their traditional base of Glasgow in February 1994. In 2012, Broadwood Stadium's grass pitch was replaced by a new artificial FIFA standard 3G surface in a partnership between fellow tenants and Lowland League club Cumbernauld Colts, North Lanarkshire Leisure and the local council. Cumbernauld is home to Junior football side Cumbernauld United who play at Guy's Meadow. Five-a-side can be played at the Tryst or Broadwood who also have seven-a-side and full size pitches. Pitches are bookable at Ravenswood and Oak Road too. Broadwood also has a BMX track and spin classes for cycling. The town's rugby team, Cumbernauld RFC, were formed in 1970 and grew to have 3 senior men's teams and several junior teams. The club and council agreed in the late 1970s to develop the Auchenkilns area in South Condorrat.", "In terms of public transport, Cumbernauld has bus links to Glasgow, including the airport, Stirling, Falkirk, Dunfermline and St Andrews, which are operated by FirstGroup and Stagecoach. Various parts of the town are linked by local bus services, operated by smaller companies such as Canavan Travel and Dunn's Coaches. Rail services to and from the town are provided by Abellio ScotRail. The town has rail links to Glasgow, Falkirk, Motherwell and Edinburgh via Cumbernauld railway station. There is also a station at Greenfaulds. Croy railway station to the north of the town has rail links to Edinburgh, Alloa, Dunblane", "The local Cumbernauld newspaper is the \"Cumbernauld News\". Revival FM", "Cumbernauld has 11 council members out of 69 North Lanarkshire Councillors. Jamie Hepburn is the area's elected MSP for the Scottish Parliament constituency. He is also a member of the Scottish National Party. As part of the Central Scotland region there are 7 additional MSPs. Of these four are Labour (Mark Griffin,", "", "The New Statistical Accounts of Scotland (April 1839) described 3 schools: Cumbernauld Village 80–90 pupils, Condorat [sic] 60–70 pupils, Garbethill [East Fannyside] 20 pupils. It records \"few people between 6 and 15 are unable to read the Bible\". Groome's Gazetteer (1896) has \"Three public schools – Cumbernauld, Condorrat, and Arns [near today's Abronhill] – and Drumglass Church school, with respective accommodation for 350, 229,", "This parish was disjoined from Kirkintilloch by the Commissioners for the Plantation of Kirks in 1649, and was then called Easter Leinyie or Lenzie. Its church was built in 1659, and the name of Cumbernauld was", "", "The \"Outlander\" TV series used Wardpark Studios as its base for sets. Several scenes from the TV series were shot in local woodland. In", "Many of Cumbernauld's residential areas retain", "Specific references: General references:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Tutankhamun's tomb.", "Personal Life.", "Later life.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Howard Carter was born in Kensington on 9 May 1874, the youngest child (of eleven) of artist and illustrator Samuel John Carter and Martha Joyce Sands. His father trained and developed Howard's artistic talents. Carter spent much of his childhood with relatives in the Norfolk market town of Swaffham, the birthplace of both his parents. Nearby was the mansion of the Amherst family, Didlington Hall, containing a sizable collection of Egyptian antiques, which sparked Carter's interest in that subject. In 1891 the Egypt Exploration Fund (EEF), on the prompting of Mary Cecil, sent Carter to assist an Amherst family friend, Percy Newberry, in the excavation and recording of Middle Kingdom tombs at Beni Hasan. Although only 17, Carter was innovative in improving the methods of copying tomb decoration. In 1892, he worked under the tutelage of Flinders Petrie for one season at Amarna, the capital founded by the pharaoh Akhenaten. From 1894 to 1899, he worked with Édouard Naville at Deir el-Bahari, where he recorded the wall reliefs in the temple of Hatshepsut. In 1899, Carter was appointed to the position of Chief Inspector of the Egyptian Antiquities Service (EAS). He supervised a number of excavations at Thebes (now known as Luxor). In 1904, he was transferred to the Inspectorate of Lower Egypt. Carter was praised for his improvements in the protection of (and accessibility to) existing excavation sites, and his development of a grid-block system for searching for tombs. The Antiquities Service also provided funding for Carter to head his own excavation projects. Carter resigned from the Antiquities Service in 1905 after a formal inquiry into what became known as the Saqqara Affair, a noisy confrontation between Egyptian site guards and a group of French tourists. Carter sided with the Egyptian personnel.", "In 1907, after three hard years for Carter, Lord Carnarvon employed him to supervise excavations of nobles' tombs in Deir el-Bahri, near Thebes. Gaston Maspero had recommended Carter to Carnarvon as he knew he would apply modern archaeological methods and systems of recording. In 1914, Lord Carnarvon received the concession to dig in the Valley of the Kings, Carter was again employed to lead the work. However excavations and study were soon interrupted by the First World War, Carter spending these war years working for the British Government as a diplomatic courier and translator. He enthusiastically resumed his excavation work towards the end of 1917. By 1922, Lord Carnarvon had become dissatisfied with the lack of results after many years of finding little. He informed Carter that he had one more season of funding to make a significant find in the Valley of the Kings. Carter returned to the Valley of Kings, and investigated a line of huts that he had abandoned a few seasons earlier. The crew cleared the huts and rock debris beneath. On 4 November 1922, their young water boy accidentally stumbled on a stone that turned out to be the top of a flight of steps cut into the bedrock. Carter had the steps partially dug out until the top of a mud-plastered doorway was found. The doorway was stamped with indistinct cartouches (oval seals with hieroglyphic writing). Carter ordered the staircase to be refilled, and sent a telegram to Carnarvon, who arrived two-and-a-half weeks later on 23 November. On 26 November 1922, Carter made a \"tiny breach in the top left-hand corner\" of the doorway, with Carnarvon, his daughter Lady Evelyn Herbert, and others in attendance, using a chisel that his grandmother had given him for his 17th birthday. He was able to peer in by the light of a candle and see that many of the gold and ebony treasures were still in place. He did not yet know whether it was \"a tomb or merely an old cache\", but he did see a promising sealed doorway between two sentinel statues. Carnarvon asked, \"Can you see anything?\" Carter replied with the famous words: \"Yes, wonderful things!\" Carter had, in fact, discovered Tutankhamun's tomb (subsequently designated KV62). Carter's notes and photographic evidence indicate that he, Lord Carnarvon, and Lady Evelyn Herbert entered the burial chamber in November 1922, before the official opening. The next several months were spent cataloguing the contents of the antechamber under the \"often stressful\" supervision of Pierre Lacau, director general of the Department of Antiquities of Egypt. On 16 February 1923, Carter opened the sealed doorway and found that it did indeed lead to a burial chamber, and he got his first glimpse of the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun. The tomb was considered the best preserved and most intact pharaonic tomb ever found in the Valley of the Kings, and the discovery was eagerly covered by the world's press, but most of their representatives were kept in their hotels, much to their annoyance. Only H. V. Morton from \"The Times\" newspaper was allowed on the scene, and his vivid descriptions helped to cement Carter's reputation with the British public. Towards the end of February 1923, a rift between Lord Carnarvon and Carter, probably caused by a disagreement on how to manage the supervising Egyptian authorities, temporarily closed excavation. Work recommenced in early March after Lord Carnarvon apologised to Carter. Later that month Lord Carnarvon contracted blood poisoning while staying in Luxor near the tomb site. He died in Cairo on 5 April 1923. Lady Carnarvon retained her late husband's concession in the Valley of the Kings, allowing Carter to continue his work. Carter's meticulous cataloguing of the thousands of objects in the tomb continued until 1932, most being moved to the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. There were several breaks in the work, including one lasting nearly a year in 1924–25, caused by a dispute over what Carter saw as excessive control of the excavation by the Egyptian Antiquities Service. The Egyptian authorities eventually agreed that Carter should complete the tomb's clearance. Despite being involved in the greatest archaeological find of his time, Carter received no honour from the British government. However, in 1926, Carter received the Order of the Nile, third class, from King Fuad I of Egypt. Carter had authored a number of books on Egyptology during his career. During those years he had also been awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Science by Yale University and honorary membership in the Real Academia de la Historia of Madrid, Spain.", "The suggestion that Carter had an affair with Lady Evelyn Herbert, the daughter of the 5th Earl of Carnarvon, was dismissed by the 8th Earl, who termed Carter a \"stoical loner\". A former colleague of Carter's at the British Museum suggested he was homosexual, which an Egyptian guide who knew Carter confirmed, indicating that his tastes extended to \"both boys and the occasional 'dancing girl'\". There is, however, no sign that Carter enjoyed any close relationships throughout his life.", "After the clearance of the tomb had been completed, Carter retired from archaeology and became a part-time agent for collectors and museums, including the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Detroit Institute of Arts. In 1924 he toured Britain, as well as France, Spain and the United States, delivering a series of illustrated lectures. Those in New York City and other US cities were attended by large and enthusiastic audiences, sparking American Egyptomania. Carter never married nor had children.", "Carter died at his London flat at 49 Albert Court, next to the Royal Albert Hall, on 2 March 1939, aged 64 from Hodgkin's Disease. Few people attended his funeral. Carter is buried in Putney Vale Cemetery in London. Probate was granted on 5 July 1939 to English Egyptologist Henry Burton and to publishing entrepreneur Bruce Sterling Ingram. Carter is described as Howard Carter of Luxor, Upper Egypt, Africa, and of 49 Albert Court, Kensington Grove, Kensington, London. His estate was valued at £2002. The second grant of Probate was issued in Cairo on 1 September 1939. The epitaph on the gravestone reads: \"\"May your spirit live, may you spend millions of years, you who love Thebes, sitting with your face to the north wind, your eyes beholding happiness\"\", a quotation taken from the Wishing Cup of Tutankhamun, and \"\"O night, spread thy wings over me as the imperishable stars\".\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and training.", "Career.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "Guest appearances.", "Other activities.", "Personal life.", "Awards and recognition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Netrebko was born in Krasnodar, in a family of Kuban Cossack background. While a student at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, Netrebko worked as a janitor at Saint Petersburg's Mariinsky Theatre. Later when she auditioned for the theatre, conductor Valery Gergiev, recognizing her from her prior work, subsequently became her vocal mentor. She won first prize at the 1993 International Glinka Vocalists Competition and third prize at the 1996 International Rimsky-Korsakov Young Opera Singers Competition.", "", "Under Gergiev's guidance, in 1994, Netrebko made her operatic stage debut at the Mariinsky at age 22 as Susanna in \"The Marriage of Figaro\" despite initially being billed as Barbarina. In the same year, she also performed as the Queen of the Night in \"The Magic Flute\" with the Riga Independent Opera Avangarda Akadēmija under conductor David Milnes. She subsequently became associated with the Mariinsky Theatre, portraying roles including Lyudmila in Glinka's \"Ruslan and Lyudmila\", Pamina in \"The Magic Flute\", Rosina in \"The Barber of Seville\", a flower maiden in \"Parsifal\", and Lucia in \"Lucia di Lammermoor\". Her collaboration with Gergiev also extended to opera and concert performances at other venues, including Mussorgsky's \"The Nursery\" at The Proms, \"Carmen\" at the Tokyo Bunka Kaikan, \"Betrothal in a Monastery\" at his Mikkeli Music Festival, \"Boris Godunov\" at the Ravenna Festival, \"The Love for Three Oranges\" at the Concertgebouw. In autumn 1995, Netrebko made her American debut as Lyudmila at the San Francisco Opera. Following this successful performance, she was enrolled in the Merola Opera Program the next year and then became a frequent guest singer in San Francisco, performing roles including Adina in \"L'elisir d'amore\", Louisa in \"Betrothal in a Monastery\", Ilia in \"Idomeneo\", Musetta in \"La bohème\", Marfa in \"The Tsar's Bride\", Zerlina in \"Don Giovanni\". In 1998, she performed as Lyudmila when the Mariinsky production of the opera was presented at the Metropolitan Opera, and debuted at the Salzburg Festival in \"Parsifal\" conducted by Gergiev. She debuted in the role of Violetta in Verdi's \"La traviata\" in the same year at the Mariinsky Theatre, and debuted as Amina in \"La sonnambula\" the following year. In October 1999, Netrebko performed Gilda in \"Rigoletto\" at the Washington National Opera.", "In 2002, Netrebko made her debut with the Metropolitan Opera company as Natasha in the Met premiere of Prokofiev's \"War and Peace\". In the same year, she sang her first Donna Anna at the Salzburg Festival's production of \"Don Giovanni\", conducted by Nikolaus Harnoncourt. In 2003, Netrebko performed as Violetta in Verdi's \"La traviata\" in Munich, the title role in \"Lucia di Lammermoor\" at the Los Angeles Opera, and Donna Anna at the Covent Garden Royal Opera House. Her second album, \"Sempre Libera\", was released the following year. She later appeared as Violetta in \"La traviata\" at the Salzburg Festival, conducted by Carlo Rizzi and in 2008 she performed the same role at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden to triumphant acclaim on the opening night, opposite Jonas Kaufmann and Dmitri Hvorostovsky in performances conducted by Maurizio Benini. However, she cancelled three subsequent performances due to suffering a bronchial condition. This was the second time she had cancelled her performances at the Royal Opera House, having withdrawn from some performances of \"Don Giovanni\" the previous summer due to illness. She sang Elvira in \"I puritani\" at the Metropolitan Opera in January 2007, and on 30 May 2007, Netrebko made her Carnegie Hall debut with Dmitri Hvorostovsky and the Orchestra of St. Luke's, which was originally scheduled on 2 March 2006 but she postponed due to not feeling artistically ready. She appeared at the Last Night of the Proms on 8 September of that year where she performed excerpts from \"La sonnambula\" and \"Giuditta\", and the \"Lied\" \"Morgen!\" by Richard Strauss with Joshua Bell. In the fall of 2007 she reprised her role as Juliette in \"Roméo et Juliette\" at the Metropolitan Opera. In May 2008, she made her Paris Opera debut in Bellini's \"I Capuleti e i Montecchi\" at the Opéra Bastille, with Joyce DiDonato as Romeo. In her first performance after her maternity leave, Netrebko sang Lucia in \"Lucia di Lammermoor\" when it opened at the Mariinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg on 14 January 2009, in a production from the Scottish Opera led by John Doyle. She then sang the same role in January and February 2009 at the Metropolitan Opera. Netrebko appeared as Giulietta in \"I Capuleti e i Montecchi\" at the Royal Opera House in Spring 2009, and as Violetta in \"La traviata\" in June 2009 at the San Francisco Opera.", "In October and November 2010, she sang the role of Norina in \"Don Pasquale\" at New York's Metropolitan Opera House under conductor James Levine. The matinee performance on 13 November was broadcast nationwide by PBS. On 2 April 2011, she sang the title role of Gaetano Donizetti's \"Anna Bolena\" at the Vienna State Opera for a sold-out premiere there, and the repeat performance on 5 April 2011 was broadcast live to cinemas around the world. On 7 December 2011, she opened the new season at La Scala in Milan, making her house debut, as Donna Anna in \"Don Giovanni\". She has the distinction of being invited to appear in three consecutive opening night new productions at the Metropolitan Opera: \"Anna Bolena\" in 2011, \"L'elisir d'amore\" in 2012, and \"Eugene Onegin\" in 2013. Her performance as Lady Macbeth in the Metropolitan's 2014 fall season's production of \"Macbeth\", a revival of Adrian Noble's 2007 production, drew critical praise and demonstrated her voice is still expanding in range and volume. She continued her expansion into heavier Verdi roles at the Met the following year, singing the role of Leonora in \"Il trovatore\" to acclaim from both critics and audiences. In December 2014, she posed alongside Oleg Tsaryov with a flag of Novorossiya, a self-proclaimed confederation in Ukraine, and gave a ₽1,000,000 cheque to Tsarov saying she was donating to the Donetsk Opera and Ballet Theatre. Tsarov is one of the individuals sanctioned by the European Union for his role in the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Netrebko said in a statement \"I want to make clear, however, that this donation is not a political act\". In April 2016, Netrebko announced her withdrawal from productions of Bellini's \"Norma\" at the Royal Opera House's 2016/17 season and the Metropolitan Opera's 2017/18 season due to the change in her voice. The vacancies were filled respectively by Sonya Yoncheva and Sondra Radvanovsky. She made several role debuts in 2017, including the title role of \"Adriana Lecouvreur\" at Mariinsky Theatre in June, the title role of \"Aida\" at Salzburg Festival in August, and Maddalena in \"Andrea Chénier\" at La Scala in December. In 2018, she debuted as Tosca at the Metropolitan Opera in April and performed at the Summer Night Concert Schönbrunn on 31 May.", "Netrebko made a cameo appearance as herself in the 2004 film \"\". She was invited as a guest performer in the 2004, 2007, and 2019 Vienna Opera Ball. In December 2007 Netrebko was invited to honor Martin Scorsese at the 30th Annual Kennedy Center Honors, performing the aria \"O mio babbino caro\". She participated in the gala concert inaugurating the Mariinsky Theatre Second Stage on 2 May 2013. She was invited to perform the Olympic Anthem, in Russian, at the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony. She performed in both gala concerts at the Red Square on 13 June and at the Bolshoi Theatre on 14 July, respectively commemorating the opening and closing of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. On 8 September 2018 she took part in the inauguration gala concert of Zaryadye Concert Hall in Moscow, which was streamed on Medici.tv. She was featured in the opening ceremony of 2019 European Games in Minsk on 21 June and inaugurated the first concert season of the Congress Hall at the Yekaterinburg Expo on 30 August 2019.", "Netrebko serves as an honorary director of the Russian Children's Welfare Society and has featured in several editions of \"Petroushka Ball\", the major fund raiser of the charity. In 2007, she was announced to be an ambassador for SOS Children's Villages in Austria, and a sponsor for the Tomilino village in Russia. In May 2012, she and her then-partner Erwin Schrott jointly founded the charitable foundation \"Anna Netrebko and Erwin Schrott 4 Kids\", aiming to promote education, art, culture and youth welfare. She is an ambassador of Chopard, having attended several of its occasions and publicly worn its designs.", "In March 2006, Netrebko applied to become an Austrian citizen, receiving her citizenship in late July. According to an interview in the Austrian weekly news, she will live in Vienna and Salzburg. Netrebko cites the cumbersome and humiliating process of obtaining visas as a Russian citizen for her many performances abroad as the main reason for obtaining Austrian citizenship. Netrebko started a relationship with Italian bass-baritone Simone Alberghini when they met each other during performances of \"Rigoletto\" at the Washington National Opera in 1999. She announced their engagement but did not consider marrying due to a busy schedule. In May 2007 their relationship was confirmed as ended. In December 2007 Netrebko became engaged to Uruguayan bass-baritone Erwin Schrott, whom she first met during a collaboration in 2003. In April 2008, she announced their marriage, but their wedding never in fact took place. Their son, Tiago Aruã, was born on 5 September 2008 in Vienna and is an Austrian citizen. On 25 November 2013, the couple announced their separation, after several months of largely separate lives. Tiago, who is mildly autistic, lives exclusively with her. In February 2014, during rehearsals for a staging of \"Manon Lescaut\" in Rome, Netrebko began a relationship with Azerbaijani tenor, her co-star in that opera. Five months later, the couple announced their engagement. They married on 29 December 2015, at the Palais Coburg in Vienna with 180 guests in attendance, including Plácido Domingo. Netrebko has an apartment in the Upper West Side of Manhattan, overlooking the Hudson River. Netrebko is a close friend of Austrian fashion designer Irina Vitjaz, and has worn several of her designs.", "In 2004, Netrebko was awarded the State Prize of the Russian Federation. \"Time\" magazine placed her on its Time 100 list in 2007. She won the 2007 Singer of the Year and the 2008 Female Artist of Year in the Classical Brit Awards. She was identified by the journal \"Musical America\" as \"a genuine superstar for the 21st century\" and was named Musician of the Year for 2008. In February 2008, she was named People's Artist of Russia. She was included in the list of Young Global Leaders 2010 issued by World Economic Forum. Netrebko was one of the recipients of Leading Ladies Award 2012 awarded by \"Madonna\" magazine. She received another Leading Ladies Award in the category of Culture in 2016. She was named one of the Beautiful People in 2013 by \"Paper\". She was presented an Opera News Award in April 2016. Netrebko won the \"Female Singer of the Year\" (\"Sängerin des Jahres\") in the 2014 and 2016 Echo Klassik Award. In February 2017, the Austrian government named her Kammersängerin. She won the Best Female Singer in the 2017 International Opera Awards. Asteroid 31104 Annanetrebko was named in her honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 31 January 2018 (). She was awarded the \"World Star\" of the BraVo International Professional Music Awards 2018. In May 2018, she received the Order of Friendship from the Azerbaijani president. On 26 October 2018, the Metropolitan Opera Guild honored her on its annual luncheon. In 2020 she was awarded the Swedish Polar Music Prize and the Victoire d'honneur in the Victoires de la musique classique." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Bellerophon was sent into exile to the land of King Iobates. Proetus (king of Argos and Tiryns) wanted Iobates to kill Bellerophon, but Iobates feared the wrath of the gods if he murdered a guest. So he sent Bellerophon on a mission that he deemed impossible: to kill a fire-breathing monster, the Chimera. An alternate version of the beginning of the quest is that Bellerophon encountered Proetus, who grew intensely jealous of him. Proetus was the son-in-law of Iobates, and sent Bellerophon to him with a sealed message that asked him to kill Bellerophon. Lycia at the time was in the middle of a horrific plague and Iobates didn't want to strain the population with a war, which would surely result if he murdered Bellerophon. Instead, he sent him to kill the Chimera. The goddess Athena, realizing Bellerophon would surely die if he undertook this task alone, sent him aid in the form of the winged horse, Pegasus. Alternatively, Bellerophon sought out the wisest man in Lycia, Polyidus, who told him about the horse. To obtain the services of the winged horse, Polyidus told Bellerophon to sleep in the temple of Athena. While Bellerophon slept, he dreamed of Athena setting a golden bridle down beside him; it was there when he awoke. Bellerophon had to sneak up on Pegasus while it drank from a well (Polyidus told him which well). Bellerophon mounted his steed and flew off to where the Chimera was said to dwell. When he arrived, the Chimera was truly ferocious, and he could not harm the monster even while riding on Pegasus. He felt the heat of the Chimera's breath and was struck with an idea. He got a large block of lead and mounted it on his spear. He then flew head-on towards the Chimera, holding out the spear as far as he could. Before he broke off his attack, he managed to lodge the lead in the creature's throat. The beast's fire-breath melted the lead, and blocked its air passage. The Chimera suffocated, and Bellerophon returned to King Iobates victorious. Iobates was unable to believe that this valiant hero deserved death, and so he allowed Bellerophon to marry his daughter. Alternatively, Iobates' daughter, Antea, loved Bellerophon. He scorned her and she committed suicide. Iobates' other daughter, Philonoe, had an affair with Bellerophon." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "New edition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Railway engineer Henri Vidal was invited by his younger brother Marc to pay him a visit in the (fictional) city of Ragz, Hungary. Marc was engaged to Myra Roderich, the daughter of highly praised Dr. Roderich. Before leaving Paris, he learned that a man named Wilhelm Storitz had proposed to Myra, but he was refused. Henri describes his journey, made on land and on the Danube River on the barge \"Dorothée\", also noting monuments and cities he sees on the way. At his arrival in Ragz he received a warm welcome from Myra's family. One day, Dr. Roderich told Henri and Haralan (Myra's brother) that Wilhelm Storitz had come to request to propose again to Myra. When he is again refused, he threatened the family. Before the marriage, a contract must be signed by the town governor as an old tradition from Ragz. A party was organized for the event, which was disrupted by a mysterious voice that sang the German \"Hate Song\". To make matters worse, the contract was found torn to pieces and the bride's wreath lifted itself and hovered mysteriously in the air, ensuing panic among the people at the party. After reporting the events to the chief of the Ragz police, Heinrich Stepark, he suspected that the culprit must be Wilhelm Storitz, as he was the only person who profoundly disrespected the Roderichs. Wilhelm's house was searched but, beside Myra's bride wreath and a mysterious yellow fluid in a blue vial, no significant evidence was found. A few days later, after getting the permission from the governor, Myra Roderich and Marc Vidal were ready to be wed the next day at the Ragz cathedral. On June 1, seconds before being wed, the same voice mentioned above cursed the couple. Myra lost consciousness and was given special care. By now the entire population of the town suspected Wilhelm Storitz to be the culprit. As a consequence, the mob burned his house down, despite the efforts made by police agents. Later, while on a walk, Henri and Stepark overheard a conversation between Wilhelm and his servant Hermann, both in a state of invisibility, as they had been throughout the novel's plot. Stepark attempted to capture Wilhelm but failed. When they returned, they found Myra missing. The next day, using the information gathered from the conversation, Haralan fought with an invisible Wilhelm and defeated him. As he bled, Wilhelm became visible. Hermann agreed to become visible and to be imprisoned. He was interrogated about the location of Myra and about the mysterious substance, but he was unable to answer as Storitz had never told him about his plans. When the guards entered his cell in order to release him, he was found dead of embolism. Back home they were surprised to find Myra, who hadn't left her bed at all - she was just invisible. As Wilhelm had died, and the antidote had been destroyed, Myra was to remain invisible forever. In Paris, Henri had the idea that Storitz became visible because he bled and the same thing could be achieved for Myra through a surgery. However, he was soon informed that she was pregnant, so she couldn't undergo the surgery. Miraculously, Myra became visible after giving birth to her son and they moved to Paris, where Marc continued his job as a painter.", "In 2011, Bison Books brought out a new edition, the first to be based on Verne's manuscript. Earlier editions feature a version of the novel heavily rewritten by Jules Verne's son Michel, who improbably pushed the date of the story back to the 18th century, despite many references to 19th century discoveries, such as Roentgen rays." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "\"Modified mbox\".", "File locking.", "As a patch format." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The mbox format uses a single blank line followed by the string 'From'(with a space) to delimit messages; this can create ambiguities if a message contains the same sequence in the message text. Over the decades that followed, four popular but incompatible variants arose: \"mboxo\", \"mboxrd\", \"mboxcl\", and \"mboxcl2\". The naming scheme was developed by Daniel J. Bernstein, Rahul Dhesi, and others in 1996. Each originated from a different version of Unix. \"mboxcl\" and \"mboxcl2\" originated from the file format used by Unix System V Release 4 mail tools. \"mboxrd\" was invented by Rahul Dhesi et al. as a rationalisation of \"mboxo\" and subsequently adopted by some Unix mail tools including qmail. All these variants have the problem that the content of the message is modified in order to remove the ambiguities, as shown below, so that applications have to know which quoting rule has been used in order to perform the correct reversion, which turned out to be impractical. Using MIME and choosing a content-transfer-encoding that quotes \"From_\" lines in a standard-compliant fashion ensures that message content doesn't need to be changed, but only their MIME representation. Therefore checksums remain constant, a necessary precondition for supporting S/MIME and Pretty Good Privacy. Applications which newly create messages and store them in mbox database files will likely use this approach to detach message content from database storage format. \"mboxo\" and \"mboxrd\" locate the message start by scanning for \"From \" lines that are found before the email message headers. If a \"codice_1\" string occurs at the beginning of a line in either the header or the body of a message (a mail standard violation for the former, but not for the latter), the email message must be modified before the message is stored in an mbox mailbox file or the line will be taken as a message boundary. To avoid misinterpreting a \"codice_1\" string at the beginning of the line in the email body as the beginning of a new email, some systems \"From-munge\" the message, typically by prepending a greater-than sign: In the \"mboxo\" format, such lines have irreversible ambiguity. In the \"mboxo\" format, this can lead to corruption of the message. If a line already contained codice_3 at the beginning (such as in a quotation), it is unchanged when written. When subsequently read by the mail software, the leading codice_4 is erroneously removed. The \"mboxrd\" format solves this by converting codice_1 to codice_3 and converting codice_3 to codice_8, etc. The transformation is then always reversible. Example: The \"mboxcl\" and \"mboxcl2\" formats use a codice_9 header to determine the messages’ lengths and thereby the next \"real From line\". \"mboxcl\" still quotes \"From lines\" in the messages themselves as \"mboxrd\" does, while \"mboxcl2\" doesn’t.", "Some email clients use a modification of the mbox format for their mail folders.", "Various mutually incompatible mechanisms have been used by different mbox formats to enable message file locking, including codice_10 and codice_11. This does not work well with network mounted file systems, such as the Network File System (NFS), which is why traditionally Unix used additional \"dot lock\" files, which could be created atomically even over NFS. Because more than one message is stored in a single file, some form of file locking is needed to avoid the corruption that can result from two or more processes modifying the mailbox simultaneously. This could happen if a network email delivery program delivers a new message at the same time as a mail reader is deleting an existing message. Mbox files should be locked also while they are being read. Otherwise the reader may see corrupted message contents if another process is modifying the mbox at the same time, even though no actual file corruption occurs.", "In open source development, it is common to send patches in the diff format to a mailing list for discussion. The diff format allows for irrelevant \"headers\", such as mbox data, to be added. Version control systems like git have support for generating mbox-formatted patches and for sending them to the list as emails in a thread." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hashing.", "Choosing a hash function.", "Perfect hash function.", "Key statistics.", "Collision resolution.", "Separate chaining.", "Separate chaining with linked lists.", "Separate chaining with list head cells.", "Separate chaining with other structures.", "Open addressing.", "2-choice hashing.", "Dynamic resizing.", "Resizing by copying all entries.", "Alternatives to all-at-once rehashing.", "Incremental resizing.", "Monotonic keys.", "Linear hashing.", "Hashing for distributed hash tables.", "Performance analysis.", "Uses.", "Associative arrays.", "Database indexing.", "Caches.", "Sets.", "Object representation.", "Unique data representation.", "Transposition table.", "Implementations.", "In programming languages.", "History.", "See also.", "Related data structures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The idea of hashing is to distribute the entries (key/value pairs) across an array of \"buckets\". Given a key, the algorithm computes an \"index\" that suggests where the entry can be found: Often this is done in two steps: In this method, the \"hash\" is independent of the array size, and it is then \"reduced\" to an index (a number between codice_1 and codice_2) using the modulo operator (codice_3). In the case that the array size is a power of two, the remainder operation is reduced to masking, which improves speed, but can increase problems with a poor hash function.", "A basic requirement is that the function should provide a uniform distribution of hash values. A non-uniform distribution increases the number of collisions and the cost of resolving them. Uniformity is sometimes difficult to ensure by design, but may be evaluated empirically using statistical tests, e.g., a Pearson's chi-squared test for discrete uniform distributions. The distribution needs to be uniform only for table sizes that occur in the application. In particular, if one uses dynamic resizing with exact doubling and halving of the table size, then the hash function needs to be uniform only when the size is a power of two. Here the index can be computed as some range of bits of the hash function. On the other hand, some hashing algorithms prefer to have the size", "If all keys are known ahead of time, a perfect hash function can be used to create a perfect hash table that has no collisions. If minimal perfect hashing is used, every location in the hash", "A critical statistic for a hash table is the \"load factor\", defined as where As the load factor grows larger, the hash table becomes slower, and it may even fail to work (depending on the method used). The expected constant time property of a hash table assumes that the load factor be kept below some bound. For a \"fixed\" number of buckets, the time for a lookup grows with the number of entries, and therefore the desired constant time is not achieved. In some implementations, the solution is to automatically grow (usually,", "Hash collisions are practically unavoidable when hashing a random subset of a large set of possible keys. For example, if 2,450 keys are hashed into a million buckets, even with a perfectly uniform random distribution, according to the birthday problem there is approximately a 95% chance of at least two of the keys being hashed to the same slot. Therefore, almost all hash table implementations have some collision resolution strategy to handle such events. Some common strategies are described below. All these methods require that the keys (or pointers to them) be stored in the table, together with the associated values.", "In the method known as \"separate chaining\", each bucket is independent, and has some sort of list of entries with the same index. The time for hash table operations is the time to find the bucket (which is constant) plus the time for the list operation. In a good hash table, each bucket has zero or one entries, and sometimes two or three, but rarely more than that. Therefore, structures that are efficient in time and space for these cases are preferred. Structures that are efficient for a fairly large number of entries per bucket are not needed or desirable. If these cases happen often, the hashing function needs to be fixed.", "Chained hash tables with linked lists are popular because they require only basic data structures with simple algorithms, and can use simple hash functions that are unsuitable for other methods. The cost of a table operation is that of scanning the entries of the selected bucket for the desired key. If the distribution of keys is sufficiently uniform, the \"average\" cost of a lookup depends only on the average number of keys per bucket—that is, it is roughly proportional to the load factor. For this reason, chained hash tables remain effective even when the number of table entries \"n\" is much higher than the number of slots. For example, a chained hash table with 1000 slots and 10,000 stored keys (load factor 10) is five to ten times slower than a 10,000-slot table (load factor 1); but still 1000 times faster than a plain sequential list. For", "Some chaining implementations store the first record of each chain in the slot array itself. The number of pointer traversals is decreased by one for most cases. The purpose is to increase", "Instead of a list, one can use any other data structure that supports the required operations. For example, by using a self-balancing binary search tree, the theoretical worst-case time of common hash table operations (insertion, deletion, lookup) can be brought down to O(log \"n\") rather than O(\"n\"). However, this introduces extra complexity into the implementation, and may cause even worse performance for smaller hash tables, where the time spent inserting into and balancing the tree is greater than the time needed to perform a linear search on all of the elements of a list. A real world example of a hash table that uses a self-balancing binary search tree for buckets is the codice_5 class in Java version 8. The variant called array hash table uses a dynamic array to store all the entries that hash to the same", "In another strategy, called open addressing, all entry records are stored in the bucket array itself. When a new entry has to be inserted, the buckets are examined, starting with the hashed-to slot and proceeding in some \"probe sequence\", until an unoccupied slot is found. When searching for an entry, the buckets are scanned in the same sequence, until either the target record is found, or an unused array slot is found, which indicates that there is no such key in the table. The name \"open addressing\" refers to the fact that the location (\"address\") of the item is not determined by its hash value. (This method is also called closed hashing; it should not be confused with \"open hashing\" or \"closed addressing\" that usually mean separate chaining.) Well-known probe sequences include: A drawback of all these open addressing schemes is that the number of stored entries cannot exceed the number of slots in the bucket array. In fact, even with good hash functions, their performance dramatically degrades when the load factor grows beyond 0.7 or so. For many applications, these restrictions mandate the use of dynamic resizing, with its attendant costs. Open addressing schemes also put more stringent requirements on the hash function: besides distributing the keys more uniformly over the buckets,", "2-choice hashing employs two different hash functions, \"h\"(\"x\") and \"h\"(\"x\"), for the hash table. Both hash functions are used to compute two table locations. When an object is", "When an insert is made such that the number of entries in a hash table exceeds the product of the load factor and the current capacity then the hash table will need to be \"rehashed\". Rehashing includes increasing the size of the underlying data structure and mapping existing items to new bucket locations. In some implementations, if the initial capacity is greater than the maximum number of entries divided by the load factor, no rehash operations will ever occur. To limit the proportion of memory wasted due to empty buckets, some implementations also shrink the size of the table—followed by a rehash—when items are deleted. From the point of space–time tradeoffs, this operation is similar to the deallocation in dynamic arrays.", "A common approach is to automatically trigger a complete resizing when the load factor exceeds some threshold \"r\". Then a new larger table is allocated, each entry is removed from the old table, and inserted into the new table. When all entries have been removed from the old table then the old table is returned to the free storage pool. Likewise, when the load factor falls below a second threshold \"r\", all entries are moved to a new smaller table. For hash tables that shrink and grow frequently, the resizing downward can be skipped entirely. In this case, the table size is proportional to the maximum number of", "Some hash table implementations, notably in real-time systems, cannot pay the price of enlarging the hash table all at once, because it may interrupt time-critical operations. If one cannot avoid dynamic resizing, a solution is to perform the resizing gradually. Disk-based hash tables almost always use some alternative to all-at-once rehashing, since the cost of rebuilding the entire table on disk would be too high.", "One alternative to enlarging the table all at once is to perform the rehashing gradually: To ensure that the old table is", "If it is known that keys will be stored in monotonically increasing (or decreasing) order, then a variation of consistent hashing can be achieved. Given some initial key, a subsequent key partitions the key domain into the set }. In general, repeating this process gives a finer partition } for some sequence of monotonically increasing keys, where is the", "Linear hashing is a hash table algorithm that permits incremental hash", "Another way to decrease the cost of table resizing is to choose a hash function in such a way that the hashes of most values do not change when the table is resized. Such hash functions are prevalent in disk-based and distributed hash tables, where rehashing is prohibitively costly. The problem of designing a hash such that most values do not change when the table is resized is known as the distributed hash table problem. The four most popular approaches are rendezvous hashing, consistent hashing, the content addressable network algorithm, and Kademlia distance.", "In the simplest model, the hash function is completely unspecified and the table does not resize. With an ideal hash function, a table of size formula_2 with open addressing has no collisions and holds up to formula_2 elements with a single comparison for successful lookup, while a table of size formula_2 with chaining and formula_5 keys has the minimum collisions and comparisons for lookup. With the worst possible hash function, every insertion causes a collision, and hash tables degenerate to linear search, with formula_6 amortized comparisons per insertion and up to formula_5 comparisons for a successful lookup. Adding rehashing to this model is straightforward. As in a dynamic array, geometric resizing by a factor of formula_8 implies that only formula_9 keys are inserted formula_10 or more times, so that", "", "Hash tables are commonly used to implement many types of in-memory tables. They are used to implement associative arrays (arrays whose indices are arbitrary strings or other complicated objects), especially in interpreted programming languages like Ruby, Python, and PHP. When storing a new item into a multimap and a hash collision", "Hash tables may also be used as disk-based data structures and database indices (such as in dbm) although", "Hash tables can be used to implement caches, auxiliary data tables that are used to speed up the access to data that is primarily stored in slower media. In", "Besides recovering the entry that has a given key, many hash table implementations can also tell whether such an entry exists or not. Those structures can therefore be used to implement", "Several dynamic languages, such as Perl, Python, JavaScript, Lua, and Ruby, use hash tables to implement objects. In", "Hash tables can be used by some programs to avoid creating multiple character strings with the same contents. For that purpose, all strings in use by the program are stored in a single \"string pool\" implemented as", "A transposition table to a complex Hash", "", "Many programming languages provide hash table functionality, either as built-in associative arrays or as standard library modules. In C++11, for example, the codice_7 class provides hash tables for keys and values of arbitrary type. The Java programming language (including the variant which is used on Android) includes the codice_8, codice_5, codice_10, and codice_11 generic collections. In PHP 5 and 7, the Zend 2 engine and the Zend 3 engine (respectively) use one of the hash functions from Daniel J. Bernstein to generate the hash values used in managing the mappings of data pointers stored in a hash table. In the PHP source code, it is labelled as codice_12 (Daniel J. Bernstein, Times 33 with Addition). Python's built-in hash table implementation, in the form of the codice_13 type, as well as Perl's hash type (%) are used internally to implement namespaces and therefore need to pay more attention to security, i.e., collision attacks. Python", "The idea of hashing arose independently in different places. In January 1953, Hans Peter Luhn wrote an internal IBM memorandum that used hashing with chaining. Gene", "", "There are several data structures that use" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Features.", "Memory management.", "Import libraries.", "Symbol resolution and binding.", "Explicit run-time linking.", "Delayed loading.", "Compiler and language considerations.", "Delphi.", "Microsoft Visual Basic.", "C and C++.", "Programming examples.", "Using DLL imports.", "Using explicit run-time linking.", "Microsoft Visual Basic.", "Delphi.", "C.", "Python.", "Component Object Model.", "DLL hijacking." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The first versions of Microsoft Windows ran programs together in a single address space. Every program was meant to co-operate by yielding the CPU to other programs so that the graphical user interface (GUI) could multitask and be maximally responsive. All operating-system level operations were provided by the underlying operating system: MS-DOS. All higher-level services were provided by Windows Libraries \"Dynamic Link Library\". The Drawing API, Graphics Device Interface (GDI), was implemented in a DLL called codice_7, the user interface in codice_8. These extra layers on top of DOS had to be shared across all running Windows programs, not just to enable Windows to work in a machine with less than a megabyte of RAM, but to enable the programs to co-operate with each other. The code in GDI needed to translate drawing commands to operations on specific devices. On the display, it had to manipulate pixels in the frame buffer. When drawing to a printer, the API calls had to be transformed into requests to a printer. Although it could have been possible to provide hard-coded support for a limited set of devices (like the Color Graphics Adapter display, the HP LaserJet Printer Command Language), Microsoft chose a different approach. GDI would work by loading different pieces of code, called \"device drivers\", to work with different output devices. The same architectural concept that allowed GDI to load different device drivers is that which allowed the Windows shell to load different Windows programs, and for these programs to invoke API calls from the shared USER and GDI libraries. That concept was \"dynamic linking\". In a conventional non-shared static library, sections of code are simply added to the calling program when its executable is built at the \"linking\" phase; if two programs call the same routine, the routine is included in both the programs during the linking stage of the two. With dynamic linking, shared code is placed into a single, separate file. The programs that call this file are connected to it at run time, with the operating system (or, in the case of early versions of Windows, the OS-extension), performing the binding. For those early versions of Windows (1.0 to 3.11), the DLLs were the foundation for the entire GUI. As such, display drivers were merely DLLs with a.DRV extension that provided custom implementations of the same drawing API through a unified device driver interface (DDI), and the Drawing (GDI) and GUI (USER) APIs were merely the function calls exported by the GDI and USER, system DLLs with.EXE extension. This notion of building up the operating system from a collection of dynamically loaded libraries is a core concept of Windows that persists. DLLs provide the standard benefits of shared libraries, such as modularity. Modularity allows changes to be made to code and data in a single self-contained DLL shared by several applications without any change to the applications themselves. Another benefit of modularity is the use of generic interfaces for plug-ins. A single interface may be developed which allows old as well as new modules to be integrated seamlessly at run-time into pre-existing applications, without any modification to the application itself. This concept of dynamic extensibility is taken to the extreme with the Component Object Model, the underpinnings of ActiveX. In Windows 1.x, 2.x and 3.x, all Windows applications shared the same address space as well as the same memory. A DLL was only loaded once into this address space; from then on, all programs using the library accessed it. The library's data was shared across all the programs. This could be used as an indirect form of inter-process communication, or it could accidentally corrupt the different programs. With the introduction of 32-bit libraries in Windows 95 every process ran in its own address space. While the DLL code may be shared, the data is private except where shared data is explicitly requested by the library. That said, large swathes of Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me were built from 16-bit libraries, which limited the performance of the Pentium Pro microprocessor when launched, and ultimately limited the stability and scalability of the DOS-based versions of Windows. Although DLLs are the core of the Windows architecture, they have several drawbacks, collectively called \"DLL hell\".", "Since DLLs are essentially the same as EXEs, the choice of which to produce as part of the linking process is for clarity, since it is possible to export functions and data from either. It is not possible to directly execute a DLL, since it requires an EXE for the operating system to load it through an entry point, hence the existence of utilities like RUNDLL.EXE or RUNDLL32.EXE which provide the entry point and minimal framework for DLLs that contain enough functionality to execute without much support. DLLs provide a mechanism for shared code and data, allowing a developer of shared code/data to upgrade functionality without requiring applications to be re-linked or re-compiled. From the application development point of view Windows and OS/2 can be thought of as a collection of DLLs that are upgraded, allowing applications for one version of the OS to work in a later one, provided that the OS vendor has ensured that the interfaces and functionality are compatible. DLLs execute in the memory space of the calling process and with the same access permissions which means there is little overhead in their use but also that there is no protection for the calling EXE if the DLL has any sort of bug.", "In Windows API, the DLL files are organized into \"sections\". Each section has its own set of attributes, such as being writable or read-only, executable (for code) or non-executable (for data), and so on. The code in a DLL is usually shared among all the processes that use the DLL; that is, they occupy a single place in physical memory, and do not take up space in the page file. Windows does not use position-independent code for its DLLs; instead the code undergoes relocation as it is loaded, fixing addresses for all its entry points at locations which are free in the memory space of the first process to load the DLL. In older versions of Windows, in which all running processes occupied a single common address space, a single copy of the DLL's code would be always be sufficient for all the processes. However, in newer versions of Windows which use separate address spaces for each program, it is only possible to use the same relocated copy of the DLL in multiple programs if each program has the same virtual addresses free to accommodate the DLL's code. If some programs (or their combination of already-loaded DLLs) do not have those addresses free, then an additional physical copy of the DLL's code will need to be created, using a different set of relocated entry points. If the physical memory occupied by a code section is to be reclaimed, its contents are discarded, and later reloaded directly from the DLL file as necessary. In contrast to code sections, the data sections of a DLL are usually private; that is, each process using the DLL has its own copy of all the DLL's data. Optionally, data sections can be made shared, allowing inter-process communication via this shared memory area. However, because user restrictions do not apply to the use of shared DLL memory, this creates a security hole; namely, one process can corrupt the shared data, which will likely cause all other sharing processes to behave undesirably. For example, a process running under a guest account can in this way corrupt another process running under a privileged account. This is an important reason to avoid the use of shared sections in DLLs. If a DLL is compressed by certain executable packers (e.g. UPX), all of its code sections are marked as read and write, and will be unshared. Read-and-write code sections, much like private data sections, are private to each process. Thus DLLs with shared data sections should not be compressed if they are intended to be used simultaneously by multiple programs, since each program instance would have to carry its own copy of the DLL, resulting in increased memory consumption.", "Like static libraries, import libraries for DLLs are noted by the.lib file extension. For example, kernel32.dll, the primary dynamic library for Windows' base functions such as file creation and memory management, is linked via kernel32.lib. The usual way to tell an import library from a proper static library is by size: the import library is much smaller as it only contains symbols referring to the actual DLL, to be processed at link-time. Both nevertheless are Unix ar format files. Linking to dynamic libraries is usually handled by linking to an import library when building or linking to create an executable file. The created executable then contains an import address table (IAT) by which all DLL function calls are referenced (each referenced DLL function contains its own entry in the IAT). At run-time, the IAT is filled with appropriate addresses that point directly to a function in the separately loaded DLL. In Cygwin/MSYS and MinGW, import libraries are conventionally given the suffix codice_9, combining both the Windows DLL suffix and the Unix ar suffix. The file format is similar, but the symbols used to mark the imports are different (_head_foo_dll vs __IMPORT_DESCRIPTOR_foo). Although its GNU Binutils toolchain can generate import libraries and link to them, it is faster to link to the DLL directly. An experimental tool in MinGW called genlib can be used to generate import libs with MSVC-style symbols.", "Each function exported by a DLL is identified by a numeric ordinal and optionally a name. Likewise, functions can be imported from a DLL either by ordinal or by name. The ordinal represents the position of the function's address pointer in the DLL Export Address table. It is common for internal functions to be exported by ordinal only. For most Windows API functions only the names are preserved across different Windows releases; the ordinals are subject to change. Thus, one cannot reliably import Windows API functions by their ordinals. Importing functions by ordinal provides only slightly better performance than importing them by name: export tables of DLLs are ordered by name, so a binary search can be used to find a function. The index of the found name is then used to look up the ordinal in the Export Ordinal table. In 16-bit Windows, the name table was not sorted, so the name lookup overhead was much more noticeable. It is also possible to \"bind\" an executable to a specific version of a DLL, that is, to resolve the addresses of imported functions at compile-time. For bound imports, the linker saves the timestamp and checksum of the DLL to which the import is bound. At run-time Windows checks to see if the same version of library is being used, and if so, Windows bypasses processing the imports. Otherwise, if the library is different from the one which was bound to, Windows processes the imports in a normal way. Bound executables load somewhat faster if they are run in the same environment that they were compiled for, and exactly the same time if they are run in a different environment, so there is no drawback for binding the imports. For example, all the standard Windows applications are bound to the system DLLs of their respective Windows release. A good opportunity to bind an application's imports to its target environment is during the application's installation. This keeps the libraries 'bound' until the next OS update. It does, however, change the checksum of the executable, so it is not something that can be done with signed programs, or programs that are managed by a configuration management tool that uses checksums (such as MD5 checksums) to manage file versions. As more recent Windows versions have moved away from having fixed addresses for every loaded library (for security reasons), the opportunity and value of binding an executable is decreasing.", "DLL files may be explicitly loaded at run-time, a process referred to simply as \"run-time dynamic linking\" by Microsoft, by using the codice_10 (or codice_11) API function. The codice_12 API function is used to look up exported symbols by name, and codice_13 – to unload the DLL. These functions are analogous to codice_14, codice_15, and codice_16 in the POSIX standard API. The procedure for explicit run-time linking is the same in any language that supports pointers to functions, since it depends on the Windows API rather than language constructs.", "Normally, an application that is linked against a DLL’s import library will fail to start if the DLL cannot be found, because Windows will not run the application unless it can find all of the DLLs that the application may need. However an application may be linked against an import library to allow delayed loading of the dynamic library. In this case the operating system will not try to find or load the DLL when the application starts; instead, a stub is included in the application by the linker which will try to find and load the DLL through LoadLibrary and GetProcAddress when one of its functions is called. If the DLL cannot be found or loaded, or the called function does not exist, the application will generate an exception, which may be caught and handled appropriately. If the application does not handle the exception, it will be caught by the operating system, which will terminate the program with an error message. The delay-loading mechanism also provides notification hooks, allowing the application to perform additional processing or error handling when the DLL is loaded and/or any DLL function is called.", "", "In a source file, the keyword codice_17 is used instead of codice_18. At the end of the file, the functions to be exported are listed in codice_19 clause. Delphi does not need codice_20 files to import functions from DLLs; to link to a DLL, the codice_21 keyword is used in the function declaration to signal the DLL name, followed by codice_22 to name the symbol (if different) or codice_23 to identify the index.", "In Visual Basic (VB), only run-time linking is supported; but in addition to using codice_10 and codice_12 API functions, \"declarations\" of imported functions are allowed. When importing DLL functions through declarations, VB will generate a run-time error if the codice_1 file cannot be found. The developer can catch the error and handle it appropriately. When creating DLLs in VB, the IDE will only allow creation of ActiveX DLLs, however methods have been created to allow the user to explicitly tell the linker to include a.DEF file which defines the ordinal position and name of each exported function. This allows the user to create a standard Windows DLL using Visual Basic (Version 6 or lower) which can be referenced through a \"Declare\" statement.", "Microsoft Visual C++ (MSVC) provides several extensions to standard C++ which allow functions to be specified as imported or exported directly in the C++ code; these have been adopted by other Windows C and C++ compilers, including Windows versions of GCC. These extensions use the attribute codice_27 before a function declaration. Note that when C functions are accessed from C++, they must also be declared as codice_28 in C++ code, to inform the compiler that the C linkage should be used. Besides specifying imported or exported functions using codice_27 attributes, they may be listed in IMPORT or EXPORTS section of the codice_30 file used by the project. The codice_30 file is processed by the linker, rather than the compiler, and thus it is not specific to C++. DLL compilation will produce both codice_1 and codice_20 files. The codice_20 file (import library) is used to link against a DLL at compile-time; it is not necessary for run-time linking. Unless the DLL is a Component Object Model (COM) server, the codice_1 file must be placed in one of the directories listed in the PATH environment variable, in the default system directory, or in the same directory as the program using it. COM server DLLs are registered using regsvr32.exe, which places the DLL's location and its globally unique ID (GUID) in the registry. Programs can then use the DLL by looking up its GUID in the registry to find its location or create an instance of the COM object indirectly using its class identifier and interface identifier.", "", "The following examples show how to use language-specific bindings to import symbols for linking against a DLL at compile-time. Delphi program Example; // import function that adds two numbers function AddNumbers(a, b : Double): Double; StdCall; external 'Example.dll'; // main program var begin end. C Example.lib file must be included (assuming that Example.dll is generated) in the project (Add Existing Item option for Project!) before static linking. The file Example.lib is automatically generated by the compiler when compiling the DLL. Not executing the above statement would cause linking error as the linker would not know where to find the definition of AddNumbers. The DLL Example.dll may also have to be copied to the location where the.exe file would be generated by the following code. // Import function that adds two numbers extern \"C\" __declspec(dllimport) double AddNumbers(double a, double b); int main(int argc, char *argv[])", "The following examples show how to use the run-time loading and linking facilities using language-specific Windows API bindings. Note that all of the four samples are vulnerable to DLL preloading attacks, since example.dll can be resolved to a place unintended by the author (the current working directory goes \"before\" system library locations), and thus to a malicious version of the library. See the reference for Microsoft's guidance on safe library loading: one should use in to remove the current-directory lookup before any libraries are loaded.", "Option Explicit Declare Function AddNumbers Lib \"Example.dll\" _ (ByVal a As Double, ByVal b As Double) As Double Sub Main() End Sub", "program Example; begin end.", "// DLL function signature typedef double (*importFunction)(double, double); int main(int argc, char **argv)", "The Python ctypes binding will use POSIX API on POSIX systems. import ctypes my_dll = ctypes.cdll.LoadLibrary(\"Example.dll\") my_dll.AddNumbers.restype = ctypes.c_double p = my_dll.AddNumbers(ctypes.c_double(1.0), ctypes.c_double(2.0)) print(\"The result was:\", p)", "The Component Object Model (COM) defines a binary standard to host the implementation of objects in DLL and EXE files. It provides mechanisms to locate and version those files as well as a language-independent and machine-readable description of the interface. Hosting COM objects in a DLL is more lightweight and allows them to share resources with the client process. This allows COM objects to implement powerful back-ends to simple GUI front ends such as Visual Basic and ASP. They can also be programmed from scripting languages.", "Due to a vulnerability commonly known as DLL hijacking, DLL spoofing, DLL preloading or binary planting, many programs will load and execute a malicious DLL contained in the same folder as a data file opened by these programs. The vulnerability was discovered by Georgi Guninski in 2000. In August 2010 it gained worldwide publicity after ACROS security rediscovered it again and many hundreds of programs were found vulnerable. Programs that are run from unsafe locations, i.e. user-writable folders like the \"Downloads\" or the \"Temp\" directory, are almost always susceptible to this vulnerability." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Software architecture.", "Language bindings.", "Toolkit bindings.", "Available back-ends.", "Drawing model.", "Example.", "Notable usage.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A library written in one programming language may be used in another language if bindings are written; Cairo has a range of bindings for various languages including C++, C# and other CLI languages, Delphi, Factor, Haskell, Julia, Lua, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, Rust, Scheme, Smalltalk and several others like Gambas (Visual Basic like).", "Since Cairo is only a drawing library, it can be quite useful to integrate it with a graphical user interface toolkit.", "Cairo supports output to a number of different back-ends, known as \"surfaces\" in its code. Back-ends support includes output to the X Window System, via both Xlib and XCB, Win32 GDI, OS X Quartz Compositor, the BeOS API, OS/2, OpenGL contexts (directly and via glitz), local image buffers, PNG files, PDF, PostScript, DirectFB and SVG files. There are other back-ends in development targeting the graphics APIs OpenVG, Qt, Skia, and Microsoft's Direct2D.", "The Cairo drawing model relies on a three layer model. Any drawing process takes place in three steps: This constitutes a fundamentally different approach from Scalable Vector Graphics, which directly specifies the color of shapes with Cascading Style Sheets. Whereas Cairo would create a mask of a shape, then make a source for it, and then transfer them onto the surface, an SVG file would simply specify the shape with a codice_1 attribute. That said, the models are not incompatible; many SVG renderers use Cairo for heavy lifting.", "Quite complex \"Hello world\" graphics can be drawn with the help of Cairo with only a few lines of source code: int main(int argc, char **argv) {", "Cairo is popular in the open source community for providing cross-platform support for advanced 2D drawing.", "Keith Packard and Carl Worth founded the Cairo project for use in the X Window System. It was originally (until at least 2003) called Xr or Xr/Xc. The name was changed to emphasize the idea of a cross-platform library to access display server, not tied to the X Window System. The name \"Cairo\" derives from the original name \"Xr\", interpreted as the Greek letters chi and rho." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Team history.", "1947–1958: Beginnings and Minneapolis dynasty.", "1958–1968: Move to Los Angeles and Celtics rivalry.", "1968–1973: Wilt arrives.", "1973–1979: Building \"Showtime\".", "1979–1991: \"Showtime\".", "1991–1996: Post-\"Showtime\" dry spell.", "1996–2016: The Kobe Bryant era.", "1996–2004: O'Neal and Bryant dynasty.", "2004–2007: Rebuilding.", "2007–2011:The Kobe-Pau duo.", "2011–2016: Post-Jackson era.", "2016–present: Post-Bryant era.", "Rivalries.", "Boston Celtics.", "Detroit Pistons.", "Los Angeles Clippers.", "San Antonio Spurs.", "Ownerships, financial history, and fanbase.", "Name, logo and uniforms.", "Season-by-season record.", "Franchise and NBA records.", "Home arenas.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Draft picks.", "Head coaches.", "Hall of Famers, retired and honored numbers.", "Retired numbers.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Lakers' franchise began in 1947 when Ben Berger and Morris Chalfen of Minnesota purchased the recently disbanded Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League (NBL) for $15,000 from Gems owner Maury Winston. Minneapolis sportswriter Sid Hartman played a key behind the scenes role in helping put together the deal and later the team. Inspired by Minnesota's nickname, \"Land of 10,000 Lakes\", the team christened themselves the Lakers. Hartman helped them hire John Kundla from College of St. Thomas, to be their first head coach, by meeting with him and selling him on the team. The Lakers had a solid roster, which", "In their last year in Minneapolis, the Lakers went 25–50. On January 18, 1960, the team was coming off a loss and traveling to St. Louis when their plane crash-landed. Snow storms had driven the pilot 150 miles off course when he was forced to land in a cornfield. No one was hurt. Their record earned them the number two pick in the 1960 NBA draft. The team selected Jerry West from West Virginia University. During the 1960 off-season, the Lakers became the NBA's first West Coast team when owner Bob Short decided to move the team to Los Angeles. Led by Baylor's 34.8 ppg and 19.8 rpg, Los Angeles won 11 more than the year before in West's first season. On November 15 that season, Baylor set a new NBA scoring record when he scored 71 points in a victory against the New York Knicks while grabbing 25 rebounds. In doing so, Baylor broke his own NBA record of 64 points. Despite a losing record, the Lakers made the playoffs. They came within two points of the NBA Finals when they lost in game seven of their second round series against St. Louis.", "On July 9, 1968, the team acquired Wilt Chamberlain from the Philadelphia 76ers for Darrell Imhoff, Archie Clark, and Jerry Chambers. In his first season as a Laker, Chamberlain set a team record by averaging a league-leading 21.1 rpg. West, Baylor, and Chamberlain each averaged over 20 points, and Los Angeles won their division. The Lakers and Celtics again met in the finals, and Los Angeles had home court advantage against Boston for the first time in their rivalry. They won the first game behind Jerry West's 53 points, and had", "During the 1973–74 season, the team was hampered by the loss of West, who played only 31 games before his legs gave out. Goodrich, averaging 25.3 points, helped the team to a late-season surge. Trailing the Golden State Warriors by three games with seven left to play, the Lakers rallied to finish 47–35 and win the Pacific Division. They made the playoffs but managed just one win against Milwaukee in the conference semifinals. Following the season, West retired due to contract disagreements with Cooke, and filed a suit for unpaid back wages. After missing the playoffs in the 1974–75 season, the Lakers acquired Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, who had won three league MVP's by that time. Abdul-Jabbar wanted out of Milwaukee, demanding a trade to either New York or Los Angeles. He was traded for Elmore Smith, Brian Winters, Junior Bridgeman, and Dave Meyers. Abdul-Jabbar had his fourth MVP season in 1975–76, leading the league in rebounding, blocked shots, and minutes played. The Lakers struggled in January, going 3–10, and finished out of the playoffs at 40–42. West and Cooke settled their differences—and the former", "In the 1979 NBA draft, Los Angeles selected point guard Magic Johnson from Michigan State with the first overall pick. It took Johnson's teammates time to acclimate themselves to his passing ability, as his \"no-look\" passes often caught them unaware. Once they adjusted, his passing became a key part of Los Angeles' offense. The Lakers won 60 games in Johnson's rookie year, and defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in six games in the 1980 NBA Finals. Johnson won the Finals MVP award, after starting at center for the injured Abdul-Jabbar in game six, and tallying 42 points, 15 rebounds, and seven assists. The team fell off in the 1980–81 season, though, as the Lakers lost Johnson for most of the season to a knee injury. The team turned in a 54–28 record and finished second behind the Phoenix Suns in the Pacific Division. The Rockets, led by Moses Malone, defeated Los Angeles in the first round of the playoffs. Early in the 1981–82 season, Johnson complained to the media about head coach Paul Westhead and demanded a trade. Westhead was fired shortly after Johnson's criticisms, and although Lakers' owner Jerry Buss stated that Johnson's comments did not factor into the decision,", "On November 7, 1991, Magic Johnson announced he had tested positive for HIV and would retire immediately. In their first season without Johnson, the team won 43 games to earn the eighth seed in the Western Conference playoffs. The Lakers were defeated in the first round by Portland. Following the season, head coach Mike Dunleavy was fired. The Lakers would lose 43 games in 1992–93 under Randy Pfund, their first losing season since 1976. The Lakers would still make the playoffs, and would become the first eighth seed to win the opening two games on the road against a number one seed when they took a 2–0 lead against Phoenix. They lost the next two games at home however,", "", "During the 1996 off-season, the Lakers acquired 17-year-old Kobe Bryant from the Charlotte Hornets for Vlade Divac; Bryant was drafted 13th overall out of Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania in that year's draft, by Charlotte. Los Angeles also signed free-agent Shaquille O'Neal. Trading for Bryant was West's idea, and he was influential in the team's signing of the all-star center. \"Jerry West is the reason I came to the Lakers\", O'Neal later said. They used their 24th pick in the 1996 draft to select Derek Fisher. During the season, the team traded Cedric Ceballos to Phoenix for Robert Horry. O'Neal led the team to a 56–26 record, their best effort since 1990–91, despite missing 31 games due to a knee injury. O'Neal averaged 26.2 ppg and 12.5 rpg and finished third in the league in blocked shots (2.88 bpg) in 51 games. The Lakers defeated the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round of the playoffs as O'Neal scored 46 points in Game 1 against the Trail Blazers, marking the highest single-game playoff scoring output by a Laker since Jerry West scored 53 against the Celtics in 1969. In the next round, the", "During the 2004 off-season, the team entered a rebuilding phase when O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Brian Grant, Caron Butler, and a first-round draft pick. Bryant and O'Neal had clashed in the past, and the media credited their feud as one of the motivating factors for the trade. Jackson did not return as head coach, and about the team's 2003–04 season, in which he heavily criticized Bryant and called him \"uncoachable\". The Lakers front office said that the book contained \"several inaccuracies\". The Lakers also traded Rick Fox and Gary Payton to Boston, for Chris Mihm, Marcus Banks, and Chucky Atkins before the 2004–05 season. Derek Fisher, frustrated with losing playing time, opted out of his contract and signed with the Warriors. The team hired Rudy Tomjanovich to replace Jackson. After sitting out the first half of the 2004–05 season, Malone announced his retirement on February 13, 2005. Tomjanovich coached the team to", "After re-acquiring Derek Fisher, the Lakers started the 2007–08 season with a 25–11 record, before Andrew Bynum, their center who was leading the league in field-goal percentage, went out for the year due to a knee injury in mid-January. In what would become a crucial transfer for the franchise's return to championship form, they acquired the six-time all-star power forward Pau Gasol from the Memphis Grizzlies in a trade in early February and went 22–5 to finish the season. The Lakers' 57–25 record earned them the first seed in the Western Conference. Bryant was awarded the league's MVP award, becoming the first Laker to win the award since O'Neal in 2000. In the playoffs, they defeated the Nuggets in four games, the Jazz in six, and the defending champion Spurs in five, but lost to the Celtics in six games in the NBA Finals. In the 2008–09 season, the Lakers finished 65–17; the best record in the Western Conference. They defeated the Jazz in five games, the Rockets in seven and the Nuggets in", "After Jackson's retirement, former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach Mike Brown was hired as head coach on May 25, 2011. Before the start of the shortened 2011–12 season, the Lakers traded Lamar Odom to the Dallas Mavericks after Odom requested to be traded. On the trade deadline long time Laker Derek Fisher along with a first round draft pick were traded to the Houston Rockets for Jordan Hill. With a 41–25 regular season record the Lakers entered the playoffs as the third seed, the team defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round in seven games but were eliminated by the Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round in five games. On July 4, 2012, Steve Nash of the Phoenix Suns agreed to a sign-and-trade deal that would send him to the Lakers in exchange for the Lakers' 2013 and 2015 first round draft picks, 2013 and 2014 second round draft picks, and $3 million. The trade was made official on July 11, 2012, the first day the trade moratorium was lifted. On August 10, 2012, in a four-team trade the Lakers traded Andrew Bynum and acquired Dwight Howard. On November 9, 2012, Mike Brown was relieved of coaching duties after a 1–4 start to the 2012–13 season. Assistant Coach Bernie Bickerstaff took over as interim head coach, leading the Lakers to a 5–5 record. On November 12, 2012, the Lakers hired Mike D'Antoni as head coach. On February 18, 2013, Lakers owner Jerry Buss died from cancer at age 80. On the court, D'Antoni coached the Lakers to a 40–32 record the rest of the way to finish 45–37, their worst record since 2007. The Lakers clinched a playoff berth on the final game of the season and finished seventh in the Western Conference after beating the Houston Rockets on April 16, 2013. The Lakers battled injuries all season, the most prominent of which is the Achilles tendon", "On April 24, 2016, the Lakers announced that they would not exercise their option on Byron Scott's contract for the following season. On April 29, the Lakers announced another former Laker, Luke Walton, as their new head coach. At the time of his hiring, Walton was an assistant coach for the Golden State Warriors, who were in the playoffs, so Walton could not officially begin his duties as head coach until the Warriors' playoff run was over. The Lakers earned the second overall pick in the 2016 NBA draft, and selected Brandon Ingram from Duke University. On February 21, 2017, the Lakers fired general manager Mitch Kupchak, while Magic Johnson was named as the president of basketball operations. The team's governor Jeanie Buss, also announced the removal of her brother, Jim Buss, from his position as executive vice president of basketball operations. On March 7, 2017, the Lakers hired Rob Pelinka as the general manager, signing", "", "The rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Lakers involves the two most storied basketball franchises in National Basketball Association (NBA) history. It has been called the best rivalry in the NBA. The two teams have met a record 12 times in the NBA Finals, starting with their first Finals meeting in. They would go on to dominate the league in the 1960s and the 1980s, facing each other six times in the 1960s and three times in", "The rivalry between the Lakers and the Detroit Pistons developed in the late 1980s. Both teams faced each other in back-to-back finals appearances in the 1988 NBA Finals, which the", "The rivalry between the Lakers and the Los Angeles Clippers is unique because they are the only two NBA teams to share an arena, the Staples Center. It is also one", "The San Antonio Spurs and the Lakers, developed what some would classify as a rivalry in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Since 1999, the teams have met in the NBA Playoffs five times, with the clubs combining to appear in seven consecutive NBA Finals (from 1999 to 2005). Additionally, the teams combined to win five NBA championships from 1999", "Berger and Chalfen purchased the NBL's disbanded Detroit Gems for $15,000 in 1947, changed their name to the Lakers and relocated them to Minnesota. Max Winter bought a third of the club in their early years, and sold his share to Mikan in 1954. Berger bought Mikan's share in 1956 giving him a controlling (2⁄3) interest. After Mikan retired, attendance plummeted and the team lost money for several seasons, leading the ownership group to put the team up for sale in 1957. Marty Marion, a retired baseball player and manager, and his business partner Milton Fischman attempted to purchase the team with the intention of moving the club to Kansas City, Missouri. Mikan offered to mortgage his home in an attempt to buy the team and keep the club in Minnesota. The Lakers were sold to a group of investors led by Bob Short however. The team was sold to Short's group with the agreement that it would not be relocated to Kansas City but kept in Minnesota. Short's ownership group consisted of 117 Minnesota businesses and private citizens, who amassed a total of $200,000 for the purchase; $150,000 to buy the team and $50,000 to run it. By 1958 Short had become 80% owner of the team by buying out his partners, but the team was floundering. Attendance remained poor, and the NBA had put the Lakers on \"financial probation\", notifying them that if they did not meet certain ticket sales numbers they could be bought out by the league and relocated. Short was forced to move the team to Los Angeles in 1960; the club had lost $60,000 in the first half of the 1959–60 season alone. The NBA's owners originally voted 7–1 against the move. When Short indicated that he might take the team to new rival league that was developing however, the owners held another vote that same day and allowed the relocation (8–0). Aided by Baylor's drawing power,", "The Laker nickname came from the state of Minnesota being the \"Land of 10,000 Lakes\". The team's colors are purple, gold and", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Lakers. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Los Angeles Lakers seasons.\" The Lakers have won 16 NBA titles and have appeared in", "Bryant holds most individual team records for longevity including most games played (1,333), and most minutes logged (48,298). Johnson holds all significant assist records for the club including career assists (10,141), assists in a game (24), and highest assist average for a season (13.1). Johnson also has the most triple doubles, with his 138 over 100 more than the next closest player (Bryant; 17). Elmore Smith holds team records for blocks in a game (17), blocks per game for a season (4.85), and career blocks per game (3.93). The scoring records are mostly shared by Elgin Baylor and Bryant, with Baylor having the highest average for a career (27.4) while Bryant has the highest points scored in a single game (81). Baylor, Bryant and West hold the top five single season scoring", "The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center, located at L.A. Live in Downtown Los Angeles. The arena opened in fall 1999, and seats up to 18,997 for Lakers games. Owned and operated by AEG and L.A. Arena Company, the arena is also home to the Los Angeles Clippers, the WNBA's Los Angeles Sparks, and the NHL's Los Angeles Kings. Before moving to Staples Center, for 32 seasons (1967–1999), the Lakers played their", "", "The Lakers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "The Lakers have had three first overall picks in their history: Elgin Baylor (selected in 1958), Magic Johnson (selected in 1979) and James Worthy (selected in 1982). The Lakers have also had six lottery picks in their history: Eddie Jones (selected 10th overall in 1994), Andrew Bynum (selected 10th overall in 2005), Julius Randle", "There have been 22 head coaches for the Lakers franchise. John Kundla coached the team in Minneapolis when they won their first five BAA/NBA championships from 1949 to 1954. Pat Riley is second in franchise history in both regular season and playoff games coached and wins. Phil Jackson broke Riley's regular season wins record in 2009, and he passed Riley's playoff wins and games coached records in 2010. Jackson, Riley, Kundla, and Bill Sharman have all been inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame for their coaching careers. George Mikan, Jim Pollard, Jerry West, Pat Riley, Magic", "The Lakers have 34 Hall of Famers (26 players, 4 head coaches, 1 assistant coach, and 3 contributors) who contributed to the organization. Notes:", "The Lakers have retired eleven jersey numbers and an honorary microphone in honor of their players and broadcaster: In addition,", "For 41 years, Chick Hearn was the team's broadcaster until his death in 2002. He broadcast 3,338 consecutive games between November 21, 1965, and December 16, 2001. Hearn came up with West's \"Mr. Clutch\" nickname. He was a part of the team's \"inner sanctum\" when Cooke was owner, and was consulted on basketball decisions. Paul Sunderland, who had filled in for a couple of games while Hearn recuperated in the 2001–02 season, was named the permanent play-by-play announcer. Stu Lantz was retained as the color commentator. When Sunderland's contract expired in the summer of 2005, the team chose not to renew it. Then, Joel Meyers moved in alongside Lantz as the television announcer, with Spero Dedes and former Laker player Mychal Thompson on the radio. For the 2011–12 season, Bill Macdonald became the new television play-by-play announcer, joining Lantz who remained as the color analyst. Meanwhile, John Ireland joined Mychal Thompson to call the games on radio. Beginning in the 2009–10 season, Lakers radio broadcasts were heard on KSPN (Los Angeles ESPN Radio affiliate) in English and KWKW in Spanish. KLAC had the team's radio broadcast rights from the 1976–77 season until the 2008–09 season. Until 2011, telecasts had been split between KCAL-TV (road games) and Fox Sports West (home games), unless they are chosen for national broadcasts on ABC. KCAL had been the Lakers' over-the-air television broadcaster since 1977, dating back to when the station was the RKO General-owned KHJ-TV, the longest relationship between an NBA team and a television station. Prior to KHJ, Laker games were televised on KTLA. The Lakers had been on Fox Sports West since 1985, dating to when it was the original Prime Ticket and owned by Buss. On February 14, 2011, Time Warner Cable and the Lakers announced the formation of two new regional sports networks (one in English, one in Spanish) that would exclusively televise the team's games and related programming for 20 years starting with the 2012–13 season. The said networks were originally known as Time Warner Cable SportsNet, before it was renamed Spectrum SportsNet in 2016 upon Charter Communications' purchase of Time Warner Cable." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Background.", "Discovery.", "Properties.", "Foods rich in umami components.", "Taste receptors.", "Consumers and safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A loanword from the Japanese, \"umami\" can be translated as \"pleasant savory taste.\" This neologism was coined in 1908 by Japanese chemist Kikunae Ikeda from a nominalization of \"umai\" () \"delicious.\" The compound (with \"mi\" () \"taste\") is used for a more general sense of a food as delicious.", "Scientists have debated whether umami was a basic taste since Kikunae Ikeda first proposed its existence in 1908. In 1985, the term \"umami\" was recognized as the scientific term to describe the taste of glutamates and nucleotides at the first Umami International Symposium in Hawaii. Umami represents the taste of the amino acid L-glutamate and 5’-ribonucleotides such as guanosine monophosphate (GMP) and inosine monophosphate (IMP). It can be described as a pleasant \"brothy\" or \"meaty\" taste with a long-lasting, mouthwatering and coating sensation over the tongue. The sensation of umami is due to the detection of the carboxylate anion of glutamate in specialized receptor cells present on the human and other animal tongues. Some 52 peptides may be responsible for detecting umami taste. Its effect is to balance taste and round out the overall flavor of a dish. Umami enhances the palatability of a wide variety of foods. Glutamate in acid form (glutamic acid) imparts little umami taste, whereas the salts of glutamic acid, known as glutamates, give the characteristic umami taste due to their ionized state. GMP and IMP amplify the taste intensity of glutamate. Adding salt to the free acids also enhances the umami taste. Monosodium L-aspartate has an umami taste about four times less intense than MSG whereas ibotenic acid and tricholomic acid (likely as their salts or with salt) are claimed to be many times more intense.", "Glutamate has a long history in cooking. Fermented fish sauces (garum), which are rich in glutamate, were used widely in ancient Rome, fermented barley sauces (murri) rich in glutamate were used in medieval Byzantine and Arab cuisine, and fermented fish sauces and soy sauces have histories going back to the 3rd century in China. In the late-1800s, chef Auguste Escoffier, who opened restaurants in Paris and London, created meals that combined umami with salty, sour, sweet, and bitter tastes. He did not know the chemical source of this unique quality, however. Umami was first scientifically identified in 1908 by Kikunae Ikeda, a professor of the Tokyo Imperial University. He found that glutamate was responsible for the palatability of the broth from \"kombu\" seaweed. He noticed that the taste of \"kombu\" \"dashi\" was distinct from sweet, sour, bitter, and salty and named it \"umami\". Professor Shintaro Kodama, a disciple of Ikeda, discovered in 1913 that dried bonito flakes (a type of tuna) contained another umami substance. This was the ribonucleotide IMP. In 1957, Akira Kuninaka realized that the ribonucleotide GMP present in shiitake mushrooms also conferred the umami taste. One of Kuninaka's most important discoveries was the synergistic effect between ribonucleotides and glutamate. When foods rich in glutamate are combined with ingredients that have ribonucleotides, the resulting taste intensity is higher than would be expected from merely adding the intensity of the individual ingredients. This synergy of umami may help explain various classical foodpairings: the Japanese make \"dashi\" with \"kombu\" seaweed and dried bonito flakes; the Chinese add Chinese leek and Chinese cabbage to chicken soup, as do Scots in the similar Scottish dish of cock-a-leekie soup; and Italians combine Parmesan cheese on tomato sauce with mushrooms.", "Umami has a mild but lasting aftertaste associated with salivation and a sensation of furriness on the tongue, stimulating the throat, the roof and the back of the mouth. By itself, umami is not palatable, but it makes a great variety of foods pleasant, especially in the presence of a matching aroma. Like other basic tastes, umami is pleasant only within a relatively narrow concentration range. The optimum umami taste depends also on the amount of salt, and at the same time, low-salt foods can maintain a satisfactory taste with the appropriate amount of umami. One study showed that ratings of pleasantness, taste intensity, and ideal saltiness of low-salt soups were greater when the soup contained umami, whereas low-salt soups without umami were less pleasant. Another study demonstrated that using fish sauce as a source of umami could reduce the need for salt by 10–25% to flavor such foods as chicken broth, tomato sauce, or coconut curry while maintaining overall taste intensity. Some population groups, such as the elderly, may benefit from umami taste because their taste and smell sensitivity is impaired by age and medication. The loss of taste and smell can contribute to poor nutrition, increasing their risk of disease. Some evidence exists to show umami not only stimulates appetite, but also may contribute to satiety.", "Many foods are rich in the amino acids imparting umami, including mother's milk. Naturally occurring glutamate can be found in meats and vegetables. Inosinate (another name for IMP) comes primarily from meats and guanylate from vegetables. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are rich sources of umami flavor from guanylate. Smoked or fermented fish are high in inosinate, and shellfish in adenylate. Generally, umami taste is common to foods that contain high levels of L-glutamate, IMP and GMP, most notably in fish, shellfish, cured meats, meat extracts, mushrooms, vegetables (e.g., ripe tomatoes, Chinese cabbage, spinach, celery, etc.), green tea, hydrolysed vegetable protein, and fermented and aged products involving bacterial or yeast cultures, such as cheeses, shrimp pastes, fish sauce, soy sauce, nutritional yeast, and yeast extracts such as Vegemite and Marmite.", "Most taste buds on the tongue and other regions of the mouth can detect umami taste, irrespective of their location. The tongue map in which different tastes are distributed in different regions of the tongue is a common misconception. Biochemical studies have identified the taste receptors responsible for the sense of umami as modified forms of mGluR4, mGluR1, and taste receptor type 1 (T1R1 + T1R3), all of which have been found in all regions of the tongue bearing taste buds. A 2009 review corroborated the acceptance of these receptors, stating, \"Recent molecular biological studies have now identified strong candidates for umami receptors, including the heterodimer T1R1/T1R3, and truncated type 1 and 4 metabotropic glutamate receptors missing most of the N-terminal extracellular domain (taste-mGluR4 and truncated-mGluR1) and brain-mGluR4.\" Receptors mGluR1 and mGluR4 are specific to glutamate whereas T1R1 + T1R3 are responsible for the synergism already described by Akira Kuninaka in 1957. However, the specific role of each type of receptor in taste bud cells remains unclear. They are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) with similar signaling molecules that include G proteins beta-gamma, PLCB2 and PI3-mediated release of calcium (Ca) from intracellular stores. Calcium activates a so-called transient-receptor-potential cation channel TRPM5 that leads to membrane depolarization and the consequent release of ATP and secretion of neurotransmitters including serotonin. Cells responding to umami taste stimuli do not possess typical synapses, but ATP conveys taste signals to gustatory nerves and in turn to the brain that interprets and identifies the taste quality via the gut-brain axis.", "Umami has become popular as a flavor with food manufacturers trying to improve the taste of low sodium offerings. Chefs create \"umami bombs,\" which are dishes made of several umami ingredients like fish sauce. Umami may account for the long-term formulation and popularity of ketchup. The United States Food and Drug Administration has designated the umami enhancer monosodium glutamate (MSG) as a safe ingredient. While some people identify themselves as sensitive to MSG, a study commissioned by the FDA was only able to identify transient, mild symptoms in a few of the subjects, and only when the MSG was consumed in unrealistically large quantities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Homer.", "Later myths.", "Melampus' alleged writings.", "\"Melampodia\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Homer's \"Odyssey\", a digression concerning the lineage of Theoclymenus, \"a prophet, sprung from Melampus' line of seers\", sketches the epic narrative concerning Melampus with such brevity that its details must have been familiar to Homer's audience. With brief hints, a sequence of episodes is alluded to, in which we discern strife in Pylos between Melampus and Neleus, who usurps Melampus's \"great high house\", forcing him into heroic exile. Melampus spends a year as bondsman in the house of Phylacus, \"all for Neleus' daughter Pero\". At his extremity, Melampus is visited by \"the mad spell a Fury, murderous spirit, cast upon his mind. But the seer worked free of death\" and succeeded at last in rustling Phylacus's cattle back to Pylos, where he avenged himself on Neleus and gave Pero in marriage to his brother Bias. But Melampus's own destiny lay in Argos, where he lived and ruled, married and sired a long line, also briefly sketched in Homer's excursus.", "At a later date the narrative was embellished with anecdotal detail: Melampus lived in Pylos during the reign of Anaxagoras or possibly Proetus. The king offered a reward for anybody that could heal his son, who suffered from a strange malady. Melampus killed an ox and talked to the vultures that came to eat the corpse. They said that the last time they had had such a feast was when the king had made a sacrifice. They told Melampus that the prince had been frightened of the big, bloody knife and the king tossed it aside to calm the child. It had hit a tree and injured a hamadryad, who cursed the prince with the sickness. The hamadryad told Melampus that the boy would be healed if the knife was taken out of the trunk of the tree and boiled, then the prince should drink the rusty water that resulted. Melampus followed her directions and, as payment for the cure, demanded two thirds of the kingdom for himself, and one third for his brother, Bias. The king agreed. In another version of Melampus' story, when the women of Argos were driven mad by Dionysus, in the reign of Anaxagoras or possibly Proetus, Melampus was brought in to cure them, but demanded a third of the kingdom as payment. The king refused, but the women became wilder than ever, and he was forced to seek out Melampus again, who this time demanded both a third for himself and another third for his brother Bias. The king felt he had no choice but to agree, and so Melampus led them to the city of Lusi where they were healed of their madness in a sanctuary of Artemis. Melampus' reputation as a seer spawned myths that verge on anecdote, to account for his gift, the offering of serpents. In one, as a young boy, he told his servants not to kill two snakes. Grateful, the snakes gave Melampus the ability to speak with animals. Another version says that he found a mother snake that had been crushed under a cart and two orphaned babies. Rather than leaving them he gave the snake a burial and raised the young ones. To thank him they licked his ears so clean that he was able to understand animals. After this there were three kings ruling Argos at any time, one descended from each of Bias, Melampus, and Anaxagoras. Melampus was succeeded by his son Mantius, and his house of Melampus lasted down to the brothers Alcmaeon and Amphilochus, who fought in the Trojan War. Late in his life, Melampus was kidnapped. In his cell, he overheard two termites talking, claiming they would be finished eating through Melampus' ceiling the next morning. Melampus called his captors and demanded a move. He made such an uproar that the kidnappers agreed. When the ceiling collapsed the next morning, the kidnappers decided he was a prophet and that to hold on to him might offend the gods. They let him go. Melampus also figures in the tale of King Midas, the pleasure-loving King of Phrygia. King Midas was chosen to be a judge between the famous musical contest between Apollo and Marsyas. Although Apollo clearly had won, King Midas disagreed with the other judges. Apollo called the King an ass, and to prove his point he touched him on the head and gave Midas the ears of a donkey. Long and hairy they sprouted up, and Midas in a panic covered them up with a tall Phrygian cap, hoping nobody ever discovered his embarrassing secret. Only his barber knew of this disgraceful matter, but Midas had warned him that he would be put to death if ever he revealed to anyone the asinine state of the King's ears. The barber found himself bursting with the secret and couldn't bear to keep the gossip to himself, but was afraid for his life. So he dug a hole in the bank of the Pactolus river and, after making certain that nobody was listening, he whispered into the hole that \"King Midas has ass's ears.\" Filling up the hole to forever bury the secret, the barber went away happy and at peace with himself. All was well until the next spring, when a reed sprouted up from the hole and whispered to the other reeds that King Midas had the ears of a donkey. These reeds in turn whispered the secret to all creatures who passed. Soon the birds learned the news and brought it to Melampus. Melampus told all his friends and soon the entire kingdom knew about King Midas' miserable secret.", "Three works have survived under the name \"Melampus.\" A certain Melampus wrote a treatise on the laws of symmetry prior to the first century BC. (Vitruvius VII, introduction). This treatise is lost.", "A work attributed in antiquity to Hesiod exists (\"Melampodia\") in such fragmentary quotations and chance remarks that its reconstruction, according to Walter Burkert, is \"most uncertain.\" An attempt was made by I Löffler, \"Die Melampodie: Versuch einer Rekonstruction des Inhalts\" (1963)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Eudora was developed in 1988 by Steve Dorner, who worked at the Computer Services Organization of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. The software was named after American author Eudora Welty, because of her short story \"Why I Live at the P.O.\"; Dorner rearranged the title to form the slogan \"Bringing the P.O. to Where You Live\" for his software. Although he regretted naming it after the still-living author because he thought doing so was \"presumptuous\", Welty was reportedly \"pleased and amused\" by Dorner's tribute. Eudora was acquired by Qualcomm in 1991. Originally distributed free of charge, Eudora was commercialized and offered as a Light (freeware) and Pro (commercial) product. Between 2003 and 2006 the full-featured Pro version was also available as a \"Sponsored mode\" (adware) distribution. In 2006 Qualcomm stopped development of the commercial version, and sponsored the creation of a new open-source version based on Mozilla Thunderbird, code-named Penelope, later renamed to Eudora OSE. Development of the open-source version stopped in 2010 and was officially deprecated in 2013, with users advised to switch to the current version of Thunderbird. Eudora (6.0.1) added support for Bayesian filtering of spam with a feature called \"SpamWatch\". Eudora (6.2) added a scam watch feature that flags suspicious links within emails in an attempt to thwart phishing. Eudora (7.0) added ultra-fast search, which finds any emails using single or multiple criteria in seconds. Eudora has support for \"stationery\", a standard message or reply prepared ahead of time to a common question. Eudora stores emails in a modified mbox format (*.mbx), which uses plain text files instead of a database as Microsoft Outlook does. This allows the user to back up portions of their email correspondence without backing up the entire database. Eudora supports the POP3, IMAP and SMTP protocols. Eudora also has support for SSL and, in Windows, S/MIME authentication, allowing users to sign or encrypt email communications for greatest security. Eudora is noteworthy for its extensive variety of settings to customize its behavior, many of which are not available in the user interface but are accessed using x-eudora-setting URIs that must be pasted into a message and clicked. At one time, Eudora also offered a webmail service at eudoramail.com. This service was run by Lycos as part of Mailcity, later renamed Lycos Mail. In 2006, Eudoramail addresses for users were still working (and were redirected to Lycos Mail accounts), but new users could no longer sign up for the service. Eudora for Windows never had any form of support for character encoding and was hardcoded to declare every email sent as encoded iso-8859-1, regardless of the actual content, and displayed every incoming email using the system encoding (one of the Windows encodings, depending on the language version of the system). This created problems for users corresponding in languages other than Western European ones and, later on, for everybody as UTF-8 became more and more popular. At least two third-party plugins exist that can convert characters that also exist in iso-8859-1, and it's also possible to run it with \"Mime-proxy\", but depending on a specific user's needs and due in part to the internal limitations of Eudora they may only offer a partial solution. On May 22, 2018, after five years of discussion with Qualcomm, the Computer History Museum acquired full ownership of the source code, the Eudora trademarks, copyrights, and domain names. The transfer agreement from Qualcomm also allowed the Computer History Museum to publish the source code under the BSD open source license. The Eudora source code distributed by the Computer History Museum is the same except for the addition of the new license, sanitization of \"bad words\" found mostly in comment sections of the code and the removal of third-party software that neither the museum nor Qualcomm had the right to distribute." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Design and construction.", "2003 dry dock accident.", "Exterior.", "Interior.", "Technical aspects.", "Power plant and propulsion system.", "Navigation.", "Water supply.", "Environmental performance.", "Service history.", "World cruises.", "Anniversary voyage.", "The Boston Cup.", "Propulsion failures.", "Cunard Royal Rendezvous.", "Atlantic rowing.", "Engine fire.", "Plant incident.", "200th transatlantic voyage.", "10th birthday celebrations.", "Cunard 175th anniversary.", "2016 refit.", "Atlantic rescue.", "COVID-19." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Queen Mary 2\" is the flagship of Cunard Line. She was constructed to replace the ageing \"Queen Elizabeth 2\", which was the Cunard flagship from 1969 to 2004 and the last major ocean liner built before \"Queen Mary 2\". \"Queen Mary 2\" had the Royal Mail Ship (RMS) prefix conferred on her by the Royal Mail when she entered service in 2004, as a gesture to Cunard's history. \"Queen Mary 2\" is not a steamship like many of her predecessors, but is powered primarily by four diesel engines, with two additional gas turbines providing extra power when required; this integrated electric", "Cunard completed a design for a new class of, 2,000 passenger liners on 8 June 1998, but revised them upon comparing those specifications with Carnival Cruise Line's \"Destiny\"-class cruise ships and Royal Caribbean International's \"Voyager\" class. In December 1998, Cunard released details of \"Project Queen Mary\", the project to develop a liner that would complement \"Queen Elizabeth 2\". Harland and Wolff of Northern Ireland, Aker Kværner of Norway, Fincantieri of Italy, Meyer Werft of Germany, and Chantiers de l'Atlantique of France were invited to bid on the project. The contract was finally signed with Chantiers de l'Atlantique, a subsidiary of Alstom, on 6 November 2000. This was the same yard that built Cunard's former rivals, the and of the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique. The \"QM2's\" keel was laid down on 4 July 2002, in the construction dock at Saint-Nazaire, France, with the hull number \"G32\". Approximately 3,000 craftsmen spent around eight million working hours on the ship, and around 20,000 people were directly or indirectly involved in her design, construction, and fitting out. In total, 300,000 pieces of steel were assembled into 94 \"blocks\" off the dry dock, which were then positioned and welded together to complete the hull and superstructure. After floating out on 21 March 2003, the \"Queen Mary 2\" was fitted out in the large fitting out basin (\"Bassin C\"), the first ship to use this huge dry dock since the shipyard built large tankers in the 1970s, such as the MV Gastor. Her sea trials were conducted during 25–29 September and 7–11 November 2003, between Saint-Nazaire and the offshore islands of Île d'Yeu and Belle-Île.", "The final stages of construction were marred by a fatal accident on 15 November 2003, when a gangway collapsed under a group of shipyard workers and their relatives who had been invited to visit the vessel.", "\"Queen Mary 2\"'s principal naval architect was Carnival's in-house designer, Stephen Payne. He intended many aspects of the ship's design to resemble notable aspects of former ocean liners, such as \"Queen Elizabeth 2\" and the ship's predecessor \"Queen Mary\". These include the three thick black lines known as \"\"hands\" that wrap around either edge of the ship's bridge screen, and at the stern end of the superstructure, which are to recall the appearance of the crossovers of the forward decks on the first \"Queen Mary\". \"Queen Mary 2\" has", "As is the case with many modern passenger ships, many of the major public rooms on board \"Queen Mary 2\" are on the lowest public decks of the ship, with the passenger cabins stacked above. This is the opposite of the traditional practice on ocean liners, but the design allowed for larger rooms to be contained within the stronger hull, as well as for more passenger cabins to have private balconies higher up on the ship, where they are less affected by large waves. Payne attempted to create a central axis to the two main public room decks (similar in fashion to the \"Normandie\"), but a full vista is broken by various public rooms that span the full beam of the ship. The dining rooms were placed further aft, though not directly at the stern,", "", "\"Queen Mary 2\"'s power plant comprises four sixteen-cylinder Wärtsilä 16V46CR \"EnviroEngine\" marine diesel engines, generating a combined at 514 rpm, and two General Electric LM2500+ gas turbines, provide a further ; these drive electric generators, which in turn provide the power to drive four Alstom electrical motors located inside the podded propulsors (and thus entirely outside the vessel's hull). Such an arrangement, known as integrated electric propulsion (IEP), provides for economical cruising at low speed combined with an ability to sustain much higher speeds when required, and has been common in naval vessels for several decades. The propulsors are Rolls-Royce Mermaid azimuth thruster type podded propulsion units, each with one", "\"Queen Mary 2\" has a fully integrated bridge system designed by British firm Kelvin Hughes, which controls the ship's navigation", "Fresh water aboard \"Queen Mary 2\" is supplied by three seawater desalination plants. The plants, each with a capacity of per day, use multiple effect plate (MEP) distillation technology. The plants' energy is supplied primarily by steam and cooling water from the ship's gas turbines and diesel engines, or if needed by steam from the ship's two oil-fired boilers. The traditional multiple-effect distillation technology has been improved for the ship's plant, so that scaling of plates is reduced, vastly reducing maintenance required. The desalinated water has a very low salt content of less than five parts per million. Average total water production is per", "When designing \"Queen Mary 2\", the designers considered that tighter environmental regulations would be implemented while the ship was in service, such as energy efficiency, the reuse of treated wastewater for non-potable uses and zero discharge of solid waste into the sea. According to Cunard, the ship exceeds some requirements of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships (MARPOL 73/78) of the International Maritime Organization. It discharges waste into the sea only in areas more than from any coast, even though MARPOL allows discharge of treated organic waste and treated bilge water closer to the shore.", "On 12 January 2004 \"Queen Mary 2\" set sail on her maiden voyage from Southampton, England, to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, in the United States, carrying 2,620 passengers. She was under the command of captain Ronald Warwick, who had previously commanded \"Queen Elizabeth 2\". Warwick is the son of William (Bill) Warwick, who had also been a senior Cunard officer and the first captain of \"Queen Elizabeth 2\". The ship returned to Southampton late from her maiden voyage after bow doors covering the thrusters failed to shut in Portugal. During the 2004 Summer Olympics \"Queen Mary 2\" sailed to Athens and docked at Piraeus for two weeks for use as a floating hotel, serving the then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair and his wife Cherie, French President Jacques Chirac, then United States President George W. Bush, and the United States Olympic men's basketball team. According to Cunard, \"Queen Mary 2\"'s passengers have also included jazz musician Dave Brubeck and singers Rod Stewart, Carly Simon, and James Taylor. One 2005 transatlantic crossing saw \"Queen Mary 2\" carrying, in a locked steamer trunk, the first United States copy of J. K. Rowling's book \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\", autographed by the author. In a promotional press release for the event, Cunard said that this marked the first time a book had been transported to its international launch aboard an ocean liner. In January 2006 \"Queen Mary 2\" embarked on a circumnavigation of South America. Upon departure from Fort Lauderdale, one of her propeller pods was damaged when it struck a channel wall, forcing the ship to sail at a reduced speed, which resulted in Commodore Warwick's decision to skip several calls on its voyage to Rio de Janeiro. Many of her passengers threatened to stage a sit-in protest because of the missed calls, before Cunard offered to refund the voyage costs. \"Queen Mary 2\" continued to operate at a reduced service speed and several itinerary changes were necessary until repairs had been completed after the ship returned to Europe in June, where \"Queen Mary 2\" paid a visit to dry dock and the damaged propeller pod was unseated. In November, \"Queen Mary 2\" was drydocked once more at the Blohm+Voss yard in Hamburg (drydock Elbe 17) for the reinstallation of the repaired propeller pod. At the same time, sprinkler systems were installed in all of the vessel's balconies to comply with new safety regulations which had come into effect since the MS \"Star Princess\" fire. Additionally, both bridge wings were extended by two metres to improve visibility. After completing the journey around South America, on 23 February 2006, \"Queen Mary 2\" met her namesake, the original, which is permanently docked at Long Beach, California. Escorted by a flotilla of smaller ships, the two \"Queens\" exchanged a \"whistle salute\" which was heard throughout the city of Long Beach. \"Queen Mary 2\" met the other serving Cunard liners and \"Queen Elizabeth 2\" on 13 January 2008 near the Statue of Liberty in New York City harbour, with a celebratory fireworks display; \"Queen Elizabeth 2\" and \"Queen Victoria\" made a tandem crossing of the Atlantic for the meeting. This marked the first time three Cunard \"Queens\" have been present in the same location. Cunard stated this would be the last time these three ships would ever meet, due to \"Queen Elizabeth 2\"'s impending retirement from service in late 2008. However this would prove not to be the case, as the three \"Queens\" met in Southampton on 22 April 2008. \"Queen Mary 2\" rendezvoused with \"Queen Elizabeth 2\" in Dubai on Saturday 21 March 2009, after the latter ship's retirement, while both ships were berthed at Port Rashid. With the withdrawal of \"Queen Elizabeth 2\" from Cunard's fleet and its docking in Dubai, \"Queen Mary 2\" became the only ocean liner left in active passenger service. On 3 August 2007 three men were stopped by police while escorting and piloting a replica of the first American combat submarine within of \"Queen Mary 2\", which was docked at the cruise ship terminal in Red Hook, Brooklyn. The replica was created by New York artist Philip \"Duke\" Riley and two out-of-town residents, one of whom claimed to be a descendant of David Bushnell, who had invented it. The Coast Guard issued Riley a citation for having an unsafe vessel, and for violating the security zone around \"Queen Mary 2\". On 19 October 2011, \"Queen Mary 2\" had her registry changed to Hamilton, Bermuda, from her previous home port of Southampton, to allow the ship to host on-board weddings. This marked the first time in its 171-year history that Cunard has not had a ship registered within the UK. Bermuda is a member of the Red Ensign Group and the ship continues to fly the undefaced Red Ensign rather than the Bermuda Red Ensign.", "On 10 January 2007, \"Queen Mary 2\" started her first world cruise, circumnavigating the globe in 81 days. On 20 February, she met her fleet-mate, \"Queen Elizabeth 2\", also on her 2007 world cruise, in Sydney harbour. This is the first time two Cunard \"Queens\" had been together in Sydney since the original \"Queen Mary\" and \"Queen Elizabeth\" served as troop ships in", "In October 2009, \"Queen Mary 2\"'s fifth year in service was celebrated", "Carried aboard \"Queen Mary 2\" is the Boston Cup. Sometimes referred to as \"The Britannia Cup\", this artifact was created for Sir Samuel Cunard in Boston, United States, to commemorate the arrival of his first vessel. Cunard had selected Boston as the American port for his Atlantic service, which resulted in a strong connection between Boston and the Cunard Line. It is believed that the cup was", "The propulsor pods fitted to \"Queen Mary 2\" have been prone to failure, attributed to the motors' thrust bearings, which continued to show a tendency to fail even after numerous attempts at redesign. In January 2009, Carnival, through its Cunard division, sued", "Two years after the first Cunard Royal Rendezvous on the same date \"Queen Mary 2\" met up with and the then brand-new for another Royal Rendezvous in New York City on 13 January 2011. and made a tandem crossing of", "\"Queen Mary 2\" has rendezvoused with ocean rowing teams in the middle of the Atlantic. On 30 July 2010 she met up with \"Artemis Investments\", whose rowing crew were Don Lennox, Livar Nysted, Ray Carroll, Leven Brown. Carroll had been a former engineer and", "A small fire broke out in the gas turbine engine room (located high on the ship behind the Queen Mary 2 sign)", "On 23 September 2010, an incident occurred in \"Queen Mary 2\"'s aft harmonic filter room. This resulted in the shutdown of all four propulsion motors and a loss of", "On 6 July 2013 \"Queen Mary 2\" departed New York en route to Southampton on her", "On 6 May 2014, all three Queens met up for the first time in Lisbon, Portugal. The three ships sailed abreast of each other from Lisbon to Southampton. On 9 May 2014", "On 25 May 2015, all three Queens met, once again, at Liverpool, in order to celebrate the 175th anniversary of the shipping line. After arriving at Liverpool the previous day, \"Queen Mary 2\" made a brief excursion to the entrance of the River Mersey to welcome her two fleetmates into port in the early afternoon. The three Cunarders then sailed, in formation, towards Liverpool. The ships spent several hours together, before the departure of \"Queen Mary 2\" to Saint Peter Port, Guernsey. On 2 July 2015, \"Queen Mary 2\" began a \"175th Anniversary Crossing\" in Southampton. She sailed first to Liverpool, leaving that city after a fireworks display on 4 July, the", "In June 2016, \"Queen Mary 2\" was put through a $132 million/£90 million renovation at Blohm+Voss over", "On 10 June 2017, Queen Mary 2, commanded by Captain Christopher Wells, came to the rescue of a stranded solo yachtsman, 73-year-old Mervyn Wheatley, whose craft \"Tamarind\" had been", "When COVID-19 started to spread around in the world in 2020, \"Queen Mary 2\" was in the midst of a world cruise. In early February, Cunard cancelled the Asian leg of the voyage, and the vessel stopped in Singapore only to refuel and sailed to" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Types.", "Effectiveness.", "Culverts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Written reports of rough fishways date to 17th-century France, where bundles of branches were used to create steps in steep channels to bypass obstructions. A version was patented in 1837 by Richard McFarlan of Bathurst, New Brunswick, Canada, who designed a fishway to bypass a dam at his water-powered lumber mill. In 1852–1854, the Ballisodare Fish Pass was built in County Sligo in Ireland to draw salmon into a river that had not supported a fishery. In 1880, the first fish ladder was built in Rhode Island, United States, on the Pawtuxet Falls Dam. The ladder was removed in 1924, when the City of Providence replaced the wood dam with a concrete one. Concrete ladders are not always an improvement – the electric field-sensitive organs of the paddlefish are overloaded in the proximity of the rebar and other metal used in concrete construction, preventing them from gaining access to their spawning grounds and contributing to a catastrophic decline in their numbers. As the Industrial Age advanced, dams and other river obstructions became larger and more common, leading to the need for effective fish by-passes.", "There are six main types of fishways: A pool and weir is one of the oldest styles of fish ladders. It uses a series of small dams and pools of regular length to create a long, sloping channel for fish to travel around the obstruction. The channel acts as a fixed lock to gradually step down the water level; to head upstream, fish must jump over from box to box in the ladder. A baffle fishway uses a series of symmetrical close-spaced baffles in a channel to redirect the flow of water, allowing fish to swim around the barrier. Baffle fishways need not have resting areas, although pools can be included to provide a resting area or to reduce the velocity of the flow. Such fishways can be built with switchbacks to minimize the space needed for their construction. Baffles come in variety of designs. The original design for a Denil fishway was developed in 1909 by a Belgian scientist, G. Denil; it has since been adjusted and adapted in many ways. The \"Alaskan Steeppass\", for example, is a modular prefabricated Denil-fishway variant originally designed for remote areas of Alaska. Baffles have been installed by Project Maitai in several waterways in Nelson, New Zealand, to improve fish passage as part of general environmental restoration. A fish elevator or fish lift, as its name implies, breaks with the ladder design by providing a sort of elevator to carry fish over a barrier. It is well suited to tall barriers. With a fish elevator, fish swim into a collection area at the base of the obstruction. When enough fish accumulate in the collection area, they are nudged into a hopper that carries them into a flume that empties into the river above the barrier. On the Connecticut River, for example, two fish elevators lift up to 500 fish at a time, 52 feet (15.85 m), to clear the Holyoke Dam. In 2013, the elevator carried over 400,000 fish. A rock-ramp fishway uses large rocks and timbers to create pools and small falls that mimic natural structures. Because of the length of the channel needed for the ladder, such structures are most appropriate for relatively short barriers. They have a significant advantage in that they can provide fish spawning habitat. A vertical-slot fish passage is similar to a pool-and-weir system, except that each \"dam\" has a narrow slot in it near the channel wall. This allows fish to swim upstream without leaping over an obstacle. Vertical-slot fish passages also tend to handle reasonably well the seasonal fluctuation in water levels on each side of the barrier. Recent studies suggest that navigation locks have a potential to be operated as vertical slot fishways to provide increased access for a range of biota, including poor swimmers. A fish siphon allows the pass to be installed parallel to a water course and can be used to link two watercourses. The pass utilises a syphon effect to regulate its flow. This style is particularly favoured to aid flood defence.", "Fish ladders have a mixed record of effectiveness. They vary in effectiveness for different types of species, with one study showing that only three percent of American Shad make it through all the fish ladders on the way to their spawning ground. Effectiveness depends on the fish species' swimming ability, and how the fish moves up and downstream. A fish passage that is designed to allow fish to pass upstream may not allow passage downstream, for instance. Fish passages do not always work. In practice a challenge is matching swimming performance data to hydrodynamic measurements. Swim tests rarely use the same protocol and the output is either a single-point measurement or a bulk velocity. In contrast, physical and numerical modelling of fluid flow (i.e. hydrodynamics) deliver a detailed flow map, with a fine spatial and temporal resolution. Regulatory agencies face a difficult task to match hydrodynamic measurements and swimming performance data.", "During the last three decades, the ecological impact of culverts on natural streams and rivers has been recognised. While the culvert discharge capacity derives from hydrological and hydraulic engineering considerations, this results often in large velocities in the barrel, creating a possible fish passage barrier. Baffles may be installed along the barrel invert to provide some fish-friendly alternative. For low discharges, the baffles decrease the flow velocity and increase the water depth to facilitate fish passage. At larger discharges, baffles induce lower local velocities and generate recirculation regions. Unfortunately, baffles can reduce drastically the culvert discharge capacity for a given afflux, thus increasing substantially the total cost of the culvert structure to achieve the same design discharge and afflux. It is believed that fish-turbulence interplay may facilitate upstream migration, albeit an optimum design must be based upon a careful characterisation of both hydrodynamics and fish kinematics. Finally the practical engineering design implications cannot be ignored, while a solid understanding of turbulence typology is a basic requirement to any successful boundary treatment conducive of upstream fish passage." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Founding.", "World War II.", "Immediate postwar period.", "Jet Age (1960s and 1970s).", "Expansion (1980s).", "Subsidiary airlines (1990s–2000s).", "Labour disputes and restructuring (2006–present).", "Corporate affairs.", "Ownership and structure.", "Subsidiaries and associates.", "Finnair Cargo.", "Nordic Regional Airlines.", "Business trends.", "Head office.", "Corporate design.", "Livery.", "Flight attendant uniforms.", "Partnerships.", "Marketing.", "Destinations.", "Codeshare agreements.", "Joint Venture Agreements.", "Special Prorate Agreement.", "Fleet.", "Current fleet.", "Aircraft types.", "Narrow-body aircraft.", "Airbus A330.", "Airbus A350.", "Fleet development.", "Upcoming narrow-body fleet renewal.", "Recent wide-body fleet renewal.", "Special liveries.", "Historical fleet.", "Services.", "Frequent-flyer programme.", "Cabins.", "Business class.", "Premium Economy class.", "Economy Comfort class.", "Finnair lounges.", "Meals and drinks.", "In-flight entertainment.", "In-flight magazine.", "Environmental issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1923, consul Bruno Lucander founded Finnair as Aero O/Y (\"Aero Ltd\"). The company code, \"AY\", stands for Aero Yhtiö (\"yhtiö\" means \"company\" in Finnish). Lucander had previously run the Finnish operations of the Estonian airline Aeronaut. In mid-1923 he concluded an agreement with Junkers Flugzeugwerke AG to provide aircraft and technical support in exchange for a 50% ownership in the new airline. The charter establishing the company was signed in Helsinki on 12 September 1923, and the company was entered into the trade register on 11 December 1923. The first flight was on 20 March 1924 from Helsinki to Tallinn, Estonia, on a Junkers F.13 aircraft equipped with floats. The seaplane service ended in 1936 following the construction of the first aerodromes in Finland.", "Air raids on Helsinki and other Finnish cities made World War II a difficult period for the airline. Half the fleet was requisitioned by the Finnish Air Force and it was estimated that, during the Winter War in 1939 and 1940, half of the airline's passengers from other Finnish cities were children being evacuated to Sweden.", "The Finnish government wanted longer routes, so it acquired a majority stake in the company in 1946 and re-established services to Europe in November 1947, initially using the Douglas DC-3. In 1953, the airline began branding itself as Finnair. The Convair 440 twin-engined pressurised airliner was acquired from January 1953 and these faster aircraft were operated on the company's longer routes as far as London.", "In 1961, Finnair joined the jet age by adding Rolls-Royce Avon-engined Caravelles to its fleet. These were later exchanged with the manufacturer for Pratt & Whitney JT8D-engined Super Caravelles. In 1962, Finnair acquired a 27% controlling interest in a private Finnish airline, Kar-Air. Finnair Oy became the company's official name on 25 June 1968. In 1969, it took possession of its first U.S. made jet, a Douglas DC-8. The first transatlantic service to New York was inaugurated on 15 May 1969. In the 1960s, Finnair's head office was in Helsinki. Finnair received its first wide-body aircraft in 1975, two DC-10-30 planes. The first of these arrived on 4 February 1975, and entered service on 14 February 1975, flying between Helsinki and New York, and later between Helsinki and Las Palmas. Finnair created Finnaviation was established in 1979. It was formed from the reorganisation of Wihuri OY Finnwings (which had started services in 1950 as Lentohuolto OY) and its merging with Nordair OY. Scheduled domestic services began in October 1979. In the early 1980s Finnair held a 60% shareholding. Finnaviation was eventually completely merged into Finnair.", "In 1981, Finnair opened routes to Seattle and Los Angeles. Finnair became the first operator to fly non-stop from Western Europe to Japan, operating Helsinki–Tokyo flights with a modified McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30ER in April 1983. Until then, flights had to go via Moscow (Aeroflot, SAS, BA) or Anchorage (most carriers) due to Soviet airspace restrictions, but Finnair circumvented these by flying directly north from Helsinki, over the North Pole and back south through the Bering Strait, avoiding the Soviet airspace. However, Finnair did not have to make a roundabout because of the Soviet regulation on this route, but the Japanese authorities demanded it (what JAL requested strongly). The aircraft was fitted with extra fuel tanks, taking 13 hours for the trip. The routes through Soviet airspace and with a stopover in Moscow also took 13 hours, but flights with a stopover at Anchorage took up to 16 hours, giving Finnair a competitive edge. In the spring of 1986, Soviet regulators finally cleared the way for Air France and Japan Airlines to fly nonstop Paris-Tokyo services over Soviet airspace, putting Finnair at a disadvantage. Finnair launched a Helsinki-Beijing route in 1988, making Finnair the first Western European carrier to fly non-stop between Europe and China. In 1989, Finnair became the launch customer for the McDonnell Douglas MD-11, the first of which was delivered on 7 December 1990. The first revenue service with the MD-11 took place on 20 December 1990, with OH-LGA operating a flight from Helsinki to Tenerife in the Canary Islands.", "In 1997, the subsidiaries Kar-Air and Finnaviation became wholly owned by Finnair, and were integrated into the mainline operations. On 25 September 1997, the company's official name was changed to Finnair Oyj. In 1999, Finnair joined the Oneworld airline alliance. In 2001, Finnair reused the name \"Aero\" when establishing Aero Airlines, a subsidiary airline based in Tallinn, Estonia. In 2003, Finnair acquired ownership of the Swedish low-cost airline, FlyNordic, which operated mainly within Scandinavia. In 2007, Finnair sold all its shares in FlyNordic to Norwegian Air Shuttle. As part of the transaction, Finnair acquired 4.8% of the latter company, becoming its third largest shareholder. Finnair later sold their shares in 2013. On 8 March 2007, Finnair became the first airline to order the Airbus A350 XWB aircraft, placing an order for 11 Airbus A350 XWB (plus 8 options), with delivery started in 2015.", "Finnair has suffered from many labour disputes in this period, resulting from cost-cutting measures prompted by competition from budget airlines. On 1 December 2011, Finnair transferred its baggage and apron services to Swissport International as per a five-year agreement signed on 7 November 2011.", "", "The group's parent company is Finnair Plc, which is listed on the Nasdaq Helsinki Stock Exchange, and is domiciled in Helsinki at the registered address Tietotie 9, Vantaa. The State of Finland is the major shareholder (55.8%), with no other shareholder owning more than 5% of shares.", "", "Two subsidiary companies, Finnair Cargo Oy and Finnair Cargo Terminal Operations Oy, form Finnair's cargo business. The offices of both companies are at Helsinki Airport. Finnair Cargo uses Finnair's fleet on its cargo operations. Finnair Cargo has three hubs:", "Nordic Regional Airlines (Norra) is 40% owned by Finnair. The airline uses a fleet of ATR 72-500 aircraft in its own livery, leased from Finnair, and Embraer E190 aircraft, painted in Finnair livery. The airline began operations on 20 October 2011 as a joint venture between Flybe and Finnair. The airline has operated under Finnair's flight code since 1 May 2015.", "The key trends for Finnair over recent years are shown below (as at year ending 31 December):", "In 2013, Finnair opened its new head office, known as House of Travel and Transportation (or \"HOTT\"), on what used to be a car park right next to its previous head office located in Tietotie 11, on the grounds of Helsinki Airport. The construction of HOTT began in July 2011 and finished on time in June 2013. The previous head office had been in use since 1994, then replacing a head office located in Helsinki city centre. The new mixed-use head office has a total floor space of and of office space.", "", "The company revealed a new livery in December 2010. Major changes include a restyled and larger lettering on the body, repainting of the engines in white, and a reversal of the color scheme for the tail fin favoring a white background with a blue stylized logo. The outline of the globe was also removed from the tail fin.", "The current uniform was designed by Ritva-Liisa Pohjalainen and launched in December 2011. Finnair has codes to indicate the rank of crew members: One stripe in the sleeve (or epaulettes in the case of male crews wearing vests) for normal Cabin Crew, two stripes for Senior Cabin Crew (only for outsourced Spanish crew) acting as a Purser, and three stripes for a Purser/Chief Purser. Additionally, some female Pursers have a white vertical stripe on their dresses or blouses indicating their years of service. Finnair requires its cabin crew to wear gloves during take-off and landing for safety reasons. Finnair's previous cabin crew uniform was named the fifth most stylish uniform by the French magazine \"Bon Voyage\".", "Finnair has several partnerships with following companies and airlines including Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, British Airways, Deutsche Bahn (DB), Chinese JD.com, Japan Airlines and Marimekko.", "Finnair had a Weibo account for Chinese customers. Sheng Wei, author of the 2015 thesis \"Brand Image of Finnair Among Young Wealthy Chinese People in Chinese Social Media,\" stated that it was not often updated. In 2017 it began allowing customers to pay with Alipay, another Chinese service.", "Finnair flies from its Helsinki hub to over 130 destinations in over 40 countries in Asia, Europe and North America. In contrast with several other major European airlines, Finnair has developed its main long-haul market not in North America but in Asia, where the airline has around 20 destinations. Nevertheless, Finnair also serves eight North American destinations: five in the United States and one each in Mexico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic. Previously the airline has served Africa and South America, including countries such as Egypt, Colombia, and Brazil, but primarily on a leisure basis. Nearly half of Finnair's destinations are operated on a seasonal basis, but recently the airline has been switching those destinations to year-round service. Finnair has over 10 domestic destinations. Some domestic flights are operated in co-operation with or completely by the airline's subsidiary Nordic Regional Airlines. Finnair does not face direct competition on any long-haul route the airline operates as Finnair is the sole operator on all routes (except for Tokyo which is operated in cooperation with Oneworld partner Japan Airlines and Shanghai in cooperation with Juneyao Air). In Asia, China and Japan are the two main markets, but other countries, such as South Korea, Thailand, and Singapore, are also important to the airline. In summer 2018, Finnair operates up to 97 weekly flights to Asia. The airline plans to extend its network in Asia in the future with new destinations and additional flights as well as considers adapting narrow-body aircraft on some flights to smaller Asian cities. In August 2018, Finnair announced capacity increases in Asia, where flights to Hong Kong increased from 10 to 14 flights a week and to Osaka, there are ten weekly flights instead of seven. In the summer season of 2019, Tokyo and Hong Kong are the largest long-haul routes by capacity. In the United States, Finnair has five destinations including Chicago, Miami, New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. The airline has recently expanded the offering to the U.S. by opening new routes and additional frequencies. As of 31 March 2019, Finnair has been flying to Los Angeles with Airbus A350 aircraft. Additionally, as of 3 November 2019, Finnair has been flying to Beijing Daxing and as of 30 March 2020, the carrier will also serve Busan and Tokyo Haneda.", "Finnair codeshares with the following airlines:", "Finnair is part of the oneworld transatlantic joint venture agreement with the following airlines:", "Finnair has a Special Prorate Agreement agreement with Air Italy.", "", ", the Finnair fleet consists of the following aircraft:", "", "Finnair received its first narrow-body aircraft manufactured by Airbus, Airbus A321, on 28 January 1999. Now the airline operates the fleet of up to 19 A321s. The first Airbus A319 aircraft was delivered to Finnair on 20 September 1999. Since then, Finnair has received 11 A319s, but three of them are now retired. Finnair utilizes Airbus A319, A320 and A321 aircraft on domestic and European flights. Airbus A321-231, which are equipped with winglets, is also used on some long-haul flights such as to Dubai. ATR 72-500 and Embraer 190 are operated by Nordic Regional Airlines and are also used on domestic and European flights.", "Finnair received its first A330-300s on 27 March 2009. Now the airline has eight Airbus A330-300 aircraft in the fleet. As of April 2019, the airline utilizes A330 on intercontinental flights from Helsinki to Chicago, Chongqing, Delhi, Fukuoka, Miami, Nagoya, Nanjing, New York, Puerto Plata, San Francisco and Xi'an. The A330s are powered by General Electric CF6-80E1 engines. The aircraft are also being used on European services to Brussels, London and Málaga.", "On 8 March 2007, Finnair firmed up its orders for 11 Airbus A350 aircraft with 8 options. On 3 December 2014, it was announced that Finnair had firmed up the contract for 8 additional Airbus A350 aircraft deliveries starting in 2018. On 13 August 2014, Finnair announced plans to initially deploy its A350 aircraft on services to Bangkok, Beijing and Shanghai from 2015, with A350 services to Hong Kong and Singapore to be added in 2016. As of April 2019, Finnair operates the Airbus A350 to Bangkok, Beijing, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Ho Chi Minh City, Krabi, Los Angeles, Nagoya, Osaka, Phuket, Puerto Vallarta, Seoul, Shanghai, Singapore and Tokyo. Finnair also operated A350 aircraft on several flights to New York in January 2016 and became the first European airline to operate the A350 to the United States. Finnair uses the A350 daily on the morning AY1331 flight from Helsinki to London–Heathrow to carry extra freight as well. Finnair took delivery of its first A350 aircraft on 7 October 2015, becoming the third airline to operate the aircraft, after Qatar Airways and Vietnam Airlines. According to the current delivery schedule, it will receive two A350 aircraft in each 2019, 2020, 2021 and one in 2022. Altogether Finnair will have 19 A350 aircraft in 2022.", "", "Due to an aging narrow-body fleet, Finnair plans to retire the Airbus A320–family and replace them with new generation aircraft. The airline estimates to invest up to €4 billion in fleet renewal between 2020 and 2025. Revealed at its Capital Markets Day on November 12, 2019, Finnair plans to grow the size of fleet from current 83 (as of November 2019) to approximately 100 by 2025, of which 70% is planned to be narrow-body aircraft and 30% wide-body aircraft. One-third of the total investment sum will be used for growth while two-thirds to replace the current fleet. According to news site Bloomberg, Finnair will replace the old aircraft with either Airbus A320neo family or Boeing 737 MAX new-generation aircraft. The carrier has also revealed that it is looking for suitable narrow-body aircraft for long-haul use. On 18 December 2015, Finnair decided to improve the space efficiency of its current Airbus narrow-body fleet due to a growing need for feeder traffic capacity. The value of the investment is approximately EUR 40 million, and it includes 22 narrow-body Airbus aircraft in Finnair's fleet. The cabin layout change excludes five A321 aircraft, which are already configured according to the plan, having 209 seats. The cabin reconfiguration is estimated to take two weeks per aircraft during 2017. The reconfiguration adds 6 to 13 seats depending on the aircraft type, increasing the passenger capacity of Finnair's Airbus narrow-body fleet as measured by available seat kilometers by close to 4 percent. Finnair also has planned to increase the number of its narrow-body fleet. As a first step, Finnair leased eight Airbus A321 narrow-body aircraft from BOC Aviation. Finnair has occasionally suffered from aircraft shortages and therefore it has resorted to leased and wet-leased aircraft. For instance, in March 2016, Finnair announced it would lease two Airbus A321 aircraft from Air Berlin for Finnair's European operations. These two aircraft were delivered in late April 2016 to Finnair. The airline used these A321s on flights from Helsinki to Amsterdam, Berlin, Copenhagen, Dubrovnik, Düsseldorf, Ljubljana, Paris, Split, Vienna and Zürich. On 15 December 2016, Finnair announced it would lease two Airbus A321s from CDB Aviation Lease Finance. The first aircraft is scheduled for delivery to Finnair for the winter season 2017/2018 and the second for the summer season 2018. Seven of the ordered aircraft will be delivered in 2017. The Finnair-branded short-haul network also includes 24 regional aircraft operated by Nordic Regional Airlines (12 ATR72 and 12 E190).", "Finnair announced the order for 11 Airbus A350 XWB aircraft and 8 options on 8 March 2007. Finnair planned to retire older Airbus A340 aircraft by the end of 2017 and replace them with brand new A350 aircraft. As of 1 February 2017, all Airbus A340 aircraft are withdrawn from the fleet. The very last A340 (OH-LQE) operated its last flight from Tokyo to Helsinki on 1 February 2017. Finnair firmed up orders for eight additional A350 aircraft on 3 December 2014. The first A350 was delivered to Finnair in October 2015 and the airline became the first European operator of the Airbus A350. As of November 2019, Finnair now has 14 A350-900s and a further 5 to be delivered between 2020 and 2022. The Finnish flag carrier also has considered switching some of the orders for the A350-900 to the Airbus A350-1000 aircraft but decided to keep the orders for only A350-900. At the beginning of 2017, Finnair revealed plans to add more seats to some of the Airbus A350 aircraft in order to increase capacity by up to 13%. The new seat configuration has 32 seats in Business Class, 42 seats in Economy Comfort Class and 262 in Economy Class, a total of 336 seats. This second seat configuration was initially planned to be used on routes with less business-class demand such as Bangkok, Beijing, and Seoul, as well as on routes to leisure destinations but they have been utilized also on other busy routes such as Shanghai, Osaka, and Tokyo. Finnair has modified its previous fleet plan to retire two of Airbus A330 aircraft, which was established in 2014. The 2016 fleet plan now involves keeping its A330 fleet as its A350s are delivered, rather than withdrawing two of them in 2017, and shall retire those aircraft in the 2020s at the earliest. Airline's plan to retire two A330s was not the only change that was planned. Under the previous plan, the long haul fleet was to grow by one per year, from 15 in 2015 to 20 in 2020. Under the 2016 plan, it will now grow to 22 in 2020, and to 26 in 2023. However, should market conditions be weaker than expected, Finnair has the flexibility to return the wide-body fleet to a total of 15 aircraft in 2019 and to maintain it at this level through to 2023. Some of the new A350 aircraft will increase the number of aircraft operated by Finnair.", "Finnair's current special liveries are Marimekko \"Kivet\", Marimekko 50th Anniversary \"Unikko”, Oneworld liveries, and the Christmas special “Reindeer” liveries. Past Finnair special liveries include \"Marimekko Unikko\", \"Moomins\", \"Santa Claus\", 1950s retro livery and Angry Birds.", "Finnair has previously operated the following equipment: In the early 1980s the fleet of the Finnaviation subsidiary consisted of: an Aero Commander 690, a Beech 95-A55 Baron, Cessna F150J (2), a Cessna 401B, a Cessna F172M, a Cessna 401A, Cessna 404 Titan (2), a Cessna 441 Conquest, a Cessna 402B, a Cessna 425 Corsair, a Cessna F172P, Cessna F152 (2), Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante (3), a Dassault Falcon 200, a Piper PA-28-140 Cherokee, a Piper PA-32-300 Cherokee Six and a Cessna T188C Husky.", "", "Finnair's frequent-flyer programme is called Finnair Plus. Passengers are awarded points based on the type and class of flight flown. Once enough kilometers are banked into the passenger's account, a membership tier (Basic, Silver, Gold, Platinum or Platinum Lumo) is awarded. There is a Junior tier exclusively for minors. Silver, Gold, Platinum, and Platinum Lumo members have privileges such as premium check-in desks and priority boarding. Finnair offers frequent-flyer partnerships with Nordic Regional Airlines (only for the 2000 flight number series, not for domestic flights) in addition to those in the Oneworld alliance: In addition to earning points on flights with Finnair and its partner airlines, Finnair Plus members can earn points through various hotel and car rental partners in Finland and around the world along with other service partners.", "", "Business class is offered on the entire Airbus-fleet. On long-haul aircraft, the seats are equipped with personal in-flight entertainment. Business Class on all wide-body aircraft feature flat-bed seats.", "Finnair will be introducing the new Premium Economy class in 2020. The new cabin class will be featured in both Airbus A330 and Airbus A350 aircraft.", "Economy Comfort is Finnair's new premium economy product debuting on long haul aircraft December 2014. It will not be a separate class but more of an upgraded economy product, much like Delta's Economy Comfort class. Economy Comfort seats will be located in the first 5 rows of economy providing 34–36\" of pitch (3–5\" more pitch than standard economy seats) and a comfier headrest, plus noise canceling headphones and a comfort kit. Seats will be free to Finnair Plus and oneworld elites and passengers with a full fare coach ticket, and available to all other customers for a fee.", "Finnair operates three own lounges at Helsinki Airport. One is accessible in the Schengen Area by travelers in Finnair's Business Class, Gold and Platinum of the Finnair Plus program members as well as Oneworld Sapphire and Emerald members. The two other are located in the non-Schengen area and the Finnair Business Lounge has the same access criteria as the one in the Schengen area except Japan Airlines Business Class passengers also have access. In June 2019, the new Finnair Platinum Wing lounge was opened in the non-Schengen area. Replacing the previous Premium Lounge, this lounge is exclusively for Finnair Plus Platinum and OneWorld Emerald passengers. Passengers in business class, as well as Finnair Plus Gold members and OneWorld Sapphire passengers are able to use the Business Class Lounge. The non-Schengen lounges have a Finnish sauna. The remaining international destinations are served with contract lounges.", "On most European flights, coffee, tea, water, milk and blueberry juice are free. Other beverages, including alcoholic ones, and food items are available for purchase. Domestic flights as well as shorter European flights have snacks for sale and free non-alcoholic beverages. Business class offers warm meals and free beverages, including alcohol. On most Intercontinental flights there is a choice of meals in economy class. In inter-continental business class on most Airbus aircraft (excluding those with fully lie-flat seats), there is a dedicated snack bar. As of November 2014 the complimentary salad or sandwich is discontinued and free beverages have been limited to coffee, tea, water, milk and blueberry juice on European flights.", "All Finnair aircraft have LCD video monitors or personal entertainment systems except the Embraer 170s and 190s and the Airbus A321-231 (Sharklet). Airbus A320 series aircraft have monitors showing exterior shots, moving-map systems and mute television programs. Airbus A330 and Airbus A350 aircraft have an AVOD personal entertainment system on all seats with about 72 movies, 150 TV shows, 200 music albums, 24 radio channels, and 15 games.", "Finnair's English-language in-flight magazine, \"Blue Wings\", is published 10 times a year by the Finnish media group Sanoma. The first edition of \"Blue Wings\" magazine was published in 1980. There are domestic and international newspapers on all flights and magazines on long-haul flights in business class.", "In December 2018, Finnair flights out of SFO began being supplied with sustainable aviation fuel as part of a project involving SFO, Shell, and SkyNRG." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Types.", "Thick.", "Thin.", "Hybrid." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A client is a computer or a program that, as part of its operation, relies on sending a request to another program or a computer hardware or software that accesses a service made available by a server (which may or may not be located on another computer). For example, web browsers are clients that connect to web servers and retrieve web pages for display. Email clients retrieve email from mail servers. Online chat uses a variety of clients, which vary on the chat protocol being used. Multiplayer video games or online video games may run as a client on each computer. The term \"client\" may also be applied to computers or devices that run the client software or users that use the client software. A client is part of a client–server model, which is still used today. Clients and servers may be computer programs run on the same machine and connect via inter-process communication techniques. Combined with Internet sockets, programs may connect to a service operating on a possibly remote system through the Internet protocol suite. Servers wait for potential clients to initiate connections that they may accept. The term was first applied to devices that were not capable of running their own stand-alone programs, but could interact with remote computers via a network. These computer terminals were clients of the time-sharing mainframe computer.", "In one classification, client computers and devices are either thick clients, thin clients, or hybrid clients.", "A \"Thick client\", also known as a \"rich client\" or \"fat client\", is a client that performs the bulk of any data processing operations itself, and does not necessarily rely on the server. The personal computer is a common example of a fat client, because of its relatively large set of features and capabilities and its light reliance upon a server. For example, a computer running an Art program (such as Krita or Sketchup) that ultimately shares the result of its work on a network is a thick client. A computer that runs almost entirely as a standalone machine save to send or receive files via a network is by standard called a workstation.", "A \"thin client\" is a minimal sort of client. Thin \"clients\" use the resources of the host computer. A thin client generally only presents processed data provided by an application server, which performs the bulk of any required data processing. A device using web application (such as Office Web Apps) is a thin client.", "A \"hybrid client\" is a mixture of the above two client models. Similar to a fat client, it processes locally, but relies on the server for storing persistent data. This approach offers features from both the fat client (multimedia support, high performance) and the thin client (high manageability, flexibility). A device running an online version of the video game Diablo III is an example of hybrid client." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Performance." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Ultima focused their marketing efforts on record-breaking activities using a model equipped with a American Speed engine, called the Ultima GTR640, and subsequently, a at 6700 rpm and a maximum torque of at 4400 rpm Chevy V8 engine called the GTR 720. As a result, they established the following official, independently verified records for a production car equipped with road tyres and exhaust: Due to its kerb weight of, the power-to-weight ratio for the GTR720 is per tonne, which is a better ratio than the Bugatti Veyron, Enzo Ferrari, Ascari A10, Koenigsegg CCX or CCGT, but less than the Koenigsegg CCXR or the Caparo T1. However, the Ultima chassis is rated for engines up to and some of Ultima's customers, notably Jeff Schwartz, have fitted engines producing or more, for a power-to-weight ratio of over per tonne, which is approximately twice the power-to-weight ratio of the aforementioned cars and nearly the same as the Caparo T1's ( per tonne, but this is a \"dry\" tonnage and the bhp PS kW/tonne would be reduced once oil, coolant, gasoline, etc. are added, compared to the Ultima figures above which are \"wet\" weights). There are also other model designations for the kits, including the GTR 660 and GTR 730. The GTR720 was independently timed lapping the Top Gear test track in 1 minute 12.8 seconds, which is at least 1 second faster than all other times listed on the Top Gear television programme's Power Board. In October 2009 Ultima set another time of 1 minute 9.9 seconds, but this time in a configuration not suitable for use on public highways. Ultima have been keen to point out that this time is faster than those set by both the Ferrari FXX and the Caparo T1; of which neither were deemed to be acceptable road cars by the Top Gear presenters shortly after these times were set. In 2011, Romanian workshop Black Falcon Cars mated an Ultima GTR chassis and a modified Porsche GT3 transmission with a Chevrolet V8 turbocharged by Nelson Racing Engines to achieve on racing fuel and made it fully road legal under the brand name Black Falcon SBC-TT1750. In 2015 the GTR and Can-Am names were retired and replaced by the Ultima Evolution range, which represents a complete reengineering of the package." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "Attack by Johann Daniel Müller." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lessing was born in Kamenz, a small town in Saxony, to Johann Gottfried Lessing and Justine Salome Feller. His father was a Lutheran minister and wrote on theology. Young Lessing studied at the Latin School in Kamenz from 1737 to 1741. With a father who wanted his son to follow in his footsteps, Lessing next attended the Fürstenschule St. Afra in Meissen. After completing his education at St. Afra's, he enrolled at the University of Leipzig where he pursued a degree in theology, medicine, philosophy, and philology (1746–1748). It was here that his relationship with Karoline Neuber, a famous German actress, began. He translated several French plays for her, and his interest in theatre grew. During this time, he wrote his first play, \"The Young Scholar.\" Neuber eventually produced the play in 1748. From 1748 to 1760, Lessing lived in Leipzig and Berlin. He began to work as a reviewer and editor for the \"Vossische Zeitung\" and other periodicals. Lessing formed a close connection with his cousin, Christlob Mylius, and decided to follow him to Berlin. In 1750, Lessing and Mylius teamed together to begin a periodical publication named \"Beiträge zur Historie und Aufnahme des Theaters\". The publication ran only four issues, but it caught the public's eye and revealed Lessing to be a serious critic and theorist of drama. In 1752, he took his master's degree in Wittenberg. From 1760 to 1765, he worked in Breslau (now Wrocław) as secretary to General Tauentzien during the Seven Years' War between Britain and France, which had effects in Europe. It was during this time that he wrote his famous. In 1765, Lessing returned to Berlin, leaving in 1767 to work for three years at the Hamburg National Theatre. Actor-manager, Konrad Ackermann, began construction on Germany's first permanent theatre in Hamburg. established Germany's first national theatre, the Hamburg National Theatre. The owners hired Lessing as the theatre's critic of plays and acting, which would later be known as dramaturgy (based on his own words), making Lessing the very first dramaturge. The theatre's main backer was Abel Seyler, a former currency speculator who since became known as \"the leading patron of German theatre.\" There he met Eva König, his future wife. His work in Hamburg formed the basis of his pioneering work on drama, titled \"Hamburgische Dramaturgie\". Unfortunately, because of financial losses due to pirated editions of the \"Hamburgische Dramaturgie\", the Hamburg Theatre closed just three years later. In 1770, Lessing became librarian at the ducal library, now the Herzog August Library (\"Herzog-August-Bibliothek\", \"Bibliotheca Augusta\"), in Wolfenbüttel under the commission of the Duke of Brunswick. His tenure there was energetic, if interrupted by many journeys. In 1775, for example, he accompanied Prince Leopold to Italy. On 14 October 1771, Lessing was initiated into Freemasonry in the lodge \"Zu den drei Goldenen Rosen\" in Hamburg. In 1776, he married Eva König, who was then a widow, in Jork (near Hamburg). She died in 1778 after giving birth to a short-lived son. On 15 February 1781, Lessing, aged 52, died during a visit to the wine dealer Angott in Brunswick. Lessing was also famous for his friendship with Jewish-German philosopher Moses Mendelssohn. A recent biography of Mendelssohn's grandson, Felix, describes their friendship as one of the most \"illuminating metaphors [for] the clarion call of the Enlightenment for religious tolerance\". It was this relationship that sparked his interest in popular religious debates of the time. He began publishing heated pamphlets on his beliefs which were eventually banned. It was this banishment that inspired him to return to theatre to portray his views and to write \"Nathan the Wise\".", "Early in his life, Lessing showed interest in the theatre. In his theoretical and critical writings on the subject—as in his own plays—he tried to contribute to the development of a new type of theatre in Germany. With this he especially turned against the then predominant literary theory of Gottsched and his followers. Lessing's \"Hamburgische Dramaturgie\" ran critiques of plays that were performed in the Hamburg Theatre, but after dealing with dissatisfied actors and actresses, Lessing redirected his writings to more of an analysis on the proper uses of drama. Lessing advocated the outline of drama in Aristotle's \"Poetics\". He believed the French Academy had devalued the uses of drama through their neoclassical rules of form and separation of genres. His repeated opinions on this issue influenced theatre practitioners who began the movement of rejecting theatre rules known as \"Sturm und Drang\" (\"Storm and Stress\"). He also supported serious reception of Shakespeare's works. He worked with many theatre groups (e.g. the one of the Neuberin). In Hamburg he tried with others to set up the German National Theatre. Today his own works appear as prototypes of the later developed bourgeois German drama. Scholars see \"Miss Sara Sampson\" and \"Emilia Galotti\" as amongst the first bourgeois tragedies, \"Minna von Barnhelm\" (Minna of Barnhelm) as the model for many classic German comedies, \"Nathan the Wise\" (\"Nathan der Weise\") as the first German drama of ideas (\"Ideendrama\"). His theoretical writings \"Laocoön\" and \"Hamburg Dramaturgy\" (\"Hamburgische Dramaturgie\") set the standards for the discussion of aesthetic and literary theoretical principles. Lessing advocated that dramaturgs should carry their work out working directly with theatre companies rather than in isolation. In his religious and philosophical writings he defended the faithful Christian's right for freedom of thought. He argued against the belief in revelation and the holding on to a literal interpretation of the Bible by the predominant orthodox doctrine through a problem later to be called Lessing's Ditch. Lessing outlined the concept of the religious \"Proof of Power\": How can miracles continue to be used as a base for Christianity when we have no proof of miracles? Historical truths which are in doubt cannot be used to prove metaphysical truths (such as God's existence). As Lessing says it: \"That, then, is the ugly great ditch which I cannot cross, however often and however earnestly I have tried to make that leap.\" In the final leg of his life, Lessing threw himself into an intense evaluation of theology and religion. He did much of his studying by reading manuscripts he found while working as a librarian. While working for the Duke, he formed a close friendship with a family by the name of Reimarus. The family held an unpublished manuscript by Hermann Samuel Reimarus which attacked the historicity of Christian revelation. Despite discouragement from his brother Karl Gotthelf Lessing, he began publishing pieces of the manuscript in pamphlets known as \"Fragments from an Unnamed Author\". The controversial pamphlets resulted in a heated debate between him and another theologian, Johann Melchior Goeze. In concern for tarnishing his reputation, Goeze requested the government put an end to the feud, and Lessing was silenced through a law that took away his freedom from censorship. In response, Lessing relied upon his skills as a playwright to write what is undoubtedly his most influential play, \"Nathan the Wise\". In the play, Lessing set up tension between Judaism, Islam, and Christianity by having one character ask Nathan which religion was the most genuine. Nathan avoids the question by telling the parable of the three rings, which implies the idea that no specific religion is the \"correct religion.\" The Enlightenment ideas to which Lessing held tight were portrayed through his \"ideal of humanity,\" stating that religion is relative to the individual's ability to reason. \"Nathan the Wise\" is considered to be the first example of the German \"literature of humanity\". As a child of the Enlightenment he trusted in a \"Christianity of Reason\", which oriented itself by the spirit of religion. He believed that human reason (initiated by criticism and dissent) would develop, even without help by a divine revelation. In his writing \"The Education of Humankind\" (\"Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts\") he extensively and coherently lays out his position. The idea of freedom (for the theatre against the dominance of its French model; for religion from the church's dogma) is his central theme throughout his life. Therefore, he also stood up for the liberation of the upcoming middle and upper class from the nobility making up their minds for them. In his own literary existence he also constantly strove for independence. But his ideal of a possible life as a free author was hard to keep up against the economic constraints he faced. His project of authors self-publishing their works, which he tried to accomplish in Hamburg with C. J. Bode, failed. Lessing is important as a literary critic for his work \"Laocoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry\". In this work, he argues against the tendency to take Horace's \"ut pictura poesis\" (as painting, so poetry) as prescriptive for literature. In other words, he objected to trying to write poetry using the same devices as one would in painting. Instead, poetry and painting each has its character (the former is extended in time; the latter is extended in space). This is related to Lessing's turn from French classicism to Aristotelian mimesis, discussed above.", "The Radical Pietist Johann Daniel Müller (born 1716 in Wissenbach/Nassau, today part of Eschenburg, deceased after 1785) published the following anonymous book against Lessing and Reimarus:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Scientific achievements.", "Later life.", "Legacy.", "Philosophical work." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Tsiolkovsky was born in Izhevskoye (now in Spassky District, Ryazan Oblast), in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family. His father, Makary Edward Erazm Ciołkowski was a Polish forester of Roman Catholic faith who emigrated to Russia; his Russian Orthodox mother was of mixed Volga Tatar and Russian origin. His father was successively a forester, teacher, and minor government official. At the age of 10, Konstantin caught scarlet fever and became hard of hearing. When he was 13, his mother died. He was not admitted to elementary schools because of his hearing problem, so he was self-taught. As a reclusive home-schooled child, he passed much of his time by reading books and became interested in mathematics and physics. As a teenager, he began to contemplate the possibility of space travel. Tsiolkovsky spent three years attending a Moscow library where Russian cosmism proponent Nikolai Fyodorov worked. He later came to believe that colonizing space would lead to the perfection of the human species, with immortality and a carefree existence. Additionally, inspired by the fiction of Jules Verne, Tsiolkovsky theorized many aspects of space travel and rocket propulsion. He is considered the father of spaceflight and the first person to conceive the space elevator, becoming inspired in 1895 by the newly constructed Eiffel Tower in Paris. Despite the youth's growing knowledge of physics, his father was concerned that he would not be able to provide for himself financially as an adult and brought him back home at the age of 19 after learning that he was overworking himself and going hungry. Afterwards, Tsiolkovsky passed the teacher's exam and went to work at a school in Borovsk near Moscow. He also met and married his wife Varvara Sokolova during this time. Despite being stuck in Kaluga, a small town far from major learning centers, Tsiolkovsky managed to make scientific discoveries on his own. The first two decades of the 20th century were marred by personal tragedy. Tsiolkovsky's son Ignaty committed suicide in 1902, and in 1908 many of his accumulated papers were lost in a flood. In 1911, his daughter Lyubov was arrested for engaging in revolutionary activities.", "Tsiolkovsky stated that he developed the theory of rocketry only as a supplement to philosophical research on the subject. He wrote more than 400 works including approximately 90 published pieces on space travel and related subjects. Among his works are designs for rockets with steering thrusters, multistage boosters, space stations, airlocks for exiting a spaceship into the vacuum of space, and closed-cycle biological systems to provide food and oxygen for space colonies. Tsiolkovsky's first scientific study dates back to 1880–1881. He wrote a paper called \"Theory of Gases,\" in which he outlined the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, but after submitting it to the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (RPCS), he was informed that his discoveries had already been made 25 years earlier. Undaunted, he pressed ahead with his second work, \"The Mechanics of the Animal Organism\". It received favorable feedback, and Tsiolkovsky was made a member of the Society. Tsiolkovsky's main works after 1884 dealt with four major areas: the scientific rationale for the all-metal balloon (airship), streamlined airplanes and trains, hovercraft, and rockets for interplanetary travel. In 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. During this period, Tsiolkovsky began working on a problem that would occupy much of his time during the coming years: an attempt to build an all-metal dirigible that could be expanded or shrunk in size. Tsiolkovsky developed the first aerodynamics laboratory in Russia in his apartment. In 1897, he built the first Russian wind tunnel with an open test section and developed a method of experimentation using it. In 1900, with a grant from the Academy of Sciences, he made a survey using models of the simplest shapes and determined the drag coefficients of the sphere, flat plates, cylinders, cones, and other bodies. Tsiolkovsky's work in the field of aerodynamics was a source of ideas for Russian scientist Nikolay Zhukovsky, the father of modern aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Tsiolkovsky described the airflow around bodies of different geometric shapes, but because the RPCS did not provide any financial support for this project, he was forced to pay for it largely out of his own pocket. Tsiolkovsky studied the mechanics of lighter-than-air powered flying machines. He first proposed the idea of an all-metal dirigible and built a model of it. The first printed work on the airship was \"A Controllable Metallic Balloon\" (1892), in which he gave the scientific and technical rationale for the design of an airship with a metal sheath. Tsiolkovsky was not supported on the airship project, and the author was refused a grant to build the model. An appeal to the General Aviation Staff of the Russian army also had no success. In 1892, he turned to the new and unexplored field of heavier-than-air aircraft. Tsiolkovsky's idea was to build an airplane with a metal frame. In the article \"An Airplane or a Birdlike (Aircraft) Flying Machine\" (1894) are descriptions and drawings of a monoplane, which in its appearance and aerodynamics anticipated the design of aircraft that would be constructed 15 to 18 years later. In an Aviation Airplane, the wings have a thick profile with a rounded front edge and the fuselage is faired. But work on the airplane, as well as on the airship, did not receive recognition from the official representatives of Russian science, and Tsiolkovsky's further research had neither monetary nor moral support. In 1914, he displayed his models of all-metal dirigibles at the Aeronautics Congress in St. Petersburg but met with a lukewarm response. Disappointed at this, Tsiolkovsky gave up on space and aeronautical problems with the onset of World War I and instead turned his attention to the problem of alleviating poverty. This occupied his time during the war years until the Russian Revolution in 1917. Starting in 1896, Tsiolkovsky systematically studied the theory of motion of rocket apparatus. Thoughts on the use of the rocket principle in the cosmos were expressed by him as early as 1883, and a rigorous theory of rocket propulsion was developed in 1896. Tsiolkovsky derived the formula, which he called the \"formula of aviation\", establishing the relationship between: After writing out this equation, Tsiolkovsky recorded the date: 10 May 1897. In the same year, the formula for the motion of a body of variable mass was published in the thesis of the Russian mathematician I. V. Meshchersky (\"Dynamics of a Point of Variable Mass,\" I. V. Meshchersky, St. Petersburg, 1897). His most important work, published in May 1903, was \"Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices\" (). Tsiolkovsky calculated, using the Tsiolkovsky equation, that the horizontal speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth is 8,000 m/s (5 miles per second) and that this could be achieved by means of a multistage rocket fueled by liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. In the article \"Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices\", it was proved for the first time that a rocket could perform space flight. In this article and its subsequent sequels (1911 and 1914), he developed some ideas of missiles and considered the use of liquid rocket engines. The outward appearance of Tsiolkovsky's spacecraft design, published in 1903, was a basis for modern spaceship design. The design had a hull divided into three main sections. The pilot and copilot were in the first section, the second and third sections held the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen needed to fuel the spacecraft. However, the result of the first publication was not what Tsiolkovsky expected. No foreign scientists appreciated his research, which today is a major scientific discipline. In 1911 he published the second part of the work \"Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices\". Here Tsiolkovsky evaluated the work needed to overcome the force of gravity, determined the speed needed to propel the device into the solar system (\"escape velocity\"), and examined calculation of flight time. The publication of this article made a splash in the scientific world, Tsiolkovsky found many friends among his fellow scientists. In 1926–1929, Tsiolkovsky solved the practical problem regarding the role played by rocket fuel in getting to escape velocity and leaving the Earth. He showed that the final speed of the rocket depends on the rate of gas flowing from it and on how the weight of the fuel relates to the weight of the empty rocket. Tsiolkovsky conceived a number of ideas that have been later used in rockets. They include: gas rudders (graphite) for controlling a rocket's flight and changing the trajectory of its center of mass, the use of components of the fuel to cool the outer shell of the spacecraft (during re-entry to Earth) and the walls of the combustion chamber and nozzle, a pump system for feeding the fuel components, the optimal descent trajectory of the spacecraft while returning from space, etc. In the field of rocket propellants, Tsiolkovsky studied a large number of different oxidizers and combustible fuels and recommended specific pairings: liquid oxygen and hydrogen, and oxygen with hydrocarbons. Tsiolkovsky did much fruitful work on the creation of the theory of jet aircraft, and invented his chart Gas Turbine Engine. In 1927 he published the theory and design of a train on an air cushion. He first proposed a \"bottom of the retractable body\" chassis. However, space flight and the airship were the main problems to which he devoted his life. Tsiolkovsky had been developing the idea of the hovercraft since 1921, publishing a fundamental paper on it in 1927, entitled \"Air Resistance and the Express Train\" (). In 1929, Tsiolkovsky proposed the construction of multistage rockets in his book \"Space Rocket Trains\" (). Tsiolkovsky championed the idea of the diversity of life in the universe and was the first theorist and advocate of human spaceflight. Tsiolkovsky never built a rocket; he apparently did not expect many of his theories to ever be implemented. Hearing problems did not prevent the scientist from having a good understanding of music, as outlined in his work \"The Origin of Music and Its Essence.\"", "Although Tsiolkovsky supported the Bolshevik Revolution, he did not particularly flourish under a communist system. Eager to promote science and technology, the new Soviet government elected him a member of the Socialist Academy in 1918. He worked as a high school mathematics teacher until retiring in 1920 at the age of 63. In 1921, he received a lifetime pension. Only late in his lifetime was Tsiolkovsky honored for his pioneering work. In particular, his support of eugenics made him politically unpopular. However, from the mid 1920s onwards the importance of his other work was acknowledged, and he was honoured for it and the Soviet state provided financial backing for his research. He was initially popularized in Soviet Russia in 1931–1932 mainly by two writers: Yakov Perelman and Nikolai Rynin. Tsiolkovsky died in Kaluga on 19 September 1935 after undergoing an operation for stomach cancer. He bequeathed his life's work to the Soviet state.", "Although many called his ideas impractical, Tsiolkovsky influenced later rocket scientists throughout Europe, like Wernher von Braun. Soviet search teams at Peenemünde found a German translation of a book by Tsiolkovsky of which \"almost every page...was embellished by von Braun's comments and notes.\" Leading Soviet rocket-engine designer Valentin Glushko and rocket designer Sergey Korolev studied Tsiolkovsky's works as youths, and both sought to turn Tsiolkovsky's theories into reality. In particular, Korolev saw traveling to Mars as the more important priority, until in 1964 he decided to compete with the American Project Apollo for the Moon. In 1989, Tsiolkovsky was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.", "Tsiolkovsky wrote a book called \"The Will of the Universe. The Unknown Intelligence\" in 1928 in which he propounded a philosophy of panpsychism. He believed humans would eventually colonize the Milky Way galaxy. His thought preceded the Space Age by several decades, and some of what he foresaw in his imagination has come into being since his death. Tsiolkovsky also did not believe in traditional religious cosmology, but instead (and to the chagrin of the Soviet authorities) he believed in a cosmic being that governed humans as \"marionettes, mechanical puppets, machines, movie characters\", thereby adhering to a mechanical view of the universe, which he believed would be controlled in the millennia to come through the power of human science and industry." ] }