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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Medieval history.", "Modern history.", "Location.", "Environmental factors.", "Archaeology at Bamburgh.", "Armstrong and Aviation Artefacts Museum.", "In popular culture.", "Selected literary appearances.", "Selected film appearances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Built on a dolerite outcrop, the location was previously home to a fort of the indigenous Celtic Britons known as \"Din Guarie\" and may have been the capital of the kingdom of Bernicia, the realm of the Gododdin people, from the realm's foundation in c. 420 until 547, the year of the first written reference to the castle. In that year the citadel was captured by the Anglo-Saxon ruler Ida of Bernicia (Beornice) and became Ida's seat. The castle was briefly retaken by the Britons from his son Hussa during the war of 590 before being retaken later the same year. In c. 600, Hussa's successor Æthelfrith passed it on to his wife Bebba, from whom the early name \"Bebbanburh\" was derived. Vikings destroyed the original fortification in 993. The Normans built a new castle on the site, which forms the core of the present one. William II unsuccessfully besieged it in 1095 during a revolt supported by its owner, Robert de Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria. After Robert was captured, his wife continued the defence until coerced to surrender by the king's threat to blind her husband. Bamburgh then became the property of the reigning English monarch. Henry II probably built the keep as it was complete by 1164. Following the Siege of Acre in 1191, and as a reward for his service, King Richard I appointed Sir John Forster the first Governor of Bamburgh Castle. Following the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Neville's Cross in 1346, King David II was held prisoner at Bamburgh Castle. During the civil wars at the end of King John's reign, the castle was under the control of Philip of Oldcoates. In 1464 during the Wars of the Roses, it became the first castle in England to be defeated by artillery, at the end of a nine-month siege by Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, the \"Kingmaker\", on behalf of the Yorkists.", "The Forster family of Northumberland continued to provide the Crown with successive governors of the castle until the Crown granted ownership (or a lease according to some sources) of the church and the castle to another Sir John Forster in the mid 1500s, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The family retained ownership until Sir William Forster (d. 1700) was posthumously declared bankrupt, and his estates, including the castle, were sold to Lord Crew, Bishop of Durham (husband of his sister Dorothy) under an Act of Parliament to settle the debts in 1704. Crewe placed the castle in the hands of a board of trustees chaired by Thomas Sharp, the Archdeacon of Northumberland. Following the death of Thomas Sharp, leadership of the board of trustees passed to John Sharp (Thomas Sharp's son) who refurbished the castle keep and court rooms and established a hospital on the site. In 1894, the castle was bought by the Victorian industrialist William Armstrong, who completed the restoration. During the Second World War, pillboxes were established in the sand dunes to protect the castle and surrounding area from German invasion and, in 1944, a Royal Navy corvette was named HMS \"Bamborough Castle\" after the castle. The castle still remains in the ownership of the Armstrong family. After the War, the castle became a Grade I Listed property. The description included this comment about the status of the building in 1952 and its history:Castle, divided into apartments. C12; ruinous when acquired by Lord Crewe in 1704 and made habitable after his death by Dr. Sharpe... Acquired by Lord Armstrong, who had extensive restoration and rebuilding of high quality by C.J. Ferguson, 1894-1904. Squared sandstone and ashlar.", "About to the south on a point of coastal land is the ancient fortress of Dunstanburgh Castle and about to the north is Lindisfarne Castle on Holy Island. Inland about 16 miles (26 km) to the south is Alnwick Castle, the home of the Duke of Northumberland.", "Air quality levels at Bamburgh Castle are excellent due to the absence of industrial sources in the region. Sound levels near the north–south road passing by Bamburgh Castle are in the range of 59 to 63 dBA in the daytime (\"Northumberland Sound Mapping Study\", Northumberland, England, June 2003). Nearby are breeding colonies of Arctic and common terns on the inner Farne Islands, and of Atlantic puffin, shag and razorbill on Staple Island.", "Archaeological excavations were started in the 1960s by Brian Hope-Taylor, who discovered the gold plaque known as the Bamburgh Beast as well as the Bamburgh Sword. Since 1996, the Bamburgh Research Project has been investigating the archaeology and history of the Castle and Bamburgh area. The project has concentrated on the fortress site and the early medieval burial ground at the Bowl Hole, to the south of the castle. During excavations at the Bowl Hole between 1998 and 2007, the remains of 110 individuals from the 7th and 8th century were discovered in that graveyard. Finally, in 2016, they were moved into the crypt of St Aidan's Church, Bamburgh; the crypt can be viewed by visitors through a small gate.", "The castle's laundry rooms feature the Armstrong and Aviation Artefacts Museum, with exhibits about Victorian industrialist William Armstrong and Armstrong Whitworth, the manufacturing company he founded. Displays include engines, artillery and weaponry, and aviation artefacts from two world wars.", "", "The castle features in the ballad \"\" written in circa 1270. Late medieval British author Thomas Malory identified Bamburgh Castle with \"Joyous Gard\", the mythical castle home of Sir Launcelot in Arthurian legend. In literature, Bamburgh, under its Saxon name Bebbanburg, is the home of Uhtred, the main character in Bernard Cornwell's \"The Saxon Stories\". It features either as a significant location or as the inspiration for the protagonist in all books in the series, starting with \"The Last Kingdom\", and the sequels \"The Pale Horseman,\" \"The Lords of the North,\" \"Sword Song,\" \"The Burning Land\", \"Death of Kings\", \"The Pagan Lord\", \"The Empty Throne\", \"Warriors of the Storm\", \"The Flame Bearer\" and \"The War of the Wolf\". The castle also features in the 2018 racing video game \"Forza Horizon 4\", where it can be purchased by the player as one of their homes.", "In addition to appearances as itself, Bamburgh Castle has been used as a filming location for a number of television and film projects:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early systems.", "Modern systems.", "Operation.", "Components.", "Use.", "Brake types.", "Effectiveness.", "ABS on motorcycles.", "History of motorcycle ABS.", "Basic principle.", "Anti-lock Braking System (ABS).", "Combined Braking System (CBS).", "CBS and ABS.", "Perception and legislation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The concept for ABS predates the modern systems that were introduced in the 1950s. In 1908, for example, J.E. Francis introduced his 'Slip Prevention Regulator for Rail Vehicles'. In 1920 the French automobile and aircraft pioneer Gabriel Voisin experimented with systems that modulated the hydraulic braking pressure on his aircraft brakes to reduce the risk of tire slippage. These systems used a flywheel and valve attached to a hydraulic line that feeds the brake cylinders. The flywheel is attached to a drum that runs at the same speed as the wheel. In normal braking, the drum and flywheel should spin at the same speed. However, when a wheel slows down, then the drum would do the same, leaving the flywheel spinning at a faster rate. This causes the valve to open, allowing a small amount of brake fluid to bypass the master cylinder into a local reservoir, lowering the pressure on the cylinder and releasing the brakes. The use of the drum and flywheel meant the valve only opened when the wheel was turning. In testing, a 30% improvement in braking performance was noted, because the pilots immediately applied full brakes instead of slowly increasing pressure in order to find the skid point. An additional benefit was the elimination of burned or burst tires. The first proper recognition of the ABS system came later with the German engineer Karl Waessel, whose system for modulating braking power was officially patented in 1928. Wessel, however, never developed a working product and neither did Robert Bosch who produced a similar patent eight years later. By the early 1950s, the Dunlop Maxaret anti-skid system was in widespread aviation use in the UK, with aircraft such as the Avro Vulcan and Handley Page Victor, Vickers Viscount, Vickers Valiant, English Electric Lightning, de Havilland Comet 2c, de Havilland Sea Vixen, and later aircraft, such as the Vickers VC10, Hawker Siddeley Trident, Hawker Siddeley 125, Hawker Siddeley HS 748 and derived British Aerospace ATP, and BAC One-Eleven, and the Dutch Fokker F27 Friendship (which unusually had a Dunlop high pressure (200 Bar) pneumatic system in lieu of hydraulics for braking, nose wheel steering and landing gear retraction), being fitted with Maxaret as standard. Maxaret, while reducing braking distances by up to 30% in icy or wet conditions, also increased tire life, and had the additional advantage of allowing take-offs and landings in conditions that would preclude flying at all in non-Maxaret equipped aircraft. In 1958, a Royal Enfield Super Meteor motorcycle was used by the Road Research Laboratory to test the Maxaret anti-lock brake. The experiments demonstrated that anti-lock brakes can be of great value to motorcycles, for which skidding is involved in a high proportion of accidents. Stopping distances were reduced in most of the tests compared with locked wheel braking, particularly on slippery surfaces, in which the improvement could be as much as 30 percent. Enfield's technical director at the time, Tony Wilson-Jones, saw little future in the system, however, and it was not put into production by the company. A fully mechanical system saw limited automobile use in the 1960s in the Ferguson P99 racing car, the Jensen FF, and the experimental all wheel drive Ford Zodiac, but saw no further use; the system proved expensive and unreliable. The first fully electronic anti lock system was developed in the late 1960s for the Concorde aircraft.", "Chrysler, together with the Bendix Corporation, introduced a computerized, three-channel, four-sensor all-wheel ABS called \"Sure Brake\" for its 1971 Imperial. It was available for several years thereafter, functioned as intended, and proved reliable. In 1970, Ford added an anti-lock braking system called \"Sure-track\" to the rear wheels of Lincoln Continentals as an option; it became standard in 1971. In 1971, General Motors introduced the \"Trackmaster\" rear-wheel only ABS as an option on their rear-wheel drive Cadillac models and the Oldsmobile Toronado. In the same year, Nissan offered an EAL (Electro Anti-lock System) developed by Japanese company Denso as an option on the Nissan President, which became Japan's first electronic ABS. 1971: Electronically controlled anti-skid brakes on Toyota Crown In 1972, four wheel drive Triumph 2500 Estates were fitted with Mullard electronic systems as standard. Such cars were very rare however and very few survive today. 1971: First truck application: \"Antislittamento\" system developed by Fiat Veicoli Industriali and installed on Fiat truck model 691N1. 1976: WABCO began the development of anti-locking braking system on commercial vehicles to prevent locking on slippery roads, followed in 1986 by the electronic braking system (EBS) for heavy duty vehicles. 1978: Mercedes-Benz W116 became the first production car to use an electronic four-wheel multi-channel anti-lock braking system (ABS) from Bosch as an option from 1978 on. 1982: Honda introduced electronically controlled multi-channel ALB (Anti Locking Brakes) as an option for the second generation of Prelude, launched worldwide in 1982. Additional info: The general agent for Honda in Norway required all Preludes for the Norwegian market to have the ALB-system as a standard feature, making Honda Prelude to be the first car delivered in Europe with ABS as a standard feature. The Norwegian general agent also included sun roof and other options to be standard equipment in Norway, adding more luxury to the Honda brand. However, the Norwegian tax system made the well-equipped car very expensive, and the sales suffered from high cost. From 1984 the ALB-system, as well as the other optional features from Honda, was no longer a standard feature in Norway. In 1985 the Ford Scorpio was introduced to European market with a Teves electronic system throughout the range as standard. For this the model was awarded the coveted European Car of the Year Award in 1986, with very favorable praise from motoring journalists. After this success Ford began research into Anti-Lock systems for the rest of their range, which encouraged other manufacturers to follow suit. Since 1987 ABS has been standard equipment on all Mercedes Benz automobiles. In 1988, BMW introduced the first motorcycle with an electronic-hydraulic ABS: the BMW K100. Yamaha Introduced the FJ1200 model with optional ABS in 1991. Honda followed suit in 1992 with the launch of its first motorcycle ABS on the ST1100 Pan European. In 2007, Suzuki launched its GSF1200SA (Bandit) with an ABS. In 2005, Harley-Davidson began offering an ABS option on police bikes. In 1993, Lincoln became one of the first automobile companies to provide standard four-wheel anti-lock brakes and dual air bags on all of their vehicles.", "The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake). Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects the wheel rotating significantly slower than the speed of the vehicle, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second. Because of this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in extreme conditions. The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical threshold, because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all roadgoing vehicles. If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified. Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems, which are rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years. Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much. ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation and take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and brakes simultaneously. The speed sensors of ABS are sometimes used in indirect tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS), which can detect under-inflation of tire(s) by difference in rotational speed of wheels.", "There are four main components of ABS: wheel speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller. The majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a valve is clogged it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the system from modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.", "There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in ABS. One of the simpler systems works as follows:", "Anti-lock braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use. They can be differentiated by the number of channels: that is, how many valves that are individually controlled—and the number of speed sensors.", "A 2004 Australian study by Monash University Accident Research Centre found that ABS: On high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, or concrete, many (though not all) ABS-equipped cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that would be possible without the benefit of ABS. In real world conditions, even an alert and experienced driver without ABS would find it difficult to match or improve on the performance of a typical driver with a modern ABS-equipped vehicle. ABS reduces chances of crashing, and/or the severity of impact. The recommended technique for non-expert drivers in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-braking emergency, is to press the brake pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate, to steer around obstructions. In such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the chances of a skid and subsequent loss of control. In gravel, sand and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these surfaces, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents this from occurring. Some ABS calibrations reduce this problem by slowing the cycling time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and unlock. Some vehicle manufacturers provide an \"off-road\" button to turn ABS function off. The primary benefit of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability of the driver to maintain control of the car rather than go into a skid, though loss of control remains more likely on soft surfaces such as gravel or on slippery surfaces such as snow or ice. On a very slippery surface such as sheet ice or gravel, it is possible to lock multiple wheels at once, and this can defeat ABS (which relies on comparing all four wheels, and detecting individual wheels skidding). Availability of ABS relieves most drivers from learning threshold braking. A June 1999 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) study found that ABS increased stopping distances on loose gravel by an average of 27.2 percent. According to the NHTSA, \"ABS works with your regular braking system by automatically pumping them. In vehicles not equipped with ABS, the driver has to manually pump the brakes to prevent wheel lockup. In vehicles equipped with ABS, your foot should remain firmly planted on the brake pedal, while ABS pumps the brakes for you so you can concentrate on steering to safety.\" When activated, some earlier ABSes caused the brake pedal to pulse noticeably. As most drivers rarely or do not brake hard enough to cause brake lock-up, and drivers typically do not read the vehicle's owners manual, this may not be noticeable until an emergency. Some manufacturers have therefore implemented a brake assist system that determines that the driver is attempting a \"panic stop\" (by detecting that the brake pedal was depressed very quickly, unlike a normal stop where the pedal pressure would usually be gradually increased. Some systems additionally monitor the rate at the accelerator was released, and/or the time between accelerator release and brake application) and the system automatically increases braking force where not enough pressure is applied. Hard or panic braking on bumpy surfaces, because of the bumps causing the speed of the wheel(s) to become erratic may also trigger the ABS, sometimes causing the system to enter its ice mode, where the system severely limits maximum available braking power. Nevertheless, ABS significantly improves safety and control for drivers in most on-road situations. Anti-lock brakes are the subject of some experiments centered around risk compensation theory, which asserts that drivers adapt to the safety benefit of ABS by driving more aggressively. In a Munich study, half a fleet of taxicabs was equipped with anti-lock brakes, while the other half had conventional brake systems. The crash rate was substantially the same for both types of cab, and Wilde concludes this was due to drivers of ABS-equipped cabs taking more risks, assuming that ABS would take care of them, while the non-ABS drivers drove more carefully since ABS would not be there to help in case of a dangerous situation. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety released a study in 2010 that found motorcycles with ABS 37% less likely to be involved in a fatal crash than models without ABS.", "On a motorcycle, an anti-lock brake system prevents the wheels of a powered two wheeler from locking during braking situations. Based on information from wheel speed sensors the ABS unit adjusts the pressure of the brake fluid in order to keep traction during deceleration to avoid accidents. Motorcycle ABS helps the rider to maintain stability during braking and to decrease the stopping distance. It provides traction even on low friction surfaces. While older ABS models are derived from cars, recent ABS are the result of research, oriented on the specifics of motorcycles in case of size, weight and functionality. National and international organizations evaluate Motorcycle ABS as an important factor to increase safety and reduce motorcycle accident numbers. The European Commission passed legislation in 2012 that made the fitment with ABS for all new motorcycles above 125 cm to be mandatory from 1 January 2016. \"Consumer Reports\" said in 2016 that \"ABS is commonly offered on large, expensive models, but it has been spreading to several entry-level sport bikes and midsized bikes\".", "In 1988, BMW introduced an electronic/hydraulic ABS for motorcycles, ten years after Daimler Benz and Bosch released the first four-wheel vehicle ABS for series production. Motorcycles of BMW K100 series were optionally equipped with the ABS, which added 11 kg to the bike. It was developed together with FAG Kugelfischer and regulated the pressure in the braking circuits via a plunger piston. Japanese manufacturers followed with an ABS option by 1992 on the Honda ST1100 and the Yamaha FJ1200. Continental presented its first Motorcycle Integral ABS (MIB) in 2006. It has been developed in cooperation with BMW and weighed 2.3 kg. While the first generation of motorcycle ABS weighed around 11 kg. The current generation (2011) presented by Bosch in 2009 weighs 0.7 kg (ABS base) and 1.6 kg (ABS enhanced) with integral braking.", "Wheel speed sensors mounted on front and rear wheel constantly measure the rotational speed of each wheel and deliver this information to an Electronic Control Unit (ECU). The ECU detects on the one hand if the deceleration of one wheel exceeds a fixed threshold and on the other hand whether the brake slip, calculated based on information of both wheels, rises above a certain percentage and enters an unstable zone. These are indicators for a high possibility of a locking wheel. To countermeasure these irregularities the ECU signals the hydraulic unit to hold or to release pressure. After signals show the return to the stable zone, pressure is increased again. Past models used a piston for the control of the fluid pressure. Most recent models regulate the pressure by rapidly opening and closing solenoid valves. While the basic principle and architecture has been carried over from passenger car ABS, typical motorcycle characteristics have to be considered during the development and application processes. One characteristic is the change of the dynamic wheel load during braking. Compared to cars, the wheel load changes are more drastic, which can lead to a wheel lift up and a fall over. This can be intensified by a soft suspension. Some systems are equipped with a rear wheel lift off mitigation functionality. When the indicators of a possible rear lift off are detected, the system releases brake pressure on the front wheel to counter this behavior. Another difference is that in case of the motorcycle the front wheel is much more important for stability than the rear wheel. If the front wheel locks up between 0.2-0.7s, it loses gyrostatic forces and the motorcycle starts to oscillate because the increased influence of side forces operating on the wheel contact line. The motorcycle becomes unstable and falls.", "\"Piston Systems\": The pressure release in this system is realized through movement of a spring-tensioned piston. When pressure should be released, a linear motor pulls back the plunger piston and opens up more space for the fluid. The system was used for example in the ABS I (1988) and ABS II (1993) of BMW. The ABS II differed in size and an electronically controlled friction clutch was mounted on the shaft instead of a plunger. Further displacement sensors record the travel distance of the piston to allow the control unit a more precise regulation. Honda also uses this system of pressure modulation for big sports and touring bikes. \"Valve and Pump Systems\": The main parts which are part of the pressure modulation system are solenoid inlet and outlet valves, a pump, motor and accumulators/reservoirs. The number of the valves differs from model to model due to additional functionalities and the number of brake channels. Based on the input of the ECU, coils operate the inlet and outlet valves. During pressure release the brake fluid is stored in accumulators. In this open system approach the fluid is then brought back in the brake circuit via a pump operated by a motor which is felt through pulsation on the brake lever.", "Different from cars, planes or trains, motorcycle rear and front wheels are controlled separately. If the rider only brakes with one wheel, this braked wheel tends to lock up faster than if both brakes had been applied. A Combined Braking System therefore distributes the brake force also to the non-braked wheel to lower the possibility of a lock up, increase deceleration and reduce suspension pitch. With a single [rear] CBS the brake pressure applied on the rear brake (pedal) is simultaneously distributed to the front wheel. A delay valve cuts the hydraulic pressure to assure that only when strong braking is applied, pressure is also created at the front wheel. Honda's first street motorcycle with a combined braking system (then called Unified Braking) was the 1983 GL1100. This system was derived from a 1970s RCB1000 world endurance race bike. Larger models with two front discs use a dual CBS System. The system was first installed by Moto Guzzi in 1975. Here, applied brake pressure at the front is also applied to the rear wheel and vice versa. If the front lever is applied, pressure is built up at 4 of the 6 pots in the 2 calipers at the front. A secondary master cylinder at the front wheel distributes remaining pressure to the rear wheel through a proportional control valve and acts on 2 of the 3 calipers. If strong brake force is applied at the rear wheel force is also distributed to 2 of the 6 pots of the front wheel. More modern dual CBS use front and rear calipers (and all pots) according to a preset load ratio of front to rear. The proportioning was originally controlled by complex all-hydraulic systems interlinking the front and rear, with a fixed delay or by sensing weight distribution changes. As early as 2001 an electrohydraulic system was introduced by BMW.", "CBS helps to reduce the danger of wheel locks and fall downs but in certain situations it is possible that CBS causes a fall down. If brake pressure is distributed from the rear wheel to the front wheel and the friction of the surfaces changes suddenly (puddle, ice on the street) the front wheel might lock even if only the rear brake has been applied. This would lead to a loss of stability and a fall down. CBS is therefore combined with ABS to avoid this on a motorcycle. Different approaches are possible to realize this combination: \"Without active pressure Build up\" Single Version: A third additional channel links the rear wheel circuit through a delay valve to the front brake. Strong brake pressure at the rear wheel (or both wheels) pressurizes both brake circuits however this pressure is adjusted according to wheel speed and brake slip. The dual version combines Hondas Dual CBS with a secondary master cylinder and a proportional control valve [with Piston ABS] A modulator regulates the pressure for each \"With Active Pressure Build up\" In 2009, Honda introduced the electronic controlled combined ABS for its high performance sports bikes which utilizes brake by wire technology. The brake input of the rider is measured by pressure sensors and the information is provided to an ECU. Together with the information of the wheel speed sensors the ECU calculates the optimal distribution of pressure to prevent lockups and to provide best possible deceleration. Based on this output a motor for each wheel operates a pump which builds up and regulates the brake pressure on the wheel. This system offers a fast reaction time because of the brake by wire functionality. The MIB (Motorcycle integral Braking system) from Continental Teves and the eCBS (electronic CBS) in the enhanced Motorcycle ABS from Bosch are results of another approach. These systems are based on the pump and valve approach. Through additional valves, stronger pumps and a more powerful motor the system can actively build up pressure. The input pressure of the rider is measured with pressure sensors at the lever and pedal. The pump then builds up additional pressure adjusted to riding conditions. A partial integral System is designed for working in one direction only: front→rear or rear→front. A fully integral system works in both directions. Because these systems are electronically controlled and are able to build up pressure actively, they offer the opportunity to adjust the motorcycle braking behavior to the rider. CBS and ABS can be switched off by experienced riders and also different regulation modes with higher and lower thresholds can be chosen. Like the rain or slick mode in the BMW S1000RR.", "A report of the European Transport Safety council showed that riding a motorcycle is 20 times more dangerous than driving a car the same distance. And the accidents situation in Germany from 1990 to 2011 showed that total traffic fatalities decreased drastically (11 000 to 4 009) but motorcycle fatalities remained constant. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) conducted a study on the effectiveness of ABS for motorcycles and came to the conclusion that motorcycles above 250 cm without ABS are 37 percent more likely to be involved in fatal crashes and a study of the Swedish Road Administration came to the conclusion that 48 percent of all severe and fatal motorcycle accidents above 125 cm could be avoided due to motorcycle ABS. These studies caused the EU commission to initiate a legislative process in 2010 that was passed in 2012 and led to ABS for motorcycles above 125 cm becoming mandatory from 2016 onwards. Organizations like the Federation International de l’Automobile and the Institute of advanced Motorists (IAM) demanded the implementation of this legislation already for 2015. On the other hand, some motorcycle riders are protesting against a compulsory ABS for all bikes because they call for a possibility to switch the system off, for off-road usage or for other reasons. In 2011 the United Nations (UN) started the Decade of Action for Road Safety. The main goal is to save 5 million lives until 2020 through global cooperation. One part of their global plan is to: Encourage universal deployment of crash avoidance technologies with proven effectiveness such as Electronic Stability Control and Anti-Lock Braking Systems in motorcycles. ABS is required on all new passenger cars sold in the EU since 2004. In the United States, the NHTSA has mandated ABS in conjunction with Electronic Stability Control under the provisions of FMVSS 126 as of September 1, 2013." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Morphology.", "Taxonomy.", "Distribution.", "Hybrids.", "Taxonomic history.", "List of \"Potamogeton\" species.", "Ecology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Potamogeton\" species range from large (stems of 6 m or more) to very small (less than 10 cm). Height is strongly influenced by environmental conditions, particularly water depth. All species are technically perennial, but some species disintegrate in autumn to a large number of asexually produced resting buds called turions, which serve both as a means of overwintering and dispersal. Turions may be borne on the rhizome, on the stem, or on stolons from the rhizome. Most species, however, persist by perennial creeping rhizomes. In some cases the turions are the only means to differentiate species. The leaves are alternate, which contrasts with the closely related genus \"Groenlandia\", where the leaves are opposite or whorled. In many species, all the leaves are submerged, and in these cases, they are typically thin and translucent. Some species, especially in ponds and very slow-moving waters, have floating leaves which tend to be opaque with a leathery texture. Leaf shape has been found to be highly plastic, with variability due to changes in light, water chemistry, planting depth, sediment conditions, temperature, photo period, waves, and seasonality. All \"Potamogeton\" have a delicate membranous sheathing scale, the stipule, at the leaf axil. This may be wholly attached, partly attached, or free of the leaf, and it may have inrolled margins or appear as a tube. The morphology of the stipule is an important character for species identification. The stems have small scales. The flowers, which are often overlooked, are greenish-brown and are composed of four rounded segments borne in a spike. They are 2-4 merous, with superior ovaries and anthers that turn outward. The fruits are spheroidal and green to brown, usually 1–3 mm in diameter, with a noticeable 'beak'. Their pollen is inaperturate, monad, apolar and spherical. Most fine-leaved pondweeds are diploid, with 2n = 26 (such as \"P. pusillus\" or \"P. trichoides\") or less commonly 28 (\"P. compressus\", \"P. acutifolius\"). Broad-leaved taxa are mainly tetraploid, with 2n = 52 (e.g. \"P. alpinus\", \"P. praelongus\"), but a few species are diploid (e.g. \"P. coloratus\" or octaploid (2n = 104)(e.g. \"P. illinoensis\").", "\"Potamogeton\" is a genus of freshwater aquatic plants in the Potamogetonaceae. Molecular analysis has identified \"Groenlandia\" as the sister group to \"Potamogeton,\" although the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group also lists \"Zannichellia,\" \"Althenia\" and \"Pseudoalthenia\" as closely related genera. Some researchers have used molecular analysis and pollen grain shape to argue for the placement of \"Stuckenia\" at the genus level, but others have argued there is not enough difference to justify the change, and have kept \"Stuckenia\" as a subgenus of \"Potamogeton.\" The genus is generally divided into two groups: broad-leaved and linear-leaved. The broad-leaved group includes such species as \"P. natans\", \"P. perfoliatus\" and \"P. alpinus\". The linear-leaved group includes such species as \"P. rutilus\", \"P. compressus\" and \"P. berchtoldii\". Series \"Batrachoseris\" historically contained only one species, \"Potamogeton crispus,\" however more recent research has also added \"P. maackianus\" and \"P. robbinsii\" into this grouping. These general divisions have been supported by molecular analysis, except that \"P. crispus\" clusters with broad-leaved species in section \"Potamogeton\". In a detailed review of the genus, Wiegleb and Kaplan recognised 69 species, but the variability of many species means that there is disagreement regarding the exact number of species. Currently, the number of accepted names is 94. Hybridisation provides an added complexity to the taxonomy.", "\"Potamogeton\" species are found worldwide in many aquatic ecosystems. However, the greatest diversity of species occurs in the northern hemisphere, especially in North America, which is thought to be where the genus originated. Molecular evidence suggests that several independent colonizations of the southern hemisphere have occurred. However, due to their self-propagation from turions, \"Potamogeton\" populations show very low infrapopulation diversity, especially when living in deep, shaded or turbulent water where colonies do not expend energy on flowers. This has made it very difficult to use genetic data to find patterns of geographical differentiation.", "\"Potamogeton\" species hybridise freely. At least 27 hybrids have been observed in the British Isles alone, and more than 50 worldwide, of which 36 have been confirmed using genetic techniques. The majority of these are sterile, but many are long-lived and may occur in the absence of one or even both parents. Most hybrids have been described between broad-leaved species, but this probably reflects the relative scarcity of characters among fine-leaved taxa, so that hybrids are much more difficult to identify. Use of genetic markers suggests that hybrid taxa are also reasonably frequent among fine-leaved species. At least one species, \"P. obtusifolius\", is thought to have arisen via hybridisation.", "Several species of European pondweeds, including \"P. natans\", \"P. lucens\" and \"P. crispus\", were included in Linnaeus's \"Species Plantarum\" in 1753. Much of the European \"Potamogeton\" flora was subsequently named during the late 18th and early 19th century. As botanists ventured further afield, pondweeds began to be collected and named from other parts of the world. The North America flora was largely named by the start of the 20th century. Alfred Fryer became interested in \"Potamogeton\" in the 1880s, and was a recognised authority on the genus. The first parts of his work \"The Potamogetons (Pond Weeds) of the British Isles\" were published in 1898. His death intervened, and the work was completed by Arthur Bennett (1843-1929), who named a large number of specimens sent to him from around the world. Robert Morgan (1863-1900) illustrated Fryer's contribution to the monograph, his colour plates drawing praise from later critics. In 1916, Johan Hagström published \"Critical researches on the Potamogetons\" from detailed measurements of dozens of vegetative, anatomical and reproductive characteristics such as fruit beak, peduncle rigidity and leaf apex across hundreds of specimens. It was a pioneering work that preceded the development of cladistics by more than 30 years, and his clustering of groups into broad-leaf and linear-leaf is still considered the framework for all subsequent classification systems of \"Potamogeton.\" Hagström's work was developed further by Merritt Fernald (1873-1950) who created a detailed phylogeny for the linear-leaved species, and by Eugene Ogden who did so for the broad-leaved species. New species continue to be described from less well-studied areas such as Asia and Africa, and it is possible that molecular analysis may reveal hitherto unknown cryptic species.", "The following list is based on the latest listing of valid \"Potamogeton\" taxa held on The Plant List.", "Reproduction of pondweeds occurs both vegetatively and by seed, though studies suggest that in some species or situations reproduction by seed is rare. The fruits may be produced in large quantities from midsumer onwards, and are ingested by waterfowl. Germination experiments have shown that the seeds are viable after passing through the digestive tracts of birds and this mechanism is probably the only natural mechanism for long-distance dispersal between isolated water bodies. Vegetative propagation occurs by a variety of mechanisms including turions, and via growth and fragmentation of rhizomes and shoots. Vegetative reproduction is evidently an effective means of ensuring local persistence, as sterile hybrids have been recorded at some sites for over 100 years. Although they occur in a range of environments, most species prefer standing or slow-flowing waters with some calcium and fairly low nutrient levels. In general the fine-leaved species are more tolerant of human impacts such as eutrophication. They are important as food and habitat for animals including insect larvae, water snails, ducks and other waterfowl, and aquatic mammals such as beavers. Most species are not weedy, but a few can become troublesome, such as curly-leaf pondweed (\"Potamogeton crispus\"). In relation to the ecosystem as a whole, \"Potamogeton \"is often a common habitat for insects. For example, \"C. annularius\" and other insects from the \"Chironomus \"genera have been found to inhabit and mate around certain species of \"Potamogeton\". The closeness to a fresh water source as well as cover from predators allows \"C. annularius\" to thrive." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Political activism.", "Political career.", "2005 Presidential election.", "Presidency.", "Corruption allegations.", "Relations with Israel.", "Relations with Hamas.", "Relations with foreign leaders.", "Published works and statements about the Holocaust." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mahmoud Abbas was born in 15 November 1935 in Safed, in the Galilee region of Mandatory Palestine (now Israel). His family fled to Syria during the 1948 Palestine war. Before going to Egypt, Abbas graduated from the University of Damascus, where he studied law. Abbas later entered graduate studies at the Patrice Lumumba University in Moscow, where he earned a Candidate of Sciences degree (the Soviet equivalent of a PhD). His doctoral dissertation was \"\". He is married to Amina Abbas and they had three sons. The eldest, Mazen Abbas, ran a building company in Doha and died in Qatar of a heart attack in 2001 at the age of 42. The kunya of Abu Mazen means \"father of Mazen.\" Their second son is Yasser Abbas, a Canadian businessman who was named after former PA leader Yasser Arafat. The youngest son is Tareq, a business executive. Abbas has eight grandchildren, six of whom are part of the Seeds of Peace initiative bringing them in touch with young Israelis.", "In the mid-1950s, Abbas became heavily involved in underground Palestinian politics, joining a number of exiled Palestinians in Qatar, where he was Director of Personnel in the emirate's Civil Service. While there in 1961, he was recruited to become a member of Fatah, founded by Yasser Arafat and five other Palestinians in Kuwait in the late 1950s. At the time, Arafat was establishing the groundwork of Fatah by enlisting wealthy Palestinians in Qatar, Kuwait, and other Gulf States. According to Abu Daoud, part of the funds raised by Abbas were used, without the latter's knowledge, to implement the 1972 Munich massacre. He was among the first members of Fatah to call for talks with moderate Israelis, doing so in 1977. In a 2012 interview, he recalled, \"[...] because we took up arms, we were in a position to put them down with credibility.\" Abbas has performed diplomatic duties, presenting a moderating contrast to the PLO's \"revolutionary\"policies. Abbas was the first PLO official to visit Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War in January 1993 to mend fences with the Gulf countries after the PLO's support of Iraq during the Persian Gulf War strained relations. In the Oslo I Accord, Abbas was the signatory for the PLO on 13 September 1993. He published a memoir, \"Through Secret Channels: The Road to Oslo\" (1995). In 1995, he and Israeli negotiator Yossi Beilin wrote the Beilin–Abu Mazen agreement, which was meant to be the framework for a future Israeli–Palestinian peace deal. It emerged in September 2016 that Abbas may have once worked for the KGB, as early as 1985 in Damascus, according to a document uncovered in the Mitrokhin Archive, where he is registered as agent \"Krotov\". Palestinian officials replied that at the time in question, the PLO collaborated with Moscow, and that Abbas was their liaison man in the Palestinian-Soviet friendship foundation.", "By early 2003, as Israel and the United States refused to negotiate with Yasser Arafat, it was thought that Abbas would be a candidate for the kind of leadership role envisaged by both countries. As one of the few remaining founding members of Fatah, he had some degree of credibility within the Palestinian cause, and his candidacy was bolstered by the fact that other high-profile Palestinians were for various reasons not suitable (the most notable, Marwan Barghouti, was a prisoner in Israeli jail after having been convicted on charges of being responsible for multiple murders by an Israeli court). Abbas's reputation as a pragmatist garnered him favor with the West and some members of the Palestinian legislature. Under international pressure, on 19 March 2003, Arafat appointed Abbas Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority. According to Gilbert Achcar, the United States imposed Abbas on Arafat, the democratically elected leader, though the majority of Palestinians thought of the former as a Quisling. A struggle for power between Arafat and Abbas ensued. Abbas's term as prime minister was characterised by numerous conflicts between him and Arafat over the distribution of power. The United States and Israel accused Arafat of undermining Abbas and his government. Abbas hinted he would resign if not given more control over the administration. In early September 2003, he confronted the Palestinian parliament over this issue. Abbas came into conflict with Palestinian militant groups, notably the Palestinian Islamic Jihad Movement and Hamas because his pragmatic policies were opposed to their hard-line approach. He resigned as leader of the PLO on 22 August 2015. Initially, he pledged not to use force against the militants in the interest of avoiding a civil war, and attempted negotiation. This was partially successful, resulting in a pledge from the two groups to honor a unilateral Palestinian cease-fire. However, continuing violence and Israeli \"targeted killings\" of known leaders forced Abbas to pledge a crackdown in order to uphold the Palestinian Authority's side of the Road map for peace. This led to a power struggle with Arafat over control of the Palestinian Security Services; Arafat refused to release control to Abbas, thus preventing him from using them on the militants. Abbas resigned as prime minister in September 2003, citing lack of support from Israel and the United States as well as \"internal incitement\" against his government. He announced his resignation as leader of the PLO on 22 August 2015. As of December 2015, he was still acting as Chairman, pending approval by the Palestinian National Council.", "After Yasser Arafat's death, Abbas was seen, at least by Fatah, as his natural successor. On 25 November 2004, Abbas was endorsed by Fatah's Revolutionary Council as its preferred candidate for the presidential election, scheduled for 9 January 2005. On 14 December, Abbas called for an end to violence in the Second Intifada and a return to peaceful resistance. Abbas told the Asharq Al-Awsat newspaper that \"the use of arms has been damaging and should end.\" However, he refused, or was not able, to disarm Palestinian militants and use force against groups designated (by the Israeli government) as terrorist organisations. With Israeli forces arresting and restricting the movement of other candidates, Hamas's boycott of the election, and his campaign being given 94% of the Palestinian electoral campaign coverage on TV, Abbas's election was virtually ensured, and on 9 January Abbas was elected with 62% of the vote as President of the Palestinian National Authority. In his speech, he addressed a crowd of supporters chanting \"a million shahids\", stating: \"I present this victory to the soul of Yasser Arafat and present it to our people, to our martyrs and to 11,000 prisoners\". He also called for Palestinian groups to end the use of arms against Israelis.", "Despite Abbas's call for a peaceful solution, attacks by militant groups continued after his election, in a direct challenge to his authority. The Palestinian Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine launched a raid in Gaza on 12 January 2005, that killed one and wounded three Israeli military personnel. On 13 January, Palestinians from the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, Hamas, and the Popular Resistance Committees launched a suicide attack on the Karni crossing, killing six Israelis. As a result, Israel shut down the damaged terminal and broke off relations with Abbas and the Palestinian Authority, stating that Abbas must now show a gesture of peace by attempting to stop such attacks. Abbas was formally sworn in as the President of the Palestinian National Authority in a ceremony held on 15 January, in the West Bank town of Ramallah. On 8 February 2005, Abbas met with Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon at the Sharm el-Sheikh Summit to end the Second Intifada, and they both reaffirmed their commitment to the Roadmap for peace process. Sharon also agreed to release 900 Palestinian prisoners of the 7,500 being held at the time, and to withdraw from West Bank towns. On 9 August 2005, Abbas announced that legislative elections, originally scheduled for 17 July 2005, would take place in January 2006. On 20 August, he set the elections for 25 January. On 15 January 2006, Abbas declared that, despite unrest in Gaza, he would not change the election date, unless Israel were to prevent Palestinians in East Jerusalem from voting. The elections took place on 25 January 2006, and resulted in a decisive Hamas victory. On 16 January 2006, in the context of Fatah's election loss and Hamas' presumed future one party government, Abbas said that he would not run for office again at the end of his term. However, following international sanctions against a Hamas one party government, political and military conflicts between Hamas and Fatah, and the division of the country, which made new elections impossible, Abbas stayed president after the expiration of his four-year term on 15 January 2009. He extended his term for another year, using another interpretation of the Basic Law and the Election Law, so he could align the next presidential and parliamentary elections. Pointing to the Palestinian constitution, Hamas disputed the validity of this move, and considered Abbas's term to have ended, in which case Abdel Aziz Duwaik, Speaker of the Palestinian Legislative Council, would have become acting president. On 16 December 2009, the leadership of the Palestinian Central Council announced an indefinite extension of Abbas's term as president. Since then, Abbas has remained president of the Fatah-controlled areas of the Palestinian territories. In April 2014, Hamas withdrew its objection, in order to form a Unity Government with Fatah.", "There are frequent allegations that officials of the Palestinian Authority, including Abbas, have systematically embezzled public funds. Abbas's mentor and predecessor, Yasser Arafat, was accused of embezzling billions of dollars of Palestinian money. This perceived corruption of the Fatah leadership is believed to have contributed to a convincing win by Hamas in the January 2006 parliamentary election. Fatah leaders were accused of siphoning funds from ministry budgets, passing out patronage jobs, accepting favors and gifts from suppliers and contractors. The source for specific allegations against Abbas was one of Arafat's most trusted aides, Mohammed Rashid, accused by the PA of embezzling hundreds of millions of dollars, who threatened to expose corruption scandals in the Palestinian Authority. For many years, Rashid served as Arafat's financial advisor and was given a free hand to handle hundreds of millions of dollars that were poured on the Palestinian Authority and the PLO by US, EU and Arab donors. According to Rashid, Abbas's net worth was $US100 million. On 10 July 2012, Abbas and his sons were attacked, in the US Congress, for their alleged corruption. The debate was entitled \"Chronic Kleptocracy: Corruption Within the Palestinian Political Establishment\" In his testimony before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Middle East and South Asia, Elliott Abrams stated that \"Corruption is an insidious destroyer not only of Palestinian public finance but of faith in the entire political system. And it has certainly had an impact on potential donors. I can tell you from my own experience, as an American official seeking financial assistance for the PA from Gulf Arab governments, that I was often told \"why should we give them money when their officials will just steal it?\"\" The conspicuous wealth of Abbas's own sons, Yasser and Tarek, has been noted in Palestinian society since at least 2009, when Reuters first published a series of articles tying the sons to several business deals, including a few that had U.S. taxpayer support. In a \"Foreign Policy\" article, author Jonathan Schanzer suggested four ways in which the Abbas family has become rich. They include monopolies on American made cigarettes sold in the territories; USAid funding; public works projects, such as road and school construction, on behalf of the Palestinian Authority and special preferences for retail enterprises. It was strongly implied that the sons lineage was the main credential in receiving these contracts. One of his sons, Yasser Abbas, (but not brother Tarek or father Mahmoud) filed a $10 million libel lawsuit in the United States District Court, District of Columbia, in September 2012 against Foreign Policy Group LLC and Schanzer alleging \"false and defamatory statements. It seems every statement will be challenged, in a jury trial, if the court accepts jurisdiction.\" Abbas also accused Schanzer of not contacting him for comment and of relying on untrustworthy sources of information. Abbas accused Schanzer of acting with malice and pursuing an agenda against the brothers, even though he also contended that he's a private citizen and not a public figure, so we wouldn't need to prove actual malice to win. In reply, the magazine has argued that Abbas's suit is aimed at intimidating his critics and stopping debate. \"In the final analysis, the commentary falls well within the protections of both the First Amendment and the common law,\" lawyers for the magazine assert. Some analysts believed the Abbas family would not proceed with the case as it would allow \"Foreign Policy\" and Schanzer to dig in too deep into the PA's secret finances and records. However, the case proceeded. In September, 2013, U.S. District Judge Emmet Sullivan dismissed the suit using D.C.'s anti-SLAPP measure. Sullivan determined the lawsuit intended to censor, intimidate, and silence critics by burdening them with the cost of a legal defense until they abandoned their criticisms or opposition. The decision has been appealed. As part of the 2016 Panama Papers data leak, it was revealed that Abbas's son Tareq Abbas holds $1 million in shares of an offshore company associated with the Palestinian Authority.", "On 23 January 2006, Israeli radio reported that Abbas had secured a thirty-day ceasefire from Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad. On 12 February, lone Palestinians attacked Israel settlements and Abbas quickly fired some of his security officers for not stopping the attacks during the ceasefire. On 9 April 2006, Abbas said that the killing of three Palestinians in southern Gaza by Israeli soldiers was a deliberate violation of the declared ceasefire deal. \"This violation is made on purpose,\" Abbas said in a written statement sent to reporters in the West Bank capital of Ramallah. Abbas made the statement shortly after three Palestinian teenage boys were shot dead by Israeli troops in the southern Gaza town of Rafah. Israel claimed they thought the boys were attempting to smuggle weapons, while Palestinians claimed a group of boys were playing soccer and three of them went to retrieve the ball near the border fence. On 25 July 2006, he announced that he would move his office to Gaza until the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops in order to coordinate the Palestinian side of the withdrawal, mediating between the different factions. Efraim Sneh, a former minister in the Israeli cabinet, has called Abbas the most \"courageous partner we have had.\" He wrote that on 19 April 2006, following the elections in Israel but before Ehud Olmert was sworn in, he met with Abbas, and Abbas requested that negotiations resume immediately with the new Israeli government and that he be put in touch right away with a contact person to be appointed by the prime minister. Sneh reported that he immediately conveyed the substance of their meeting to the prime minister's office, but was told that the prime minister had no interest in the matter. Despite this, Sneh mentions that the Annapolis Conference convened a year and a half later, and that in September 2008, Prime Minister Olmert and Abbas came to understandings that would lead to an actual agreement. On 2 March 2008, Abbas stated he was suspending peace talks with Israel, while Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert vowed to press on with military operations against militants who have been launching home-made rockets into southern Israel. On 20 May 2008, Abbas stated he would resign from his office if the current round of peace talks had not yielded an agreement in principle \"within six months\". He also stated that the current negotiations were, in effect, deadlocked: \"So far, we have not reached an agreement on any issue. Any report indicating otherwise is simply not true.\" Abbas has since confirmed that he turned down an Israeli offer for a Palestinian state on nearly 95% of the West Bank. In September 2008, Olmert had presented him with a map that delineated the borders of the proposed PA state, for which Israel would annex 6.3 percent of the West Bank and compensate the Palestinians with 5.8 percent (taken from pre-1967 Israel), which Abbas stated he rejected out of hand, insisting instead to demarcate the June 4, 1967 borders of Palestine. He said that Olmert did not give a map of the proposal and that he could not sign without seeing the proposal. Abbas also said that he was not an expert on maps and pointed to Olmert's corruption investigation (he was later convicted). Abbas said in October 2011 that he made a counteroffer to let Israel annex 1.9% of the West Bank. According to an International Crisis Group report, most Israeli officials \"do not see [Abbas] as a peace partner but consider [him] a nonthreatening, violence-abhorring, strategic asset.\" On June 23, 2016, Abbas repeated to the European Parliament a false press report that rabbis in Israel were calling for Palestinian wells to be poisoned. Abbas retracted the statement the following day, acknowledging that the claim was not true and stating that he 'didn't intend to do harm to Judaism or to offend Jewish people around the world'. Israel's Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu said Abbas's statement spread a \"blood libel\".", "On 25 May 2006, Abbas gave Hamas a ten-day deadline to accept the 1967 ceasefire lines. On 2 June 2006, Abbas again announced that if Hamas did not approve the prisoners' document—which calls for a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict according to the 1967 borders—within two days, he would present the initiative as a referendum. This deadline was subsequently extended until 10 June 2006. Hamas spokesmen stated that their stance would not change, and that Abbas is not constitutionally permitted to call a referendum, especially so soon after the January elections. Abbas warned Hamas on 8 October 2006, that he would call new legislative elections if it did not accept a coalition government. To recognize Israel was a condition he has presented for a coalition. But it was not clear if Abbas had the power to call new elections. On 16 December 2006, Abbas called for new legislative elections, to bring an end to the parliamentary stalemate between Fatah and Hamas in forming a national coalition government. On 17 March 2007, a unity government was formed incorporating members of both Hamas and Fatah, with Ismail Haniyeh as Prime Minister and independent politicians taking many key portfolios. On 14 June 2007, Abbas dissolved the Hamas-led unity government of Haniyeh, declared a state of emergency, and appointed Salam Fayyad in his place. This followed action by Hamas armed forces to take control of Palestinian Authority positions controlled by Fatah militias. The appointment of Fayyad to replace Haniyeh has been challenged as illegal, because under the Palestinian Basic Law, the president may dismiss a sitting prime minister, but may not appoint a replacement without the approval of the Palestinian Legislative Council. According to the law, until a new prime minister is thus appointed, the outgoing prime minister heads a caretaker government. Fayyad's appointment was never placed before, or approved by the Legislative Council. For this reason, Haniyeh, the Hamas prime minister has continued to operate in Gaza, and is recognised by a large number of Palestinians as the legitimate acting prime minister. Anis al-Qasem, a constitutional lawyer who drafted the Basic Law, is among those who publicly declared Abbas's appointment of Fayyad to be illegal. On 18 June 2007, the European Union promised to resume direct aid to the Palestinian Authority, and Abbas dissolved the National Security Council, a sticking point in the defunct unity government with Hamas. That same day, the United States decided to end its fifteen-month embargo on the Palestinian Authority and resume aid, attempting to strengthen Abbas's West Bank government. A day later, the Fatah Central Committee cut off all ties and dialogue with Hamas, pending the return of Gaza.", "In May 2009, he welcomed Pope Benedict XVI to the West Bank, who supported Abbas's goal of a Palestinian State. Also in May 2009, Abbas made a visit to Canada, where he met with foreign affairs minister Lawrence Cannon and Prime Minister Stephen Harper. The same year Abbas visited Venezuela and met Hugo Chavez. In February 2010, Abbas visited Japan for the third time as Palestinian President. In this visit he met Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama. He also visited Hiroshima, the first such visit by a Palestinian leader, and spoke about the suffering of Hiroshima, which he compared to the suffering of the Palestinians. In July 2012, Abbas accused former U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice of fabricating a conversation between them and denied such a conversation took place. The specific quote he denied was, \"I can't tell four million Palestinians only five thousand of them can go home,\" regarding the issue of Palestinian refugees. Abbas further said, \"I'm not calling her a liar... I am saying we never had that conversation.\" In response, Rice denied that she fabricated it. Her chief of staff, Georgia Godfrey, wrote, \"Dr. Rice stands by her account of the conversation and what she wrote in her book.\"", "\"The Connection between the Nazis and the Leaders of the Zionist Movement 1933–1945\" is the title of Abbas's CandSc thesis, which was completed in 1982 at the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, and defended at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. In 1984 it was published as a book in Arabic titled \"The Other Side: the Secret Relationship Between Nazism and Zionism\" (Arabic: \"Al-Wajh al-Ākhar: Al-'Alāqat aL-Sirriyya bayn al-Nāzīyya wa al-Sahyūniyya\"). The dissertation and book discussed topics such as the Haavara Agreement, in which the Jewish Agency signed a pact with Nazi Germany to facilitate Jewish emigration to Palestine. Some content of his thesis has been considered as Holocaust denial by some Jewish groups, especially where he disputed the accepted number for Jewish deaths in the Holocaust and claimed Zionist agitation had been the cause of the Holocaust. In his 1984 book, based on the dissertation, Abbas dismissed as a \"myth\" and \"fantastic lie\" that six million Jews had died in the Holocaust, writing that the real figure of Jews killed by Germans was at most \"890,000\" or \"a few hundred thousand\". The number of such deaths, he claimed, had been exaggerated for political purposes, since: it seems that the interest of the Zionist movement... is to inflate this figure so that their gains will be greater. This led them to emphasize this figure [six million] in order to gain the solidarity of international public opinion with Zionism. Many scholars have debated the figure of six million and reached stunning conclusions—fixing the number of Jewish victims at only a few hundred thousand. According to the Anti-Defamation League, when asked about this assertion in his book, Abbas replied some 10 years later that he had written the book when the Palestinians were at war with Israel, adding that \"today I would not have made such remarks.\" In a March 2006 interview with \"Haaretz\", Abbas stated, I wrote in detail about the Holocaust and said I did not want to discuss numbers. I quoted an argument between historians in which various numbers of casualties were mentioned. One wrote there were 12 million victims and another wrote there were 800,000. I have no desire to argue with the figures. The Holocaust was a terrible, unforgivable crime against the Jewish nation, a crime against humanity that cannot be accepted by humankind. The Holocaust was a terrible thing and nobody can claim I denied it. In 2012, Abbas told Al Mayadeen, a Beirut TV station affiliated with Iran and Hezbollah, that he \"challenges anyone who can deny that the Zionist movement had ties with the Nazis before World War II\". In 2013, he reasserted that \"the Zionist movement had ties with the Nazis\". The following year, he described the Holocaust as \"the most heinous crime in modern history.\" During a meeting of the Palestinian National Council in 2018, Abbas stated that Jews in Europe were massacred for centuries because of their \"social role related to usury and banks.\" The speech was widely condemned by Israel, the United Nations, the European Union, Germany, Sweden, United States, former officials of the Obama administration, Peace Now and the Anti-Defamation League. A \"New York Times\" editorial said \"Let Abbas's vile words be his last as Palestinian leader.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Linguistics.", "Literature.", "Religion.", "Rhetoric.", "Politics and military.", "Usage prior to surnames." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Epithets are sometimes attached to a person's name or appear in place of his or her name, as what might be described as a glorified nickname or sobriquet. An epithet is linked to its noun by long-established usage. Not every adjective is an epithet. An epithet is especially recognizable when its function is largely decorative, such as if \"cloud-gathering Zeus\" is employed other than in reference to conjuring up a storm. \"The epithets are decorative insofar as they are neither essential to the immediate context nor modeled especially for it. Among other things, they are extremely helpful to fill out a half-verse\", Walter Burkert has noted. Some epithets are known by the Latin term \" because they are required to distinguish the bearers, e.g. as an alternative to numbers after a prince's name—such as Richard the Lionheart (Richard I of England), or Charles the Fat alongside Charles the Bald. The same epithet can be used repeatedly joined to different names, e.g. Alexander the Great as well as Constantine the Great. Other epithets can easily be omitted without serious risk of confusion, and are therefore known (again in Latin) as '. Thus the classical Roman author Virgil systematically called his main hero ', the epithet being ', which means religiously observant, humble and wholesome, as well as calling the armsbearer of Aeneas ', the epithet being \", which means faithful or loyal. There are also specific types of epithets, such as the \"kenning\" which appears in works such as \"Beowulf\". An example of a kenning would be using the term \"whale-road\" instead of the word \"sea\".", "Epithets are characteristic of the style of ancient epic poetry, notably in that of Homer or the northern European sagas (see above, as well as \"Epithets in Homer\"). When James Joyce uses the phrase \"the snot-green sea\" he is playing on Homer's familiar epithet \"the wine-dark sea\". The phrase \"Discreet Telemachus\" is also considered an epithet. The Greek term antonomasia, in rhetoric, means substituting any epithet or phrase for a proper name, as \"Pelides\", signifying the \"son of Peleus\", to identify Achilles. An opposite substitution of a proper name for some generic term is also sometimes called \"antonomasia\", as a Cicero for an orator. The use of a father's name or ancestor's name, such as \"Pelides\" in the case of Achilles, or \"Saturnia\" in the case of the goddess Juno in Vergil's \"Aeneid\", is specifically called a patronymic device and is in its own class of epithet. In William Shakespeare's play \"Romeo and Juliet\", epithets are used in the prologue, such as \"star-cross'd lovers\" and \"death-mark'd love.\" Epithets were in layman's terms glorified nicknames that could be used to represent one's style, artistic nature, or even geographical reference. They originated to simply serve the purpose of dealing with names that were hard to pronounce or just unpleasant. It from there went to something that could be very significant assigned by elders or counterparts to represent one's position in the community or it could be a representation of whomever one wanted to be or thought he was. The elegance of this movement was used throughout history and even modern day with many examples ranging from \"Aphrodite the Heavenly & Zeus the Protector of Guests\" all the way to \"Johnny Football & King James\". American comic books tend to give epithets to superheroes, such as The Phantom being \"The Ghost Who Walks\", Superman called \"The Man of Steel\", and \"The Dynamic Duo\" Batman and Robin, who are individually known as \"The Dark Knight\" and \"The Boy Wonder\". Additionally,, the Spanish version of epithet, is commonly used throughout poems in Castilian literature.", "In many polytheistic religions, such as those of ancient Greece and Rome, a deity's epithets generally reflected a particular aspect of that god's essence and role, for which their influence may be obtained for a specific occasion: Apollo \"Musagetes\" is \"Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses\" and therefore patron of the arts and sciences while \"Phoibos\" Apollo is the same deity, but as shining sun-god. \"Athena protects the city as \"polias\", oversees handicrafts as \"ergane\", joins battle as \"promachos\" and grants victory as \"nike\".\" Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and \"localized\" aspect of the god, such as a reference to the mythological place of birth or numinous presence at a specific sanctuary: sacrifice might be offered on one and the same occasion to Pythian Apollo (\"Apollo Pythios\") and Delphic Apollo (\"Apollo Delphinios\"). A localizing epithet refers simply to a particular center of veneration and the cultic tradition there, as the god manifested at a particular festival, for example: Zeus Olympios, Zeus as present at Olympia, or Apollo Karneios, Apollo at the Spartan Carneian festival. Often the epithet is the result of fusion of the Olympian divinity with an older one: Poseidon Erechtheus, Artemis Orthia, reflect intercultural equations of a divinity with an older one, that is generally considered its pendant; thus most Roman gods and goddesses, especially the Twelve Olympians, had traditional counterparts in Greek, Etruscan, and most other Mediterranean pantheons, such as Jupiter as head of the Olympian Gods with Zeus, but in specific cults, there may be a different equation, based on one specific aspect of the divinity. Thus the Greek word \"Trismegistos\": \"thrice grand\" was first used as a Greek name for the Egyptian god of science and invention, Thoth, and later as an \"\" for the Greek Hermes and, finally, the fully equated Roman Mercurius Mercury (both were messenger of the gods). Among the Greeks, T. H. Price notes the nurturing power of \"Kourotrophos\" might be invoked in sacrifices and recorded in inscription, without specifically identifying Hera or Demeter. Some epithets were applied to several deities of the same pantheon rather accidentally if they had a common characteristic, or deliberately, emphasizing their blood- or other ties; thus in pagan Rome, several divinities gods, and heroes were given the'\"Comes\" as companion of another (usually major) divinity. An epithet can even be meant for collective use, e.g. in Latin''the felt hat-wearers' for the brothers Castor and Pollux. Some epithets resist explanation. Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and Christians of other churches practice the use of epithets in the veneration of Jesus (e.g., \"Christ\"; \"Prince of Peace\"; \"The Good Shepherd\"), of Mary, Mother of Jesus (e.g. \"Mother of God\"; \"Panagia\"), and of the saints (e.g. \"Pope Saint John Paul the Great, Saint Theophan the Recluse\"). \"Our Lady of Lourdes\" is essentially periphrasis, except where some aspect of the Virgin is invoked. Epithets are also combined with sobriquets and names to identify the defining traits of a person or entity. For example, the writer of the book of Revelation relies on naming, epithets, and sobriquets to define Satan’s characteristics: “The great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world—he was thrown down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him.” (Rev 12:9)", "An epithet is an adjective or adjectival phrase that characterizes a place, a thing, or a person that helps make the characteristics of this thing more prominent. These descriptive phrases can be used in a positive or negative way that benefits the orator. \"It will generally happen, that the Epithets employed by a skillful orator, will be found to be, in fact, so many abridged arguments, the force of which is sufficiently conveyed by a mere hint; e.g. if any one says, 'We ought to take warning from the bloody revolution of France,' the Epithet suggests one of the reasons for our being warned; and that, not less clearly, and more forcibly, than if the argument had been stated at length.\" With persuasion being a key component of rhetoric, it is rational to use epithets. The use of persuasive wording gives leverage to one's arguments. Knowledge along with descriptive words or phrases can be a powerful tool. This is supported in Bryan Short's article when he states, \"The New Rhetoric derives its empiricist flavor from a pervasive respect for clarity and directness of language.\" Rhetors use epithets to direct their audience to see their point of view, using verbal forms of imagery as a persuasive tactic. Orators have a variety of epithets that they can employ that have different meanings. The most common are fixed epithets and transferred epithets. A fixed epithet is the repetitive use of the same word or phrase for the same person or object. A transferred epithet qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is describing. This is also known as a hypallage. This can often involves shifting a modifier from the animate to the inanimate; for example, \"cheerful money\" and \"suicidal sky\". Orators take special care when using epithets so as to not use them as smear words. Orators could be accused of racial or abusive epithets if used incorrectly. American journalist William Safire discussed the use of the word in a 2008 column in \"The New York Times\": \"'I am working on a piece about nationalism with a focus on epithet as a smear word,' writes David Binder, my longtime Times colleague, 'which was still a synonym for 'delineation' or 'characterization' in my big 1942 Webster's but now seems to be almost exclusively a synonym for 'derogation' or'smear word.'... In the past century, [epithet] blossomed as 'a word of abuse,' today gleefully seized upon to describe political smears.\"", "In historical, journalistic, and other writings, epithets often carry a political message. These differ from official titles as they express no legal status; however, they may confer prestige, especially if bestowed by an authority or legislature, and may be used for propaganda purposes. Examples of such epithets are the various traditions of victory titles awarded to generals and rulers or to entire military units, such as the adjective \"\"Fidelis\"\" (\"loyal\") bestowed on various Roman legions.", "Descriptive bynames were given to a person to distinguish them from other persons of the same name. In England by-names were used during the period when the use of surnames had not been extensively adopted. As an example the Domesday Book of 1085 identifies 40 individuals with the given name of \"Richard\". Most (40%), such as \"Richard of Coursey\" are identified with a locational by-name, indicating where they came from, or in some cases where they lived. Others (25%), such as \"Richard the butler\" and \"Richard the bald\" are identified with an occupational or a personally descriptive by-name. Some of the individuals, such as Richard Basset, made use of what we would recognize as a surname. The distinction between a by-name and a surname lies in the fact that the by-name is not usually heritable, and may change for any given person as his circumstances change. Richard the bald, for example, was presumably not always bald, and Richard of Brampton may not have always lived at Brampton. The use of by-names did not end with the adoption of surnames. In some cases, before the adoption of middle names, government records, such as taxes lists, included persons with both the same given name and the same surname. This led to the use of by-names to further distinguish the person. For example one \"John Smith\" might be described as \"John Smith of the mill\", while another might be described as \"John Smith the short\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Clinical practice.", "Efficacy.", "Sham acupuncture and research.", "Publication bias.", "Specific conditions.", "Pain.", "Lower back pain.", "Headaches and migraines.", "Arthritis pain.", "Other joint pain.", "Post-operative pain and nausea.", "Pain and nausea associated with cancer and cancer treatment.", "Sleep.", "Other conditions.", "Moxibustion and cupping.", "Safety.", "Adverse events.", "Cost-effectiveness.", "Risk of forgoing conventional medical care.", "Conceptual basis.", "Traditional.", "Purported scientific basis.", "History.", "Origins.", "Alternate theories.", "Belief systems.", "Early development in China.", "Establishment and growth.", "Decline.", "International expansion.", "Adoption.", "Regulation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine. It is used most commonly for pain relief, though it is also used to treat a wide range of conditions. Acupuncture is generally only used in combination with other forms of treatment. For example, the American Society of Anesthesiologists states it may be considered in the treatment for nonspecific, noninflammatory low back pain only in conjunction with conventional therapy. Acupuncture is the insertion of thin needles into the skin. According to the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (Mayo Clinic), a typical session entails lying still while approximately five to twenty needles are inserted; for the majority of cases, the needles will be left in place for ten to twenty minutes. It can be associated with the application of heat, pressure, or laser light. Classically, acupuncture is individualized and based on philosophy and intuition, and not on scientific research. There is also a non-invasive therapy developed in early 20th century Japan using an elaborate set of instruments other than needles for the treatment of children (\"shōnishin\" or \"shōnihari\"). Clinical practice varies depending on the country. A comparison of the average number of patients treated per hour found significant differences between China (10) and the United States (1.2). Chinese herbs are often used. There is a diverse range of acupuncture approaches, involving different philosophies. Although various different techniques of acupuncture practice have emerged, the method used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) seems to be the most widely adopted in the US. Traditional acupuncture involves needle insertion, moxibustion, and cupping therapy, and may be accompanied by other procedures such as feeling the pulse and other parts of the body and examining the tongue. Traditional acupuncture involves the belief that a \"life force\" (\"qi\") circulates within the body in lines called meridians. The main methods practiced in the UK are TCM and Western medical acupuncture. The term Western medical acupuncture is used to indicate an adaptation of TCM-based acupuncture which focuses less on TCM. The Western medical acupuncture approach involves using acupuncture after a medical diagnosis. Limited research has compared the contrasting acupuncture systems used in various countries for determining different acupuncture points and thus there is no defined standard for acupuncture points. In traditional acupuncture, the acupuncturist decides which points to treat by observing and questioning the patient to make a diagnosis according to the tradition used. In TCM, the four diagnostic methods are: inspection, auscultation and olfaction, inquiring, and palpation. Inspection focuses on the face and particularly on the tongue, including analysis of the tongue size, shape, tension, color and coating, and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge. Auscultation and olfaction involve listening for particular sounds such as wheezing, and observing body odor. Inquiring involves focusing on the \"seven inquiries\": chills and fever; perspiration; appetite, thirst and taste; defecation and urination; pain; sleep; and menses and leukorrhea. Palpation is focusing on feeling the body for tender \"\"A-shi\"\" points and feeling the pulse.", "Acupuncture has been researched extensively; as of 2013, there were almost 1,500 randomized controlled trials on PubMed with \"acupuncture\" in the title. The results of reviews of acupuncture's efficacy, however, have been inconclusive. In January 2020, David Gorski analyzed a 2020 review of systematic reviews (\"Acupuncture for the Relief of Chronic Pain: A Synthesis of Systematic Reviews\") concerning the use of acupuncture to treat chronic pain. Writing in \"Science-Based Medicine,\" Gorski said that its findings highlight the conclusion that acupuncture is \"a theatrical placebo whose real history has been retconned beyond recognition.\" He also said this review \"reveals the many weaknesses in the design of acupuncture clinical trials\".", "It is difficult but not impossible to design rigorous research trials for acupuncture. Due to acupuncture's invasive nature, one of the major challenges in efficacy research is in the design of an appropriate placebo control group. For efficacy studies to determine whether acupuncture has specific effects, \"sham\" forms of acupuncture where the patient, practitioner, and analyst are blinded seem the most acceptable approach. Sham acupuncture uses non-penetrating needles or needling at non-acupuncture points, e.g. inserting needles on meridians not related to the specific condition being studied, or in places not", "Publication bias is cited as a concern in the reviews of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of acupuncture. A 1998 review of studies on acupuncture found that trials originating in China, Japan, Hong Kong, and Taiwan were uniformly favourable to acupuncture, as were ten out of eleven studies conducted in Russia. A 2011 assessment of the quality of RCTs on TCM, including acupuncture, concluded that the methodological quality of most such trials (including randomization, experimental control, and blinding) was generally poor, particularly for trials published in Chinese journals (though the quality of acupuncture trials was better than the trials testing TCM remedies). The", "", "The conclusions of many trials and numerous systematic reviews of acupuncture are largely inconsistent with each other. A 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews found that for reducing pain, real acupuncture was no better than sham acupuncture, and concluded that numerous reviews have shown little convincing evidence that acupuncture is an effective treatment for reducing pain. The same review found that neck pain was one of only four types of pain for which a positive effect was suggested, but cautioned that the primary studies used carried a considerable risk of bias. A 2009 overview of Cochrane reviews found acupuncture is not effective for a wide range of conditions. A 2014 systematic review suggests that the nocebo effect of acupuncture is clinically relevant and that the rate of adverse events may be a gauge of the nocebo effect. A 2012 meta-analysis conducted by the Acupuncture Trialists' Collaboration found \"relatively modest\" efficacy of acupuncture (in comparison to sham) for the treatment of four different types of chronic pain (back and neck pain, knee osteoarthritis, chronic headache, and shoulder pain) and on that basis", "A 2013 systematic review found that acupuncture may be effective for nonspecific lower back pain, but the authors noted there were limitations in the studies examined, such as heterogeneity in study characteristics and low methodological quality in many studies. A 2012 systematic review found some supporting evidence that acupuncture was more effective than no treatment for chronic non-specific low back pain; the evidence was conflicting comparing the effectiveness over other treatment approaches. A 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews found that \"for chronic low back pain, individualized acupuncture is not better in reducing symptoms than formula acupuncture or sham acupuncture with a toothpick that does not penetrate the skin.\" A 2010 review found that sham acupuncture was as effective as real acupuncture for chronic low back pain. The specific therapeutic effects of acupuncture were small, whereas its clinically relevant benefits were mostly due to contextual and psychosocial circumstances. Brain imaging studies have shown that traditional acupuncture and sham acupuncture differ in their effect on limbic structures, while at the same time", "Two separate 2016 Cochrane reviews found that acupuncture could be useful in the prophylaxis of tension-type headaches and episodic migraines. The 2016 Cochrane review evaluating acupuncture for episodic migraine prevention concluded that true acupuncture had a small effect", "A 2014 review concluded that \"current evidence supports the use of acupuncture as an alternative to traditional analgesics in osteoarthritis patients.\", a meta-analysis showed that acupuncture may help osteoarthritis pain but it was noted that the effects were insignificant in comparison to sham needles. A 2012 review found \"the potential beneficial action of acupuncture on osteoarthritis pain does not appear to be clinically relevant.\" A 2010 Cochrane review found that acupuncture shows statistically significant benefit over sham acupuncture in the treatment of peripheral joint osteoarthritis; however, these benefits were found to be so small that their clinical significance was doubtful, and \"probably due at least partially to placebo effects from incomplete blinding\". A 2013 Cochrane review found low to moderate evidence that acupuncture", "A 2014 systematic review found that although manual acupuncture was effective at relieving short-term pain when used to treat tennis elbow, its long-term effect", "A 2014 overview of systematic reviews found insufficient evidence to suggest that acupuncture is an effective treatment for postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) in a clinical setting. A 2013 systematic review concluded that acupuncture might be beneficial in prevention and treatment of PONV. A 2015 Cochrane review found moderate-quality evidence of no difference between stimulation of the P6 acupoint on the wrist and antiemetic drugs for preventing PONV. A new finding of the review was", "A 2015 Cochrane review found that there is insufficient evidence to determine whether acupuncture is an effective treatment for cancer pain in adults. A 2014 systematic review published in the Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine found that acupuncture may be effective as an adjunctive treatment to palliative care for cancer patients. A 2013 overview of reviews published in the Journal of Multinational Association for Supportive Care in Cancer found evidence that acupuncture could be beneficial for people with cancer-related symptoms, but also", "Several meta-analytic and systematic reviews suggest that acupuncture alleviates sleep disturbance, particularly insomnia. However,", "For the following conditions, the Cochrane Collaboration or other reviews have concluded there is no strong evidence of benefit:", "A 2010 overview of systematic reviews found that moxibustion was effective for several conditions", "", "Acupuncture is generally safe when administered by an experienced, appropriately trained practitioner using clean-needle technique and sterile single-use needles. When improperly delivered it can cause adverse effects. Accidents and infections are associated with infractions of sterile technique or neglect on the part of the practitioner. To reduce the risk of serious adverse events after acupuncture, acupuncturists should be trained sufficiently. People with serious spinal disease, such as cancer or infection, are not good candidates for acupuncture. Contraindications to acupuncture (conditions that should not be treated with acupuncture) include coagulopathy disorders (e.g. hemophilia and advanced liver disease), warfarin use, severe psychiatric disorders (e.g. psychosis), and skin infections or skin trauma (e.g. burns). Further, electroacupuncture should be avoided at the spot of implanted electrical devices (such as pacemakers). A 2011 systematic review of systematic reviews (internationally and without language restrictions) found that serious complications following acupuncture continue to be reported. Between 2000 and 2009, ninety-five cases of serious adverse events, including five deaths, were reported. Many such events are not inherent to", "A 2013 meta-analysis found that acupuncture for chronic low back pain was cost-effective as a complement to standard care, but not as a substitute for standard care except in cases where comorbid depression presented. The same meta-analysis found", "As with other alternative medicines, unethical or naïve practitioners may induce patients to exhaust financial resources by pursuing ineffective treatment. Professional ethics codes set by accrediting organizations such as the National Certification", "", "Acupuncture is a substantial part of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Early acupuncture beliefs relied on concepts that are common in TCM, such as a life force energy called \"qi\". \"Qi\" was believed to flow from the body's primary organs (zang-fu organs) to the \"superficial\" body tissues of the skin, muscles, tendons, bones, and joints, through channels called meridians. Acupuncture points where needles are inserted are mainly (but not always) found at locations along the meridians. Acupuncture points not found along a meridian are called extraordinary points and", "Scientific research has not supported the existence of \"qi\", meridians, or yin and yang. A \"Nature\" editorial described TCM as \"fraught with pseudoscience\", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action. Quackwatch states that \"TCM theory and practice are not based upon the body of knowledge related to health, disease, and health care that has been widely accepted by the scientific community. TCM practitioners disagree among themselves about how to diagnose patients and which treatments should go with which diagnoses. Even if they", "", "Acupuncture, along with moxibustion, is one of the oldest practices of traditional Chinese medicine. Most historians believe the practice began in China, though there are some conflicting narratives on when it originated. Academics David Ramey and Paul Buell said the exact date acupuncture was founded depends on the extent to which dating of ancient texts can be trusted and the interpretation of what constitutes acupuncture. According to an article in \"Rheumatology\", the first documentation of an \"organized system of diagnosis and treatment\" for acupuncture was in \"The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine\" (Huangdi Neijing) from about 100 BC. Gold and silver needles found in the tomb of Liu Sheng from around 100 BC are believed to be the earliest archeological evidence of acupuncture, though it is unclear if that was their purpose. According to Plinio Prioreschi, the earliest known historical record of acupuncture is the Shih-Chi (\"Record of History\"), written by a historian around 100 BC. It is believed that this text was documenting what was established practice at that time.", "The 5,000-year-old mummified body of Ötzi the Iceman was found with 15 groups of tattoos, many of which were located at points on the body where acupuncture needles are used for abdominal or lower back problems. Evidence from the body suggests Otzi suffered from these conditions. This has been cited as evidence that practices similar to acupuncture may have been practiced elsewhere in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age; however, \"The Oxford Handbook of the History of Medicine\" calls this theory \"speculative\". It is considered unlikely that acupuncture was practiced before 2000 BC. The Ötzi the Iceman's tattoo marks suggest to some experts that an acupuncture-like treatment was previously used in Europe 5 millennia ago. Acupuncture may have been practiced during the Neolithic era, near the end of the Stone Age, using sharpened stones called Bian shi. Many Chinese texts from later eras refer to sharp stones called \"plen\", which means \"stone probe\", that may have been used for acupuncture purposes. The ancient Chinese medical text, Huangdi Neijing, indicates that sharp stones were believed at-the-time to cure illnesses at or near the body's surface, perhaps because of the short depth a stone could penetrate. However, it is more", "Several different and sometimes conflicting belief systems emerged regarding acupuncture. This may have been the result of competing schools of thought. Some ancient texts referred to using acupuncture to cause bleeding, while others mixed the ideas of blood-letting and spiritual ch'i energy. Over time, the focus shifted from blood to the concept of puncturing specific points on the body, and eventually to balancing Yin and Yang energies as well. According to David Ramey, no single \"method or theory\" was ever predominantly adopted as the standard. At the time, scientific knowledge of medicine was not yet developed, especially because in China dissection of the deceased was forbidden, preventing the development of basic anatomical knowledge. It is not certain when specific acupuncture points were introduced, but the", "", "In the first half of the 1st century AD, acupuncturists began promoting the belief that acupuncture's effectiveness was influenced by the time of day or night, the lunar cycle, and the season. The Science of the Yin-Yang Cycles (\"Yün Chhi Hsüeh\") was a set of beliefs that curing diseases relied on the alignment of both heavenly (thien) and earthly (ti) forces that were attuned to cycles like that of the sun and moon. There were several different belief systems that relied on a number of celestial and earthly bodies or elements that rotated and only became aligned at certain times. According to Needham and Gwei-djen, these \"arbitrary predictions\" were depicted by acupuncturists in complex charts and through a set of special terminology. Acupuncture needles during this period were much thicker than most modern ones and often resulted in infection. Infection is caused by a lack of sterilization, but at that time it was believed to be caused by use of the wrong needle, or needling in the wrong place, or at the wrong time. Later, many needles were heated in boiling water, or in a flame. Sometimes needles were used while they were", "By the end of the Song dynasty (1279 AD), acupuncture had lost much of its status in China. It became rarer in the following centuries, and was associated with less prestigious professions like alchemy, shamanism, midwifery and moxibustion. Additionally, by the 18th century, scientific rationality was becoming more popular than traditional superstitious beliefs. By 1757 a book documenting the history of Chinese medicine called acupuncture a \"lost art\". Its decline was attributed in part to the popularity of prescriptions and medications, as well as its association with the lower classes. In 1822, the Chinese Emperor signed a decree excluding the practice of acupuncture from the Imperial Medical Institute. He said it was unfit for practice by gentlemen-scholars. In China acupuncture was increasingly associated with lower-class, illiterate practitioners. It was restored for a time, but banned again in 1929 in favor of science-based Western medicine. Although acupuncture declined in China during this time period, it was also growing in popularity in other countries.", "Korea is believed to be the first country in Asia that acupuncture spread to outside of China. Within Korea there is a legend that acupuncture was developed by emperor Dangun, though it is more likely to have been brought into Korea from a Chinese colonial prefecture in 514 AD. Acupuncture use was commonplace in Korea by the 6th century. It spread to Vietnam in the 8th and 9th centuries. As Vietnam began trading with Japan and China around the 9th century, it was influenced by their acupuncture practices as well. China and Korea sent \"medical missionaries\" that spread traditional Chinese medicine to Japan, starting around 219 AD. In 553, several Korean and Chinese citizens were appointed to re-organize medical education in Japan and they incorporated acupuncture as part of that system. Japan later sent students back to China and established acupuncture as one of five divisions of the Chinese State Medical Administration System. Acupuncture began to spread to Europe in the second half of the 17th century. Around this time the surgeon-general of the Dutch East India", "Acupuncture is most heavily practiced in China and is popular in the US, Australia, and Europe. In Switzerland, acupuncture has become the most frequently used alternative medicine since 2004. In the United Kingdom, a total of 4 million acupuncture treatments were administered in 2009. Acupuncture is used in most pain clinics and hospices in the UK. An estimated 1 in 10 adults in Australia used acupuncture in 2004. In Japan, it is estimated that 25 percent of the population will try acupuncture at some point, though in most cases it is not covered by public health insurance. Users of acupuncture in Japan are more likely to be elderly and to have a limited education. Approximately half of users surveyed indicated a likelihood to seek such remedies in the future, while 37% did not. Less than one", "There are various government and trade association regulatory bodies for acupuncture in the United Kingdom, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Japan, Canada, and in European countries and elsewhere. The World Health Organization recommends that before being licensed or certified, an acupuncturist receive 200 hours of specialized training if they are a physician and 2,500 hours for non-physicians; many governments have adopted similar standards. In China, the practice of acupuncture is regulated by the Chinese Medicine Council that was formed in 1999 by the Legislative Council. It includes a licensing exam and registration, as well as degree courses approved by the board. Canada has acupuncture licensing programs in the provinces of British Columbia, Ontario, Alberta and Quebec; standards set by the Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture Association of Canada are used in provinces without government regulation. Regulation in the US began in the 1970s in California, which was eventually followed by every state but Wyoming and Idaho. Licensing requirements vary greatly from state to state. The needles used in acupuncture are regulated in the US by the Food and Drug Administration. In some states acupuncture is regulated by a board of medical examiners, while in others by the board of licensing, health or education. In Japan, acupuncturists are licensed by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare after passing an examination and graduating from a technical school or university. In Australia, the Chinese Medicine Board of Australia regulates acupuncture, among other Chinese medical traditions, and restricts the use of titles like 'acupuncturist' to registered practitioners only. At least 28 countries in Europe have professional associations for acupuncturists. In France, the Académie Nationale de Médecine (National Academy of Medicine) has regulated acupuncture since 1955." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Characteristics.", "Neural correlates.", "Definitions.", "Historical definitions.", "Hypnotic induction.", "Suggestion.", "Conscious and unconscious mind.", "Ideo-dynamic reflex.", "Susceptibility.", "History.", "Precursors.", "Avicenna.", "Franz Mesmer.", "James Braid.", "Hysteria vs. suggestion.", "Pierre Janet.", "Sigmund Freud.", "Émile Coué.", "Clark L. Hull.", "Dave Elman.", "Milton Erickson.", "Cognitive-behavioural.", "Applications.", "Hypnotherapy.", "Irritable bowel syndrome.", "Pain management.", "Other medical and psychotherapeutic uses.", "Military.", "Self-hypnosis.", "Stage hypnosis.", "Music hypnosis.", "Music as Satanic brainwashing.", "Crime.", "State versus nonstate debate.", "Hyper-suggestibility.", "Conditioned inhibition.", "Neuropsychology.", "Dissociation.", "Neodissociation.", "Social role-taking theory.", "Cognitive-behavioural theory.", "Information theory.", "Systems theory.", "Societies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The words \"hypnosis\" and \"hypnotism\" both derive from the term \"neuro-hypnotism\" (nervous sleep), all of which were coined by Étienne Félix d'Henin de Cuvillers in the 1820s. The term \"hypnosis\" is derived from the ancient Greek ὑπνος \"hypnos\", \"sleep\", and the suffix -ωσις -\"osis\",", "A person in a state of hypnosis has focused attention, and has increased suggestibility. The hypnotised individual appears to heed only the communications of the hypnotist and typically responds in an uncritical, automatic fashion while ignoring all aspects of the environment other than those pointed out by the hypnotist. In a hypnotic state an individual tends to see, feel, smell, and otherwise perceive in accordance with the hypnotist's suggestions, even though these suggestions may be in apparent contradiction to the actual stimuli present in the environment. The effects of hypnosis are not limited to sensory change; even the subject's memory and awareness of self may be altered by suggestion,", "Neuroimaging accounts of hypnosis have reported an extensive variety of brain patterns instead of a common signature. This may be explained", "", "The earliest definition of hypnosis was given by Braid, who coined the term \"hypnotism\" as an abbreviation for \"neuro-hypnotism\", or nervous sleep, which he contrasted with \"normal\" sleep, and defined as: \"a peculiar condition of the nervous system, induced by a fixed and abstracted attention of the mental and visual eye, on one object, not of an exciting nature.\" Braid elaborated upon this brief definition in a later work, \"Hypnotic Therapeutics\": Therefore, Braid defined hypnotism as a state of mental concentration that often leads to a form of progressive relaxation, termed \"nervous sleep\". Later, in his \"The Physiology of Fascination\" (1855), Braid conceded that his original terminology was misleading, and argued that the term \"hypnotism\" or \"nervous sleep\" should be reserved for the minority (10%) of subjects who exhibit amnesia, substituting the term \"monoideism\", meaning", "Hypnosis is normally preceded by a \"hypnotic induction\" technique. Traditionally, this was interpreted as a method of putting the subject into a \"hypnotic trance\"; however, subsequent \"nonstate\" theorists have viewed it differently, seeing it as a means of heightening client expectation, defining their role, focusing attention, etc. There are several different induction techniques. One of the most influential methods was Braid's \"eye-fixation\" technique, also known as \"Braidism\". Many variations of the eye-fixation approach exist, including the", "When James Braid first described hypnotism, he did not use the term \"suggestion\" but referred instead to the act of focusing the conscious mind of the subject upon a single dominant idea. Braid's main therapeutic strategy involved stimulating or reducing physiological functioning in different regions of the body. In his later works, however, Braid placed increasing emphasis upon the use of a variety of different verbal and non-verbal forms of suggestion, including the use of \"waking suggestion\" and self-hypnosis. Subsequently, Hippolyte Bernheim shifted the emphasis from the physical state of hypnosis on to the psychological process of verbal suggestion: I define hypnotism as the induction of a peculiar psychical [i.e., mental] condition which increases the", "Some hypnotists view suggestion as a form of communication that is directed primarily to the subject's conscious mind, whereas others view it as a means of communicating with the \"unconscious\" or \"subconscious\" mind. These concepts were introduced into hypnotism at the end of the 19th century by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory describes conscious thoughts as being at the surface of the mind and unconscious processes as being deeper in the mind. Braid, Bernheim, and other Victorian pioneers of hypnotism did not", "The first neuropsychological theory of hypnotic suggestion was introduced early by James Braid who adopted his friend and colleague William Carpenter's theory of the ideo-motor reflex response to account for the phenomenon of hypnotism. Carpenter had observed from close examination of everyday experience that, under certain circumstances, the mere idea of a muscular movement could be sufficient to produce a reflexive, or automatic, contraction or movement of the muscles involved, albeit in a very small degree. Braid extended Carpenter's theory to encompass the observation", "Braid made a rough distinction between different stages of hypnosis, which he termed the first and second conscious stage of hypnotism; he later replaced this with a distinction between \"sub-hypnotic\", \"full hypnotic\", and \"hypnotic coma\" stages. Jean-Martin Charcot made a similar distinction between stages which he named somnambulism, lethargy, and catalepsy. However, Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and Hippolyte Bernheim introduced more complex hypnotic \"depth\" scales based on a combination of behavioural, physiological, and subjective responses, some of which were due to direct suggestion and some of which were not. In the first few decades of the 20th century, these early clinical \"depth\" scales were superseded by more sophisticated \"hypnotic susceptibility\" scales based on experimental research. The most influential were the Davis–Husband and Friedlander–Sarbin scales developed in the 1930s. André Weitzenhoffer and Ernest R. Hilgard developed the Stanford Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility in 1959, consisting of 12 suggestion test items following a standardised hypnotic eye-fixation induction script, and this has become one of the most widely referenced research tools in the field of hypnosis. Soon after, in 1962, Ronald", "", "People have been entering into hypnotic-type trances for thousands of years. In many cultures and religions, it was regarded as a form of meditation. Modern-day hypnosis, however, started in the late 18th century and was made popular by Franz Mesmer, a German physician who became known as the father of'modern hypnotism'. In fact, hypnosis used to be known as 'Mesmerism' as it was named after Mesmer. Mesmer held the opinion that hypnosis was a sort of mystical force that flows from the hypnotist to the person being hypnotised, but his theory was dismissed by critics who asserted that there is no magical element to hypnotism. Abbé Faria,a Luso-Goan Catholic", "Avicenna (980–1037), a Persian physician, documented the characteristics of the \"trance\" (Hypnotic Trance) state in", "Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) believed that there is a magnetic force or \"fluid\" called \"animal magnetism\" within the universe that influences the health of the human body. He experimented with magnets to affect this field in order to produce healing. By around 1774, he had concluded that the same effect could be created by passing the hands in front of the subject's body, later referred to as making \"Mesmeric passes\". The word \"mesmerise\", formed from the last name of Franz Mesmer, was intentionally used to separate practitioners of mesmerism from the various \"fluid\" and \"magnetic\" theories included", "Following the French committee's findings, Dugald Stewart, an influential academic philosopher of the \"Scottish School of Common Sense\", encouraged physicians in his \"Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind\" (1818) to salvage elements of Mesmerism by replacing the supernatural theory of \"animal magnetism\" with a new interpretation based upon \"common sense\" laws of physiology and psychology. Braid quotes the following passage from Stewart: It appears to me, that the general conclusions established by Mesmer's practice, with respect to the physical effects of the principle of imagination (more particularly in cases where they co-operated together), are incomparably more curious than if he", "For several decades Braid's work became more influential abroad than in his own country, except for a handful of followers, most notably Dr. John Milne Bramwell. The eminent neurologist Dr. George Miller Beard took Braid's theories to America. Meanwhile, his works were translated into German by William Thierry Preyer, Professor of Physiology at Jena University. The psychiatrist Albert Moll subsequently continued German research, publishing \"Hypnotism\" in 1889. France became the focal point for the study of Braid's ideas after the eminent neurologist Dr. Étienne Eugène Azam translated Braid's last manuscript (\"On Hypnotism\", 1860) into French and presented Braid's research to the French Academy of Sciences. At the request of Azam, Paul Broca, and others, the French Academy of", "Pierre Janet (1859–1947) reported studies on a hypnotic subject in 1882. Charcot subsequently appointed him director of the psychological laboratory at the Salpêtrière in 1889, after Janet had completed his PhD, which dealt with psychological automatism. In 1898, Janet was appointed psychology", "Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), the founder of psychoanalysis, studied hypnotism at the Paris School and briefly visited the Nancy School. At first, Freud was an enthusiastic proponent of hypnotherapy. He \"initially hypnotised patients and pressed on their foreheads to help them concentrate while attempting to recover (supposedly) repressed memories\", and he soon began to emphasise hypnotic regression and ab reaction (catharsis) as therapeutic methods. He wrote a favorable encyclopedia article on hypnotism, translated one of Bernheim's works into German, and published an influential series of case studies with his colleague Joseph Breuer entitled", "Émile Coué (1857–1926) assisted Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault for around two years at Nancy. After practising for several months employing the \"hypnosis\" of Liébeault and Bernheim's Nancy School, he abandoned their approach altogether. Later, Coué developed a new approach (c.1901) based on Braid-style \"hypnotism\", direct hypnotic suggestion, and ego-strengthening which eventually became known as \"La méthode Coué\". According to Charles", "The next major development came from behavioural psychology in American university research. Clark L. Hull (1884–1952), an eminent American psychologist, published the first major compilation of laboratory studies on hypnosis, \"Hypnosis &", "Although Dave Elman (1900–1967) was a noted radio host, comedian, and songwriter, he also made a name as a hypnotist. He led many courses for physicians, and in 1964", "Milton Erickson (1901–1980), the founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis and a fellow of the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, and the American Psychopathological Association, was one of the most influential post-war hypnotherapists. He wrote several books and journal articles on the subject. During the 1960s, Erickson popularised a new branch of hypnotherapy, known as Ericksonian therapy, characterised primarily by indirect suggestion, \"metaphor\" (actually analogies), confusion techniques, and double binds in place of formal hypnotic inductions. However, the difference between Erickson's methods and traditional hypnotism led contemporaries such as André Weitzenhoffer to question", "In the latter half of the 20th century, two factors contributed to the development of the cognitive-behavioural approach to hypnosis: Although cognitive-behavioural theories of hypnosis must be distinguished from cognitive-behavioural approaches to hypnotherapy, they share similar concepts, terminology, and assumptions and have been integrated by influential researchers and clinicians such as Irving Kirsch, Steven Jay Lynn, and others. At", "There are numerous applications for hypnosis across multiple fields of interest, including medical/psychotherapeutic uses, military uses, self-improvement, and entertainment. The American Medical Association currently has no official stance on the medical use of hypnosis. However, a study published in 1958 by the Council on Mental Health of the American Medical Association documented the efficacy of hypnosis in clinical settings. Hypnosis has been used as a supplemental approach to cognitive behavioral therapy since as early as 1949. Hypnosis was defined in relation to classical conditioning; where the words of the therapist were the stimuli and the hypnosis would be the conditioned response. Some traditional cognitive behavioral therapy methods were based in classical conditioning. It would include inducing a relaxed state and introducing a feared stimulus. One way of inducing the relaxed state was through hypnosis. Hypnotism has also been used in forensics, sports, education, physical therapy, and rehabilitation. Hypnotism has also been employed by artists for creative purposes, most notably the surrealist circle of André Breton who employed hypnosis, automatic writing, and sketches for creative purposes. Hypnotic methods have been used to re-experience drug states and mystical experiences. Self-hypnosis is popularly used to quit smoking, alleviate stress and anxiety, promote weight loss, and induce sleep hypnosis. Stage hypnosis can persuade people to perform unusual public feats. Some people have drawn analogies between certain aspects of hypnotism and areas such as crowd psychology, religious hysteria, and ritual trances in preliterate tribal cultures.", "Hypnotherapy is a use of hypnosis in psychotherapy. It is used by licensed physicians, psychologists, and others. Physicians and psychologists may use hypnosis to treat depression, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep disorders, compulsive gambling, and posttraumatic stress, while certified hypnotherapists who are not physicians or psychologists often treat smoking and weight management. Hypnotherapy is viewed as a helpful adjunct by proponents, having additive effects when treating psychological disorders, such as these, along with scientifically proven cognitive therapies. Hypnotherapy should not be used for repairing or refreshing memory because hypnosis results in memory hardening, which increases the confidence in false memories. The effectiveness of hypnotherapy has not yet been accurately assessed, and, due to the lack of evidence indicating any level of efficiency, it is regarded as a type of alternative medicine by numerous reputable medical organisations, such as the NHS. Preliminary research has expressed brief hypnosis interventions as possibly", "Hypnotherapy has been studied for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Hypnosis for IBS has received moderate support in the National Institute for", "A number of studies show that hypnosis can reduce the pain experienced during burn-wound debridement, bone marrow aspirations, and childbirth. The \"International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis\" found that hypnosis relieved the pain of 75% of 933 subjects participating in 27 different experiments. Hypnosis is effective in decreasing the fear of cancer treatment reducing pain from and coping with cancer and other chronic conditions. Nausea and other symptoms related to incurable diseases may also be managed with hypnosis. Some practitioners have claimed hypnosis might help boost the immune system of people with cancer. However, according to the American Cancer Society, \"available scientific evidence does not support the idea that hypnosis can influence the development or progression of cancer.\" Hypnosis has been used as a pain relieving technique during dental surgery and related pain management regimens as well. Researchers like Jerjes and his team have reported", "The success rate for habit control is varied. A meta-study researching hypnosis as a quit-smoking tool found it had a 20 to 30 percent success rate, while a 2007 study of patients hospitalised for cardiac and pulmonary ailments found that smokers who used hypnosis to quit smoking doubled their chances of success. In 2019, a Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of benefit of hypnosis in smoking cessation, and suggested if there is, it is small at best. Hypnosis may be useful as an adjunct therapy for weight loss. A 1996 meta-analysis studying hypnosis combined with cognitive behavioural therapy found that people using both treatments lost more weight than people using", "A 2006 declassified 1966 document obtained by the US Freedom of Information Act archive shows that hypnosis was investigated for military applications. The full paper explores the potentials of operational uses. The overall conclusion of the study was that there was no evidence that hypnosis could be used for military applications, and no clear evidence whether \"hypnosis\" is a definable phenomenon outside ordinary suggestion, motivation, and subject expectancy. According to the document: The use of hypnosis in intelligence would present certain technical problems not encountered in the clinic or laboratory. To obtain compliance from a resistant source, for example, it would be necessary to hypnotise the source under essentially hostile circumstances. There is no good evidence, clinical or experimental, that this can be", "Self-hypnosis happens when a person hypnotises oneself, commonly involving the use of autosuggestion. The technique is often used to increase motivation for a diet, to quit smoking, or", "Stage hypnosis is a form of entertainment, traditionally employed in a club or theatre before an audience. Due to stage hypnotists' showmanship, many people believe that hypnosis is a form of mind control. Stage hypnotists typically attempt to hypnotise the entire audience and then select individuals who are \"under\" to come up on stage and perform embarrassing acts, while the audience", "The idea of music as hypnosis developed from the work of Franz Mesmer. Instruments such as pianos, violins, harps and, especially, the \"glass harmonica\" often featured in Mesmer's treatments; and were considered to contribute to Mesmer's success. Hypnotic music became an important part in the development of a 'physiological psychology' that regarded the hypnotic state as an 'automatic' phenomenon that links to physical reflex. In their experiments with sound hypnosis, Jean-Martin Charcot used gongs and tuning forks, and Ivan Pavlov used bells. The intention behind their experiments was to prove that physiological response to sound could be automatic, bypassing the conscious mind.", "In the 1980s and 1990s, a moral panic took place in the US fearing Satanic ritual abuse. As part of this, certain books such as \"The Devil's Disciples\" stated that some bands, particularly in the musical genre of heavy metal, brainwashed American teenagers with subliminal messages to lure them into the worship of the devil, sexual immorality, murder, and especially suicide. The use of satanic iconography and rhetoric in this genre provokes the parents and society, and also advocate masculine power for an audience, especially on teenagers who were ambivalent of their identity. The counteraction on heavy metal in terms of satanic brainwashing is an evidence that linked to the automatic response theories of musical hypnotism.", "Various people have been suspected of or convicted for hypnosis-related crimes, including robbery and sexual abuse. In 1951, Palle Hardrup shot and killed two people during a botched robbery in Copenhagen. Hardrup claimed that his friend and former cellmate Bjørn Schouw Nielsen had hypnotised him to commit the robbery, inadvertently causing the deaths. Both were sentenced to jail time. In 2011, a Russian \"evil hypnotist\" was suspected of tricking customers in banks around Stavropol into giving away thousands of pounds' worth of money. According to the local police, he would approach them and make them withdraw all of the money from their bank accounts, which they would then freely give to the man. A similar incident was reported in London in 2014, where a video seemingly showed a", "The central theoretical disagreement regarding hypnosis is known as the \"state versus nonstate\" debate. When Braid introduced the concept of hypnotism, he equivocated over the nature of the \"state\", sometimes describing it as a specific sleep-like neurological state comparable to animal hibernation or yogic meditation, while at other times he emphasised that hypnotism encompasses a number of different stages or states that are an extension of ordinary psychological and physiological processes. Overall, Braid appears to have moved from a more \"special state\" understanding of hypnotism toward a more complex \"nonstate\" orientation. State theorists interpret the effects of hypnotism as due primarily to a specific, abnormal, and uniform psychological or physiological state of some description, often referred to as \"hypnotic trance\" or an \"altered state of consciousness\". Nonstate theorists rejected the idea of hypnotic trance and interpret the effects of hypnotism as due to a combination of multiple task-specific factors derived from normal cognitive, behavioural, and social psychology, such as social role-perception and favorable motivation (Sarbin), active imagination and positive cognitive set (Barber), response expectancy (Kirsch), and the active use of task-specific subjective strategies (Spanos). The personality psychologist Robert White is often cited as providing one of the first nonstate definitions of hypnosis in a 1941 article: Hypnotic behaviour is meaningful, goal-directed striving, its most general goal being to behave like a hypnotised person as this is continuously defined by the operator and understood by the client. Put simply, it is often claimed that, whereas the older \"special state\" interpretation emphasises the difference between hypnosis and ordinary psychological processes, the \"nonstate\" interpretation emphasises their similarity. Comparisons between hypnotised and non-hypnotised subjects suggest that, if a \"hypnotic trance\" does exist, it only accounts for a small proportion of the effects attributed to hypnotic suggestion, most of which can be replicated without hypnotic induction.", "Braid can be taken to imply, in later writings, that hypnosis is largely a state of heightened suggestibility induced by expectation and focused attention. In particular, Hippolyte Bernheim became known as", "Ivan Pavlov stated that hypnotic suggestion provided the best example of a conditioned reflex response in human beings; i.e., that responses to suggestions were learned associations triggered by the words used: Speech, on account of the whole preceding life of the adult, is connected up with all the internal and external stimuli which can reach the cortex, signaling all of them and replacing all of them, and therefore it can call forth all those reactions of the organism which are normally determined by the actual stimuli", "Changes in brain activity have been found in some studies of highly responsive hypnotic subjects. These changes vary depending upon the type of suggestions being given. The state of light to medium hypnosis, where the body undergoes physical and mental relaxation, is associated with a pattern mostly of alpha waves However, what these results indicate is unclear. They may indicate that suggestions genuinely produce changes in perception or experience that are not simply a result of imagination. However, in normal circumstances without hypnosis, the brain regions associated with motion detection are activated both when motion is seen and when motion", "Pierre Janet originally developed the idea of \"dissociation of consciousness\" from his work with hysterical patients. He believed that hypnosis was an example of dissociation, whereby areas of an individual's", "Ernest Hilgard, who developed the \"neodissociation\" theory of hypnotism, hypothesised that hypnosis causes the subjects to divide their consciousness voluntarily. One part responds to the hypnotist while the other retains awareness of reality. Hilgard made subjects take", "The main theorist who pioneered the influential role-taking theory of hypnotism was Theodore Sarbin. Sarbin argued that hypnotic responses were motivated attempts to fulfill the socially constructed roles of hypnotic subjects. This has led to the misconception that hypnotic subjects are simply \"faking\". However, Sarbin emphasised the difference between faking, in which there is little subjective identification with the role in question, and role-taking, in which the subject not only acts externally in accord with the role but also subjectively identifies with it to some degree, acting, thinking, and feeling \"as if\" they are hypnotised. Sarbin drew analogies between role-taking in", "Barber, Spanos, and Chaves (1974) proposed a nonstate \"cognitive-behavioural\" theory of hypnosis, similar in some respects to Sarbin's social role-taking theory and building upon the earlier research of Barber. On this model, hypnosis is explained as an extension of ordinary psychological processes like imagination, relaxation, expectation, social compliance, etc. In particular, Barber argued that responses to hypnotic", "An approach loosely based on information theory uses a brain-as-computer model. In adaptive systems, feedback increases the signal-to-noise ratio, which may converge", "Systems theory, in this context, may be regarded as an extension of Braid's original conceptualisation of hypnosis as involving \"the brain and nervous system generally\". Systems theory considers", "There is a huge range of societies in England who train individuals in hypnosis; however, one of the longest-standing organisations is the British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis (BSCAH). It origins date back to 1952 when a group of dentists set up the 'British Society of Dental Hypnosis'. Shortly after, a group of sympathetic medical practitioners merged with this fast-evolving organisation to form 'The Dental and Medical Society for the Study of Hypnosis'; and, in 1968, after various statutory amendments had taken place, the 'British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis' (BSMDH) was formed. This society always had close links with the Royal Society of Medicine and many of its members were involved in setting up a hypnosis section at this centre of medical research in London. And, in 1978, under the presidency of David Waxman, the Section of Medical and Dental Hypnosis was formed. A second society, the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Staple length.", "Filament." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Back-formation arising because part of the business of a wool-stapler was to sort and class the wool according to quality. According to Chambers Dictionary the actual word \"staple\" including staple foods and other products comes from the Low German word \"Stapel\" meaning a heap of goods to be sold.", "Staple length, a property of staple fibre, is a term referring to the average length of a group of fibres of any composition. Staple length depends on the origin of the fibres. Natural fibres (such as cotton or wool) have a range of lengths in each sample, so the staple length is an average. For synthetic fibres which have been cut to a certain length, the staple length is the same for every fibre in the group. Staple length is an important criterion for spinning fibre, as shorter fibres are more difficult to spin than longer ones, so staple length varies from short to longer length fibres, short fibers also resulting in more hairy yarns. For cotton and wool, staple length was originally tested by hand, the tester removing a clump of fibre and then arranging it on a dark cloth for measurement. In the 1970s, machines were invented to do this task, taking around 5 minutes for cotton and for wool around 20 minutes. Today, machinery can take the measurement in seconds.", "The opposite term is filament fibre, which is fibre that comes in continuous to near continuous lengths for use. Silk, taken from the cocoon of a silkworm, is a filament. If filament fibre is cut into discrete lengths, it becomes staple fibre." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Campus.", "Organization.", "Academics.", "Undergraduate.", "Admissions and financial aid.", "Grade deflation policy.", "Graduate.", "Libraries.", "Rankings.", "Institutes.", "Student life and culture.", "Athletics.", "Varsity.", "Club and intramural.", "Songs.", "\"Old Nassau\".", "Notable people.", "Alumni.", "Faculty." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Its purpose was to train ministers. The college was the educational and religious capital of Scottish Presbyterian America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governor Jonathan Belcher's interest, Princeton should be named as Belcher College. Belcher replied: \"What a name that would be!\" In 1756, the college moved its campus to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England. Following the untimely deaths of Princeton's first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that post until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the college's focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for secular leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college. Witherspoon's presidency constituted a long period of stability for the college, interrupted by the American Revolution and particularly the Battle of Princeton, during which British soldiers briefly occupied Nassau Hall; American forces, led by George Washington, fired cannon on the building to rout them from it. In 1812, the eighth president of the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green (1812–23), helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with \"enthusiastic approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey.\" Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include services such as cross-registration and mutual library access. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the college's sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17, 1754. During the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the country's capital for four months. Over the centuries and through two redesigns following major fires (1802 and 1855), Nassau Hall's role shifted from an all-purpose building, comprising office, dormitory, library, and classroom space; to classroom space exclusively; to its present role as the administrative center of the University. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, when that same class replaced them with tigers. Nassau Hall's bell rang after the hall's construction; however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855. James McCosh became the college's president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. During his two decades of service, he overhauled the curriculum, oversaw an expansion of inquiry into the sciences, and supervised the addition of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic style to the campus. McCosh Hall is named in his honor. In 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the college officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides. During this year, the college also underwent large expansion and officially became a university. In 1900, the Graduate School was established. In 1902, Woodrow Wilson, graduate of the Class of 1879, was elected the 13th president of the university. Under Wilson, Princeton introduced the preceptorial system in 1905, a then-unique concept in the United States that augmented the standard lecture method of teaching with a more personal form in which small groups of students, or precepts, could interact with a single instructor, or preceptor, in their field of interest. In 1906, the reservoir Lake Carnegie was created by Andrew Carnegie. A collection of historical photographs of the building of the lake is housed at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library on Princeton's campus. On October 2, 1913, the Princeton University Graduate College was dedicated. In 1919 the School of Architecture was established. In 1933, Albert Einstein became a lifetime member of the Institute for Advanced Study with an office on the Princeton campus. While always independent of the university, the Institute for Advanced Study occupied offices in Jones Hall for 6 years, from its opening in 1933, until its own campus was finished and opened in 1939. This helped start an incorrect impression that it was part of the university, one that has never been completely eradicated.", "The main campus sits on about in Princeton. In 2011, the main campus was named by Travel+Leisure as one of the most beautiful in the United States. The James Forrestal Campus is split between nearby Plainsboro and South Brunswick. The University also owns some property in West Windsor Township. The campuses are situated about one hour from both New York City and Philadelphia. The first building on campus was Nassau Hall, completed in 1756 and situated on the northern edge of campus facing Nassau Street. The campus expanded steadily around Nassau Hall during the early and middle 19th century. The McCosh presidency (1868–88) saw the construction of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic and Romanesque Revival styles; many of them are now gone, leaving the remaining few to appear out of place. At the end of the 19th century much of Princeton's architecture was designed by the Cope and Stewardson firm (same architects who designed a large part of Washington University in St. Louis and University of Pennsylvania) resulting in the Collegiate Gothic style for which it is known today. Implemented initially by William Appleton Potter and later enforced by the University's supervising architect, Ralph Adams Cram, the Collegiate Gothic style remained the standard for all new building on the Princeton campus through 1960. A flurry of construction in the 1960s produced a number of new buildings on the south side of the main campus, many of which have been poorly received. Several prominent architects have contributed some more recent additions, including Frank Gehry (Lewis Library), I. M. Pei (Spelman Halls), Demetri Porphyrios (Whitman College, a Collegiate Gothic project), Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown (Frist Campus Center, among several others), and Rafael Viñoly (Carl Icahn Laboratory). A group of 20th-century sculptures scattered throughout the campus forms the Putnam Collection of Sculpture. It includes works by Alexander Calder (\"Five Disks: One Empty\"), Jacob Epstein (\"Albert Einstein\"), Henry Moore (\"Oval with Points\"), Isamu Noguchi (\"White Sun\"), and Pablo Picasso (\"Head of a Woman\"). Richard Serra's \"The Hedgehog and The Fox\" is located between Peyton and Fine halls next to Princeton Stadium and the Lewis Library. At the southern edge of the campus is Lake Carnegie, an artificial lake named for Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie financed the lake's construction in 1906 at the behest of a friend who was a Princeton alumnus. Carnegie hoped the opportunity to take up rowing would inspire Princeton students to forsake football, which he considered \"not gentlemanly.\" The Shea Rowing Center on the lake's shore continues to serve as the headquarters for Princeton rowing.", "The Trustees of Princeton University, a 40-member board, is responsible for the overall direction of the University. It approves the operating and capital budgets, supervises the investment of the University's endowment and oversees campus real estate and long-range physical planning. The trustees also exercise prior review and approval concerning changes in major policies, such as those in instructional programs and admission, as well as tuition and", "Undergraduates fulfill general education requirements, choose among a wide variety of elective courses, and pursue departmental concentrations and interdisciplinary certificate programs. Required independent work is a hallmark of undergraduate education at Princeton. Students graduate with either the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) or the Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S.E.). The graduate school offers advanced degrees spanning the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. Doctoral education is available in most disciplines. It emphasizes original and independent scholarship whereas master's degree programs in architecture, engineering, finance, and public affairs and public policy prepare candidates for careers in public life and professional practice.", "Undergraduate courses in the humanities are traditionally either seminars or lectures held 2 or 3 times a week with an additional discussion seminar that is called a \"precept.\" To graduate, all A.B. candidates must complete a senior thesis and, in most departments, one or two extensive pieces of independent research that are known as \"junior papers.\" Juniors in some departments, including architecture and the creative arts, complete independent projects that differ from written research papers. A.B. candidates must also fulfill a three or four semester foreign language requirement and distribution requirements (which include, for example, classes in ethics, literature and the arts, and historical analysis) with a total of 31 classes. B.S.E. candidates follow a parallel track with an emphasis on a rigorous science and math curriculum, a computer science requirement, and at least two", "Princeton's undergraduate program is highly selective, admitting 6.4% of undergraduate applicants in the 2016–2017 admissions cycle (for the Class of 2021). The middle 50% range of SAT scores was 1430–1570 and the middle 50% range of the ACT composite score was 31–35. In September 2006, the university announced that all applicants for the Class of 2012 would be considered in a single pool, effectively ending the school's early decision", "In 2004, Nancy Weiss Malkiel, the Dean of the College, implemented a grade deflation policy to curb the number of A-range grades undergraduates received. Malkiel's argument was that an A was beginning to lose its meaning as a larger percentage of the student body received them. While the number of A's has indeed decreased under the policy, many argue that this is hurting Princeton students when they apply to jobs or graduate school. Malkiel has said that she sent pamphlets to inform institutions about the policy so that they consider Princeton students equally, but students argue that Princeton graduates can apply to other institutions that know nothing about it. They argue further that as other schools purposefully inflate their grades, Princeton students' GPAs will look low by comparison.", "The Graduate School has about 2,600 students in 42 academic departments and programs in social sciences, engineering, natural sciences, and humanities. These departments include the Department of Psychology, Department of History, and Department of Economics. In 2017–2018, it received nearly 11,000 applications for admission and accepted around 1,000 applicants. The University", "The Princeton University Library system houses over eleven million holdings including seven million bound volumes. The main university library, Firestone Library, which houses almost four million volumes, is one of the largest university libraries in the world. Additionally, it is among the largest \"open stack\" libraries in existence. Its collections include the autographed manuscript of F.", "From 2001 through 2019, Princeton University was ranked either first or second among national universities by \"U.S. News & World Report\", holding the top spot for 17 of those 19 years (sole #1 twelve times, tied with Harvard for #1 five times). Princeton was ranked first in the 2019 \"U.S. News\" rankings. Princeton also was ranked #1 in the 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019 rankings for \"best undergraduate teaching.\" In the 2020 \"Times Higher Education\" assessment of the world's greatest universities, Princeton was ranked", "The Princeton Environmental Institute (PEI) is an \"interdisciplinary center of environmental research, education, and outreach\" at the university.", "University housing is guaranteed to all undergraduates for all four years. More than 98% of students live on campus in dormitories. Freshmen and sophomores must live in residential colleges, while juniors and seniors typically live in designated upperclassman dormitories. The actual dormitories are comparable, but only residential colleges have dining halls. Nonetheless, any undergraduate may purchase a meal plan and eat in a residential college dining hall. Recently, upperclassmen have been given the option of remaining in their college for all four years. Juniors and seniors also have the option of living off-campus, but high rent in the Princeton area encourages almost all students to live in university housing. Undergraduate social life revolves around the residential colleges and a number of coeducational eating clubs, which students may choose to join in the spring of their sophomore year. Eating clubs, which are not officially affiliated with the university, serve as dining halls and communal spaces for their members and also host social events throughout the academic year. Princeton's six residential colleges host a variety of social events and activities, guest speakers, and trips. The residential colleges also sponsor trips to New York for undergraduates to see ballets, operas, Broadway shows, sports events, and other activities. The eating clubs, located on Prospect Avenue, are co-ed organizations for upperclassmen. Most upperclassmen eat their meals at one of the eleven eating clubs. Additionally, the clubs serve as evening and weekend social venues for members and guests. The eleven clubs are Cannon, Cap and Gown, Charter, Cloister, Colonial, Cottage, Ivy, Quadrangle, Terrace, Tiger, and Tower. Princeton hosts two Model United Nations conferences, PMUNC in the fall for high school students and PDI in the spring for college students. It also hosts the Princeton Invitational Speech and Debate tournament each year at the end of November. Princeton also runs Princeton Model Congress, an event that is held once a year in mid-November. The four-day conference has high school students from around the country as participants. Although the school's admissions policy is need-blind, Princeton, based on the proportion of students who receive Pell Grants, was ranked as a school with little economic diversity among all national universities ranked by \"U.S. News & World Report\". While Pell figures are widely used as a gauge of the number of low-income undergraduates on a given campus, the rankings article cautions \"the proportion of students on Pell Grants isn't a perfect measure of an institution's efforts to achieve economic diversity,\" but goes on to say that \"still, many experts say that Pell figures are the best available gauge of how many low-income undergrads there are on a given campus.\"", "Princeton supports organized athletics at three levels: varsity intercollegiate, club intercollegiate, and intramural. It also provides \"a variety of physical education and recreational programs\" for members of the Princeton community. According to the athletics program's mission statement, Princeton aims for its students who participate in athletics to be \"'student athletes' in the fullest sense of the phrase.\" Most undergraduates participate in athletics at some level. Princeton's colors are orange and black. The school's athletes are known as \"Tigers\", and the mascot is a tiger. The Princeton administration considered naming the mascot in 2007, but the effort was dropped in the face of alumni opposition.", "Princeton is an NCAA Division I school. Its athletic conference is the Ivy League. Princeton hosts 38 men's and women's varsity sports. The largest varsity sport is rowing, with almost 150 athletes. Princeton's football team has a long and storied history. Princeton played against Rutgers University in the first intercollegiate football game in the U.S. on Nov 6, 1869. By a score of 6–4, Rutgers won the game, which was played by rules similar to modern rugby. Today Princeton is a member of the Football Championship Subdivision of NCAA Division I. As of the end of the 2010 season, Princeton had won 26 national football championships, more than any other school. The men's basketball program is noted for its success under Pete Carril, the head coach from 1967 to 1996. During this time, Princeton won 13 Ivy League titles and made 11 NCAA tournament appearances. Carril", "In addition to varsity sports, Princeton hosts about 35 club sports teams. Princeton's rugby team is organized as a club sport. Each year, nearly 300 teams participate in", "Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games is Princeton Cannon Song, the Princeton University fight song. Bob Dylan wrote \"Day of The Locusts\" (for his 1970 album \"New Morning\") about his experience of receiving an honorary doctorate from the University. It is a reference to the negative experience he had and it mentions the Brood X cicada infestation Princeton experienced that June 1970.", "\"\" has been Princeton University's anthem since 1859. Its words were written that year by a freshman, Harlan Page Peck, and published in the March issue of the \"Nassau Literary Review\" (the oldest student publication at Princeton and also the second oldest undergraduate literary magazine in the country). The words and music appeared together for the first time in \"Songs of Old Nassau\", published in April 1859. Before the Langlotz tune was written, the song", "", "U.S. Presidents James Madison and Woodrow Wilson and Vice President Aaron Burr graduated from Princeton, as did Michelle Obama, the former First Lady of the United States. Former Chief Justice of the United States Oliver Ellsworth was an alumnus, as are current U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justices Samuel Alito, Elena Kagan, and Sonia Sotomayor. Alumnus Jerome Powell was appointed as Chair of the U.S. Federal Reserve Board in 2018. Princeton graduates played a major role in the American Revolution, including the first and last Colonels on the Patriot side Philip Johnston and Nathaniel Scudder, as well as the highest ranking civilian leader on the British side David Mathews. Notable graduates of Princeton's School of Engineering and Applied Science include Apollo astronaut and commander of Apollo 12 Pete Conrad, Amazon CEO", "Notable faculty members include P. Adams Sitney, Angus Deaton, Daniel Kahneman, Joyce Carol Oates, Cornel West, Robert Keohane, Anthony Grafton, Peter Singer, Jhumpa Lahiri, Michael Mullen, Robert P. George, and Andrew Wiles. Notable former faculty members include John Witherspoon, Walter" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Atreides.", "Mythology of Atreides.", "Tantalus.", "Pelops and Hippodamia.", "Atreus, Thyestes, and Chrysippus.", "Agamemnon, Iphigenia, Clytemnestra, Aegisthus, Orestes and Electra.", "Classical references.", "Translations.", "Hittite records controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word Atreides refers to one of the sons of Atreus—Agamemnon and Menelaus. The plural form Atreidae or Atreidai refers to both sons collectively; in English, the form Atreides (the same form as the singular) is often used. This term is sometimes used for more distant descendants of Atreus.", "", "The House of Atreus begins with Tantalus. Tantalus was a son of Zeus who enjoyed cordial relations with the gods until he decided to slay his son Pelops and feed him to the gods as a test of their omniscience. Most of the gods, as they sat down to dinner with Tantalus, immediately understood what had happened, and, because they knew the nature of the meat they were served, were appalled and did not partake. But Demeter, who was distracted due to the abduction by Hades of her daughter Persephone, obliviously ate Pelops' shoulder. The gods threw Tantalus into the underworld, where he spends eternity standing in a pool of water beneath a fruit tree with low branches. Whenever he reaches for the fruit, the branches raise his intended meal from his grasp. Whenever he bends down to get a drink, the water recedes before he can drink. Thus is derived the word \"tantalising\". The gods brought Pelops back to life, replacing the bone in his shoulder with a bit of ivory with the help of Hephaestus, thus marking the family forever afterwards.", "Pelops married Hippodamia after winning a chariot race against her father, King Oenomaus, by arranging for the sabotage of his would-be-father-in-law's chariot which resulted in his death. The versions of the story differ. The sabotage was arranged by Myrtilus, a servant of the king who was killed by Pelops for one of three reasons: because he had been promised the right to take Hippodamia's virginity, which Pelops retracted, because he attempted to rape her, or because Pelops did not wish to share the credit for the victory. As Myrtilus died, he cursed Pelops and his line, further adding to the house's curse.", "Pelops and Hippodamia had many sons; two of them were Atreus and Thyestes. Depending on myth versions, they murdered Chrysippus, who was their half-brother. Because of the murder, Hippodamia, Atreus, and Thyestes were banished to Mycenae, where Hippodamia is said to have hanged herself. Atreus vowed to sacrifice his best lamb to Artemis. Upon searching his flock, however, Atreus discovered a golden lamb which he gave to his wife, Aerope, to hide from the goddess. She gave it to Thyestes, her lover and Atreus' brother, who then convinced Atreus to agree that whoever had the lamb should be king. Thyestes produced the lamb and claimed the throne. Atreus retook the throne using advice he received from Hermes. Thyestes agreed to give the kingdom back when the sun moved backwards in the sky, a feat that Zeus accomplished. Atreus retook the throne and banished Thyestes. Atreus then learned of Thyestes' and Aerope's adultery and plotted revenge. He killed Thyestes' sons and cooked them, save their hands and feet. He tricked Thyestes into eating the flesh of his own sons and then taunted him with their hands and feet. Thyestes was forced into exile for eating the flesh of a human. Thyestes responded by asking an oracle what to do, who advised him to have a son by his daughter, Pelopia, who would then kill Atreus. However, when Aegisthus was first born, he was abandoned by his mother, who was ashamed of the incestuous act. A shepherd found the infant Aegisthus and gave him to Atreus, who raised him as his own son. Only as he entered adulthood did Thyestes reveal the truth to Aegisthus, that he was both father and grandfather to the boy. Aegisthus then killed Atreus, although not before Atreus and Aerope had had two sons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, and a daughter Anaxibia. Agamemnon married Clytemnestra, and Menelaus married Helen, her famously attractive sister. Helen later left Sparta with Paris of Troy, and Menelaus called on all of his wife's former suitors to help him take her back.", "Prior to sailing off to war against Troy, Agamemnon had angered the goddess Artemis because he had killed a sacred deer in a sacred grove, and had then boasted that he was a better hunter than she was. When the time came, Artemis stilled the winds so that Agamemnon's fleet could not sail. A prophet named Calchas told him that in order to appease Artemis, Agamemnon would have to sacrifice the most precious thing that had come to his possession in the year he killed the sacred deer. This was his first-born daughter, Iphigenia. He sent word home for her to come (in some versions of the story on the pretense that she was to be married to Achilles). Iphigenia accepted her father's choice and was honored to be a part of the war. Clytemnestra tried to stop Iphigenia but was sent away. After doing the deed, Agamemnon's fleet was able to get under way. While he was fighting the Trojans, his wife Clytemnestra, enraged by the murder of her daughter, began an affair with Aegisthus. When Agamemnon returned home he brought with him a new concubine, the doomed prophetess, Cassandra. Upon his arrival that evening, before the great banquet she had prepared, Clytemnestra drew a bath for him and when he came out of the bath, she put the royal purple robe on him which had no opening for his head. He was confused and tangled up. Clytemnestra then stabbed him to death. Agamemnon's only son, Orestes, was quite young when his mother killed his father. He was sent into exile. In some versions he was sent away by Clytemnestra to avoid having him present during the murder of Agamemnon; in others Electra herself rescued the infant Orestes and sent him away to protect him from their mother. In both versions he was the legitimate heir apparent and as such a potential danger to his usurper uncle. Goaded by his sister Electra, Orestes swore revenge. He knew it was his duty to avenge his father's death, but saw also that in doing so he would have to kill his mother. He was torn between avenging his father and sparing his mother. 'It was a son's duty to kill his father's murderers, a duty that came before all others. But a son who killed his mother was abhorrent to gods and to men'. When he prayed to Apollo, the god advised him to kill his mother. Orestes realized that he must work out the curse on his house, exact vengeance and pay with his own ruin. After Orestes murdered Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus, he wandered the land with guilt in his heart. After many years, with Apollo by his side, he pleaded to Athena. No descendant of Atreus had ever done so noble an act and 'neither he nor any descendant of his would ever again be driven into evil by the irresistible power of the past.' Thus Orestes ended the curse of the House of Atreus. This story is the major plot line of Aeschylus's trilogy \"The Oresteia\".", "Plato in his dialogue \"The Statesman\" tells a \"famous tale\" that \"the sun and the stars once rose in the west, and set in the east, and that the god reversed their motion, and gave them that which they now have as a testimony to the right of Atreus.\" Virgil, in book IV of the \"Aeneid\", references the House of Atreus and specifically Orestes in describing the death of Dido.", "The first English language translation of the \"Oresteia\" in 1777 contributed greatly to the development of the Romantic period in literature.", "There is a possible reference to Atreus in a Hittite text known as the \"Indictment of Madduwatta\". The indictment describes several army clashes between the Greeks and the Hittites which took place around the late 15th or early 14th centuries BC. The Greek leader was a man called Attarsiya, and some scholars have speculated that Attarsiya or Attarissiya was the Hittite way of writing the Greek name Atreus. Other scholars argue that even though the name is probably Greek (since the man is described as an Ahhiyawa) and related to Atreus, the person carrying the name is not necessarily identical to the famous Atreus." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Types and sources of dietary fiber.", "Fiber contents in food.", "Plant sources of fiber.", "Fiber supplements.", "Inulins.", "Vegetable gums.", "Activity in the gut.", "Physicochemical properties.", "Dietary fiber in the upper gastrointestinal tract.", "Fiber in the colon.", "Dietary fiber and cholesterol metabolism.", "Dietary fiber and fecal weight.", "Effects of fiber intake.", "Research.", "Dietary fiber and obesity.", "Guidelines on fiber intake.", "Fiber recommendations.", "European Union.", "United States.", "United Kingdom.", "Fiber and fermentation.", "Short-chain fatty acids.", "FDA-approved health claims." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dietary fiber is defined to be plant components that are not broken down by human digestive enzymes. In the late 20th century, only lignin and some polysaccharides were known to satisfy this definition, but in the early 21st century, resistant starch and oligosaccharides were included as dietary fiber components. Official definition of dietary fiber varies among different institutions:", "", "Dietary fibers are found in fruits, vegetables and whole grains. The amount of fiber contained in common foods are in the following table: Dietary fiber is found in plants, typically eaten whole, raw or cooked, although fiber can be added to make dietary supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. Grain bran products have the highest fiber contents, such as crude corn bran (79 g per 100 g) and crude wheat bran (43 g per 100 g), which are ingredients for manufactured foods. Medical authorities, such as the Mayo Clinic, recommend adding fiber-rich products to the Standard American Diet (SAD) which is rich in processed and artificially sweetened foods, with minimal intake of vegetables and legumes.", "Some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp. The skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain a fair amount of fiber. Soluble fiber is found in varying quantities in all plant foods, including: Sources of insoluble fiber include:", "These are a few example forms of fiber that have been sold as supplements or food additives. These may be marketed to consumers for nutritional purposes, treatment of various gastrointestinal disorders, and for such possible health benefits as lowering cholesterol levels, reducing risk of colon cancer, and losing weight. Soluble fiber supplements may be beneficial for alleviating symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, such as diarrhea or constipation and abdominal discomfort. Prebiotic soluble fiber products, like those containing inulin or oligosaccharides, may contribute to relief from inflammatory bowel disease, as in Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and \"Clostridium difficile\", due in part to the short-chain fatty acids produced with subsequent anti-inflammatory actions upon the bowel. Fiber supplements may be effective in an overall dietary plan for managing irritable bowel syndrome by modification of food choices. One insoluble fiber, resistant starch from high-amylose corn, has been used as a supplement and may contribute to improving insulin sensitivity and glycemic management as well as promoting regularity and possibly relief of diarrhea. One preliminary finding indicates that resistant corn starch may reduce symptoms of ulcerative colitis.", "Chemically defined as oligosaccharides occurring naturally in most plants, inulins have nutritional value as carbohydrates, or more specifically as fructans, a polymer of the natural plant sugar, fructose. Inulin is typically extracted by manufacturers from enriched plant sources such as chicory roots or Jerusalem artichokes for use in prepared foods. Subtly sweet, it can be used to replace sugar, fat, and flour, is often used to improve the flow and mixing qualities of powdered nutritional supplements, and has significant potential health value as a prebiotic fermentable fiber. Inulin is advantageous because it contains 25–30% the food energy of sugar or other carbohydrates and 10–15% the food energy of fat. As a prebiotic fermentable fiber, its metabolism by gut flora yields short-chain fatty acids (see below) which increase absorption of calcium, magnesium, and iron, resulting from upregulation of mineral-transporting genes and their membrane transport proteins within the colon wall. Among other potential beneficial effects noted above, inulin promotes an increase in the mass and health of intestinal \"Lactobacillus\" and \"Bifidobacterium\" populations. Inulin's primary disadvantage is its tolerance. As a soluble fermentable fiber, it is quickly and easily fermented within the intestinal tract, which may cause gas and digestive distress at doses higher than 15 grams/day in most people. Individuals with digestive diseases have benefited from removing fructose and inulin from their diet. While clinical studies have shown changes in the microbiota at lower levels of inulin intake, some of the health effects require higher than 15 grams per day to achieve the benefits.", "Vegetable gum fiber supplements are relatively new to the market. Often sold as a powder, vegetable gum fibers dissolve easily with no aftertaste. In preliminary clinical trials, they have proven effective for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Examples of vegetable gum fibers are guar gum and gum arabic.", "Many molecules that are considered to be \"dietary fiber\" are so because humans lack the necessary enzymes to split the glycosidic bond and they reach the large intestine. Many foods contain varying types of dietary fibers, all of which contribute to health in different ways. Dietary fibers make three primary contributions: bulking, viscosity and fermentation. Different fibers have different effects, suggesting that a variety of dietary fibers contribute to overall health. Some fibers contribute through one primary mechanism. For instance, cellulose and wheat bran provide excellent bulking effects, but are minimally fermented. Alternatively, many dietary fibers can contribute to health through more than one of these mechanisms. For instance, psyllium provides bulking as well as viscosity. Bulking fibers can be soluble (e.g. psyllium) or insoluble (e.g. cellulose and hemicellulose). They absorb water and can significantly increase stool weight and regularity. Most bulking fibers are not fermented or are minimally fermented throughout the intestinal tract. Viscous fibers thicken the contents of the intestinal tract and may attenuate the absorption of sugar, reduce sugar response after eating, and reduce lipid absorption (notably shown with cholesterol absorption). Their use in food formulations is often limited to low levels, due to their viscosity and thickening effects. Some viscous fibers may also be partially or fully fermented within the intestinal tract (guar gum, beta-glucan, glucomannan and pectins), but some viscous fibers are minimally or not fermented (modified cellulose such as methylcellulose and psyllium). Fermentable fibers are consumed by the microbiota within the large intestines, mildly increasing fecal bulk and producing short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Resistant starch, inulin, fructooligosaccharide and galactooligosaccharide are dietary fibers which are fully fermented. These include insoluble as well as soluble fibers. This fermentation influences the expression of many genes within the large intestine, which affect digestive function and lipid and glucose metabolism, as well as the immune system, inflammation and more. Dietary fibers can change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and can change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed through bulking and viscosity. Some types of soluble fibers bind to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to re-enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood from the actions of cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation of cholesterol. Insoluble fiber is associated with reduced risk of diabetes, but the mechanism by which this is achieved is unknown. One type of insoluble dietary fiber, resistant starch, may increase insulin sensitivity in healthy people, in type 2 diabetics, and in individuals with insulin resistance, possibly contributing to reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient, dietary fiber has importance in the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed countries recommending increases in fiber intake.", "Dietary fiber has distinct physicochemical properties. Most semi-solid foods, fiber and fat are a combination of gel matrices which are hydrated or collapsed with microstructural elements, globules, solutions or encapsulating walls. Fresh fruit and vegetables are cellular materials.", "Following a meal, the stomach and upper gastrointestinal contents consist of Micelles are colloid-sized clusters of molecules which form in conditions as those above, similar to the critical micelle concentration of detergents. In the upper gastrointestinal tract, these compounds consist of bile acids and di- and monoacyl glycerols which solubilize triacylglycerols and cholesterol. Two mechanisms bring nutrients into contact with the epithelium: The multiple physical phases in the intestinal tract slow the rate of absorption compared to that of the suspension solvent alone. Adding viscous polysaccharides to carbohydrate meals can reduce post-prandial blood glucose concentrations. Wheat and maize but not oats modify glucose absorption, the rate being dependent upon the particle size. The reduction in absorption rate with guar gum may be due to the increased resistance by viscous solutions to the convective flows created by intestinal contractions. Dietary fiber interacts with pancreatic and enteric enzymes and their substrates. Human pancreatic enzyme activity is reduced when incubated with most fiber sources. Fiber may affect amylase activity and hence the rate of hydrolysis of starch. The more viscous polysaccharides extend the mouth-to-cecum transit time; guar, tragacanth and pectin being slower than wheat bran.", "The colon may be regarded as two organs, The presence of bacteria in the colon produces an ‘organ’ of intense, mainly reductive, metabolic activity, whereas the liver is oxidative. The substrates utilized by the cecum have either passed along the entire intestine or are biliary excretion products. The effects of dietary fiber in the colon are on Enlargement of the cecum is a common finding when some dietary fibers are fed and this is now believed to be normal physiological adjustment. Such an increase may be due to a number of factors, prolonged cecal residence of the fiber, increased bacterial mass, or increased bacterial end-products. Some non-absorbed carbohydrates, e.g. pectin, gum arabic, oligosaccharides and resistant starch, are fermented to short-chain fatty acids (chiefly acetic, propionic and n-butyric), and carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane. Almost all of these short-chain fatty acids will be absorbed from the colon. This means that fecal short-chain fatty acid estimations do not reflect cecal and colonic fermentation, only the efficiency of absorption, the ability of the fiber residue to sequestrate short-chain fatty acids, and the continued fermentation of fiber around the colon, which presumably will continue until the substrate is exhausted. The production of short-chain fatty acids has several possible actions on the gut mucosa. All of the short-chain fatty acids are readily absorbed by the colonic mucosa, but only acetic acid reaches the systemic circulation in appreciable amounts. Butyric acid appears to be used as a fuel by the colonic mucosa as the preferred energy source for colonic cells.", "Dietary fiber may act on each phase of ingestion, digestion, absorption and excretion to affect cholesterol metabolism, such as the following: An important action of some fibers is to reduce the reabsorption of bile acids in the ileum and hence the amount and type of bile acid and fats reaching the colon. A reduction in the reabsorption of bile acid from the ileum has several direct effects. The fibers that are most effective in influencing sterol metabolism (e.g. pectin) are fermented in the colon. It is therefore unlikely that the reduction in body cholesterol is due to adsorption to this fermented fiber in the colon.", "Feces consist of a plasticine-like material, made up of water, bacteria, lipids, sterols, mucus and fiber. Water is distributed in the colon in three ways: Fecal weight is dictated by: Wheat bran is minimally fermented and binds water and when added to the diet increases fecal weight in a predictable linear manner and decreases intestinal transit time. The particle size of the fiber is all-important, coarse wheat bran being more effective than fine wheat bran. The greater the water-holding capacity of the bran, the greater the effect on fecal weight. For most healthy individuals, an increase in wet fecal weight, depending on the particle size of the bran, is generally of the order of 3–5 g/g fiber. The fermentation of some fibers results in an increase in the bacterial content and possibly fecal weight. Other fibers, e.g. pectin, are fermented and have no effect on stool weight.", "Research has shown that fiber may benefit health in several different ways. Lignin and probably related materials that are resistant to enzymatic degradation, diminish the nutritional value of foods. Color coding of table entries: Fiber does not bind to minerals and vitamins and therefore does not restrict their absorption, but rather evidence exists that fermentable fiber sources improve absorption of minerals, especially calcium. Some plant foods can reduce the absorption of minerals and vitamins like calcium, zinc, vitamin C, and magnesium, but this is caused by the presence of phytate (which is also thought to have important health benefits), not by fiber.", "A study of 388,000 adults ages 50 to 71 for nine years found that the highest consumers of fiber were 22% less likely to die over this period. In addition to lower risk of death from heart disease, adequate consumption of fiber-containing foods, especially grains, was also associated with reduced incidence of infectious and respiratory illnesses, and, particularly among males, reduced risk of cancer-related death. An experiment designed with a large sample and conducted by NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study studied the correlation between fiber intake and colorectal cancer. The analytic cohort consisted of 291,988 men and 197,623 women aged 50–71 years. Diet was assessed with a self-administered food-frequency questionnaire at baseline in 1995–1996; 2,974 incident colorectal cancer cases were identified during five years of follow-up. The result was that total fiber intake was not associated with colorectal cancer. Although many researchers believe that dietary fiber intake reduces risk of colon cancer, one study conducted by researchers at the Harvard School of Medicine of over 88,000 women did not show a statistically significant relationship between higher fiber consumption and lower rates of colorectal cancer or adenomas. Similarly, a 2010 study of 58,279 men found no relationship between dietary fiber and colorectal cancer.", "Dietary fiber has many functions in diet, one of which may be to aid in energy intake control and reduced risk for development of obesity. The role of dietary fiber in energy intake regulation and obesity development is related to its unique physical and chemical properties that aid in early signals of satiation and enhanced or prolonged signals of satiety. Early signals of satiation may be induced through cephalic- and gastric-phase responses related to the bulking effects of dietary fiber on energy density and palatability, whereas the viscosity-producing effects of certain fibers may enhance satiety through intestinal-phase events related to modified gastrointestinal function and subsequent delay in fat absorption. In general, fiber-rich diets, whether achieved through fiber supplementation or incorporation of high fiber foods into meals, have a reduced energy density compared with high fat diets. This is related to fiber's ability to add bulk and weight to the diet. There are also indications that women may be more sensitive to dietary manipulation with fiber than men. The relationship of body weight status and fiber effect on energy intake suggests that obese individuals may be more likely to reduce food intake with dietary fiber inclusion.", "Current recommendations from the United States National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine, state that for Adequate Intake, adult men ages 19–50 consume 38 grams of dietary fiber per day, men 51 and older 30 grams, women ages 19–50 to consume 25 grams per day, women 51 and older 21 grams. These are based on an observed intake level of 14 grams per 1,000 Calories among those with lower risk of coronary heart disease. The AND (Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, previously ADA) recommends a minimum of 20–35 g/day for a healthy adult depending on calorie intake (e.g., a 2000 Cal/8400 kJ diet should include 25 g of fiber per day). The AND's recommendation for children is that intake should equal age in years plus 5 g/day (e.g., a 4 year old should consume 9 g/day). No guidelines have yet been established for the elderly or very ill. Patients with current constipation, vomiting, and abdominal pain should see a physician. Certain bulking agents are not commonly recommended with the prescription of opioids because the slow transit time mixed with larger stools may lead to severe constipation, pain, or obstruction. As of 2018, the British Nutrition Foundation has recommended a minimum fiber intake of 30 grams per day for healthy adults.", "", "According to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), which deals with the establishment of Dietary Reference Values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre, \"based on the available evidence on bowel function, the Panel considers dietary fibre intakes of 25 g per day to be adequate for normal laxation in adults\".", "On average, North Americans consume less than 50% of the dietary fiber levels recommended for good health. In the preferred food choices of today's youth, this value may be as low as 20%, a factor considered by experts as contributing to the obesity levels seen in many developed countries. Recognizing the growing scientific evidence for physiological benefits of increased fiber intake, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the United States have given approvals to food products making health claims for fiber. The FDA classifies which ingredients qualify as being \"fiber\", and requires for product labeling that a physiological benefit is gained by adding the fiber ingredient. As of 2008, the FDA approved health claims for qualified fiber products to display labeling that regular consumption may reduce blood cholesterol levels – which can lower the risk of coronary heart disease – and also reduce the risk of some types of cancer. Viscous fiber sources gaining FDA approval are: Other examples of bulking fiber sources used in functional foods and supplements include cellulose, guar gum and xanthan gum. Other examples of fermentable fiber sources (from plant foods or biotechnology) used in functional foods and supplements include resistant starch, inulin, fructans, fructooligo saccharides, oligo- or polysaccharides, and resistant dextrins, which may be partially or fully fermented. Consistent intake of fermentable fiber may reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Insufficient fiber in the diet can lead to constipation.", "In 2018, the British Nutrition Foundation issued a statement to define dietary fiber more concisely and list the potential health benefits established to date, while increasing its recommended daily intake to 30 grams for healthy adults. Statement: 'Dietary fibre' has been used as a collective term for a complex mixture of substances with different chemical and physical properties which exert different types of physiological effects. The use of certain analytical methods to quantify dietary fiber by nature of its indigestin ability results in many other indigestible components being isolated along with the carbohydrate components of dietary fiber. These components include resistant starches and oligo saccharides along with other substances that exist within the plant cell structure and contribute to the material that passes through the digestive tract. Such components are likely to have physiological effects. Diets naturally high in fiber can be considered to bring about several main physiological consequences: Fiber is defined by its physiological impact, with many heterogenous types of fibers. Some fibers may primarily impact one of these benefits (i.e., cellulose increases fecal bulking and prevents constipation), but many fibers impact more than one of these benefits (i.e., resistant starch increases bulking, increases colonic fermentation, positively modulates colonic microflora and increases satiety and insulin sensitivity). The beneficial effects of high fiber diets are the summation of the effects of the different types of fiber present in the diet and also other components of such diets. Defining fiber physiologically allows recognition of indigestible carbohydrates with structures and physiological properties similar to those of naturally occurring dietary fibers.", "The American Association of Cereal Chemists has defined soluble fiber this way: \"\"the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine.\"\" In this definition: As an example of fermentation, shorter-chain carbohydrates (a type of fiber found in legumes) cannot be digested, but are changed via fermentation in the colon into short-chain fatty acids and gases (which are typically expelled as flatulence). According to a 2002 journal article, fiber compounds with partial or low fermentability include: fiber compounds with high fermentability include:", "When fermentable fiber is fermented, short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced. SCFAs are involved in numerous physiological processes promoting health, including: SCFAs that are absorbed by the colonic mucosa pass through the colonic wall into the portal circulation (supplying the liver), and the liver transports them into the general circulatory system. Overall, SCFAs affect major regulatory systems, such as blood glucose and lipid levels, the colonic environment, and intestinal immune functions. The major SCFAs in humans are butyrate, propionate, and acetate, where butyrate is the major energy source for colonocytes, propionate is destined for uptake by the liver, and acetate enters the peripheral circulation to be metabolized by peripheral tissues.", "The United States FDA allows manufacturers of foods containing 1.7 g per serving of psyllium husk soluble fiber or 0.75 g of oat or barley soluble fiber as beta-glucans to claim that regular consumption may reduce the risk of heart disease. The FDA statement template for making this claim is: \"Soluble fiber from foods such as [name of soluble fiber source, and, if desired, name of food product], as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A serving of [name of food product] supplies __ grams of the [necessary daily dietary intake for the benefit] soluble fiber from [name of soluble fiber source] necessary per day to have this effect.\" Eligible sources of soluble fiber providing beta-glucan include: The allowed label may state that diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and that include soluble fiber from certain of the above foods \"may\" or \"might\" reduce the risk of heart disease. As discussed in FDA regulation 21 CFR 101.81, the daily dietary intake levels of soluble fiber from sources listed above associated with reduced risk of coronary heart disease are: Soluble fiber from consuming grains is included in other allowed health claims for lowering risk of some types of cancer and heart disease by consuming fruit and vegetables (21 CFR 101.76, 101.77, and 101.78). In December 2016, FDA approved a qualified health claim that consuming resistant starch from high-amylose corn may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes due to its effect of increasing insulin sensitivity. The allowed claim specified: \"High-amylose maize resistant starch may reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. FDA has concluded that there is limited scientific evidence for this claim.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Prelude.", "Ottoman army.", "Defensive measures.", "Siege.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In August 1526, Sultan Suleiman I decisively defeated the forces of King Louis II of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács, paving the way for the Ottomans to gain control of south-eastern Hungary; the childless King Louis was killed. His brother-in-law, Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria, brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, claimed the vacant Hungarian throne. Ferdinand won recognition only in western Hungary; while a noble called John Zápolya, from a power-base in Transylvania, challenged him for the crown and was recognised as king by Suleiman in return for accepting vassal status within the Ottoman Empire. Thus Hungary became divided into Royal Hungary and Ottoman Hungary until 1700. Following the Diet of Pozsony (modern Bratislava) on 26 October, Ferdinand was declared king of Royal Hungary due to the agreement between his and Louis's families, cemented by Ferdinand's marriage to Louis's sister Anna and Louis's marriage to Ferdinand's sister Mary. Ferdinand set out to enforce his claim on Hungary and captured Buda in 1527, only to relinquish his hold on it in 1529 when an Ottoman counter-attack stripped Ferdinand of all his territorial gains.", "", "In the spring of 1529, Suleiman mustered a large army in Ottoman Bulgaria, with the aim of securing control over all of Hungary and reducing the threat posed at his new borders by Ferdinand I and the Holy Roman Empire. Estimates of Suleiman's army vary widely from 120,000 to more than 300,000 men, as mentioned by various chroniclers. As well as numerous units of \"Sipahi\", the elite mounted force of the Ottoman cavalry, and thousands of janissaries, the Ottoman army incorporated a contingent from Moldavia and renegade Serbian warriors from the army of John Zápolya. Suleiman acted as the commander-in-chief (as well as personally leading his force), and in April he appointed his Grand Vizier (the highest Ottoman minister), a Greek former slave called Ibrahim Pasha, as \"Serasker\", a commander with powers to give orders in the sultan's name. Suleiman launched his campaign on 10 May 1529 and faced numerous obstacles from the onset. The spring rains that are characteristic of south-eastern Europe and the Balkans were particularly heavy that year, causing flooding in Bulgaria and rendering parts of the route used by the army barely passable. Many large-calibre cannons and artillery pieces became hopelessly mired or bogged down, leaving Suleiman no choice but to abandon them, while camels brought from the empire's Eastern provinces, not used to the difficult conditions, were lost in large numbers. Sickness and poor health became common among the janissaries, claiming many lives along the perilous journey. Suleiman arrived in Osijek on 6 August. On the 18th he reached the Mohács plain, to be greeted by a substantial cavalry force led by John Zápolya (which would later accompany Suleiman to Vienna), who paid him homage and helped him recapture several fortresses lost since the Battle of Mohács to the Austrians, including Buda, which fell on 8 September. The only resistance came at Pozsony, where the Turkish fleet was bombarded as it sailed up the Danube.", "As the Ottomans advanced towards Vienna, the city's population organised an ad-hoc resistance formed from local farmers, peasants, and civilians determined to repel the inevitable attack. The defenders were supported by a variety of European mercenaries, namely German Landsknecht pikemen and Spanish musketeers sent by Charles V. The Hofmeister of Austria, Wilhelm von Roggendorf, assumed charge of the defensive garrison, with operational command entrusted to a seventy-year-old German mercenary named Nicholas, Count of Salm, who had distinguished himself at the Battle of Pavia in 1525. Salm arrived in Vienna as head of the mercenary relief force and set about fortifying the three-hundred-year-old walls surrounding St. Stephen's Cathedral, near which he established his headquarters. To ensure the city could withstand a lengthy siege, he blocked the four city gates and reinforced the walls, which in some places were no more than six feet thick, and erected earthen bastions and an inner earthen rampart, levelling buildings where necessary to clear room for defences.", "The Ottoman army that arrived in late September had been somewhat depleted during the long advance into Austrian territory, leaving Suleiman short of camels and heavy artillery. Many of his troops arrived at Vienna in a poor state of health after the tribulations of a long march through the thick of the European wet season. Of those fit to fight, a third were light cavalry, or \"Sipahis\", ill-suited for siege warfare. Three richly dressed Austrian prisoners were dispatched as emissaries by the Sultan to negotiate the city's surrender; Salm sent three richly dressed Muslims back without a response. As the Ottoman army settled into position, the Austrian garrison launched sorties to disrupt the digging and mining of tunnels below the city's walls by Ottoman sappers, and in one case almost capturing Ibrahim Pasha. The defending forces detected and successfully detonated several mines intended to bring down the city's walls, subsequently dispatching 8,000 men on 6 October to attack the Ottoman mining operations, destroying many of the tunnels, but sustaining serious losses when the confined spaces hindered their retreat into the city. More rain fell on 11 October, and with the Ottomans failing to make any breaches in the walls, the prospects for victory began to fade rapidly. In addition, Suleiman was facing critical shortages of supplies such as food and water, while casualties, sickness, and desertions began taking a toll on his army's ranks. The janissaries began voicing their displeasure at the progression of events, demanding a decision on whether to remain or abandon the siege. The Sultan convened an official council on 12 October to deliberate the matter. It was decided to attempt one final, major assault on Vienna, an \"all or nothing\" gamble. Extra rewards were offered to the troops. However, this assault was also beaten back as, once again, the arquebuses and long pikes of the defenders prevailed. Unusually heavy snowfall made conditions go from bad to worse. The Ottoman retreat turned into a disaster with much of the baggage and artillery abandoned or lost in rough conditions, as were many prisoners.", "Some historians speculate that Suleiman's final assault was not necessarily intended to take the city but to cause as much damage as possible and weaken it for a later attack, a tactic he had employed at Buda in 1526. Suleiman would lead another campaign against Vienna in 1532, but it never truly materialised as his force was stalled by the Croatian Captain Nikola Jurišić during the Siege of Güns (Kőszeg). Nikola Jurišić with only 700–800 Croatian soldiers managed to delay his force until winter closed in. Charles V, now largely aware of Vienna's vulnerability and weakened state, assembled 80,000 troops to confront the Ottoman force. Instead of going ahead with a second siege attempt, the Ottoman force turned back, laying waste the south-eastern Austrian state of Styria in their retreat. The two Viennese campaigns in essence marked the extreme limit of Ottoman logistical capability to field large armies deep in central Europe at the time. The 1529 campaign produced mixed results. Buda was brought back under the control of the Ottoman vassal John Zápolya, strengthening the Ottoman position in Hungary. The campaign left behind a trail of collateral damage in neighbouring Habsburg Hungary and Austria that impaired Ferdinand's capacity to mount a sustained counter-attack. However, Suleiman failed to force Ferdinand to engage him in open battle, and was thus unable to enforce his ideological claim to superiority over the Habsburgs. The attack on Vienna led to a rapprochement between Charles V and Pope Clement VII, and contributed to the Pope's coronation of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor on February 24, 1530. The outcome of the campaign was presented as a success by the Ottomans, who used the opportunity to show off their imperial grandeur by staging elaborate ceremonies for the circumcision of princes Mustafa, Mehmed, and Selim. Ferdinand I erected a funeral monument for the German mercenary Nicholas, Count of Salm, head of the mercenary relief force dispatched to Vienna, as a token of appreciation of his efforts. Nicholas survived the initial siege attempt, but had been injured during the last Ottoman assault and died on 4 May 1530. The Renaissance sarcophagus is now on display in the baptistery of the Votivkirche cathedral in Vienna. Ferdinand's son, Maximilian II, later built the Castle of Neugebaeude on the spot where Suleiman is said to have pitched his tent during the siege." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Applications.", "Medical/surgical use.", "Embalming.", "Veterinary use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"trocar\", less commonly \"trochar\", comes from French \"trocart\", \"trois-quarts\" (three-fourths), from \"trois\" 'three' and \"carre\"'side, face of an instrument', first recorded in the \"Dictionnaire des Arts et des Sciences\", 1694, by Thomas Corneille, younger brother of Pierre Corneille.", "Originally, doctors used trocars to relieve pressure build-up of fluids (edema) or gases (bloating). Patents for trocars appeared early in the 19th century, although their use dated back possibly thousands of years. By the middle of the 19th century, trocar-cannulas had become sophisticated, such as Reginald Southey's invention of the Southey tube.", "", "Trocars are used in medicine to access and drain collections of fluid such as in a patient with hydrothorax or ascites. In modern times, surgical trocars are used to perform laparoscopic (keyhole) surgery. They are deployed as a means of introduction for cameras and laparoscopic hand instruments, such as scissors, graspers, etc., to perform surgery hitherto carried out by making a large abdominal incision (\"open\" surgery), something that has revolutionized patient care. Today, surgical trocars are most commonly a single patient use instrument and have graduated from the \"three-point\" design that gave them their name to either a flat bladed \"dilating-tip\" product or something that is entirely blade free. This latter design offers greater patient safety due to the technique used to insert them. Trocar insertion can lead to a perforating puncture wound of an underlying organ resulting in a medical complication. Thus, for instance, a laparoscopic intra-abdominal trocar insertion can lead to bowel injury leading to peritonitis or injury to large blood vessels with hemorrhage.", "Trocars are also used near the end of the embalming process to provide drainage of bodily fluids and organs after the vascular replacement of blood with embalming chemicals. Rather than a round tube being inserted, the three sided knife of the classic trocar would split the outer skin into three \"wings\" which was then easily sutured closed in a less obtrusive way. It is attached to a suction hose (which usually is attached to a water aspirator). The process of removing gas, fluids, and semi-solids from the body cavities and hollow organs using the trocar is known as aspiration. The instrument is inserted into the body two inches to the left and two inches up from the navel. After the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities have been aspirated, the embalmer injects cavity fluid into the thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities using a smaller trocar attached via a hose which is connected to a bottle of high index cavity fluid. The bottle is held upside down in the air so as to let gravity take the cavity fluid through the trocar and into the cavities. The embalmer moves the trocar in the same manner used when aspirating the cavities in order to fully and evenly distribute the chemical. After cavity embalming has been finished, the puncture is commonly sealed using a small, plastic object resembling a screw, called a trocar button.", "Trocars are widely used by veterinarians not only for draining hydrothorax, ascites, or for introducing instruments in laparoscopic surgery, but for acute animal-specific conditions as well. In cases of ruminal tympany (bloat) in cattle, a wide-bore trocar may be passed through the skin into the rumen to release trapped gas. In dogs, a similar procedure is often performed for patients presenting with GDV (gastric dilatation-volvulus) in which a wide-bore trocar is passed through the skin into the stomach to immediately decompress the stomach. Depending on the severity of clinical signs on presentation, this is often performed after pain management has been administered but prior to general anaesthesia. Definitive surgical treatment involves anatomical repositioning of the stomach and spleen followed by a right-sided gastropexy. Depending on the severity, partial gastrectomy and/or splenectomy may be indicated if the relevant tissues have necrosed due to ischemia caused by torsion/avulsion of the supplying vasculature. 72-hour post-operative supportive care, fluid therapy and ECG monitoring for cardiac arrhythmias is highly recommended." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Units.", "Factors affecting wind speed.", "Highest speed.", "Measurement.", "Design of structures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Meters per second (m/s) is the SI unit for velocity and the unit recommended by the World Meteorological Organization for reporting wind speeds, and is amongst others used in weather forecasts in the Nordic countries. Since 2010 the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) also recommends meters per second for reporting wind speed when approaching runways, replacing their former recommendation of using kilometers per hour (km/h). For historical reasons, other units such as miles per hour (mph), knots (kn) or feet per second (ft/s) are also sometimes used to measure wind speeds. Historically, wind speeds have also been classified using the Beaufort scale, which is based on visual observations of specifically defined wind effects at sea or on land.", "Wind speed is affected by a number of factors and situations, operating on varying scales (from micro to macro scales). These include the pressure gradient, Rossby waves and jet streams, and local weather conditions. There are also links to be found between wind speed and wind direction, notably with the pressure gradient and terrain conditions. Pressure gradient is a term to describe the difference in air pressure between two points in the atmosphere or on the surface of the Earth. It is vital to wind speed, because the greater the difference in pressure, the faster the wind flows (from the high to low pressure) to balance out the variation. The pressure gradient, when combined with the Coriolis effect and friction, also influences wind direction. Rossby waves are strong winds in the upper troposphere. These operate on a global scale and move from West to East (hence being known as Westerlies). The Rossby waves are themselves a different wind speed from what we experience in the lower troposphere. Local weather conditions play a key role in influencing wind speed, as the formation of hurricanes, monsoons and cyclones as freak weather conditions can drastically affect the flow velocity of the wind.", "The fastest wind speed not related to tornadoes ever recorded was during the passage of Tropical Cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996: an automatic weather station on Barrow Island, Australia, registered a maximum wind gust of The wind gust was evaluated by the WMO Evaluation Panel who found that the anemometer was mechanically sound and the gust was within statistical probability and ratified the measurement in 2010. The anemometer was mounted 10 m above ground level (and thus 64 m above sea level). During the cyclone, several extreme gusts of greater than were recorded, with a maximum 5-minute mean speed of the extreme gust factor was in the order of 2.27–2.75 times the mean wind speed. The pattern and scales of the gusts suggest that a mesovortex was embedded in the already strong eyewall of the cyclone. Currently, the second-highest surface wind speed ever officially recorded is at the Mount Washington (New Hampshire) Observatory above sea level in the US on 12 April 1934, using a heated anemometer. The anemometer, specifically designed for use on Mount Washington was later tested by the US National Weather Bureau and confirmed to be accurate. Wind speeds within certain atmospheric phenomena (such as tornadoes) may greatly exceed these values but have never been accurately measured. Directly measuring these tornadic winds is rarely done as the violent wind would destroy the instruments. A method of estimating speed is to use Doppler on Wheels to sense the wind speeds remotely, and, using this method, the figure of during the 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado in Oklahoma on 3 May 1999 is often quoted as the highest-recorded surface wind speed, although another figure of has also been quoted for the same tornado. Yet another number used by the Center for Severe Weather Research for that measurement is. However, speeds measured by Doppler radar are not considered official records.", "An anemometer is one of the tools used to measure wind speed. A device consisting of a vertical pillar and three or four concave cups, the anemometer captures the horizontal movement of air particles (wind speed). Unlike traditional cup and vane anemometers, ultrasonic wind sensors have no moving parts and are therefore used to measure wind speed in applications that require maintenance-free performance, such as on the top of wind turbines. As the name suggests, ultrasonic wind sensors measure the wind speed using high-frequency sound. An ultrasonic anemometer has two or three pairs of sound transmitters and receivers. Stand it in the wind and each transmitter constantly beams high-frequency sound to its respective receiver. Electronic circuits inside measure the time it takes for the sound to make its journey from each transmitter to the corresponding receiver. Depending on how the wind blows, it will affect some of the sound beams more than the others, slowing it down or speeding it up very slightly. The circuits measure the difference in speeds of the beams and use that to figure out how fast the wind is blowing. Acoustic resonance wind sensors are a variant of the ultrasonic sensor. Instead of using time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic waves within a small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their wind speed measurement. Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave's property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction. Another tool used to measure wind velocity includes a GPS combined with pitot tube. A fluid flow velocity tool, the Pitot tube is primarily used to determine the air velocity of an aircraft.", "Wind speed is a common factor in the design of structures and buildings around the world. It is often the governing factor in the required lateral strength of a structure's design. In the United States, the wind speed used in design is often referred to as a \"3-second gust\" which is the highest sustained gust over a 3-second period having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50 (ASCE 7-05, updated to ASCE 7-16). This design wind speed is accepted by most building codes in the United States and often governs the lateral design of buildings and structures. In Canada, reference wind pressures are used in design and are based on the \"mean hourly\" wind speed having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50. The reference wind pressure (q) is calculated in Pascals using the following equation: q=(1/2)pV2 where p is the air density in kg/m3 and V is wind speed in m/s. Historically, wind speeds have been reported with a variety of averaging times (such as fastest mile, 3-second gust, 1-minute and mean hourly) which designers may have to take into account. To convert wind speeds from one averaging time to another, the Durst Curve was developed which defines the relation between probable maximum wind speed averaged over t seconds, V, and mean wind speed over one hour V." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Phases.", "Stimulation.", "Refractory period.", "Volume.", "Quality.", "Development.", "During puberty.", "Control from the central nervous system.", "Hands-free ejaculation.", "Perineum pressing and retrograde ejaculation.", "Health issues.", "Other animals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A usual precursor to ejaculation is the sexual arousal of the male, leading to the erection of the penis, though not every arousal nor erection leads to ejaculation. Penile sexual stimulation during masturbation or vaginal, anal, oral, or non-penetrative sexual activity may provide the necessary stimulus for a man to achieve orgasm and ejaculation. With regard to intravaginal ejaculation latency time, men typically reach orgasm 5–7 minutes after the start of penile-vaginal intercourse, taking into account their desires and those of their partners, but 10 minutes is also a common intravaginal ejaculation latency time. A prolonged stimulation either through foreplay (kissing, petting and direct stimulation of erogenous zones before penetration during intercourse) or stroking (during masturbation) leads to an adequate amount of arousal and production of pre-ejaculatory fluid. While the presence of sperm in pre-ejaculatory fluid is thought to be rare, sperm from an earlier ejaculation, still present in the urethra, may be picked up by pre-ejaculatory fluid. In addition, infectious agents (including HIV) can often be present in pre-ejaculate. Premature ejaculation is when ejaculation occurs before the desired time. If a man is unable to ejaculate in a timely manner after prolonged sexual stimulation, in spite of his desire to do so, it is called delayed ejaculation or anorgasmia. An orgasm that is not accompanied by ejaculation is known as a dry orgasm. When a man has achieved a sufficient level of stimulation, the orgasm and ejaculation begins. At that point, under the control of the sympathetic nervous system, semen containing sperm is produced (emission). The semen is ejected through the urethra with rhythmic contractions. These rhythmic contractions are part of the male orgasm. They are generated by the bulbospongiosus and pubococcygeus muscles under the control of a spinal reflex at the level of the spinal nerves S2–4 via the pudendal nerve. The typical male orgasm lasts several seconds. After the start of orgasm, pulses of semen begin to flow from the urethra, reach a peak discharge and then diminish in flow. The typical orgasm consists of 10 to 15 contractions, although the man is unlikely to be consciously aware of that many. Once the first contraction has taken place, ejaculation will continue to completion as an involuntary process. At this stage, ejaculation cannot be stopped. The rate of contractions gradually slows during the orgasm. Initial contractions occur at an average interval of 0.6 seconds with an increasing increment of 0.1 seconds per contraction. Contractions of most men proceed at regular rhythmic intervals for the duration of the orgasm. Many men also experience additional irregular contractions at the conclusion of the orgasm. Ejaculation usually begins during the first or second contraction of orgasm. For most men, the first ejection of semen occurs during the second contraction, while the second is typically the largest expelling 40% or more of total semen discharge. After this peak, the magnitude of semen the penis emits diminishes as the contractions begin to lessen in intensity. The muscle contractions of the orgasm can continue after ejaculation with no additional semen discharge occurring. A small sample study of seven men showed an average of 7 spurts of semen followed by an average of 10 more contractions with no semen expelled. This study also found a high correlation between number of spurts of semen and total ejaculate volume, i.e., larger semen volumes resulted from additional pulses of semen rather than larger individual spurts. Alfred Kinsey measured the distance of ejaculation, in \"some hundreds\" of men. In three-quarters of men tested, ejaculate \"is propelled with so little force that the liquid is not carried more than a minute distance beyond the tip of the penis.\" In contrast to those test subjects, Kinsey noted \"In other males the semen may be propelled from a matter of some inches to a foot or two, or even as far as five or six and (rarely) eight feet\". Masters and Johnson report ejaculation distance to be no greater than. During the series of contractions that accompany ejaculation, semen is propelled from the urethra at, close to.", "Most men experience a refractory period immediately following an orgasm, during which time they are unable to achieve another erection, and a longer period again before they are capable of achieving another ejaculation. During this time a male feels a deep and often pleasurable sense of relaxation, usually felt in the groin and thighs. The duration of the refractory period varies considerably, even for a given individual. Age affects the recovery time, with younger men typically recovering faster than older men, though not universally so. Whereas some men may have refractory periods of 15 minutes or more, some men are able to experience sexual arousal immediately after ejaculation. A short recovery period may allow partners to continue sexual play relatively uninterrupted by ejaculation. Some men may experience their penis becoming hypersensitive to stimulation after ejaculation, which can make sexual stimulation unpleasant even while they may be sexually aroused. There are men who are able to achieve multiple orgasms, with or without the typical sequence of ejaculation and refractory period. Some of those men report not noticing refractory periods, or are able to maintain erection by \"sustaining sexual activity with a full erection until they passed their refractory time for orgasm when they proceeded to have a second or third orgasm\".", "The force and amount of semen that will be ejected during an ejaculation will vary widely between men and may contain between 0.1 and 10 milliliters (by way of comparison, note that a teaspoon is 5 ml and a tablespoon holds 15 ml). Adult semen volume is affected by the time that has passed since the previous ejaculation; larger semen volumes are seen with greater durations of abstinence. The duration of the stimulation leading up to the ejaculation can affect the volume. Abnormally low semen volume is known as hypospermia and abnormally high semen volume is known as hyperspermia. One of the possible underlying causes of low volume or complete lack of semen is ejaculatory duct obstruction. It is normal for the amount of semen to diminish with age.", "The number of sperm in an ejaculation also varies widely, depending on many factors, including the time since the last ejaculation, age, stress levels, and testosterone. Greater lengths of sexual stimulation immediately preceding ejaculation can result in higher concentrations of sperm. An unusually low sperm count, not the same as low semen volume, is known as oligospermia, and the absence of any sperm from the semen is termed azoospermia.", "", "The first ejaculation in males often occurs about 12 months after the onset of puberty, generally through masturbation or nocturnal emission (wet dreams). This first semen volume is small. The typical ejaculation over the following three months produces less than 1 ml of semen. The semen produced during early puberty is also typically clear. After ejaculation this early semen remains jellylike and, unlike semen from mature males, fails to liquefy. A summary of semen development is shown in Table 1. Most first ejaculations (90 percent) lack sperm. Of the few early ejaculations that do contain sperm, the majority of sperm (97%) lack motion. The remaining sperm (3%) have abnormal motion. As the male proceeds through puberty, the semen develops mature characteristics with increasing quantities of normal sperm. Semen produced 12 to 14 months after the first ejaculation liquefies after a short period of time. Within 24 months of the first ejaculation, the semen volume and the quantity and characteristics of the sperm match that of adult male semen. Ejaculate is jellylike and fails to liquefy. Most samples liquefy. Some remain jellylike. Ejaculate liquefies within an hour.", "There is a central pattern generator in the spinal cord, made up of groups of spinal interneurons, that is involved in the rhythmic response of ejaculation. This is known as the \"spinal generator for ejaculation\". To map the neuronal activation of the brain during the ejaculatory response, researchers have studied the expression of c-Fos, a proto-oncogene expressed in neurons in response to stimulation by hormones and neurotransmitters. Expression of c-Fos in the following areas has been observed:", "Although uncommon, some men can achieve ejaculations during masturbation without any manual stimulation. Such men usually do it by tensing and flexing their abdominal and buttocks muscles along with vigorous fantasising. Others may do it by relaxing the area around the penis, which may result in harder erections especially when hyperaroused.", "Perineum pressing results in an ejaculation which is purposefully held back by pressing on either the perineum or the urethra to force the seminal fluid to remain inside. In such a scenario, the seminal fluid stays inside the body and goes to the bladder. Some people do this to avoid making a mess by keeping all the semen inside. As a medical condition, it is called retrograde ejaculation.", "For most men, no detrimental health effects have been determined from ejaculation itself or from frequent ejaculations, though sexual activity in general can have health or psychological consequences. A small fraction of men have a disease called postorgasmic illness syndrome (POIS), which causes severe muscle pain throughout the body and other symptoms immediately following ejaculation. The symptoms last for up to a week. Some doctors speculate that the frequency of POIS \"in the population may be greater than has been reported in the academic literature\", and that many POIS sufferers are undiagnosed. It is not clear whether frequent ejaculation increases, reduces or has no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two large studies: \"Ejaculation Frequency and Subsequent Risk of Prostate Cancer\" and \"Sexual Factors and Prostate Cancer\" suggest that frequent ejaculation over a lifetime offers some protection against prostate cancer. The US study involving \"29,342 US men aged 46 to 81 years\" suggest that \"high ejaculation frequency was related to decreased risk of total prostate cancer\". An Australian study involving \"1,079 men with prostate cancer and 1,259 healthy men\" found that \"there is evidence that the more frequently men ejaculate between the ages of 20 and 50, the less likely they are to develop prostate cancer\":", "In mammals and birds, multiple ejaculation is commonplace. During copulation, the two sides of a short-beaked echidna's penis are used sequentially. Alternating between the two sides allows for persistent stimulation to induce ejaculation without impeding the refractory period. In stallions, ejaculation is accompanied by a motion of the tail known as \"tail flagging\". When a male wolf ejaculates, his final pelvic thrust may be slightly prolonged. A male rhesus monkey usually ejaculates less than 15 seconds after sexual penetration. The first report and footage of spontaneous ejaculation in an aquatic mammal was recorded in a wild Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin near Mikura Island, Japan in 2012. In horses, sheep, and cattle, ejaculation occurs within a few seconds, but in boars, it can last for five to thirty minutes. Ejaculation in boars is stimulated when the spiral-shaped penis interlocks with the female's cervix. A mature boar can produce of semen during one ejaculation. In llamas and alpacas, ejaculation occurs continuously during copulation. The semen of male dogs is ejaculated in three separate phases. The last phase of a male canine’s ejaculation occurs during the copulatory tie, and contains mostly prostatic fluid." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Family curse." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of an even older castle under Landštejn in Pomezí, and it is thought the Landštejn of today was built by the Moravian Přemyslides as their military base. When and how the Vítkovici came into possession of Landštejn is not recorded. The Lords of Landštejn won increasing political influence through acts of personal bravery. Under Vilém of Landštejn their estates, as well as the castle and Nová Bystřice, included Třeboň, Lomnice and Nové Hrady. After initial resistance, Vilém accepted a feudal obligation in 1317 and became adviser to King John of Luxemburg. He was also on friendly terms with King Charles IV, who supported him in his violent conflict with his distant relative, Jindřich of Hradec. In 1381 Konrád Krajíř of Krajka obtained the estate, which then belonged to his family for nearly two centuries. They strengthened the fortifications substantially and built new palaces round the five-cornered courtyard. In 1579 the last member of the Krajíř family, Anna Roupovská, sold Landštejn to Stěpán of Eincing, and there were then several owners in quick succession. The Herbersteins owned the castle from 1685 till 1816 when the last member of the family, Count Josef died. In 1771 lightning struck one of the towers and the castle was burnt out, and fell into ruin, providing building material for the local population. After a lengthy dispute over inheritance, the abandoned castle fell to Baron Ferdinand Sternbach in 1846. The German poet, Friedrich Schiller, set his play \"The Robbers\" (1781) in the surrounding forests. Today Landštejn is one of the best preserved examples of medieval fortification systems. The oldest, Romanesque part with a palace built between two defensive towers is unique in Bohemia. The later completion of the Gothic defense system with living quarters in the \"donjon\" gave the castle another courtyard. The lofty Renaissance palace of the Krajíř family and Baroque artillery bastions ended the building styles carried out in four stages of development.", "The ancestress of the Landštejn family was also known as the White Lady. She is said to have punished all her descendants who did not keep the Lord's Commandments by cursing them with serious illness. When she was exorcized from Landštejn, she moved to Borotín near Tábor and placed a curse on the Lords of Landštejn, which is said to have caused the powerful and famous family to perish." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "History.", "Landmarks.", "Biely Kameň Castle.", "Population.", "Sport.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The city name translates literally as Saint George, \"Jur\" being the archaic form of \"Juraj\" in the Slovak language. Between 1960 and 1990, the renamed the town to Jur pri Bratislave.", "Svätý Jur is situated in the Pezinok District of the Bratislava Region in southwestern Slovakia. The surrounding areas include large vineyards in the nearby Little Carpathians and the unique Šúr swamps, a protected area.", "Archaeological excavations date the original settlement to the Hallstatt period and the Quadi period. In the 9th century, a Great Moravian castle was built here. Svätý Jur was first mentioned in a written source in 1209 and received a town charter in 1299. It became a royal free town in the Kingdom of Hungary in 1647. Defensive city walls were constructed between 1603 and 1664, but Svätý Jur was devastated by the Ottoman Turks in their invasion of 1663. The Ottoman troops also destroyed the White Castle (), which had been an important administrative center of the region until then. In the 18th century, the Hungarian government recruited German farmers to repopulate the area. To encourage migration, it allowed the Germans to keep their language and religion in order to develop farmland for cultivation and produce. Through the 19th century and into the 20th century, the population of this area was largely ethnic German, although by that time they spoke an archaic form of German. They were known as Danube Swabians. In part because Nazi Germany used the eastern ethnic German communities as an excuse for its wars of expansion in eastern Europe, after World War II, ethnic Germans were forcefully expelled to Germany and other Western countries. In 1840, the first (horse) railway in the Kingdom of Hungary was built from Bratislava to Svätý Jur.", "The most remarkable historical monument is the Gothic church of St. George, built in the 13th century. The sandstone altar from 1527 is an example of a transition between the Gothic and Renaissance styles. The stained glass windows were designed by Janko Alexy in 1950. The wooden bell tower from the 17th century protects a bell from 1400. The bell cracked due to a fire in 1802 and after repair in 1848 was damaged again. There is a fame that this bell was buried during the period of the Ottoman raids and was accidentally found by a rooting pig afterwards. A Great Moravian castle was built in the 9th century and it was abandoned in the 14th century. 1,693 metres of the walls have been preserved, but their height is now lower than the original 10 metres. Other places of interest include a Renaissance manor house, a Baroque church of Trinity, a Piarist monastery from 1720, a late 18th century synagogue and the ruins of the city walls. Svätý Jur is also well known for the largest raceway in Slovakia.", "The castle of Biely Kameň was mentioned for the first time in 1217. It was the seat of the counts of Svätý Jur until 1609, when they moved to a more comfortable manor house in the town. The castle was partially destroyed by an Ottoman raid in 1663. The ruins are still visible.", "In 2006, Svätý Jur had a population of 5,186. According to the 2001 census, 97.5% of inhabitants were Slovaks. The Roman Catholicism is the most popular religion (72.5%), but there is also a significant number of atheists (15.9%) living in the village.", "The town has an association football team called ŠK Svätý Jur.", "Svätý Jur is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Myth.", "Legacy.", "Theatre." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Thyestes was the son of Pelops and Hippodamia, and father of Pelopia and Aegisthus. His three sons by a naiad who was killed by Atreus were named Aglaus, Orchomenus and Calaeus.", "Pelops and Hippodamia are parents to Thyestes. However, they were cursed by Myrtilus, a servant of King Oenomaus, the father of Hippodamia. Myrtilus was promised the right to Hippodamia's virginity and half of Pelops' kingdom, but Pelops denied both to him and killed him by throwing him into the sea. With his dying gasp, Myrtilus cursed their line, which is where Thyestes and Atreus comes in. Thyestes' brother and King of Mycenae, Atreus, vowed to sacrifice his best lamb to Artemis. Upon searching his flock, however, Atreus discovered a golden lamb which he gave to his wife, Aerope, to hide from the goddess. She gave it to her lover, Thyestes, who then convinced Atreus to agree that whoever had the lamb should be king. Thyestes produced the lamb and claimed the throne. Atreus retook the throne using advice he received from Hermes. Thyestes agreed to give the kingdom back when the sun moved backwards in the sky, a feat that Zeus accomplished. Atreus retook the throne and banished Thyestes. Atreus then learned of Thyestes' and Aerope's adultery and plotted revenge. He killed Thyestes' sons and cooked them, save their hands and heads. He served Thyestes his own sons and then taunted him with their hands and heads. This is the source of modern phrase \"Thyestean Feast,\" or one at which human flesh is served. When Thyestes was done with his feast, he released a loud belch, which represents satiety and pleasure and his loss of self-control. An oracle then advised Thyestes that, if he had a son with his own daughter Pelopia, that son would kill Atreus. Thyestes did so by raping Pelopia (his identity hidden from her) and the son, Aegisthus, did kill Atreus. However, when Aegisthus was first born, he was abandoned by his mother, ashamed of the origin of her son. A shepherd found the infant Aegisthus and gave him to Atreus, who raised him as his own son. Only as he entered adulthood did Thyestes reveal the truth to Aegisthus, that he was both father and grandfather to the boy and that Atreus was his uncle. Aegisthus then killed Atreus. While Thyestes ruled Mycenae, the sons of Atreus, Agamemnon and Menelaus, were exiled to Sparta. There, King Tyndareus accepted them as the royalty that they were. Shortly after, he helped the brothers return to Mycenae to overthrow Thyestes, forcing him to live in Cytheria, where he died.", "As a token of good will and allegiance, King Tyndareus offered his daughters to Agamemnon and Menelaus as wives, Clytemnestra and Helen respectively. When Agamemnon left Mycenae for the Trojan War, Aegisthus seduced Agamemnon's wife, Clytemnestra, and the couple plotted to kill her husband upon his return. They succeeded, killing Agamemnon and his new concubine, Cassandra. Clytemnestra and Aegisthus had three children: Aletes, Erigone, and Helen who died as an infant. Seven or eight years after the death of Agamemnon, Agamemnon's son Orestes returned to Mycenae and, with the help of his cousin Pylades and his sister Electra, killed both their mother, Clytemnestra, and Aegisthus. Tired of the bloodshed, the gods exonerated Orestes and declared this the end of the curse on the house of Atreus, as described in Aeschylus' play \"The Eumenides\". However, other stories say that when Aletes and Erigone came of age and became rulers at Mycenae, Orestes returned with an army then killed his half-brother and raped his half-sister, who gave birth to a son, Penthilus.", "In the first century AD, Seneca the Younger wrote a tragedy called \"Thyestes\". In 1560 Jasper Heywood, then a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, published a verse translation. Shakespeare's tragedy \"Titus Andronicus\" derives some of its plot elements from the story of Thyestes. In 1681, John Crowne wrote \"Thyestes, A Tragedy\", based closely on Seneca's Thyestes, but with the incongruous addition of a love story. Prosper Jolyot Crebillon (1674-1762) wrote a tragedy \"Atree et Thyeste\" (1707), which is prominent in two tales of ratiocination by Edgar Allan Poe. In 1796, Ugo Foscolo (1778–1827) wrote a tragedy called \"Tieste\" that was first presented in Venice one year later. Caryl Churchill, a British dramatist, also wrote a rendition of \"Thyestes.\" Churchill's specific translation was performed at the Royal Court Theater Upstairs in London on June 7, 1994 In 2004, Jan van Vlijmen (1935–2004) completed his opera \"Thyeste\". The libretto was a text in French by Hugo Claus, based on his 20th century play with the same title (in Dutch: \"Thyestes\"). Thyestes appears in Ford Ainsworth's one-act play, \"Persephone\". Seneca's influence in literature is reflected through other works. In Arnold's Sonnet on Shakespeare, the influence of Seneca is apparent. \"The reminiscence of Atreus’ speech in the \"Thyestes\" of Seneca, which might subtend Cleopatra's own passionate, distended rhetoric about Antony\" (Edgecombe, 257)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Causes.", "Treatment.", "Hormone treatment.", "Surgery." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Of the abnormal conditions associated with micropenis, most are conditions of reduced prenatal androgen production or effect, such as abnormal testicular development (testicular dysgenesis), Klinefelter syndrome, Leydig cell hypoplasia, specific defects of testosterone or dihydrotestosterone synthesis (17,20-lyase deficiency, 5α-reductase deficiency), androgen insensitivity syndromes, inadequate pituitary stimulation (gonadotropin deficiency), and other forms of congenital hypogonadism. Micropenis can also occur as part of many genetic malformation syndromes that do not involve the sex chromosomes. It is sometimes a sign of congenital growth-hormone deficiency or congenital hypopituitarism. Several homeobox genes affect penis and digit size without detectable hormone abnormalities. In addition, in utero exposure to some estrogen based fertility drugs like diethylstilbestrol (DES) has been linked to genital abnormalities or a smaller than normal penis. After evaluation to detect any of the conditions described above, micropenis can often be treated in infancy with injections of various hormones, such as human chorionic gonadotropin and testosterone. Most eight- to fourteen-year-old boys referred for micropenis do not have the micropenis condition. Such concerns are usually explained by one of the following:", "", "Growth of the penis both before birth and during childhood and puberty is strongly influenced by testosterone and, to a lesser degree, the growth hormone. However, later endogenous hormones mainly have value in the treatment of micropenis caused by hormone deficiencies, such as hypopituitarism or hypogonadism. Regardless of the cause of micropenis, if it is recognized in infancy, a brief course of testosterone is often prescribed (usually no more than 3 months). This usually induces a small amount of growth, confirming the likelihood of further growth at puberty, but rarely achieves normal size. No additional testosterone is given during childhood, to avoid unwanted virilization and bone maturation. (There is also some evidence that premature administration of testosterone can lead to reduced penis size in the adult.) Testosterone treatment is resumed in adolescence only for boys with hypogonadism. Penile growth is completed at the end of puberty, similar to the completion of height growth, and provision of extra testosterone to post-pubertal adults produces little or no further growth.", "Because hormone treatment rarely achieves average size, several surgical techniques similar to phalloplasty for penis enlargement have been devised and performed; but they are not generally considered successful enough to be widely adopted and are rarely performed in childhood. In extreme cases of micropenis, there is barely any shaft, and the glans appears to sit almost on the pubic skin. From the 1960s until the late 1970s, it was common for sex reassignment and surgery to be recommended. This was especially likely if evidence suggested that response to additional testosterone and pubertal testosterone would be poor. With parental acceptance, the boy would be reassigned and renamed as a girl, and surgery performed to remove the testes and construct an artificial vagina. This was based on the now-questioned idea that gender identity was shaped entirely from socialization, and that a man with a small penis can find no acceptable place in society. Johns Hopkins Hospital, the center most known for this approach, performed twelve such reassignments from 1960 to 1980, most notably that of David Reimer (whose penis was destroyed by a circumcision accident), overseen by John Money. By the mid-1990s, reassignment was less often offered, and all three premises had been challenged. Former subjects of such surgery, vocal about their dissatisfaction with the adult outcome, played a large part in discouraging this practice. Sexual reassignment is rarely performed today for severe micropenis (although the question of raising the boy as a girl is sometimes still discussed.) (See \"History of intersex surgery\" for a fuller discussion.)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Sources.", "Life.", "Infancy to adulthood.", "Middle age.", "Old age and death.", "Post mortem.", "Values and beliefs.", "Works.", "Victory odes.", "Style.", "Structure.", "Chronological order.", "Manuscripts, shreds and quotes.", "Influence and legacy.", "Horace's tribute.", "Bowra's tribute." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Five ancient sources contain all the recorded details of Pindar's life. One of them is a short biography discovered in 1961 on an Egyptian papyrus dating from at least 200 AD (P.Oxy.2438). The other four are collections that weren't finalized until some 1600 years after his death: Although these sources are based on a much older literary tradition, going as far back as Chamaeleon of Heraclea in the 4th century BC, they are generally viewed with scepticism today: much of the material is clearly fanciful. Scholars both ancient and modern have turned", "", "Pindar was born in circa 518 BC (the 65th Olympiad) in Cynoscephalae, a village in Boeotia, not far from Thebes. His father's name is variously given as Daiphantus, Pagondas or Scopelinus, and his mother's name was Cleodice. It is told that he was stung on the mouth by a bee in his youth and this was the reason he became a poet of honey-like verses (an identical fate has been ascribed to other poets of the archaic period). Pindar was about twenty years old in 498 BC when he was commissioned by the ruling family in Thessaly to compose his first victory ode (\"Pythian 10\").", "Pindar seems to have used his odes to advance his, and his friends', personal interests. In 462 BC he composed two odes in honour of Arcesilas, king of Cyrene, (\"Pythians 4 and 5\"), pleading for the return from exile of a friend, Demophilus. In the latter ode Pindar proudly mentions his own ancestry, which he shared with the king, as an Aegeid or descendant of Aegeus, the legendary king of Athens. The clan was influential in many parts of the Greek world, having intermarried with ruling families in Thebes, in Lacedaemonia, and in cities that claimed Lacedaemonian descent, such as Cyrene and Thera. The historian Herodotus considered the clan important enough to deserve mention (\"Histories\" IV.147). Membership of this clan possibly contributed to Pindar's success as a poet, and it informed his political views, which are marked by a conservative preference for oligarchic governments of the Doric kind. \"Pindar might not actually claim to be an Aegeid since his 'I' statements do not necessarily refer to himself. The Aegeid clan did however have a branch in Thebes, and his reference to'my ancestors'", "His fame as a poet drew Pindar into Greek politics. Athens, the most important city in Greece throughout his poetic career, was a rival of his home city, Thebes, and also of the island state Aegina, whose leading citizens commissioned about a quarter of his Victory Odes. There is no open condemnation of the Athenians in any of his poems but criticism is implied. For example, the victory ode mentioned above (\"Pythian 8\") describes the downfall of the giants Porphyrion and Typhon and this might be Pindar's way of covertly celebrating a recent defeat of Athens by Thebes at the Battle of Coronea (447 BC). The poem ends with a prayer for Aegina's freedom, long threatened by Athenian ambitions. Covert criticism of Athens (traditionally located in odes such as \"Pythian\" 8, \"Nemean\" 8 and \"Isthmian\" 7) is now dismissed as highly unlikely, even by scholars who allow some biographical and historical interpretations of the poems. One of his last odes (\"Pythian 8\") indicates that he lived near a shrine to the oracle Alcmaeon and that", "One of Pindar's female relatives claimed that he dictated some verses to her in honour of Persephone after he had been dead for several days. Some of Pindar's verses were inscribed in letters of gold on a temple wall in Lindos, Rhodes. At Delphi, where he had been elected a priest of Apollo, the priests exhibited an iron chair on which he used to sit during the festival of the Theoxenia. Every night, while closing the temple doors, they intoned: \"Let Pindar the poet go unto the supper of the gods!\" Pindar's house in Thebes became one of the city's landmarks. When Alexander the Great demolished Thebes in 335 BC, as punishment for its resistance to Macedonian expansionism, he ordered the house be left intact out of gratitude for verses praising his ancestor, Alexander I of Macedon.", "Pindar's values and beliefs have been inferred from his poetry. No other ancient Greek poet has left so many comments about the nature of his art. He justified and exalted choral poetry at a time when society was turning away from it. It \"...had for two centuries reflected and shaped the sentiments, the outlook, and the convictions of the Greek aristocracies...and Pindar spoke up for it with passionate assurance\". His poetry is a meeting ground for gods, heroes and meneven the dead are spoken of as participants: \"Deep in the earth their heart listens\". His view of the gods is traditional but more self-consistent than Homer's and more reverent. He never depicts gods in a demeaning role. He seems indifferent to the intellectual reforms that were shaping the theology of the times. Thus an eclipse is not a mere physical effect, as contemplated by early thinkers such as Thales, Anaximander and Heraclitus, nor was it even a subject for bold wonder, as it was for an earlier poet, Archilochus; instead", "Pindar's strongly individual genius is apparent in all his extant compositions but, unlike Simonides and Stesichorus for example, he created no new lyrical genres. He was however innovative in his use of the genres he inheritedfor example, in one of his victory odes (\"Olympian\" 3), he announces his invention of a new type of musical accompaniment, combining lyre, flute and human voice (though our knowledge of Greek music is too sketchy to allow us to understand the full nature of this innovation). Although he probably spoke Boeotian Greek he composed in a literary language that tended to rely more on the Doric dialect than his rival Bacchylides, but less insistently than Alcman. There is an admixture of other dialects, especially Aeolic and epic forms, and an occasional use of some Boeotian words. He composed 'choral' songs yet it is by no means certain that they were all sung by choirsthe use of choirs is testified only by the generally unreliable scholiasts. Scholars at the Library of Alexandria collected his compositions in seventeen books organized according to genre: Of this vast and varied corpus, only the \"epinikia\"odes written to commemorate athletic victoriessurvive in complete form; the rest survive only by quotations in other ancient authors or from papyrus scraps unearthed in Egypt. Even in fragmentary form however they reveal the same complexity of thought and language that are found in the victory odes. Dionysius of Halicarnassus singled out Pindar's work as an outstanding example of austere style () but he noted its absence in the maiden songs or \"parthenia\". One surviving fragment of a maiden song does seem to be different in tone, due however to the fact that it is spoken in the character of a girl: Enough of his dithyrambic poetry survives for comparison with that of Bacchylides, who used it for narrative. Pindar's dithyrambs are an exuberant display of religious feeling, capturing the wild spirit of Dionysus and pointing forward to the ecstatic songs of Euripides' \"Bacchae\". In one of these, dedicated to the Athenians and written to be sung in Spring, he depicts the divine energy of the revitalized world.", "Almost all Pindar's victory odes are celebrations of triumphs gained by competitors in Panhellenic festivals such as the Olympian Games. The establishment of these athletic and musical festivals was among the greatest achievements of the Greek aristocracies. Even in the 5th century BC, when there was an increased tendency towards professionalism, they were predominantly aristocratic assemblies, reflecting the expense and leisure needed to attend such events either as a competitor or spectator. Attendance was an opportunity for display and self-promotion, and the prestige of victory, requiring commitment in time and/or wealth, went far beyond anything that accrues to athletic victories today, even in spite of the modern preoccupation with sport. Pindar's odes capture something of the prestige and the aristocratic grandeur of the moment of victory, as in this stanza from one of his Isthmian Odes, here translated by Geoffrey S. Conway: His victory odes are grouped into four", "Pindar's poetic style is very distinctive, even when the peculiarities of the genre are set aside. The odes typically feature a grand and arresting opening, often with an architectural metaphor or a resounding invocation to a place or goddess. He makes rich use of decorative language and florid compound adjectives. Sentences are compressed to the point of obscurity, unusual words and periphrases give the language an esoteric quality, and transitions in meaning often seem erratic, the images seem to burst outit is a style that sometimes baffles but also makes", "Pindar's odes typically begin with an invocation to a god or the Muses, followed by praise of the victor and often of his family, ancestors and home-town. Then follows a narrated myth, usually occupying the central and longest section of the poem, which exemplify a moral, while aligning the poet and his audience with the world of gods and heroes. The ode usually ends in more eulogies, for example of trainers (if the victor is a boy), and of relatives who have won past events, as well as with prayers or expressions of hope for future success. The event where the victory was gained is never described in detail, but there is often some mention of the hard work needed to bring the victory about. A lot of modern criticism tries to find hidden structure or some unifying principle within the odes. 19th century criticism favoured 'gnomic unity' i.e. that each ode is bound together by the kind of moralizing or philosophic vision typical of archaic Gnomic poetry. Later critics sought unity in the", "Modern editors (e.g., Snell and Maehler in their Teubner edition), have assigned dates, securely or tentatively, to Pindar's victory odes, based on ancient sources and other grounds. The date of an athletic victory is not always the date of composition but often serves merely as a \"terminus post quem\". Many dates are based on comments by ancient sources who had access to published lists of victors, such as the Olympic list compiled by Hippias of Elis, and lists of Pythian victors made by Aristotle and Callisthenes. There were however no such lists for the Isthmian and Nemean GamesPausanias (6.13.8) complained that the Corinthians and Argives never kept proper records. The resulting uncertainty is reflected in the chronology below, with question marks clustered around Nemean and Isthmian entries, and yet it still represents a fairly clear general timeline of Pindar's career as an epinician poet. The code M denotes monostrophic odes (odes in which all stanzas are metrically identical) and the rest are triadic (i.e. featuring strophes, antistrophes, epodes):", "Pindar's verses have come down to us in a variety of ways. Some are only preserved as fragments via quotes by ancient sources and papyri unearthed by archeologists, as at Oxyrhynchusin fact the extant works of most of the other canonic lyric poets have survived only in this tattered form. Pindar's extant verses are unique in that the bulk of themthe victory odeshave been preserved in a manuscript tradition, i.e., generations of scribes copying from earlier copies, possibly originating in a single archetypal copy and sometimes graphically demonstrated by modern scholars in the form of a stemma codicum, resembling a 'family tree'. Pindar's victory odes are preserved in just two manuscripts, but incomplete collections are located in many others,", "", "The Latin poet, Quintus Horatius Flaccus, was an admirer of", "C. M. Bowra, the leading Pindaric scholar of his generation, and" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "In Crete.", "In Mycenae.", "Atreus and Thyestes.", "Similarities with Auge and Danae.", "\"Ars Amatoria\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Aerope's father was Catreus, the son of Minos, and king of Crete. Catreus had two other daughters, Clymene and Apemosyne, and a son Althaemenes. According to the tradition followed by Euripides in his lost play \"Cretan Women\" (\"Kressai\"), Catreus found Aerope in bed with a slave and handed her over to Nauplius to be drowned, but Nauplius spared Aerope's life and she married Pleisthenes, who was the king of Mycenae. Sophocles, in his play \"Ajax\", may also refer to Aerope's father Catreus finding her in bed with some man, and handing her over to Nauplius to be drowned, but the possibly corrupt text may instead refer to Aerope's husband Atreus finding her in bed with Thyestes, and having her drowned (see below). However, Apollodorus tells us that Catreus received an oracle saying that he would be killed by one of his children, so Catreus gave Aerope and her sister Clymene to Nauplius to be sold off in foreign lands (Aerope's brother Althaemenes had found out about the prophecy and fearing that \"he\" would be the one to kill Catreus, took Aerope's other sister Apemosyne with him and fled Crete for Rhodes). But Nauplius kept Clymene for himself and Aerope married Pleisthenes, by whom she became the mother of Agamemnon and Menelaus.", "From Crete, Aerope was taken to Mycenae. And there she became, according to most accounts, the mother of Agamemnon and Menelaus. Their father was either Atreus or Pleisthenes, who was Atreus' son, according to some. For Homer, Agamemnon and Menelaus were the sons of Atreus and Aerope. And although in Euripides' \"Cretan Women\", and the passage by Apollodorus cited above, Aerope was the wife of Pleisthenes, with Apollodorus saying that Pleisthenes was the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, elsewhere both Euripides and Apollodorus follow Homer. Indeed, most sources do so. However Euripides and Apollodorus were not alone in making Pleisthenes the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus. These included, so we are told, Hesiod, Aeschylus, Porphyry, and \"others\". Bacchylides calls Menelaus both \"Atreides\" and \"Pleisthenides\"—meaning a descendant of (usually son of) Atreus and Pleisthenes respectively—in the same poem. It is plausible that Aerope could have first married Pleisthenes and then Atreus, with Atreus adopting the children from the first marriage. And indeed some have asserted just this, though this may simply be an attempt to reconcile separate traditions.", "While the wife of Atreus, Aerope was the lover of Atreus' twin brother Thyestes, and became involved in their power struggle for the kingship of Mycenea, and blood feud. The story was a popular one in Greek (and Roman) tragedy. Aeschylus' play \"Agamemnon\", contains several obscure allusions to the story, which indicate that, by at least 458 BC, the story was well known. There were several other latter plays, all lost, which presumably also dealt with the story. We hear of plays by Sophocles, with titles \"Atreus\", \"Thyestes\" (possibly more than one), and \"Thyestes in Sicyon\", and by Euripides, with the titles \"Kressai\", and possibly a \"Thyestes\". Agathon, wrote a play titled \"Aerope\" (and a \"Thyestes\"), and perhaps so did the younger Carcinus. In addition Euripides' \"Electra\", and \"Orestes\", also contains significant references to the story. Atreus and Thyestes were the sons of Pelops and Hippodamia. Their desire for their father's throne led to the murder of their half-brother Chrysippus, because of which they were banished, and sought refuge in Mycenae. When the Perseid dynasty came to an end, the Myceneans received an oracle saying they should choose a son of Pelops as their king. Aerope and Thyestes, were lovers and Aerope stole the golden lamb (a portent linked to the kingship of Mycenae) from her husband Atreus and gave it to Thyestes, so that the Myceneans would choose Thyestes as their king. According to Hyginus, Aerope was the mother by Thyestes of two sons, Tantalus and Pleisthenes, and in Euripides' \"Cretan Women\", it may have been these children that Atreus famously fed to Thyestes. From Byzantine period annotations to Euripides' \"Orestes\" we learn that, in some unspecified Sophocles work, Atreus cast Aerope into the sea in revenge for her adultery and theft of the golden lamb.", "The stories told about Aerope, share elements with those told about Auge and Danae. These elements include, foretold killings, sexual impurity by daughters, and their subsequent punishment by their fathers, by being cast into the sea, or given away to be sold overseas. Auge was the daughter of Aleus, king of Tegea, and the mother of the hero Telephus. According to one version of the story, Aleus had received an oracle that his sons would be killed by the son of Auge, so Aleus made Auge a priestess of Athena, requiring her to remain a virgin on pain of death. Nevertheless, she became pregnant by Heracles. Then, by various accounts, she was either cast into the sea, or given to Nauplius to be either drowned or sold overseas, however in all these accounts she ended up in Mysia as the wife of King Teuthras. Danae was the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, and the mother of the hero Perseus. An oracle told Acrisius that he would be killed by the son of Danae, so he locked her away. Nevertheless, Danae became pregnant, by Zeus according to most accounts, and was cast into the sea by her father, but survived through the intercession of Zeus.", "In Ovid's \"Ars Amatoria\", Aerope is given as one of several examples showing that \"women's lust\", is \"keener\" than men's and having \"more of madness\":" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Traditional track structure.", "Ballastless track.", "Continuous longitudinally supported track.", "Rail.", "Wooden rails.", "Rail classification (weight).", "Rail lengths.", "Timeline.", "Multiples.", "Boltholes.", "Joining rails.", "Jointed track.", "Insulated joints.", "Continuous welded rail.", "Sleepers.", "Fixing rails to sleepers.", "Portable track.", "Layout.", "Gauge.", "Maintenance.", "Bed and foundation.", "Historical development." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Notwithstanding modern technical developments, the overwhelmingly dominant track form worldwide consists of flat-bottom steel rails supported on timber or pre-stressed concrete sleepers, which are themselves laid on crushed stone ballast. Most railroads with heavy traffic utilize continuously welded rails supported by sleepers attached via base plates that spread the load. A plastic or rubber pad is usually placed between the rail and the tie plate where concrete sleepers are used. The rail is usually held down to the sleeper with resilient fastenings, although cut spikes are widely used in North American practice. For much of the 20th century, rail track used softwood timber sleepers and jointed rails, and a considerable extent of this track type remains on secondary and tertiary routes. The rails were typically of flat bottom section fastened to the sleepers with dog spikes through a flat tie plate in North America and Australia, and typically of bullhead section carried in cast iron chairs in British and Irish practice. The London, Midland and Scottish Railway pioneered the conversion to flat-bottomed rail and the supposed advantage of bullhead rail - that the rail could be turned over and re-used when the top surface had become worn - turned out to be unworkable in practice because the underside was usually ruined by fretting from the chairs. Jointed rails were used at first because contemporary technology did not offer any alternative. However, the intrinsic weakness in resisting vertical loading results in the ballast becoming depressed and a heavy maintenance workload is imposed to prevent unacceptable geometrical defects at the joints. The joints also needed to be lubricated, and wear at the fishplate (joint bar) mating surfaces needed to be rectified by shimming. For this reason jointed track is not financially appropriate for heavily operated railroads. Timber sleepers are of many available timbers, and are often treated with creosote, Chromated copper arsenate, or other wood preservatives. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers are often used where timber is scarce and where tonnage or speeds are high. Steel is used in some applications. The track ballast is customarily crushed stone, and the purpose of this is to support the sleepers and allow some adjustment of their position, while allowing free drainage.", "A disadvantage of traditional track structures is the heavy demand for maintenance, particularly surfacing (tamping) and lining to restore the desired track geometry and smoothness of vehicle running. Weakness of the subgrade and drainage deficiencies also lead to heavy maintenance costs. This can be overcome by using ballastless track. In its simplest form this consists of a continuous slab of concrete (like a highway structure) with the rails supported directly on its upper surface (using a resilient pad). There are a number of proprietary systems, and variations include a continuous reinforced concrete slab, or alternatively the use of pre-cast pre-stressed concrete units laid on a base layer. Many permutations of design have been put forward. However, ballastless track has a high initial cost, and in the case of existing railroads the upgrade to such requires closure of the route for a long period. Its whole-life cost can be lower because of the reduction in maintenance. Ballastless track is usually considered for new very high speed or very high loading routes, in short extensions that require additional strength (e.g. railway stations), or for localised replacement where there are exceptional maintenance difficulties, for example in tunnels. Most rapid transit lines and rubber-tyred metro systems use ballastless track.", "Early railways (c. 1840s) experimented with \"continuous bearing\" railtrack, in which the rail was supported along its length, with examples including Brunel's baulk road on the Great Western Railway, as well as use on the Newcastle and North Shields Railway, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway to a design by John Hawkshaw, and elsewhere. Continuous-bearing designs were also promoted by other engineers. The system was tested on the Baltimore and Ohio railway in the 1840s, but was found to be more expensive to maintain than rail with cross sleepers. This type of track still exists on some bridges on Network Rail where the timber baulks are called waybeams or longitudinal timbers. Generally the speed over such structures is low. Later applications of continuously supported track include Balfour Beatty's 'embedded slab track', which uses a rounded rectangular rail profile (BB14072) embedded in a slipformed (or pre-cast) concrete base (development 2000s). The 'embedded rail structure', used in the Netherlands since 1976, initially used a conventional UIC 54 rail embedded in concrete, and later developed (late 1990s) to use a'mushroom' shaped SA42 rail profile; a version for light rail using a rail supported in an asphalt concrete–filled steel trough has also been developed (2002). Modern ladder track can be considered a development of baulk road. Ladder track utilizes sleepers aligned along the same direction as the rails with rung-like gauge restraining cross members. Both ballasted and ballastless types exist.", "Modern track typically uses hot-rolled steel with a profile of an asymmetrical rounded I-beam. Unlike some other uses of iron and steel, railway rails are subject to very high stresses and have to be made of very high-quality steel alloy. It took many decades to improve the quality of the materials, including the change from iron to steel. The stronger the rails and the rest of the trackwork, the heavier and faster the trains the track can carry. Other profiles of rail include: bullhead rail; grooved rail; \"flat-bottomed rail\" (Vignoles rail or flanged T-rail); bridge rail (inverted U–shaped used in baulk road); and Barlow rail (inverted V). North American railroads until the mid- to late-20th century used rails long so they could be carried in gondola cars (open wagons), often long; as gondola sizes increased, so did rail lengths. According to the \"Railway Gazette\" the planned-but-cancelled 150-kilometre rail line for the Baffinland Iron Mine, on Baffin Island, would have used older carbon steel alloys for its rails, instead of more modern, higher performance alloys, because modern alloy rails can become brittle at very low temperatures.", "The earliest rails were made of wood, which wore out quickly. Hardwood such as jarrah and karri were better than softwoods such as fir. Longitudinal sleepers such as Brunel's baulk road are topped with iron or steel rails that are lighter than they might otherwise be because of the support of the sleepers. Early North American railroads used iron on top of wooden rails as an economy measure but gave up this method of construction after the iron came loose, began to curl and went into the floors of the coaches. The iron strap rail coming through the floors of the coaches came to be referred to as \"snake heads\" by early railroaders.", "Rail is graded by weight over a standard length. Heavier rail can support greater axle loads and higher train speeds without sustaining damage than lighter rail, but at a greater cost. In North America and the United Kingdom, rail is graded by its linear density in pounds per yard (usually shown as \"pound\" or \"lb\"), so \"130-pound rail\" would weigh. The usual range is. In Europe, rail is graded in kilograms per metre and the usual range is. The heaviest rail mass-produced was and was rolled for the Pennsylvania Railroad. The United Kingdom is in the process of transition from the imperial to metric rating of rail.", "The rails used in rail transport are produced in sections of fixed length. Rail lengths are made as long as possible, as the joints between rails are a source of weakness. Throughout the history of rail production, lengths have increased as manufacturing processes have improved.", "The following are lengths of single sections produced by steel mills, without any thermite welding. Shorter rails may be welded with flashbutt welding, but the following rail lengths are unwelded. Welding of rails into longer lengths was first introduced around 1893, making train rides quieter and safer. With the introduction of thermite welding after 1899, the process became less labor-intensive and ubiquitous. Modern production techniques allowed the production of longer unwelded segments.", "Newer longer rails tend to be made as simple multiples of older shorter rails, so that old rails can be replaced without cutting. Some cutting would be needed as slightly longer rails are needed on the outside of sharp curves compared to the rails on the inside.", "Rails can be supplied pre-drilled with boltholes for fishplates or without where they will be welded into place. There are usually two or three boltholes at each end.", "Rails are produced in fixed lengths and need to be joined end-to-end to make a continuous surface on which trains may run. The traditional method of joining the rails is to bolt them together using metal fishplates (jointbars in the US), producing \"jointed track\". For more modern usage, particularly where higher speeds are required, the lengths of rail may be welded together to form continuous welded rail (CWR).", "Jointed track is made using lengths of rail, usually around long (in the UK) and long (in North America), bolted together using perforated steel plates known as \"fishplates\" (UK) or \"joint bars\" (North America). Fishplates are usually long, used in pairs either side of the rail ends and bolted together (usually four, but sometimes six bolts per joint). The bolts have alternating orientations so that in the event of a derailment and a wheel flange striking the joint, only some of the bolts will be sheared, reducing the likelihood of the rails misaligning with each other and exacerbating the derailment. This technique is not applied universally; European practice being to have all the bolt heads on the same side of the rail. Small gaps which function as expansion joints are deliberately left between the rail ends to allow for expansion of the rails in hot weather. European practice was to have the rail joints on both rails adjacent to each other, while North American practice is to stagger them. Because of these small gaps, when trains pass over jointed tracks they make a \"clickety-clack\" sound. Unless it is well-maintained, jointed track does not have the ride quality of welded rail and is less desirable for high speed trains. However, jointed track is still used in many countries on lower speed lines and sidings, and is used extensively in poorer countries due to the lower construction cost and the simpler equipment required for its installation and maintenance. A major problem of jointed track is cracking around the bolt holes, which can lead to breaking of the rail head (the running surface). This was the cause of the Hither Green rail crash which caused British Railways to begin converting much of its track to continuous welded rail.", "Where track circuits exist for signalling purposes, insulated block joints are required. These compound the weaknesses of ordinary joints. Specially-made glued joints, where all the gaps are filled with epoxy resin, increase the strength again. As an alternative to the insulated joint, audio frequency track circuits can be employed using a tuned loop formed in approximately of the rail as part of the blocking circuit. Some insulated joints are unavoidable within turnouts. Another alternative is the axle counter, which can reduce the number of track circuits and thus the number of insulated rail joints required.", "Most modern railways use continuous welded rail (CWR), sometimes referred to as ribbon rails. In this form of track, the rails are welded together by utilising flash butt welding to form one continuous rail that may be several kilometres long. Because there are few joints, this form of track is very strong, gives a smooth ride, and needs less maintenance; trains can travel on it at higher speeds and with less friction. Welded rails are more expensive to lay than jointed tracks, but have much lower maintenance costs. The first welded track was used in Germany in 1924. and has become common on main lines since the 1950s. The preferred process of flash butt welding involves an automated track-laying machine running a strong electric current through the touching ends of two unjoined rails. The ends become white hot due to electrical resistance and are then pressed together forming a strong weld. Thermite welding is used to repair or splice together existing CWR segments. This is a manual process requiring a reaction crucible and form to contain the molten iron. Thermite-bonded joints are seen as less reliable and more prone to fracture or break. North American practice is to weld long segments of rail at a rail facility and load it on a special train to carry it to the job site. This train is designed to carry many segments of rail which are placed so they can slide off their racks to the rear of the train and be attached to the ties (sleepers) in a continuous operation. If not restrained, rails would lengthen in hot weather and shrink in cold weather. To provide this restraint, the rail is prevented from moving in relation to the sleeper by use of clips or anchors. Attention needs to be paid to compacting the ballast effectively, including under, between, and at the ends of the sleepers, to prevent the sleepers from moving. Anchors are more common for wooden sleepers, whereas most concrete or steel sleepers are fastened to the rail by special clips that resist longitudinal movement of the rail. There is no theoretical limit to how long a welded rail can be. However, if longitudinal and lateral restraint are insufficient, the track could become distorted in hot weather and cause a derailment. Distortion due to heat expansion is known in North America as sun kink, and elsewhere as buckling. In extreme hot weather special inspections are required to monitor sections of track known to be problematic. In North American practice extreme temperature conditions will trigger slow orders to allow for crews to react to buckling or \"sun kinks\" if encountered. After new segments of rail are laid, or defective rails replaced (welded-in), the rails can be artificially stressed if the temperature of the rail during laying is cooler than what is desired. The stressing process involves either heating the rails, causing them to expand, or stretching the rails with hydraulic equipment. They are then fastened (clipped) to the sleepers in their expanded form. This process ensures that the rail will not expand much further in subsequent hot weather. In cold weather the rails try to contract, but because they are firmly fastened, cannot do so. In effect, stressed rails are a bit like a piece of stretched elastic firmly fastened down. In extremely cold weather, rails are heated to prevent \"pull aparts\". CWR is laid (including fastening) at a temperature roughly midway between the extremes experienced at that location. (This is known as the \"rail neutral temperature\".) This installation procedure is intended to prevent tracks from buckling in summer heat or pulling apart in the winter cold. In North America, because broken rails (known as a \"pull-apart\") are typically detected by interruption of the current in the signaling system, they are seen as less of a potential hazard than undetected heat kinks. Joints are used in the continuous welded rail when necessary, usually for signal circuit gaps. Instead of a joint that passes straight across the rail, the two rail ends are sometimes cut at an angle to give a smoother transition. In extreme cases, such as at the end of long bridges, a breather switch (referred to in North America and Britain as an \"expansion joint\") gives a smooth path for the wheels while allowing the end of one rail to expand relative to the next rail.", "A sleeper (tie) is a rectangular object on which the rails are supported and fixed. The sleeper has two main roles: to transfer the loads from the rails to the track ballast and the ground underneath, and to hold the rails to the correct width apart (to maintain the rail gauge). They are generally laid transversely to the rails.", "Various methods exist for fixing the rail to the sleeper. Historically spikes gave way to cast iron chairs fixed to the sleeper, more recently springs (such as \"Pandrol clips\") are used to fix the rail to the sleeper chair.", "Sometimes rail tracks are designed to be portable and moved from one place to another as required. During construction of the Panama Canal, tracks were moved around excavation works. These track gauge were and the rolling stock full size. Portable tracks have often been used in open pit mines. In 1880 in New York City, sections of heavy portable track (along with much other improvised technology) helped in the epic move of the ancient obelisk in Central Park to its final location from the dock where it was unloaded from the cargo ship \"SS Dessoug\". Cane railways often had permanent tracks for the main lines, with portable tracks serving the canefields themselves. These tracks were narrow gauge (for example, ) and the portable track came in straights, curves, and turnouts, rather like on a model railway. Decauville was a source of many portable light rail tracks, also used for military purposes. The permanent way is so called because temporary way tracks were often used in the construction of that permanent way.", "The geometry of the tracks is three-dimensional by nature, but the standards that express the speed limits and other regulations in the areas of track gauge, alignment, elevation, curvature and track surface are usually expressed in two separate layouts for horizontal and vertical. Horizontal layout is the track layout on the horizontal plane. This involves the layout of three main track types: tangent track (straight line), curved track, and track transition curve (also called transition spiral or spiral) which connects between a tangent and a curved track. Vertical layout is the track layout on the vertical plane including the concepts such as crosslevel, cant and gradient. A sidetrack is a railroad track other than siding that is auxiliary to the main track. The word is also used as a verb (without object) to refer to the movement of trains and railcars from the main track to a siding, and in common parlance to refer to giving in to distractions apart from a main subject. Sidetracks are used by railroads to order and organize the flow of rail traffic.", "During the early days of rail, there was considerable variation in the gauge used by different systems. Today, 54.8% of the world's railways use a gauge of, known as standard or international gauge. Gauges wider than standard gauge are called broad gauge; narrower, narrow gauge. Some stretches of track are dual gauge, with three (or sometimes four) parallel rails in place of the usual two, to allow trains of two different gauges to use the same track. Gauge can safely vary over a range. For example, U.S. federal safety standards allow standard gauge to vary from to for operation up to.", "Track needs regular maintenance to remain in good order, especially when high-speed trains are involved. Inadequate maintenance may lead to a \"slow order\" (North American terminology, or Temporary speed restriction in the United Kingdom) being imposed to avoid accidents (see Slow zone). Track maintenance was at one time hard manual labour, requiring teams of labourers, or trackmen (US: gandy dancers; UK: platelayers; Australia: fettlers), who used lining bars to correct irregularities in horizontal alignment (line) of the track, and tamping and jacks to correct vertical irregularities (surface). Currently, maintenance is facilitated by a variety of specialised machines. The surface of the head of each of the two rails can be maintained by using a railgrinder. Common maintenance jobs include changing sleepers, lubricating and adjusting switches, tightening loose track components, and surfacing and lining track to keep straight sections straight and curves within maintenance limits. The process of sleeper and rail replacement can be automated by using a track renewal train. Spraying ballast with herbicide to prevent weeds growing through and redistributing the ballast is typically done with a special weed killing train. Over time, ballast is crushed or moved by the weight of trains passing over it, periodically requiring relevelling (\"tamping\") and eventually to be cleaned or replaced. If this is not done, the tracks may become uneven causing swaying, rough riding and possibly derailments. An alternative to tamping is to lift the rails and sleepers and reinsert the ballast beneath. For this, specialist \"stoneblower\" trains are used. Rail inspections utilize nondestructive testing methods to detect internal flaws in the rails. This is done by using specially equipped HiRail trucks, inspection cars, or in some cases handheld inspection devices. Rails must be replaced before the railhead profile wears to a degree that may trigger a derailment. Worn mainline rails usually have sufficient life remaining to be used on a branch line, siding or stub afterwards and are \"cascaded\" to those applications. The environmental conditions along railroad track create a unique railway ecosystem. This is particularly so in the United Kingdom where steam locomotives are only used on special services and vegetation has not been trimmed back so thoroughly. This creates a fire risk in prolonged dry weather. In the UK, the cess is used by track repair crews to walk to a work site, and as a safe place to stand when a train is passing. This helps when doing minor work, while needing to keep trains running, by not needing a Hi-railer or transport vehicle blocking the line to transport crew to get to the site.", "Railway tracks are generally laid on a bed of stone track ballast or track bed, which in turn is supported by prepared earthworks known as the track formation. The formation comprises the subgrade and a layer of sand or stone dust (often sandwiched in impervious plastic), known as the blanket, which restricts the upward migration of wet clay or silt. There may also be layers of waterproof fabric to prevent water penetrating to the subgrade. The track and ballast form the. The foundation may refer to the ballast and formation, i.e. all man-made structures below the tracks. Some railroads are using asphalt pavement below the ballast in order to keep dirt and moisture from moving into the ballast and spoiling it. The fresh asphalt also serves to stabilize the ballast so it does not move around so easily. Additional measures are required where the track is laid over permafrost, such as on the Qingzang Railway in Tibet. For example, transverse pipes through the subgrade allow cold air to penetrate the formation and prevent that subgrade from melting. The sub-grade layers are slightly sloped to one side to help drainage of water. Rubber sheets may be inserted to help drainage and also protect iron bridgework from being affected by rust.", "The technology of rail tracks developed over a long period, starting with primitive timber rails in mines in the 17th century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure and properties.", "Discovery.", "Mineral chemistry.", "Paragenesis.", "Processing and consumption.", "Feedstock production.", "Lunar ilmenite." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ilmenite crystallizes in the trigonal system. The ilmenite crystal structure consists of an ordered derivative of the corundum structure; in corundum all cations are identical but in ilmenite Fe and Ti ions occupy alternating layers perpendicular to the trigonal c axis. Containing high spin ferrous centers, ilmenite is paramagnetic. Ilmenite is commonly recognized in altered igneous rocks by the presence of a white alteration product, the pseudo-mineral leucoxene. Often ilmenites are rimmed with leucoxene, which allows ilmenite to be distinguished from magnetite and other iron-titanium oxides. The example shown in the image at right is typical of leucoxene-rimmed ilmenite. In reflected light it may be distinguished from magnetite by more pronounced reflection pleochroism and a brown-pink tinge. Samples of ilmenite exhibit a weak response to a hand magnet.", "In 1791 William Gregor discovered ilmenite, in a stream that runs through the valley just south of the village of Manaccan (Cornwall), and identified for the first time Titanium as one of the constituents of ilmenite.", "Ilmenite most often contains appreciable quantities of magnesium and manganese and the full chemical formula can be expressed as (Fe,Mg,Mn,Ti)O. Ilmenite forms a solid solution with geikielite () and pyrophanite () which are magnesian and manganiferous end-members of the solid solution series. Although there appears evidence of the complete range of mineral chemistries in the (Fe,Mg,Mn,Ti)O system naturally occurring on Earth, the vast bulk of ilmenites are restricted to close to the ideal composition, with minor mole percentages of Mn and Mg. A key exception is in the ilmenites of kimberlites where the mineral usually contains major amounts of geikielite molecules, and in some highly differentiated felsic rocks ilmenites may contain significant amounts of pyrophanite molecules. At higher temperatures it has been demonstrated there is a complete solid solution between ilmenite and hematite. There is a miscibility gap at lower temperatures, resulting in a coexistence of these two minerals in rocks but no solid solution. This coexistence may result in exsolution lamellae in cooled ilmenites with more iron in the system than can be homogeneously accommodated in the crystal lattice. Altered ilmenite forms the mineral leucoxene, an important source of titanium in heavy mineral sands ore deposits. Leucoxene is a typical component of altered gabbro and diorite and is generally indicative of ilmenite in the unaltered rock.", "Ilmenite is a common accessory mineral found in metamorphic and igneous rocks. It is found in large concentrations in layered intrusions where it forms as part of a cumulate layer within the silicate stratigraphy of the intrusion. Ilmenite generally occurs within the pyroxenitic portion of such intrusions (the 'pyroxene-in' level). Magnesian ilmenite is indicative of kimberlitic paragenesis and forms part of the MARID association of minerals (mica-amphibole-rutile-ilmenite-diopside) assemblage of glimmerite xenoliths. Manganiferous ilmenite is found in granitic rocks and also in carbonatite intrusions where it may also contain anomalous niobium. Many mafic igneous rocks contain grains of intergrown magnetite and ilmenite, formed by the oxidation of ulvospinel. Ilmenite also occurs as discrete grains, typically with some hematite in solid solution, and complete solid solution exists between the two minerals at temperatures above about 950 °C. Titanium was identified for the first time by William Gregor in 1791 in ilmenite from the Manaccan valley in Cornwall, southwest England. Ilmenite is named after the locality of its discovery in the Ilmensky Mountains, near Miass, Russia.", "Most ilmenite is mined for titanium dioxide production. In 2011, about 47% of the titanium dioxide produced worldwide were based on this material. Ilmenite and/or titanium dioxide are used in the production of titanium metal. Titanium dioxide is most used as a white pigment and the major consuming industries for TiO pigments are paints and surface coatings, plastics, and paper and paperboard. Per capita consumption of TiO in China is about 1.1 kilograms per year, compared with 2.7 kilograms for Western Europe and the United States. Ilmenite can be converted into pigment grade titanium dioxide via either the sulfate process or the chloride process. Ilmenite can also be improved and purified to rutile using the Becher process. Ilmenite ores can also be converted to liquid iron and a titanium-rich slag using a smelting process. Ilmenite ore is used as a flux by steelmakers to line blast furnace hearth refractory. Ilmenite sand is also used as a sandblasting agent in the cleaning of diecasting dies. Ilmenite can be used to produce ferrotitanium via an aluminothermic reduction.", "Australia was the world's largest ilmenite ore producer in 2011, with about 1.3 million tonnes of production, followed by South Africa, Canada, Mozambique, India, China, Vietnam, Ukraine, Norway, Madagascar and United States. Although most ilmenite is recovered from heavy mineral sands ore deposits, ilmenite can also be recovered from layered intrusive sources or \"hard rock\" titanium ore sources. The top four ilmenite and rutile feedstock producers in 2010 were Rio Tinto Group, Iluka Resources, Exxaro and Kenmare Resources, which collectively accounted for more than 60% of world's supplies. The world's two largest open cast ilmenite mines are: Major mineral sands based ilmenite mining operations include: Attractive major potential ilmenite deposits include: Most ilmenite ore production from Canada, South Africa and Norway is destined for titaniferous slag application.", "Ilmenite has been found in Moon rocks, and is typically highly enriched in magnesium similar to the kimberlitic association. In 2005 NASA used the Hubble Space Telescope to locate potentially ilmenite-rich locations. This mineral could be essential to an eventual Moon base, as ilmenite would provide a source of iron and titanium for the building of structures and essential oxygen extraction." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Appearance and properties.", "Instability.", "Monitoring physical stability.", "Accelerating methods for shelf life prediction.", "Emulsifiers.", "Mechanisms of emulsification.", "Uses.", "In food.", "Health care.", "In firefighting.", "Chemical synthesis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"emulsion\" comes from the Latin \"emulgere\" \"to milk out,\" from \"ex\" \"out\" + \"mulgere\" \"to milk\", as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, along with other components.", "Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a continuous phase, with the boundary between the phases called the \"interface\". Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance because the many phase interfaces scatter light as it passes through the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when all light is scattered equally. If the emulsion is dilute enough, higher-frequency (low-wavelength) light will be scattered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this is called the \"Tyndall effect\". If the emulsion is concentrated enough, the color will be distorted toward comparatively longer wavelengths, and will appear more yellow. This phenomenon is easily observable when comparing skimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, which contains a much higher concentration of milk fat. One example would be a mixture of water and oil. Two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions and nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – appear translucent. This property is due to the fact that light waves are scattered by the droplets only if their sizes exceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the incident light. Since the visible spectrum of light is composed of wavelengths between 390 and 750 nanometers (nm), if the droplet sizes in the emulsion are below about 100 nm, the light can penetrate through the emulsion without being scattered. Due to their similarity in appearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsions are frequently confused. Unlike translucent nanoemulsions, which require specialized equipment to be produced, microemulsions are spontaneously formed by “solubilizing” oil molecules with a mixture of surfactants, co-surfactants, and co-solvents. The required surfactant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, several times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion, and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dispersed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effects caused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageous or prohibitive in many applications. In addition, the stability of a microemulsion is often easily compromised by dilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels. Common emulsions are inherently unstable and, thus, do not tend to form spontaneously. Energy input – through shaking, stirring, homogenizing, or exposure to power ultrasound – is needed to form an emulsion. Over time, emulsions tend to revert to the stable state of the phases comprising the emulsion. An example of this is seen in the separation of the oil and vinegar components of vinaigrette, an unstable emulsion that will quickly separate unless shaken almost continuously. There are important exceptions to this rule – microemulsions are thermodynamically stable, while translucent nanoemulsions are kinetically stable. Whether an emulsion of oil and water turns into a \"water-in-oil\" emulsion or an \"oil-in-water\" emulsion depends on the volume fraction of both phases and the type of emulsifier (surfactant) (see \"Emulsifier\", below) present. In general, the Bancroft rule applies. Emulsifiers and emulsifying particles tend to promote dispersion of the phase in which they do not dissolve very well. For example, proteins dissolve better in water than in oil, and so tend to form oil-in-water emulsions (that is, they promote the dispersion of oil droplets throughout a continuous phase of water). The geometric structure of an emulsion mixture of two lyophobic liquids with a large concentration of the secondary component is fractal: Emulsion particles unavoidably form dynamic inhomogeneous structures on small length scale. The geometry of these structures is fractal. The size of elementary irregularities is governed by a universal function which depends on the volume content of the components. The fractal dimension of these irregularities is 2.5.", "Emulsion stability refers to the ability of an emulsion to resist change in its properties over time. There are four types of instability in emulsions: flocculation, creaming/sedimentation, coalescence, and Ostwald ripening. Flocculation occurs when there is an attractive force between the droplets, so they form flocs, like bunches of grapes. This process can be desired, if controlled in its extent, to tune physical properties of emulsions such as their flow behaviour. Coalescence occurs when droplets bump into each other and combine to form a larger droplet, so the average droplet size increases over time. Emulsions can also undergo creaming, where the droplets rise to the top of the emulsion under the influence of buoyancy, or under the influence of the centripetal force induced when a centrifuge is used. Creaming is a common phenomenon in dairy and non-dairy beverages (i.e. milk, coffee milk, almond milk, soy milk) and usually does not change the droplet size. Sedimentation is the opposite phenomenon of creaming and normally observed in water-in-oil emulsions. Sedimentation happens when the dispersed phase is denser than the continuous phase and the gravitational forces pull the denser globules towards the bottom of the emulsion. Similar to creaming, sedimentation follows Stoke's law. An appropriate \"surface active agent\" (or \"surfactant\") can increase the kinetic stability of an emulsion so that the size of the droplets does not change significantly with time. The stability of an emulsion, like a suspension, can be studied in terms of zeta potential, which indicates the repulsion between droplets or particles. If the size and dispersion of droplets does not change over time, it is said to be stable. For example, oil-in-water emulsions containing mono- and diglycerides and milk protein as surfactant showed that stable oil droplet size over 28 days storage at 25°C.", "The stability of emulsions can be characterized using techniques such as light scattering, focused beam reflectance measurement, centrifugation, and rheology. Each method has advantages and disadvantages.", "The kinetic process of destabilization can be rather long – up to several months, or even years for some products. Often the formulator must accelerate this process in order to test products in a reasonable time during product design. Thermal methods are the most commonly used – these consist of increasing the emulsion temperature to accelerate destabilization (if below critical temperatures for phase inversion or chemical degradation). Temperature affects not only the viscosity but also the interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or, on a broader scope, interactions between droplets within the system. Storing an emulsion at high temperatures enables the simulation of realistic conditions for a product (e.g., a tube of sunscreen emulsion in a car in the summer heat), but also accelerates destabilization processes up to 200 times. Mechanical methods of acceleration, including vibration, centrifugation, and agitation, can also be used. These methods are almost always empirical, without a sound scientific basis.", "An emulsifier (also known as an \"emulgent\") is a substance that stabilizes an emulsion by increasing its kinetic stability. One class of emulsifiers is known as \"surface active agents\", or surfactants. Emulsifiers are compounds that typically have a polar or hydrophilic (i.e. water-soluble) part and a non-polar (i.e. hydrophobic or lipophilic) part. Because of this, emulsifiers tend to have more or less solubility either in water or in oil. Emulsifiers that are more soluble in water (and conversely, less soluble in oil) will generally form oil-in-water emulsions, while emulsifiers that are more soluble in oil will form water-in-oil emulsions. Examples of food emulsifiers are: Detergents are another class of surfactant, and will interact physically with both oil and water, thus stabilizing the interface between the oil and water droplets in suspension. This principle is exploited in soap, to remove grease for the purpose of cleaning. Many different emulsifiers are used in pharmacy to prepare emulsions such as creams and lotions. Common examples include emulsifying wax, polysorbate 20, and ceteareth 20. Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier, and the result is a nanoemulsion, where the inner state disperses into \"nano-size\" droplets within the outer phase. A well-known example of this phenomenon, the \"ouzo effect\", happens when water is poured into a strong alcoholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis, absinthe, arak, or raki. The anisolic compounds, which are soluble in ethanol, then form nano-size droplets and emulsify within the water. The resulting color of the drink is opaque and milky white.", "A number of different chemical and physical processes and mechanisms can be involved in the process of emulsification:", "", "Oil-in-water emulsions are common in food products: Water-in-oil emulsions are less common in food, but still exist: Other foods can be turned into products similar to emulsions, for example meat emulsion is a suspension of meat in liquid that is similar to true emulsions.", "In pharmaceutics, hairstyling, personal hygiene, and cosmetics, emulsions are frequently used. These are usually oil and water emulsions but dispersed, and which is continuous depends in many cases on the pharmaceutical formulation. These emulsions may be called creams, ointments, liniments (balms), pastes, films, or liquids, depending mostly on their oil-to-water ratios, other additives, and their intended route of administration. The first 5 are topical dosage forms, and may be used on the surface of the skin, transdermally, ophthalmically, rectally, or vaginally. A highly liquid emulsion may also be used orally, or may be injected in some cases. Microemulsions are used to deliver vaccines and kill microbes. Typical emulsions used in these techniques are nanoemulsions of soybean oil, with particles that are 400–600 nm in diameter. The process is not chemical, as with other types of antimicrobial treatments, but mechanical. The smaller the droplet the greater the surface tension and thus the greater the force required to merge with other lipids. The oil is emulsified with detergents using a high-shear mixer to stabilize the emulsion so, when they encounter the lipids in the cell membrane or envelope of bacteria or viruses, they force the lipids to merge with themselves. On a mass scale, in effect this disintegrates the membrane and kills the pathogen. The soybean oil emulsion does not harm normal human cells, or the cells of most other higher organisms, with the exceptions of sperm cells and blood cells, which are vulnerable to nanoemulsions due to the peculiarities of their membrane structures. For this reason, these nanoemulsions are not currently used intravenously (IV). The most effective application of this type of nanoemulsion is for the disinfection of surfaces. Some types of nanoemulsions have been shown to effectively destroy HIV-1 and tuberculosis pathogens on non-porous surfaces.", "Emulsifying agents are effective at extinguishing fires on small, thin-layer spills of flammable liquids (class B fires). Such agents encapsulate the fuel in a fuel-water emulsion, thereby trapping the flammable vapors in the water phase. This emulsion is achieved by applying an aqueous surfactant solution to the fuel through a high-pressure nozzle. Emulsifiers are not effective at extinguishing large fires involving bulk/deep liquid fuels, because the amount of emulsifier agent needed for extinguishment is a function of the volume of the fuel, whereas other agents such as aqueous film-forming foam need cover only the surface of the fuel to achieve vapor mitigation.", "Emulsions are used to manufacture polymer dispersions – polymer production in an emulsion 'phase' has a number of process advantages, including prevention of coagulation of product. Products produced by such polymerisations may be used as the emulsions – products including primary components for glues and paints. Synthetic latexes (rubbers) are also produced by this process." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Dimensions.", "Smaller courts.", "Surfaces.", "Clay courts.", "Grass courts.", "Hard courts.", "Carpet courts.", "Indoor courts.", "Terminology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The dimensions of a tennis court are defined and regulated by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) governing body and are written down in the annual 'Rules of Tennis' document. The court is long. Its width is for singles matches and for doubles matches. The service line is from the net. Additional clear space around the court is needed in order for players to reach overrun balls for a total of wide and long. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. The net is high at the posts, and high in the center. The net posts are outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, outside the singles court on each side. Based on the standard rules of tennis, the size of the court is measured to the outside of the respective baselines and sidelines. The \"service\" lines (\"T\" and the \"service\" line) are centered. The ball must completely miss the line to be considered \"out\". This also means that the width of the line (baselines are often wider) is irrelevant to play.", "The ITF's Play and Stay campaign promotes playing on smaller courts with slower red, orange and green balls for younger children. This gives children more time and control so they can serve, rally, and score from the first lesson on courts that are sized to fit their bodies. The ITF has mandated that official competition for children aged 10 years and under should be played on \"Orange\" courts long by wide. Competition for children under 8 years is played on \"Red\" courts that are long and wide. The net is always 0.8 m high in the center.", "Tennis is played on a variety of surfaces and each surface has its own characteristics which affect the playing style of the game. There are four main types of courts depending on the materials used for the court surface: clay courts, hard courts, grass courts and carpet courts. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) lists different surfaces and properties and classifies surfaces into one of five pace settings: Of the current four Grand Slam tournaments, the Australian and US Open use hard courts, French Open is played on clay, and Wimbledon, the only Grand Slam to have always been played on the same surface, is played on grass. The Australian Open switched from grass to hard courts in 1988 and in its early years the French championship alternated between clay and sand/rubble courts. The US Open is the only major to have been played on three surfaces; it was played on grass from its inception until 1974, clay from 1975 until 1977 and hard courts since it moved from the West Side Tennis Club to the National Tennis Center in 1978. ITF uses the following classification for tennis court surface types:", "Clay courts are made of crushed shale, stone or brick. The French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament to use clay courts. Clay courts slow down the ball and produce a high bounce in comparison to grass or hard courts. For this reason, the clay court takes away many of the advantages of big serves, which makes it hard for serve-based players to dominate on the surface. Clay courts are cheaper to construct than other types of tennis courts, but a clay surface costs more to maintain. Clay courts need to be rolled to preserve flatness. The clay's water content must be balanced; green clay courts generally require the courts to be sloped to allow water run-off. Clay courts are more common in Europe and Latin America than in North America, and tend to heavily favour baseline players. Historically for the Grand Slams clay courts have been used at the French Open since 1891 and the US Open from 1975 to 1977.", "Grass courts are the fastest type of courts in common use. They consist of grass grown on very hard-packed soil, which adds additional variables: bounces depend on how healthy the grass is, how recently it has been mowed, and the wear and tear of recent play. Points are usually very quick where fast, low bounces keep rallies short, and the serve plays a more important role than on other surfaces. Grass courts tend to favour serve-and-volley tennis players. Grass courts were once among the most common tennis surfaces, but are now rare due to high maintenance costs as they must be watered and mown often, and take a longer time to dry after rain than hard courts. Historically for the Grand Slams grass courts have been used at Wimbledon since 1877, the US Open from 1881 to 1974, and the Australian Open from 1905 to 1987.", "Hard courts are made of uniform rigid material, often covered with an acrylic surface layer to offer greater consistency of bounce than other outdoor surfaces. Hard courts can vary in speed, though they are faster than clay but not as fast as grass courts. The quantity of sand added to the paint can greatly affect the rate at which the ball slows down. The US Open is played on DecoTurf while the Australian Open is played on GreenSet, both acrylic-topped hard court surfaces. Historically for the Grand Slams hard courts have been used at the US Open since 1978 and the Australian Open since 1988.", "\"Carpet\" in tennis means any removable court covering. Indoor arenas store rolls of rubber-backed court surfacing and install it temporarily for tennis events, but they are not in use any more for professional events. A short piled form of artificial turf infilled with sand is used for some outdoor courts, particularly in Asia. Carpet is generally a fast surface, faster than hardcourt, with low bounce. Notable tennis tournaments previously held on carpet courts were the WCT Finals, Paris Masters, U.S. Pro Indoor and Kremlin Cup. Since 2009, their use has been discontinued on the top tier of the ATP. ATP Challenger Tour tournaments such as the Trofeo Città di Brescia still use carpet courts. The WTA Tour's last carpet court event, the International-level Tournoi de Québec, was discontinued after 2018.", "Some tennis courts are indoors, which allows to play regardless of weather conditions and is more comfortable for spectators. Different court surfaces have been used indoors. Hard courts are most common indoors, as they are the easiest to install and maintain. If the installation is permanent, they are constructed on an asphalt or concrete base, as with outdoor courts. Temporary indoor hard courts are typically constructed using wooden floor panels topped with acrylic which are installed over the venue's standard floor. This is the system used for modern indoor professional events such as the ATP Finals. Clay courts can be installed indoors with subsurface watering systems to keep the clay from drying out, and have been used for Davis Cup matches. Carpet courts were once the most prominent of indoor surfaces, especially in temporary venues, but have largely been replaced by removable hard courts. They were used on both the ATP World Tour and World Championship Tennis circuits, though no events currently use them. Historically, other surfaces have been used indoors such as hardwood flooring at the defunct World Covered Court Championships and London Indoor Professional Championships. The conclusion of the Wimbledon Championships, in 2012, was played on the lawn of Centre Court under the closed roof and artificial lights; the Halle Open has also seen a number of matches played on its grass court in the Gerry Weber Stadion with the roof closed. These, however, are outdoor venues with retractable roofs.", "Common tennis court terms:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Personal life.", "Death and honors.", "Videography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Robin was born in Yzeures-sur-Creuse, Touraine, where she owned the Château des Vallées. Mado took her first singing lessons when she was only 13 years old but not with the intention to make a career out of it. Mario Podesta studied with Mado and he, who had been a student of Fernando De Lucia, noticed the extraordinary high register of her voice.", "A star of television and radio in the 1950s, she was well known in France. Among her roles were Lakmé, which she recorded for Decca Records in 1952 (with Georges Sébastian conducting), \"Lucia di Lammermoor\", Olympia in \"The Tales of Hoffmann\", Gilda in \"Rigoletto\", Rosina in \"The Barber of Seville\", and Leïla in \"Les pêcheurs de perles\". In 1954, she went to San Francisco to sing Lucia and Gilda, and had a successful tour of the Soviet Union with sixteen concerts over a few weeks.", "At age 17, she married Alan Smith, an Englishman, who died shortly after World War II in a car crash. She had one daughter.", "Robin died in Paris in 1960 from cancer (some sources state liver cancer, others leukaemia) a few days before the 1500th performance of \"Lakmé\" at the Opéra-Comique, which had organized the event for her birthday. A museum to her life opened in her home town in 2009.", "In 1994, the Bel Canto Society released a video-cassette of her performances, entitled \"Mado Robin Live!\"; included are excerpts from \"Lakmé\", \"Mireille\", \"Rigoletto\", \"Hamlet\", \"Il barbiere di Siviglia\" and \"Lucia di Lammermoor\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Career.", "Private life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Zsigmondy was born in Vienna, Austrian Empire, to Hungarian parents Irma Szakmáry, a poet born in Martonvásár, and Adolf Zsigmondy Sr., a scientist from Pressburg (Pozsony, today's Bratislava) who invented several surgical instruments for use in dentistry. Zsigmondy family members were Lutherans. They originated from Johannes () Sigmondi (1686–1746, Bártfa, Kingdom of Hungary) and included teachers, priests and Hungarian freedom-fighters. Richard was raised by his mother after his father's early death in 1880, and received a comprehensive education. He enjoyed hobbies such as climbing and mountaineering with his siblings. His elder brothers, Otto (a dentist) and Emil (a physician), were well-known mountain climbers; his younger brother, Karl Zsigmondy, became a notable mathematician in Vienna. In high school Richard developed an interest in natural science, especially in chemistry and physics, and experimented in his home laboratory. He began his academic career at the University of Vienna Medical Faculty, but soon moved to the Technical University of Vienna, and later to the University of Munich, to study chemistry under Wilhelm von Miller (1848–1899). In Munich he conducted research on indene and received his PhD in 1889.", "Zsigmondy left organic chemistry to join the physics group of August Kundt at the University of Berlin, and completed his habilitation at the University of Graz in 1893. Because of his knowledge about glass and its colouring, in 1897 the Schott Glass factory offered him a job which he accepted. He invented the Jenaer Milchglas and conducted some research on the red Ruby glass. Zsigmondy left Schott Glass in 1900, but remained in Jena as private lecturer to conduct his research. Together with the optical instrument manufacturer Zeiss, he developed the slit ultramicroscope. His scientific career continued in 1908 at the University of Göttingen, where he stayed for the rest of his professional career as professor of inorganic chemistry. In 1925, Zsigmondy received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his work on colloids and the methods he used, such as the ultramicroscope. Before Zsigmondy finished his PhD thesis in organic chemistry, he published research on colouring glass with silver salts and dissolved silver particles, which he recovered by dissolving the glass in hydrofluoric acid. During his stay in Graz, Zsigmondy accomplished his most notable research work, on the chemistry of colloids. The exact mechanism which yields the red colour of the Cranberry or Ruby glass was a result of his studies of colloids. In later years he worked on gold hydrosols and used them to characterize protein solutions. While in Jena he developed the slit ultramicroscope together with Henry Siedentopf. After moving to Göttingen, Zsigmondy improved his optical equipment for the observation of finest nanoparticles suspended in liquid solution. As a result, he introduced the immersion ultramicroscope in 1912.", "In 1903 Zsigmondy married Laura Luise Müller, with whom he had two daughters, Annemarie and Käthe. He died a few years after retirement in 1929 in Göttingen, Germany. He was a cousin of the architect Frigyes Schulek, whose mother was Auguszta Zsigmondy. He is also related to the violinist Dénes Zsigmondy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Plot.", "Themes.", "Reception.", "In other media.", "Film.", "Stage.", "Radio.", "Influence.", "Literature.", "Film.", "Television.", "Music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Published in 1954, \"Lord of the Flies\" was Golding's first novel. Although it did not have great success after being released—selling fewer than three thousand copies in the United States during 1955 before going out of print—it soon went on to become a best-seller. It has been adapted to film twice in English, in 1963 by Peter Brook and 1990 by Harry Hook, and once in Filipino by Lupita A. Concio (1975). The book begins with the boys arriving on the island after their plane has been shot down during what seems to be part of a nuclear World War III. Some of the marooned characters are ordinary students, while others arrive as a musical choir under an established leader. With the exception of Sam and Eric and the choirboys, they appear never to have encountered each other before. The book portrays their descent into savagery; left to themselves on a paradisiacal island, far from modern civilization, the well-educated boys regress to a primitive state. Golding wrote his book as a counterpoint to R. M. Ballantyne's youth novel \"The Coral Island\" (1857), and included specific references to it, such as the rescuing naval officer's description of the boys' initial attempts at civilised cooperation as \"a jolly good show, like the Coral Island\". Golding's three central characters—Ralph, Piggy and Jack—have been interpreted as caricatures of Ballantyne's \"Coral Island\" protagonists.", "In the midst of a wartime evacuation, a British aeroplane crashes on or near an isolated island in a remote region of the Pacific Ocean. The only survivors are boys in their middle childhood or preadolescence. Two boys—the fair-haired Ralph and an overweight, bespectacled boy nicknamed \"Piggy\"—find a conch, which Ralph uses as a horn to convene all the survivors to one area. Ralph is optimistic, believing that grownups will come to rescue them but Piggy realises the need to organise (\"put first things first and act proper\"). Because Ralph appears responsible for bringing all the survivors together, he immediately commands some authority over the other boys and is quickly elected their \"chief\". He does not receive the votes of the members of a boys' choir, led by the red-headed Jack Merridew, although he allows the choir boys to form a separate clique of hunters. Ralph establishes three primary policies: to have fun, to survive, and to constantly maintain a smoke signal that could alert passing ships to their presence on the island and thus rescue them. The boys establish a form of democracy by declaring that whoever holds the conch shall also be able to speak at their formal gatherings and receive the attentive silence of the larger group. Jack organises his choir into a hunting party responsible for discovering a food source. Ralph, Jack, and a quiet, dreamy boy named Simon soon form a loose triumvirate of leaders with Ralph as the ultimate authority. Upon inspection of the island, the three determine that it has fruit and wild pigs for food. The boys also use Piggy's glasses to create a fire. Although he is Ralph's only real confidant, Piggy is quickly made into an outcast by his fellow \"biguns\" (older boys) and becomes the butt of the other boys' jokes. Simon, in addition to supervising the project of constructing shelters, feels an instinctive need to protect the \"littluns\" (younger boys). The semblance of order quickly deteriorates as the majority of the boys turn idle; they give little aid in building shelters, spend their time having fun and begin to develop paranoias about the island. The central paranoia refers to a supposed monster they call the \"beast\", which they all slowly begin to believe exists on the island. Ralph insists that no such beast exists, but Jack, who has started a power struggle with Ralph, gains a level of control over the group by boldly promising to kill the creature. At one point, Jack summons all of his hunters to hunt down a wild pig, drawing away those assigned to maintain the signal fire. A ship travels by the island, but without the boys' smoke signal to alert the ship's crew, the vessel continues without stopping. Ralph angrily confronts Jack about his failure to maintain the signal; in frustration Jack assaults Piggy, breaking one of the lenses of his glasses. The boys subsequently enjoy their first feast. Angered by the failure of the boys to attract potential rescuers, Ralph considers relinquishing his position as leader, but is persuaded not to do so by Piggy, who both understands Ralph's importance and fears what will become of him should Jack take total control. One night, an aerial battle occurs near the island while the boys sleep, during which a fighter pilot ejects from his plane and dies in the descent. His body drifts down to the island in his parachute; both get tangled in a tree near the top of the mountain. Later on, while Jack continues to scheme against Ralph, the twins Sam and Eric, now assigned to the maintenance of the signal fire, see the corpse of the fighter pilot and his parachute in the dark. Mistaking the corpse for the beast, they run to the cluster of shelters that Ralph and Simon have erected, to warn the others. This unexpected meeting again raises tensions between Jack and Ralph. Shortly thereafter, Jack decides to lead a party to the other side of the island, where a mountain of stones, later called Castle Rock, forms a place where he claims the beast resides. Only Ralph and a quiet suspicious boy, Roger, Jack's closest supporter, agree to go; Ralph turns back shortly before the other two boys but eventually all three see the parachutist, whose head rises via the wind. They then flee, now believing the beast is real. When they arrive at the shelters, Jack calls an assembly and tries to turn the others against Ralph, asking them to remove Ralph from his position. Receiving no support, Jack storms off alone to form his own tribe. Roger immediately sneaks off to join Jack, and slowly an increasing number of older boys abandon Ralph to join Jack's tribe. Jack's tribe continues to lure recruits from the main group by promising feasts of cooked pig. The members begin to paint their faces and enact bizarre rites, including sacrifices to the beast. One night, Ralph and Piggy decide to go to one of Jack's feasts. Simon, who faints frequently and is probably an epileptic, has a secret hideaway where he goes to be alone. One day while he is there, Jack and his followers erect an offering to the beast nearby: a pig's head, mounted on a sharpened stick and soon swarming with scavenging flies. Simon conducts an imaginary dialogue with the head, which he dubs the \"Lord of the Flies\". The head mocks Simon's notion that the beast is a real entity, \"something you could hunt and kill\", and reveals the truth: they, the boys, are the beast; it is inside them all. The Lord of the Flies also warns Simon that he is in danger, because he represents the soul of man, and predicts that the others will kill him. Simon climbs the mountain alone and discovers that the \"beast\" is the dead parachutist. He rushes down to tell the other boys, who are engaged in a ritual dance. The frenzied boys mistake Simon for the beast, attack him, and beat him to death. Both Ralph and Piggy participate in the melee, and they become deeply disturbed by their actions after returning from Castle Rock. Jack and his rebel band decide that the real symbol of power on the island is not the conch, but Piggy's glasses—the only means the boys have of starting a fire. They raid Ralph's camp, confiscate the glasses, and return to their abode on Castle Rock. Ralph, now deserted by most of his supporters, journeys to Castle Rock to confront Jack and secure the glasses. Taking the conch and accompanied only by Piggy, Sam, and Eric, Ralph finds the tribe and demands that they return the valuable object. Confirming their total rejection of Ralph's authority, the tribe capture and bind the twins under Jack's command. Ralph and Jack engage in a fight which neither wins before Piggy tries once more to address the tribe. Any sense of order or safety is permanently eroded when Roger, now sadistic, deliberately drops a boulder from his vantage point above, killing Piggy and shattering the conch. Ralph manages to escape, but Sam and Eric are tortured by Roger until they agree to join Jack's tribe. Ralph secretly confronts Sam and Eric, who warn him that Jack and Roger hate him and that Roger has sharpened a stick at both ends, intimating that the tribe intends to hunt him like a pig and behead him. The following morning, Jack orders his tribe to begin a hunt for Ralph. Jack's savages set fire to the forest while Ralph desperately weighs his options for survival. Following a long chase, most of the island is consumed in flames. With the hunters closely behind him, Ralph trips and falls. He looks up at a uniformed adult—a British naval officer whose party has landed from a passing cruiser to investigate the fire. Ralph bursts into tears over the death of Piggy and the \"end of innocence\". Jack and the other boys, filthy and unkempt, also revert to their true ages and erupt into sobs. The officer expresses his disappointment at seeing British boys exhibiting such feral, warlike behaviour before turning to stare awkwardly at his own warship.", "At an allegorical level, the central theme is the conflicting human impulses toward civilisation and social organisation—living by rules, peacefully and in harmony—and toward the will to power. Themes include the tension between groupthink and individuality, between rational and emotional reactions, and between morality and immorality. How these play out, and how different people feel the influences of these form a major subtext of \"Lord of the Flies\", with the central themes addressed in an essay by American literary critic Harold Bloom. The name \"Lord of the Flies\" is a literal translation of Beelzebub, from.", "The book, originally entitled \"Strangers from Within\", was initially rejected by a reader at publishers Faber and Faber as \"Rubbish & dull. Pointless\". The title was considered \"too abstract and too explicit\". Following a further review, the book was eventually published as \"Lord of the Flies\". In February 1960, Floyd C. Gale of \"Galaxy Science Fiction\" rated \"Lord of the Flies\" five stars out of five, stating that \"Golding paints a truly terrifying picture of the decay of a minuscule society... Well on its way to becoming a modern classic\". In his book \"Moral Minds: How Nature Designed Our Universal Sense of Right and Wrong\", Marc D. Hauser says the following about Golding's \"Lord of the Flies\": 'This riveting fiction, standard reading in most intro courses to English literature, should be standard reading in biology, economics, psychology, and philosophy.' Its stances on the already controversial subjects of human nature and individual welfare versus the common good earned it position 68 on the American Library Association's list of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 1900–1999. The book has been criticized as \"cynical\" and portraying humanity exclusively as \"selfish creatures\". It has been linked with \"Tragedy of the commons\" by Garrett Hardin and books by Ayn Rand, and countered by \"Management of the Commons\" by Elinor Ostrom. Parallels have been drawn between the \"Lord of the Flies\" and actual incident from 1965 when a group of schoolboys who sailed a fishing boat from Tonga were hit by a storm and marooned on the uninhabited island of ʻAta, considered dead by their relatives in Nuku‘alofa. The group not only managed to survive for over 15 months but \"had set up a small commune with food garden, hollowed-out tree trunks to store rainwater, a gymnasium with curious weights, a badminton court, chicken pens and a permanent fire, all from handiwork, an old knife blade and much determination\". Dutch historian Rutger Bregman, writing about this situation said that Golding's portrayal was unrealistic. Popular in schools, especially in the English-speaking world, a 2016 UK poll saw \"Lord of the Flies\" ranked third in the nation's favourite books from school, behind George Orwell’s \"Animal Farm\" and Charles Dickens’ \"Great Expectations\". On 5 November 2019, BBC News listed \"Lord of the Flies\" on its list of the 100 most influential novels.", "", "There have been three film adaptations based on the book: A fourth adaptation, to feature an all-female cast, was announced by Warner Bros. in August 2017, but was subsequently abandoned. In July 2019, director Luca Guadagnino was said to be in negotiations for a conventionally cast version. \"Ladyworld\", an all-female adaptation, was released in 2018.", "Nigel Williams adapted the text for the stage. It was debuted by the Royal Shakespeare Company in July 1996. The Pilot Theatre Company has toured it extensively in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. In October 2014 it was announced that the 2011 production of \"Lord of the Flies\" would return to conclude the 2015 season at the Regent's Park Open Air Theatre ahead of a major UK tour. The production was to be directed by the Artistic Director Timothy Sheader who won the 2014 Whatsonstage.com Awards Best Play Revival for \"To Kill a Mockingbird\".", "In June 2013, BBC Radio 4 Extra broadcast a dramatisation by Judith Adams in four 30-minute episodes directed by Sasha Yevtushenko. The cast included Ruth Wilson as \"The Narrator\", Finn Bennett as \"Ralph\", Richard Linnel as \"Jack\", Caspar Hilton-Hilley as \"Piggy\" and Jack Caine as \"Simon\".", "Many writers have borrowed plot elements from \"Lord of the Flies\". By the early 1960s, it was required reading in many schools and colleges.", "Author Stephen King uses the name Castle Rock, from the mountain fort in \"Lord of the Flies\", as a fictional town that has appeared in a number of his novels. The book itself appears prominently in his novels \"Hearts in Atlantis\" (1999), \"Misery\" (1987), and \"Cujo\" (1981). King wrote an introduction for a new edition of \"Lord of the Flies\" (2011) to mark the centenary of William Golding's birth in 1911.", "King's fictional town of Castle Rock in turn inspired the name of Rob Reiner's production company, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the film \"Lord of the Flies\" (1990).", "A 1998 episode from the ninth season of \"The Simpsons\", titled \"Das Bus,\" parodies \"Lord of the Flies\". The episode is about Bart Simpson and his class getting stuck on an island and trying to form a society.", "The final song on U2's debut album \"Boy\" (1980) takes its title, \"Shadows and Tall Trees\", from Chapter 7 in the book. Iron Maiden wrote a song inspired by the book, included in their 1995 album \"The X Factor\". The Blues Traveler song \"Justify the Thrill,\" included on the 1997 album \"Straight on Till Morning,\" makes reference to the Lord of the Flies in the lyrics: \"The pig's head on a stick does grin / As we teeter on the brink / He's singing you are all my children / My island's bigger than you think.\" The Filipino indie pop/alternative rock outfit The Camerawalls include a song entitled \"Lord of the Flies\" on their 2008 album \"Pocket Guide to the Otherworld\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Works.", "Opera.", "Sacred works.", "Instrumental works.", "Relationship with Mozart.", "Legacy.", "Modern performances of Salieri's work.", "Use of music by Salieri in films.", "Fictional treatments.", "References.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Salieri started his musical studies in his native town of Legnago; he was first taught at home by his older brother Francesco Salieri (a former student of the violinist and composer Giuseppe Tartini), and he received further lessons from the organist of the Legnago Cathedral, Giuseppe Simoni, a pupil of Padre Giovanni Battista Martini. Salieri remembered little from his childhood in later years except passions for sugar, reading, and music. He twice ran away from home without permission to hear his elder brother play violin concertos in neighboring churches on festival days (resulting in the loss of his beloved sugar), and he recounted being chastised by his father after failing to greet a local priest with proper respect. Salieri responded to the reprimand by saying the priest's organ playing displeased him because it was in an inappropriately theatrical style. Sometime between 1763 and 1764, both of Salieri's parents died, and he was briefly taken in by an anonymous brother, a monk in Padua, and then for unknown reasons in 1765 or 1766, he became the ward of a Venetian nobleman named Giovanni Mocenigo (which Giovanni is at this time unknown), a member of the powerful and well connected Mocenigo family. It is possible that Salieri's father and Mocenigo were friends or business associates, but this is obscure. While living in Venice, Salieri continued his musical studies with the organist and opera composer Giovanni Battista Pescetti, then following Pescetti's sudden death he studied with the opera singer Ferdinando Pacini (or Pasini). It was through Pacini that Salieri gained the attention of the composer Florian Leopold Gassmann, who, impressed with his protege's talents and concerned for the boy's future, took the young orphan to Vienna, where he personally directed and paid for the remainder of Salieri's musical education. Salieri and Gassmann arrived in Vienna on 15 June 1766. Gassmann's first act was to take Salieri to the Italian Church to consecrate his teaching and service to God, an event that left a deep impression on Salieri for the rest of his life. Salieri's education included instruction in Latin and Italian poetry by Fr. Don Pietro Tommasi, instruction in the German language, and European literature. His music studies revolved around vocal composition and thoroughbass. His musical theory training in harmony and counterpoint was rooted in Johann Fux's \"Gradus ad Parnassum\", which Salieri translated during each Latin lesson. As a result, Salieri continued to live with Gassmann even after Gassmann's marriage, an arrangement that lasted until the year of Gassmann's death and Salieri's own marriage in 1774. Few of Salieri's compositions have survived from this early period. In his old age Salieri hinted that these works were either purposely destroyed or had been lost, with the exception of a few works for the church. Among these sacred works there survives a Mass in C major written without a \"Gloria\" and in the antique a cappella style (presumably for one of the church's penitential seasons) and dated 2 August 1767. A complete opera composed in 1769 (presumably as a culminating study) \"La vestale\" (\"The Vestal Virgin\") has also been lost. Beginning in 1766 Gassmann introduced Salieri to the daily chamber music performances held during Emperor Joseph II's evening meal. Salieri quickly impressed the Emperor, and Gassmann was instructed to bring his pupil as often as he wished. This was the beginning of a relationship between monarch and musician that lasted until Joseph's death in 1790. Salieri met Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi, better known as Metastasio, and Christoph Willibald Gluck during this period at the Sunday morning salons held at the home of the Martinez family. Metastasio had an apartment there and participated in the weekly gatherings. Over the next several years Metastasio gave Salieri informal instruction in prosody and the declamation of Italian poetry, and Gluck became an informal advisor, friend and confidante. It was toward the end of this extended period of study that Gassmann was called away on a new opera commission and a gap in the theater's program allowed for Salieri to make his debut as a composer of a completely original \"opera buffa\". Salieri's first full opera was composed during the winter and carnival season of 1770; \"Le donne letterate\" and was based on Molière's \"Les Femmes Savantes\" (\"The Learned Ladies\") with a libretto by, a dancer in the court ballet and a brother of the composer Luigi Boccherini. The modest success of this opera launched Salieri's 34-year operatic career as a composer of over 35 original dramas.", "", "During his time in Vienna, Salieri acquired great prestige as a composer and conductor, particularly of opera, but also of chamber and sacred music. Among the most successful of his 37 operas staged during his lifetime were \"Armida\" (1771), \"La fiera di Venezia\"", "Salieri's earliest surviving work is a Mass in C major. He would write four major orchestral masses, a", "His small instrumental output includes two piano concerti, a concerto for organ written in 1773, a concerto", "In the 1780s, while Mozart lived and worked in Vienna, he and his father Leopold wrote in their letters that several \"cabals\" of Italians led by Salieri were actively putting obstacles in the way of Mozart's obtaining certain posts or staging his operas. For example, Mozart wrote in December 1781 to his father that \"the only one who counts in [the Emperor's] eyes is Salieri\". Their letters suggest that both Mozart and his father, being Austrians who resented the special place that Italian composers had in the courts of the Austrian nobility, blamed the Italians in general and Salieri in particular for all of Mozart's difficulties in establishing himself in Vienna. Mozart wrote to his father in May 1783 about Salieri and Lorenzo Da Ponte, the court poet: \"You know those Italian gentlemen; they are very nice to your face! Enough, we all know about them. And if [Da Ponte] is in league with Salieri, I'll never get a text from him, and I would love to show him what I can really do with an Italian opera.\" In July 1783, he again wrote to his father of \"a trick of Salieri's\", one of several letters in which Mozart accused Salieri of trickery. Decades after Mozart's death, a rumour began to circulate that Mozart had been poisoned by Salieri. This rumour has been attributed by some to a rivalry between the German and the Italian schools of music. Carl Maria von Weber, a relative of Mozart by marriage whom Wagner has characterized as the most German of German composers, is said to have refused to join (Ludlam's cave), a social club of which Salieri was a member, and avoided having anything to do with him. These rumours then made their way into popular culture. Albert Lortzing's Singspiel \"Szenen aus Mozarts Leben\" LoWV28 (1832) uses the cliché of the jealous Salieri trying to hinder Mozart's career. Ironically, Salieri's music was much more in the tradition of Gluck and Gassmann than of the Italians like Paisiello or Cimarosa. In 1772, Empress Maria Theresa commented", "Salieri and his music were largely forgotten from the 19th century until the late 20th century. This revival was due to the dramatic and highly fictionalized depiction of Salieri in Peter Shaffer's play \"Amadeus\" (1979), which was given its greatest exposure in its 1984 film version, directed by Miloš Forman. His music today has regained some modest popularity via recordings. It is also the subject of increasing academic study, and a small number of his operas have returned to the stage. In addition, there is now a Salieri Opera Festival sponsored by the Fondazione Culturale Antonio Salieri and dedicated to rediscovering his work and those of his contemporaries. It is developing as an annual autumn event in his native town of Legnago, where a theatre has been renamed in his honour.", "In 2003, mezzo-soprano Cecilia Bartoli released \"The Salieri Album\", a CD with 13 arias from Salieri's operas, most of which had never been recorded before. Patrice Michaels sang a number of his arias on the CD \"Divas of Mozart's Day\". In 2008, another female opera star, Diana Damrau, released a CD with seven Salieri coloratura arias. Since 2000, there have also been complete recordings issued or re-issued of the operas \"Axur Re d'Ormus\", \"Falstaff\", \"Les Danaïdes\", \"La Locandiera\", \"La grotta di Trofonio\", \"Prima la musica e poi le parole\" and \"\". Salieri has yet to fully re-enter the general repertory, but performances of his works are progressively becoming more regular.", "Salieri has even begun to attract some attention from Hollywood. In 2001, his triple concerto was used in the soundtrack of \"The Last Castle\", featuring Robert Redford and James Gandolfini. It is a story that builds on the rivalry between a meticulous but untested officer (Gandolfini) serving as the warden of a military prison and an imprisoned but much admired and highly decorated general (Redford). The Salieri piece is used as the warden's theme music, seemingly to invoke the image of jealousy of the inferior for", "Salieri's life, and especially his relationship with Mozart,", "Notes", "Scores" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Syntax.", "Toolboxes.", "History.", "Scilab Cloud App & Scilab Cloud API." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Scilab is a high-level, numerically oriented programming language. The language provides an interpreted programming environment, with matrices as the main data type. By using matrix-based computation, dynamic typing, and automatic memory management, many numerical problems may be expressed in a reduced number of code lines, as compared to similar solutions using traditional languages, such as Fortran, C, or C++. This allows users to rapidly construct models for a range of mathematical problems. While the language provides simple matrix operations such as multiplication, the Scilab package also provides a library of high-level operations such as correlation and complex multidimensional arithmetic. The software can be used for signal processing, statistical analysis, image enhancement, fluid dynamics simulations, and numerical optimization. Scilab also includes a free package called Xcos (a fork of Scicos based on Modelica language) for modeling and simulation of explicit and implicit dynamical systems, including both continuous and discrete sub-systems. Xcos is the open source equivalent to Simulink from the MathWorks. As the syntax of Scilab is similar to MATLAB, Scilab includes a source code translator for assisting the conversion of code from MATLAB to Scilab. Scilab is available free of cost under an open source license. Due to the open source nature of the software, some user contributions have been integrated into the main program.", "Scilab syntax is largely based on the MATLAB language. The simplest way to execute Scilab code is to type it in at the prompt, codice_1, in the graphical command window. In this way, Scilab can be used as an interactive mathematical shell. Hello World! in Scilab: disp('Hello World'); Plotting a 3D surface function: // A simple plot of z = f(x,y) t=[0:0.3:2*%pi]'; z=sin(t)*cos(t'); plot3d(t,t',z) V", "Scilab has many contributed toolboxes for different tasks, such as More are available on ATOMS Portal or the Scilab forge.", "Scilab was created in 1990 by researchers from INRIA and École nationale des ponts et chaussées (ENPC). It was initially named Ψlab \"(Psilab)\". The Scilab Consortium was formed in May 2003 to broaden contributions and promote Scilab as worldwide reference software in academia and industry. In July 2008, in order to improve the technology transfer, the Scilab Consortium joined the Digiteo Foundation. Scilab 5.1, the first release compiled for Mac, was available in early 2009, and supported Mac OS X 10.5, a.k.a. Leopard. Thus, OSX 10.4, Tiger, was never supported except by porting from sources. Linux and Windows builds had been released since the beginning, with Solaris support dropped with version 3.1.1, and HP-UX dropped with version 4.1.2 after spotty support. In June 2010, the Consortium announced the creation of Scilab Enterprises. Scilab Enterprises develops and markets, directly or through an international network of affiliated services providers, a comprehensive set of services for Scilab users. Scilab Enterprises also develops and maintains the Scilab software. The ultimate goal of Scilab Enterprises is to help make the use of Scilab more effective and easy. In February 2017 Scilab 6.0.0 was released which leveraged the latest C++ standards and lifted memory allocation limitations. Since July 2012, Scilab is developed and published by Scilab Enterprises and in early 2017 Scilab Enterprises was acquired by Virtual Prototyping pioneer ESI Group", "Since 2016 Scilab can be embedded in a browser and be called via an interface written in Scilab or an API. This new deployment method has the notable advantages of masking code & data as well as providing large computational power." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geographical setting.", "Eruptive history.", "History.", "Infrastructure.", "Refuges.", "Observatory.", "Climbing routes.", "Elbrus Race.", "Environmental issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Elbrus\" seems to have a connection with \"Alborz\", which is also the name of a long mountain range in northern Iran. It is derived from Avestan \"Harā Bərəzaitī\", which is a legendary mountain in Iranian mythology. \"Harā Bərəzaitī\" reflects Proto-Iranian *\"Harā Bṛzatī\", which was reformed into Middle Persian as \"Harborz\", and into Modern Persian as \"Alborz\". \"Bṛzatī\" is the feminine form of the adjective *\"bṛzant\" (\"high\"), the reconstructed ancestor of Modern Ossetian \"bærzond\" (\"high\", \"peak\"), Modern Persian \"barz\" (\"high\"), \"berāzande\" (\"elegant\"), and \"boland\" (\"high\", \"tall\"), and Modern Kurdish \"barz\" (\"high\"). \"Harā\" may be interpreted as \"watch\" or \"guard\", from Indo-European *\"ser\" (\"protect\"). The name \"Mingi Taw\" used by Karachays and Balkars means \"Eternal Mountain\" in Turkic.", "Elbrus stands north of the main range of the Greater Caucasus and south-southwest of the Russian town of Kislovodsk. Its permanent icecap feeds 22 glaciers, which in turn give rise to the Baksan, Kuban, and Malka Rivers. Elbrus sits on a moving tectonic area, and has been linked to a fault. A supply of magma lies deep beneath the dormant volcano.", "Mount Elbrus was formed more than 2.5 million years ago. The volcano is currently considered dormant. Elbrus was active in the Holocene, and according to the Global Volcanism Program, the last eruption took place about AD 50. Evidence of recent volcanism includes several lava flows on the mountain, which look fresh, and roughly of volcanic debris. The longest flow extends down the northeast summit, indicative of a large eruption. There are other signs of activity on the volcano, including solfataric activity and hot springs. The western summit has a well-preserved volcanic crater about in diameter.", "The ancients knew the mountain as \"Strobilus\", Latin for \"pine cone\", a direct loan from the ancient Greek \"strobilos\", ('a twisted object') a long-established botanical term that describes the shape of the volcano's summit. In Greek mythology, the Titan Prometheus was chained to the mountain by Zeus as a punishment for stealing fire from the gods and giving it to mankind. The lower of the two summits was first ascended on by Khillar Khachirov, a guide for an Imperial Russian army scientific expedition led by General Georgi Emmanuel, and the higher (by about ) in 1874 by an English expedition led by F. Crauford Grove and including Frederick Gardner, Horace Walker, and the Swiss guide Peter Knubel of St. Niklaus in the canton Valais. During the early years of the Soviet Union, mountaineering became a popular sport of the populace, and there was tremendous traffic on the mountain. On 17 March 1936, a group of 33 inexperienced Komsomol members attempted the mountain, and ended up suffering four fatalities when they slipped on the ice and fell to their deaths. During the Battle of the Caucasus in World War II, the Wehrmacht occupied the area surrounding the mountain from August 1942 to February 1943 with Gebirgsjäger from the 1st Mountain Division. The Nazi Swastika was placed on the summit of Mount Elbrus on 21 August 1942. A possibly apocryphal story tells of a Soviet pilot being given a medal for bombing the main mountaineering hut, \"Priyut\" 11 (, \"Refuge of the 11\"), while it was occupied. He was then later nominated for a medal for not hitting the hut, but instead the German fuel supply, leaving the hut standing for future generations. When news reached Adolf Hitler that a detachment of mountaineers was sent by the general officer commanding the German division to climb to the summit of Elbrus and plant the swastika flag at its top, he reportedly flew into a rage, called the achievement a \"stunt\" and threatened to court martial the general. The Soviet Union encouraged ascents of Elbrus, and in 1956 it was climbed \"en masse\" by 400 mountaineers to mark the 400th anniversary of the incorporation of Kabardino-Balkaria, the Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic where Elbrus was located. From 1959 through 1976, a cable car system was built in stages that can take visitors as high as. There are a wide variety of routes up the mountain, but the normal route, which is free of crevasses, continues more or less straight up the slope from the end of the cable car system. During the summer, it is not uncommon for 100 people to be attempting the summit via this route each day. Winter ascents are rare, and are usually undertaken only by very experienced climbers. Elbrus is notorious for its brutal winter weather, and summit attempts are few and far between. The climb is not technically difficult, but it is physically arduous because of the elevations and the frequent strong winds. The average annual death toll on Elbrus is 15–30, primarily due to \"many unorganized and poorly equipped\" attempts to summit the mountain. Since 1986, Elbrus has been incorporated into Prielbrusye National Park, one of the Protected areas of Russia. Elbrus should not be confused with the Alborz (also called Elburz) mountains in Iran, which also derive their name from the legendary mountain Harā Bərəzaitī in Persian mythology. In 1997 a team led by the Russian mountaineer Alexander Abramov took a Land Rover Defender to the summit of the East Peak, breaking into the Guinness Book of Records. The project took 45 days in total. They were able to drive the vehicle as high as the mountain huts at The Barrels (), but above this they used a pulley system to raise it most of the way. On the way down, a driver lost control of the vehicle and had to dive out. Although he survived the accident, the vehicle crashed into rocks and remains below the summit to this day. In 2016, Russian climbers Artyom Kuimov and Sergey Baranov entered the Guinness Book of World Records by reaching the summit of Elbrus on ATVs. Due to the North Caucasus insurgency travel to Mount Elbrus has become increasingly difficult. The U.S. State Department has issued a travel advisory against climbing the mountain, as well as travel to the North Caucasian Federal District in general, due to the risk of terrorism and political instability.", "", "In 1929, eleven scientists erected a small hut at 4,160 metres and called it \"Priyut 11\" (Refuge of the 11). At the same site, a larger hut for 40 people was built in 1932. A wilderness hut was built in 1933 in the saddle between the two summits but collapsed after only a few years. Its remains can still be seen. In 1939, the Soviet Intourist travel agency built yet another structure a little above the \"Priyut 11\" site at 4,200 metres, covered in aluminium siding. It was meant to accommodate western tourists, who were encouraged to climb Mount Elbrus in commercial, guided tours at the time to bring in foreign currency. Not much later, this hut was converted into a mountain barracks, serving as a base, first for Soviet and later German troops in the Battle of the Caucasus of World War II. On 16 August 1998, this hut completely burned down after a cooking stove fell over. After that, the new \"Diesel hut\" was built in the summer of 2001 a few metres below its ruins, so called because it is located at the site of the former Diesel generator station. In addition, there is a collection of accommodations for six people each at the end of the short chairlift upwards of the second cableway section. Painted red and white, these horizontal steel cylinders (called \"Barrels\", Russian \"bochki\"), are used as a base and for acclimatization by many mountaineers on their way to the summit. Beside the \"Barrels\", there are several container accommodations between about 3,800 and 4,200 metres.", "The Terskol Observatory, an astronomical observatory with the IAU code B18, is located 2.5 km north-west of Terskol village at an altitude of.", "The \"Normal Route\" is the easiest, safest and fastest on account of the cable car and chairlift system which operates from about 9 a.m. till 3 p.m. Starting for the summit at about 2 a.m. from the Diesel Hut or Leaprus mountain hut should allow just enough time to get back down to the chairlift if movement is efficient. A longer ascent \"Kiukurtliu Route\" starts from below the cable-way Mir station and heads west over glacier slopes towards the Khotiutau pass. The ascent of Elbrus from the south takes about 6–9 hours, with a total height difference of between the Barrels Huts and the west summit of Elbrus. From Terskol village one can walk to the first elevation, Azau (). A cable car service is available from Azau to the normal starting location for the Elbrus climb, known as Barrels Hut or Garabashi Station (). The next destination – the Diesel Hut at – is located north from the Barrels Huts and up the slopes of Elbrus. From the Diesel Hut the route heads straight up towards the east summit of Elbrus, continuing north up the slopes. The slopes surrounding the classical route to Elbrus from the South contain large crevasses. Heading towards Pashtuhova Rocks (at elevation), the classical route up Elbrus becomes steeper after passing between two linear rock bands. After leaving this section, the Elbrus route heads on – first northward, to the east summit of Elbrus, or rather the saddle between the east and west summits of Elbrus (), but soon turns left to the west summit (). Before reaching this saddle, the route passes through a gently sloped basin filled with snow. At the saddle there is a shelter, from which the route heads west, then – left, in the direction of rocks forming the shoulder of the west summit, in the form of a narrow, exposed snow path that allows for a straight dash to the summit ridge. The descent of Elbrus takes about 3–6 hours. While returning from the Elbrus summit, the most common mistake that climbers make and that often turns out fatal is heading low and down too early after their half-traverse below the saddle, especially under conditions of low visibility in stormy weather. On descent after the saddle, instead of going down the slope too early, one could stay high up on the slopes of the east peak, otherwise the route will become very steep and feature dangerous crevasses and falls. The north climbing route requires more commitment and is more remote than the south route. Also contributing to this is the fact that on the lower altitudes of the mountain this route can offer less in the way of infrastructure. However, this also means less human intrusion onto the landscape. With mechanical support brought to minimum, the tour to Elbrus from the north is mainly camping, with the summit route being longer and harder, and requiring good teamwork and/or winter camping skills since, if the weather is favorable, it involves an interim camp at or gaining 2000 vertical meters/6561 vertical ft up and down. Elbrus ascent by the north route offers rich ice and snow experience under unpredictable weather conditions.", "The first race on Elbrus took place in 1990, with Soviet and American climbers competing. The race was won by Anatoli Boukreev, with Kevin Cooney in second, followed by Patrick Healy. Route Priut 11 (4050 m) – East (lower) was summited in 1 hour and 47 minutes. Regular competitions began to take place in 2005, with a choice of two routes: the \"classic\" climb from \"Barrels\" at 3708 m to the western summit (5642 m) and a long climb, from the Azau Meadow at 2350 m to the same summit. In 2006, Denis Urubko won the long ascent in 3 hours 55 minutes 59 seconds. On 24 September 2010, under the Artur Hajzer program \"Polish Winter Himalayism 2010–2015\", the Polish Mountaineering Association sent a 13-person team for training purposes. Andrzej Bargiel set a new long course record of 3 hours 23 minutes 37 seconds. The record time for the full race, ascent and descent, of the long route is 4:20:45, set on 7 May 2017 by Swiss-Ecuadorian mountain guide Karl Egloff. Egloff broke the previous record set in September 2014 by Vitaliy Shkel by more than 18 minutes. He reached the summit in 3:24:14, missing Bergiel's record ascent-only time by 37 seconds; the race organization and the International Skyrunning Federation nevertheless consider Egloff's ascent a record as well. The fastest times by a woman on the long route were set by Diana Zelenova (4:30:12 for the ascent in 2017) and Oksana Stefanishina (6:25:23 for the full race in 2015).", "Mount Elbrus is said to be home to the 'world's nastiest' outhouse which is close to being the highest privy in Europe. The title was conferred by \"Outside\" magazine following a 1993 search and article. The \"outhouse\" is surrounded by and covered in ice, perched off the end of a rock." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Friar.", "Preacher.", "Prophet.", "In Machiavelli's \"The Prince\".", "Reformer.", "Excommunication and death.", "Aftermath.", "Bibliography.", "Savonarola's writings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Savonarola was born on 21 September 1452 in Ferrara to Niccolò di Michele and Elena. His father Niccolò was born in Ferrara to a family originally from Padua; his mother, Elena, claimed a lineage from the Bonacossi family of Mantua. She and Niccolò had seven children, of whom Girolamo was third. His grandfather, Michele Savonarola, a noted and successful physician and polymath, oversaw Girolamo's education. The family amassed a great deal of wealth from Michele's medical practice. After his grandfather's death in 1468, Savonarola may have attended the public school run by Battista Guarino, son of Guarino da Verona, where he would have received his introduction to the classics as well as to the poetry and writings of Petrarch, father of Renaissance humanism. Earning an arts degree at the University of Ferrara, he prepared to enter medical school, following in his grandfather's footsteps. At some point, however, he abandoned his career intentions. In his early poems, he expresses his preoccupation with the state of the Church and of the world. He began to write poetry of an apocalyptic bent, notably \"On the Ruin of the World\" (1472) and \"On the Ruin of the Church\" (1475), in which he singled out the papal court at Rome for special obloquy. About the same time, he seems to have been thinking about a life in religion. As he later told his biographer, a sermon he heard by a preacher in Faenza persuaded him to abandon the world. Most of his biographers reject or ignore the account of his younger brother and follower, Maurelio (later fra Mauro), that in his youth Girolamo had been spurned by a neighbor, Laudomia Strozzi, to whom he proposed marriage. True or not, in a letter he wrote to his father when he left home to join the Dominican Order he hints at being troubled by desires of the flesh. There is also a story that on the eve of his departure he dreamed that he was cleansed of such thoughts by a shower of icy water which prepared him for the ascetic life. In the unfinished treatise he left behind, later called \"De contemptu Mundi\", or \"On Contempt for the World\", he calls upon readers to fly from this world of adultery, sodomy, murder, and envy. On 25 April 1475, Girolamo Savonarola went to Bologna where he knocked on the door of the Convent of San Domenico, of the Order of Friars Preacher, and asked to be admitted. As he told his father in his farewell letter, he wanted to become a knight of Christ.", "In the convent, Savonarola took the vow of obedience proper to his order, and after a year was ordained to the priesthood. He studied Scripture, logic, Aristotelian philosophy and Thomistic theology in the Dominican studium, practised preaching to his fellow friars, and engaged in disputations. He then matriculated in the theological faculty to prepare for an advanced degree. Even as he continued to write devotional works and to deepen his spiritual life, he was openly critical of what he perceived as the decline in convent austerity. In 1478 his studies were interrupted when he was sent to the Dominican priory of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Ferrara as assistant master of novices. The assignment might have been a normal, temporary break from the academic routine, but in Savonarola's case it was a turning point. One explanation is that he had alienated certain of his superiors, particularly fra Vincenzo Bandelli, or Bandello, a professor at the studium and future master general of the Dominicans, who resented the young friar's opposition to modifying the Order's rules against the ownership of property. In 1482, instead of returning to Bologna to resume his studies, Savonarola was assigned as lector, or teacher, in the Convent of San Marco in Florence. In San Marco, fra Girolamo (Savonarola) taught logic to the novices, wrote instructional manuals on ethics, logic, philosophy and government, composed devotional works, and prepared his sermons for local congregations. As he recorded in his notes, his preaching was not altogether successful. Florentines were put off by his foreign-sounding Ferrarese speech, his strident voice and (especially to those who valued humanist rhetoric) his inelegant style. While waiting for a friend in the Convent of San Giorgio, he was studying Scripture when he suddenly conceived \"about seven reasons\" why the Church was about to be scourged and renewed. He broached these apocalyptic themes in San Gimignano, where he went as Lenten preacher in 1485 and again in 1486, but a year later, when he left San Marco for a new assignment, he had said nothing of his \"San Giorgio revelations\" in Florence.", "For the next several years Savonarola lived as an itinerant preacher with a message of repentance and reform in the cities and convents of north Italy. As his letters to his mother and his writings show, his confidence and sense of mission grew along with his widening reputation. In 1490, he was reassigned to San Marco. It seems that this was due to the initiative of the humanist philosopher-prince, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who had heard Savonarola in a formal disputation in Reggio Emilia and been impressed with his learning and piety. Pico was in trouble with the Church for some of his unorthodox philosophical ideas (the famous \"900 theses\") and was living under the protection of Lorenzo the Magnificent, the Medici \"de facto\" ruler of Florence. To have Savonarola beside him as a spiritual counsellor, he persuaded Lorenzo that the friar would bring prestige to the convent of San Marco and its Medici patrons. After some delay, apparently due to the interference of his former professor fra Vincenzo Bandelli, now Vicar General of the Order, Lorenzo succeeded in bringing Savonarola back to Florence, where he arrived in May or June of that year.", "Savonarola preached on the First Epistle of John and on the Book of Revelation, drawing such large crowds that he eventually moved to the Cathedral. Without mentioning names, he made pointed allusions to tyrants who usurped the freedom of the people, and he excoriated their allies, the rich and powerful who neglected and exploited the poor. Complaining of the evil lives of a corrupt clergy, he now called for repentance and renewal before the arrival of a divine scourge. Scoffers dismissed him as an over-excited zealot and \"preacher of the desperate\" and sneered at his growing band of followers as \"Piagnoni\"—\"Weepers\" or \"Wailers\", an epithet they adopted. In 1492 Savonarola warned of \"the Sword of the Lord over the earth quickly and soon\" and envisioned terrible tribulations to Rome. Around 1493 (these sermons have not survived) he began to prophesy that a New Cyrus was coming over the mountains to begin the renewal of the Church. In September 1494 King Charles VIII of France crossed the Alps with a formidable army, throwing Italy into political chaos. Many viewed the arrival of King Charles as proof of Savonarola's gift of prophecy. Charles, however, advanced on Florence, sacking Tuscan strongholds and threatening to punish the city for refusing to support his expedition. As the populace took to the streets to expel Piero the Unfortunate, Lorenzo de' Medici's son and successor, Savonarola led a delegation to the camp of the French king in mid-November 1494. He pressed Charles to spare Florence and enjoined him to take up his divinely appointed role as the reformer of the Church. After a short, tense occupation of the city, and another intervention by fra Girolamo (as well as the promise of a huge subsidy), the French resumed their journey southward on 28 November 1494. Savonarola now declared that by answering his call to penitence, the Florentines had begun to build a new Ark of Noah which had saved them from the waters of the divine flood. Even more sensational was the message in his sermon of 10 December: I announce this good news to the city, that Florence will be more glorious, richer, more powerful than she has ever been; First, glorious in the sight of God as well as of men: and you, O Florence will be the reformation of all Italy, and from here the renewal will begin and spread everywhere, because this is the navel of Italy. Your counsels will reform all by the light and grace that God will give you. Second, O Florence, you will have innumerable riches, and God will multiply all things for you. Third, you will spread your empire, and thus you will have power temporal and spiritual. This astounding guarantee may have been an allusion to the traditional patriotic myth of Florence as the new Rome, which Savonarola would have encountered in his readings in Florentine history. In any case, it encompassed both temporal power and spiritual leadership.", "Discussed in Chapter VI of Niccolò Machiavelli's book \"The Prince\" (\"Concerning New Principalities Which Are Acquired by One's Own Arms and Ability\"), Fra Girolamo Savonarola was seen by Machiavelli as an incompetent, ill-prepared and \"unarmed\" prophet, unlike \"Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Romulus\". Of Savonarola, Machiavelli wrote: If Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Romulus had been unarmed they could not have enforced their constitutions for long—as happened in our time to Fra Girolamo Savonarola, who was ruined with his new order of things immediately the multitude believed in him no longer, and he had no means of keeping steadfast those who believed or of making the unbelievers to believe.", "With Savonarola's advice and support (as a non-citizen and cleric he was ineligible to hold office), a Savonarolan political \"party\", dubbed \"the Frateschi\", took shape and steered the friar's program through the councils. The oligarchs most compromised by their service to the Medici were barred from office. A new constitution enfranchised the artisan class, opened minor civic offices to selection by lot and granted every citizen in good standing the right to a vote in a new parliament, the Consiglio Maggiore, or Great Council. At Savonarola's urging the Frateschi government, after months of debate, passed a \"Law of Appeal\" to limit the longtime practice of using exile and capital punishment as factional weapons. Savonarola declared a new era of \"universal peace\". On 13 January 1495 he preached his great Renovation Sermon to a huge audience in the Cathedral, recalling that he had begun prophesying in Florence four years earlier, although the divine light had come to him \"more than fifteen, maybe twenty years ago\". He now claimed that he had predicted the deaths of Lorenzo de' Medici and of Pope Innocent VIII in 1492 and the coming of the sword to Italy—the invasion of King Charles of France. As he had foreseen, God had chosen Florence, \"the navel of Italy\", as his favourite and he repeated: if the city continued to do penance and began the work of renewal it would have riches, glory and power. If the Florentines had any doubt that the promise of worldly power and glory had heavenly sanction, Savonarola emphasised this in a sermon of 1 April 1495, in which he described his mystical journey to the Virgin Mary in heaven. At the celestial throne Savonarola presents the Holy Mother a crown made by the Florentine people and presses her to reveal their future. Mary warns that the way will be hard both for the city and for him, but she assures him that God will fulfil his promises: Florence will be \"more glorious, more powerful and richer than ever, extending its wings farther than anyone can imagine\". She and her heavenly minions will protect the city against its enemies and support its alliance with the French. In the New Jerusalem that is Florence peace and unity will reign. Based on such visions, Savonarola promoted theocracy, and declared Christ the king of Florence. He saw sacred art as a tool to promote this worldview, and he was therefore only opposed to secular art, which he saw as worthless and potentially damaging. Buoyed by liberation and prophetic promise, the Florentines embraced Savonarola's campaign to rid the city of \"vice\". At his repeated insistence, new laws were passed against \"sodomy\" (which included male and female same-sex relations), adultery, public drunkenness, and other moral transgressions, while his lieutenant Fra Silvestro Maruffi organised boys and young men to patrol the streets to curb immodest dress and behaviour. For a time, Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503) tolerated friar Girolamo's strictures against the Church, but he was moved to anger when Florence declined to join his new Holy League against the French invader, and blamed it on Savonarola's pernicious influence. An exchange of letters between the pope and the friar ended in an impasse which Savonarola tried to break by sending the pope \"a little book\" recounting his prophetic career and describing some of his more dramatic visions. This was the Compendium of Revelations, a self-dramatization which was one of the farthest-reaching and most popular of his writings. The pope was not mollified. He summoned the friar to appear before him in Rome, and when Savonarola refused, pleading ill health and confessing that he was afraid of being attacked on the journey, Alexander banned him from further preaching. For some months Savonarola obeyed, but when he saw his influence slipping he defied the pope and resumed his sermons, which became more violent in tone. He not only attacked secret enemies at home whom he rightly suspected of being in league with the papal Curia, he condemned the conventional, or \"tepid\", Christians who were slow to respond to his calls. He dramatised his moral campaign with special Masses for the youth, processions, bonfires of the vanities and religious theatre in San Marco. He and his close friend, the humanist poet Girolamo Benivieni, composed lauds and other devotional songs for the Carnival processions of 1496, 1497 and 1498, replacing the bawdy Carnival songs of the era of Lorenzo de' Medici. These continued to be copied and performed after his death, along with songs composed by Piagnoni in his memory. A number of them have survived.", "On 12 May 1497, Pope Alexander VI excommunicated Savonarola and threatened the Florentines with an interdict if they persisted in harbouring him. On 18 March 1498, after much debate and steady pressure from a worried government, he withdrew from public preaching. Under the stress of excommunication, Savonarola composed his spiritual masterpiece, the \"Triumph of the Cross\", a celebration of the victory of the Cross over sin and death and an exploration of what it means to be a Christian. This he summed up in the theological virtue of \"caritas\", or love. In loving their neighbour, Christians return the love which they have received from their Creator and Savior. Savonarola hinted at performing miracles to prove his divine mission, but when a rival Franciscan preacher proposed to test that mission by walking through fire, he lost control of the public discourse. Without consulting him, his confidant Fra Domenico da Pescia offered himself as his surrogate and Savonarola felt he could not afford to refuse. The first trial by fire in Florence for over four hundred years was set for 7 April. A crowd filled the central square, eager to see if God would intervene and if so, on which side. The nervous contestants and their delegations delayed the start of the contest for hours. A sudden rain drenched the spectators and government officials cancelled the proceedings. The crowd disbanded angrily; the burden of proof had been on Savonarola and he was blamed for the fiasco. A mob assaulted the convent of San Marco. Fra Girolamo, Fra Domenico, and Fra Silvestro Maruffi were arrested and imprisoned. Under torture Savonarola confessed to having invented his prophecies and visions, then recanted, then confessed again. In his prison cell in the tower of the government palace he composed meditations on Psalms 51 and 31. On the morning of 23 May 1498, the three friars were led out into the main square where, before a tribunal of high clerics and government officials, they were condemned as heretics and schismatics, and sentenced to die forthwith. Stripped of their Dominican garments in ritual degradation, they mounted the scaffold in their thin white shirts. Each on a separate gallows, they were hanged, while fires were ignited below them to consume their bodies. To prevent devotees from searching for relics, their ashes were carted away and scattered in the Arno.", "Resisting censorship and exile, the friars of San Marco fostered a cult of \"the three martyrs\" and venerated Savonarola as a saint. They encouraged women in local convents and surrounding towns to find mystical inspiration in his example, and, by preserving many of his sermons and writings, they helped keep his political as well as his religious ideas alive. The return of the Medici in 1512 ended the Savonarola-inspired republic and intensified pressure against the movement, although both were briefly revived in 1527 when the Medici were once again forced out. In 1530, however, Pope Clement VII (Giulio de' Medici), with the help of soldiers of the Holy Roman Emperor, restored Medici rule, and Florence became a hereditary dukedom. His devotees, the Piagnoni, were silenced, hunted, tortured, imprisoned and exiled, and the movement, at least as a political force, came to an end. Savonarolan religious ideas found a reception elsewhere. In Germany and Switzerland the early Protestant reformers, most notably Martin Luther himself, read some of the friar's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by faith alone. In France many of his works were translated and published and Savonarola came to be regarded as a precursor of evangelical, or Huguenot, reform. Within the Dominican Order Savonarola was repackaged as an innocuous, purely devotional figure (\"the evolving image of a Counter-Reformation saintly prelate\"), and in this benevolent and unthreatening guise his memory lived on. Philip Neri, founder of the Oratorians, a Florentine who had been educated by the San Marco Dominicans, also defended Savonarola's memory. In the mid-nineteenth century, the \"New Piagnoni\" found inspiration in the friar's writings and sermons for the Italian national awakening known as the Risorgimento. By emphasising his political activism over his puritanism and cultural conservatism they restored Savonarola's voice for radical political change. The venerable Counter Reformation icon ceded to the fiery Renaissance reformer. This somewhat anachronistic image, fortified by much new scholarship, informed the major new biography by Pasquale Villari, who regarded Savonarola's preaching against Medici despotism as the model for the Italian struggle for liberty and national unification. In Germany, the Catholic theologian and church historian Joseph Schnitzer edited and published contemporary sources which illuminated Savonarola's career. In 1924 he crowned his vast research with a comprehensive study of Savonarola's life and times in which he presented the friar as the last best hope of the Catholic Church before the catastrophe of the Protestant Reformation. In the Italian People's Party founded by Don Luigi Sturzo in 1919, Savonarola was revered as a champion of social justice, and after 1945 he was held up as a model of reformed Catholicism by leaders of the Christian Democratic Party. From this milieu, in 1952, came the third of the major Savonarola biographies, the \"Vita di Girolamo Savonarola\" by Roberto Ridolfi. For the next half century Ridolfi was the guardian of the friar's saintly memory as well as the dean of Savonarola research which he helped grow into a scholarly industry. Today, with most of Savonarola's treatises and sermons and many of the contemporary sources (chronicles, diaries, government documents and literary works) available in critical editions, scholars can provide fresh, better informed assessments of his character and his place in the Renaissance, the Reformation and modern European history. The present-day Church has considered his beatification.", "", "Almost thirty volumes of Savonarola's sermons and writings have so far been published in the \"Edizione nazionale delle Opere di Girolamo Savonarola\" (Rome, Angelo Belardetti, 1953 to the present). For editions of the 15th and 16th centuries see \"Catalogo delle edizioni di Girolamo Savonarola (secc. xv–xvi)\" ed. P. Scapecchi (Florence, 1998, )." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Post-World War II (1945–1970).", "Recent history (1971–present).", "Aircraft crashes.", "Institutions.", "Canadian Forces Station Alert.", "Civilian contractor.", "Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory.", "Demographics.", "Geography.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Alert is named after, a British ship that wintered about away in 1875–76. The ship's captain, George Nares, and his crew were the first recorded Europeans to reach the northern end of Ellesmere Island. Over the following decades, several other expeditions passed through the area, most notably Robert Peary during his expedition to reach the north pole in 1909.", "Shortly after the end of World War II, Charles J. Hubbard of the United States Weather Bureau began to rouse interest in the United States and Canada for the establishment of a network of Arctic stations. His plan, in broad perspective, envisaged the establishment of two main stations, one in Greenland and the other within the Archipelago, which could be reached by sea supply. These main stations would then serve as advance bases from which a number of smaller stations would be established by air. The immediate plans contemplated the establishment of weather stations only, but it was felt that a system of weather stations would also provide a nucleus of transportation, communications and settlements, which would greatly aid programs of research in many other fields of science. It was recognized that ultimate action would depend on international co-operation, since the land masses involved were under Canadian and Danish control. Following negotiations between the American and Canadian governments, a group of five weather stations were established, known as the Joint Arctic Weather Stations (JAWS). On the Canadian side, the stations were to be operated by the Department of Transport. The locations for each station were surveyed in 1946, and a cache of supplies was dropped in Alert in 1948 by USS \"Edisto\". Alert was the last of the five to be settled when the first twelve personnel (eight permanent staff and four to assist with construction) arrived on April 9, 1950. Construction began immediately, with the first priority being the creation of an ice runway on Alert Inlet before work began on the permanent all-season runway located on Cape Belknap. Until its completion, supplies were parachuted in. On July 30, 1950, nine crew members of a Royal Canadian Air Force Lancaster died in a crash while making an airdrop of supplies to the station. The last American personnel were withdrawn on October 31, 1970, and the following year operation of the weather station was transferred to the newly created Department of the Environment, with the Department of Transport retaining control of airfield operations for several more years. In April 1971, a party of federal and Northwest Territories (NWT) government officials arrived in Alert in an attempt to reach the North Pole. Alert had been the embarkation point for many North Pole expeditions that relied on weather information supplied by the weather station there. The 1971 expedition was led by NWT Commissioner, Stuart Hodgson, and included in his party were representatives of the Prime Minister's office, the Canadian Armed Forces, the federal Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, as well as a large media group including Pat Carney of Gemini Productions, Ed Ogle of \"Time\" magazine, Val Wake of \"CBC News\" and a television crew from California. While waiting in Alert for a weather window to fly into the Pole, the party's television crew spent a lot of time filming at the weather station. The military was unhappy about the film crew working on the station, but the weather station was seen as being a sort of no-man's land. The Commissioner's party made two attempts to reach the Pole and failed. Some of the incidents surrounding this event are recounted in Val Wake's memoir \"My Voyage around Spray with Apologies to Captain Joshua Slocum\".", "In August 1975, Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau and his then 3-year-old son and future prime minister, Justin Trudeau visited the station and nearby Ward Hunt Island. In August 1986, the Government of Canada opened Alert Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network in Alert. By the 1990s, the remaining buildings for the original weather station had fallen into a state of disrepair and were burned in the summer of 1996, leaving only the hydrogen shed and a wooden outhouse. The weather station and observatory offices were moved to Polaris Hall. In early April 2006, the Roly McLenahan Torch that was used to light the flame at Whitehorse, Yukon, for the Canada Winter Games passed through Alert. While the Canada Games torch was supposed to pass over the North Pole, bad weather prevented a Canadian military Twin Otter from making the trip. The torch did not travel outside Alert that weekend (April 9–12). In August 2006, then-Prime Minister, Stephen Harper, made a visit to Alert as part of his campaign to promote Canadian sovereignty in the north. On November 8, 2009, the 2010 Winter Olympics torch relay arrived at Alert via airplane from Churchill, Manitoba, reaching its most northerly point on land. The next day it travelled to Iqaluit. On January 19 and 20, 2015, Governor General David Johnston flew into Alert on a C-17 Globemaster transport from CFB Trenton. He toured Alert, received an overview of its operations, met with civilian and military personnel and presided over a change-of-command.", "Since Alert has not been regularly accessible by icebreakers due to heavy ice conditions in the Lincoln Sea, resupply is provided by Royal Canadian Air Force transport aircraft which land at the adjacent Alert Airport. Difficult conditions at such a remote northern location have resulted in several incidents, two of which have involved fatalities:", "", "Since the beginning of the JAWS project, the Canadian Armed Forces had been interested in the establishment at Alert for several reasons: the JAWS facility extended Canadian sovereignty over a large uninhabited area which Canada claimed as its sovereign territory, and furthermore, its proximity to the Soviet Union made it of strategic importance. In fact, Alert is closer to Moscow (c. ) than it is to Ottawa (c. ). Thus, the possibility of utilizing the site for the purpose of intercepting radio signals was deemed to warrant a military presence. In 1950, Alert Airport was established. It is the only airport serving the settlement and is presently a part of CFS Alert. In 1956, the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), which was expanding its presence throughout the high Arctic with the construction of the Distant Early Warning Line radar network, established a building uphill from the DOT's JAWS station to house \"High Arctic Long Range Communications Research\", or signals intelligence operations. In 1957, Alert Wireless Station was conceived as an intercept facility to be jointly staffed by personnel from the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and the RCAF. Five additional buildings were constructed: a mess, three barracks/accommodations buildings, and a power house and vehicle maintenance building, in addition to the existing operations building, built in 1956. The operations building housed the radio intercept and cryptographic equipment. On September 1, 1958, control of the station was transferred from the Air Force to the Army, and it officially began operations. The following decade saw a dramatic expansion of the station, with a correspondingly greater number of personnel stationed there. The February 1, 1968, unification of the RCN, RCAF and Canadian Army to form the Canadian Armed Forces saw Alert Wireless Station change its name to Canadian Forces Station Alert (CFS Alert). Its personnel were no longer drawn from only the Air Force or Navy, but primarily from the Canadian Forces Communications Command. At its peak, CFS Alert had upwards of 215 personnel posted at any one time. The station became a key asset in the global ECHELON network of the US-UK-CAN-AUS-NZ intelligence sharing alliance, with Alert being privy to many secret Soviet communications regarding land-based and sea-based ICBM test launches and many operational military deployments. The first military women to serve in Alert arrived in 1980 as part of the Canadian Forces' Women In Non-Traditional Roles study. After its completion in 1983, women were fully authorized to serve in all roles. The first female commanding officer was Maj. Cathy Cowan, who took command in January 1996. The first female Station Warrant Officer (SWO), MWO Renee Hansen, was appointed in December 2017. Budget cuts to the Department of National Defence and Canadian Forces in 1994 and modernization of communications equipment saw CFS Alert downsized to approximately 74 personnel by 1997–1998, when most radio-intercept operations were remotely controlled by personnel at CFS Leitrim. Remaining personnel are responsible for airfield operations, construction/engineering, food service, and logistical/administrative support. Only six personnel are now responsible for actual operations, and control of the facility was passed to DND's Information Management Group following the disbanding of CF Communications Command with force restructuring and cutbacks in the mid-1990s. With Canada's commitment to the global war on terrorism following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C., CFS Alert has received renewed and increased funding to expand its SIGINT capabilities. On April 1, 2009, the RCAF officially took responsibility for CFS Alert from Canadian Forces Information Operations Group (CFIOG).", "As of April 13, 2006, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation was reporting that the heating costs for the station had risen, as a consequence of which the military proposed to cut back on support trade positions by using private contractors. By 2008, maintenance operations on the station—including food and housekeeping services, vehicle maintenance, powerplant operation, and heating, electrical, and plumbing—had been transferred to a civilian contractor. The contract was initially awarded to Canadian Base Operators (CBO), a subsidiary of Black & McDonald. In 2012, the contract was won by Nasittuq, a subsidiary of ATCO.", "In 1975, technicians employed by the weather station began collecting flask samples for a greenhouse gas monitoring program. In 1980, this grew to include the weekly collection of filter-based aerosol samples for the Canadian Arctic Aerosol Sampling Network (CAASN). By 1984, the number of ongoing monitoring programs and the amount of experimental research had outgrown the abilities of the weather station to maintain, and plans were made for the construction of a permanent observatory. This observatory, located southwest of Lancaster Hall (more commonly known as the far transmitter building), was opened August 29, 1986. Originally known as the Alert Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network (BAPMoN) Observatory, it was subsequently renamed the Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory in honour of the Environment Canada researcher who provided the impetus for its construction. The observatory employs two technicians, who reside at CFS Alert: an operator and an assistant operator (normally a university co-op student). It is managed by Environment and Climate Change Canada.", "While Alert has no permanent residents, it has been permanently inhabited since April 1950. This population, while initially small, grew to upwards of 250 in the 1970s and 80s, before being downsized in the 1990s when information gathering operations were relayed to CFS Leitrim near Ottawa for collation, reducing the on site staff considerably. Its current population ranges from a winter minimum of 65 to a summer maximum of 110, plus a variety of short-term visitors, who can swell the total to 150 or more.", "Alert is located west of Cape Sheridan, the northeastern tip of Ellesmere Island, on the shore of the ice-covered Lincoln Sea. Alert lies just from the North Pole; the nearest Canadian city is Iqaluit, the capital of the territory of Nunavut, away. The settlement is surrounded by rugged hills and valleys. The shore is composed primarily of slate and shale. The sea is covered with sea ice for most of the year but the ice pack does move out in the summer months, leaving open water. Evaporation rates are also very low, as average monthly temperatures are above freezing only in July and August. Other places on Ellesmere Island are the weather station at Eureka () and the Inuit community of Grise Fiord,, to the southwest and south, respectively. Siorapaluk ( to the south) is the nearest populated place in Greenland.", "Alert has a polar climate, technically a tundra climate with characteristics of an ice cap climate. There is complete snow cover for at least 10 months of the year on average and snow from one year persists into the next year in protected areas, but enough melts to prevent glaciation. The warmest month, July, has an average temperature of, with only July and August averaging above freezing, and those are also the months where well over 90% of the rainfall occurs. Alert is also very dry, the fourth-driest locality in Nunavut, averaging only of precipitation per year. Most of this occurs during the months of July, August and September, mostly in the form of snow. On average Alert sees of rain, the least of any place in Nunavut, between June and September. Alert sees very little snowfall during the rest of the year. September is usually the month with the heaviest snowfall. February is the coldest month of the year with a mean temperature of. The yearly mean,, is the second-coldest in Nunavut after Eureka. Snowfall can occur during any month of the year, and the average frost-free growing season in an average summer averages only five days. Being far north of the Arctic Circle, Alert experiences polar night from October 14 to February 28, and midnight sun from April 7 to September 4. There are two relatively short periods of twilight from about February 13 to March 22 and the second from September 19 to October 22. The civil polar night lasts from October 29 to February 11. Nautical polar night—where 24 hours are in effect completely dark with only a marginal astronomical twilight—occurs from November 19 to January 22." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Observation history.", "System.", "Names.", "Cultural significance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An Ancient Egyptian Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days composed some 3,200 years ago is claimed to be the oldest historical document of the discovery of Algol. The association of Algol with a demon-like creature (Gorgon in the Greek tradition, ghoul in the Arabic tradition) suggests that its variability was known long before the 17th century, but there is still no indisputable evidence for this. The Arabic astronomer al-Sufi said nothing about any variability of the star in his \"Book of Fixed Stars\" published c.964. The variability of Algol was noted in 1667 by Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari, but the periodic nature of its variations in brightness was not recognized until more than a century later, when the British amateur astronomer John Goodricke also proposed a mechanism for the star's variability. In May 1783, he presented his findings to the Royal Society, suggesting that the periodic variability was caused by a dark body passing in front of the star (or else that the star itself has a darker region that is periodically turned toward the Earth). For his report he was awarded the Copley Medal. In 1881, the Harvard astronomer Edward Charles Pickering presented evidence that Algol was actually an eclipsing binary. This was confirmed a few years later, in 1889, when the Potsdam astronomer Hermann Carl Vogel found periodic doppler shifts in the spectrum of Algol, inferring variations in the radial velocity of this binary system. Thus Algol became one of the first known spectroscopic binaries. Joel Stebbins at the University of Illinois Observatory used an early selenium cell photometer to produce the first-ever photoelectric study of a variable star. The light curve revealed the second minimum and the reflection effect between the two stars. Some difficulties in explaining the observed spectroscopic features led to the conjecture that a third star may be present in the system; four decades later this conjecture was found to be correct. Listed are the first eclipse dates and times of each month; all times in UT. β Persei Aa2 eclipses β Persei Aa1 every 2.867321 days (2 days 20 hours 49 min); therefore keep adding that much to each date and time to get the following eclipses. For example, the Jan 2, 20h, eclipse will yield consecutive eclipse times on Jan 5, 17h, then Jan 8, 16h, then Jan 11, 13h, etc. (all times approximate).", "Algol is a multiple-star system with three confirmed and two suspected stellar components. From the point of view of the Earth, Algol Aa1 and Algol Aa2 form an eclipsing binary because their orbital plane contains the line of sight to the Earth. The eclipsing binary pair is separated by only 0.062 astronomical units (au) from each other, whereas the third star in the system (Algol Ab) is at an average distance of 2.69 au from the pair, and the mutual orbital period of the trio is 681 Earth days. The total mass of the system is about 5.8 solar masses, and the mass ratios of Aa1, Aa2, and Ab are about 4.5 to 1 to 2. The three components of the bright triple star used to be, and still sometimes are, referred to as β Per A, B, and C. The Washington Double Star Catalog lists them as Aa1, Aa2, and Ab, with two very faint stars B and C about one arcmin distant. A further five faint stars are also listed as companions. Studies of Algol led to the Algol paradox in the theory of stellar evolution: although components of a binary star form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive stars, the more massive component Algol A is still in the main sequence, but the less massive Algol B is a subgiant star at a later evolutionary stage. The paradox can be solved by mass transfer: when the more massive star became a subgiant, it filled its Roche lobe, and most of the mass was transferred to the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some binaries similar to Algol, a gas flow can be seen. The gas flow between the primary and secondary stars in Algol has been imaged using Doppler Tomography. This system also exhibits x-ray and radio wave flares. The x-ray flares are thought to be caused by the magnetic fields of the A and B components interacting with the mass transfer. The radio-wave flares might be created by magnetic cycles similar to those of sunspots, but because the magnetic fields of these stars are up to ten times stronger than the field of the Sun, these radio flares are more powerful and more persistent. The secondary component was identified as the radio emitting source in Algol using Very-long-baseline interferometry by Lestrade and co-authors. Magnetic activity cycles in the chromospherically active secondary component induce changes in its radius of gyration that have been linked to recurrent orbital period variations on the order of ≈ 10 via the Applegate mechanism. Mass transfer between the components is small in the Algol system but could be a significant source of period change in other Algol-type binaries. Algol is about 92.8 light-years from the Sun, but about 7.3 million years ago it passed within 9.8 light-years of the Solar System and its apparent magnitude was about −2.5, which is considerably brighter than the star Sirius is today. Because the total mass of the Algol system is about 5.8 solar masses, at the closest approach this might have given enough gravity to perturb the Oort cloud of the Solar System somewhat and hence increase the number of comets entering the inner Solar System. However, the actual increase in net cometary collisions is thought to have been quite small.", "\"Beta Persei\" is the star's Bayer designation. The name \"Algol\" derives from Arabic \"raʾs al-ghūl\" : head (\"raʾs\") of the ogre (\"al-ghūl\") (see \"ghoul\"). The English name Demon Star was taken from the Arabic name. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included \"Algol\" for this star. It is so entered on the IAU Catalog of Star Names. In Hebrew folklore, Algol was called \"Rōsh ha Sāṭān\" or \"Satan's Head\", as stated by Edmund Chilmead, who called it \"Divels head\" or \"Rosch hassatan\". A Latin name for Algol from the 16th century was \"Caput Larvae\" or \"the Spectre's Head\". Hipparchus and Pliny made this a separate, though connected, constellation. In Chinese, (), meaning \"Mausoleum\", refers to an asterism consisting of β Persei, 9 Persei, τ Persei, ι Persei, κ Persei, ρ Persei, 16 Persei and 12 Persei. Consequently, the Chinese name for β Persei itself is (, English: The Fifth Star of Mausoleum.). According to R.H. Allen the star bore the grim name of \"Tseih She\" (), meaning \"Piled up Corpses\" but this appears to be a misidentification, and \"Dié Shī\" is correctly π Persei, which is inside the Mausoleum.", "Historically, the star has received a strong association with bloody violence across a wide variety of cultures. In the \"Tetrabiblos\", the 2nd-century astrological text of the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy, Algol is referred to as \"the Gorgon of Perseus\" and associated with death by decapitation: a theme which mirrors the myth of the hero Perseus's victory over the snake-haired Gorgon Medusa. Astrologically, Algol is considered one of the unluckiest stars in the sky, and was listed as one of the 15 Behenian stars." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Design and development.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The successful flights of LZ 3 in 1906 had produced a change in the official attitude to Count Zeppelin's work, and a grant of 500,000 marks had been voted by the Reichstag. However, a condition of purchase by the government was the completion of a 24-hour trial flight. This was beyond the capabilities of LZ 3, so work was started on a larger airship with greater fuel capacity.", "Construction of LZ 4 was started in November 1907. The design closely followed that of LZ 3, but with increased diameter and length and having 17 gasbags. A central crew cabin was added in the middle of the keel, from which a ladder ran up through the envelope to an observation platform on top of the hull, intended for making star-sightings for navigational purposes. Initially, small rectangular rudders were fitted at either end of the hull: these proved inadequate to control the airship and were removed and replaced by single rudders mounted between the tips of the biplane horizontal stabilisers at the stern. Later each of these was replaced by a pair of rudders, and large fixed fins bearing a large oval rudder fitted at the stern.", "LZ 4 was first flown on 20 June 1908, when a flight lasting 18 minutes revealed the inadequacy of its steering arrangements. After modifications further trials were made on 23 and 29 June, and on 1 July a spectacular 12 hour cross-country flight was made during which it was flown over Switzerland to Zürich and then back to Lake Constance, covering 386 km (240 mi) and reaching an altitude of 795 m (2,600 ft). On 13 July 1908, the airship was reinflated with fresh hydrogen to ensure maximum lift for the planned 24-hour endurance trial, which was to be a return flight to Mainz. Shortly after setting off the next morning a fan broke on the forward engine and it had to turn back. The following day it was damaged while being manoeuvered out of its hangar: repairs were not completed until the end of the month. The trial flight finally started on 4 August, when LZ 4 lifted off at 06:22 in the morning, carrying 12 people and sufficient fuel for 31 hours of flight. The flight to Zürich had excited considerable public interest, and large crowds gathered along the route to witness the flight, which took it over Konstanz, Schaffhausen, Basel and Strasbourg. Shortly after passing Strasbourg the forward engine had to be stopped since the fuel tank in the engine gondola had been exhausted, and needed to be refilled. At this point the airship was flying light due to the heat of the sun having caused the hydrogen to expand, and was being held at a low altitude by dynamic downforce generated by flying in a nose-down attitude: with the loss of the power of one engine, it rose to an altitude of, venting gas from the relief valves as it did so. At 1:58 p.m the aft engine had to be stopped for refuelling: this time the airship rose to, with a further loss of hydrogen. Two further engine stoppages caused further loss of gas: by now LZ 4 was only being kept in the air by dynamic lift generated by flying with a nose-up attitude, the resultant drag reducing its speed to, and at 5:24 pm a landing was made on the Rhine near Oppenheim, short of Mainz. All superfluous items and five crew members were unloaded, and the flight was resumed at 10:20. Mainz was reached half an hour later, and the ship turned to begin its return journey. Further engine problems followed: a crank bearing in the forward engine melted at 1:27 am, reducing airspeed to about and it was decided to land to have the engine repaired by engineers from the Daimler works at Untertürkheim. Accordingly, LZ 4 was set down at 7:51 am at Echterdingen. The airship was tethered and engineers removed the forward engine to make repairs, but during the afternoon LZ 4 was torn from its moorings by a gust of wind. The soldiers present as a ground handling party could not hold it down, but it was brought to earth by a crew member who had remained on board. Unfortunately, the ship came into contact with some trees while landing, which presumably damaged some of the gasbags, since it immediately caught fire. The cause of ignition was later ascribed to a static charge being produced when the rubberised cotton of the gasbags was torn. The disaster took place in front of an estimated 40 to 50 thousand spectators and produced an extraordinary wave of nationalistic support for Zeppelin's work. Unsolicited donations from the public poured in: enough had been received within 24 hours to rebuild the airship, and the eventual total was over 6 million marks were donated, at last providing Zeppelin with a sound financial base for his experiments." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Beginning of the Cold War.", "An uneasy peace.", "Rotation of strategic bombers through Europe.", "The Berlin Airlift.", "USAF mobilization.", "The 1950s.", "The 1960s.", "1961 Berlin Crisis.", "French withdrawal from NATO's military structure.", "USAFE in Spain.", "USAFE in Turkey.", "The 1970s and 1980s.", "Post–Cold War era.", "Iraq and Kuwait in the 1990s.", "Balkans operations.", "Afghanistan and Iraq.", "Current operating units.", "Lineage, Assignments, Components.", "Components." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The origins of USAFE can be traced to 19 January 1942, with the establishment of Eighth Air Force. Eighth Air Force was activated on 28 January at Savannah Army Air Base, Georgia. On 5 May, Major General Carl Spaatz assumed command of HQ Eighth Air Force. On 8 January, the order activating the \"U.S. Air Forces in the British Isles\" (USAFBI) was announced. On 12 May, the first contingent of USAAF personnel arrived in England to join the Eighth Air Force. On 15 June, Spaatz arrived in England to establish Headquarters, Eighth Air Force at Bushy Park, west-south-west of London. Eighth Air Force controlled: On 22 February 1944, the Army Air Forces reorganized its commands in Europe. Eighth Air Force was redesignated as United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe (USSTAF) and VIII Bomber Command was redesignated as Eighth Air Force. On 7 August 1945, USSTAF was redesignated as United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE). Its headquarters was relocated from Saint Germain-en-Laye, France, to Lindsey Air Station, Wiesbaden, Germany, on 28 September 1945. Within 18 months of VE-Day, virtually all U.S. armed forces personnel had left Europe except for the Occupation Forces in Germany, Austria, and a small number of Army troops in Trieste. USAFE had been reduced from a force of 17,000 aircraft and about 500,000 personnel to about 2,000 aircraft and 75,000 personnel. USAFE's four wartime Air Forces were demobilized or reassigned between August and December 1945. In March 1946 USAFE was given the status of a Major Command (MAJCOM). A major postwar mission for USAFE was Operation Lusty, in which former Luftwaffe jet aircraft, such as the Messerschmitt Me 262A and Heinkel He 162A were located on various airfields around Munich and shipped to the United States for inspection and evaluation. At Lechfeld Air Base near Augsburg, large numbers of Me 262s were discovered, and valuable German air-to-air rockets. At the Oberpfaffenhofen air base near Munich — the former Dornier factory airfield, and today the home of Germany's DLR aerospace research facility — USAFE found a high-speed Dornier Do 335. This propeller-driven aircraft could reach a speed of 760 km/h, about 100 km slower than the Me 262 jet fighter. Other former Luftwaffe aircraft were collected and simply sent to blast furnaces for metal recycling. In March 1947, General Joseph T. McNarney, Commanding General, U.S. Forces, European Theatre, told the War Department all he needed was \"an Air Force of about 7,500 [men] to provide air transport and communications.\" He had no need for combat units, which he described as an \"administrative burden,\" and he wanted them withdrawn. Nobody in Washington objected. Thus, the XII Tactical Air Command, the now USAFE combat organization after the inactivation of the four Air Forces, was inactivated on 10 May 1947. By this time, USAFE's fighting force appears to have dropped to a single unit, the 86th Fighter Group, which was shuffled around three separate stations in Germany in 1946–47 as it absorbed the inactivating personnel and equipment of first the 406th Fighter Group and then the 33rd Fighter Group. In 1945 IX Air Force Service Command was reassigned from Ninth Air Force to USSTAF (about the date IX ASC moved to Erlangen). On 7 October 1946, IX ASC was redesignated European Air Materiel Command. This command administered USAFE's supply and maintenance depots. EAMC was headquartered at Erlangen Air Depot. At Erding Air Depot, it had Detachment B, 4th Air Vehicle Repair Squadron, and the 43d Air Depot. The 10th Air Depot was located at Oberpfaffenhofen Air Depot. The 862d Engineer Aviation Battalion and 837th Engineer Aviation Battalion were located at Landsberg. At Industriehafen Air Depot was Detachment A, 42d Air Repair Squadron. Minor EAMC facilities were located at Bad Wiesse, Wolfgang, Munich, Bruck, Oberwiesenfeld and Bremerhaven. EAMC also controlled ammunition depots at Landesberg, Roth and Zepplenheim. EAMC remained assigned to USAFE until it was inactivated on 15 September 1947.", "", "Concerned about the massive drawdown of USAFE and the United States Army Europe (USAREUR), the U.S. member of the Allied High Commission for Germany, John J. McCloy, had grave concerns that the troops available would be insufficient to ensure a peaceful transition in the American Zone. The United States' European wartime allies, Britain and France, had also rapidly demobilized. In preparation for the future, the RAF and USAFE began a series of mapping flights over Soviet-controlled territory in Germany that led to numerous skirmishes and high tensions. Between the", "Soviet activity in Eastern Europe unsettled the western allies. President Harry S. Truman decided to take a hard line with Russia, lest the situation evolve into a new war. In Germany, Fürstenfeldbruck Air Base near Munich, Giebelstadt near Würzburg, and Rhein-Main near Frankfurt were rebuilt to accommodate Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers. Strategic Air Command (SAC) wanted its B-29 fleet as close to the Soviet Union as possible because of their limited range and it was decided to rotate a portion of SAC's B-29 fleet through Europe. In November 1946, six B-29 bombers from SAC's 43d Bombardment Group at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona were deployed to RAF Burtonwood, England and from there to various bases", "The Berlin Airlift was one of the defining events of and marked the beginning of the Cold War. The 464-day effort to supply a city's needs solely through the air demonstrated the resolve of Western nations to maintain influence in Berlin. The massive humanitarian effort was an early triumph for allied air forces, and symbolized Western commitment to anti-Communist efforts in Europe after World War II. In 1945 the Soviets, Americans, British and French divided Germany into occupation zones. Berlin, although in the Soviet zone, also was divided among the four powers. On 18 June 1948,", "After discussion of military options, the priority was given to supplying Berlin by air, as the Soviet blockade had little effect on the three Berlin air corridors. The Soviet Union did not initially interfere with the cargo aircraft flying the Berlin Airlift, as they were convinced that supplying two million Berliners by air was an impossible task. In 1948, USAFE strength was limited. The command consisted of 485 aircraft, with the 60th and 61st Troop Carrier Groups at Rhein-Main and Wiesbaden Air Bases near Frankfurt, both flying C-47s. The only other flying unit was the 86th Fighter Group at Neubiberg Air Base near Munich, with P-47s, which had been activated on 1 July 1948. On the morning of 26 June, two days after the blockade began, the first C-47 loaded with milk and medicine took off from Wiesbaden Air Base for Tempelhof Air Base in Berlin. A total of 32 flights were made on that first day. Yet it would take many hundreds of cargo flights each day to provide the 12,000 tons of food, fuel, clothing and medicine it was estimated was necessary to sustain the two million people of western Berlin. There were simply not enough C-47s available, as it was estimated that over 900 would be needed to fly the necessary tonnage to Berlin each day. However, if the larger C-54 Skymaster was used, about 180 could supply the cargo necessary.", "Even with the Korean War raging in the early 1950s, Europe received a higher priority of air power than Korea by the Truman Administration and the Department of Defense. In September 1950, the NATO Military Committee called for an ambitious buildup of conventional forces to meet the Soviets, subsequently reaffirming this position at the February 1952 meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Lisbon. This meeting established a goal of ultimately fielding 96 divisions in the event of a conventional war in 1954. As part of this buildup USAFE was intended to expand from 16 wings totaling 2,100 aircraft, to 28 wings, 22 of them in the Allied Forces Central Europe area alone, backed by deployed Strategic Air Command units sent from the United States. The USAF transferred thirteen combat wings from Tactical Air Command plus one air depot wing from Air Material Command, and relocated the units to USAFE during the period from April 1951 through December 1954. Eight wings were regular Air Force wings, four wings were federalized Air National Guard units, and one wing was a mobilized Air Force Reserve unit. Four of these wings deployed to the United Kingdom, three into West Germany, and six wings were deployed to France. These wings numbered approximately 500 fighters, 100 light bombers, 100 tactical reconnaissance aircraft, 100 tactical airlift transports, and 18,000 personnel. Along with these new units from the United States, USAFE moved its forces in West", "", "The 1961 Berlin Crisis became USAFE's first test of what was known as a \"Flexible Response\" strategy. In the spring of 1961, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev decided that the Soviet Union would sign a peace treaty with the East German government. In effect the German Democratic Republic would control the Russian zone of Berlin and could end joint occupation of the city. This action was a clear violation of the Potsdam Agreement of 1945. When the Western allies objected to this proposed peace treaty, Khrushchev began speaking about restricting the West's aerial access to Berlin and preventing the entry of East Germans into the city. This possibility started an exodus of Germans from the eastern", "On 7 March 1966, French President Charles de Gaulle announced that France would withdraw from NATO's integrated military structure. He gave NATO forces one year (until 1 April 1967) to depart France. The United States Department of State, Department of Defense, and Air Force carefully managed the news about the American departure from France, and the attendant problems of an integrated NATO air defense for western Europe and the decrease in tactical airpower. However, the news media were focusing on Vietnam, so the removal of NATO forces from France went virtually unreported in the US. During 1966–67 all USAF offices and facilities in France were closed and personnel and equipment moved to other NATO countries. The last USAFE activities were the 1630th Air Base Squadron at Orly Airport and the Paris Administration Office. Both were closed in June 1967. A C-47 variant, the C-117B \"Super Skytrain\", was the last USAF aircraft to depart France on 31 May 1967. With the French departure, a major reorganization of USAFE was needed. The 49th TFW's three squadrons at Spangdahlem Air Base, and the 417th TFS", "Before Spain joined NATO in 1982, the USAF had for many years used Spanish air bases. Initially used primarily by the Strategic Air Command, they were Morón Air Base, at Morón near Sevilla in southern Spain, and Torrejón Air Base at Torrejón near Madrid. The Spanish air bases were important for reinforcing USAFE via the southern Atlantic route. Aircraft that flew to Europe via Lajes Field in the Azores always made a refueling stop at Morón, and later at Torrejon as well. These bases also had American facilities for carrying out aircraft maintenance and repairs. Yet it was primarily the good weather that drew USAFE to Spain for weapons training, which at that time was still mainly held in Libya utilizing the ranges at Wheelus Air Base. After June 1960, when SAC's 65th Air Division was transferred to USAFE, the footprint of USAFE's activities in Spain increased significantly. Two interceptor squadrons equipped with F-102 Delta Daggers were formed, the 431st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (431 FIS) being stationed at Zaragoza Air Base and the 497th FIS at Torrejon AB. As compensation for", "The U.S. Logistics Group (TUSLOG) was the primary USAF agency in Turkey. TUSLOG not only commanded various USAFE units, but also supported all other U.S. military organizations and government agencies in Turkey. TUSLOG was established in 1955 and was headquartered in the Turkish capital of Ankara. The 39th Air Base Wing at Incirlik Air Base near Adana supported training deployments and regional exercises; communications for National Command Authority taskings; providing support for various units and an Air Mobility Command tenant unit providing air transport of passengers and cargo. From the 1950s – 1970s, the 39th supported various SAC activities in Turkey, which used Incirlik intensively as a base for U-2 reconnaissance flights along the Soviet border and in the Middle East. In Ankara, the 7217th Air Base Group managed the logistical support for more than 40 units and agencies, as well as the needs of the American Embassy and U.S. Defense Attaché Office. From Izmir Air Station, the 7266th Air Base Group supported", "Changes continued through the early 1970s. Headquarters USAFE transferred from Lindsey Air Station, Germany, to Ramstein Air Base in March 1973 and NATO's Allied Air Forces Central Europe was established at Ramstein Air Base in June 1974. The USAFE commander in chief then took command of Allied Air Forces Central Europe, in addition to commanding U.S. Air Force units in Europe. In 1976, the new McDonnell Douglas F-15A Eagle air superiority fighter was introduced into USAFE service. The Soviet Union's new MiG and Sukhoi fighters made the U.S. Department of Defense anxious. The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 'Foxbat' made them pull out all the stops to get the F-15A into USAFE. The F-15A was deployed to Germany in April 1977 with the 36th TFW at Bitburg Air Base West Germany. The 32nd TFS at Soesterberg AB Netherlands was also upgraded to the McDonnell-Douglas F-15A Eagle as part of Project Ready Eagle. By 1986, all USAFE F-4 wings were replaced by F-15 and F-16 fighters. The 36th TFW's existing F-4E Phantoms were incorporated into three new USAFE squadrons which were established at Hahn Air Base (313th TFS), Spangdahlem Air Base (480th TFS) and Ramstein Air Base (512th TFS). Preparations for the switch to the F-15 went ahead at full speed. Its introduction to the USAFE was given the project name \"`Ready Eagle\"' and, naturally, included transition training for the USAFE pilots. This retraining was the joint responsibility of USAFE and TAC and first began in January 1976 at Langley AFB, Virginia, where the 1st TFW, was stationed. At Langley AFB, the USAFE's future F-15 pilots were given a crash course that familiarized them with the new aircraft in a relatively short time. The first F-15As arrived at Bitburg AB on 7 January 1977. These were two TF-15A (later redesignated as F-15B) trainers that had flown non-stop from Langley AFB in seven and a half hours. These Eagles were to be used primarily for ground crew familiarization in anticipation of the arrival of the 525th TFS's first F-15As. The 23 aircraft for this first operational squadron left Langley AFB on 27 April 1977 for a mass Atlantic crossing. Over the following months, the aircraft for two other squadrons (22nd TFS and 53rd TFS) arrived. The 36th TFW's full strength of 79 fully operational F-15As was reached in December 1977. Project Ready Eagle was completed in precisely one year. However, after flying the F15A and F-15B for just 18 months, the USAFE exchanged these models for the newer F-15C and F-15D Eagles. In May 1980, the 32d flew five of its F-15A/B Eagles to Eglin AFB, Florida to participate in the weapons systems evaluation program. While at Eglin AFB, the united swapped its aircraft for the newer models. These planes arrived at Soesterberg AB on 13 June, making the 32d the first unit in the USAFE to be equipped with the latest versions of the F-15. The 32nd completed the upgrade on 25 November 1980. At that time the squadron possessed eighteen F-15C and two twin-seat F-15D fighter aircraft.", "USAFE never had to fight the Soviet Armed Forces and the Warsaw Pact states in Europe. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1990–91. The end of the Cold War saw a clamoring for a \"peace dividend\", and questions from many U.S. and Western European officials about the appropriate size and purpose of American military forces in Europe. All American military forces, and those of the NATO organization as well, experienced rapid change. USAFE shrunk from over 850 aircraft and 72,000 personnel scattered among 27 bases in 1990 to approximately 240 aircraft, 33,000 personnel, and six flying bases by the end of 1996. In July 1994, with President Clinton in attendance, the British, French, and American air and land forces in Berlin were inactivated in a ceremony on the Four Ring Parade field at Tempelhof Central Airport.", "With the onset of Operations Desert Shield in August 1990 and Desert Storm in January 1991, more than 180 aircraft and 5,400 personnel assigned to USAFE units deployed to the Persian Gulf area. In conjunction, more than 100 additional aircraft and 2,600 personnel deployed to Turkey for Joint Task Force Proven Force, forming the 7440th Composite Wing (Provisional). A total of 60,000 USAFE personnel were committed to the war effort; however, fewer than 10,000 actually deployed. More than half of the command's aircraft deployed to support Desert Storm. The command's air support was lethal. For example, USAFE accounted for only 20 percent of the air-to-air assets in Desert Storm, but claimed half of the air-to-air kills. More than 85,000 tons of munitions, including more than", "USAFE also provided air protection over the skies of Bosnia-Herzegovina in Operation Deny Flight. Along with allies from NATO countries, U.S. aircrews bombed targets in Bosnia-Herzegovina during Operation Deliberate Force, which paved the way for the 1995 Dayton Peace Agreement. USAFE then helped deploy the Implementation Force (I-FOR) and its equipment to Bosnia for Operation Joint Endeavor and sustained them by airlift. USAFE forces again mobilized in March 1999, when NATO", "During the War in Afghanistan, USAFE has supported an air bridge from Europe to Asia that delivered 3,300 tons of humanitarian daily rations to northern Afghanistan, opened the Manus base in Kyrgyzstan, and established a medical evacuation network that moved nearly 4,000 patients. USAFE deployed 24 fighter aircraft, eight KC-135 Stratotankers and nearly 2,400 people in Operation Iraqi Freedom. It opened an important airfield in northern Iraq and provided critical en route support to deploying forces, not to mention vital logistical and medical support to forward-deployed forces. USAFE", "Third Air Force (3 AF), headquartered at Ramstein Air Base, Germany, is currently one of two of USAFE's numbered air forces (alongside the 25th), operating alongside Headquarters USAFE. Its mission is ensuring the combat readiness of assigned USAFE units, formulation of plans for combat operations and non-combat humanitarian operations in the USAFE and AFAFRICA areas of responsibility, and conducting day-to-day operations for both European and Africa Commands. As of January 2015, the command has seven main operating bases along with 114 geographically separated locations. These are: United Kingdom Italy Portugal Germany Turkey Djibouti Tenant Flying Squadrons: The United States Air Forces in Europe Band with its approximately 48 members is located on Ramstein Air Base, Germany. In addition to its own units, the command is routinely augmented by rotational aircraft and personnel from Air Combat Command (ACC), Air Mobility Command (AMC), Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) and Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC) units in the United States, as well", "", "Commands Task Forces" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "City divisions.", "Demographics.", "Politics.", "Culture.", "Sports.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Media.", "Transportation.", "Arctic Bridge.", "Education.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Murmansk was the last city founded in the Russian Empire. In 1915, World War I needs led to the construction of the railroad from Petrozavodsk to an ice-free location on the Murman Coast in the Russian Arctic, to which Russia's allies shipped military supplies. The terminus became known as the Murman station and soon boasted a port, a naval base, and an adjacent settlement with a population that quickly grew in size and soon surpassed the nearby towns of Alexandrovsk and Kola. On, 1916, Russian Transport Minister Alexander Trepov petitioned to grant urban status to the railway settlement. On, 1916, the petition was approved and the town was named Romanov-on-Murman (, \"Romanov-na-Murmane\"), after the imperial Russian dynasty of Romanovs. On, 1916, the official ceremony was performed, and the date is now considered the official date of the city's foundation. After the February Revolution of 1917, on, 1917, the town was given its present name. In the winter of 1917 the British North Russia Squadron under Rear Admiral Thomas Kemp was established at Murmansk. From 1918 to 1920, during the Russian Civil War, the town was occupied by the Western powers, who had been allied in World War I, and by the White Army forces. On February 13, 1926, local self-government was organized in Murmansk for the first time, during a plenary session of the Murmansk City Soviet, which elected a Presidium. Before this, the city was governed by the authorities of Alexandrovsky Uyezd and later of Murmansk Governorate. On August 1, 1927, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) issued two resolutions: \"On the Establishment of Leningrad Oblast\" and \"On the Borders and Composition of the Okrugs of Leningrad Oblast\", which transformed Murmansk Governorate into Murmansk Okrug within Leningrad Oblast and made Murmansk the administrative center of Murmansk Okrug. In 1934, the Murmansk Okrug Executive Committee developed a redistricting proposal, which included a plan to enlarge the city by merging the surrounding territories in the north, south, and west into Murmansk. While this plan was not confirmed by the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee, in 1935–1937 several rural localities of Kolsky and Polyarny Districts were merged into Murmansk anyway. According to the Presidium of the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee resolution of February 26, 1935, the administrative center of Polyarny District was moved from Polyarnoye to Sayda-Guba. However, the provisions of the resolution were not fully implemented, and due to military construction in Polyarnoye, the administrative center was instead moved to Murmansk in the beginning of 1935. In addition to being the administrative center of Murmansk Okrug, Murmansk continued to serve as the administrative center of Polyarny District until September 11, 1938. On February 10, 1938, when the VTsIK adopted a Resolution changing the administrative-territorial structure of Murmansk Okrug, the city of Murmansk became a separate administrative division of the okrug, equal in status to that of the districts. This status was retained when Murmansk Okrug was transformed into Murmansk Oblast on May 28, 1938. The Germans were promised the use of the port, they called Norwegenhafen for transportation of goods and raw materials from 1922–1941. During World War II, Murmansk was a link to the Western world for the Soviet Union with large quantities of goods important to the respective military efforts traded with the Allies: primarily seeing military equipment, manufactured goods and raw materials brought into the Soviet Union. The supplies were brought to the city in the Arctic convoys. German forces in Finnish territory launched an offensive against the city in 1941 as part of Operation Silver Fox. Murmansk suffered extensive destruction, the magnitude of which was rivaled only by the destruction of Leningrad and Stalingrad. However, fierce Soviet resistance and harsh local weather conditions with the bad terrain prevented the Germans from capturing the city and cutting off the vital Karelian railway line and the ice-free harbor. For the rest of the war, Murmansk served as a transit point for weapons and other supplies entering the Soviet Union from other Allied nations. This resistance was commemorated at the 40th anniversary of the victory over the Germans in the formal designation of Murmansk as a Hero City on May 6, 1985. During the Cold War Murmansk was a center of Soviet submarine and icebreaker activity. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the nearby city and naval base of Severomorsk remains the headquarters of the Russian Northern Fleet. In 1974, a massive tall statue \"Alyosha\", depicting a Russian World War II soldier, was installed on a high foundation. In 1984, the Hotel Arctic, now known as Azimut Hotel Murmansk, opened and became the tallest building above the Arctic Circle. On January 1, 2015, the territory of Murmansk was expanded when the urban-type settlement of Roslyakovo, previously under the jurisdiction of the closed administrative-territorial formation of Severomorsk, was abolished and its territory merged into Murmansk.", "", "Murmansk features a subarctic climate (Köppen \"Dfc\"), with long and cold winters and short, cool summers. In the city, freezing temperatures are routinely experienced from October to May. Average temperatures exceed 0 degrees Celsius only from May through October. The average low during the coldest part of the year in Murmansk is approximately. However, temperatures routinely plunge below during the winter. Murmansk's brief summer is mild, with average highs in July exceeding. The city is slightly wetter during the summer than the winter and receives an annual average of just under of precipitation. The \"midnight sun\" is above the horizon from 22 May to 23 July (63 days), and the period with continuous darkness lasts a bit shorter, polar night from 2 December to 10 January (40 days). Extreme temperatures range from on January 6, 1985 and January 27, 1999 up to on July 9, 1972; the record cold daily maximum is, set on January 6, 1985, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is last set on July 9, 1972. Murmansk has been affected by global warming in recent decades, similar to other Arctic locations. For example, December 2007 had an average high of, while a average high was measured for March 2007. Summer has also been affected, with a average high for June 2013, and a average high during July 2018.", "Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Murmansk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Murmansk is incorporated as Murmansk Urban Okrug.", ", the city is divided into three administrative okrugs: City districts were established in Murmansk for the first time by the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR of April 20, 1939; at the time, three city districts (Kirovsky, Leninsky, and Mikoyanovsky) were created. They were abolished on June 2, 1948. The same city districts were created for the second time on June 23, 1951. Mikoyanovsky City District was renamed Oktyabrsky on October 30, 1957, but on September 30, 1958, all three city districts were again abolished. On June 10, 1967, two city districts were created (Leninsky and Oktyabrsky); Pervomaysky City District was split from Oktyabrsky on February 21, 1975. In the Charter of the Hero City of Murmansk, adopted on December 17, 1995, the districts started to be referred to as administrative okrugs.", "The population of the city, according to the 2010 Census, was 307,257, of these, 141,130 men (45.9%) and 166,127 women (54.1%), down from 468,039 recorded in the 1989 Census. Ethnic Russians make up the majority of the population, but Ukrainian and Belarusian minorities also live in the city.", "In November 2010 direct mayoral elections were abolished; they were reinstituted in January 2014, with the most recent elections for mayor and city council taking place in September 2014.", "Murmansk has two main museums: Murmansk Oblast Museum and Murmansk Oblast Art Museum; there are also several small museums. There are three professional theaters, libraries, and an aquarium in Murmansk. Murmansk is the venue of the decommissioned \"Lenin\" which is now a museum ship. Alyosha Monument, Murmansk or Defenders of the Soviet Arctic during the Great Patriotic War monument is also located in Murmansk. The main square of Murmansk is Five Corners, Murmansk.", "The city's association football team, FC Sever Murmansk, played in the Russian Second Division until 2014 when it folded due to financial difficulties. Bandy club Murman has played in the Russian Bandy Super League, last in 2011–2012. Between 2012 and 2018 they were playing in the second tier Russian Bandy Supreme League, but will from the 2018–19 season be a Super League team again. Their home arena, Stadium Stroitel, has an audience capacity of 5,000. The city is one of only three places with representation in the female league, through the team Arktika.", "To commemorate the 85th anniversary of the city's foundation, the snow-white church of the Savior-on-the-Waters was modeled after the White Monuments of Vladimir and Suzdal and built on the shore for the sailors of Murmansk. 15 religious associations have been registered in Murmansk. The largest is the Russian Orthodox Church, Murmansk is the center of its Murmansk and Monchegorsk diocese, as well as the Murmansk Metropolis. The city has about a dozen Orthodox churches, the department of the head of the diocese and the metropolis of Metropolitan Simon is located in St. Nicholas Cathedral.", "", "Murmansk's evening newspaper is \"Vecherniy Murmansk\", published since 1991.", "The port of Murmansk remains ice-free year round due to the warm North Atlantic Current and is an important fishing and shipping destination. It is home port to Atomflot, the world's only fleet of nuclear-powered icebreakers. The Port of Murmansk is the headquarters of Sevmorput (Northern Sea Route) and the administration of Russian Arctic maritime transport. Murmansk is linked by the Kirov Railway to St. Petersburg and is linked to the rest of Russia by the M18 Kola Motorway. Murmansk Airport provides air links to Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as an international connection to Tromsø, Norway. Buses and trolleybuses provide local transport.", "Murmansk is set to be the Russian terminus of the Arctic Bridge, a sea route linking it to the Canadian port of Churchill, Manitoba. Even though the passage has not been fully tested for commercial shipping yet, Russian interest in this project (along with the Northwest Passage) is substantial, as the bridge will serve as a major trade route between North America, Europe and Asia.", "Murmansk is home to Murmansk State Technical University, the Murmansk Arctic State University (formerly Murmansk State Pedagogical University), the Murmansk Institute of Humanities and the Murmansk College of Arts (the only Art School of the Kola Peninsula, formerly the 'Murmansk Music School'). The city has 86 primary schools and 56 secondary schools, two boarding schools, and three reform schools.", "Murmansk is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Toponym.", "Geography.", "Location.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Government and administration.", "Parishes.", "Main sights.", "Romanesque architecture of Vigo.", "Transport.", "Economy.", "Port of Vigo.", "Education.", "Culture.", "Music.", "Media and entertainment.", "Sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the Middle Ages, the small village of Vigo was part of the territory of Galician-speaking neighbouring towns, particularly Tui, and suffered several Viking attacks. However, its number of inhabitants was so small that, historically, it was not considered a real villa until around the 15th century, when the earliest records began. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the city was attacked several times. In 1585 and 1589, during an unsuccessful attack by the English counter-Armada, Francis Drake raided the city and temporarily occupied it, burning many buildings. Several decades later a Turkish fleet tried to attack the city. As a result, the city's walls were built in 1656 in the reign of Philip IV of Spain. They are still partially preserved. At this time, and in spite of the attacks, Vigo developed its earliest commerce and was given several privileges by the kings of Spain. In 1702, the Battle of Vigo Bay occurred, and in 1719, because a Spanish fleet which departed from Vigo attempted to invade Scotland in support of the Jacobites, the city was occupied for ten days by a British force. In 1808, the French Army annexed Spain to the Napoleonic Empire, although Vigo remained unconquered until January, 1809. Vigo was also the first city of Galicia to be freed from French rule, in what is annually celebrated on March 28 as the \"Reconquista\" (reconquest from the French in the context of the Peninsular War). In 1833, the city of Pontevedra was designated the provincial capital of the province of Pontevedra, within which is Vigo. Vigo grew very rapidly in the 20th century thanks to the fact that the Franco government granted it a tax-free zone in 1947 so that companies could set up there for free and an Industrial Development Pole in 1964, a very unusual case for a non-capital of a Spanish province. Continuous urban-planning changes left Vigo less structured than other Galician cities such as Pontevedra and A Coruña.", "Vigo's urban area is built over both a hill-fort (\"Castro\") and a Roman settlement. It is generally accepted that the name Vigo is derived from the Latin word \"vicus spacorum\", meaning \"small village\". The standard pronunciation of Vigo in both Galician and Spanish is. Vigo has been given the nickname \"cidade olívica\" (city of olives). It is said that, after the conflict between the Isabel de Castilla and Juana la Beltraneja—where Galician nobility fought for the latter—the victor ordered all of Galicia's olive trees to be cut down, as they symbolized peace. She couldn't uproot the tree in Vigo, however, because it was planted in sacred ground. The tree is represented in the city seal, and a descendant of it is still alive in Vigo's city centre.", "", "In the northeast, it borders the municipality of Redondela; in the east, Mos; in the south, O Porriño and Gondomar; and in the southwest, Nigrán. On the other side of its bay are the municipalities of Cangas and Moaña.", "Vigo's climate is usually classified as oceanic (Köppen climate classification \"Cfb\"). Although Vigo is the rainiest city in Galicia, in actuality, with its noticeable drying trend in the summer, Vigo's climate is more similar to the variant of the oceanic climate commonly seen in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. Substantial rainfall throughout the year prevents it from being classified as a Mediterranean climate, even though there is a drying trend in summer. The average annual temperature in Vigo is. Compared to many other Galician towns, Vigo and Pontevedra experience warmer summer temperatures than A Coruña or Santiago de Compostela and milder winters than inland areas. This is due to its sheltered location, surrounded by mountains inland and the Illas Cíes out in the bay towards the sea. The all-time record high for the city is set on July 5, 2013. Vigo is known for its extreme rainfall in winter. December 1978 saw fall at the weather station in a single month. During that month on 7 December, fell on a single day. Normal values for 1981-2010 was falling on just 129.2 days indicating heavy rain to be common. The airport where values are taken is at a higher elevation than the city centre, which likely is warmer year-round.", "The city of Vigo has 293,642 inhabitants (2018) with an extended metropolitan population of 478,508, in a southern part of the province of Pontevedra making it Spain's 14th-largest metropolitan area. In 2019, 15,319 foreigners lived in the city, 5.2% of the total population. The main nationalities are Portuguese (12%), Venezuelans (9.2%)Brazilians (9%), Romanians (7.5%), Colombians (6.5%), Senegal (4%) and Chinese people (3%). By language, according to 2013 data, 7.68% of the population speak exclusively in Galician, and 51.39% in Spanish; 11.38% speak in Galician more often than Spanish, and 29.55% more often in Spanish than Galician. This makes Vigo the least Galician-speaking city in Galicia. The creation of Vigo Metropolitan Area was approved in 2016 and, in addition to Vigo, it originally accounted for the following 13 municipalities: Baiona, Cangas, Fornelos de Montes, Gondomar, Moaña, Mos, Nigrán, Pazos de Borbén, O Porriño, Redondela, Salceda de Caselas, Salvaterra de Miño and Soutomaior. It has been however suspended since its creation. The European Union's Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy assigns Vigo a wider functional urban area (FUA), with 21 municipalities and a population of 541,000 inhabitants.", "Vigo is a municipality, the basic level of local government in Spain. The Ayuntamiento (\"concello\" in Galician) is the body charged with the municipal government and administration. The Plenary of the \"concello\" is formed by 27 elected municipal councillors, who in turn invest the mayor. The last municipal election took place on 26 May 2019, leading to a plenary formed by 20 councillors from the Socialists' Party of Galicia–PSOE, 4 from the People's Party, 2 from the Marea de Vigo and 1 from the Galician Nationalist Bloc. The current mayor is Abel Caballero (Spanish Socialist Workers Party), who has won four mandates in a row since becoming mayor in 2007.", "Vigo is administratively divided into 23 \"parroquias\" (\"parishes\").", "An industrial and recent city, Vigo has few remarkable old buildings but is home to a collegiate church and a few museums, most of which were inaugurated between the late 1990s and early 2000s. Among them, the Museum of Contemporary Art (MARCO) and the Museum of the Sea. The oldest museum is the Quiñones de León Municipal Museum. The most important historical centre of the region is located in its capital and rival city, Pontevedra.", "The municipality of Vigo is not only one of the major industrial cities in Galicia, but it is also one of the more important Roman centers of Pontevedra. Although within the city one will not find much Romanesque architecture, it can be seen a few kilometers away from the city center. In many of the municipality's neighborhoods and parishes a large number of Roman ruins remain. Such is the importance of the Roman remains in Vigo that many Spanish authors have come to coin the term \"Romanesque Vigo\" (\"románico vigués\" in Spanish). Vigo retains some interesting examples of Romanesque churches in southern Galicia:", "Vigo is served by Vigo-Peinador Airport (VGO/LEVX). Located to the east of the city of Vigo, straddling halfway the municipalities of Vigo, Redondela and Mos, it offers 7 domestic destinations. A ferry service operates between the Port of Vigo and the towns of Cangas and Moaña as well as the Cíes Islands, 15 kilometres away from the city, part of the Atlantic Islands of Galicia National Park, the only National Park in Galicia, which includes Ons Island in the Pontevedra Bay. The Urzáiz and Guixar railway stations serve Vigo, allowing direct connections to the rest of Galicia as well as to Porto across the border in Portugal. European route E01 goes through the town. This highway goes south through Lisbon and north to the A Coruña area. The A-52 road goes inland, east to Ourense and Madrid from O Porriño. A branch of the AP-9 Motorway connects Vigo to Portugal in the south and with Pontevedra, Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña and Ferrol in the north. Urban transport is provided by buses by Vitrasa progestin.", "Vigo is characterized by a diversified economy linked to the fishing sector, industry, trade, tourism and services. It is often considered with A Coruña one of the economic and industrial engines of Galicia. Vigo is one of the leading industrial areas in Galicia, with a French car factory, shipyards, and auxiliary industry in both automotive and marine sectors. Situated in Vigo, the French factory PSA Peugeot Citroën since 1958, in 2007 produced a total of 545,000 vehicles, of which more than 82% were sold outside Spain. In addition, Vigo has a fishing port and is the home port of one of the world's largest fishing company, Pescanova and the most important centre of the Galician canned fish industry. The headquarters of the European Fisheries Control Agency are also located in the city. The publishing industry in Galician is prominent in the city, with Editorial Galaxia and Editorial Xerais.", "The Port of Vigo covers a length of more than 20 km and offers more than 9 km of docks. The largest port traffic is general freight, highlighting container traffic, RO-RO of vehicles (the second in Spain in Ro-Ro traffic for new vehicles), natural stone and granite (the first of Spain in granite traffic), wood and preserved food.", "The University of Vigo is located in a mountainous area 15 kilometres away from the city, in the parish of Zamáns. It is a center for studies related to ocean-based industries. The university has additional campuses in Pontevedra and Ourense. The University of Vigo was founded in 1990 as split from the University of Santiago de Compostela. The Zamáns Campus features several examples of modern architecture, projected by the likes of Enric Miralles, Alfonso Penelas, Pilar Díez y Alberto Noguerol César Portela, Gabriel Santos Zas and César Padrón.", "", "\"A movida viguesa\" was a hedonistic cultural movement akin to the \"Movida madrileña\" that took place in Vigo during the 1980s triggered by the explosion of liberties after the death of dictator Francisco Franco. The most important artists of this postmodern movement were musicians; particularly punk and new wave bands such as \"Siniestro Total\", \"Golpes Bajos\", \"Aerolíneas Federales\", \"Semen Up\" or \"Os Resentidos\". At the moment, the city still has notorious bands like Iván Ferreiro (ex-singer of Los Piratas) and Mon.", "Vigo has two daily newspapers; the \"Faro de Vigo\", the oldest newspaper in Spain still in circulation, and the \"Atlántico Diario\", a little local newspaper. There also exist a local edition of the Galician main headline newspaper \"La Voz de Galicia\". Vigo was also the main location of historic newspaper such as the nationalist weekly newspaper \"A Nosa Terra\", now defunct (published from 1977 to 2011). Vigo also has a TV local station: \"Televigo\". Radio coverage includes RNE —the Spanish public radio network—, Radio Galega —a Galician government-supported radio in Galician language—, and some private-owned stations (\"Radio Vigo - Cadena Ser\", \"Radio Voz Vigo\", \"Radio ECCA\", and so on). Around 2000s, several online news websites emerged (for example, \"riadevigo.com\") besides of the traditional media homepages. Vigo also participated in the Europeanwide free newspapers rush led by \"Metro\" and some free journals were published in 1990s and 2000s: \"20 minutos\", \"Gaceta Universitaria\", \"Redacción Xove\", etcetera. \"España Exterior\" is also printed in Vigo. The locally produced award-winning feature movie \"Mondays In The Sun\" (original title \"Los lunes al sol\") depicts the life of several men who have lost their work at the Port of Vigo. This film is not based on a single individual's experiences but on the perceived collective experiences of many local port workers.", "Vigo has one of the most important women's basketball team in Spain, Celta, more commonly referred to today by its sponsorship name of Celta Indepo. They usually compete in the top league of women's basketball, having won the championship three times. For the season 2012–2013, and following a number of economic problems, the team will play in the Spanish women basketball second division. Vigo has a football team, Real Club Celta de Vigo, which (as of 2019–20) plays in La Liga. The women's team from the area, Federación Viguesa de Peñas Recreativas El Olivo, was the first team from Galicia to compete in the Women's Primera División. The \"Rías Baixas\" offer an excellent environment for nautical sports. Institutions such as the \"Real Club Nautico de Vigo\" (RCNV), founded in 1906, and the Liceo Marítimo de Bouzas (LMB), founded in 1907, are good examples of promotion of the nautical sports, especially sailing. The RCNV organises important events like Atlantic Week, which in September 2006 included the World Championship of the Platu 25 class. Every August, the RCNV also organises one of the largest sailboat races in the Iberian peninsula: the \"Regata Rías Baixas\". In 2006 more than 130 different boats participated. The LMB is a yacht club which counts around 400 associates. The LMB has a long and intense history of sailing and recreational fishing. The LMB organizes two important regattas in the Galician sailing calendar: the \"Regata Vila de Bouzas\" and a \"Regata de Solitarios y a Dos\". The \"Regata Vila de Bouzas\" honours the neighbourhood where the LMB is located. The \"Regata de Solitarios y a Dos\" is sponsored by the firm Aister and is for crews of one and two members. It is a difficult race with two stages; the first consists of a race through the coastal bay of Vigo while the second stage is a longer race around the Cies Islands (and/or Ons Islands). The LMB has schools of sailing and fishing. Yearly it organizes a cephalopods fishing competition. Vigo has reached twin town, sister city agreements with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "The seven hills of Bamberg.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Attractions.", "Beer.", "Education.", "Infrastructure.", "Transport.", "Railway.", "Motorways.", "Air transport.", "Water transport.", "Local public transport.", "Military bases.", "Governance.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "During the post-Roman centuries of Germanic migration and settlement, the region afterwards included in the Diocese of Bamberg was inhabited for the most part by Slavs. The town, first mentioned in 902, grew up by the castle \"\" which gave its name to the Babenberg family. On their extinction it passed to the Saxon house. The area was Christianized chiefly by the monks of the Benedictine Fulda Abbey, and the land was under the spiritual authority of the Diocese of Würzburg. In 1007, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II made Bamberg a family inheritance, the seat of a separate diocese. The Emperor's purpose in this was to make the Diocese of Würzburg less unwieldy in size and to give Christianity a firmer footing in the districts of Franconia, east of Bamberg. In 1008, after long negotiations with the Bishops of Würzburg and Eichstätt, who were to cede portions of their dioceses, the boundaries of the new diocese were defined, and Pope John XVIII granted the papal confirmation in the same year. Henry II ordered the building of a new cathedral, which was consecrated 6 May 1012. The church was enriched with gifts from the pope, and Henry had it dedicated in honor of him. In 1017 Henry also founded Michaelsberg Abbey on the Michaelsberg (\"Mount St. Michael\"), near Bamberg, a Benedictine abbey for the training of the clergy. The emperor and his wife Kunigunde gave large temporal possessions to the new diocese, and it received many privileges out of which grew the secular power of the bishop. Pope Benedict VIII visited Bamberg in 1020 to meet Henry II for discussions concerning the Holy Roman Empire. While he was here he placed the diocese in direct dependence on the Holy See. He also personally consecrated some of Bamberg's churches. For a short time Bamberg was the centre of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry and Kunigunde were both buried in the cathedral. From the middle of the 13th century onward the bishops were princes of the Empire and ruled Bamberg, overseeing the construction of monumental buildings. In 1248 and 1260 the see obtained large portions of the estates of the Counts of Meran, partly through purchase and partly through the appropriation of extinguished fiefs. The old Bishopric of Bamberg was composed of an unbroken territory extending from Schlüsselfeld in a northeasterly direction to the Franconian Forest, and possessed in addition estates in the Duchies of Carinthia and Salzburg, in the Nordgau (the present Upper Palatinate), in Thuringia, and on the Danube. By the changes resulting from the Reformation, the territory of this see was reduced nearly one half in extent. Since 1279 the coat of arms of the city of Bamberg is known in form of a seal. The witch trials of the 17th century claimed about one thousand victims in Bamberg, reaching a climax between 1626 and 1631, under the rule of Prince-Bishop Johann Georg II Fuchs von Dornheim. The famous \"Drudenhaus\" (witch prison), built in 1627, is no longer standing today; however, detailed accounts of some cases, such as that of Johannes Junius, remain. In 1647, the University of Bamberg was founded as \". Bambrzy (\") are German Poles who are descended from settlers from the Bamberg area who settled in villages around Poznań in the years 1719–1753. In 1759, the possessions and jurisdictions of the diocese situated in Austria were sold to that state. When the secularization of church lands took place (1802) the diocese covered and had a population of 207,000. Bamberg thus lost its independence in 1802, becoming part of Bavaria in 1803. Bamberg was first connected to the German rail system in 1844, which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since. After a communist uprising took control over Bavaria in the years following World War I, the state government fled to Bamberg and stayed there for almost two years before the Bavarian capital of Munich was retaken by \"Freikorps\" units (see Bavarian Soviet Republic). The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, becoming known as the \"Bamberger Verfassung\" (Bamberg Constitution). In February 1926 Bamberg served as the venue for the Bamberg Conference, convened by Adolf Hitler in his attempt to foster unity and to stifle dissent within the then-young Nazi party. Bamberg was chosen for its location in Upper Franconia, reasonably close to the residences of the members of the dissident northern Nazi faction but still within Bavaria. In 1973, the town celebrated the 1,000th anniversary of its founding.", "Bamberg is located in Franconia, north of Nuremberg by railway and east of Würzburg, also by rail. It is situated on the Regnitz river, before it flows into the Main river. Its geography is shaped by the Regnitz and by the foothills of the Steigerwald, part of the German uplands. From northeast to southwest, the town is divided into first the Regnitz plain, then one large and several small islands formed by two arms of the Regnitz ('), and finally the part of town on the hills, the \"Hill Town\" (').", "Bamberg extends over seven hills, each crowned by a beautiful church. This has led to Bamberg being called the \"Franconian Rome\" — although a running joke among Bamberg's tour guides is to refer to Rome instead as the \"Italian Bamberg\". The hills are Cathedral Hill, Michaelsberg, Kaulberg/Obere Pfarre, Stefansberg, Jakobsberg, Altenburger Hill and Abtsberg.", "Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is \"\" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate), with a certain continental influence as indicated by average winter nighttime temperatures well below zero.", "In 2013 (latest data available) the GDP per inhabitant was €56,723. This places the district 10th out of 96 districts (rural and urban) in Bavaria (overall average: €39,691).", "The old town of Bamberg is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, primarily because of its authentic medieval appearance. The town established a documentation centre in 2005 to support World Heritage activities. Some of the main sights are: Bamberg Cathedral is a late Romanesque building with four towers. It was founded in 1004 by Emperor Henry II, finished in 1012 and consecrated on 6 May 1012. It was later partially destroyed by fire in 1081. The new cathedral, built by Saint Otto of Bamberg, was consecrated in 1111 and in the 13th century received its present late-Romanesque form. The cathedral is long, wide, high, and the four towers are each about high. It contains many historic works of art, such as the marble tomb of the founder and his wife, considered one of the greatest works of the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider, and carved between 1499 and 1513. Another treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue known as the Bamberg Horseman (\"). This statue, possibly depicting the emperor Conrad III, most likely dates to the second quarter of the 13th century. The statue also serves as a symbol of the town of Bamberg. The'(New Residence) (1698–1704) was initially occupied by the prince-bishops, and from 1864 to 1867 by the deposed King Otto of Greece. Its'(Rose Garden) overlooks the town. It has over 4500 roses. The is located on the highest of Bamberg's seven hills. It was mentioned for the first time in 1109. Between 1251 and 1553 it was the residence of Bamberg's bishops. Destroyed in 1553 by Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, it was used, after scanty repairs, only as a prison, and increasingly decayed. In 1801, A. F. Marcus bought the castle and completely repaired it. His friend, the famous German writer E.T.A. Hoffmann, who was very impressed by the building, lived there for a while. The next owner, Anton von Greifenstein, in 1818 founded an association to save the castle. This society still maintains the whole property today. The Altenburg today houses a restaurant. Other churches are the ', an 11th-century Romanesque basilica; the '; the'or'(1320–1387), which has now been restored to its original pure Gothic style. The ', 12th century Romanesque (restored), on the Michaelsberg, was formerly the church of the Benedictine Michaelsberg Abbey secularized in 1803 and now contains the ', or almshouse, and the museum and municipal art collections. Of the bridges connecting the sections of the lower town the'was completed in 1455. Halfway across this, on an island, is the'or town hall (rebuilt 1744–1756). The lyceum, formerly a Jesuit college, contains a natural history museum. The old palace (\") was built in 1591 on the site of an old residence of the counts of Babenberg. Monuments include the Maximilian fountain (1880), with statues of King Maximilian I of Bavaria, the emperor Henry II and his wife, Conrad III and Saint Otto, bishop of Bamberg. There are also tunnels beneath the town. These were originally constructed as mines which supplied sandstone which could be used for construction or as an abrasive cleaner. Mining came to an end in 1920 but a tunnel network remained. The tunnels were used as an air raid shelter during World War II. A part of the network can be visited on a guided tour.", "Bamberg is known for its smoked Rauchbier and is home to nine breweries,,, Brauerei Heller-Trum (Schlenkerla), Brauerei Kaiserdom,, Klosterbräu, and, and one brewpub, Ambräusianum. Every August there is a five-day \"\", a kirmess celebrated with beers.", "The University of Bamberg, named Otto-Friedrich University, offers higher education in the areas of social science, business studies and the humanities, and is attended by more than 13,000 students. The University of Applied Sciences Bamberg offers higher education in the areas of public health. Bamberg is also home to eight secondary schools (gymnasiums): There are also numerous other institutes for primary, secondary, technical, vocational and adult education.", "", "", "The InterCityExpress main line No. 28 (Munich – Nuremberg – Leipzig – Berlin / Hamburg) runs through Bamberg station on the Nuremberg–Bamberg and the Bamberg–Hof lines. It takes less than two hours to Munich on the train and with the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway through the Thuringian mountains finished in 2017 less than three hours to Berlin. East-west connections are poorer. Bamberg is connected to other towns in eastern Upper Franconia such as Bayreuth, Coburg, and Kronach via the Bamberg–Hof line with trains usually running at least every hour. Connections on the Würzburg–Bamberg line to the west are hourly regional trains to Würzburg, which is fully connected to the ICE network. Tourists arriving at Frankfurt International Airport can take advantage of the new direct connection from Frankfurt main station.", "Bamberg is not near any of the major (i.e. single-digit) autobahns. But it is nevertheless well connected to the network in all directions: the A70 from Schweinfurt (connecting to the A7 there) to Bayreuth (connecting to the A9) runs along the northern edge of the town. The A73 on the eastern side of town connects Bamberg to Nuremberg (connecting to the A9) and Thuringia, ending at Suhl.", "Bamberg is served by. Mostly public aircraft operate there. It used to be a military airport. (IATA-Code: ZCD, ICAO-Code: EDQA) It is also possible to charter public flights to and from this airport. Most international tourists who travel by plane arrive at Frankfurt International Airport or Munich Airport. The nearest major airport is Nuremberg Airport which can be reached within half an hour by car or one hour by train and subway.", "Both the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and its predecessor, the Ludwig Canal, begin near Bamberg. The Ludwig Canal was opened in 1846 but closed in 1950 after damage during the second world war. With the completion of the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal in 1992, uninterrupted water transport was again made possible between the North Sea and the Black Sea.", "Local public transport within Bamberg relies exclusively on buses. More than 20 routes connect the outlying quarters and some villages in the vicinity to the central bus station. In addition, there are several \"Night Lines\" (the last of these, though, tend to run around midnight) and some park-and-ride lines from parking lots on the periphery to the town centre. A short-lived tram system existed in the 1920s.", "Bamberg was an important base for the Bavarian, German and then American military stationed at Warner Barracks. Warner Barracks was closed in the fall of 2014, with the last battalion leaving being the 54th Engineer Battalion and returned to the German government. In 2016, a large part of the facility was taken over by the German Federal Police for training purposes. Muna Kasserne was a small base occupied by the 504th Maintenance Company, 71st Maintenance Bn. It was part of Warner Barracks although located separately.", "Bamberg is an urban district, or \"kreisfreie Stadt\". Its town council (\"Stadtrat\") and its mayor (\"Oberbürgermeister\") are elected every six years, though not in the same year. Thus, the last municipal election for the town council was in 2014, for the mayor in 2012. As an exception to the six-year term, the term starting in 2012 will take eight years to synchronize the elections with those in the rest of Bavaria. As of the elections of 16 March 2014, the 44 member strong town council comprises 12 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 8 Green councillors, 4 councillors of the \"Bamberger Bürger-Block\" and 4 of the \"Freie Wähler\" (Free Voters), both local political movements. These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group. In addition, there are 3 councillors of the \"Bamberger Unabhängige Bürger\" and the 1 councillor each of the \"Bamberger Realisten\", the FDP and the \"Bamberger Linke Liste\". The previous council, elected on 2 March 2008, was composed of 15 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 7 Green councillors, 5 councillors of the Bamberger Bürger-Block and 3 of the Freie Wähler (Free Voters), both local political movements. These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group. In addition, there were 2 councillors of the \"Bamberger Realisten\" and one of the FDP and the Republikaner, making them ineligible for caucus status.", "Bamberg is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Lightweight Fighter program.", "Selection of finalists and flyoff.", "Air Combat Fighter competition.", "Commencement of production.", "Improvements and upgrades.", "Production relocation.", "Design.", "Overview.", "General configuration.", "Armament.", "Negative stability and fly-by-wire.", "Cockpit and ergonomics.", "Fire-control radar.", "Propulsion.", "Operational history.", "United States.", "Israel.", "Pakistan.", "Turkey.", "Egypt.", "Others.", "Variants.", "Operators.", "Notable accidents and incidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Experiences in the Vietnam War revealed the need for air superiority fighters and better air-to-air training for fighter pilots. Based on his experiences in the Korean War and as a fighter tactics instructor in the early 1960s, Colonel John Boyd with mathematician Thomas Christie developed the energy–maneuverability theory to model a fighter aircraft's performance in combat. Boyd's work called for a small, lightweight aircraft that could maneuver with the minimum possible energy loss and which also incorporated an increased thrust-to-weight ratio. In the late 1960s, Boyd gathered a group of like-minded innovators who became known as the Fighter Mafia, and in 1969, they secured Department of Defense funding for General Dynamics and Northrop to study design concepts based on the theory. Air", "Five companies responded, and in 1972, the Air Staff selected General Dynamics' Model 401 and Northrop's P-600 for the follow-on prototype development and testing phase. GD and Northrop were awarded contracts worth $37.9 million and $39.8 million to produce the YF-16 and YF-17, respectively, with first flights of both prototypes planned for early 1974. To overcome resistance in the Air Force hierarchy, the \"Fighter Mafia\" and other LWF proponents successfully advocated the idea of complementary fighters in a high-cost/low-cost force mix. The \"high/low mix\" would allow the USAF to be able to afford sufficient fighters for its overall fighter force structure requirements. The mix gained broad acceptance by the time of the prototypes' flyoff, defining the relationship of the LWF and the F-15. The YF-16 was", "Increased interest turned the LWF into a serious acquisition program. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway were seeking to replace their F-104G Starfighter fighter-bombers. In early 1974, they reached an agreement with the U.S. that if the USAF ordered the LWF winner, they would consider ordering it as well. The USAF also needed to replace its F-105 Thunderchief and F-4 Phantom II fighter-bombers. The U.S. Congress sought greater commonality in fighter procurements by the Air Force and Navy, and in August 1974 redirected Navy funds to a new Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) program that would be a navalized fighter-bomber variant of the LWF. The four NATO allies had formed the \"Multinational Fighter Program Group\" (MFPG) and pressed for a U.S. decision by December 1974; thus, the USAF accelerated testing. To reflect this serious intent to procure a new fighter-bomber, the LWF program was rolled into a new Air Combat Fighter (ACF) competition in an announcement by U.S. Secretary of Defense James R. Schlesinger in April 1974. The ACF would not be a pure fighter, but multi-role, and Schlesinger made it clear that any", "The U.S. Air Force initially ordered 15 \"Full-Scale Development\" (FSD) aircraft (11 single-seat and four two-seat models) for its flight test program, but was reduced to eight (six F-16A single-seaters and two F-16B two-seaters). The YF-16 design was altered for the production F-16. The fuselage was lengthened by, a larger nose radome was fitted for the AN/APG-66 radar, wing area was increased from to, the tailfin height was decreased, the ventral fins were enlarged, two more stores stations were added,", "One change made during production was augmented pitch control to avoid deep stall conditions at high angles of attack. The stall issue had been raised during development, but had originally been discounted. Model tests of the YF-16 conducted by the Langley Research Center revealed a potential problem, but no other laboratory was able to duplicate it. YF-16 flight tests were not sufficient to expose the issue; later flight testing on the FSD aircraft demonstrated there was a real concern. In response, the area of the horizontal stabilizer were increased by 25% on the Block 15 aircraft in 1981 and later retrofitted to earlier aircraft. In addition, a manual override switch to disable the horizontal stabilizer flight limiter was prominently placed on the control console, allowing the pilot to regain control of the horizontal stabilizers (which the flight limiters otherwise lock in place) and recover. Besides reducing the risk of deep stalls, the larger horizontal tail also improved stability and permitted faster takeoff rotation. In the 1980s, the Multinational Staged Improvement Program (MSIP) was conducted to evolve the F-16's capabilities, mitigate risks during technology development, and ensure the aircraft's worth. The program upgraded the", "To make more room for assembly of its newer F-35 Lightning II fighter aircraft, Lockheed Martin moved the F-16 production from Fort Worth, Texas to its plant in Greenville, South Carolina. Lockheed delivered the last F-16 from Fort Worth to the Iraqi Air Force on 14 November 2017, ending", "", "The F-16 is a single-engine, highly maneuverable, supersonic, multi-role tactical fighter aircraft. It is much smaller and lighter than its predecessors, but uses advanced aerodynamics and avionics, including the first use of a relaxed static stability/fly-by-wire (RSS/FBW) flight control system, to achieve enhanced maneuver performance. Highly agile, the F-16 was the first fighter aircraft purpose-built to pull 9-\"g\" maneuvers and can reach a maximum speed of over Mach 2. Innovations include a frameless bubble canopy for better visibility, a side-mounted control stick, and a reclined seat to reduce g-force effects on the pilot. It is armed with an internal M61 Vulcan cannon in the left wing root and has multiple locations for mounting various missiles, bombs and pods. It has a thrust-to-weight ratio greater", "The F-16 has a cropped-delta wing incorporating wing-fuselage blending and forebody vortex-control strakes; a fixed-geometry, underslung air intake (with splitter plate) to the single turbofan jet engine; a conventional tri-plane empennage arrangement with all-moving horizontal \"stabilator\" tailplanes; a pair of ventral fins beneath the fuselage aft of the wing's trailing edge; and a tricycle landing gear configuration with the aft-retracting, steerable nose gear deploying a short distance behind the inlet lip. There is a boom-style aerial refueling receptacle located behind the single-piece \"bubble\" canopy of the cockpit. Split-flap speedbrakes are located at the aft end of the wing-body fairing, and a tailhook is mounted underneath the fuselage. A fairing beneath the rudder often houses ECM equipment or a drag chute. Later F-16 models feature a long dorsal fairing along the fuselage's \"spine\", housing additional equipment or fuel. Aerodynamic studies in", "Early F-16s could be armed with up to six AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking short-range air-to-air missiles (AAM) by employing rail launchers on each wingtip, as well as radar guided AIM-7 Sparrow medium-range AAMs in a weapons mix. More recent versions support the AIM-120 AMRAAM. The aircraft can carry various other AAMs, a wide", "The F-16 is the first production fighter aircraft intentionally designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable, also known as \"relaxed static stability\" (RSS), to improve maneuverability. Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, which induces aircraft to return to straight and level flight attitude if the pilot releases the controls; this reduces maneuverability as the inherent stability has to be overcome. Aircraft with \"negative\" stability are designed to deviate from controlled flight and thus be more maneuverable. At supersonic speeds the F-16 gains stability (eventually positive) due to aerodynamic changes. To counter the tendency to depart from controlled flight—and avoid the need for constant trim inputs by the pilot, the F-16 has a quadruplex (four-channel) fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system (FLCS). The flight control computer (FLCC) accepts pilot input from the stick and rudder controls, and manipulates the control surfaces in such a way as to produce the desired result without inducing control loss. The FLCC conducts thousands of measurements per second on the aircraft's flight attitude to automatically counter deviations from the pilot-set flight path; leading to a common aphorism among pilots: \"You don't fly an F-16; it flies", "A key feature of the F-16's cockpit is the exceptional field of view. The single-piece, bird-proof polycarbonate bubble canopy provides 360° all-round visibility, with a 40° look-down angle over the side of the aircraft, and 15° down over the nose (compared to the common 12–13° of preceding aircraft); the pilot's seat is elevated for this purpose. Furthermore, the F-16's canopy lacks the forward bow frame found on many fighters, which is an obstruction to a pilot's forward vision. The F-16's ACES II zero/zero ejection seat is reclined at an unusual tilt-back angle of 30°; most fighters have a tilted seat at 13–15°. The tilted seat can accommodate taller pilots and increases G-force tolerance; however it has been associated with reports of neck ache, possibly caused by incorrect head-rest usage. Subsequent U.S. fighters have adopted more modest tilt-back angles of 20°. Due to the seat angle and the canopy's thickness, the ejection seat lacks canopy-breakers for emergency egress; instead the entire canopy is jettisoned prior to the seat's rocket firing. The pilot flies primarily by means of an armrest-mounted side-stick controller (instead of", "The F-16A/B was originally equipped with the Westinghouse AN/APG-66 fire-control radar. Its slotted planar array antenna was designed to be compact to fit into the F-16's relatively small nose. In uplook mode, the APG-66 uses a low pulse-repetition frequency (PRF) for medium- and high-altitude target detection in a low-clutter environment, and in look-down/shoot-down employs a medium PRF for heavy clutter environments. It has four operating frequencies within the X band, and provides four air-to-air and seven air-to-ground operating modes for combat, even at night or in bad weather. The Block 15's APG-66(V)2 model added a more powerful signal processing, higher output power, improved reliability and increased range in cluttered or jamming environments. The Mid-Life Update (MLU) program introduced a new model, APG-66(V)2A, which features higher speed and more memory. The AN/APG-68, an evolution of the APG-66, was introduced with the F-16C/D Block 25. The APG-68 has greater range and resolution, as well as 25 operating modes, including ground-mapping, Doppler beam-sharpening, ground moving target indication, sea target, and track while scan (TWS) for up", "The initial powerplant selected for the single-engined F-16 was the Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-200 afterburning turbofan, a modified version of the F-15's F100-PW-100, rated at 23,830 lb (106.0 kN) thrust. During testing, the engine was found to be prone to compressor stalls and \"rollbacks\", wherein the engine's thrust would spontaneously reduce to idle. Until resolved, the Air Force ordered F-16s to be operated within \"dead-stick landing\" distance of its bases. It was the standard F-16 engine through the Block 25, except for the newly-built Block 15s with the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU). The OCU introduced the 23,770 lb (105.7 kN) F100-PW-220, later installed on Block 32 and 42 aircraft: the main advance being a Digital Electronic Engine Control (DEEC) unit, which improved reliability and reduced stall occurrence. Beginning production in 1988, the \"-220\" also supplanted the F-15's \"-100\", for commonality. Many of the \"-220\" engines on Block 25 and", "F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the Middle East.", "The F-16 is being used by the active duty USAF, Air Force Reserve, and Air National Guard units, the USAF aerial demonstration team, the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, and as an adversary-aggressor aircraft by the United States Navy at the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center. The U.S. Air Force, including the Air Force Reserve and the Air National Guard, flew the F-16 in combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 and in the Balkans later", "The F-16's first air-to-air combat success was achieved by the Israeli Air Force (IAF) over the Bekaa Valley on 28 April 1981, against a Syrian Mi-8 helicopter, which was downed with cannon fire. On 7 June 1981, eight Israeli F-16s, escorted by six F-15s, executed Operation Opera, their first employment in a significant air-to-ground operation. This raid severely damaged Osirak, an Iraqi nuclear reactor under construction near Baghdad, to prevent the regime of Saddam Hussein from using the reactor for the creation of nuclear weapons. The following year, during the 1982 Lebanon War Israeli F-16s engaged Syrian aircraft in one of the largest air battles involving jet aircraft, which began on 9 June and continued for two more days. Israeli Air", "During the Soviet–Afghan War, between May 1986 and January 1989, Pakistan Air Force F-16s shot down at least eight intruders from Afghanistan. The first three of these (two Afghan Su-22s and one An-26) were shot down by two pilots. Pakistani pilots also downed five other intruders (two Su-22s, two MiG-23s, and one Su-25). Most of these kills were by AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles, but at least one, an Su-22, was destroyed by cannon fire. Flight Lieutenant Khalid Mahmoud is credited with three of these kills. One F-16 was lost in these battles during an encounter between two F-16s and four Soviet Air Force MiG-23s on 29 April 1987; the pilot ejected safely. The downed F-16 was likely hit accidentally by a Sidewinder fired by the other F-16. On 7 June 2002, a Pakistan Air Force F-16B Block 15 (S. No. 82-605), flown by Sqn. Leader Zulfiqar, shot down an Indian Air Force unmanned aerial vehicle, an Israeli-made Searcher", "The Turkish Air Force acquired its first F-16s in 1987. Turkish F-16s participated in the Bosnia Herzegovina and Kosovo since 1993 in support of United Nations resolutions. On 18 June 1992, a Greek Mirage F-1 crashed during a dogfight with a Turkish F-16. On 8 February 1995, a Turkish F-16 crashed into the Aegean after being intercepted by Greek Mirage F1 fighters. On 8 October 1996, 7 months after the escalation over Imia a Greek Mirage 2000 reportedly fired an R.550 Magic II missile and shot", "On 16 February 2015, Egyptian F-16s struck jihadi weapons caches and training camps in Libya in retaliation for the murder of", "The Royal Netherlands Air Force, Belgian Air Force, Royal Danish Air Force, Royal Norwegian Air Force, and Venezuela Air Force have flown the F-16 on combat missions. A Yugoslavian MiG-29 was shot down by a Dutch F-16AM during the Kosovo War in 1999. Belgian and Danish F-16s also participated in joint operations over Kosovo during the war. Dutch, Belgian, Danish, and Norwegian F-16s were deployed during the 2011 intervention in Libya and in Afghanistan. In Libya, Norwegian F-16s dropped almost 550 bombs", "F-16 models are denoted by increasing block numbers to denote upgrades. The blocks cover both single- and two-seat versions. A variety of software, hardware, systems, weapons compatibility, and structural enhancements have been instituted over the years to gradually upgrade production models and retrofit delivered aircraft. While", "By July 2010 there", "The F-16 has been involved in over 670 hull-loss accidents as of January 2020." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rise to the throne.", "Reign.", "Power struggles between siblings.", "Allies along the Baltic coast.", "Campaign against Byzantium.", "Protecting the inhabitants of the Dnieper from the Pechenegs.", "Establishment of law.", "Family life and posterity.", "Grave.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The early years of Yaroslav's life are mostly unknown. He was one of the numerous sons of Vladimir the Great, presumably his second by Rogneda of Polotsk, although his actual age (as stated in the \"Primary Chronicle\" and corroborated by the examination of his skeleton in the 1930s) would place him among the youngest children of Vladimir. It has been suggested that he was a child begotten out of wedlock after Vladimir's divorce from Rogneda and marriage to Anna Porphyrogenita, or even that he was a child of Anna Porphyrogenita herself. Yaroslav figures prominently in the Norse sagas under the name Jarisleif the Lame; his legendary lameness (probably resulting from an arrow wound) was corroborated by the scientists who examined his remains. In his youth, Yaroslav was sent by his father to rule the northern lands around Rostov but was transferred to Veliky Novgorod, as befitted a senior heir to the throne, in 1010. While living there, he founded the town of Yaroslavl (literally, \"Yaroslav's\") on the Volga River. His relations with his father were apparently strained, and grew only worse on the news that Vladimir bequeathed the Kyiv an throne to his younger son, Boris. In 1014 Yaroslav refused to pay tribute to Kyiv and only Vladimir's death, in July 1015, prevented a war. During the next four years Yaroslav waged a complicated and bloody war for Kyiv against his half-brother Sviatopolk I of Kyiv, who was supported by his father-in-law, Duke Bolesław I Chrobry (King of Poland from 1025). During the course of this struggle, several other brothers (Boris, Gleb, and Svyatoslav) were brutally murdered. The \"Primary Chronicle\" accused Svyatopolk of planning those murders, while the saga \"Eymundar þáttr hrings\" is often interpreted as recounting the story of Boris' assassination by the Varangians in the service of Yaroslav. However, the victim's name is given there as \"Burizaf\", which is also a name of Boleslaus I in the Scandinavian sources. It is thus possible that the Saga tells the story of Yaroslav's struggle against Svyatopolk (whose troops were commanded by the Polish duke), and not against Boris. Yaroslav defeated Svyatopolk in their first battle, in 1016, and Svyatopolk fled to Poland. But Svyatopolk returned in 1018 with Polish troops furnished by his father-in-law, seized Kyiv and pushed Yaroslav back into Novgorod. Yaroslav, at last, prevailed over Svyatopolk, and in 1019 firmly established his rule over Kyiv. One of his first actions as a grand prince was to confer on the loyal Novgorodians (who had helped him to gain the Kyivan throne), numerous freedoms, and privileges. Thus, the foundation of the Novgorod Republic was laid. For their part, the Novgorodians respected Yaroslav more than they did other Kyivan princes; and the princely residence in their city, next to the marketplace (and where the \"veche\" often convened) was named Yaroslav's Court after him. It probably was during this period that Yaroslav promulgated the first code of laws in the lands of the East Slavs, the \"Russkaya Pravda\".", "", "Leaving aside the legitimacy of Yaroslav's claims to the Kievan throne and his postulated guilt in the murder of his brothers, Nestor the Chronicler and later Russian historians often presented him as a model of virtue, styling him \"the Wise\". A less appealing side of his personality is revealed by his having imprisoned his youngest brother Sudislav for life. Yet another brother, Mstislav of Chernigov, whose distant realm bordered the North Caucasus and the Black Sea, hastened to Kiev and, despite reinforcements led by Yaroslav's brother-in-law King Anund Jacob of Sweden (as \"Jakun\" - \"\"blind and dressed in a gold suit\"\"), inflicted a heavy defeat on Yaroslav in 1024. Yaroslav and Mstislav then divided Kievan Rus' between them: the area stretching left from the Dnieper River, with the capital at Chernihiv, was ceded to Mstislav until his death in 1036.", "In his foreign policy, Yaroslav relied on a Scandinavian alliance and attempted to weaken the Byzantine influence on Kiev. In 1030, he conquered Cherven Cities from the Poles followed by the construction of Sutiejsk to guard the newly acquired lands. Yaroslav concluded an alliance with Polish King Casimir I the Restorer, sealed by the latter's marriage to Yaroslav's sister, Maria. In another successful military raid the same year, he captured Tartu, Estonia and renamed it Yuryev (named after Yury, Yaroslav's patron saint) and forced the surrounding Ugandi County to pay annual tribute.", "Yaroslav presented his second direct challenge to Constantinople in 1043, when Rus' flotilla headed by one of his sons appeared near Constantinople and demanded money, threatening to attack the city otherwise. Whatever the reason, the Greeks refused to pay and preferred to fight. The Rus' flotilla defeated the Byzantine fleet but was almost destroyed by a storm and came back to Kyiv empty-handed.", "To defend his state from the Pechenegs and other nomadic tribes threatening it from the south he constructed a line of forts, composed of Yuriev, Bohuslav, Kaniv, Korsun, and Pereyaslavl. To celebrate his decisive victory over the Pechenegs in 1036 (who thereafter were never a threat to Kiev) he sponsored the construction of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in 1037. That same year there were built. Some mentioned and other celebrated monuments of his reign such as the Golden Gate of Kiev perished during the Mongol invasion of Rus', but later restored.", "Yaroslav was a notable patron of book culture and learning. In 1051, he had a Slavic monk, Hilarion of Kiev, proclaimed the metropolitan bishop of Kiev, thus challenging the Byzantine tradition of placing Greeks on the episcopal sees. Hilarion's discourse on Yaroslav and his father Vladimir is frequently cited as the first work of Old East Slavic literature.", "In 1019, Yaroslav married Ingegerd Olofsdotter, daughter of the king of Sweden, and gave Staraya Ladoga to her as a marriage gift. Saint Sophia's Cathedral in Kiev houses a fresco representing the whole family: Yaroslav, Irene (as Ingegerd was known in Rus), their four daughters and six sons. Yaroslav had at least three of his daughters married to foreign princes who lived in exile at his court: Yaroslav had one son from the first marriage (his Christian name being Ilya (?-1020)), and six sons from the second marriage. Apprehending the danger that could ensue from divisions between brothers, he exhorted them to live in peace with each other. The eldest of these, Vladimir of Novgorod, best remembered for building the Cathedral of St. Sophia, Novgorod, predeceased his father. Three other sons—Iziaslav I, Sviatoslav II, and Vsevolod I—reigned in Kiev one after another. The youngest children of Yaroslav were Igor Yaroslavich (1036–1060) of Volhynia and Vyacheslav Yaroslavich (1036–1057) of the Principality of Smolensk. About Vyacheslav, there is almost no information. Some documents point out the fact of him having a son, Boris Vyacheslavich, who challenged Vsevolod I sometime in 1077-1078.", "Following his death, the body of Yaroslav the Wise was entombed in a white marble sarcophagus within Saint Sophia's Cathedral. In 1936, the sarcophagus was opened and found to contain the skeletal remains of two individuals, one male and one female. The male was determined to be Yaroslav, however, the identity of the female was never established. The sarcophagus was again opened in 1939 and the remains removed for research, not being documented as returned until 1964. Then, in 2009, the sarcophagus was opened and surprisingly found to contain only one skeleton, that of a female. It seems the documents detailing the 1964 reinterment of the remains were falsified to hide the fact that Yaroslav's remains had been lost. Subsequent questioning of individuals involved in the research and reinterment of the remains seems to point to the idea that Yaroslav's remains were purposely hidden prior to the German occupation of Ukraine and then either lost completely or stolen and transported to the United States where many ancient religious artifacts were placed to avoid \"mistreatment\" by the communists.", "Four different towns in four different countries were founded by and named after Yaroslav: Yaroslavl (in today's Russia), Yuryev (now Tartu, Estonia) and another Yuryev (now Bila Tserkva, Ukraine), and Jarosław in Poland. Following the Russian custom of naming military objects such as tanks and planes after historical figures, the helmet worn by many Russian soldiers during the Crimean War was called the \"Helmet of Yaroslav the Wise\". It was the first pointed helmet to be used by a modern army, even before German troops wore pointed helmets. In 2008 Yaroslav was placed first (with 40% of the votes) in their ranking of \"our greatest compatriots\" by the viewers of the TV show \"Velyki Ukraïntsi\". Afterwards one of the producers of The Greatest Ukrainians claimed that Yaroslav had only won because of vote manipulation and that (if that had been prevented) the real first place would have been awarded to Stepan Bandera. In 2003 a monument to Yaroslav the Wise was erected in Kyiv, Ukraine. The authors of the monument are Boris Krylov and Oles Sydoruk. \"Iron Lord\" was a 2010 feature film based on his early life as a regional prince on the frontier." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Etymology.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The site has been settled since the Neolithic Age and fortified since the Bronze and Iron Age and later by Celts and Romans. The cliff (elevation 212 meters) is an ideal place for a fort due to its position at the confluence of the Danube and Morava rivers. The fort watches over an important trade route along the Danube as well as one branch of the Amber Road. The castle stands just inside Slovak territory on the frontier between Slovakia and Austria. The border runs from west to east along the Morava River and subsequently the Danube. Prior to 1989, the Iron Curtain between the Eastern Bloc and the West ran just in front of the castle. Although the castle was open to the public, the area surrounding it constituted a restricted military zone, and was heavily fortified with watchtowers and barbed wire. After the Velvet Revolution the area was demilitarised. The most photographed part of the castle is the tiny watchtower, known as the Maiden Tower. Separated from the main castle, it balances perilously on a lone rock and has spawned countless legends concerning imprisoned lovelorn daughters leaping to their deaths. Inside the castle is a sprawling landscape of walls, staircases, open courtyards and gardens in various states of disrepair. A restoration project is ongoing since the end of World War II.", "The name of the castle is probably derived from the old Indo-European/Proto-Slavic stem \"deiv-\" with apophony \"doiv-\" related to light and visual perception. Devín, Divín, Devinka, Divino, Dzivín and similar Slavic names can be interpreted as watchtowers or observation points. The same root related to vision can be found also in the word \"div\" (evil spirit) thus meaning \"the place of evil spirits\". The Annales Fuldenses explained the name from the Slavic word \"deva\"—a girl (\"Dowina, id est puella\"). In this case, \"devin grad\" means \"castle of the girl\" (according to a linguist Šimon Ondruš, this etymology is less likely).", "Devín castle is one of the oldest castles in Slovakia. The castle was likely first mentioned in written sources in 864, when Louis the German besieged Prince Rastislav in one of the frequent wars between the Franks and Great Moravia respectively in the \"castle of Dowina\". On the other hand, the identification of \"Dowina\" with Devín Castle has been under debate based on alleged linguistic arguments and the absence of convincing archaeologic evidence. During the Great Moravian period, Devín was the center of a larger agglomeration. Its defensive role was enstrengthen by smaller hill forts on Devínska Kobyla (Na pieskach, Nad lomom). A pre-romanesque church was built on the castle approximately between 850 and 863/870. Its rare style is closest to churches from the Dalmatia and Noricum, from the areas with a persisting tradition of late antique and Byzantine architecture. The interior of the church was decorated with frescoes painted by colors originated (according to chemical analysis) in northern Italy. Two styluses discovered by later research can indicate administrative or education work of the local priests. Along with other artifacts, six graves dated to the Great Moravian era were found near the church and are attributed to members of a retinue of the local ruler and their family members. In the 13th century, a stone castle was built to protect the western frontier of the Hungarian Kingdom whose existence was documented in 1271 and a reference to a \"castelanus de Devin\" appeared in 1326. Between 1301 and 1323, the castle (together with Bratislava/Pressburg County) was held by the Dukes of Austria who granted it to Otto von Tellesbrunn. In 1323, the dukes transferred Pozsony County back to King Charles I of Hungary and Devín Castle became the possession of the heads \"(ispáns)\" of the county. In 1385, the castle was occupied by Margrave Jobst of Moravia who held it until 1390 when King Sigismund of Hungary redeemed it and gave it to duke Stibor of Stiboricz. After that, the king mortgaged Devín Castle to an Austrian knight, Lessel Hering who transferred the castle to Nicholas II Garay (the Palatine of the Kingdom) in 1414. Around 1444, King Frederick IV of Germany occupied the castle but he granted it to Ladislaus Garai already in 1450. A palace was added in the 15th century. Fortification was reinforced during wars against the Ottoman Empire. The Castle was never taken, but after the Hungarian Kingdom joined the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottomans were finally defeated, it ceased to be an important border fortress and was no longer used by the military. Stephen Báthory got the castle by the king as a donation. But according to Stephen Báthory was Keglević the owner of the castle. Keglević pawned the castle for 40,000 guilders to the Palocsai family and spent the money. In 1609, Matthias II confirmed that Keglević still was the owner of the castle, but Keglević did not have the money to take the castle out of pledge from the Palocsai family. Nearly 100 years later in 1635 Palatine Pál Pálffy took the castle out of pledge from the Palocsai family. The last owners of the Devín Castle were the Counts of the Pálffy family. Only in 1809, after the Siege of Pressburg, was the castle (which may have still been considered a threat) destroyed by the retreating forces of Napoleon I of France. Napoleon and Leopold Pálffy negotiated then and they both agreed that Vienna is supplied with products by Pálffy. Since the 19th century as its history inspired several Romantic poets, followers of Ľudovít Štúr, Devín has become an important national symbol for the Slovaks. It featured both on the reverse of the former 500 Czechoslovak koruna banknote and the 50 Halierov coin of the Slovak currency. The Hungarians regarded it as the western gateway of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian poet Endre Ady used it as a symbol of modernism and Westernization in his poem \"I am the Son of Gog and Magog\": Some parts of the castle have been reconstructed in the 20th century and the castle hosts an interesting museum. Archaeological works at the site have revealed the remains of a Roman tower dating from the 1st century AD and evidence of a prehistoric settlement." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Velim, Souček studied singing with Konstantin Karenin at the Prague Conservatory. He made his professional opera debut in 1960 at the Jihočeské divadlo in České Budějovice where he remained for the first two years of his career, sometimes sharing the stage with his sister, soprano Stanislava Součková. He made a guest appearance at the Komische Oper Berlin in the Fall of 1962 before becoming a member of the Brno National Theatre where he was committed from 1963-1979. In 1979 Souček became a principal artist at the Prague National Theatre. He remained at this house until his retirement from the stage in 1997. His repertoire in Prague encompassed more than 50 roles, including Bohuš in Antonín Dvořák's \"The Jacobin\", Count Almaviva in Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's \"The Marriage of Figaro\", Dr Malatesta in Gaetano Donizetti's \"Don Pasquale\", Dr Schön in Alban Berg's \"Lulu\", Figaro in Gioachino Rossini's \"The Barber of Seville\", Fotis in Bohuslav Martinů's \"The Greek Passion\", Germont in Giuseppe Verdi's \"La traviata\", Golaud in Claude Debussy's \"Pelléas et Mélisande\", Harašta in Leoš Janáček's \"The Cunning Little Vixen\", Kalina in Bedřich Smetana's \"The Secret\", Lord Vok in Smetana's \"The Devil's Wall\", Porgy in George Gershwin's \"Porgy and Bess\", Přemysl in Smetana's \"Libuše\", Prince Yeletsky in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's \"The Queen of Spades\", Scarpia in Giacomo Puccini's \"Tosca\", Tomeš in Smetana's \"The Kiss\", Vladislav in Smetana's \"Dalibor\", and the title roles in Alexander Borodin's \"Prince Igor\", Verdi's \"Rigoletto\" and Verdi's \"Falstaff\". Although he no longer appeared in operas after 1997, Souček continued to perform in concert until 2002. Throughout his career Souček was active as a voice teacher, notably serving on the faculties of both the České Budějovice Conservatory and the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague. He continued to teach at the latter institution up until his death in 2006 in Prague at the age of 70." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The castle site.", "Castle building (The Palace).", "Other buildings.", "History.", "Prehistory (2800 – 450 BC).", "Celts and Romans (450 BC – 5th Century AD).", "Slavs, Nitrian Principality, Great Moravia (500 – 907).", "High and Late Middle Ages (907 – 1531).", "Main castle of the Kingdom of Hungary (1531 – 1783).", "Political events.", "Holy Crown of Hungary in the crown tower.", "The Renaissance conversion.", "Baroque conversions.", "Early Baroque.", "The Maria Theresa conversion.", "Loss of importance and destruction (1783 – 1811).", "Castle in ruins (1811 – 1953).", "Restoration and modern history (after 1953)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "4", "4", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The following are at the castle site:", "The castle building includes four towers (one on each corner) and a courtyard with a deep water well. The largest and tallest tower is the Crown Tower on the southwest corner. The tower dates from the 13th century and for approximately 200 years beginning in the mid-1500s housed the crown jewels of Hungary. The exterior walls and inside corridors contain fragments of old Gothic and Renaissance construction elements. The walled-up entrance gate from the 16th century is still visible to the east of the main hall/entrance. Behind the entrance, is an arcade corridor leading to a large Baroque staircase which, in turn, leads to the exhibitions of the Slovak National Museum on the second floor. The west wing of this floor houses the 4 halls of the Treasure Chamber (opened in 1988) with a collection of the most precious archaeological finds and other objects of Slovakia, including the prehistoric statue called the Venus of Moravany. The third floor houses the exhibition on the History of Slovakia. The first floor in the south wing of the building houses the rooms of Slovak parliament — the National Council of the Slovak Republic - including furnishings from the 16th century. The northern wing of the building- the former Baroque chapel, houses the Music Hall in which concerts are held. The courtyard includes the entrance to the Knights Hall.", "To the west of the main building, is the newly reconstructed Hillebrandt building which dates from 1762 and was destroyed by the 1811 fire. The Yard of Honor is the space directly before the castle entrance dates from the late 18th century.<br> Inside the Sigismund Gate and below the Court of Honor, is the Leopold Yard with bastions, constructed in the 17th century.<br> To the east of the castle building the constellation of the Great Moravian basilica (9th century), the Church of St Savior (11th century) and other Early medieval objects is indicated on the ground. The true archaeological findings are directly below this indicated constellation. Adjacent to the Nicholas Gate, a Gothic gateway from the 15th century in the northeast quadrant, is the Lugiland Bastion. This is a long three-floor building from the 17th century which currently houses the National Council of the Slovak Republic, and a Baroque stable (today a famous restaurant). An English landscape garden is located to the south of the stable.<br> The northern border of the site is formed by a long Baroque building from the 18th century, which today houses the Slovak National Museum and the castle administration.", "", "The castle's site, like today's city, has been inhabited for thousands of years, because it is strategically located in the center of Europe at a passage between the Carpathians and the Alps, at an important ford used to cross the Danube river, and at an important crossing of central European ancient (trade) routes running from the Balkans or the Adriatic Sea to the Rhine river or the Baltic Sea, the most important route being the Amber Route. The people of the Boleráz culture (the oldest phase of the Baden culture) were the first known culture to have constructed settlements on the castle hill. This happened around 3500 BC (i.e. in the high Eneolithic Period). Their \"castle\" was a fortified settlement and a kind of acropolis for settlements in today's Old Town of Bratislava. Further major findings from the castle hill are from the Hallstatt Period (Early Iron Age, 750 – 450 BC). At that time the people of the Kalenderberg Culture constructed a building plunged into the rock of the castle hill. Again, the \"castle\" served as an acropolis for settlements found in the western part of the Old Town.", "During the La Tène Period (Late Iron Age, Celtic Period, 450 BC – 1 BC ), the castle hill became a very important center of the Celts. In the last century BC (after 125 BC), the \"castle\" served as the acropolis of an oppidum (town) of the Celtic Boii. A great number and diversity of findings (including coins, house equipment, two Roman buildings, castle entrance gate etc.) testifies this. The castle hill, which was situated at the Danube and thus since 9 BC at the border of the Roman Empire, was also settled by the Romans during the Roman Period (1st to 4th century AD) as findings of bricks of Roman legions (\"Legion XIII GAN, Legion X GEPF\" etc.) and some parts of architecture (a Roman figural relief, roof parts etc.) suggest. The developments in the 5th century (the time of the Great Migration of Peoples) are largely unclear.", "The situation changed with the arrival of the Slavs in the territory of Bratislava. Initially, they partly used older Roman and Celtic structures and added some fortifications. Probably at the end of the 8th century (definitely not later than in the early 9th century), at the time of the Principality of Nitra, a Slavic castle with a wooden rampart was constructed with a huge area of 55,000 square metres. In the second half of the 9th century, at the time of Great Moravia, a palace of stone surrounded by dwellings and a big basilica were added. The basilica is the largest Great Moravian basilica from the territory of Slovakia, and the area of the castle is approximately the same as that of the Mikulčice site (the historical town \"Moravia\"), which is the most important Great Moravian archaeological site.Material from old Roman buildings was used to construct this Slavic castle in Bratislava. This could be a confirmation of the disputed statement of Aventinus from the 16th century, who – referring to lost sources – claimed that around 805/7 the Great Moravian prince Uratislaus (i.e. Vratislav) constructed today's Bratislava (Castle?) at the place of a destroyed Roman frontier fort called Pisonium, and the new settlement was named after him Uratislaburgium / Wratisslaburgium. Another probable fact is that around 900 the castle and the territory it controlled was given in fief to Predslav the third son of the Great Moravian king Svätopluk and that Pre(d) slav, or a person of the same name, is the person after which the castle and the town received its old German name \"Pressburg\" (from which the old Slovak name \"Prešporek\" is derived). The oldest version of this name was \"Preslava\" (Slovak) / \"Preslav(a) sburg\" (German). It appeared for the first time in 907 (Battle of Pressburg) in the forms \"Brezalauspurc(h)\", \"Braslavespurch\" and \"Pressalauspruch\" and then around 1000 on Hungarian coins as \"Preslav(v) a Civitas\" (meaning Bratislava Castle). On the other hand, the exact location of Brezalauspurc is still disputed.", "The construction of a new castle of stone started in the 10th century, but work lagged. Under King Stephen I of Hungary (1000–1038), however, the castle was already one of the central castles of the Kingdom of Hungary. It became the seat of Pozsony county and protected the kingdom against Bohemian (Czech) and German attacks (e.g. in 1030, 1042, 1052, 1108, 1146) and played an important role in throne struggles in the Kingdom of Hungary (e.g. struggles after the death of King Stephen I). In 1052 Henry III tried to occupy the castle. According to Hungarian tradition Zothmund a Hungarian soldier, swam to the ships of the invading fleet to drill holes in them, and they were sunk. King Solomon of Hungary had lived here until he was taken to the jail of Nyitra according to Ladislaus I's order. At the same time the old rampart was modernized and the Church of the St. Savior with a chapter and a church school were added. Stephen III of Hungary escaped from his enemies to the castle almost 100 years later. The castle was turned into a proto-Romanesque palace of stone in the 12th century (probably after 1179), maybe because King Béla III (1173–1196) decided to make Esztergom the definitive seat of kings of the Kingdom of Hungary. It was a palace similar to those constructed in Germany under Friedrich Barbarossa. In 1182 Friedrich Barbarossa gathered his crusader army under the castle. The church institutions and building at the castle were moved to the town below the castle in the early 12th century. The well-fortified Pressburg Castle was among the few castles of the Kingdom of Hungary to be able to withstand Mongol attacks in 1241 and 1242. As a reaction to these attacks, a huge \"tower for the protection of the kingdom\" was constructed at the castle building in 1245 immediately next to two older palaces. The tower was actually a huge high residential building. In addition, 7 (genuine) square towers were built into the old rampart and a stone wall was added around the castle proper (i.e. the residential building). The biggest of the rampart towers was at the same time a corner tower of the stone wall. Today it is a part of the castle building — it is identical with the present-day \"Crown tower\", which is the largest of the four existing towers of the structure. It was probably built around 1250 when Knights of St. John were active at the castle. On 25 October 1265 the Czech King, Přemysl Otakar and the Hungarian King Béla IV.'s grandchild Kunigunde, were engaged here. Andrew II and Gertrude's daughter, Elisabeth was born here. The new castle faced further conflicts. In 1271, King Otakar II of Bohemia invaded the territory of today's western Slovakia and charged the knight Egid with the administration of the conquered castle. Egid rebelled against Otakar two years later and was defeated by Otakar, but due to problems in Bohemia, Otakar had to leave this territory. In 1285-86, the noble Nicholas Kőszegi occupied the castle in order to use it as a basis for a rebellion against the Hungarian king, but he was defeated. Shortly afterwards, 1287–1291, the Austrian duke Albert of Habsburg, supporting Nicholas, occupied the castle, but was defeated by Matthew III Csák, who was made county head of Pozsony county for this. A more or less successful Austrian occupation of the castle and the county occurred in 1302-1312/1322 by Duke Rudolf. As a result of these permanent fighting, the Hungarian king granted the city rights (town charter) to a part of the settlements below the castle in 1291, thereby withdrawing them from the authority of the county head in the castle. Some settlements on the castle hill remained under the castle's authority and the fortification was gradually extended to them. In 1385, King Sigismund of Luxembourg occupied the castle and Pozsony county and one year later put the county in pawn to his cousins, the Moravian margraves Prokop and Jošt in exchange for a loan they provided to him. The castle was reconquered by Stibor of Stiboricz in 1389, who was made the county head of the Pozsony county in 1389-1402 as a reward. He had a chapel built in Bratislava Castle. Other allies of King Sigismund, especially in his fights against the Czech Hussites, was the noble family Rozgonyi, which received the Pozsony county head function in 1421. At some point between 1420 and 1430, King Sigismund (Holy Roman Emperor) decided to make Bratislava Castle – due to its central location — the center of his new German-Czech-Hungarian empire. In 1423, the king ordered the Rozgonyis to improve the fortifications of the castle as a protection against Hussite attacks, because the castle was situated close to the Czech border and it was still protected only by the old wooden ramparts. They replaced the old rampart with a new better stone bulwark. Then between 1431 and 1434 a total rearrangement of Pressburg castle took place. Experts from Germany were invited, material was transported from Austria, towns were imposed special taxes specifically for the construction of the planned largest castle ever built. The construction master was Konrad von Erlingen. The residential \"tower\" was demolished, and the form of the new Gothic palace was approximately similar to that of the present-day castle (but without two towers). Today, the only completely preserved part of the castle from that time is the Sigismund Gate (wrongly called the Corvinus Gate), i.e. the eastern entrance gate in the bulwark. Smaller parts have been preserve in the main palace. Sigismund plans, however, did not materialize, because the castle was never made Sigismund's residence and Sigismund always lived in the town below the castle. After Sigismund's death in 1437, his widow Barbara of Celje was imprisoned in the castle by the new king Albert of Habsburg. In 1438, Albert's daughter, Anne was engaged to the margrave William III, Landgrave of Thuringia in the castle. John Hunyadi and his wife Erzsébet Szilágyi also stayed here and Hungarian women respected them. Later on, Ladislas the Posthumous was probably living in the castle (parts of the castle were adapted for him at least). In 1440-1443, there were fighting between the castle of Pressburg ruled by county heads from the Rozgonyi family (supporting King Władysław III of Poland) and the town of Pressburg (supporting – and owned by – Queen Elisabeth which ruled for the young Ladislaus Posthumus) – see History of Pressburg for details. Castle repairs of 1438, 1452 and 1463 included repairs of damages caused by the above conflict. A water well was constructed in the yard of the castle in the 15th century.", "", "In 1536 (de facto already in 1531), after the Turks (the Ottoman Empire) had conquered present-day Hungary, Pressburg became the capital (seat of the Diet and of central authorities, place of coronations) of the remaining Kingdom of Hungary, which was renamed Royal Hungary and was ruled by the Austrian Habsburgs now. Consequently, Pressburg Castle became the most important royal castle and the formal seat of the kings of Royal Hungary (who however resided in Vienna normally). At the same time, from the beginning of the 16th century, Pressburg and its castle had to face various anti-Habsburg uprisings in Royal Hungary on the territory of Slovakia. For example, troops of Gabriel Bethlen occupied the castle between 1619 and 1621, when it was reconquered by Habsburg troops, and had the royal crown removed from Pressburg Castle till 1622. Between 1671 and 1677, Pressburg Castle was home to an extraordinary court against the Protestants and participants of anti-Habsburg uprisings. Imre Thököly, the leader of another big anti-Habsburg uprising, failed to conquer the castle in 1682-83.", "Between 1552 and 1784 the Holy Crown of Hungary stayed in the castle. Two Hungarian crown guards, 50 Hungarian and 50 Austrian infantry soldiers cared for it. Hungarian Kings who derived from foreign dynasties as Habsburgs could not possess it, and only had access to the crown during their coronation ceremony.", "Immediately after the defeat of the Kingdom of Hungary in the battle at Mohács in 1526, during which the king died, the queen – Maria of Habsburg – fled with her retinue from Buda to Pressburg. The royal treasure (mostly very valuable objects of art, the royal scepter, apple and sword, the globe of Ladislaus of Jagiello known as Astrolabium etc.) and many other important objects she has taken with her were deposited in Pressburg Castle and guarded by the royal burgrave John Bornemisza. Shortly afterwards, however, this precious treasure was mostly destroyed by the new king Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who needed it to finance his participation in a civil war in Royal Hungary, and smaller parts went to the Treasury Chamber of Vienna (Wiener Schatzkammer), or became personal property of Maria, or got lost forever. Taking into account the new role of the castle, the emperor Ferdinand I. of Habsburg had it rebuilt into a Renaissance castle by Italian builders and artists, such as Giulio Licino da Pordanone and Maciotanus Ulisses from Rome, between 1552 and 1562 (but some work continued even afterwards). The main designer and supervisor of the construction was the Italian architect Pietro Ferrabosco, who had been serving the emperor in Vienna and knew Count Eck Salm, the captain of Pressburg from 1552 – 1571. The building's form did not change (except that the entrance was shifted), but it was completely changed inside and outside. Above all, floors and rooms were rearranged, and most rooms received precious (golden etc.) equipment. In the late 16th century, a ball house (for various ball games) at the eastern wall and a second, better water well were added. Unfortunately, basically only one part of the castle chapel has been completely preserved from this time, paradoxically because it was walled up as “unnecessary” in the 17th century. As for the rest of the site, there were wooden dwellings for the guards (up to the 18th century) in the north-west, a (today unknown) “old tower” somewhere to the left of the castle building was improved, and the western entrance gate of the site was replaced by a big armoury. In terms of the castle's functions after 1530, the castle was home to selected participants of Diet meetings (including apartments of the king (emperor), which have been already there since the Gothic reconstruction ), to some central authorities of Royal Hungary, the county head of Bratislava etc., to the apartment of the Governor of Royal Hungary (usually a brother of the emperor), and since 1552, the crown jewels were deposited here as well – in what is today known as the Crown Tower. Initial and final meetings of the Diet took place in the castle too.", "", "Since some of the Renaissance changes were done in haste (especially the wooden roof), as early as in 1616 a new, gradual Early Baroque reconstruction started based on a design by the main imperial architect Giovanni Battista Carlone. The works were intensified in 1635 and finished around 1647. It was mostly financed by Count Paul Pálffy (Pálfi), the captain of the castle and county head of Pozsony county. The look the castle received through this conversion is basically the look the castle has kept till the present. The northern and western part of the main building have been newly built and a new, 3rd floor was added in the whole building, the main entrance was shifted back to the middle of the wall, the ancient fortifications were improved, the chapel was shifted from the southern part to the northern part (today's Musical Hall), and 2 new towers were added – yielding in sum the present 4 towers in the corners. As a reward for not having misappropriated state funds during the conversion, the Diet appointed Count Paul Pálffy lifelong captain of Pressburg Castle, county head of the Pozsony county and usufructuary of the castle (which remained in possession of the crown) in 1650. One year later, the emperor made those functions and titles hereditary for the Pálffys. In 1653, all wooden ceilings turned out to be bad and had to be replaced in the following years, so that precious paintings placed on them got lost. Ten years later, facing one of frequent Turkish (Ottoman) attacks to the territory of Slovakia, the fortifications were improved under the leadership of the military engineer Josef Priami of the Imperial Court in Vienna. Further improvements of the fortifications followed around 1673. They ended with the final defeat of the Turks at Vienna in 1683. In 1703, barracks were built in the north-east of the site and the armoury was turned into barracks too. The present-day Vienna Gate was constructed on the occasion of the coronation of Emperor Charles VI in 1712 and it was used as the main entrance to the castle site since then.", "When Maria Theresa of Austria became the queen of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1740, she promised to the nobles of the kingdom that she would have a residence both in Austria and in the Kingdom of Hungary – that is in Pressburg Castle. She kept the promise and spent much time in Bratislava. A corresponding conversion of the defense castle into a (at that time) modern royal residence was performed between 1761 and 1766. Minor changes however were done as early as from 1740 onwards: besides various changes in the interior, a large garden was added in the northern part of the site and Emperor Francis I (Maria Theresa's husband, who was interested in botany) created a small garden to the east of the castle building. The chief designer until 1757 was J. B. Martinelli. The Hungarian orders supported Maria Theresa with \"Vitam et Sanguinem\" exclamation marks in the castle at Seven Years' War's time. Major changes inside the castle (in the rococo style) were begun in 1760. The new chief designer between 1761 and 1762 was Franz Anton Hillebrandt. A new single floor building for the kitchen, servants and horses was added to the western wall of the castle. Because the water supply for the castle was not sufficient, Maria Theresa had Johann Wolfgang von Kempelen build a special water pipe drawing water from a tank in the town at the Danube bank using pumps. The stairs throughout the castle were rebuilt with a lower gradient, on Maria Theresa's request, to enable her to ride her horse upon them. The result of these changes, as for the exterior of the palace itself and the site gates, was very similar to Bratislava Castle as we know it today. Due to disputes with Hungarian nobles, Maria Theresa did not appoint a palatine, who used to represent the nobles, and instead in 1765 appointed a governor for the Kingdom of Hungary, who obeyed the queen. Bratislava Castle became his seat and the office of the county head left the castle. The second governor was Albert of Saxe-Teschen since 1765, the queen's son-in-law – the husband of queen's favorite daughter, Marie Christine of Austria. Albert and Maria Christine moved to the castle in 1766. Since both of them were promoters of culture and science, the castle and the town became a place of frequent events and visits in the sphere of culture and science. Because the governor did not have enough space, a new palace (later called the Theresianum) was built at the eastern wall of the castle building in 1767 - 1770. It had been designed by Hillebrandt in the classic style. Its furnishings were very expensive and precious and included hundreds of objects of art. The first floor was home to a family gallery, which later became the basis of today's Albertina Gallery in Vienna. In addition, a winter riding school was added at the northern end of the castle site, a summer riding school was situated directly in the castle yard, both castle gardens were adapted (in the Schönbrunn style), and night lighting using oil lanterns was introduced on the access road to the castle for the first time in history. In 1770, Maria Theresa herself ordered further valuable paintings and furniture to be provided to both the main castle and the Theresianum, and the governor moved into the completed Theresianum. Maria Theresa visited them frequently there, however mostly unofficially.", "The office of governor of the Kingdom of Hungary was re-abolished in 1781 by the new king Joseph II, and Albert of Sachsen-Teschen left the castle and took many parts of the equipment away. The (present-day Albertina Gallery) art collection went partly to Vienna, partly to Belgium, where Albert became a new governor. Other objects moved mostly to Vienna. In 1783, Pressburg ceased to be the seat of central authorities of the kingdom. They were moved to Buda (now Budapest). The crown jewels of the Kingdom of Hungary were moved to the Hofburg in Vienna. In 1784, the Theresianum, some other secondary buildings of the site, and the gardens were adapted, because the castle became a \"general seminary\", which was a type of state school for Catholic priests introduced by Joseph II. The general seminary of Pressburg Castle played an important role in Slovakia's history, because it has educated many important Slovak intellectuals, for example Anton Bernolák, the author of the first successful codification of a Slovak standard language. In 1802, the general seminary moved to another place, and the castle was assigned to the military as barracks. This was the beginning of the end of the castle. The rococo interiors of the castle were adapted in order to house some 1500 soldiers. In 1809, the Pressburg and the castle was bombarded by cannons by Napoleon's troops. On 28 May 1811, the castle burst into huge flames due to carelessness of garrison soldiers. The fire even spread into parts of the town.", "The destroyed castle gradually deteriorated. The military sold parts of the main castle buildings as construction materials in the surrounding areas. Between the two world wars, attempts were made to demolish the castle to build government offices and a university district on the castle hill and in its surroundings in the first Czechoslovak Republic and in the first Slovak Republic. Many parts of the site however continued to be used as barracks and adapted accordingly until 1946. In 1946, the ruin was opened to the public. Two years later, the town constructed an amphitheater in the northern part of the castle site. The amphitheater was in use for some 15 years. Films were shown there in the summer.", "Finally it was decided to restore the castle. Archaeological and architectural research started in 1953 and long restoration works began in 1957. The restoration was done to the last (Baroque) state of the main building, but at many places older (Gothic, Renaissance) preserved elements or parts have been restored. The Theresianum has not been restored and the Hillebrandt building of 1762 was restored only around the year 2000. The Slovak painter Janko Alexy gained recognition for the restoration of the castle. The finishing of the restoration in 1968 was interrupted in August 1968, when the castle was occupied by Warsaw Pact troops (see Prague Spring). On 28 October 1968, however, the Federation Law, turning the centralist state of Czechoslovakia into a federation of a Czech Socialist Republic (later called Czech Republic) and a Slovak Socialist Republic (later called Slovak Republic), was signed in the Federation Hall of the castle. On 3 September 1992, the new constitution of independent Slovakia was signed in the Knights Hall of the castle. Since 1968, the castle has been housing exhibitions of the Slovak National Museum and at the same time its rooms have been used by the National Council of the Slovak Republic (today the National Council of the Slovak Republic) for presentation purposes. In 1992, the castle housed a branch-office of the Czechoslovak president temporarily and later in the 1990s the Slovak president temporarily. It still houses the museum and the presentation rooms for the National Council of the Slovak Republic and for the president. A new restoration has been planned for years, because since 1968 (except for adding the Hillebrandt building) only minor adaptations have been performed, such as the 1988 creation of the Treasure Chamber, the 1995 replacement of glass in the arcades of the solemn staircase, and the 1996-97 complete repair of the roof. The last minor adaptations occurred on the occasion of the Bush-Putin Bratislava summit in February 2005. A massive reconstruction was started in 2008. It should take 5 years and cost 1.5 to 2 billion Slovak korunas (47.06 to 62.75 million euro). On June 6, 2010 the reconstruction of the Honorary Courtyard of Bratislava Castle was completed with a large nationally televised unveiling ceremony of an equestrian statue of King Svätopluk I by Slovak sculptor Ján Kulich." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Digital dictation.", "Methods.", "Software.", "Transcription." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Alexander Graham Bell and his two associates took Edison's tinfoil phonograph and modified it considerably to make it reproduce sound from wax instead of tinfoil. They began their work at Bell's Volta Laboratory in Washington, D.C., in 1879, and continued until they were granted basic patents in 1886 for recording in wax. Thomas A. Edison had invented the phonograph in 1877, but the fame bestowed on him for this invention — sometimes called his most original — was not due to its efficiency. Recording with his tinfoil phonograph was too difficult to be practical, as the tinfoil tore easily, and even when the stylus was properly adjusted, its reproduction of sound was distorted and squeaky, and good for only a few playbacks. Although Edison had hit upon the secret of sound recording, immediately after his discovery he did not improve it, allegedly because of an agreement to spend the next five years developing the New York City electric light and power system. By 1881 the Volta associates had succeeded in improving an Edison tinfoil machine to some extent. Wax was put in the grooves of the heavy iron cylinder, and no tinfoil was used. The basic distinction between the Edison's first phonograph patent, and the Bell and [Charles Sumner] Tainter patent of 1886 was the method of recording. Edison's method was to indent the sound waves on a piece of tin-foil, while Bell and Tainter's invention called for cutting, or \"engraving\", the sound waves into a wax record with a sharp recording stylus. Among the later improvements by the Volta Associates, the Graphophone used a cutting stylus to create lateral zig-zag grooves of uniform depth into the wax-coated cardboard cylinders, rather than the up-and-down vertically-cut grooves of Edison's contemporary phonograph machine designs. Notably, Bell and Tainter developed wax-coated cardboard cylinders for their record cylinders, instead of Edison's cast iron cylinder, covered with a removable film of tinfoil (the actual recording medium, which was prone to damage during installation or removal. Tainter received a separate patent for a tube assembly machine to automatically produce the coiled cardboard tubes, which served as the foundation for the wax cylinder records. Besides being far easier to handle, the wax recording medium also allowed for lengthier recordings and created superior playback quality. Additionally the Graphophones initially deployed foot treadles to rotate the recordings, then wind-up clockwork drive mechanisms, and finally migrated to electric motors, instead of the manual crank that was used on Edison's phonograph. The numerous improvements allowed for a sound quality that was significantly better than Edison's machine. Shortly after Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, the first device for recording sound, in 1877, he thought that the main use for the new device would be for recording speech in business settings. (Given the low audio fidelity of earliest versions of the phonograph, recording music may not have seemed to be a major application.) Some early phonographs were indeed used this way, but this did not become common until the mass production of reusable wax cylinders in the late 1880s. The differentiation of office dictation devices from other early phonographs, which commonly had attachments for making one's own recordings, was gradual. The machine marketed by the Edison Records company was trademarked as the \"Ediphone\". Following the invention of the audion tube in 1906, electric microphones gradually replaced the purely acoustical recording methods of earlier dictaphones by the late 1930s. In 1945, the SoundScriber, Gray Audograph and Edison Voicewriter, which cut grooves into a plastic disc, was introduced, and two years later Dictaphone replaced wax cylinders with their Dictabelt technology, which cut a mechanical groove into a plastic belt instead of into a wax cylinder. This was later replaced by magnetic tape recording. While reel-to-reel tape was used for dictation, the inconvenience of threading tape spools led to development of more convenient formats, notably the Compact Cassette, Mini-Cassette, and Microcassette.", "Digital dictation became possible in the 1990s, as falling computer memory prices made possible pocket-sized digital voice recorders that stored sound on computer memory chips without moving parts. Many early 21st-century digital cameras and smartphones have this capability built in. In the 1990s, improvements in voice recognition technology began to allow computers to transcribe recorded audio dictation into text form, a task that previously required human secretaries or transcribers. the technology is not robust enough to replace human transcription in most cases. The files generated with digital recorders vary in size, depending on the manufacturer and the format the user chooses. The most common file formats that digital recorders generate have one of the extensions WAV, WMA or MP3. Many dictation machines record in the DSS and DS2 format. Dictation audio can be recorded in various audio file formats. Most digital dictation systems use a lossy form of audio compression based on modelling of the vocal tract to minimize hard disk space and optimize network utilization as files are transferred between users. (Note that WAV is not an audio encoding format, but a file format and has little or no bearing on the encoding rate (kbit/s), size or audio quality of the resulting file.) Digital dictation offers several advantages over traditional cassette tape based dictation: Despite the advances in technology, analog media are still widely used in dictation recording for their flexibility, permanence, and robustness. In some cases, speech is recorded where sound quality is paramount and transcription unnecessary, e.g. for broadcasting a theatre play; recording techniques closer to high-fidelity music recording are more appropriate.", "Portable recorder<br> Portable, hand held, digital recorders are the modern replacement for analog handhelds. Digital portables allow transfer of recordings by docking or plugging into a computer. Digital recorders eliminate the need for cassette tapes. Professional digital hand held recorders are available with slide switch, push button, fingerprint locking, and barcode scanning options. Computer<br> Another common way to record digital dictation is with a computer dictation microphone. There are several different types of computer dictation microphones available, but each one has similar features and operation. Olympus Direct Rec, Philips SpeechMike, and Dictaphone Powermic are all digital computer dictation microphones that also feature push button control for operating dictation or speech recognition software. The dictation microphone operates through a USB port on the computer it is used with. Call-in dictation system<br> Call in dictation systems allow one to record their dictations over the phone. With call in dictation systems, the author dials a phone number, enters a PIN and starts dictating. Touch tone controls allow for start, pause, playback, and sending of dictation audio file. The call in dictation systems usually feature a Pod that can be plugged into a phone line. The pod can then be plugged into a computer to store dictation audio recording in compatible transcription or management software. Mobile phone<br> Currently there are several digital dictation applications available for mobile phones. With mobile dictation apps, one can record, edit, and send dictation files over networks. Wireless transfer of dictation files decreases turnaround time. Mobile dictation applications allow users to stay connected to dictation workflows through a network, such as the Internet.", "There are two types of digital dictation software: Recordings can be made over the telephone, on a computer or via a hand held dictation device that is \"docked\" to a computer.", "Digital dictation is different from speech recognition where audio is analyzed by a computer using speech algorithms in an attempt to transcribe the document. With digital dictation the process of converting digital audio to text may be done using digital transcription software, typically controlled by a foot switch which allows the transcriber to PLAY, STOP, REWIND, and BACKSPACE. Nevertheless, there are Digital Transcription Kits that allow integration with Speech Recognition Software. This gives the typist the option to either type a document manually, or send a document to be converted to text by Software such as Dragon NaturallySpeaking." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Construction commenced in 1985 and the building was designated as the headquarters of Československý rozhlas (now Český rozhlas; a Czech public radio broadcaster). In 1993, the building was nearly completed, but appeared to be oversized for Český rozhlas (which split from Československý rozhlas after the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia), technically obsolete and full of dangerous asbestos. In later years Český rozhlas tried to sell the uncompleted building. In 1996, an agreement was signed with the company NIKO to sell the building for 1 billion CZK, but subsequently failed to pay the agreed amount. A similar scenario happened one year later with the Singaporean company Wells Holding and an agreed selling price of 550 million CZK. Finally the building was sold in 1999 to the company ECM for just 285 million CZK. After a long planning process and legislative planning steps the radical reconstruction of the building, designed by Richard Meier, began in 2005 and was completed in 2008. On 20 December 2007 the building obtained final building approval. The first tenants started to move into the building at the beginning of 2008. The largest renter is Raiffeisenbank, a.s. which occupies 10 floors of the building with about 1200 employees. Over 2300 tons of new steel structures were used for its reconstruction. The facade consists of 30,500 m2 of glass sheets. 800 parking spaces were built in the underground floors. There are 18 lifts in the building. Elevators reach speeds of up to 6 meters per second and the official web page claims they are the fastest lifts in the Czech Republic. On the 27th floor is the highest restaurant in the Czech Republic, it has been since 2013 repeatedly awarded Michelin's Bib Gourmand award. In 2009 ECM sold City Tower for €130 millions to Czech company Marpona a.s. Transaction was backed up by J&T. In 2012, the building was sold again, to company Consideratio which belongs under holding Proxy-Finance. The price was not published." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Picture stories in Asia.", "Picture stories in Europe and the Middle East.", "Picture stories elsewhere in the world." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 6th-century India, religious tales called s were performed by traveling storytellers who carried banners painted with images of gods from house to house. Another form called featured vertical cloth scrolls accompanied by sung stories of the afterlife. Nowadays, this Indian traditional art is still performed by Chitrakar women of West Bengal. In Tibet this was known as and in China this was known as. In Indonesia the scroll was made horizontal and became the'and employed four performers: a man who sings the story, two men who operate the rolling of the scroll, and a woman who holds a lamp to illuminate particular pictures featured in the story. Other Indonesian theater forms such as ', a shadow play, and \", rod puppetry, developed around the same time and are still performed today. In Japan, appears as () or () in the form of hanging scrolls divided into separate panels, foreshadowing the immensely popular manga, or Japanese comics. sometimes took the shape of little booklets, or even displays of dolls posed on the roadside with backgrounds behind them. In the 20th century, Japanese candymen would bicycle around with serial shows called () where the story was told to a series of changing pictures that slid in and out of an open-framed box. Some shows had a peep show element to them, where a viewer could pay extra to peer through a hole and see a supposed artifact from the story.", "In 16th-century Italy, prayers would often be sung in the presence of illuminated scrolls while secular society produced the \" or \"singing bench\" where a person would stand on a bench point to pictures with a stick. In Spain up to the 19th century there were blind men with a young \"helper\" who would make a living by going from town to town where they would display illustrations and the blind man would recite/sing the story, often about truculent crimes, while his helper pointed at the illustration relevant at that point. These were called \"\" (blind man stories). The singing bench migrated northward to Central and Northern Europe where it served as sensationalist quasi-news about murder, fires, death, affairs, sex scandals and the like. Performers of such controversial bench songs were seen as vagrants and troublemakers and were often arrested, exiled, or ostracised for their activities. In Persia, (compare India's ) banner artists had the foresight to paint a handsome police officer in the corner as a fail-safe against the wrath of police harassment—the narrator would be relating the tale of a hero's exploits and when a cop would appear in the crowd the narrator would point to the cop on the banner and shower the character with flattery in the context of the story. In Czechoslovakia banner shows were called \"\". Most of them fell into an oblivion, with the notable exception of a parody song \"Cannoneer\". In Hungary the term is \". In Germany itinerant balladeers performed'or'(bench song) banner shows for four centuries until the Nazis banned the practice in the 1940s. The German \" survives in Bertolt Brecht's \"The Threepenny Opera\" () and in the performance work of Peter Schumann.", "In aboriginal Australia storytellers paint story sequences on tree bark and also on themselves for the purposes of performing the tale. In the 19th century, giant scrolling moving panorama performances were performed throughout the United Kingdom and United States. The 20th century has seen cantastoria employed by the radical art, theater and puppetry movements to tell stories from perspectives outside of the mainstream media, especially by the Bread and Puppet Theater. Elements of picture storytelling can also be seen in the portable mural-posters of the Beehive Collective." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Descriptions.", "Subclasses.", "Ligature.", "Looped.", "Italic.", "Origin.", "Bengali.", "Roman.", "Greek.", "Western Europe.", "English.", "Decline of English cursive in the United States.", "Conservation efforts and cognitive benefits.", "German.", "Russian.", "Chinese." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cursive is a style of penmanship in which the symbols of the language are written in a conjoined and/or \"flowing\" manner, generally for the purpose of making writing faster. This writing style is distinct from \"print-script\" using block letters, in which the letters of a word are unconnected and in Roman/Gothic letter-form rather than joined-up script. Not all cursive copybooks join all letters: formal cursive is generally joined, but casual cursive is a combination of joins and pen lifts. In the Arabic, Syriac, Latin, and Cyrillic alphabets, many or all letters in a word are connected (while other must not), sometimes making a word one single complex stroke. In Hebrew cursive and Roman cursive, the letters are not connected. In Maharashtra, there is a version of Cursive called 'Modi'", "", "Ligature is writing the letters of words with lines connecting the letters so that one does not have to pick up the pen or pencil between letters. Commonly some of the letters are written in a looped manner to facilitate the connections. In common printed Greek texts, the modern small letter fonts are called \"cursive\" (as opposed to uncial) though the letters do not connect.", "In \"looped cursive\" penmanship, some ascenders and descenders have loops which provide for joins. This is generally what people refer to when they say \"cursive\".", "\"Cursive italic\" penmanship—derived from chancery cursive—uses non-looped joins or no joins. In italic cursive, there are no joins from g, j, q or y, and a few other joins are discouraged. Italic penmanship became popular in the 15th-century Italian Renaissance. The term \"italic\" as it relates to handwriting is not to be confused with italic typed letters that slant forward. Many, but not all, letters in the handwriting of the Renaissance were joined, as most are today in cursive italic.", "The origins of the cursive method are associated with practical advantages of writing speed and infrequent pen-lifting to accommodate the limitations of the quill. Quills are fragile, easily broken, and will spatter unless used properly. They also run out of ink faster than most contemporary writing utensils. Steel dip pens followed quills; they were sturdier, but still had some limitations. The individuality of the provenance of a document (see Signature) was a factor also, as opposed to machine font. Cursive was also favored because the writing tool was rarely taken off the paper. The term \"cursive\" derives from Middle French \"cursif\" from Medieval Latin \"cursivus\", which literally means \"running\". This term in turn derives from Latin \"currere\" (\"to run, hasten\"). Although the use of cursive appeared to be on the decline, it now seems to be coming back into use.", "In Bengali cursive script (also known in Bengali as \"professional writing\") the letters are more likely to be more curvy in appearance than in standard Bengali handwriting. Also, the horizontal supporting bar on each letter (\"matra\") runs continuously through the entire word, unlike in standard handwriting. This cursive handwriting often used by literature experts differs in appearance from the standard Bengali alphabet as it is free hand writing, where sometimes the alphabets are complex and appear different from the standard handwriting.", "\"Roman cursive\" is a form of handwriting (or a script) used in ancient Rome and to some extent into the Middle Ages. It is customarily divided into old (or ancient) cursive, and new cursive. Old Roman cursive, also called majuscule cursive and capitalis cursive, was the everyday form of handwriting used for writing letters, by merchants writing business accounts, by schoolchildren learning the Latin alphabet, and even by emperors issuing commands. New Roman, also called minuscule cursive or later cursive, developed from old cursive. It was used from approximately the 3rd century to the 7th century, and uses letter forms that are more recognizable to modern eyes; \"a\", \"b\", \"d\", and \"e\" have taken a more familiar shape, and the other letters are proportionate to each other rather than varying wildly in size and placement on a line.", "The Greek alphabet has had several cursive forms in the course of its development. In antiquity, a cursive form of handwriting was used in writing on papyrus. It employed slanted and partly connected letter forms as well as many ligatures. Some features of this handwriting were later adopted into Greek minuscule, the dominant form of handwriting in the medieval and early modern era. In the 19th and 20th centuries, an entirely new form of cursive Greek, more similar to contemporary Western European cursive scripts, was developed.", "", "Cursive writing was used in English before the Norman conquest. Anglo-Saxon Charters typically include a boundary clause written in Old English in a cursive script. A cursive handwriting style—secretary hand—was widely used for both personal correspondence and official documents in England from early in the 16th century. Cursive handwriting developed into something approximating its current form from the 17th century, but its use was neither uniform, nor standardized either in England itself or elsewhere in the British Empire. In the English colonies of the early 17th century, most of the letters are clearly separated in the handwriting of William Bradford, though a few were joined as in a cursive hand. In England itself, Edward Cocker had begun to introduce a version of the French \"ronde\" style, which was then further developed and popularized throughout the British Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries as round hand by John Ayers and William Banson. In the American colonies, on the eve of their independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, it is notable that Thomas Jefferson joined most, but not all the letters when drafting the United States Declaration of Independence. However, a few days later, Timothy Matlack professionally re-wrote the presentation copy of the Declaration in a fully joined, cursive hand. Eighty-seven years later, in the middle of the 19th century, Abraham Lincoln drafted the Gettysburg Address in a cursive hand that would not look out of place today. Not all such cursive, then or now, joined all of the letters within a word. In both the British Empire and the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries, before the typewriter, professionals used cursive for their correspondence. This was called a \"fair hand\", meaning it looked good, and firms trained their clerks to write in exactly the same script. In the early days of the post office, letters were written in cursive – and to fit more text on a single sheet, the text was continued in lines crossing at 90 degrees from the original text. Block letters were not suitable for this. Although women's handwriting had noticeably different particulars from men's, the general forms were not prone to rapid change. In the mid-19th century, most children were taught the contemporary cursive; in the United States, this usually occurred in second or third grade (around ages seven to nine). Few simplifications appeared as the middle of the 20th century approached. After the 1960s, a movement originally begun by Paul Standard in the 1930s to replace looped cursive with cursive italic penmanship resurfaced. It was motivated by the claim that cursive instruction was more difficult than it needed to be: that conventional (looped) cursive was unnecessary, and it was easier to write in cursive italic. Because of this, a number of various new forms of cursive italic appeared, including Getty-Dubay, and Barchowsky Fluent Handwriting. In the 21st century, some of the surviving cursive writing styles are Spencerian, Palmer Method, D'Nealian, and Zaner-Bloser script.", "One of the earliest forms of new technology that caused the decline of handwriting was the invention of the ballpoint pen, patented in 1888 by John Loud. Two brothers, László and György Bíró, further developed the pen by changing the design and using different ink that dried quickly. With their design, it was guaranteed that the ink would not smudge, as it would with the earlier design of pen, and it no longer required the careful penmanship one would use with the older design of pen. After World War II, the ballpoint pen was mass-produced and sold for a cheap price, changing the way people wrote. Over time the emphasis of using the style of cursive to write slowly declined, only to be later impacted by other technologies such as the phone, computer, and keyboard. Cursive has been in decline throughout the 21st century due to its perceived lack of necessity. The Fairfax Education Association, the largest teachers' union in Fairfax County, Virginia, has called cursive a \"dying art\". Many consider cursive too tedious to learn and believe that it is not a useful skill. On the 2006 SAT, a United States post-secondary education entrance exam, only 15 percent of the students wrote their essay answers in cursive. However, students might be discouraged from using cursive on standardized tests due to exams written in hard-to-read handwriting receiving fewer marks, and some graders may have difficulties reading cursive. In a 2007 survey of 200 teachers of first through third grades in all 50 American states, 90 percent of respondents said their schools required the teaching of cursive. A 2008 nationwide survey found elementary school teachers lacking formal training in teaching handwriting to students. Only 12 percent of teachers reported having taken a course in how to teach it. In 2012, the American states of Indiana and Hawaii announced that their schools will no longer be required to teach cursive (but will still be permitted to), and instead will be required to teach \"keyboard proficiency\". Since the nationwide proposal of the Common Core State Standards in 2009, which do not include instruction in cursive, the standards have been adopted by 44 states as of July 2011, all of which have debated whether to augment them with cursive.", "Many historical documents, such as the United States Constitution, are written in cursive—the inability to read cursive therefore precludes one from being able to fully appreciate such documents in their original format. Despite the decline in the day-to-day use of cursive, it is being reintroduced to the curriculum of schools in the United States. States such as California, Idaho, Kansas, Massachusetts, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, and Tennessee have already mandated cursive in schools as a part of the Back to Basics program designed to maintain the integrity of cursive handwriting. Cursive instruction is required by grade 5 in Illinois, starting with the 2018–2019 school year. Some argue that cursive is not worth teaching in schools and \"in the 1960s cursive was implemented because of preference and not an educational basis; Hawaii and Indiana have replaced cursive instruction with 'keyboard proficiency' and 44 other states are currently weighing similar measures.\" With the widespread use of computers, researchers set out to test the effectiveness of both mediums. In a study done by Pam Mueller which compared scores of students who took notes by hand and via laptop computer showed that students who took notes by hand showed advantages in both factual and conceptual learning. Another study done by Anne Mangen showed that children showed an acceleration in learning new words when they wrote them by hand rather than on a computer screen. Learning to write in cursive is alleged (by its practitioners) to be a stepping stone to developing neat handwriting, and, in a third study conducted by Florida International University, professor Laura Dinehart concluded that students with neater handwriting tend to develop better reading and writing skills, though it is difficult to conclude causation from such an association. Aside from these cognitive benefits, students with dyslexia, who have difficulty learning to read because their brains have difficulty associating sounds and letter combinations efficiently, have found that cursive can help them with the decoding process because it integrates hand-eye coordination, fine motor skills and other brain and memory functions. However, students with dysgraphia may be badly served, or even substantially hindered, by demands for cursive.", "Up to the 19th century, (also known as \"German cursive\") was used in German-language longhand. Kurrent was not used exclusively, but rather in parallel to modern cursive (which is the same as English cursive). Writers used both cursive styles: location, contents and context of the text determined which style to use. A successor of,, was widely used in the period 1911–1941 until the Nazi Party banned it and its printed equivalent. German speakers brought up with continued to use it well into the post-war period. Today, three different styles of cursive writing are taught in German schools, the (introduced in 1953), the (1968), and the (1969). The German National Primary Schoolteachers' Union has proposed replacing all three with, a simplified form of non-cursive handwriting adopted by Hamburg schools.", "The \"Russian Cursive Cyrillic\" alphabet is used (instead of the block letters) when handwriting the modern Russian language. While several letters resemble Latin counterparts, many of them represent different sounds. Most handwritten Russian, especially personal letters and schoolwork, uses the cursive Russian (Cyrillic) alphabet, although use of block letters in private writing has been rising. Most children in Russian schools are taught in the 1st grade how to write using this Russian script.", "Cursive forms of Chinese characters are used in calligraphy; \"running script\" is the semi-cursive form and \"rough script\" (mistakenly called \"grass script\" due to misinterpretation) is the cursive. The running aspect of this script has more to do with the formation and connectedness of strokes \"within\" an individual character than with connections between characters as in Western connected cursive. The latter are rare in hanzi and in the derived Japanese kanji characters which are usually well separated by the writer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical accounts.", "Manisa relief.", "Brotheus and Renaissance invective.", "21st-century Brotheus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Broteas was consumed on a pyre as a propitiating sacrifice. The mythic rationale, that he was a famous hunter who refused to honour Artemis. Artemis then drove him mad, causing him to immolate himself. He can be compared to the hunter Actaeon, whose sacrifice is also justified as retribution. There's also a tradition that Broteas was exceptionally ugly, and thus killed himself for that reason. Broteas had a son Tantalus, like his grandfather. A Hesiodic papyrus fragment from Oxyrhyncus connects Dardanus, Broteas and Pandion, in a tradition of which there is no further evidence.", "This ancient rock carving was famous in antiquity. It's located near the town of Magnesia ad Sipylum, and it was believed to have been carved by Broteas. He was said to have carved the most ancient image of the Great Mother of the Gods (Cybele), an image that in Pausanias' day (2nd century CE) was still held sacred by the Magnesians. The sculpture was carved into the rock-face of the crag Coddinus, north of Spil Mount-Mount Sipylus, whose \"daemon\" was one of the mythographers' candidates for Broteas' grandfather. The rock-cut carving mentioned by Pausanias was identified with the Manisa relief in 1881 by W. M. Ramsay and is still to be seen above the road about 6 or 7 km east of Manisa (the modern descendant of Magnesia ad Sipylum), though the head has partly cleaved away, from natural causes. The figure 8–10 metres high carved in a recess in the a cliff-face a hundred metres above the marshy plain near the village of Akpinar, has come to be confused with a nearby natural rock formation associated with Niobe, the \"Niobe of Sipylus\" (the \"Weeping Rock\", in Turkish \"Ağlayan Kaya\"), also mentioned by Pausanias. Apart from the badly damaged head, the sitting figure is clear enough to be made out by a non-professional. The goddess with the polos headgear holds her breasts with her hands; a vague trace of four Hittite hieroglyphics could be seen on a squared section to the right of her head. The site is Hittite, second millennium BCE. Nearby, other archaeological sites traditionally associated with the House of Tantalus since Antiquity are also in fact Hittite. Some 2 km east of Akpınar there are another two monuments on Spil Mount, which are also mentioned by Pausanias: the tomb of Tantalus (Christianized as \"Saint Charalambos' tomb\") and the \"throne of Pelops\", in fact a rocky altar.", "In literature of the Renaissance and later, Broteas is most often called \"Brotheus\" and described as a son of Vulcan who cast himself into the flames, sometimes specified as those of Mount Aetna, because of his deformity. The immediate source for the Renaissance trope of Brotheus and his self-immolation was Ovid's curse poem \"Ibis\", an erudite rant of gruesome threats cataloguing the fates of numerous mythic and historical figures. Ovid's reference is minimal: \"May you consign your body parts, set on fire, to the pyre to be cremated, as they say Broteas did out of a desire for death.\" The Italian humanist and literary agitator Domizio Calderini, also known in Latin as Domitius Calderinus, appended the \"Ibis\" to his annotated edition of Martial (1474). Calderini's note says that Brotheus was the son of Vulcan and Minerva; scorned because of his ugliness, he cast himself into a burning pyre. The same year, drawing on his classical sources, Calderini published a \"Defensio adversus Brotheum\" (\"Defense against Brotheus\"), an attack on his literary rivals Angelo Sabino and Niccolò Perotti under the pseudonyms \"Fidentinus,\" after the plagiarist in Book 1 of Martial's epigrams, and \"Brotheus.\" The literary feud is mentioned in several sources, including Gyraldus, and its notoriety helped establish the predominant version of the myth in the 15th–18th centuries. The idiosyncratic but enormously influential \"Mythologiae\" of Natalis Comes (1567) uses this version in a chapter on the aspects of Vulcan and his progeny: \"Brotheus, who was mocked by everyone because of his ill-formed appearance, hurled himself into the fire, as if to escape libel by death.\" This description is repeated closely in \"The Anatomy of Melancholy\" (1621) by Robert Burton, and early 19th-century versions of Samuel Johnson's \"Dictionary\" specify that Brotheus \"threw himself into Mount Ætna.\"", "Broteas, under the Renaissance spelling Brotheus, is also a character in \"Anakhronismos,\" a long-form poem with mock annotations by Mike Ladd. In the poem, Brotheus is called a philosopher and attends the cinema with the poem's speaker, the fictional Aponius Maso. The note identifies Brotheus as the \"deformed son of Vulcan and Minerva who burned himself because of the ridicule he suffered.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Usage.", "Origin.", "Modern use.", "Aeronautical terms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The length of the internationally agreed nautical mile is. The US adopted the international definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile (). The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having previously used the UK Admiralty nautical mile ( or ).", "The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel (boat speeds and air speeds) are measured in knots. For consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids (tidal streams, river currents and wind speeds) are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground (SOG; ground speed (GS) in aircraft) and rate of progress towards a distant point (\"velocity made good\", VMG) are also given in knots.", "Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log. This consisted of a wooden panel, attached by line to a reel, and weighted on one edge to float perpendicularly to the water surface and thus present substantial resistance to the water moving around it. The chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 47 feet 3 inches (14.4018 m) from each other, passed through a sailor's fingers, while another sailor used a 30-second sand-glass (28-second sand-glass is the currently accepted timing) to time the operation. The knot count would be reported and used in the sailing master's dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, or 1.85166 km/h. The difference from the modern definition is less than 0.02%. Derivation of knots spacing: formula_1, so in formula_2 seconds that is formula_3 metres per knot.", "Although the unit \"knot\" does not fit within the SI system, its retention for nautical and aviation use is important because the length of a nautical mile, upon which the knot is based, is closely related to the longitude/latitude geographic coordinate system. As a result, nautical miles and knots are convenient units to use when navigating an aircraft or ship. Standard nautical charts are on the Mercator projection and the horizontal (East-West) scale varies with latitude. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland. A single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Since the length of a nautical mile, for practical purposes, is equivalent to about a minute of latitude, a distance in nautical miles on a chart can easily be measured by using dividers and the latitude scales on the sides of the chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier. Speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as \"knots per hour\", which would mean \"nautical miles per hour per hour\" and thus would refer to acceleration.", "Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for civil aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles, and speeds in miles per hour. In 1969, these standards were progressively amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles, and speeds in knots. The following abbreviations are used to distinguish between various measurements of airspeed: The indicated airspeed is close to the true airspeed only at sea level in standard conditions and at low speeds. At, an indicated airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "Centum-satem isogloss.", "North-Midland isogloss (American English).", "Northwest Semitic.", "Isographs.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The centum-satem isogloss of the Indo-European language family relates to the different evolution of the dorsal consonants of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). In the standard reconstruction, three series of dorsals are recognised: In some branches (for example Greek, Italic and Germanic), the palatals merged with the velars: PIE \"tremble (inwardly)\" became Latin cupiō\" \"desire\" and \"hundred\" became Latin centum\" (pronounced [kentum]); but \"interrogative pronoun\" became \"quō\" \"how? where?\". They are known as \"centum\" branches, named after the Latin word for \"hundred\". In other branches (for example, Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian), the labiovelars merged with the velars: PIE became Vedic Sanskrit kopáyati\" \"shaken\" and became Avestan \"kō\" \"who?\"; but became Avestan satəm\". They are known as \"satem\" branches, after the Avestan word for \"hundred\". Since the Balto-Slavic family, the Indo-Iranian family, and the other \"satem\" families are spoken in adjacent geographic regions, they can be grouped by an isogloss: a geographic line separating \"satem\" branches on one side from \"centum\" branches on the other.", "A major isogloss in American English has been identified as the North-Midland isogloss, which demarcates numerous linguistic features, including the Northern Cities vowel shift: regions north of the line (including Western New York; Cleveland, Ohio; lower Michigan; northern Illinois; and eastern Wisconsin) have the shift, while regions south of the line (including Pennsylvania, central and southern Ohio, and most of Indiana) do not.", "A feature of the ancient Northwest Semitic languages is \"w\" becoming \"y\" at the beginning of a word. Thus, in Proto-Semitic and subsequent non-Northwest Semitic languages and dialects, the root letters for a word for \"child\" were \"w-l-d\". However, in the ancient Northwest Semitic languages, the word was \"y-l-d\", with \"w-\" > \"y-\". Similarly, Proto-Semitic \"ā\" becomes \"ō\" in the Canaanite dialects of Northwest Semitic. Within the Aramaic languages and dialects of Northwest Semitic, the historic \"ā\" is preserved. Thus, an ancient Northwest Semitic language whose historic \"ā\" became \"ō\" can be classed as part of the Canaanite branch of Northwest Semitic. Such features can be used as data of fundamental importance for the purposes of linguistic classification.", "Just as there are distinguishing features of related languages, there are also distinguishing features of related scripts. (For a discussion of writing systems, see \"The World's Writing Systems\".) For example, a distinguishing feature of the Iron Age Old Hebrew script is that the letters \"bet\", \"dalet\", \"'ayin\" and \"resh\" do not have an open head, but contemporary Aramaic has open-headed forms. Similarly, the \"bet\" of Old Hebrew has a distinctive stance (it leans to the right), but the \"bet\" of the Aramaic and Phoenician scripts series has a different stance (in both, it leans to the left). In 2006, Christopher Rollston suggested using the term \"isograph\" to designate a feature of the script that distinguishes it from a related script series, such as a feature that distinguishes the script of Old Hebrew from Old Aramaic and Phoenician.", "The term \"isogloss\" (Ancient Greek \"ísos\" \"equal, similar\" and \"glōssa\" \"tongue, dialect, language\") is inspired by contour lines, or isopleths, such as isobars. However, the isogloss separates rather than connects points. Consequently, it has been proposed for the term \"heterogloss\" ( \"héteros\" \"other\") to be used instead." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Development.", "With Bill Monroe and the Blue Grass Boys.", "Flatt and Scruggs.", "Earl Scruggs Revue.", "Banjos.", "Louise Scruggs.", "Personal life.", "The Earl Scruggs Center.", "Selected discography.", "Early singles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Earl Scruggs was born January 6, 1924, in the Flint Hill community of Cleveland County, North Carolina, a small community just outside of Boiling Springs, about 10 miles west of Shelby. His father, George Elam Scruggs, was a farmer and a bookkeeper who died of a protracted illness when Earl was four years old. Upon his death, Scruggs' mother, Georgia Lula Ruppe (called Lula), was left to take care of the farm and five children, of which Earl was the youngest. The family members all played music. Mr. Scruggs had played an open back banjo using the frailing technique, though as an adult Earl had no recollection of his father's playing. Mrs. Scruggs played the pump organ. Earl's siblings, older brothers Junie and Horace, and older sisters Eula Mae and Ruby, all played banjo and guitar. Scruggs recalled a visit to his uncle's home at age six to hear a blind banjo player named Mack Woolbright, who played a finger-picking style and had recorded for Columbia Records. It made an impression on Scruggs, who said, \"He'd sit in the rocking chair, and he'd pick some and it was just amazing. I couldn't imagine — he was the first, what I call a good banjo player.\" Scruggs then took up the instrument — he was too small to hold it at first and improvised by setting his brother Junie's banjo beside him on the floor. He moved it around depending on what part of the neck he was playing. After his father's death, Scruggs seemed to take solace in playing music, and when not in school or doing farm chores, spent nearly every spare moment he had practicing. His first radio performance was at age 11 on a talent scout show.", "Scruggs is noted for popularizing a three-finger banjo-picking style now called \"Scruggs style\" that has become a defining characteristic of bluegrass music. Prior to Scruggs, most banjo players used the frailing or clawhammer technique, which consists of holding the fingers bent like a claw and moving the entire hand in a downward motion so that the strings are struck with the back of the middle fingernail. This motion is followed by striking the thumb on a single string. The three-finger style of playing is radically different from frailing; the hand remains stationary and only the fingers and thumb move, somewhat similar to classical guitar technique. Scruggs style also involves using picks on three digits, each plucking individual strings — downward with the thumb, then upward with the index and middle finger in sequence. When done skillfully and in rapid sequence, the style allows any digit (though usually the thumb) to play a melody, while the other two digits play arpeggios of the melody line. The use of picks gives each note a louder percussive attack, creating an exciting effect, described by \"The New York Times\" as \"like thumbtacks plinking rhythmically on a tin roof\". This departure from traditional playing elevated the banjo to become more of a solo instrument—a promotion from its former role of providing background rhythm or serving as a comedian's prop—and popularized the instrument in several genres of music. Earl Scruggs did not invent three-finger banjo playing; in fact, he said the three-finger style was the most common way to play the five-string banjo in his hometown in western North Carolina. An early influence was a local banjoist, DeWitt \"Snuffy\" Jenkins, who plucked in a finger style. According to banjoist and historian Tony Trischka, \"Jenkins came about as close as one could to Scruggs style without actually playing it\". At age ten, when Scruggs first learned the technique, he recalled that he was at home in his room after a quarrel with his brother. He was idly playing a song called \"Reuben\" and suddenly realized that he was playing with three fingers, not two. \"That excited me to no end\", he later recalled, and said he ran through the house repeatedly yelling \"I've got it\". From there he devoted all his free time to perfecting his timing and to adding syncopation and variations to it. Controversy exists as to the actual origin of three-finger picking style. Don Reno, an eminent banjo player who also played this style and who knew Scruggs at that young age, described Scruggs' early playing as similar to that of Snuffy Jenkins. Scruggs, however, consistently referred to it as his own, saying that he adapted to it \"a syncopated roll that was quite different.\" On the subject, John Hartford said, \"Here's the way I feel about it. Everybody's all worried about who invented the style and it's obvious that three finger banjo pickers have been around a long time — maybe since 1840. But it's my feeling that if it wasn't for Earl Scruggs, you wouldn't be worried about who invented it.\"", "At age 15, Scruggs played in a group called The Morris Brothers for a few months, but quit to work in a factory making sewing thread in the Lily Textile Mill near his home in North Carolina. He worked there about two years, earning 40 cents an hour, until the draft restriction for World War II was lifted in 1945, at which time he returned to music, performing with \"Lost John Miller and his Allied Kentuckians\" on WNOX in Knoxville. About this time an opening to play with Bill Monroe became available. Bill Monroe, 13 years older than Scruggs, was prominent in country music at the time. His career started with the \"Monroe Brothers\", a duo with his brother Charlie. Bill sang the high tenor harmony parts, a sound called \"high lonesome\", for which he became noted. The brothers split up in 1938 and Bill, a native of \"the Bluegrass State\" of Kentucky, formed a new group called \"Bill Monroe and the Blue Grass Boys\". They first played on the Opry in 1939 and soon became a popular touring band featuring a vocalist named Lester Flatt. The name \"bluegrass\" stuck and eventually became the eponym for this entire genre of county music and Monroe became known as \"the father of bluegrass.\" When Scruggs was 21, Monroe was looking for a banjo player for his group, because David \"Stringbean\" Akeman was quitting. At the time, banjo players often functioned in the band as comedians, and the instrument was often held as a prop — their clawhammer playing was almost inaudible. Monroe, along with band member Lester Flatt, auditioned several banjo players who had the same traditional playing style as Akeman. When Scruggs auditioned for them at the Tulane Hotel in Nashville, Flatt said,\" I was thrilled. It was so different! I had never heard that kind of banjo picking.\" Scruggs joined Monroe in late 1945, earning $50 a week. After they accepted Scruggs as one of the Blue Grass Boys, the roster consisted of Bill Monroe (vocals/mandolin), Lester Flatt (guitar/vocals), Earl Scruggs (banjo), Chubby Wise (fiddle), and Howard Watts (stage name Cedric Rainwater) on bass. This group of men became the prototype of what a bluegrass band would become. With Monroe and Lester Flatt, Scruggs performed on the Grand Ole Opry and in September 1946 recorded the classic hit \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\"; a song that was designated by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry, and later added to the Grammy Hall of Fame. The work schedule was heavy in Monroe's band. They were playing a lot of jobs in movie theaters all over the south, riding in a 1941 Chevrolet from town to town, doing up to six shows a day and not finishing up until about eleven at night. Lester Flatt said, \"It wasn't anything to ride two or three days in a car. We didn't have buses like we do now, and we never had our shoes off\". The self-imposed rule was to always get back in time to play the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville each Saturday night. Scruggs said of Monroe that \"Bill would never let the music go down no matter how tired we were. If a man would slack off, he would move over and get that mandolin up close on him and get him back up there\". Despite the group's success, Scruggs decided the demands were too great. He was single at the time, and the brief few hours on Saturdays that he made it home, it was just to pack his suitcase at the Tulane Hotel where he lived alone, then repeat the cycle—he had done this for two years. He turned in his resignation, planning to go take care of his mother in North Carolina. Flatt had also made up his mind to leave, but he had not told anyone. He later gave his two-week notice, but, before the notice was up, the bass player Howard Watts announced that he was leaving too. Despite Monroe's pleading, they left the band. Monroe thought Flatt and Scruggs had a secret understanding, but both men denied it. Monroe did not speak to either one for 20 years thereafter, a feud well known in country music circles.", "In 1948 Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs formed \"Flatt and Scruggs and the Foggy Mountain Boys\" — the name came from a song by the Carter Family called \"Foggy Mountain Top\" that the band used as a theme song at the time. Flatt later acknowledged that they consciously tried to make their sound different from Monroe's group. In the mid 1950s they dropped the mandolin and added a Dobro, played by Buck \"Uncle Josh\" Graves. In the spring of 1949, their second Mercury recording session yielded the classic \"Foggy Mountain Breakdown\", released on 78 RPM Phonograph records that were in use at the time. Previously, Scruggs had performed something similar, called \"Bluegrass Breakdown\" with Bill Monroe, but Monroe had denied him songwriting credit for it. Later, Scruggs changed the song, adding a minor chord, thus creating \"Foggy Mountain Breakdown\" The song contains a musical oddity — Flatt plays an E major chord against Scruggs's E minor. When asked about the dissonance years later, Scruggs said he had tried to get Flatt to consistently play a minor there to no avail; he said he eventually became used to the sound and even fond of it. The song won a Grammy and became an anthem for many banjo players to attempt to master. The band routinely tuned its instruments a half-step higher than standard tuning in those days to get more brightness or pop to the sound, returning to standard pitch in the 1960s. The popularity of Foggy Mountain Breakdown resurged years later when it was featured in the 1967 film \"Bonnie and Clyde\", which introduced the song to a younger generation of fans. Scruggs received a phone call from the show's producer and star, Warren Beatty, first asking Scruggs to write a song for the movie. Soon Beatty called back saying that he wanted to use the existing vintage Mercury recording of Foggy Mountain Breakdown, and rejected the argument that it was recorded 18 years prior at a radio station with no modern enhancements. The film was a hit, called by the \"Los Angeles Times\" \"a landmark film that helped usher in a new era in American filmmaking.\" In 2005, the song was selected for the Library of Congress's National Recording Registry of works of unusual merit. In October 1951, the band recorded \"Earl's Breakdown\" which featured a technique where Scruggs would manually de-tune certain strings of the banjo during a song using a cam device he had made to attach to the instrument, giving the surprise effect of a downward string bend. He and his brother Horace had experimented with it when they were growing up. Scruggs had drilled some holes in the peghead of his banjo to install the device and chipped the pearl inlay. He covered the holes with a piece of metal, which can be seen on the album cover of \"Foggy Mountain Jamboree\". The technique became popular and led to improvement of the design (without drilling holes) by Bill Keith who then manufactured Scruggs-Keith Tuners. The original tuners Scruggs made and used are now in a museum display at the Earl Scruggs Center in Shelby, North Carolina. In 1953, Martha White Foods sponsored the band's regular early morning radio shows on WSM in Nashville, where the duo sang the company's catchy bluegrass jingle written by Pat Twitty. About this time, country music television shows, on which Flatt and Scruggs appeared regularly, went into syndication, vastly increasing the group's exposure. Despite the groups increasing popularity and fan mail, WSM did not allow Flatt and Scruggs to become members of the Grand Ole Opry at first. According to \"Tennessean\" writer Peter Cooper, Bill Monroe was in opposition and worked behind the scenes to keep Flatt and Scruggs off the Opry to the extent of having petitions made against their membership. In 1955 Martha White Foods' CEO Cohen E. Williams intervened by threatening to pull all of his advertising from WSM unless the band appeared on the Opry in the segment sponsored by his company. As years went by, the band became synonymous with Martha White to the extent that the advertising jingle became a hit, and the band rarely played a concert without it. Fans shouted requests for them to play it, even at Carnegie Hall. On September 24, 1962, the duo recorded \"The Ballad of Jed Clampett\" for the TV show \"The Beverly Hillbillies\". Sung by Jerry Scoggins, the theme song became an immediate country music hit and was played at the beginning and end of each episode of the series. The song went to #1 on the Billboard country chart, a first for any bluegrass recording. The song spent 20 weeks on that chart; it also reached #44 on Billboard's pop chart. The television show was also a huge hit, broadcast in 76 countries around the world. In Queens, New York a five year old boy named Béla Fleck heard the Jed Clampett theme on television. Fleck said, \"I couldn't breathe or think; I was completely mesmerized.\" He said it awakened a deeply embedded predisposition that \"was just in there\" to learn how to play the instrument. Flatt and Scruggs appeared in several episodes as family friends of the fictional Clampetts. In their first appearance (season 1, episode 20), they portray themselves in the show and perform both the theme song and \"Pearl, Pearl, Pearl\". That song went to #8 on the country chart in 1963. Scruggs published an instruction book entitled \"Earl Scruggs and the Five String Banjo\" in 1968. It received a Gold Book Award by the publisher, Peer-Southern Corporation when it sold over a million copies. Over their 20-year association, Flatt and Scruggs recorded over 50 albums and 75 single records and featured over 20 different musicians as \"Foggy Mountain Boys\" — side men backing the duo. By the end of the 1960s, Scruggs was getting bored with repetition of the classic bluegrass fare. By now, his sons were professional musicians, and he was caught up in their enthusiasm for more contemporary music. He said, \"I love bluegrass music, and still like to play it, but I do like to mix in some other music for my own personal satisfaction, because if I don't, I can get a little bogged down and a little depressed\". Scruggs also wanted to play concerts in venues that normally featured rock and roll acts. Columbia Records executives told Flatt and Scruggs that they intended to try a new producer, Bob Johnston, instead of their long-time producer Don Law. Johnston had produced Bob Dylan's records. This new association produced \"Changin' Times\", \"Nashville Airplane\", and \"The Story of Bonnie and Clyde\" albums. Flatt was not happy with some of this material — he didn't like singing Bob Dylan songs and refused to perform them, saying \"I can't sing Bob Dylan stuff, I mean. Columbia has got Bob Dylan, why did they want me?\". Even the success of the \"Bonnie and Clyde\" album was not enough to prevent their breakup in 1969. After the split, Flatt formed a traditional bluegrass group with Curly Seckler and Marty Stuart called The Nashville Grass, and Scruggs formed the Earl Scruggs Revue with his sons. Neither Flatt nor Scruggs spoke to each other for the next ten years — until 1979 when Flatt was in the hospital. Scruggs made an unannounced visit to his bedside. The two men talked for more than an hour. Even though Flatt's voice was barely above a whisper, he spoke of a reunion. Scruggs answered yes, but told Flatt they would talk when he was better. Flatt said, \"It came as quite a surprise and made me feel good.\" However, Lester Flatt never recovered, and died May 11, 1979. Historian Barry Willis, speaking of the meeting, said \"Earl gave Lester his flowers while he was still living.\" (He was referring to a 1957 Flatt and Scruggs recording of \"Give Me My Flowers While I'm Still Living\".)", "In early 1969, Scruggs formed the Earl Scruggs Revue, consisting of two of his sons, Randy (guitar) and Gary (bass) and later Vassar Clements (fiddle), Josh Graves (Dobro) and Scruggs' youngest son, Steve (drums). On November 15, 1969, Scruggs performed live with the newly formed group on an open-air stage in Washington, D.C. at the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam. Scruggs was one of the few bluegrass or country artists to give support to the anti-war movement. The Earl Scruggs Revue gained popularity on college campuses, live shows and festivals and appeared on the bill with acts like Steppenwolf, The Byrds and James Taylor. They recorded for Columbia Records and made frequent network television appearances though the 1970s. Their album \"I Saw the Light with a Little Help from my Friends\" featured Linda Ronstadt, Arlo Guthrie, Tracy Nelson, and the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band. This collaboration sparked enthusiasm by the latter to make the album \"Will the Circle be Unbroken\". Earl and Louise Scruggs made phone calls to eminent country stars like Roy Acuff and \"Mother\" Maybelle Carter to get them to participate in this project to bring a unique combination of older players with young ones. Bill Monroe refused to participate saying he had to remain true to the style he pioneered, and this \"is not bluegrass\" The album became a classic, and was selected for the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry of works of unusual merit. Scruggs had to retire from the road in 1980 due to back problems, but the Earl Scruggs Revue did not part ways until 1982. Despite the group's commercial success, they were never embraced by bluegrass or country music purists. Scruggs remained active musically and released \"The Storyteller and the Banjoman\" with Tom T. Hall in 1982, and a compilation album \"Top of the World\" in 1983. In 1994, Scruggs teamed up with Randy Scruggs and Doc Watson to contribute the song \"Keep on the Sunny Side\" to the AIDS benefit album \"Red Hot + Country\". In 2001, Scruggs broke a 17-year personal album hiatus with the album \"Earl Scruggs and Friends\", featuring Elton John, Sting, Don Henley, Johnny Cash, Dwight Yoakam, Billy Bob Thornton, and Steve Martin. It includes the song \"Passin' Thru\", written by Johnny Cash and Randy Scruggs. He also released a live album \"The Three Pickers\" with Doc Watson and Ricky Skaggs, recorded in Winston-Salem in December, 2002.", "In the late 1950s Scruggs met with Bill Nelson, one of the owners of the Vega Musical Instrument Company in Boston, to sign a contract to design and endorse a new banjo to be called \"The Earl Scruggs Model\". The company had made banjos since before 1912 and already had a Pete Seeger model. There would be four Scruggs models in the top-of-the-line banjos they produced. It was the first time a prominent bluegrass banjo player had played any brand other than a Gibson. Scruggs participated in Vega's marketing campaign that claimed that the banjo was constructed to Scruggs's design specifications, which was true, but the finished product fell short of his expectations. According to Scruggs's friend and fellow banjoist, Curtis McPeake, Scruggs never cared for it. McPeake stated, \"They were good banjos, they just wasn't [\"sic\"] what Earl wanted to play.\" Scruggs continued to perform and record using his Gibson Grenada. The Vega company was sold to the C.F. Martin company in 1970, and the contract was dissolved. In 1984, Gibson produced what Scruggs had wanted — the Gibson \"Earl Scruggs Standard\", a replica of his personal 1934 Gibson Granada RB Mastertone banjo, number 9584-3. This banjo had been changed over its long existence and the only remaining original parts were the rim, the tone ring and the resonator (the wooden back of the instrument). The banjo was originally gold-plated, but the gold had long-since worn off and had been replaced with nickel hardware. Gibson elected to make the replica model nickel-plated as well, to look like Scruggs' own. Scruggs' actual 1934 model was previously owned by a series of influential players beginning with Snuffy Jenkins, who bought it for $37.50 at a pawn shop in South Carolina. Jenkins sold it to Don Reno, who sold it to Scruggs. When Scruggs acquired it, the instrument was in poor condition and he sent it to the Gibson Company for refurbishing, including a new fingerboard, pearl inlays, and a more slender neck. During this time Scruggs used his Gibson RB-3 for some of the Mercury recording sessions. Banjo enthusiasts have located the shipping records from Gibson to determine the exact dates the Granada Mastertone was missing on certain recordings.", "On December 14, 1946, 19-year-old Anne Louise Certain attended the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville. She went backstage after the performance to meet some of the performers, including Scruggs, who had been with Bill Monroe's band about a year at that time. Scruggs and Certain began dating and fell in love. They were married about a year and a half later in April 1948. When Flatt and Scruggs formed the new group, Scruggs had done most of the bookings for the band, but being on the road for hours in a car and stopping at a phone booth to communicate with venues, often at odd hours, was difficult. Louise had a business aptitude and began helping by doing the phone work. She eventually became the booking agent and ultimately the group's manager, Nashville's first woman to become prominent in that role. Her acumen and skills in the job were prescient. She turned the band into TV personalities and helped propel them into what today would be called rock stars, touring with Joan Baez and performing at the prestigious Newport Folk Festival. She recruited noted artist Thomas B. Allen, who had done covers for \"The New Yorker\" and \"Sports Illustrated\" to create cover illustrations for 17 of the group's albums. She helped market the group to younger audiences at college campuses and arranged a live album to be recorded at Carnegie Hall. Earl Scruggs said, \"What talent I had never would have peaked without her. She helped shape music up as a business, instead of just people out picking and grinning.\" Louise died from complications of respiratory disease on February 2, 2006 at age 78, predeceasing her husband by six years. In 2007, The Country Music Hall of Fame created The Louise Scruggs Memorial Forum, an annual event to honor a music industry business leader.", "In 1955, Scruggs received word that his mother, Lula, had suffered a stroke and heart attack in North Carolina. The only flight available from Nashville involved such a series of connecting cities that it was not feasible to fly. Scruggs and his wife, with sons Gary and Randy, decided to drive all night from Nashville to see her when they were involved in an automobile accident just east of Knoxville about 3 a.m. October 2. Their car was hit by a drunk driver, a Fort Campbell soldier who had pulled out from a side road into their path, then fled the scene after the collision. The children were not hurt, but Earl suffered a fractured pelvis and dislocations of both hips, which would plague him for years, and Louise had been thrown into the windshield, receiving multiple lacerations. They were flown to a Nashville Hospital where Scruggs remained hospitalized for about two months. He received thousands of letters from well-wishers. He returned to music in January 1956, about four months after the injury, but after working a week or so, one of the hips collapsed, and he returned to the hospital for a metal hip to be implanted. Seven years later, the other hip required similar surgery. The first metal hip lasted for some 40 years, but eventually failed, requiring a total hip replacement in October 1996, when he was age 72. While still in the recovery room after this hip operation, Scruggs suffered a heart attack; he was returned to the operating room later the same day for quintuple coronary bypass surgery. Despite the dire circumstances, he recovered and returned to his musical career. Scruggs was involved in a solo plane crash in October 1975. He was flying his 1974 Cessna Skyhawk II aircraft home to Nashville around midnight from a performance of the Earl Scruggs Revue in Murray, Kentucky. On his landing approach he was enveloped in dense fog and overshot the runway at Cornelia Fort Airpark in Nashville and the plane flipped over. The automatic crash alert system in the plane did not function, and Scruggs remained without help for five hours. He crawled about 150 feet from the wreckage with a broken ankle, broken nose, and facial lacerations, afraid that the plane might catch fire. His family was driving home from the same concert and was unaware of the crash, but his niece became worried when he did not arrive. She called police at about 4 a.m., and they went to the airport, where they heard Scruggs' cries for help from a field near the runway. He recovered, but was in a wheelchair for a few weeks, including for the premiere of the Scruggs documentary \"Banjoman\" at the Kennedy Center. Steve Scruggs, Earl's youngest son, was the drummer for the Earl Scruggs Revue at one point. He died in September 1992 of a self-inflicted gun shot after killing his wife, according to prosecutor Dent Moriss. Middle son Randy Scruggs, guitarist and music producer, died after a short illness on April 17, 2018 at the age of 64. Every January for many years, Scruggs' birthday was celebrated by a party at his home on Franklin Road in Nashville. After a buffet dinner, guests would gather in the living room for an informal \"pickin' party\" where some of country music's best known stars would sing and play with no one around but family and close friends. The attendees over the years included Tom T. Hall, Béla Fleck, Travis Tritt, Vince Gill, Tim O'Brien, Emmylou Harris, Mac Wiseman, Marty Stuart, Porter Wagoner, Bill Anderson, Jerry Douglas, Josh Graves and many others. At Scruggs' 80th birthday party in 2004, country singer Porter Wagoner said, \"Earl is to the five-string banjo what Babe Ruth was to baseball. He is the best there ever was and the best there ever will be.\" At age 88, Earl Scruggs died from natural causes on the morning of March 28, 2012, in a Nashville hospital. His funeral was held on Sunday, April 1, 2012, at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville, Tennessee, and was open to the public. He was buried at Spring Hill Cemetery in a private service.", "The Earl Scruggs Center opened January 11, 2014 — a $5.5 million, 100,000 square foot facility located in the court square of Shelby, North Carolina, at the renovated county courthouse. It showcases the musical contributions of Scruggs, the most eminent ambassador of the music of that region, and features a museum and a life-sized statue of Scruggs at a young age. The center received a $1.5 million economic development grant from the U.S. Department of Commerce and also funds from corporate donors. It serves as an educational center providing classes and field trips for students. The opening was celebrated by a sold-out concert by Vince Gill, Travis Tritt, Sam Bush, and others.", "", "Mercury Records Singles Columbia Records Singles Mercury Records Singles OKeh Records Singles Columbia Records Singles" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Motivation.", "Functions of a single variable.", "Existence and one-sided limits.", "More general subsets.", "Deleted versus non-deleted limits.", "Examples.", "Non-existence of one-sided limit(s).", "Non-equality of one-sided limits.", "Limits at only one point.", "Limits at countably many points.", "Functions on metric spaces.", "Functions on topological spaces.", "Limits involving infinity.", "Limits at infinity.", "Infinite limits.", "Alternative notation.", "Limits at infinity for rational functions.", "Functions of more than one variable.", "Sequential limits.", "Other characterizations.", "In terms of sequences.", "In non-standard calculus.", "In terms of nearness.", "Relationship to continuity.", "Properties.", "Limits of compositions of functions.", "Limits of special interest.", "Rational functions.", "L'Hôpital's rule.", "Summations and integrals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Although implicit in the development of calculus of the 17th and 18th centuries, the modern idea of the limit of a function goes back to Bolzano who, in 1817, introduced the basics of the epsilon-delta technique to define continuous functions. However, his work was not known during his lifetime. In his 1821 book \"Cours d'analyse\", Cauchy discussed variable quantities, infinitesimals, and limits and defined continuity of formula_1 by saying that an infinitesimal change in \"x\" necessarily produces an infinitesimal change in \"y\", while claims that he only gave a verbal definition. Weierstrass first introduced the epsilon-delta definition of limit in the form it is usually written today. He also introduced the notations lim and lim. The modern notation of placing the arrow below the limit symbol is due to Hardy in his book \"A Course of Pure Mathematics\" in 1908.", "Imagine a person walking over a landscape represented by the graph of \"y\" = \"f\"(\"x\"). Her horizontal position is measured by the value of \"x\", much like the position given by a map of the land or by a global positioning system. Her altitude is given by the coordinate \"y\". She is walking towards the horizontal position given by \"x\" = \"p\". As she gets closer and closer to it, she notices that her altitude approaches \"L\". If asked about the altitude of \"x\" = \"p\", she would then answer \"L\". What, then, does it mean to say that her altitude approaches \"L?\" It means that her altitude gets nearer and nearer to \"L\" except for a possible small error in accuracy. For example, suppose we set a particular accuracy goal for our traveler: she must get within ten meters of \"L\". She reports back that indeed she can get within ten vertical meters of \"L\", since she notes that when she is within fifty horizontal meters of \"p\", her altitude is \"always\" ten meters or less from \"L\". The accuracy goal is then changed: can she get within one vertical meter? Yes. If she is anywhere within seven horizontal meters of \"p\", then her altitude always remains within one meter from the target \"L\". In summary, to say that the traveler's altitude approaches \"L\" as her horizontal position approaches \"p\" means that for every target accuracy goal, however small it may be, there is some neighborhood of \"p\" whose altitude fulfills that accuracy goal. The initial informal statement can now be explicated: This explicit statement is quite close to the formal definition of the limit of a function with values in a topological space. To say that means that \"ƒ\"(\"x\") can be made as close as desired to \"L\" by making \"x\" close enough, but not equal, to \"p\". The following definitions (known as (ε, δ)-definitions) are the generally accepted ones for the limit of a function in various contexts.", "Suppose \"f\" : R → R is defined on the real line and \"p, L\" ∈ R. It is said the limit of \"f\", as \"x\" approaches \"p\", is \"L\" and written or alternatively as: if the following property holds: The value of the limit does not depend on the value of \"f\"(\"p\"). A more general definition applies for functions defined on subsets of the real line. Let (\"a\", \"b\") be an open interval in R, and \"p\" a point of (\"a\", \"b\"). Let \"f\" be a real-valued function defined on all of (\"a\", \"b\") except possibly at \"p\" itself. It is then said that the limit of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches \"p\" is \"L\" if, for every real \"ε\" > \"0\", there exists a real \"δ\" > \"0\" such that 0 < | \"x\" − \"p\" | < \"δ\" and \"x\" ∈ (\"a\", \"b\") implies | \"f\"(\"x\") − \"L\" | < \"ε\". Here the value of the limit does not depend on \"f\" being defined at \"p\", nor on the value \"f\"(\"p\"), if it is defined. The letters \"ε\" and \"δ\" can be understood as \"error\" and \"distance\", and in fact Cauchy used \"ε\" as an abbreviation for \"error\" in some of his work, though in his definition of continuity he used an infinitesimal formula_6 rather than either \"ε\" or \"δ\" (see Cours d'Analyse). In these terms, the error (\"ε\") in the measurement of the value at the limit can be made as small as desired by reducing the distance (\"δ\") to the limit point. As discussed below this definition also works for functions in a more general context. The idea that \"δ\" and \"ε\" represent distances helps suggest these generalizations.", "Alternatively \"x\" may approach \"p\" from above (right) or below (left), in which case the limits may be written as or respectively. If these limits exist at p and are equal there, then this can be referred to as the\" limit of \"f\"(\"x\") at \"p. If the one-sided limits exist at \"p\", but are unequal, there is no limit at \"p\" (the limit at \"p\" does not exist). If either one-sided limit does not exist at \"p\", the limit at p does not exist. A formal definition is as follows. The limit of \"f\"(\"x\") as \"x\" approaches \"p\" from above is \"L\" if, for every \"ε\" > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that |\"f\"(\"x\") − \"L\"| < \"ε\" whenever 0 < \"x\" − \"p\" < δ. The limit of \"f\"(\"x\") as \"x\" approaches \"p\" from below is \"L\" if, for every ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that |\"f\"(\"x\") − \"L\"| < \"ε\" whenever 0 < \"p\" − \"x\" < \"δ\". If the limit does not exist then the oscillation of \"f\" at \"p\" is non-zero.", "Apart from open intervals, limits can be defined for functions on arbitrary subsets of R, as follows. Let \"f\" be a real-valued function defined on a subset \"S\" of the real line. Let \"p\" be a limit point of \"S\"—that is, \"p\" is the limit of some sequence of elements of \"S\" distinct from p. The limit of \"f\", as \"x\" approaches \"p\" from values in \"S\", is \"L\" if, for every, there exists a such that and implies. This limit is often written The condition that \"f\" be defined on \"S\" is that \"S\" be a subset of the domain of \"f\". This generalization includes as special cases limits on an interval, as well as left-handed limits of real-valued functions (e.g., by taking \"S\" to be an open interval of the form formula_10), and right-handed limits (e.g., by taking \"S\" to be an open interval of the form formula_11). It also extends the notion of one-sided limits to the included endpoints of (half-)closed intervals, so the Square root function \"f(x)\"= can have limit 0 as x approaches 0 from above.", "The definition of limit given here does not depend on how (or whether) \"f\" is defined at \"p\"., refers to this as a \"deleted limit\", because it excludes the value of \"f\" at \"p\". The corresponding \"non-deleted limit\" does depend on the value of \"f\" at \"p\", if \"p\" is in the domain of \"f\": The definition is the same, except that the neighborhood | \"x\" − \"p\" | < \"δ\" now includes the point \"p\", in contrast to the deleted neighborhood 0 < | \"x\" − \"p\" | < \"δ\". This makes the definition of a non-deleted limit less general. One of the advantages of working with non-deleted limits is that they allow to state the theorem about limits of compositions without any constraints on the functions (other than the existence of their non-deleted limits) ().", "", "The function has no limit at formula_13 (the left-hand limit does not exist due to the oscillatory nature of the sine function, and the right-hand limit does not exist due to the asymptotic behaviour of the reciprocal function), but has a limit at every other \"x\"-coordinate. The function (the Dirichlet function) has no limit at any \"x\"-coordinate.", "The function has a limit at every non-zero \"x\"-coordinate (the limit equals 1 for negative \"x\" and equals 2 for positive \"x\"). The limit at \"x\" = 0 does not exist (the left-hand limit equals 1, whereas the right-hand limit equals 2).", "The functions and both have a limit at x = 0 and it equals 0.", "The function has a limit at any \"x\"-coordinate of the form formula_19, where \"n\" is any integer.", "Suppose \"M\" and \"N\" are subsets of metric spaces \"A\" and \"B\", respectively, and \"f\" : \"M\" → \"N\" is defined between \"M\" and \"N\", with \"x\" ∈ \"M,\" \"p\" a limit point of \"M\" and \"L\" ∈ \"N\". It is said that the limit of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches \"p\" is \"L\" and write if the following property holds: Again, note that \"p\" need not be in the domain of \"f\", nor does \"L\" need to be in the range of \"f\", and even if \"f\"(\"p\") is defined it need not be equal to \"L\". An alternative definition using the concept of neighbourhood is as follows: if, for every neighbourhood \"V\" of \"L\" in \"B\", there exists a neighbourhood \"U\" of \"p\" in \"A\" such that \"f\"(U ∩ M − {\"p\"}) ⊆ \"V\".", "Suppose \"X\",\"Y\" are topological spaces with \"Y\" a Hausdorff space. Let \"p\" be a limit point of Ω ⊆ \"X\", and \"L\" ∈\"Y\". For a function \"f\" : Ω → \"Y\", it is said that the limit of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches \"p\" is \"L\" (i.e., \"f\"(\"x\") → \"L\" as \"x\" → \"p\") and written if the following property holds: This last part of the definition can also be phrased \"there exists an open punctured neighbourhood \"U\" of \"p\" such that \"f\"(\"U\"∩Ω) ⊆ \"V\" \". Note that the domain of \"f\" does not need to contain \"p\". If it does, then the value of \"f\" at \"p\" is irrelevant to the definition of the limit. In particular, if the domain of \"f\" is \"X\" − {\"p\"} (or all of \"X\"), then the limit of \"f\" as \"x\" → \"p\" exists and is equal to \"L\" if, for all subsets Ω of \"X\" with limit point \"p\", the limit of the restriction of \"f\" to Ω exists and is equal to \"L\". Sometimes this criterion is used to establish the \"non-existence\" of the two-sided limit of a function on R by showing that the one-sided limits either fail to exist or do not agree. Such a view is fundamental in the field of general topology, where limits and continuity at a point are defined in terms of special families of subsets, called filters, or generalized sequences known as nets. Alternatively, the requirement that \"Y\" be a Hausdorff space can be relaxed to the assumption that \"Y\" be a general topological space, but then the limit of a function may not be unique. In particular, one can no longer talk about \"the limit\" of a function at a point, but rather \"a limit\" or \"the set of limits\" at a point. A function is continuous at a limit point \"p\" of and in its domain if and only if \"f\"(\"p\") is \"the\" (or, in the general case, \"a\") limit of \"f\"(\"x\") as \"x\" tends to \"p\".", "", "For \"f\"(\"x\") a real function, the limit of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches infinity is \"L\", denoted means that for all formula_24, there exists \"c\" such that formula_25 whenever \"x\" > \"c\". Or, symbolically: Similarly, the limit of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches negative infinity is \"L\", denoted means that for all formula_24 there exists \"c\" such that formula_25 whenever \"x\" < \"c\". Or, symbolically: For example,", "For a function whose values grow without bound, the function diverges and the usual limit does not exist. However, in this case one may introduce limits with infinite values. For example, the statement the limit of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches \"a\" is infinity, denoted means that for all formula_33 there exists formula_34 such that formula_35 whenever formula_36 These ideas can be combined in a natural way to produce definitions for different combinations, such as For example, Limits involving infinity are connected with the concept of asymptotes. These notions of a limit attempt to provide a metric space interpretation to limits at infinity. In fact, they are consistent with the topological space definition of limit if In this case, R is a topological space and any function of the form \"f\": \"X\" → \"Y\" with \"X\", \"Y\"⊆ R is subject to the topological definition of a limit. Note that with this topological definition, it is easy to define infinite limits at finite points, which have not been defined above in the metric sense.", "Many authors allow for the projectively extended real line to be used as a way to include infinite values as well as extended real line. With this notation, the extended real line is given as and the projectively extended real line is R ∪ {∞} where a neighborhood of ∞ is a set of the form The advantage is that one only needs three definitions for limits (left, right, and central) to cover all the cases. As presented above, for a completely rigorous account, we would need to consider 15 separate cases for each combination of infinities (five directions: −∞, left, central, right, and +∞; three bounds: −∞, finite, or +∞). There are also noteworthy pitfalls. For example, when working with the extended real line, formula_39 does not possess a central limit (which is normal): In contrast, when working with the projective real line, infinities (much like 0) are unsigned, so, the central limit \"does\" exist in that context: In fact there are a plethora of conflicting formal systems in use. In certain applications of numerical differentiation and integration, it is, for example, convenient to have signed zeroes. A simple reason has to do with the converse of formula_42, namely, it is convenient for formula_43 to be considered true. Such zeroes can be seen as an approximation to infinitesimals.", "There are three basic rules for evaluating limits at infinity for a rational function \"f\"(\"x\") = \"p\"(\"x\")/\"q\"(\"x\"): (where \"p\" and \"q\" are polynomials): If the limit at infinity exists, it represents a horizontal asymptote at \"y\" = \"L\". Polynomials do not have horizontal asymptotes; such asymptotes may however occur with rational functions.", "By noting that |\"x\" − \"p\"| represents a distance, the definition of a limit can be extended to functions of more than one variable. In the case of a function \"f\" : R → R, if where ||(\"x\",\"y\") − (\"p\",\"q\")|| represents the Euclidean distance. This can be extended to any number of variables.", "Let be a mapping from a topological space \"X\" into a Hausdorff space \"Y\", a limit point of \"X\" and. If \"L\" is the limit (in the sense above) of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches \"p\", then it is a sequential limit as well, however the converse need not hold in general. If in addition \"X\" is metrizable, then \"L\" is the sequential limit of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches \"p\" if and only if it is the limit (in the sense above) of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches \"p\".", "", "For functions on the real line, one way to define the limit of a function is in terms of the limit of sequences. (This definition is usually attributed to Eduard Heine.) In this setting: if and only if for all sequences formula_46 (with formula_46 not equal to \"a\" for all \"n\") converging to formula_48 the sequence formula_49 converges to formula_50. It was shown by Sierpiński in 1916 that proving the equivalence of this definition and the definition above, requires and is equivalent to a weak form of the axiom of choice. Note that defining what it means for a sequence formula_46 to converge to formula_48 requires the epsilon, delta method. Similarly as it was the case of Weierstrass's definition, a more general Heine definition applies to functions defined on subsets of the real line. Let \"f\" be a real-valued function with the domain \"Dm\"(\"f\"). Let \"a\" be the limit of a sequence of elements of \"Dm\"(\"f\") \\ {\"a\"}. Then the limit (in this sense) of \"f\" is \"L\" as \"x\" approaches \"p\" if for every sequence formula_46 ∈ \"Dm\"(\"f\") \\ {\"a\"} (so that for all \"n\", formula_46 is not equal to \"a\") that converges to \"a\", the sequence formula_49 converges to formula_50. This is the same as the definition of a sequential limit in the preceding section obtained by regarding the subset \"Dm\"(\"f\") of R as a metric space with the induced metric.", "In non-standard calculus the limit of a function is defined by: if and only if for all formula_58, formula_59 is infinitesimal whenever formula_60 is infinitesimal. Here formula_61 are the hyperreal numbers and formula_62 is the natural extension of \"f\" to the non-standard real numbers. Keisler proved that such a hyperreal definition of limit reduces the quantifier complexity by two quantifiers. On the other hand, Hrbacek writes that for the definitions to be valid for all hyperreal numbers they must implicitly be grounded in the ε-δ method, and claims that, from the pedagogical point of view, the hope that non-standard calculus could be done without ε-δ methods cannot be realized in full. Bl·aszczyk et al. detail the usefulness of microcontinuity in developing a transparent definition of uniform continuity, and characterize Hrbacek's criticism as a \"dubious lament\".", "At the 1908 international congress of mathematics F. Riesz introduced an alternate way defining limits and continuity in concept called \"nearness\". A point formula_63 is defined to be near a set formula_64 if for every formula_65 there is a point formula_66 so that formula_67. In this setting the if and only if for all formula_64, formula_50 is near formula_71 whenever formula_48 is near formula_73. Here formula_71 is the set formula_75. This definition can also be extended to metric and topological spaces.", "The notion of the limit of a function is very closely related to the concept of continuity. A function \"ƒ\" is said to be continuous at \"c\" if it is both defined at \"c\" and its value at \"c\" equals the limit of \"f\" as \"x\" approaches \"c\":", "If a function \"f\" is real-valued, then the limit of \"f\" at \"p\" is \"L\" if and only if both the right-handed limit and left-handed limit of \"f\" at \"p\" exist and are equal to \"L\". The function \"f\" is continuous at \"p\" if and only if the limit of \"f\"(\"x\") as \"x\" approaches \"p\" exists and is equal to \"f\"(\"p\"). If \"f\" : \"M\" → \"N\" is a function between metric spaces \"M\" and \"N\", then it is equivalent that \"f\" transforms every sequence in \"M\" which converges towards \"p\" into a sequence in \"N\" which converges towards \"f\"(\"p\"). If \"N\" is a normed vector space, then the limit operation is linear in the following sense: if the limit of \"f\"(\"x\") as \"x\" approaches \"p\" is \"L\" and the limit of \"g\"(\"x\") as \"x\" approaches \"p\" is \"P\", then the limit of \"f\"(\"x\") + g(\"x\") as \"x\" approaches \"p\" is \"L\" + \"P\". If \"a\" is a scalar from the base field, then the limit of \"af\"(\"x\") as \"x\" approaches \"p\" is \"aL\". If \"f\" and \"g\" are real-valued (or complex-valued) functions, then taking the limit of an operation on \"f\"(\"x\") and \"g\"(\"x\") is under certain conditions compatible with the algebraic operations and exponentiation. This fact is often called the algebraic limit theorem. The main condition needed for applying the following rules is that the limits on the \"right-hand\" sides of the equations exist. Moreover, the identity for division only holds if the denominator on the right-hand side is non-zero, and that for exponentiation only if the base is positive, or zero while the exponent comes out positive (but finite). These rules are also valid for one-sided limits, including when \"p\" is ∞ or −∞. In each rule above, when one of the limits on the right is ∞ or −∞, the limit on the left may sometimes still be determined by the following rules. (see also Extended real number line). In other cases the limit on the left may still exist, although the right-hand side, called an \"indeterminate form\", does not allow one to determine the result. This depends on the functions \"f\" and \"g\". These indeterminate forms are: See further L'Hôpital's rule below and Indeterminate form.", "In general, from knowing that it does \"not\" follow that formula_80. However, this \"chain rule\" does hold if one of the following \"additional\" conditions holds: As an example of this phenomenon, consider the following functions that violates both additional restrictions: Since the value at \"f\"(0) is a removable discontinuity, Thus, the naïve chain rule would suggest that the limit of \"f\"(\"f\"(\"x\")) is 0. However, it is the case that and so", "", "For formula_90 a nonnegative integer and constants formula_91 and formula_92, This can be proven by dividing both the numerator and denominator by formula_94. If the numerator is a polynomial of higher degree, the limit does not exist. If the denominator is of higher degree, the limit is 0.", "This rule uses derivatives to find limits of indeterminate forms or, and only applies to such cases. Other indeterminate forms may be manipulated into this form. Given two functions and, defined over an open interval containing the desired limit point \"c\", then if: then: formula_114 Normally, the first condition is the most important one. For example: formula_115", "Specifying an infinite bound on a summation or integral is a common shorthand for specifying a limit. A short way to write the limit formula_116 is formula_117. An important example of limits of sums such as these are series. A short way to write the limit formula_118 is formula_119. A short way to write the limit formula_120 is formula_121." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Before World War I.", "1930s.", "Development of the MG 42.", "Adoption of the MG 42.", "MG 42 nicknames.", "Small arms doctrine.", "Operation.", "Design details.", "Operating mechanism.", "Sights.", "Barrel.", "\"Lafette 42\" tripod.", "Variants and developments.", "Finnish MG 42.", "MG 45.", "T24 machine gun.", "MG 51.", "M53.", "MG 3.", "MG 74.", "SIG MG710.", "Influence on other designs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Even before World War I, the German military was already looking forward to replacing the heavy machine guns which proved to be such a success in that war. The MG13 was one of the first developments toward a goal of producing a weapon", "This eventually led to the \"Einheitsmaschinengewehr\" (Universal machine gun) introducing an entirely new concept in automatic firepower. By changing its mount, sights and feed mechanism, the operator could radically transform an \"Einheitsmaschinengewehr\" for several purposes. The MG 34 is considered to be the first modern general-purpose machine gun or \"Einheitsmaschinengewehr\". It was developed to use the standard German 7.92×57mm Mauser full-power rifle round. It was envisaged and well developed to provide portable light and medium machine gun infantry cover, anti-aircraft coverage, and even sniping ability. Equipped with a quick-change barrel and fed either with non-disintegrating metallic-link belts, or from a 50-round \"Gurttrommel\" (belt drum) or a 75-round spring-loaded saddle-drum \"Patronentrommel 34\" magazines (with a simple change of the feed cover for a Trommelhalter magazine holder), the MG 34 could sustain fire for much longer periods of time than other portable squad-level weapons such as the American B.A.R. and the British", "In order to address these issues, a contest was held for a true MG 34 replacement. Three companies were asked to submit designs: Metall und Lackierwarenfabrik Johannes Großfuß AG of Döbeln, Rheinmetall-Borsig of Sömmerda, and Stübgen of Erfurt. Of the number of proposals submitted, Großfuß AG's proved to be the best design by far, employing a unique recoil-operated roller locking mechanism whereas the two competing designs used a gas-actuated system. The company had no earlier experience in weapons manufacture, specializing in pressed and stamped steel components (the company's staple product was sheet metal lanterns). Dr.-Ing. Werner Gruner, one of the leading design engineers with Großfuß, knew nothing about machine guns when he was given the task of being involved with the project, although he specialized in the technology of mass production. would attend an army machine gunner's course to familiarize himself with the utility and characteristics of such a weapon, also seeking input", "The weapon was officially accepted, and the main manufacturing of the production design began in 1942, as the MG 42,", "The distinctive sound caused by the high cyclic firing rate gave rise to the nickname \"Hitler's buzzsaw\" and the German soldiers' \"Hitlersäge\", \"Singende Säge\", \"Knochensäge\" or \"elektrisches MG\" (\"Hitler's saw\", \"Singing saw\", \"Bone saw\" or \"electric machine gun\"). The gun (like the MG 34) was sometimes called \"Spandau\" by British troops, a traditional generic term for all German machine guns, left over from the", "The German tactical doctrine of the era based a squad's firepower on the general-purpose machine gun in the light machine gun role so that the role of the rifleman was largely to carry ammunition and provide covering fire for the machine gunners. The advantage of the general purpose machine gun concept was that it added greatly to the overall volume of fire that could be put out by a squad-sized unit. This meant that German forces deployed far more machine guns per equivalent-sized unit than the Allies, and that Allied troops assaulting a German position almost invariably faced the firepower of the MG 42. It was possible for operating crews to lay down a non-stop barrage of fire, pausing only when the barrel had to be replaced. This allowed the MG 42 to tie up significantly larger numbers of enemy troops. The Americans and the British trained their troops to take cover from the fire of an MG 42, and assault the position during the small time window of barrel replacement, which took around 4 to 7 seconds (estimated). The German military kept issuing Karabiner 98k bolt-action rifles and did experiment with semi-automatic rifles throughout World War II. They fielded the Gewehr 41 series of which fewer than 150,000 were built, and the Gewehr 43/Karabiner 43 series of which 402,713 were built. They also introduced their first assault rifle in 1943 – the MP43 / MP44 / StG 44 series, producing 425,977 of these. But the Karabiner 98k was made in far greater numbers - over 14,600,000 - and due to the relatively limited production of the semi-automatic and assault rifles, the bolt-action Karabiner remained the primary service weapon until the last days of World War II, and was manufactured until the surrender in May 1945. The Allied nations squad tactical doctrines of World War II centered on the rifleman, with the machine gun serving a support role, and they utilised weapons with cyclic fire rates of typically 450–600 rounds per minute. The American military had standardized a semi-automatic rifle in 1936 (the M1 Garand) that could be effectively fired more rapidly than the preceding bolt-action rifles. The Allied nations had machine guns with similar rates of fire, but mounted them almost exclusively in aircraft, where the fleeting opportunities for firing made such high rates necessary. The only similar Allied weapon was the Vickers K aircraft gun, and that was used by ground forces only in specialized circumstances.", "One of the \"Einheitsmaschinengewehr\" (Universal machine gun) roles was to provide low-level anti-aircraft coverage. A high cyclic rate of fire is advantageous for use against targets that are exposed to a general-purpose machine gun for a limited time span, like aircraft or targets that minimize their exposure time by quickly moving from cover to cover. For targets that can be fired on by a general-purpose machine gun for longer periods than just a few seconds, the cyclic firing rate becomes less important. As a consequence, one of the MG 42's most notable features was in its high cyclic rate of fire of about 1,200 to 1,500 rounds per minute, twice the rate of the Vickers and Browning machine guns, which fired at a rate of about 600 rounds per minute. The ear could not easily discern the sound of individual shots being fired, instead hearing a sound described as like \"ripping cloth\" or a buzzsaw. The MG 42's high cyclic rate of fire sometimes proved a liability mainly in that, while the weapon could be used to devastating effect, it could quickly exhaust its ammunition", "The MG 42 is a 7.92×57mm Mauser, air-cooled, belt fed, open bolt, recoil-operated machine gun with a quick change barrel. It weighed 11.57 kg in the light machine gun role with the bipod, lighter than the MG 34 and easily portable. The bipod, the same one used on the MG 34, could be mounted to the front or the center of the gun depending on how and where it was being used. The shoulder stock is designed to permit gripping with the left hand to hold it secure against the shoulder. The MG 42 incorporated lessons hard-won on the Eastern Front. Both the cocking handle and the catch for the top cover to the working parts were designed so that the gunner could operate them wearing arctic mittens or with a stick or rod. This was vital for winter conditions where contact by bare flesh on cold metal could cause severe injury, such as instant frostbite. The MG 42 also functioned well in other climates; dust and dirt in North Africa and Italy was less likely to jam the MG 42 than the more temperamental MG 34. The MG 42 is capable only of fully automatic fire. Single shots are difficult, even for experienced operators, due to the weapon's rate of fire. The usual training objective is to be able to fire a burst of no more than three rounds. The weapon features a recoil booster at the muzzle to increase rearwards force due to recoil, therefore improving functional reliability and rate of fire. The MG 42 belt-feed mechanism was copied and used in the design of the M60 machine gun. The trigger mechanism of the FN MAG or MAG-58 is a virtual copy of the MG 42's and the MAG-58's belt-feed is also very similar.", "The roller-locked bolt assembly consists of a bolt head, two rollers, a striker sleeve, bolt body, and a large multi strands around a central coil return spring, which is responsible for pushing the bolt assembly into battery (the locked position) and returning it there when it is unlocked and pushed backwards by the recoil of firing or by the charging handle. As the striker sleeve is movable back and forth within the bolt assembly, the return spring is also responsible for pushing the striker sleeve forward during locking (described below). The bolt assembly locks with the barrel's breech (the end the cartridge is loaded into) via a prong type barrel extension behind the breech. As it is recoil-operated and fired from an open bolt, the weapon must be manually charged with the side-mounted charging handle. The roller-locked recoil operation functions as follows: two cylindrical rollers, positioned in tracks on the bolt head, are pushed outwards into matching tracks in the barrel extension by the striker sleeve and lock the bolt in place against the breech. Upon firing, rearward force from the recoil of the cartridge ignition move the barrel and bolt assembly rearwards for about", "The open-type iron sighting line has a relatively short radius and consists of a \"∧-type\" height adjustable front sight on a folding post and a leaf rear sight with an open V-notch sliding on", "The long barrel of the MG 42 could be quickly changed by the machine gun crew and weighed including the locking piece. The barrels could have traditional rifling or polygonal rifling. Polygonal rifling was an outgrowth of a cold-hammer forging process developed by German engineers before World War II. The process addressed the need to produce more durable machine gun barrels in less time than those produced with traditional methods. Later produced barrel bores featured hard-chrome plating to make them more durable. The different versions meant that the service", "For the medium machine gun role a large tripod, the \"Lafette 42\", was available that included a number of features, such as recoil absorbing buffer springs, MG Z 34 or MG Z 40 periscope-type telescopic sight containing special sighting equipment for indirect fire, or the late World War II MG Z 44, designed for direct fire only. An accessory to lengthen these sights' periscope was available to use these sights behind cover. It could be set up in a prone, kneeling or high position. The \"Lafette 42\" weighed on its own and was a simplified version of the \"Lafette 34\" used for the MG 34, as the MG 42 could be operated more easily from a \"Lafette\" and featured no semi-automatic firing mode. The legs could be extended with a \"Lafetteaufsatzstück\" to allow it to be used in the anti-aircraft role, and when lowered, it could be placed to allow the gun to be fired \"remotely\" while it swept an arc in front", "", "Finland acquired 5 MG 42s in July 1943 for evaluation. Three were tested with", "In 1944, the material shortages of the Third Reich led to the development of a newer version, the MG 45 (or MG 42V), which had a different operation mechanism that used roller-delayed blowback as opposed to roller locking. For this reason, the MG 45 is considered a different type of firearm, as the mechanisms of these two", "The T24 machine gun was a prototype reverse engineered copy of the German MG 42 general-purpose machine gun developed during World War II as a possible replacement for the Browning Automatic Rifle and M1919A4 for infantry squads. The T24 was chambered for the.30-06 Springfield cartridge. By February 1943, US ordnance authorities published the first report on the MG 42, following testing of a captured gun. The quick barrel changing and belt feed systems were considered some of the best design features. The US Army wanted to be able to manufacture this general-purpose gun because it was technically advanced and much easier to make than the World War II US light and medium machine guns and it was decided to convert several MG 42s to fire.30-06 Springfield M2 ball ammunition. Saginaw Steering Gear Division of General Motors received a contract to construct two working converted MG 42 prototypes designated as the T24 machine gun. It could also be used on an M2 Tripod. The gun was made as an almost exact copy of the MG 42 which was chambered in 7.92×57mm Mauser. Some engineering changes were to use a", "The Swiss MG 51 or \"7.5 mm Maschinengewehr 1951\" was based on the design of the MG 42 chambered for 7.5×55mm Swiss GP 11. The final design, which appeared in 1950, was in most respects still similar to the MG 42, although many components were produced by machining", "In Yugoslavia this MG 42 variant was built at the state-owned Zavodi Crvena Zastava company as the \"M53 machine gun\" using original German machinery, retaining the 7.92×57mm Mauser chambering. By doing so, the Yugoslavs retained the original weapon's design features, making the M53 a near exact copy of the German MG 42. The only major differences were a slower 950 rounds per", "At the end of World War II the original technical drawings and data for the MG 42 were captured by the Soviets. These would eventually find their way to Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The MG3 (originally the MG 1 launched in 1958) is the MG 42 design rechambered to 7.62×51mm NATO. It is the primary general-purpose machine gun of the modern German armed forces (\"Bundeswehr\"). A number of other (NATO) armies around the world have adopted the MG3, and it", "The final variant to date is the MG 74, developed by Austria and since 1974 it is the standard machine gun of the Austrian Armed Forces. After its founding in 1955, the Austrian army was equipped with old guns temporarily out of U.S. stocks. Starting in 1959 these Browning M1919 were largely replaced by the MG 42 with modified barrel and bolt for the new 7.62×51mm NATO. But to introduce a modern weapon of its own production the Office of Defence Technology, in cooperation with Steyr Mannlicher and Beretta developed a gun specifically for the Austrian Army. The German MG 42/59 that was introduced in 1959 with the Bundeswehr to replace the U.S. machine guns, served as the basis,", "The Swiss SIG MG 710-3 general-purpose machine gun was based on the design of the MG42V/MG45 using a slight", "The MG 42's belt-feed mechanism was copied and used in the design of the M60 machine" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "ALOHA protocol.", "Pure ALOHA.", "Slotted ALOHA.", "Other protocol.", "Design.", "Network architecture.", "Menehune.", "Remote units.", "Later developments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "One of the early computer networking designs, development of the ALOHA network was begun in September 1968 at the University of Hawaii under the leadership of Norman Abramson along with Thomas Gaarder, Franklin Kuo, Shu Lin, Wesley Peterson and Edward (\"Ned\") Weldon. The goal was to use low-cost commercial radio equipment to connect users on Oahu and the other Hawaiian islands with a central time-sharing computer on the main Oahu campus. The first packet broadcasting unit went into operation in June 1971. Terminals were connected to a special purpose \"terminal connection unit\" using RS-232 at 9600 bit/s. The initial purpose of the ALOHA System was to provide a systematically different designer interaction for radio communications. This alternative method allows the system to determine when and where radio communications are \"preferable\" to wired communications. It made practical means of communication and made accessibility of differing networks plausible. The original version of ALOHA used two distinct frequencies in a hub configuration, with the hub machine broadcasting packets to everyone on the \"outbound\" channel, and the various client machines sending data packets to the hub on the \"inbound\" channel. If data was received correctly at the hub, a short acknowledgment packet was sent to the client; if an acknowledgment was not received by a client machine after a short wait time, it would automatically retransmit the data packet after waiting a randomly selected time interval. This acknowledgment mechanism was used to detect and correct for \"collisions\" created when two client machines both attempted to send a packet at the same time. ALOHAnet's primary importance was its use of a shared medium for client transmissions. Unlike the ARPANET where each node could only talk directly to a node at the other end of a wire or satellite circuit, in ALOHAnet all client nodes communicated with the hub on the same frequency. This meant that some sort of mechanism was needed to control who could talk at what time. The ALOHAnet solution was to allow each client to send its data without controlling when it was sent, with an acknowledgment/retransmission scheme used to deal with collisions. This approach radically reduced the complexity of the protocol and the networking hardware, since nodes do not need negotiate \"who\" is allowed to speak (see: Token Ring). This solution became known as a pure ALOHA, or random-access channel, and was the basis for subsequent Ethernet development and later Wi-Fi networks. Various versions of the ALOHA protocol (such as Slotted ALOHA) also appeared later in satellite communications, and were used in wireless data networks such as ARDIS, Mobitex, CDPD, and GSM. Also important was ALOHAnet's use of the outgoing hub channel to broadcast packets directly to all clients on a second shared frequency, using an address in each packet to allow selective receipt at each client node. Two frequencies were used so that a device could both receive acknowledgments regardless of transmissions. The Aloha network introduced the mechanism of randomized multiple access, which resolved device transmission collisions by transmitting a package immediately if no acknowledgement is present, and if no acknowledgment was received, the transmission was repeated after a random waiting time.", "", "The version of the protocol (now called \"Pure ALOHA\", and the one implemented in ALOHAnet) was quite simple: Note that the first step implies that Pure ALOHA does not check whether the channel is busy before transmitting. Since collisions can occur and data may have to be sent again, ALOHA cannot use 100% of the capacity of the communications channel. How long a station waits until it transmits, and the likelihood a collision occurs are interrelated, and both affect how efficiently the channel can be used. This means that the concept of \"transmit later\" is a critical aspect: the quality of the backoff scheme chosen significantly influences the efficiency of the protocol, the ultimate channel capacity, and the predictability of its behavior. To assess Pure ALOHA, there is a need to predict its throughput, the rate of (successful) transmission of frames. (This discussion of Pure ALOHA's performance follows Tanenbaum.) First, let's make a few simplifying assumptions: Let \"\"T\"\" refer to the time needed to transmit one frame on the channel, and let's define \"frame-time\" as a unit of time equal to \"T\". Let \"\"G\"\" refer to the mean used in the Poisson distribution over transmission-attempt amounts: that is, on average, there are \"G\" transmission-attempts per frame-time. Consider what needs to happen for a frame to be transmitted successfully. Let \"\"t\"\" refer to the time at which it is intended to send a frame. It is preferable to use the channel for one frame-time beginning at \"t\", and all other stations to refrain from transmitting during this time. For any frame-time, the probability of there being \"k\" transmission-attempts during that frame-time is: formula_1 The average amount of transmission-attempts for 2 consecutive frame-times is 2\"G\". Hence, for any pair of consecutive frame-times, the probability of there being \"k\" transmission-attempts during those two frame-times is: formula_2 Therefore, the probability (formula_3) of there being zero transmission-attempts between \"t-T\" and \"t+T\" (and thus of a successful transmission for us) is: formula_4 The throughput can be calculated as the rate of transmission-attempts multiplied by the probability of success, and it can be concluded that the throughput (formula_5) is: formula_6 Vulnerable time=2*T. The maximum throughput is \"0.5/e\" frames per frame-time (reached when \"G\" = 0.5), which is approximately 0.184 frames per frame-time. This means that, in Pure ALOHA, only about 18.4% of the time is used for successful transmissions. Another simple way to establish the equation for throughput in Pure ALOHA (and in Slotted ALOHA) is as follows: Consider what needs to happen for frames to be transmitted successfully. Let T represent the frame time. For simplicity, it is assumed that the contention begins at t=0. Then if exactly one node sends during interval t=0 to t=T and no node tries between t=T to t=2T, then the frame will be transmitted successfully. Similarly during all next time intervals t=2nT to t=(2n+1)T, exactly one node sends and during t=(2n+1)T to t=(2n+2)T no node tries to send where n=1,2,3,..., then the frames are successfully transmitted. But in pure ALOHA, the nodes begin transmission whenever they want to do so without checking that what other nodes are doing at that time. Thus sending frames are independent events, that is, transmission by any particular node neither affects nor is affected by the time of start of transmission by other nodes. Let G be the average number of nodes that begin transmission within period T (the frame time). If a large number of nodes is trying to transmit, then by using Poisson distribution, the probability that exactly x nodes begin transmission during period T is formula_7 Therefore, the probability that during any particular period from t=2nT to t=(2n+1)T, (that is for any particular non-zero integer value of n) exactly one node will begin transmission is formula_8 And the probability that during any particular period t=(2n+1)T to t=(2n+2)T, no node will begin transmission is formula_9 But for successful transmission of a frame, both the events should occur simultaneously. That is during period t=2nT to t=(2n+1)T, exactly one node begins transmission and during t=(2n+1)T to t=(2n+2)T no node begins transmission. Hence the probability that both the independent events will occur simultaneously is formula_10 This is the throughput. Throughput is intended to mean the probability of successful transmission during minimum possible period. Therefore, the throughput in pure ALOHA, formula_6 Suppose: 1) There are N nodes attempt to send data at time T. 2) The probability of successful transmission of one node is formula_12. Then, the probability of successful transmission like following: formula_13 Similarly for slotted ALOHA, a frame will be successfully transmitted, if exactly one node will begin transmission at the beginning of any particular time slot (equal to frame time T). But the probability that one node will begin during any particular time slot is formula_14 This is the throughput in slotted ALOHA. Thus, formula_15 Disadvantages of Pure ALOHA: 1) Time is wasted 2) Data is lost", "An improvement to the original ALOHA protocol was \"Slotted ALOHA\", which introduced discrete timeslots and increased the maximum throughput. A station can start a transmission only at the beginning of a timeslot, and thus collisions are reduced. In this case, only transmission-attempts within 1 frame-time and not 2 consecutive frame-times need to be considered, since collisions can only occur during each timeslot. Thus, the probability of there being zero transmission-attempts by other stations in a single timeslot is: formula_16 the probability of a transmission requiring exactly k attempts is (k-1 collisions and 1 success): formula_17 The throughput is: formula_18 The maximum throughput is \"1/e\" frames per frame-time (reached when \"G\" = 1), which is approximately 0.368 frames per frame-time, or 36.8%. Slotted ALOHA is used in low-data-rate tactical satellite communications networks by military forces, in subscriber-based satellite communications networks, mobile telephony call setup, set-top box communications and in the contactless RFID technologies.", "The use of a random-access channel in ALOHAnet led to the development of carrier sense multiple access (CSMA), a \"listen before send\" random-access protocol that can be used when all nodes send and receive on the same channel. The first implementation of CSMA was Ethernet. CSMA in radio channels was extensively modeled. The AX.25 packet radio protocol is based on the CSMA approach with collision recovery, based on the experience gained from ALOHAnet. ALOHA and the other random-access protocols have an inherent variability in their throughput and delay performance characteristics. For this reason, applications which need highly deterministic load behavior sometimes used polling or token-passing schemes (such as token ring) instead of contention systems. For instance ARCNET was popular in embedded data applications in the 1980 network.", "", "Two fundamental choices which dictated much of the ALOHAnet design were the two-channel star configuration of the network and the use of random accessing for user transmissions. The two-channel configuration was primarily chosen to allow for efficient transmission of the relatively dense total traffic stream being returned to users by the central time-sharing computer. An additional reason for the star configuration was the desire to centralize as many communication functions as possible at the central network node (the Menehune), minimizing the cost of the original all-hardware terminal control unit (TCU) at each user node. The random-access channel for communication between users and the Menehune was designed specifically for the traffic characteristics of interactive computing. In a conventional communication system a user might be assigned a portion of the channel on either a frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) or time-division multiple access (TDMA) basis. Since it was well known that in time-sharing systems [circa 1970], computer and user data are bursty, such fixed assignments are generally wasteful of bandwidth because of the high peak-to-average data rates that characterize the traffic. To achieve a more efficient use of bandwidth for bursty traffic, ALOHAnet developed the random-access packet switching method that has come to be known as a \"pure ALOHA\" channel. This approach effectively dynamically allocates bandwidth immediately to a user who has data to send, using the acknowledgment/retransmission mechanism described earlier to deal with occasional access collisions. While the average channel loading must be kept below about 10% to maintain a low collision rate, this still results in better bandwidth efficiency than when fixed allocations are used in a bursty traffic context. Two 100 kHz channels in the experimental UHF band were used in the implemented system, one for the user-to-computer random-access channel and one for the computer-to-user broadcast channel. The system was configured as a star network, allowing only the central node to receive transmissions in the random-access channel. All user TCUs received each transmission made by the central node in the broadcast channel. All transmissions were made in bursts at 9600 bit/s, with data and control information encapsulated in packets. Each packet consisted of a 32-bit header and a 16-bit header parity check word, followed by up to 80 bytes of data and a 16-bit parity check word for the data. The header contained address information identifying a particular user so that when the Menehune broadcast a packet, only the intended user's node would accept it.", "The central node communications processor was an HP 2100 minicomputer called the Menehune, which is the Hawaiian language word for \"imp\", or dwarf people, and was named for its similar role to the original ARPANET Interface Message Processor (IMP) which was being deployed at about the same time. In the original system, the Menehune forwarded correctly received user data to the UH central computer, an IBM System 360/65 time-sharing system. Outgoing messages from the 360 were converted into packets by the Menehune, which were queued and broadcast to the remote users at a data rate of 9600 bit/s. Unlike the half-duplex radios at the user TCUs, the Menehune was interfaced to the radio channels with full-duplex radio equipment.", "The original user interface developed for the system was an all-hardware unit called an ALOHAnet Terminal Control Unit (TCU), and was the sole piece of equipment necessary to connect a terminal into the ALOHA channel. The TCU was composed of a UHF antenna, transceiver, modem, buffer and control unit. The buffer was designed for a full line length of 80 characters, which allowed handling of both the 40- and 80-character fixed-length packets defined for the system. The typical user terminal in the original system consisted of a Teletype Model 33 or a dumb CRT user terminal connected to the TCU using a standard RS-232C interface. Shortly after the original ALOHA network went into operation, the TCU was redesigned with one of the first Intel microprocessors, and the resulting upgrade was called a PCU (Programmable Control Unit). Additional basic functions performed by the TCU's and PCU's were generation of a cyclic-parity-check code vector and decoding of received packets for packet error-detection purposes, and generation of packet retransmissions using a simple random interval generator. If an acknowledgment was not received from the Menehune after the prescribed number of automatic retransmissions, a flashing light was used as an indicator to the human user. Also, since the TCU's and PCU's did not send acknowledgments to the Menehune, a steady warning light was displayed to the human user when an error was detected in a received packet. Thus it can be seen that considerable simplification was incorporated into the initial design of the TCU as well as the PCU, making use of the fact that it was interfacing a human user into the network.", "In later versions of the system, simple radio relays were placed in operation to connect the main network on the island of Oahu to other islands in Hawaii, and Menehune routing capabilities were expanded to allow user nodes to exchange packets with other user nodes, the ARPANET, and an experimental satellite network. More details are available in and in the technical reports listed in the Further Reading section below." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Types.", "Folk hammered dulcimers.", "The concert cimbalom.", "Experimental cimbaloms.", "Compositions for cimbalom.", "Classical and contemporary music.", "Film and television.", "Rock.", "Similar instruments.", "Schools of performance.", "Belarus.", "Croatia.", "Czech Republic.", "Greece.", "Hungary.", "Moldova.", "Romania.", "Slovakia.", "Ukraine." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The first representation of a simple struck chordophone can be found in the Assyrian bas-relief in Kyindjuk dated back to 3500 BC. Since that time, widely divergent versions of this percussive stretched-string instrument have developed in many far-flung regions of the world. Struck chordophones are sometimes generically referred to as being in the \"hammered dulcimer\" family. They are, however, formally classified as struck zithers under Hornbostel-Sachs. Building on the struck chordophones common to the region, the Hungarian concert cimbalom was designed and created by V. Josef Schunda in 1874 in Budapest. The impetus to create such an elaborate instrument – a more formal \"concert\" cimbalom – was in part, born out of a broader effort to establish a stronger 19th-century Hungarian national identity. This included a nationwide movement to \"break away\" from strong associations that often confused Hungarian cultural identity with that of the Romani people. This confusion between cultures extended to perceptions abroad that conflated Hungarian traditional musical identity, with that of Romani musicians, who were often seen on street corners throughout Budapest playing the more modest cimbaloms that were then common. Schunda began serial production of his concert cimbalom in 1874, manufacturing them in a piano shop located on Hajós utca, across the street from the Budapest Opera House in Pest. Thanks, in part, to attention given at the 1878 World's Fair in Paris, France, Schunda's concert cimbalom enjoyed a surge in national popularity in Hungary – being performed on regularly by cymbalists of all Hungarian ethnic groups – including folk, Jewish, Slavic, and Romani musicians. The encounter and collaboration between Romani cimbalist Aladár Rácz and composer Igor Stravinsky in Geneva in 1915 gave birth to a global interest in Schunda's concert cimbalom.", "", "Folk hammered dulcimers (struck zithers) have unique regional names around the globe. Throughout central and eastern Europe they are referred to as \"cimbalom\" (cymbalom, cymbalum, tsymbaly, tsimbl, țambal, cimbál, cimbale etc.). These instruments can differ from each other in size, tuning, number of strings and method of holding and moving the hammers or \"beaters\". They are smaller and more portable than the concert cimbalom. In performance they were (or are) often carried by a single musician, typically using a strap around the player's neck and leaning one edge of the instrument against the waist. Like the concert cimbalom, the folk hammered dulcimer / small cimbalom is played by striking the strings with two beaters. However, these are generally much shorter than the beaters used with the concert cimbalom (usually half the length), and often without soft coverings over the area which strikes the string. These instruments also lacked damper mechanisms; therefore, the hand, fingers, and even forearms are used for damping. Tunings are often partially chromatic or even diatonic rather than the fully chromatic tuning of the concert cimbalom, and they can vary regionally. Construction of these instruments is more closely related to the particular style of music played on them than is the case with the concert cimbalom. In addition to the emergence of the concert cimbalom in Hungary, some other regions in Eastern Europe also further developed their local version of folk dulcimer and more formal schools of playing followed (see Tsymbaly).", "The concert cimbalom developed by József Schunda in 1874 in Budapest, Hungary was closer in its range of pitch, dynamic projection and weight to the proportions of a small piano than the various folk hammered dulcimers had been. The Schunda cimbalom was equipped with a heavier frame for more stability and dynamic power. It included many more string courses for extended range and incorporated a damper pedal which allowed for more dynamic control. Four detachable legs were added to support this much larger instrument. The concert cimbalom continues to be played primarily with beaters although other playing techniques are used. Concert instruments from Schunda onward are fully chromatic. The Schunda tuning system established a standard pitch range of four octaves plus a major 3rd; extending from C to e′′′ (Helmholtz pitch notation). The concert cimbalom eventually found its way to other areas of the Austro-Hungarian empire, such as Romania and Ukraine, as well as Moldova. In Romania, the large cimbalom is known as the țambal mare (literally \"great cimbalom\"). The cimbalom has continued its development and modern concert instruments are often further expanded and have numerous refinements beyond Schunda's design. These instruments can now have a pitch range that extends five fully chromatic octaves from AA to a′′′. Contemporary cimbalom makers also create smaller instruments. These run the gamut from less weighty versions of Schunda's original concert layout to truly portable fully chromatic cimbaloms (which use Schunda's signature tuning pattern and note layout but with reduced range in the bass). Modern makers also continue to craft new and traditional folk style instruments. A smaller more portable version of the concert cimbalom was produced in Ukraine from the 1950s to the 1980s that came with detachable legs and dampers, but could be carried more easily than the larger concert instrument. These instruments were produced by the Chernihiv factory and the Melnytso-Podilsk folk instruments workshop which also produced many types of other folk instruments.", "Harry Partch made a series of zithers called Harmonic Canons. Glenn Branca made electric hammered table zithers which he called Mallet Guitars, and Yuri Landman built electric hammered 24-string zithers for Liam Finn and the band The Dodos that he called Tafelberg drum guitars. The Boredoms also have a stage instrument which is used as a Cimbalom. Most conventional cimbaloms have groups of strings tuned to one unison tone per section. However, the instruments of Branca, Landman and Boredoms use a tuning system in which the individual string groups are tuned in octaves instead of a simple unison. This is a departure from the unison tunings of the triple and quadruple string groups on normal cimbaloms and also from the piano's unison tuning within its string groups. (Partch's instruments use a different tuning and temperament scheme altogether.) Sonic Youth learned about the new tuning from Branca and translated it to electric guitar. This produced what became their typical guitar timbre.", "", "Many composers have written for the cimbalom. Zoltán Kodály made extensive use of the instrument in his orchestral suite \"Háry János\" which helped make the cimbalom known outside Eastern Europe. Igor Stravinsky was also an enthusiast. He owned a cimbalom which he purchased after hearing Aladár Rácz perform on the instrument. He included the cimbalom in his ballet \"Renard\" (1915–16), his \"Ragtime\" for eleven instruments, his original (1917) scoring for \"Les Noces\", and his \"Four Russian Songs\". Franz Liszt used the cimbalom in his \"Ungarischer Sturmmarsch\" (1876) and in the orchestral version of his \"Hungarian Rhapsody No. 6\". Béla Bartók used it in his \"Rhapsody No. 1 for violin and orchestra\" (1928). More recently, other composers including Pierre Boulez, Peter Maxwell Davies, Peter Eötvös, György Kurtág, Miklós Kocsár, Richard Grimes, and Louis Andriessen have made a great use of cimbalom in their works. Henri Dutilleux used it extensively in \"Mystère de l'Instant\" for chamber orchestra, and \"L'arbre des songes\" for violin & orchestra. Elvis Costello's orchestral ballet score \"Il Sogno\" includes several extended cimbalom passages. Harrison Birtwistle's operas \"\"Gawain\"\" (1991) and \"\"The Minotaur\"\" (2008) each utilize the cimbalom. John Adams uses the instrument prominently in his large 2012 symphonic oratorio \"The Gospel According to the Other Mary\" as well as in his 2014 dramatic symphony \"Scheherazade.2\". Cimbalom is used in a popular arrangement of Debussy's \"La plus que lente\" which the composer approved but did not actually score.", "The cimbalom has occasionally been used in film scores, especially to introduce a \"foreign\" feel. The cimbalom appears in \"Christmas in Connecticut\" (1945) in a scene in Felix's (S. Z. Sakall) Hungarian restaurant in Manhattan. It was also featured in the films \"Captain Blood\" (1935), \"The Divorce of Lady X\" (1938), and \"Sherlock Holmes and the Secret Weapon\" (1943). The cimbalom was used in the film score for the movie \"In the Heat of the Night\" (1967). Composer Carmine Coppola made heavy use of the cimbalom in his soundtrack for \"The Black Stallion\" (1979) to accentuate the Arabian heritage of the majestic horse. Miklós Rózsa used the cimbalom in the main theme and throughout the score for the science-fiction thriller \"The Power\" (1968). John Barry used it in the title theme for the film \"The Ipcress File\" (1965), as well as in the main theme of the ITC TV series \"The Persuaders!\" (1971); in both examples the performer was John Leach. James Horner made use of the instrument in his \"Stealing the Enterprise\" cue from \"\" (1984). In addition, John Williams has made less prominent use of the instrument in scores such as \"Raiders of the Lost Ark\" (1981). Howard Shore used the cimbalom as well to express Gollum's sneaky nature in Peter Jackson's film \"\" (2002). The cimbalom is also featured prominently in Hans Zimmer's scoring of \"Sherlock Holmes\" (2009). Alexandre Desplat uses cimbalom in works such as \"The Golden Compass\" (2007), \"The Curious Case of Benjamin Button\" (2008), and \"The Grand Budapest Hotel\" (2014). In television, composer Lalo Schifrin made use of the cimbalom in several scores he wrote for the original \"\" television series, from which several cues were regularly recycled throughout the series' run. Composer Debbie Wiseman used the cimbalom, played by Greg Knowles, in her score for the BBC television series 'Dickensian' (2015–16).", "The cimbalom was used by Alan Parsons on his \"I Robot\" and \"Tales of Mystery and Imagination\" albums and is included in the guest musician acknowledgments. The experimental rock group Mr. Bungle made use of the cimbalom on the \"Disco Volante\" and \"California\" albums. It is included in the guest musician acknowledgments. The experimental performance organization Blue Man Group has used a cimbalom in its productions. American progressive chamber group, cordis, uses electric and acoustic cimbalom as a centerpiece in their music. Romanian rock group Spitalul de Urgenţă has frequently used cimbalom, including a full-time player in some line-ups of the band. New York multi-instrumentalist Rob Burger used a cimbalom on the album \"L'Entredeux\" (2008) by Tucson chanteuse Marianne Dissard. Alternative rock band Garbage incorporated cimbalom into their track \"The Trick Is to Keep Breathing\" from their 1998 album \"Version 2.0\".", "Similar instruments in the same family vary by country. The tuning layout, range, and sound they produce varies, sometimes drastically. A partial list follows:", "", "In Belarus a cymbaly school was established in 1948 by J. Zynovych. The Belarusian cymbaly differs from the concert cimbalom in timbre and size -- it is smaller and produces a sweeter, more mellow tone. Also, pedal dampers are not typically used. Instead, hands and fingers are used to dampen the strings.", "The cimbal today is a rare instrument found in folk groups (Međimurje and Podravina regions - parts of northern Croatia near Hungarian border).", "The instrument is used foremost in the historical region of Moravia as a basis for Moravian traditional music ensembles. Foremost in regions of Moravian Slovakia and Moravian Wallachia.", "In Athens, a cimbalom school was established in 2004 by M. Papadeas. The Greek musicians play on small portable folk style instruments.", "Besides the main cimbalom centre in Budapest, there is a very strong school of performance in Debrecen in Hungary.", "In 1952, cimbalom classes were opened at the Chişinău conservatory in Moldova.", "A strong performance school was established in Bucharest.", "The cimbal is a very popular instrument found in folk groups, particularly in the ethnically Slovak/Hungarian mixed southern regions and among Romani folk ensembles.", "In Ukraine, the concert Cimbalom was first formally used in the Orchestra of Ukrainian Folk Instruments organized and directed by Leonid Haydamaka from 1922 by Oleksandr Nezovybatko. In time it was replaced by 2 smaller-sized instruments in order to facilitate transportation. Music for the cimbalom has been published in Ukraine from 1930 on. With the serial manufacture of \"tsymbaly\" by the Chernihiv Musical Instrument Factory cimbalom playing became popular in Eastern Ukraine in the post war years. Textbooks for the \"tsymbaly\" were published in 1966 by O. Nezovybatko, and initially players played on semi-concert instruments manufactured by the Chernihiv Musical Instrument Factory. In recent times most professional performers have switched over to the Schunda system of playing on concert-size instruments. Classes for the instrument exist in the Lviv, Kyiv and Kharkiv conservatories. Currently most Ukraine folk instrument ensembles and orchestras such as the Orchestra of Ukrainian Folk instruments and the State Bandurist Capella usually have 2 concert cimbaloms. Roman Kumlyk was a famous player from Hutsul area. After his death, a museum was named for him and is now run by his family." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Procedure.", "Jam signal.", "Late collision.", "Local collision.", "Channel capture effect.", "Applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The following procedure is used to initiate a transmission. The procedure is complete when the frame is transmitted successfully or a collision is detected during transmission. The following procedure is used to resolve a detected collision. The procedure is complete when retransmission is initiated or the retransmission is aborted due to numerous collisions. Methods for collision detection are media dependent. On a shared, electrical bus such as 10BASE5 or 10BASE2, collisions can be detected by comparing transmitted data with received data or by recognizing a higher than normal signal amplitude on the bus. On all other media, a carrier sensed on the receive channel while transmitting triggers a collision event. Repeaters or hubs detect collisions on their own and propagate jam signals. The collision recovery procedure can be likened to what happens at a dinner party, where all the guests talk to each other through a common medium (the air). Before speaking, each guest politely waits for the current speaker to finish. If two guests start speaking at the same time, both stop and wait for short, random periods of time (in Ethernet, this time is measured in microseconds). The hope is that by each choosing a random period of time, both guests will not choose the same time to try to speak again, thus avoiding another collision.", "The jam signal or jamming signal is a signal that carries a 32-bit binary pattern sent by a data station to inform the other stations of the collision and that they must not transmit. The maximum jam-time is calculated as follows: The maximum allowed diameter of an Ethernet installation is limited to 232 bits. This makes a round-trip-time of 464 bits. As the slot time in Ethernet is 512 bits, the difference between slot time and round-trip-time is 48 bits (6 bytes), which is the maximum \"jam-time\". This in turn means: A station noting a collision has occurred is sending a 4 to 6 byte long pattern composed of 16 1-0 bit combinations. Note: The size of this jam signal is clearly above the minimum allowed frame-size of 64 bytes. The purpose of this is to ensure that any other node which may currently be receiving a frame will receive the jam signal in place of the correct 32-bit MAC CRC, this causes the other receivers to discard the frame due to a CRC error.", "A late collision is a type of collision that happens further into the packet than is allowed for by the protocol standard in question. In 10 megabit shared medium Ethernet, if a collision error occurs after the first 512 bits of data are transmitted by the transmitting station, a late collision is said to have occurred. Importantly, late collisions are not re-sent by the NIC unlike collisions occurring before the first 64 octets; it is left for the upper layers of the protocol stack to determine that there was loss of data. As a correctly set up CSMA/CD network link should not have late collisions, the usual possible causes are full-duplex/half-duplex mismatch, exceeded Ethernet cable length limits, or defective hardware such as incorrect cabling, non-compliant number of hubs in the network, or a bad NIC.", "A local collision is a collision that occurs at the NIC as opposed to on the wire. A NIC cannot detect a local collisions without attempting to send information. On UTP cable, a local collision is detected on the local segment only when a station detects a signal on the RX pair at the same time it is sending on the TX pair. Since the two signals are on different pairs there is no characteristic change in the signal. Collisions are only recognized on UTP when the station is operating in half-duplex. The only functional difference between half and full-duplex operation in this regard is whether or not the transmit and receive pairs are permitted to be used simultaneously.", "The channel capture effect is a phenomenon where one user of a shared medium \"captures\" the medium for a significant time. During this period (usually 16 frames), other users are denied use of the medium. This effect was first seen in networks using CSMA/CD on Ethernet. Because of this effect, the most data-intense connection dominates the multiple-access wireless channel. This happens in Ethernet links because of the way nodes \"back off\" from the link and attempt to re-access it. In the Ethernet protocol, when a communication collision happens (when two users of the medium try to send at the same time), each user waits for a random period of time before re-accessing the link. However, a user will wait (\"back off\") for a random amount of time proportional to the number of times it has successively tried to access the link. The channel capture effect happens when one user continues to \"win\" the link. For example, user A and user B both try to access a quiet link at the same time. Since they detect a collision, user A waits for a random time between 0 and 1 time units and so does user B. Let's say user A chooses a lower back-off time. User A then begins to use the link and B allows it to finish sending its frame. If user A still has more to send, then user A and user B will cause another data collision. A will once again choose a random back-off time between 0 and 1, but user B will choose a back-off time between 0 and 3 – because this is B's second time colliding in a row. Chances are A will \"win\" this one again. If this continues, A will most likely win all the collision battles, and after 16 collisions (the number of tries before a user backs down for an extended period of time), user A will have \"captured\" the channel. The ability of one node to capture the entire medium is decreased as the number of nodes increases. This is because as the number of nodes increases, there is a higher probability that one of the \"other\" nodes will have a lower back-off time than the capturing node. The channel capture effect creates a situation where one station is able to transmit while others are continually backing off, thus leading to a situation of short-term unfairness. Yet, the situation is long-term fair because every station has the opportunity to \"capture\" the medium once one station is done transmitting. The efficiency of the channel is increased when one node has captured the channel. A negative side effect of the capture effect would be the idle time created due to stations backing off. Once one station is finished transmitting on the medium, large idle times are present because all other stations were continually backing off. In some instances, back-off can occur for so long that some stations actually discard packets because maximum attempt limits have been reached.", "CSMA/CD was used in now-obsolete shared media Ethernet variants (10BASE5, 10BASE2) and in the early versions of twisted-pair Ethernet which used repeater hubs. Modern Ethernet networks, built with switches and full-duplex connections, no longer need to use CSMA/CD because each Ethernet segment, or collision domain, is now isolated. CSMA/CD is still supported for backwards compatibility and for half-duplex connections. The IEEE 802.3 standard, which defines all Ethernet variants, for historical reasons still bore the title \"Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) access method and physical layer specifications\" until 802.3-2008, which uses new name \"IEEE Standard for Ethernet\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Winemaking.", "Balsamico.", "Mead.", "In cookery.", "Roman lead poisoning hypothesis.", "In Christian liturgy.", "Liturgical norms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The length of time the pomace stays in the juice is critical for the final character of the wine. When the winemaker judges the time to be right, the juice is drained off the pomace, which is then pressed to extract the juice retained by the matrix. Yeast is added to the juice to begin the fermentation, while the pomace is often returned to the vineyard or orchard for use as fertilizer. A portion of selected unfermented must may be kept as Süssreserve, to be added as a sweetening component before bottling. Some winemakers create a second batch of wine from the used pomace by adding a quantity of water equivalent to the juice removed, letting the mixture sit for 24 hours, and draining off the liquid. This wine may be used as a drink for the employees of the winemaker or as a basis for some pomace brandies. Grappa, however, must by law be produced only from the pomace solids, with no water added. Selected bacterial colonies or the lenta in superficie (slow surface) or lenta a truciolo (slow wood shavings) methods are used for acetification, and then there is a maturation phase. Both the acetification and the maturation take place in precious sessile oak (Quercus petraea), chestnut, oak, mulberry, and juniper barrels. After a minimum maturation period of 60 days, a group of expert technicians will test the resulting product analytically and Organoleptically.", "The must is also an essential ingredient for the production of Traditional Balsamic Vinegar, the special aged vinegar from the Emilia-Romana region of Italy, protected under the European Protected Designated Origin system.", "This term is also used by meadmakers for the unfermented honey-water mixture that becomes mead. The analogous term in beer brewing is wort.", "In ancient Greece, must condensed by boiling was called siraion (σίραιον) and was used as a sweetener in the kitchen in various recipes (and as a syrup over tiganitai (pancakes)). From the Greeks, the Romans in ancient Rome also used the condensed must in cooking, as a sweetener. Must was boiled in lead or bronze kettles into a milder concentrate called defrutum or a stronger concentrate called sapa. It was often used as a souring agent and preservative, especially in fruit dishes. Currently, reduced must is used in Greek, other Balkan countries, French and Middle Eastern cookery as a syrup known as petimezi, \"pekmez\" or \"dibis\". In Greece, petimezi is a basic ingredient for a must-custard known as moustalevria, and a sweet-meal known as soutzoukos, churchkhela. The \"Moustokoúloura\", or \"must cookies\" are also popular Greek cookies, which are based on a sweet dough made by kneading flour, olive oil, spice, and must. They are made in various shapes and sizes, and they are dark brown in color because of the must and the spice in them. In the wine making areas of South Africa must is used to make a sweet bun known as Mosbolletjies. The term petimezi is a Hellenized word of the Armenian/Trebizond term petmez. Petmez was a type of syrup that was made with berries of the White Mulberry tree; petmez was used in Byzantium (Trebizond was part of the Byzantine Empire), where White Mulberries grew in abundance, for their berries and for the silk worms that feed exclusively on Mulberry leaves.", "Geochemist Jerome Nriagu published an article in the \"New England Journal of Medicine\" in 1983 hypothesizing that defrutum and \"sapa\" may have contained enough lead acetate to be toxic to those who consumed them regularly.", "In Roman Catholic Eucharistic liturgy, must may be substituted for sacramental wine, on condition that the ordinary has granted permission for the benefit of a priest or lay person who should not, usually because of alcoholism, ingest wine; but in normal circumstances it may not be used in place of wine. Official Roman Catholic documents define must (\"mustum\" in Latin) precisely as \"grape juice that is either fresh or preserved by methods that suspend its fermentation without altering its nature (for example, freezing)\", and it excludes pasteurized grape juice. This teaching goes back at least to Pope Julius I (337–352), who is quoted in Thomas Aquinas's \"Summa Theologica\" as having declared that in case of necessity, but only then, juice pressed from a grape could be used. Aquinas himself declared that it is forbidden to offer fresh must in the chalice, because this is unbecoming owing to the impurity of the must; but he added that in case of necessity it may be done. Aquinas himself declared: Must has already the species of wine, for its sweetness [\"Aut dulcis musti Vulcano decoquit humorem\"; Virgil, \"Georg.\" i, 295] indicates fermentation, which is \"the result of its natural heat\" (\"Meteor.\" iv); consequently this sacrament can be made from must.... It is forbidden to offer must in the chalice, as soon as it has been squeezed from the grape, since this is unbecoming owing to the impurity of the must. But in case of necessity it may be done: for it is said by the same Pope Julius, in the passage quoted in the argument: \"If necessary, let the grape be pressed into the chalice.\"", "The latest document from the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on the matter, issued on 24 July 2003, gave the following norms, which simplify those previously in force: The Ordinary is competent to give permission for an individual priest or layperson to use mustum for the celebration of the Eucharist. Permission can be granted habitually, for as long as the situation that occasioned the granting of permission continues (e.g., the priest is an alcoholic). When the principal celebrant at a concelebration has permission to use mustum, a chalice of normal wine is to be prepared for the concelebrants. Given the centrality of the celebration of the Eucharist in the life of a priest, one must proceed with great caution before admitting to Holy Orders those candidates unable to ingest alcohol without serious harm. Attention should be paid to medical advances in the area of alcoholism and encouragement given to the production of unaltered mustum." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Modes.", "Civilizations.", "Technology.", "Units.", "Buildings.", "Development.", "Reception.", "Sales.", "Critical reviews.", "\"Definitive Edition\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Age of Empires\" requires the player to develop a civilization from a handful of hunter-gatherers to an expansive Iron Age Empire. To assure victory, the player must gather resources in order to pay for new units, buildings and more advanced technology. Resources must be preserved, as no new resources become available as the game progresses; for example, trees that are cut down will not grow back. Twelve civilizations are available, each with individual sets of attributes, including a varying number of available technologies and units. Each civilization has technologies unique to them, so that no civilization possesses all the technologies possible within the game. A major component of the game is the advancement through four ages. These are the Stone Age (Mesolithic/Nomad/Paleolithic), the Tool Age (Neolithic/Chalcolithic), the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Advancement between ages is researched at the Town Center, and each advancement brings the player new technologies, weapons, and units.", "The game features four single-player campaigns in which the player is required to complete specific objectives. Campaigns are a collection of scenarios which are completed in a linear fashion. The campaigns follow the history of the Egyptian, Greek, Babylonian and Yamato civilizations; there is also a complete campaign specially made for the demo version that takes place in the Hittite Empire. Aside from the campaigns, there is a game mode called \"random map\", in which a different map is generated for each new game. Variations of random map, such as the resource-heavy \"death match\", are also available. \"Age of Empires\" facilitated online and network play with up to 8 people simultaneously. Because the network play is less sophisticated than that of modern games, lag and disconnections often occur. Until June 19, 2006, multiplayer gameplay was supported by Microsoft Gaming Zone. At that point, the Zone abandoned support of most CD-ROM games, including \"Age of Empires\" and \"\". The creation of user-made scenarios or series of scenarios (campaigns) for the game was made possible using the \"Scenario Builder\". This tool is simpler and easier to learn than comparable editors used in more modern games, but it has fewer capabilities as a result. Ensemble Studios used the Scenario Builder to make the single-player campaigns which shipped with the retail game. Various unofficial sites exist where custom scenarios can be submitted and downloaded. In late 2005, it was discovered that by modifying various data files, units present in the beta versions of the game could be made available in the editor. Some obscure units include a spaceship and a hero that changes ownership when units move near it. Through data editing, the rules of unit placement can also be modified. This allows units to be placed on any terrain and on top of other units, which creates new possibilities for design. Other significant discoveries include new terrain templates, a mode to triple each unit's hitpoints and a tool to edit map sizes.", "Players choose to play as one of 12 civilizations. The civilizations are sorted into four distinct architectural styles, based on East Asian, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Greek architecture, which determine their in-game appearance.", "Technology is researched at specific buildings, to which they are generally related; for example, religious research is done in temples and improved armor is researched in the storage pit. Technological advances come in many categories, such as military upgrades (better arms and armor for units), economic upgrades (increasing the efficiency of resource gathering), religious upgrades (faster conversion rates and more abilities for priests) and infrastructure upgrades (stronger fortifications and more resilient buildings). As basic technology research is completed, more advanced technologies may become available. Some technologies are not available to certain civilizations. Technology plays a very important role in the strategy of the game. As a civilization progresses through the ages, technology becomes more and more expensive, which makes collecting the necessary resources to research them difficult. As a consequence, balancing the workforce of villagers across the various resources can make the difference between victory and defeat.", "Players control a variety of civilian and military units. Most units can be upgraded through research (e.g. faster gathering for villagers, stronger armor for military units, and longer range for archers). Land-based units are the most prevalent in gameplay. Villagers are the most basic units in \"Age of Empires\". Their primary function is to collect resources, cutting down trees for wood, mining for stone and gold, and hunting, foraging, farming, or fishing to acquire food. Villagers can construct buildings and repair both buildings and naval vessels, and are capable of engaging in hand-to-hand combat when necessary. Priests are non-combat units which can heal allied units or \"convert\" enemy units (in which case the target unit changes allegiance). Infantry units, such as clubmen, swordsmen, and hoplites use melee combat to attack at short range. Mounted units include chariots, cavalry, and war elephants. Archers, mounted or on foot, attack at range. Siege units are of two types: catapults and ballista. Catapults hurl stones which generate blast damage, affecting all units in a small area, and are especially effective against buildings and groups of units. The ballista is less damaging against buildings and units, but it fires faster and is cheaper than the catapult. Nautical units often play a secondary role, but can be essential to victory. Fishing boats are similar to villagers in that they can gather fish. Merchant ships trade resources from the stockpile and exchange it for gold at another player's dock, with the amount of gold earned being relative to the distance between both docks. Transport ships carry land units from one area of land to another. As well as attacking enemy ships, warships can be very effective in attacking land-based units close to the shoreline (because melee units cannot fight back). Warships come either as galleys which fire arrows or triremes which launch bolts or boulders (very effective against buildings near the shoreline). Unit types are identical, regardless of civilization (though certain civilizations may have improved variations of these units). So, for example, a Korean Choson broad swordsman is identical to a Persian or Phoenician one, as are bowmen, axemen, short swordsmen, cavalry, and so forth. Some armors and clothes are historically inaccurate, with the long swordsman bearing more resemblance to a Roman praetorian. Some units were also available in the game to civilizations that never, historically, had them; hoplites can be trained by every civilization except Persia, and some middle-Asian civilizations can train Legions and Centurions, while Japanese Yamato can build triremes.", "The Town Center is one of the most important buildings in the game. Here villagers are created, and age advancement is researched. Most scenarios have each player begin with a single Town Center; the ability to build multiple Town Centers is unlocked by the construction of the Government Center during the Bronze Age. The Town Center provides population support for four units. In order to build more units, houses must be constructed. Each house supports four units, and although any number of houses can be built, they can only support a maximum of fifty units. Military units are produced at specific buildings relevant to their area. All sea units are created at the docks. Walls and towers are defensive fortifications (\"Age of Empires\" was one of the first real-time strategy games to include walls strong enough to form a feasible means of defense). Farms are used to produce food. Granaries, storage pits, and the Town Center are used to store resources deposited by the villagers. Wonders are enormous monuments representing the architectural achievements of the time, such as the Egyptian Pyramids. They require huge amounts of resources to build and are constructed very slowly. Wonders can neither produce units nor conduct research. In scenarios with \"Standard Victory\" conditions, a player can win by constructing a wonder and keeping it from being destroyed for 2,000 years (about 10 minutes in the real world). Building a wonder also greatly increases a player's score, which is beneficial in \"score\" games. Players typically make it their top priority to destroy enemy wonders, especially under Standard Victory conditions. For this reason and because a wonder is relatively easy to destroy, a wonder must be well-guarded at all times.", "\"Age of Empires\" (under the working title \"Dawn of Man\") was the first game developed by Ensemble Studios. Its historical setting was chosen to be more plausible and accessible, particularly to casual gamers, than existing games. At the time, other real-time strategy games had science fiction and fantasy settings, so the historical setting of \"Age of Empires\" enabled it to stand out. The designers received much of their inspiration from the game \"Civilization\", with its proven historical setting; this was noted among reviewers as something positive. The game was announced in June 1996 at the Electronic Entertainment Expo. \"Age of Empires\" was designed by Bruce Shelley, Tony Goodman (in charge of the game's artwork), and Dave Pottinger (in charge of the game's artificial intelligence). Stephen Rippy was the music director (a role he kept through the series), with occasional help from his brother, David Rippy, as well as Kevin McMullan. He created the original music in \"Age of Empires\" using sounds from actual instruments from the periods in the game, as well as their digital samples. The tunes were the result of extensive research on the cultures, styles, and instruments used.", "", "In the United States, \"Age of Empires\" debuted at #7 on PC Data's computer game sales rankings for October 1997. It secured places eighth and 13th the following two months, respectively. By the end of 1997, \"Age of Empires\" totaled sales in the country above 178,000 units, for revenues in excess of $8 million. This performance made it the United States' most successful real-time strategy game during late 1997: a writer for \"PC Gamer US\" noted that its sales surpassed the combined totals of rivals \"Total Annihilation\" and \"\" over the same period, and were over four times greater than those of \"\". \"Age of Empires\" was also successful worldwide, according to Microsoft. It was released in 55 countries during its first four months, and over 650,000 copies were shipped globally by December 12. Microsoft reported that it was consistently the top-selling computer strategy title in the United States, France, Germany and the United Kingdom through January 1998. Globally, the game sold-through 850,000 units by February. \"Age of Empires\" was a hit in the German market, where it debuted at #1 on's sales rankings for the latter half of October 1997. After holding this position in the first half of November, it remained in Media Control's top 5 through the end of 1997. The following year, \"Age of Empires\" placed consistently in the top 3 through March, when it rose again to #1 in the last two weeks of the month. By the end of May, it had spent 28 consecutive weeks in Media Control's top rankings, with placements of fifth and eighth that month. \"Age of Empires\" proceeded to become the fourth-best-selling computer game in the German market during 1998's first nine months. It received a \"Gold\" award from the (VUD) in August, for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Sales in the German market totaled 115,000 units by the end of September, and the VUD raised \"Age of Empires\" to \"Platinum\" status, for 200,000 sales, by November. At the 1999 Milia festival in Cannes, \"Age of Empires\" took home a \"Gold\" prize for revenues above €15 million in the European Union during 1998. It remained at 14th on Media Control's charts for the German region by January 1999, continuing a 60-week streak on the charts. Sales of the game in South Korea alone reached roughly 150,000 units by 2000. According to PC Data, it was the United States' 10th-best-selling computer game during the January–November 1998 period. \"Age of Empires\" was a commercial success, with sales of 2.2 million copies by June 2001.", "\"Age of Empires\" was generally well received by critics, and scored highly on review aggregator websites including an 8.3 out of 10 on Metacritic, an 87% on GameRankings, an 85 out of 100 on MobyGames. \"Game Informer\" ranked it the 81st best game made in its 100th issue in 2001. They called it a cross between \"Warcraft\" and \"SimCity\" and praised its multiplayer and its popularity among gamers. Game Revolution categorized the game as \"a cross between \"Civilization II\" and \"\"\", while GameSpot lamented that it was \"a simple combat game rather than a glorious empire-builder\", describing it as \"\"Warcraft\" with a hint of \"Civilization\".\" While \"Computer Gaming World\"s Elliott Chin compared the game extensively to \"WarCraft II\", he said that it has \"great depth, and when compared to its real-time brethren, it has to be the most sophisticated of the bunch\". GameVortex wanted less of a combat-oriented gameplay, but praised the modes of play, commenting that \"the random map generation [...] really keeps the game spiced up.\" GameSpot decried the level of micromanagement necessary to control the game (which was due to absence of production queues and low AI of the player's units) calling it \"a poor idea\", which \"seriously diminishes [\"Age of Empires\"] enjoyability.\" GameVortex echoed this criticism, while PC Gameworld pointed out the subsequently released patches improving some of the faulty AI programming. Elliott Chin criticized the game's population limit, which he thought to be its \"most serious grievance\". While noting the similarities with \"Warcraft II\", PC Gameworld praised the uniqueness of each playable civilization, and noted that the \"graphics are extremely detailed and have a hand-painted feel to them. It's rare to see a game this beautiful with such detailed unit movements.\" Game Revolution was impressed by the amount of different units of the game, and noted that the developers \"obviously did [their] research here, and the result is a well rounded, historically accurate product (at least for a game)\". The soundscape of the game was also criticized, with GameVortex stating that \"the oral clues just aren't enough to let you differentiate just what's going on.\" With a view to the future of the game, GameRevolution emphasized the scenario editor, which \"allows you total control in the design of scenarios and campaigns\", a \"tool at your disposal to create a scenario exactly to your liking.\" \"Next Generation\" reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that \"Having been in development for nearly an eternity, \"Age of Empires\" has largely delivered what was promised by \"Civilization\" co-creator, Bruce Shelley, and his team at Ensemble Studios.\" The game won numerous awards, including Gamecenter's 1997 \"Game of the Year\" and the 1998 AIAS \"Computer Strategy Game of the Year\" award. \"Age of Empires\" was a runner-up for \"Computer Gaming World\"s 1997 \"Strategy Game of the Year\" award, which ultimately went to \"\".", "In June 2017, Adam Isgreen, creative director of Microsoft Studios announced \"Age of Empires: Definitive Edition\" at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2017 and it was developed by Age of Empires new internal studios namely, Forgotten Empires. It features overhauled graphics with support for 4K resolution, a remastered soundtrack, and other gameplay improvements, and was planned to be released on October 19, 2017, but was delayed until February 20, 2018. \"Age of Empires: Definitive Edition\" was released through the Windows store and was met with mixed or average reviews and weighted score of 70 out of 100 in Metacritic. PC Gamer gave the game 60/100, calling the game \"solid remake of a game past its time\". GameSpot gave the game 6/10, praising its 4K graphics and upgraded soundtrack but criticizing old problems still persisting." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Marriage and issue." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "His parents were Nicholas II of Opava and Anna of Racibórz, a sister of Leszek of Racibórz, the last Duke of Racibórz from the Silesian Piast family. Leszek died in 1336 without heirs, causing Ratiboř to revert to the Crown. King John of Bohemia then enfeoffed Leszek's brother-in-law, Nicholas II, who was John I's father. Since John I was the only son of Nicholas II from his first marriage with Anna, John I was the sole heir of Racibórz. At the same time, he and his younger half-brother Nicholas III became guardians of Nicholas III's younger brothers Wenceslaus I and Přemysl. After disputes about the inheritance, Opava was divided in 1367 among the four brothers. In 1377, a new division was made, in which John I kept Racibórz, but also received the duchies of Krnov and Bruntál. The Duchy of Głubczyce was split off for Nicholas III; Wenceslaus I and Přemysl received the rest of Opava. When Wenceslaus died in 1381, Přemysl inherited Wenceslaus's share. When Nicholas III died in 1394, Přemysl inherited Głubczyce as well. John I gave Magdeburg rights to the city of Opava in 1372. Because of financial difficulties, he sold Mikołów and the Principality of Pless to Duke Władysław II of Opole in 1375. His son John II later managed to buy both these possession back.", "In 1361 John I married to Anna, daughter of Henry V of Głogów and Żagań (d. 1369). They had three children" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Textiles.", "Sewing.", "Lacemaking.", "Electrical." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "As used in spinning, weaving, knitting, sewing, or lacemaking, the bobbin provides temporary or permanent storage for yarn or thread and may be made of plastic, metal, bone, or wood.", "The lockstitch sewing machine, invented and developed in the 18th and 19th centuries, forms a stitch with two threads: one passed through a needle and another from a bobbin. Each thread stays on the same side of the material being sewn, interlacing with the other thread at each needle hole thanks to the machine's movement. Tension of the bobbin thread is maintained with a bobbin case, a metal enclosure with a leaf spring which keeps the thread taut. Bobbins vary in shape and size, depending on the style of bobbin driver in the machine for which they are intended to be used. Long, narrow bobbins are used in early transverse shuttle and vibrating shuttle machines. These earlier movements were rendered obsolete by the invention of the rotary hook and the shuttle hook, which run faster and quieter with less air resistance. These shorter, wider bobbins are familiar to modern sewers, as the rotary/shuttle hook remains in use on modern machines essentially unchanged.", "Bobbin lace requires the winding of yarn onto a temporary storage spindle made of wood (or, in earlier times, bone) often turned on a lathe. Exotic woods are extremely popular with contemporary lacemakers. Many lace designs require dozens of bobbins at any one time. Both traditional and contemporary bobbins may be decorated with designs, inscriptions, or pewter or wire inlays. Often, bobbins are'spangled' to provide additional weight to keep the thread in tension. A hole is drilled near the base to enable glass beads and other ornaments to be attached by a loop of wire. These spangles provide a means of self-expression in the decoration of a tool of the craft. Antique and unique bobbins, sometimes spangled, are highly sought-after by antiques collectors.", "Electrical transformers, inductors and relay coils use bobbins as permanent containers for the wire to retain shape and rigidity, and to ease assembly of the windings into or onto the magnetic core. The bobbin may be made of thermoplastic or thermosetting (for example, phenolic) materials. This plastic often has to have a TÜV, UL or other regulatory agency flammability rating for safety reasons." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Composition.", "Release.", "Singles.", "Promotion.", "Reissue.", "Critical reception.", "Commercial performance.", "Track listing.", "Personnel.", "Charts.", "Weekly charts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "As a child, JoJo listened as her mother practiced hymns. She started singing when she was two years and three months old by imitating, to R&B, jazz, and soul tunes. On the A&E show \"Child Stars III: Teen Rockers\", her mother claimed that JoJo had a borderline genius IQ. As a child, JoJo enjoyed attending Native American festivals and acted locally in professional theaters. At age seven, JoJo appeared on the television show \"Kids Say the Darnedest Things: On the Road in Boston\" with American comedian and actor Bill Cosby and she sang a song from singer Cher. After auditioning in the television show \"Destination Stardom\", JoJo sang Aretha Franklin's songs \"Respect\" and \"Chain of Fools\". Soon after, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" contacted her, inviting her to perform. She performed on \"Maury\", on one of the frequent \"kids-with-talent\" episodes, as well as many others. Reminiscing, she has stated that \"when it came to performing, I just had no fear\". At the age of six, JoJo was offered a record deal, but her mother turned it down because she believed JoJo was too young for a music career. After appearing on talk shows and the McDonald's Gospel Fest performing Whitney Houston's \"I Believe in You and Me\" and competing on the television show \"America's Most Talented Kids\", but did not win the show and lost to Diana DeGarmo. Record producer Vincent Herbert contacted her and asked her to audition for Blackground Records. During her audition for Barry Hankerson, Hankerson told her that the spirit of his niece, the late singer Aaliyah, had brought her to him. She was signed to the label, and had recording sessions with famed producers like The Underdogs and Soulshock and Karlin. JoJo's live demo, \"Joanna Levesque\", recorded in 2001, features covers of soul and R&B songs, including Wilson Pickett's \"Mustang Sally\" (1966), Etta James' \"It Ain't Always What You Do (It's Who You Let See You Do It)\" (1989), Aretha Franklin's \"Chain of Fools\" (1968) and \"The House That Jack Built\" (1969), The Moonglows' \"See Saw\" (1956), Stevie Wonder's \"Superstition\" (1972), and The Temptations' \"Shakey Ground\" (1975). In 2003, at age 12, JoJo signed with Blackground Records and Da Family and begin working with some producers on her first album.", "The music found on \"JoJo\" is primarily pop and R&B. During an interview about the album's composition, JoJo stated, \"I wrote three songs on the album. I am not the [kind of] person who sings something that I have no reference point to. I feel like I am a real artist and I want to be able to feel what I am singing about. So when I sing, \"Leave (Get Out),\" I have been through that. I think it is just a new generation, whether people are ready for it or not. Teenagers are dating. They go through things and that is really what it is about.\" Many have noted that the album is influenced mainly by R&B tracks. On her influences for the album, JoJo has listed many celebrities. During one interview, she stated, \"I really was, I had no idea what it was. I was raised in a mostly white neighborhood. I was this little white girl jamming out to Ella Fitzgerald and Bobby Brown. I don't know what kind of stuff I was on!\" During a separate interview, JoJo stated, \"Well, I listened to everyone from Aretha Franklin to Bob Seager, to the Beatles, but I have to say that my mom is probably my biggest influence. She really has a great voice.\" JoJo has also listed singer Beyoncé as a major influence, stating, \"I think she is the perfect example of a strong woman and just a talented person. She's a songwriter, she's a dancer and she's an incredible singer and I don't think anyone can touch her right now.\" The first track on the album, \"Breezy\" is an up-tempo hip hop track that speaks of JoJo's relationship with a boy, and how he calls her \"Breezy\". The lyrics are more spoken than sung by JoJo, as the song has a different feel than the rest of the album. \"Baby It's You\" is the second track on the album, as well as the second single. The song is an up-tempo R&B song that speaks of JoJo not wanting the luxuries and perks of dating someone, and all she wants is them. \"Not That Kinda Girl\", the album's third single, also serves as the third song. The song sees JoJo comparing herself to other girls, and telling a boy that she's \"not that kinda girl\", and has true feelings for him. \"The Happy Song\" is the fourth song on the album. The up-tempo R&B influenced track sees JoJo speaking of how happy a boy makes her feel, and she thinks he might be the one. \"Homeboy\" is the fifth song on the album, and is more of a hip hop influenced track. The track speaks of how JoJo's feelings have changed for a boy she grew up with. The sixth song on the album is the urban \"City Lights\". It was inspired lyrically by JoJo's love of Beat Generation culture and named after San Francisco Beat landmark City Lights Bookstore. Lines such as \"I feel like I'm on medication\" and \"I can see the stars/expensive cars on the boulevard\" were inspired by the Jack Kerouac novel \"On the Road\". \"Leave (Get Out)\" is the seventh track on the album, as well as the lead single. The single was met positively by critics, and was majorly successful on music charts worldwide, reaching the top 10 in 11 different countries, including the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom. The eighth song on the album is \"Use My Shoulder\", an R&B ballad that lyrically speaks of JoJo trying to cheer up her boyfriend. \"Never Say Goodbye\" is a pop ballad, that lyrically speaks of JoJo being glad to have someone in her life, and how she \"never wants to say goodbye\" to him. \"Weak\" is the 10th track on the album, and is a cover of the 1992 song by SWV. \"Keep On Keepin' On\" is the 11th song on the album, and is a mid-tempo R&B song that talks of never giving up when you are in dire straits. It is autobiographical and deals with the time JoJo and her mom were living humbly in a small apartment, being jealous of her rich friends, and asking God why. The 12th track on the album is \"Sunshine\" and speaks of how someone is like an angel to her and makes all her dreams come true. \"Yes or No\", the 13th song on the album, is more uptempo and hip hop than the rest of the album, and lyrically talks of JoJo questioning a guy to see if he is ready to handle a girl like her. The final track on the album is \"Fairy Tales\", a pop ballad that lyrically speaks of how JoJo feels she may not be able to love again after the pain her ex has caused her. The second verse interpolates the nursery rhyme \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star\".", "", "The album's lead single, \"Leave (Get Out)\", was released on February 24, 2004, as a physical copy and for radio airplay. The song became an instant success for JoJo, reaching the top 10 in 11 different countries. In the United States, the single peaking at number 12 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart. The single was even more successful internationally, peaking at number two on the UK Singles Chart and on the European Hot 100 Singles, as well as in Australia and New Zealand. It also reached the top five in Belgium, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and the top 10 in Germany and Italy. The accompanying music video, directed by Erik White, takes place in a high school. JoJo is seen with friends and dancing with cheerleading girls. The video was nominated for Best New Artist at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards, which made JoJo become the youngest MTV Video Music Award nominee. \"Baby It's You\" was released as the album's second single on September 6, 2004. The album version of the song is performed by JoJo herself, while the version released as a single features Bow Wow. Although it failed to match the success of its predecessor, the song was successful in many countries. In the United States, the single became her second top-40 entry on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, peaking at number 22. The single's highest peak position was at number three in New Zealand, becoming her second single to chart that high. In the United Kingdom, the single also became her second top-10 entry, reaching a peak of number eight. The single also had similar chart success in countries such as Australia, Austria, Belgium, and Denmark. \"Not That Kinda Girl\" was released as the album's third and final single on February 15, 2005. The single received a limited release, only receiving minimal airplay in the United States. Due to lack of a physical CD in many countries, the single was a commercial failure. It did, however, manage to chart at number 52 in Australia and number 85 in Germany. The music video was directed by the team of Eric Williams and Randy Marshall, known as Fat Cats, and was shot in Los Angeles. It premiered on MTV's \"Total Request Live\" on March 24, 2005. It spent only four days on the countdown and did not climb higher than number eight.", "JoJo promoted the album mainly through live performances. During 2004 and 2005, JoJo performed at many televised appearances as well as extensive touring with other artist. JoJo performed \"Leave (Get Out)\" at the 2004 Kids' Choice Awards and on the television shows \"On Air with Ryan Seacrest\" and \"Top of the Pops\". She performed the song live for Yahoo! Music, which was posted on their official website. JoJo also performed several songs from the album—including \"Leave (Get Out)\", \"Baby It's You\" and \"This Time\"—on Sessions@AOL, and a digital EP was released to promote the performances. \"Leave (Get Out)\" was performed yet again on the French television show \"Hit Machine\", where JoJo performed with back up dancers dressed similarly to high school students. Before the album's release, JoJo embarked on her first ever tour, the Cingular Buddy Bash with pop rock singer Fefe Dobson, hip hop duo Young Gunz and rap metal band Zebrahead. The tour stopped at nine malls, beginning at Atlanta's Northlake Mall and ending at South Shore Plaza. That year, she was requested by First Lady Laura Bush to perform at the 2004 Christmas in Washington special, broadcast by TNT and hosted by Dr. Phil and his wife Robin McGraw. In 2005, JoJo and an all-star lineup participated in the charity single \"Come Together Now\", to benefit victims of two recent disasters; the 2004 Asian tsunami and Hurricane Katrina a year later. Also in 2005 JoJo hosted and performed at the Hope Rocks concert benefiting City of Hope National Medical Center and co-hosted the 2006 TV Guide Channel's countdown to the Grammy Awards.", "On December 20, 2018, JoJo reissued \"JoJo\", along with her second album \"The High Road\" and singles \"Demonstrate\" and \"Disaster\", released under JoJo's new label imprint Clover Music on December 21. The decision to re-record the singles and albums came from the removal of all of JoJo's original music released under Blackground Records from streaming and digital selling platforms. Blackground owns the master licensing to the original recordings and has control over its release.", "\"JoJo\" received generally mixed reviews from music critics. \"Entertainment Weekly\" praised the album, stating, \"Apparently, the army of urban producers (Soulshock & Karlin, the Underdogs, Mike City) on JoJo's JoJo know how to build a disc brimming with sizzling hooks too. The prototype this time? Xtina, with her over-the-top melismatic delivery. Too bad, since many of these otherwise engagingly gritty R&B tracks, especially the euphoric 'Happy Song,' out-sass recent material by grown-up divas like Monica, Tamia, and even Mary J. Blige. Though the 13-year-old's vocal calisthenics quickly grow tiresome, with a few more years under her belt JoJo may yet discover her inner soul singer.\" Slant Magazine gave the album a mixed review, stating, \"But while the girl's certainly got pipes, her eponymous debut is as contrived and calculated as the strategic tears in the t-shirt and cap she sports on the album's cover. Even the songs JoJo penned herself can't give the disc the personality it so desperately needs; 'Keep On Keepin' On' is a 'personal,' inspirational tune, but it's high-end sneakers and a duplex that JoJo wants, a sad reminder of how success is measured by today's young people—as dictated by hip-hop trends and MTV's Cribs. Then again, it's not surprising coming from a girl who got her start on Bill Cosby's Kids Say the Darndest Things. It's not the catchy lead single 'Leave (Get Out),' produced by Soulshock and Karlin, or even a cover of SWV's early-90s hit 'Weak' that keeps JoJo afloat, but—despite lyrics like \"I'm on a high/Feel like I'm on medication\"—the old-school \"City Lights\" and the minimalist \"The Happy Song,\" which let JoJo's vocals take center stage. As long as she surrounds herself with smarter people (and stops rhyming words like \"breezy\" with \"heezy,\" as she does on the album's opening track), the young up-and-comer could very well be the next Teena Marie. But probably not.\" Yahoo! Music also gave the album a mixed review when they reviewed it, commenting, \"JoJo is mercilessly multi-tracked a la J.Lo, her voice encoded flatteringly as she too-many-notes her way through a succession of R'n'B beats and hooks that owe everything to studio wizardry and little to simple songwriting. Inevitably, she's 'Not That Kinda Girl' and boys'make me happy' but friends are where it's at. In short, she only has as much to say as the Spice Girls' 'Wannabe', but does so across 14 largely forgettable tracks of scales and curlicues that make Mariah sound restrained. Discovered, like Charlotte Church, via a series of serendipitous TV appearances, JoJo's talent is less apparent. She's evidently superior to your typical schoolgirl belting out ringtones on the bus - and in Number Two hit 'Leave (Get Out)' she has a signature song solid enough to base a career on - but beyond that she has no identity to speak of. Her album wouldn't disgrace the memory of deceased label mate Aaliyah but that's to the credit of Blackground Records rather than JoJo herself. Too young to have experienced life, too polished to have any soul to her sound, thus far she's a prodigy without purpose. Let the mood swings commence!\"", "\"JoJo\" debuted at number four on the \"Billboard\" 200, selling 95,000 copies in its first week. The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on November 15, 2004 for sales exceeding one million copies. The album reached number 23 on the Canadian Albums Chart and was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) for shipments in excess of 100,000 copies. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted and peaked at number 23 on the UK Albums Chart, and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on November 5, 2004, denoting shipments in excess of 100,000 copies. It debuted and peaked at number 52 in Germany, eventually receiving a gold certification by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI). Despite the success of \"Leave (Get Out)\" in Australia, the album only managed to chart as high as number 86 on the ARIA Albums Chart. Elsewhere, \"JoJo\" reached the top 30 in Japan, Portugal, and Switzerland, the top 40 in New Zealand, the top 50 in Italy, and the top 70 in France and Ireland. As of August 2015, the album had sold over three million copies worldwide. The 2018 reissue reached number 13 on \"Billboard\"s R&B Album Sales chart and number 41 on the R&B/Hip-Hop Album Sales chart for the issue dated January 5, 2019.", "Notes Sample credits", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"JoJo\".", "", "2018 reissue" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Governance.", "Demography.", "Landmarks.", "Economy.", "Leisure.", "Education.", "Transport.", "Military." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The town is believed to have grown around the site of Cupar Castle, which was the seat of the sheriff and was owned by the earls of Fife. The area became a centre for judiciary as the county of Fife and as a market town catering for both cattle and sheep. Towards the latter stages of the 13th century, the burgh became the site of an assembly of the three estates - clergy, nobility and burgesses - organised by Alexander III in 1276 as a predecessor of the Parliament of Scotland. Although written information of a charter for the modern town was lost, evidence suggested that this existed as one of the many properties owned by the Earls of Fife by 1294. During the middle of the 14th century, the burgh started to pay customs on taxable incomes, which probably meant that royal burgh status was granted sometime between 1294 and 1328. The oldest document, referring to the royal burgh, was a grant by Robert II in 1381 to give a port at Guardbridge on the River Eden to help boost trade with Flanders. This grant was officially recognised by James II in 1428.", "Cupar is represented by several tiers of elected government. Cupar Community Council is the lowest. Its statutory role is to communicate local opinion to local and central government. Fife Council, the unitary local authority for Cupar based in Glenrothes, is the executive, deliberative and legislative body responsible for local governance. The Scottish Parliament is responsible for devolved matters such as education, health and justice while reserved matters are dealt with by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Cupar area supports three multi-member wards with eleven councillors sitting on the committee of Fife Council. County Buildings on Catherine Street are the main headquarters for the east region of Fife Council, which deals with administrative, planning and agricultural issues. Cupar forms part of the North East Fife, electing one Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by the first past the post system. The constituency is represented by Wendy Chamberlain, MP of the Liberal Democrats. For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament, Cupar forms part of the North East Fife constituency. The North East Fife Scottish Parliament (or \"Holyrood\") constituency created in 1999 is one of nine within the \"Mid Scotland and Fife\" electoral region. Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation. The constituency is represented by Willie Rennie for the Scottish Liberal Democrats. At EU level, Cupar is part of the pan-Scotland European Parliament constituency which elects seven Members of the European Parliament (MEP)s using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation. Currently, Scotland returns two SNP MEPs, two Labour MEPs, only one Conservative and Unionist MEP, and no Liberal Democrat MEPs, to the European Parliament.", "The 2001 census reported a population of 8,506, which increased slightly to around 8,980 in 2008. The demographic make-up resembles the rest of Scotland. The 30–44 age group formed the largest portion of the population (22%). The median age of males and females was 39 and 43 years respectively, compared to 37 and 39 years for the whole of Scotland. Reported places of birth were: The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 42.20% in full-time employment, 12.32% in part-time employment, 5.89% self-employed, 3.10% unemployed, 2.96% students with jobs, 3.94% students without jobs, 17.68% retired, 4.83% looking after home or family, 4.35% permanently sick or disabled, and 2.72% economically inactive for other reasons. Compared with Scotland's average demography, Cupar has a lower proportion of immigrants, but a higher proportion of over-75s.", "Old Gaol was designed by James Gillespie Graham and built 1813–14. After closing as a prison in 1844, it was used by the militia. It was purchased by William Watt (seedsman) in 1895 and occupied by that firm until 1988. It operated as Watts of Cupar, a bar and restaurant, until it closed and was sold to developers at the end of 2019. The historic town centre is the junction of Bonnygate and the Crossgate. This is where the town's mercat cross, is located with the original shaft being supported by a unicorn. It dates from 1683. To the east is St Catherine Street, home to the burgh chambers and county buildings, both designed by Robert Hutchison. The Category B listed burgh chambers built around 1815 and 1818 contain a three-story bow street corner and a domic entrance. The adjacent county buildings built between 1812 and 1817 are unique in Fife as the only example replicating the style of buildings in the New Town of Edinburgh. The Category B-listed corn exchange tower can be seen across the town skyline. At the east end of St Catherine Street is the Category B-listed Cupar War Memorial in a classical Greek style overlooking the Cart Haugh, one of several designed by John Kinross with assistance from leading contemporary sculptors, for the exception of the Victory statue which was done by Henry Snell Gamley. The memorial was first unveiled by Field Marshal Earl Haig in 1922 and then again for the addition of the World War II memorial in 1950 by the Earl of Elgin. Nearby on Coal Road is a Category B-listed classical style former prison building built between 1813 and 1814. On the Bonnygate, the Category A-listed Preston Lodge built by the Laird of Airdrie is the town's second oldest building. The house was built in 1623 and is inscribed on a stone on the west wall. The house was extended in 1702 by James Preston and was remodeled by London goldsmith William Preston, in 1765. Later, the Reverend Sir James Preston occupied the house between 1775 and 1791, when he was the minister of the Cupar Old Parish Church. The original design of the building is believed to have been inspired by Culross Palace in Culross. Situated at the corner of the Crossgate, the Category C listed \"Duncan's Institute\" by John Milne, which was built 1870-71 as a mechanics' institute for the \"working classes of Cupar\" by Mrs Duncan. The building, a mixture of Gothic, Scottish and Flemish styles is recognised in the town for its twisted spire. On the Kirkgate is the Parish Church of Cupar Old and St Michael of Tarvit, designed by the architect, Hay Bell. This consists of the Category A-listed Parish Church tower dating from 1415 and the Category B-listed main church building from 1745. The tower is the only surviving piece of the old Cupar parish church, founded by the priory of St Andrews.", "Fife Council is the largest employer in the area. Many people are employed in food and drink. The larger employers were Kettle Produce (fruit and vegetable producer) and Fishers Services Ltd. Other employers include Elmwood College (Fife education); Scotsfruit Ltd (food and drink); Quaker Oats Ltd (food and drink) and Fisher and Donaldson (food and drink). Some 72% people were employed in the town in 2007, with unemployment below the national average at 2.1%. The main shopping facilities are located there, including family-owned businesses and some chain stores. The Cupar and Howe of Fife local plan includes a proposal to upgrade shopping facilities to produce a secondary retail area in Fife.", "Cupar has an unusual golf course on the side of a hill to the South of town at Hill of Tarvit.The Club was founded on 7 November 1855. Cupar Golf Club is rich with history and is probably the oldest nine-hole club in the world. The Kingarrock course at Hill Tarvit Mansion house uses hickory shafted clubs, in the original style. Cupar Sports Centre has a 25-metre swimming pool, badminton courts, squash courts and a fitness suite. The swimming pool is the base for Cupar and District Swimming Club. Cupar is home to Cupar Cricket Club, founded in 1884. The club is celebrating its 125th anniversary in the 2009 season. The Castlehill Community Association is home to local groups including Cupar Camera Club, Cupar Art Club, Cupar & District Model Railway Club. They operate from the Old Castlehill Primary School and from 11 St Catherine Street. Cupar also plays host to the biennial Cupar Arts Festival.", "Cupar is home to Kilmaron school, one secondary school and two primary schools. Castlehill Primary School opened to pupils on the present site in 1975 and is located on the town's outskirts and has enrollment of 420. Kilmaron School caters for disabled children. Bell Baxter High School located on Carslogie Road, serves both the town and surrounding villages. The School roll was recorded in February 2009 and was estimated at 1620 pupils. SRUC Elmwood (formerly Elmwood College) has three main campuses situated in the town and surrounding area. The college has been praised as a centre for excellence in golf-related studies and specialising in land-based education. Local businesses benefit from the work of the SRUC Rural Business Centre.", "An express bus service connects the town every hour between Edinburgh and St Andrews and also between Glasgow and St Andrews. Other services run less frequently from Stirling and various local villages through Cupar to St Andrews. An express service also runs via the town from Kirkcaldy to Dundee. A railway station can be found to the south-east of the town centre. The station is situated on the East Coast Main Line, served by Abellio ScotRail and CrossCountry with regular services running between Edinburgh Waverley and Aberdeen. Nearby stations are located to the north-east of the town at Leuchars and to the south of the town in neighbouring Springfield (limited service) and Ladybank. The nearest major international airport is Edinburgh airport with the nearest ferry sea port at Rosyth being 42 miles and 35 miles, respectively.", "Yeomanry House, a drill hall completed in 1890, is home to 'C Squadron' of the Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry. The SNIY provides a Light Cavalry capability and have travelled to Germany and the United States on training and on operations in Afghanistan, Iraq and Cyprus. They previously operated the FV107 Scimitar, FV105 Sultan and FV103 Spartan light armoured vehicles in the a reconnaissance role. They are paired with the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards based at Leuchars Station (formerly RAF Leuchars). The Army Cadet Force and Air Training Corps 571 (Cupar) Squadron are also active in the town." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The design of LZ 3 closely followed that of its predecessor, the LZ 2. The hull framework was of identical layout and size and the same engines and propellers were used, although the volume of lifting gas was increased. LZ 2 had shown severe pitch instability, and LZ 3 was fitted with two pairs of biplane elevators, one set in front of the forward gondola and the second behind the rear gondola, and fixed biplane horizontal stabilisers at the rear of the hull. Following the first flights in 1906 some modifications were made: the triangular section keel between the gondolas was extended fore and aft, the biplane elevators were replaced by two sets of quadruple elevators mounted at either end of the cylindrical section of the hull and the rudders were mounted between the tips of the horizontal stabilisers. After the destruction of LZ 4 it was extensively rebuilt, with the addition of an extra bay increasing its length by 8 m (26 ft 6 in) and gas capacity to 12,888 cu m (430,800 cu ft). A large vertical fin was added above the stern of the hull and new engines, each providing 105 hp (78 kW) were fitted, giving a maximum speed of (27.5 mph)", "LZ 3 was first flown on 9 October 1906, when a successful flight was made lasting 2 hours 17 minutes and carrying eleven people. A second shorter flight was made the next day, following which it was deflated and laid up for the winter. These flights caused a reevaluation of Zeppelin's work on the part of the German government, and a grant of 500,000 marks was made to him. However it was stipulated that an acceptance flight lasting 24 hours would have to be completed before any airship could be bought by the Government: realising that LZ 3 was incapable of meeting this requirement, work was started on the LZ 4. Following modifications to the control surfaces LZ 3 was next flown on 24 September 1907, when it made a flight lasting 4 hours 17 minutes, and a series of successful flights was made in the following days, including one on 30 September lasting 7 hours 54 minutes during which it was flown over land for the first time, flying north as far as Ravensburg. During this flight some difficulty in managing the airship due to the up and downdraughts produced by the hilly terrain was experienced. On 8 October a brief flight was made with Crown Prince William, the heir to the throne, on board and the airship was then deflated for the winter. On 14 December the floating hangar broke loose from its moorings during a storm and was driven ashore, severely damaging LZ 3. Following the destruction of LZ 4, LZ 3 was repaired and enlarged. It was reinflated on 21 October 1908 and a series of short test flights were made between 23 and 26 October. On 27 October a flight lasting 5 hours 55 minutes was made with the Kaiser's brother, Admiral Prince Heinrich, on board and on 7 November, with Prince William as a passenger, it was flown 80 km (50 mi) to Donaueschingen, where the Kaiser was then staying. In spite of poor weather conditions, the flight succeeded: two days later LZ 3 was officially accepted by the Government and on 10 November Zeppelin was rewarded with an official visit to Friedrichshafen by the Kaiser, during which Zeppelin was awarded the Order of the Black Eagle. The renamed Z I's military crew and ground staff, commanded by Major Sperling, arrived at Friedrichshafen in March 1909 to begin training. In June it was flown to Metz, where it was stationed until being broken up as obsolete in March 1913." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Linear circuits.", "Definition and calculation.", "Power triangle.", "Increasing the power factor.", "Decreasing the power factor.", "Lagging and leading power factors.", "Power factor correction of linear loads.", "Non-linear loads.", "Non-sinusoidal components.", "Distortion power factor.", "Distortion in three-phase networks.", "Switched-mode power supplies.", "Power factor correction (PFC) in non-linear loads.", "Passive PFC.", "Active PFC.", "Dynamic PFC.", "Importance in distribution systems.", "Measurement techniques.", "Mnemonics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase), changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle. All the power entering the load is consumed (or dissipated). Where reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads results in a phase difference between the current and voltage waveforms. During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the load, is temporarily stored in the load in electric or magnetic fields then returned to the power grid a fraction of the period later. In the electric power grid, reactive loads cause a continuous \"ebb and flow\" of nonproductive power. A circuit with a low power factor will use a greater amount of current to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor thus causing increased losses due to resistive heating in power lines, and requiring the use of higher rated conductors and transformers. A linear load does not change the shape of the input waveform, but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current, due to its inductance and/or capacitance. Electrical circuits containing predominantly resistive loads (incandescent lamps, heating elements) have a power factor of almost 1, but circuits containing inductive or capacitive loads (electric motors, solenoid valves, transformers, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and others) can have a power factor well below 1.", "AC power flow has two components: Together, they form the complex power (formula_3) expressed as volt-amperes (VA). The magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power (formula_4), also expressed in volt-amperes (VA). The VA and var are non-SI units mathematically identical to the watt, but are used in engineering practice instead of the watt to state what quantity is being expressed. The SI explicitly disallows using units for this purpose or as the only source of information about a physical quantity as used. The power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power. As power is transferred along a transmission line, it does not consist purely of real power that can do work once transferred to the load, but rather consists of a combination of real and reactive power, called apparent power. The power factor describes the amount of real power transmitted along a transmission line relative to the total apparent power flowing in the line.", "One can relate the various components of AC power by using the power triangle in vector space. Real power extends horizontally in the î direction as it represents a purely real component of AC power. Reactive power extends in the direction of ĵ as it represents a purely imaginary component of AC power. Complex power (and its magnitude, Apparent power) represents a combination of both real and reactive power, and therefore can be calculated by using the vector sum of these two components. We can conclude that the mathematical relationship between these components is:", "As the power factor (i.e. cos \"θ\") increases, the ratio of real power to apparent power (which = cos \"θ\"), increases and approaches unity (1), while the angle \"θ\" decreases and the reactive power decreases. [As cos \"θ\" → 1, its maximum possible value, \"θ\" → 0 and so Q → 0, as the load becomes less reactive and more purely resistive].", "As the power factor decreases, the ratio of real power to apparent power also decreases, as the angle θ increases and reactive power increases.", "There is also a difference between a lagging and leading power factor. The terms refer to whether the phase of the current is lagging or leading the phase of the voltage. A lagging power factor signifies that the load is inductive, as the load will “consume” reactive power, and therefore the reactive component formula_2 is positive as reactive power travels through the circuit and is “consumed” by the inductive load. A leading power factor signifies that the load is capacitive, as the load “supplies” reactive power, and therefore the reactive component formula_2 is negative as reactive power is being supplied to the circuit. If θ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the cosine of the angle, formula_8: Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between −1 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually stated as \"leading\" or \"lagging\" to show the sign of the phase angle. Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage). If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be 1, and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads such as induction motors (any type of wound coil) consume reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable generate reactive power with current phase leading the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle. For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA). At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power at 0.2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0.2 = 5 kVA). This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load, and is subject to the losses in the production and transmission processes. Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power. The vector sum of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1. A negative power factor (0 to −1) can result from returning power to the source, such as in the case of a building fitted with solar panels when surplus power is fed back into the supply.", "A high power factor is generally desirable in a power delivery system to reduce losses and improve voltage regulation at the load. Compensating elements near an electrical load will reduce the apparent power demand on the supply system. Power factor correction may be applied by an electric power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the network. Individual electrical customers who are charged by their utility for low power factor may install correction equipment to increase their power factor so as to reduce costs. Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying or absorbing reactive power, adding capacitors or inductors that act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively. In the case of offsetting the inductive effect of motor loads, capacitors can be locally connected. These capacitors help to generate reactive power to meet the demand of the inductive loads. This will keep that reactive power from having to flow all the way from the utility generator to the load. In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and capacitors are said to supply it, even though reactive power is just energy moving back and forth on each AC cycle. The reactive elements in power factor correction devices can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off. They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses. In the worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations. As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied without engineering analysis. An automatic power factor correction unit consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means of contactors. These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an electrical network. Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value. In place of a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power. The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation. It is referred to as a synchronous condenser. It is started and connected to the electrical network. It operates at a leading power factor and puts vars onto the network as required to support a system's voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level. The synchronous condenser's installation and operation are identical to those of large electric motors. Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like a variable capacitor. Unlike with capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large networks. Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high-voltage direct-current transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills. For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial loads, power electronic devices such as the Static VAR compensator or STATCOM are increasingly used. These systems are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor much more rapidly than contactor-switched capacitor banks, and being solid-state require less maintenance than synchronous condensers.", "Examples of non-linear loads on a power system are rectifiers (such as used in a power supply), and arc discharge devices such as fluorescent lamps, electric welding machines, or arc furnaces. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency. \"Distortion power factor\" is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load.", "In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is \"displacement power factor\". Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current. This is of importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies, variable speed drives and other devices. Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying system. To measure the real power or reactive power, a wattmeter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used.", "The distortion power factor is the distortion component associated with the harmonic voltages and currents present in the system. formula_11 is the total harmonic distortion of the load current. formula_13 is the fundamental component of the current and formula_14 is the total current – both are root mean square-values (distortion power factor can also be used to describe individual order harmonics, using the corresponding current in place of total current). This definition with respect to total harmonic distortion assumes that the voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics). This simplification is often a good approximation for stiff voltage sources (not being affected by changes in load downstream in the distribution network). Total harmonic distortion of typical generators from current distortion in the network is on the order of 1–2%, which can have larger scale implications but can be ignored in common practice. The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true power factor or just power factor (PF):", "In practice, the local effects of distortion current on devices in a three-phase distribution network rely on the magnitude of certain order harmonics rather than the total harmonic distortion. For example, the triplen, or zero-sequence, harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) have the property of being in-phase when compared line-to-line. In a delta-wye transformer, these harmonics can result in circulating currents in the delta windings and result in greater resistive heating. In a wye-configuration of a transformer, triplen harmonics will not create these currents, but they will result in a non-zero current in the neutral wire. This could overload the neutral wire in some cases and create error in kilowatt-hour metering systems and billing revenue. The presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger eddy currents in the magnetic core of the transformer. Eddy current losses generally increase as the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's efficiency, dissipating additional heat, and reducing its service life. Negative-sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th, etc.) combine 120 degrees out of phase, similarly to the fundamental harmonic but in a reversed sequence. In generators and motors, these currents produce magnetic fields which oppose the rotation of the shaft and sometimes result in damaging mechanical vibrations.", "A particularly important class of non-linear loads is the millions of personal computers that typically incorporate switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) with rated output power ranging from a few watts to more than 1 kW. Historically, these very-low-cost power supplies incorporated a simple full-wave rectifier that conducted only when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeded the voltage on the input capacitors. This leads to very high ratios of peak-to-average input current, which also lead to a low distortion power factor and potentially serious phase and neutral loading concerns. A typical switched-mode power supply first converts the AC mains to a DC bus by means of a bridge rectifier. The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus. The problem with this is that the rectifier is a non-linear device, so the input current is highly non-linear. That means that the input current has energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage. This presents a particular problem for the power companies, because they cannot compensate for the harmonic current by adding simple capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power drawn by a linear load. Many jurisdictions are beginning to legally require power factor correction for all power supplies above a certain power level. Regulatory agencies such as the EU have set harmonic limits as a method of improving power factor. Declining component cost has hastened implementation of two different methods. To comply with current EU standard EN61000-3-2, all switched-mode power supplies with output power more than 75 W must include passive power factor correction, at least. 80 Plus power supply certification requires a power factor of 0.9 or more.", "", "The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter that passes current only at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz). The filter consists of capacitors or inductors, and makes a non-linear device look more like a linear load. An example of passive PFC is a valley-fill circuit. A disadvantage of passive PFC is that it requires larger inductors or capacitors than an equivalent power active PFC circuit. Also, in practice, passive PFC is often less effective at improving the power factor.", "Active PFC is the use of power electronics to change the waveform of current drawn by a load to improve the power factor. Some types of the active PFC are buck, boost, buck-boost and synchronous condenser. Active power factor correction can be single-stage or multi-stage. In the case of a switched-mode power supply, a boost converter is inserted between the bridge rectifier and the main input capacitors. The boost converter attempts to maintain a constant DC bus voltage on its output while drawing a current that is always in phase with and at the same frequency as the line voltage. Another switched-mode converter inside the power supply produces the desired output voltage from the DC bus. This approach requires additional semiconductor switches and control electronics, but permits cheaper and smaller passive components. It is frequently used in practice. For a three-phase SMPS, the Vienna rectifier configuration may be used to substantially improve the power factor. SMPSs with passive PFC can achieve power factor of about 0.7–0.75, SMPSs with active PFC, up to 0.99 power factor, while a SMPS without any power factor correction have a power factor of only about 0.55–0.65. Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V (Japan) to 240 V (Europe). That feature is particularly welcome in power supplies for laptops.", "Dynamic power factor correction (DPFC), sometimes referred to as \"real-time power factor correction,\" is used for electrical stabilization in cases of rapid load changes (e.g. at large manufacturing sites). DPFC is useful when standard power factor correction would cause over or under correction. DPFC uses semiconductor switches, typically thyristors, to quickly connect and disconnect capacitors or inductors to improve power factor.", "Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts). This increases generation and transmission costs. For example, if the load power factor were as low as 0.7, the apparent power would be 1.4 times the real power used by the load. Line current in the circuit would also be 1.4 times the current required at 1.0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the current). Alternatively, all components of the system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry the extra current. When the power factor is close to unity, for the same KVA rating of the transformer more load current can be supplied. Utilities typically charge additional costs to commercial customers who have a power factor below some limit, which is typically 0.9 to 0.95. Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load as one of the factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission. With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer electronics. Current Energy Star guidelines for computers call for a power factor of ≥ 0.9 at 100% of rated output in the PC's power supply. According to a white paper authored by Intel and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5.0 Program Requirements for Computers. In Europe, EN 61000-3-2 requires power factor correction be incorporated into consumer products. Small customers, such as households, are not usually charged for reactive power and so power factor metering equipment for such customers will not be installed.", "The power factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-phase circuit) can be measured with the wattmeter-ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is divided by the product of measured voltage and current. The power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the same as that of any phase. The power factor of an unbalanced poly phase circuit is not uniquely defined. A direct reading power factor meter can be made with a moving coil meter of the electrodynamic type, carrying two perpendicular coils on the moving part of the instrument. The field of the instrument is energized by the circuit current flow. The two moving coils, A and B, are connected in parallel with the circuit load. One coil, A, will be connected through a resistor and the second coil, B, through an inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to current in A. At unity power factor, the current in A is in phase with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum torque, driving the instrument pointer toward the 1.0 mark on the scale. At zero power factor, the current in coil B is in phase with circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer towards 0. At intermediate values of power factor, the torques provided by the two coils add and the pointer takes up intermediate positions. Another electromechanical instrument is the polarized-vane type. In this instrument a stationary field coil produces a rotating magnetic field, just like a polyphase motor. The field coils are connected either directly to polyphase voltage sources or to a phase-shifting reactor if a single-phase application. A second stationary field coil, perpendicular to the voltage coils, carries a current proportional to current in one phase of the circuit. The moving system of the instrument consists of two vanes that are magnetized by the current coil. In operation the moving vanes take up a physical angle equivalent to the electrical angle between the voltage source and the current source. This type of instrument can be made to register for currents in both directions, giving a four-quadrant display of power factor or phase angle. Digital instruments exist that directly measure the time lag between voltage and current waveforms. Low-cost instruments of this type measure the peak of the waveforms. More sophisticated versions measure the peak of the fundamental harmonic only, thus giving a more accurate reading for phase angle on distorted waveforms. Calculating power factor from voltage and current phases is only accurate if both waveforms are sinusoidal. Power Quality Analyzers, often referred to as Power Analyzers, make a digital recording of the voltage and current waveform (typically either one phase or three phase) and accurately calculate true power (watts), apparent power (VA) power factor, AC voltage, AC current, DC voltage, DC current, frequency, IEC61000-3-2/3-12 Harmonic measurement, IEC61000-3-3/3-11 flicker measurement, individual phase voltages in delta applications where there is no neutral line, total harmonic distortion, phase and amplitude of individual voltage or current harmonics, etc.", "English-language power engineering students are advised to remember: \"ELI the ICE man\" or \"ELI on ICE\" – the voltage E, leads the current I, in an inductor L. The current I leads the voltage E in a capacitor C. Another common mnemonic is \"CIVIL\" – in a capacitor (C) the current (I) leads voltage (V), voltage (V) leads current (I) in an inductor (L)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Colonial period.", "18th century.", "19th century to present.", "Campus.", "Morningside Heights.", "Other campuses.", "Sustainability.", "Academics.", "Undergraduate admissions and financial aid.", "Organization.", "International partnerships.", "Rankings.", "Research.", "Military and veteran enrollment.", "Student life.", "Students.", "Publications.", "Broadcasting.", "Debate and Model UN.", "Technology and entrepreneurship.", "Athletics.", "World Leaders Forum.", "Other.", "Student activism.", "1936 Protest against Nazis.", "Protests of 1968.", "Protests against racism and apartheid.", "Ahmadinejad speech controversy.", "ROTC controversy.", "Divestment from private prisons.", "Traditions.", "Orgo Night.", "Tree-Lighting and Yule Log ceremonies.", "The Varsity Show.", "Notable people." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Discussions regarding the founding of a college in the Province of New York began as early as 1704, at which time Colonel Lewis Morris wrote to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the missionary arm of the Church of England, persuading the society that New York City was an ideal community in which to establish a college. However, it was not until the founding of the College of New Jersey (the present Princeton University) across the Hudson River in New Jersey that the City of New York seriously considered founding a college. In 1746, an act was passed by the general assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. In 1751, the assembly appointed a commission of ten New York residents, seven of whom were members of the Church of England, to direct the funds accrued by the state lottery towards the foundation of a college. Classes were initially held in July", "After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, promising to make whatever changes to the school's charter the state might demand. The legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1, 1784, it passed \"an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called King's College\". The Act created a Board of Regents to oversee the resuscitation of King's College, and, in an effort to demonstrate its support for the new Republic, the legislature stipulated that \"the College within the City of New York heretofore called King's College be forever hereafter called and known by the name of Columbia College\", a reference to Columbia,", "In November 1813, the college agreed to incorporate its medical school with The College of Physicians and Surgeons, a new school created by the Regents of New York, forming Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. The college's enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the King's College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, where it remained for the next forty years. During the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F.A.P. Barnard, the president that Barnard College is named after, the institution rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university. Barnard", "According to \"New York Magazine\", Columbia University is the second largest landowner in New York City, after the Catholic Church.", "The majority of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in Morningside Heights on Seth Low's late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught at one location. The campus was designed along Beaux-Arts planning principles by the architects McKim, Mead & White. Columbia's main campus occupies more than six city blocks, or, in Morningside Heights, New York City, a neighborhood that contains a number of academic institutions. The university owns over 7,800 apartments in Morningside Heights, housing faculty, graduate students, and staff. Almost two dozen undergraduate dormitories (purpose-built or converted) are located on campus or in Morningside Heights. Columbia University has an extensive tunnel system more than a century old, with the oldest portions predating the present", "In April 2007, the university purchased more than two-thirds of a site for a new campus in Manhattanville, an industrial neighborhood to the north of the Morningside Heights campus. Stretching from 125th Street to 133rd Street, the new campus will house buildings for Columbia's Business School, School of International and Public Affairs, and the Jerome L. Greene Center for Mind, Brain, and Behavior, where research will occur on neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. The $7 billion expansion plan includes demolishing all buildings, except three that are historically significant, eliminating the existing light industry and storage warehouses, and relocating tenants in 132 apartments. Replacing these buildings will be of space for the university. Community activist groups in West Harlem fought the expansion for reasons ranging from property protection and fair exchange for land, to residents' rights. Subsequent public hearings drew neighborhood opposition., the State of New York's Empire State Development Corporation approved use of eminent domain, which, through declaration of Manhattanville's \"blighted\"", "In 2006, the university established the Office of Environmental Stewardship to initiate, coordinate and implement programs to reduce the university's environmental footprint. The U.S. Green Building Council selected the university's Manhattanville plan for the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Neighborhood Design pilot program. The plan commits to incorporating smart growth, new urbanism and \"green\" building design principles. Columbia is one of the 2030 Challenge Partners, a group of nine universities in the city of New York that have pledged to reduce their greenhouse emissions by 30% within the next ten years. Columbia University adopts LEED standards for all new construction and major renovations. The university requires a minimum of Silver, but through its design and review process seeks to achieve", "", "Columbia University received nearly 40,100 applications for the class of 2024 (entering 2020) and a total of around 2,450 were admitted to the two schools for an overall acceptance rate of 6.1%, making Columbia the third most selective college in the United States behind Stanford and Harvard as well as the second most selective college in the Ivy League. According to the 2012 college selectivity ranking by U.S. News & World Report, which factors admission and yield rates among other criteria, Columbia was tied with Yale, Caltech and MIT as", "Columbia University is an independent, privately supported, nonsectarian institution of higher education. Its official corporate name is \"The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York.\" The university's first charter was granted in 1754 by King George II; however, its modern charter was first enacted in 1787 and last amended in 1810 by the New York State Legislature. The university is governed by 24 trustees, customarily including the president, who serves \"ex officio\". The trustees themselves are responsible for choosing their successors. Six of the 24 are nominated from a pool of candidates recommended by the Columbia Alumni Association. Another six are nominated by the board in consultation with the executive committee of the University Senate. The remaining 12, including the president, are nominated by the trustees themselves through their internal processes. The term of office for trustees", "Columbia students can study abroad for a semester or a year at partner", "Columbia University is ranked 3rd overall among U.S. national universities and 7th globally for 2020 by \"U.S. News & World Report\". QS University Rankings listed Columbia as 5th in the United States. Ranked 15th among U.S. colleges for 2020 by \"Wall Street Journal\" and \"Times Higher Education\", in recent years it has been ranked as high as 2nd. Individual colleges and schools were also nationally ranked by \"U.S. News & World Report\" for its 2021 edition. Columbia Law School was ranked for 4th, the Mailman School of Public Health 4th, the School of Social Work tied for 3rd, Columbia Business School 8th, the College of Physicians and Surgeons tied for 6th for research (and tied for 31st for primary care), the School of Nursing tied for 11th in the master's program and tied for 1st in the doctorate nursing program, and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied", "Columbia was the first North American site where the uranium atom was split. The College of Physicians and Surgeons played a central role in developing the modern understanding of neuroscience with the publication of \"Principles of Neural Science\", described by historian of science Katja Huenther as the \"neuroscience 'bible'\". The book was written by a team of Columbia researchers that included Nobel Prize winner Eric Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas Jessell. Columbia was the birthplace of FM radio and the laser. The first brain-computer interface capable of translating brain signals into speech was developed by neuroengineers at Columbia. The MPEG-2 algorithm of transmitting high quality audio and video over limited bandwidth was developed by Dimitris Anastassiou, a Columbia professor of electrical engineering. Biologist Martin Chalfie was the first to introduce the use of Green", "Columbia is a long-standing participant of the United States Department of Veterans Affairs Yellow Ribbon Program, allowing eligible veterans to pursue a Columbia undergraduate degree regardless of socioeconomic status for over 70 years.", "", "In 2017, Columbia University's student population was 32,429 (8,868 students in undergraduate programs and 23,561 in postgraduate programs), with 42% of the student population identifying themselves as a minority and 28% born outside of the United States. Twenty-six percent of students at Columbia have family incomes below $60,000, making it one of the most socioeconomically diverse top-tier colleges. Sixteen percent of students at Columbia receive Federal Pell Grants, which mostly go to students whose family incomes are below $40,000. Seventeen percent of students are the first member of their family to attend a four-year college. On-campus housing is guaranteed for all four years as an undergraduate. Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) share housing in the on-campus residence halls.", "The \"Columbia Daily Spectator\" is the nation's second-oldest student newspaper; and \"The Blue and White\", a monthly literary magazine established in 1890, discusses campus life and local politics in print and on its daily blog, dubbed the \"Bwog\". \"The Morningside Post\" is a student-run multimedia news publication. Its content: student-written investigative news, international affairs analysis, opinion, and satire. Political publications include \"The Current\", a journal of politics, culture and Jewish Affairs; the \"Columbia Political Review\", the multi-partisan political magazine of", "Columbia is home to two pioneers in undergraduate campus radio broadcasting, WKCR-FM and CTV. Many undergraduates are also involved with Barnard's radio station, WBAR. WKCR, the student run radio station that broadcasts to the Tri-State area, claims to be the oldest FM radio station in the world, owing to the university's affiliation with Major Edwin Armstrong. The station went operational on July 18, 1939, from a 400-foot antenna tower in Alpine, New Jersey, broadcasting the", "The Philolexian Society is a literary and debating club founded in 1802, making it the oldest student group at Columbia, as well as the third oldest collegiate literary society in the country. The society annually administers the Joyce Kilmer Bad Poetry Contest. The Columbia Parliamentary Debate Team competes in tournaments around the country as part of the American Parliamentary Debate Association, and hosts both high school and college tournaments on Columbia's campus, as well as public debates on issues affecting the university. The Columbia International Relations Council and Association (CIRCA), oversees Columbia's Model United Nations activities. CIRCA hosts college and high school Model UN conferences, hosts speakers influential in international politics to speak on campus, trains students from underprivileged schools in New York in Model UN and oversees a competitive team, which travels to colleges around the country and to an international conference every year. The competitive team consistently wins best and outstanding delegation awards and is considered one of the top teams in the country.", "The Columbia University Organization of Rising Entrepreneurs (CORE) was founded in 1999. The student-run group aims to foster entrepreneurship on campus. Each year CORE hosts dozens of events, including talks, #StartupColumbia, a conference and venture competition for $250,000, and Ignite@CU, a weekend for undergrads interested in design, engineering, and entrepreneurship. Notable speakers include Peter Thiel, Jack Dorsey, Alexis Ohanian, Drew Houston, and Mark Cuban. By 2006, CORE had awarded graduate and undergraduate students over $100,000 in seed capital. CampusNetwork, an on-campus social networking site called Campus Network that preceded Facebook, was created and popularized by Columbia engineering student Adam Goldberg in 2003. Mark Zuckerberg later asked Goldberg to join him in Palo Alto to work on Facebook, but Goldberg declined the offer. The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science offers a minor in Technical Entrepreneurship through its Center for Technology, Innovation, and Community Engagement. SEAS' entrepreneurship activities focus on community building initiatives in New York and worldwide, made possible through partners such as Microsoft Corporation. Columbia is a top supplier of young engineering entrepreneurs for New York City. Over the", "A member institution of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in Division I FCS, Columbia fields varsity teams in 29 sports and is a member of the Ivy League. The football Lions play home games at the 17,000-seat Robert K. Kraft Field at Lawrence A. Wien Stadium. The Baker Athletics Complex also includes facilities for baseball, softball, soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, tennis, track, and rowing, as well as the new Campbell Sports Center, opened in January 2013. The basketball, fencing, swimming & diving, volleyball, and wrestling programs are based at the Dodge Physical Fitness Center on the main campus. Former students include Baseball Hall of Famers Lou Gehrig and Eddie Collins, football Hall of Famer Sid Luckman, Marcellus Wiley, and world champion women's weightlifter Karyn Marshall. On May 17, 1939, fledgling NBC broadcast a doubleheader between the Columbia Lions and the Princeton Tigers at Columbia's Baker Field, making it the first televised regular athletic event in history. Columbia University athletics has a long history, with many accomplishments", "Established in 2003 by university president Lee C. Bollinger, the World Leaders Forum at Columbia University provides the opportunity for undergraduate and graduate students alike to listen to world leaders in government, religion, industry, finance, and academia. The World Leaders Forum is a year-around event series that strives to provide a platform for uninhibited speech among nations and cultures, while educating students about problems and progress around the globe. All Columbia undergraduates and graduates, as well as students of Barnard College and other Columbia affiliated schools, can register to participate in the World Leaders Forum using their student IDs. Even for individuals who do not have the privilege to", "The Columbia University Orchestra was founded by composer Edward MacDowell in 1896, and is the oldest continually operating university orchestra in the United States. Undergraduate student composers at Columbia may choose to become involved with Columbia New Music, which sponsors concerts of music written by undergraduate students from all of Columbia's schools. There are a number of performing arts groups at Columbia dedicated to producing student theater, including the Columbia Players, King's Crown Shakespeare Troupe (KCST), Columbia Musical Theater Society (CMTS), NOMADS (New and Original Material Authored and Directed by Students), LateNite Theatre, Columbia University Performing Arts League (CUPAL), Black Theatre Ensemble (BTE), sketch comedy group Chowdah, and improvisational troupes Alfred and Fruit Paunch. The Columbia University Marching Band tells jokes during the campus tradition of Orgo Night. The Columbia Queer", "", "In 1936, Robert Burke, CC '38 led a rally outside President Butler's mansion to", "Students initiated a major demonstration in 1968 over two main issues. The first was Columbia's proposed gymnasium in neighboring Morningside Park; this was seen by the protesters to be an act of aggression aimed at the black residents of neighboring Harlem. A second issue was the Columbia administration's failure to resign its institutional membership in the Pentagon's weapons research think-tank, the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA). Students barricaded themselves inside Low Library, Hamilton Hall, and several other university buildings during the protests, and New York City police were called onto the campus to arrest or forcibly remove the students. The protests achieved two of their stated goals. Columbia disaffiliated from the IDA and scrapped the plans for the controversial gym,", "Further student protests, including hunger strike and more barricades of Hamilton Hall and the Business School during the late 1970s and early 1980s, were aimed at convincing the university trustees to divest all of the university's investments in companies that were seen as active or tacit supporters of the apartheid regime in South Africa. A notable upsurge in the protests occurred in 1978, when following a celebration of the tenth anniversary of the student uprising in 1968, students marched and rallied in protest of university investments in South Africa. The Committee Against Investment in South Africa (CAISA) and", "The School of International and Public Affairs extends invitations to heads of state and heads of government who come to New York City for the opening of the fall session of the United Nations General Assembly. In 2007, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was one of those invited to speak on campus. Ahmadinejad accepted his invitation and spoke on September 24, 2007, as part of Columbia University's World Leaders Forum. The invitation proved to be highly controversial. Hundreds of demonstrators swarmed the campus on September 24 and the speech itself was televised worldwide. University President Lee C. Bollinger tried to allay the controversy by letting Ahmadenijad speak, but with a negative introduction (given personally by Bollinger). This did not", "Beginning in 1969, during the Vietnam War, the university did not allow the U.S. military to have Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) programs on campus, though Columbia students could participate in ROTC programs at other local colleges and universities. At a forum at the university during the 2008 presidential election campaign, both John McCain and Barack Obama said that the university should consider reinstating ROTC on campus. After the debate, the president of the university, Lee C. Bollinger, stated that he did not favor reinstating Columbia's ROTC program, because of the military's anti-gay policies. In November 2008, Columbia's undergraduate student body held a referendum on the question of whether or not to invite ROTC back to campus, and the students who voted were almost evenly divided on the issue. ROTC", "In February 2014, after learning that the university had over $10 million invested in the private prison industry, a group of students delivered a letter President Bollinger's office requesting a meeting and officially launching the Columbia Prison Divest (CPD) campaign., Columbia held investments in Corrections Corporation of America, the largest private prison company in the United States, as well as G4S, the largest multinational security firm in the world. Students demanded that the university divest these holdings from the industry", "", "In one of the school's longest-lasting traditions, begun in 1975, at midnight before the Organic Chemistry exam—often the first day of final exams—the Columbia University Marching Band invaded and briefly occupied the main undergraduate reading room in Butler Library to distract and entertain studying students with some forty-five minutes of raucous jokes and music, beginning and ending with the singing of the school's fight song, \"Roar, Lion, Roar\". After the main show before a crowd that routinely began filling the room well before the announced midnight start time, the Band led a procession to several campus locations, including the residential quadrangle of Barnard College for more music and temporary relief from the stress of last-minute studying. In December 2016, following several years of complaints from students who said that some Orgo Night scripts and advertising posters were offensive to", "The campus Tree-Lighting Ceremony was inaugurated in 1998. It celebrates the illumination of the medium-sized trees lining College Walk in front of Kent and Hamilton Halls on the east end and Dodge and Journalism Halls on the west, just before finals week in early December. The lights remain on until February 28. Students meet at the sun-dial for free hot chocolate, performances by \"a cappella\" groups, and speeches by the university president and a guest.", "The Varsity Show is an annual musical written by and for students and was established in 1894, making it one of Columbia's oldest", "The university has graduated many notable alumni, including five Founding Fathers of the United States, an author of the United States Constitution and a member of the Committee of Five;, there were 125 Pulitzer Prize winners and 39 Oscar winners, as well as three United States presidents., there were 101 National Academy members who were alumni. In a 2016 ranking of universities worldwide with respect to living graduates who are billionaires, Columbia ranked second, after Harvard. Former U.S. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Delano Roosevelt attended the law school. Other political figures educated at Columbia include former U.S President Barack Obama, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Ruth Bader Ginsburg, former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan, U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder, and U.S. Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr. Dwight D. Eisenhower served as the thirteenth president of Columbia University from 1948 to 1953. The university has also educated 26 foreign heads of state, including president of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili, president of East Timor Jose Ramos Horta, president of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves and other historical figures such as Wellington Koo, Radovan Karadžić, Gaston Eyskens, and T. V. Soong. The author of India's constitution Dr. B. R. Ambedkar was also an alumnus of Columbia. Alumni of Columbia have occupied top positions in Wall Street and the rest of the business world. Notable members of the Astor family attended Columbia, while other business graduates include investor Warren Buffett, former CEO of PBS and NBC Larry Grossman, chairman of Wal-Mart S. Robson Walton and Bain Capital Co-Managing Partner, Jonathan Lavine. CEO's of top Fortune 500 companies include James P. Gorman of Morgan Stanley, Robert J. Stevens of Lockheed Martin, Philippe Dauman of Viacom, Ursula Burns of Xerox, and Vikram Pandit of Citigroup. Notable labor organizer and women's educator Louise Leonard McLaren received her degree of Master of Arts from Columbia. In science and technology, Columbia alumni include: founder of IBM Herman Hollerith; inventor of FM radio Edwin Armstrong; Francis Mechner; integral in development of the nuclear submarine Hyman Rickover; founder of Google China Kai-Fu Lee; scientists Stephen Jay Gould, Robert Millikan, Helium–neon laser inventor Ali Javan and Mihajlo Pupin; chief-engineer of the New York City Subway, William Barclay Parsons; philosophers Irwin Edman and Robert Nozick; economist Milton Friedman; psychologist Harriet Babcock; and sociologists Lewis A. Coser and Rose Laub Coser. Many Columbia alumni have gone on to renowned careers in the arts, including composers Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II, Lorenz Hart, and Art Garfunkel. Four United States Poet Laureates received their degrees from Columbia. Columbia alumni have made an indelible mark in the field of American poetry and literature, with such people as Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, pioneers of the Beat Generation, and Langston Hughes, a seminal figure in the Harlem Renaissance, all having attended the university. Other notable writers who attended Columbia include authors Isaac Asimov, J.D. Salinger, Upton Sinclair, Danielle Valore Evans, and Hunter S. Thompson. University alumni have also been very prominent in the film industry, with 33 alumni and former students winning a combined 43 Academy Awards (). Some notable Columbia alumni that have gone on to work in film include directors Sidney Lumet (\"12 Angry Men\") and Kathryn Bigelow (\"The Hurt Locker\"), screenwriters Howard Koch (\"Casablanca\") and Joseph L. Mankiewicz (\"All About Eve\"), and actors James Cagney and Ed Harris." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Arcas was the son of Zeus and Callisto. He was married to either Laodamia (Leaneira), daughter of Amyclas of Sparta; Meganeira, daughter of Crocon; the nymph Chrysopeleia; or the Dryad Erato. He also left a number of children, including the sons Apheidas, Elatus, Azan and Triphylus, also an illegitimate son Autolaus and at least two daughters, Hyperippe and Diomeneia.", "Callisto was a nymph in the retinue of the goddess Artemis. As she would not be with anyone but Artemis, Zeus cunningly disguised himself as Artemis and seduced Callisto. The child resulting from their union was called Arcas. Hera became jealous, and in anger, she transformed Callisto into a bear. She would have done the same or worse to her son, but Zeus hid Arcas in an area of Greece, which would come to be called Arcadia, in his honor. Arcas was given into a care of one of the Pleiades, Maia. There, Arcas safely lived until one day, during one of the court feasts held by king Lycaon (Arcas' maternal grandfather), Arcas was placed upon the burning altar as a sacrifice to the gods. He then said to Zeus, \"If you think that you are so clever, make your son whole and un-harmed\". Zeus became enraged and made Arcas whole and directed his anger toward Lycaon, turning him into the first werewolf. Then, Arcas became the new king of Arcadia and the country's greatest hunter. One day, when Arcas went hunting in the woods, he came across his mother. Seeing her son after so long, she went forth to embrace him. Not knowing that the bear was his mother, he went to kill her with an arrow. Zeus however, watching over them, stopped Arcas from shooting Callisto, and turned Arcas into a bear, then putting them into the stars. They are now referred to as Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, the big and little bears. When Hera heard of that, she became so angry that she asked Tethys to keep them in a certain place so that the constellations would never sink below the horizon and receive water. Arcas’ bones were brought to Arcadia and buried near an altar dedicated to Hera under the directions of Delphic Oracle.", "Arcas is referenced in the album \"The Circus\" by The Venetia Fair. Arcas is one of the two bears." ] }

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{ "title": [ "In tourism.", "Account voucher.", "Mobile phones.", "Internet." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Vouchers are used in the tourism sector primarily as proof of a named customer's right to take a service at a specific time and place. Service providers collect them to return to the tour operator or travel agent that has sent that customer, to prove they have given the service. So, the life of a voucher is as below: This approach is most suitable for free individual tourist activities where pre-allocation for services are not necessary, feasible or applicable. It was customary before the information era when communication was limited and expensive, but now has been given quite a different role by B2C applications. When a reservation is made through the internet, customers are often provided a voucher through email or a web site that can be printed. Providers customarily require this voucher be presented prior to providing the service.", "A voucher is an accounting document representing an \"internal intent\" to make a payment to an \"external entity\", such as a vendor or service provider. A voucher is produced usually after receiving a vendor invoice, after the invoice is successfully matched to a purchase order. A voucher will contain detailed information regarding the payee, the monetary amount of the payment, a description of the transaction, and more. In accounts payable systems, a process called a \"payment run\" is executed to generate payments corresponding to the unpaid vouchers. These payments can then be released or held at the discretion of an accounts payable supervisor or the company controller. The term can also be used with reference to accounts receivable, where it is also a document representing intent to make an adjustment to an account, and for the general ledger where there is need to adjust the accounts within that ledger; in that case it is referred to as a journal voucher. Any documentary evidence supporting the entries recorded in the books of accounts, establishing the arithmetic accuracy of the transaction, may also be referred to as a voucher—for example, a bill, invoice, receipt, salary and wages sheet, memorandum of association, counterfoil of paying-in slip, counterfoil of cheque book, or trust deed.", "A voucher is a recharge number sold to a customer to recharge their SIM card with money and to extend the card's availability period. Vouchers are typically sold at retail outlets, such as phone stores run by the mobile operator or by distributors, grocery stores, and gas stations. Vouchers are the prevalent form of recharge for prepaid mobile phones in many countries such as Italy and Spain where well over 90% of consumers use vouchers, and the UK where over 60% buy vouchers at retail. In other countries such as the United States, Ireland, and many Nordic countries, there is a growing trend of customers using Card Not Present recharge options such as online payments, or by using their mobile handsets to call the operator and recharge with a representative (CSR) or through their IVR (Interactive Voice Response) system. A growing number of prepaid mobile operators such as Meteor in Ireland and T-Mobile USA are offering the option to send an SMS (text to pay), or use handset applications such as WAP or BREW technology.", "A voucher can also be used online in the form of an e-voucher. These types of vouchers can be entered when shopping online and the relevant vouchers value added to your order. It can take the form of any code. Many companies have opted to use voucher codes for the last few years but with a massive incline in use towards late 2008 and early 2009. There are many Internet websites devoted to promoting these deals and vouchers online, as well as Facebook groups offering items such as student discounts and 2-for-1 restaurant voucher deals. Many companies have started their business around coupons. It comes under affiliate marketing. There are a small number of sites that use a disreputable method of click to reveal method for dropping cookies on the consumer's computer, which has led to the introduction of guidelines for voucher use in Internet marketing. Most video game special editions come with a voucher for exclusive content in-game. Also, pre-ordering games at certain shops may entitle the purchaser to vouchers to content only available if you pre-order at that store." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Education.", "Early career.", "Graduate and early postdoctoral education.", "Early scientific career.", "Personal life.", "Later years." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Robert Mulliken was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts. His father, Samuel Parsons Mulliken, was a professor of organic chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. As a child, Robert Mulliken learned the name and botanical classification of plants and, in general, had an excellent, but selective, memory. For example, he learned German well enough to skip the course in scientific German in college, but could not remember the name of his high school German teacher. He also made the acquaintance, while still a child, of the physical chemist Arthur Amos Noyes. Mulliken helped with some of the editorial work when his father wrote his four-volume text on organic compound identification, and thus became an expert on organic chemical nomenclature.", "In high school in Newburyport, Mulliken followed a scientific curriculum. He graduated in 1913 and succeeded in getting a scholarship to MIT which had earlier been won by his father. Like his father, he majored in chemistry. Already as an undergraduate, he conducted his first publishable research: on the synthesis of organic chlorides. Because he was unsure of his future direction, he included some chemical engineering courses in his curriculum and spent a summer touring chemical plants in Massachusetts and Maine. He received his B. S. degree in chemistry from MIT in 1917.", "At this time, the United States had just entered World War I, and Mulliken took a position at American University in Washington, D.C., making poison gas under James B. Conant. After nine months, he was drafted into the Army's Chemical Warfare Service, but continued on the same task. His laboratory techniques left much to be desired, and he was out of service for months with burns. Later he contracted a bad case of influenza, and was still hospitalized at war's end. After the war, he took a job investigating the effects of zinc oxide and carbon black on rubber, but quickly decided that this was not the kind of chemistry he wanted to pursue. Hence, in 1919 he entered the Ph.D. program at the University of Chicago.", "Mulliken got his doctorate in 1921 based on research into the separation of isotopes of mercury by evaporation, and continued in his isotope separation by this method. While at Chicago, he took a course under the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert A. Millikan, which exposed him to the old quantum theory. He also became interested in strange molecules after exposure to work by Hermann I. Schlesinger on diborane. At Chicago, he had received a grant from the National Research Council (NRC) which had paid for much of his work on isotope separation. The NRC grant was extended in 1923 for two years so he could study isotope effects on band spectra of such diatomic molecules as boron nitride (BN) (comparing molecules with B and B). He went to Harvard University to learn spectrographic technique from Frederick A. Saunders and quantum theory from E. C. Kemble. At the time, he was able to associate with many future luminaries, including J. Robert Oppenheimer, John H. Van Vleck, and Harold C. Urey. He also met John C. Slater, who had worked with Niels Bohr. In 1925 and 1927, Mulliken traveled to Europe, working with outstanding spectroscopists and quantum theorists such as Erwin Schrödinger, Paul A. M. Dirac, Werner Heisenberg, Louis de Broglie, Max Born, and Walther Bothe (all of whom eventually received Nobel Prizes) and Friedrich Hund, who was at the time Born's assistant. They all, as well as Wolfgang Pauli, were developing the new quantum mechanics that would eventually supersede the old quantum theory. Mulliken was particularly influenced by Hund, who had been working on quantum interpretation of band spectra of diatomic molecules, the same spectra which Mulliken had investigated at Harvard. In 1927 Mulliken worked with Hund and as a result developed his molecular orbital theory, in which electrons are assigned to states that extend over an entire molecule. In consequence, molecular orbital theory was also referred to as the Hund-Mulliken theory.", "From 1926 to 1928, he taught in the physics department at New York University (NYU). This was his first recognition as a physicist. Though his work had been considered important by chemists, it clearly was on the borderline between the two sciences and both would claim him from this point on. Then he returned to the University of Chicago as an associate professor of physics, being promoted to full professor in 1931. He ultimately held a position jointly in both the physics and chemistry departments. At both NYU and Chicago, he continued to refine his molecular-orbital theory. Up to this point, the primary way to calculate the electronic structure of molecules was based on a calculation by Walter Heitler and Fritz London on the hydrogen molecule (H) in 1927. With the conception of hybridized atomic orbitals by John C. Slater and Linus Pauling, which rationalized observed molecular geometries, the method was based on the premise that the bonds in any molecule could be described in a manner similar to the bond in H, namely, as overlapping atomic orbitals centered on the atoms involved. Since it corresponded to chemists' ideas of localized bonds between pairs of atoms, this method (called the Valence-Bond (VB) or Heitler-London-Slater-Pauling (HLSP) method), was very popular. In attempting to calculate the properties of excited states (molecules that have been excited by an energy source), the VB method does not always work well. With its description of the electron wave functions in molecules as delocalized molecular orbitals that possess the same symmetry as the molecule, Hund and Mulliken's molecular-orbital method, including contributions by John Lennard-Jones, proved to be more flexible and applicable to a vast variety of types of molecules and molecular fragments, and has eclipsed the valence-bond method. As a result of this development, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1966. Mulliken became a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1936, the youngest member in the organization's history at the time. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRs) in 1967. Mulliken population analysis is named after him, a method of assigning charges to atoms in a molecule.", "On December 24, 1929, he married Mary Helen von Noé, daughter of Adolf Carl Noé, a geology professor at the University of Chicago. They had two daughters.", "In 1934, he derived a new scale for measuring the electronegativity of elements. This does not entirely correlate with the scale of Linus Pauling, but is generally in close correspondence. In World War II, from 1942 to 1945, Mulliken directed the Information Office for the University of Chicago's Plutonium project. Afterward, he developed mathematical formulas to enable the progress of the molecular-orbital theory. In 1952 he began to apply quantum mechanics to the analysis of the reaction between Lewis acid and base molecules. (See Acid-base reaction theories.) He became Distinguished Professor of Physics and Chemistry in 1961 and continued in his studies of molecular structure and spectra, ranging from diatomic molecules to large complex aggregates. In 1981, Mulliken became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. In 1983, Mulliken received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. He retired in 1985. His wife died in 1975. At the age of 90, Mulliken died of congestive heart failure at his daughter's home in Arlington, Virginia on October 31, 1986. His body was returned to Chicago for burial." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Myth.", "Origin of the myth.", "In art." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As a follower of Artemis, Callisto, who Hesiod said was the daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, took a vow to remain a virgin, as did all the nymphs of Artemis. According to Hesiod, she was seduced by Zeus, and of the consequences that followed: [Callisto] chose to occupy herself with wild-beasts in the mountains together with Artemis, and, when she was seduced by Zeus, continued some time undetected by the goddess, but afterwards, when she was already with child, was seen by her bathing and so discovered. Upon this, the goddess was enraged and changed her into a beast. Thus she became a bear and gave birth to a son called Arkas. According to the mythographer Apollodorus, Zeus disguised himself as Artemis or Apollo, in order to lure Callisto into his embrace. According to Ovid, it was Jupiter who took the form of Diana so that he might evade his wife Juno's detection, forcing himself upon Callisto while she was separated from Diana and the other nymphs. Callisto's subsequent pregnancy was discovered several months later while she was bathing with Diana and her fellow nymphs. Diana became enraged when she saw that Callisto was pregnant and expelled her from the group. Callisto later gave birth to Arcas. Juno then took the opportunity to avenge her wounded pride and transformed the nymph into a bear. Sixteen years later Callisto, still a bear, encountered her son Arcas hunting in the forest. Just as Arcas was about to kill his own mother with his javelin, Jupiter averted the tragedy by placing mother and son amongst the stars as Ursa Major and Minor, respectively. Juno, enraged that her attempt at revenge had been frustrated, appealed to Tethys that the two might never meet her waters, thus providing a poetic explanation for their circumpolar positions in ancient times. Either Artemis \"slew Kallisto with a shot of her silver bow,\" perhaps urged by the wrath of Juno (Hera) or later Arcas, the eponym of Arcadia, nearly killed his bear-mother, when she had wandered into the forbidden precinct of Zeus. In every case, Zeus placed them both in the sky as the constellations Ursa Major, called \"Arktos\" (αρκτος), the \"Bear\", by Greeks, and Ursa Minor.", "The name \"Kalliste\" (), \"most beautiful\", may be recognized as an epithet of the goddess herself, though none of the inscriptions at Athens that record priests of \"Artemis Kalliste\" (), date before the third century BCE. Artemis Kalliste was worshiped in Athens in a shrine which lay outside the Dipylon gate, by the side of the road to the Academy. W. S. Ferguson suggested that Artemis Soteira and Artemis Kalliste were joined in a common cult administered by a single priest. The bearlike character of Artemis herself was a feature of the Brauronia. The myth in \"Catasterismi\" may be derived from the fact that a set of constellations appear close together in the sky, in and near the Zodiac sign of Libra, namely Ursa Minor, Ursa Major, Boötes, and Virgo. The constellation Boötes, was explicitly identified in the Hesiodic \"Astronomia\" () as Arcas, the \"Bear-warden\" (\"Arktophylax\"; ): He is Arkas the son of Kallisto and Zeus, and he lived in the country about Lykaion. After Zeus had seduced Kallisto, Lykaon, pretending not to know of the matter, entertained Zeus, as Hesiod says, and set before him on the table the babe [Arkas] which he had cut up. The stars of Ursa Major were all circumpolar in Athens of 400 BCE, and all but the stars in the Great Bear's left foot were circumpolar in Ovid's Rome, in the first century CE. Now, however, due to the precession of the equinoxes, the feet of the Great Bear constellation do sink below the horizon from Rome and especially from Athens; however, Ursa Minor (Arcas) does remain completely above the horizon, even from latitudes as far south as Honolulu and Hong Kong. According to Julien d'Huy, who used phylogenetic and statistical tools, the story could be a recent transformation of a Palaeolithic myth.", "Callisto's story was sometimes depicted in classical art, where the moment of transformation into a bear was the most popular. From the Renaissance on a series of major history paintings as well as many smaller cabinet paintings and book illustrations, usually called \"Diana and Callisto\", depicted the traumatic moment of discovery of the pregnancy, as the goddess and her nymphs bathed in a pool, following Ovid's account. The subject's attraction was undoubtedly mainly the opportunity it offered for a group of several females to be shown largely nude. Titian's \"Diana and Callisto\" (1556-1559), was the greatest (though not the first) of these, quickly disseminated by a print by Cornelius Cort. Here, as in most subsequent depictions, Diana points angrily, as Callisto is held by two nymphs, who may be pulling off what little clothing remains on her. Other versions include one by Rubens, and \"Diana Bathing with her Nymphs with Actaeon and Callisto\" by Rembrandt, which unusually combines the moment with the arrival of Actaeon. The basic composition is rather unusually consistent. Carlo Ridolfi said there was a version by Giorgione, who died in 1510, though his many attributions to Giorgione of paintings that are now lost are treated with suspicion by scholars. Other, less dramatic, treatments before Titian established his composition are by Palma Vecchio and Dosso Dossi. Although Ovid places the discovery in the ninth month of Callisto's pregnancy, in paintings she is generally shown with a rather modest bump for late pregnancy. With the \"Visitation\" in religious art, this was the leading recurring subject in history painting that required showing pregnancy in art, which Early Modern painters still approached with some caution. In any case, the narrative required that the rest of the group had not previously noticed the pregnancy. Callisto being seduced by Zeus/Jupiter in disguise was also a popular subject, usually called \"Jupiter and Callisto\"; it was the clearest common subject with lesbian lovers from classical mythology. The two lovers are usually shown happily embracing in a bower. The violent rape described by Ovid as following Callisto's realization of what is going on is rarely shown. In versions before about 1700 Callisto may show some doubt about what is going on, as in the versions by Rubens. It was especially popular in the 18th century, when depictions were increasingly erotic; François Boucher painted several versions. Aeschylus' tragedy \"Callisto\" is lost." ] }

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{ "title": [ "In mathematics.", "In geometry.", "In logic.", "Other areas of mathematics.", "In science and nature.", "In physics.", "In biology.", "In chemistry.", "In psychology and neuroscience.", "In social interactions.", "In the arts.", "In architecture.", "In pottery and metal vessels.", "In carpets and rugs.", "In music.", "Musical form.", "Pitch structures.", "Equivalency.", "In quilts.", "In other arts and crafts.", "In aesthetics.", "In literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "A geometric shape or object is symmetric if it can be divided into two or more identical pieces that are arranged in an organized fashion. This means that an object is symmetric if there is a transformation that moves individual pieces of the object, but doesn't change the overall shape. The type of symmetry is determined by the way the pieces are organized, or by the type of transformation:", "A dyadic relation \"R\" = \"S\" × \"S\" is symmetric if for each element \"a\", \"b\" in \"S\", whenever it is true that \"Rab\", it is also true that \"Rba\". Thus, the relation \"is the same age as\" is symmetric, for if Paul is the same age as Mary, then Mary is the same age as Paul. In propositional logic, symmetric binary logical connectives include \"and\" (∧, or &), \"or\" (∨, or |) and \"if and only if\" (↔), while the connective \"if\" (→) is not symmetric. Other symmetric logical connectives include \"nand\" (not-and, or ⊼), \"xor\" (not-biconditional, or ⊻), and \"nor\" (not-or, or ⊽).", "Generalizing from geometrical symmetry in the previous section, one can say that a mathematical object is \"symmetric\" with respect to a given mathematical operation, if, when applied to the object, this operation preserves some property of the object. The set of operations that preserve a given property of the object form a group. In general, every kind of structure in mathematics will have its own kind of symmetry. Examples include even and odd functions in calculus, symmetric groups in abstract algebra, symmetric matrices in linear algebra, and Galois groups in Galois theory. In statistics, symmetry also manifests as symmetric probability distributions, and as skewness—the asymmetry of distributions.", "", "Symmetry in physics has been generalized to mean invariance—that is, lack of change—under any kind of transformation, for example arbitrary coordinate transformations. This concept has become one of the most powerful tools of theoretical physics, as it has become evident that practically all laws of nature originate in symmetries. In fact, this role inspired the Nobel laureate PW Anderson to write in his widely read 1972 article \"More is Different\" that \"it is only slightly overstating the case to say that physics is the study of symmetry.\" See Noether's theorem (which, in greatly simplified form, states that for every continuous mathematical symmetry, there is a corresponding conserved quantity such as energy or momentum; a conserved current, in Noether's original language); and also, Wigner's classification, which says that the symmetries of the laws of physics determine the properties of the particles found in nature. Important symmetries in physics include continuous symmetries and discrete symmetries of spacetime; internal symmetries of particles; and supersymmetry of physical theories.", "In biology, the notion of symmetry is mostly used explicitly to describe body shapes. Bilateral animals, including humans, are more or less symmetric with respect to the sagittal plane which divides the body into left and right halves. Animals that move in one direction necessarily have upper and lower sides, head and tail ends, and therefore a left and a right. The head becomes specialized with a mouth and sense organs, and the body becomes bilaterally symmetric for the purpose of movement, with symmetrical pairs of muscles and skeletal elements, though internal organs often remain asymmetric. Plants and sessile (attached) animals such as sea anemones often have radial or rotational symmetry, which suits them because food or threats may arrive from any direction. Fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, the group that includes starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies. In biology, the notion of symmetry is also used as in physics, that is to say to describe the properties of the objects studied, including their interactions. A remarkable property of biological evolution is the changes of symmetry corresponding to the appearance of new parts and dynamics.", "Symmetry is important to chemistry because it undergirds essentially all \"specific\" interactions between molecules in nature (i.e., via the interaction of natural and human-made chiral molecules with inherently chiral biological systems). The control of the symmetry of molecules produced in modern chemical synthesis contributes to the ability of scientists to offer therapeutic interventions with minimal side effects. A rigorous understanding of symmetry explains fundamental observations in quantum chemistry, and in the applied areas of spectroscopy and crystallography. The theory and application of symmetry to these areas of physical science draws heavily on the mathematical area of group theory.", "For a human observer, some symmetry types are more salient than others, in particular the most salient is a reflection with a vertical axis, like that present in the human face. Ernst Mach made this observation in his book \"The analysis of sensations\" (1897), and this implies that perception of symmetry is not a general response to all types of regularities. Both behavioural and neurophysiological studies have confirmed the special sensitivity to reflection symmetry in humans and also in other animals. Early studies within the Gestalt tradition suggested that bilateral symmetry was one of the key factors in perceptual grouping. This is known as the Law of Symmetry. The role of symmetry in grouping and figure/ground organization has been confirmed in many studies. For instance, detection of reflectional symmetry is faster when this is a property of a single object. Studies of human perception and psychophysics have shown that detection of symmetry is fast, efficient and robust to perturbations. For example, symmetry can be detected with presentations between 100 and 150 milliseconds. More recent neuroimaging studies have documented which brain regions are active during perception of symmetry. Sasaki et al. used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare responses for patterns with symmetrical or random dots. A strong activity was present in extrastriate regions of the occipital cortex but not in the primary visual cortex. The extrastriate regions included V3A, V4, V7, and the lateral occipital complex (LOC). Electrophysiological studies have found a late posterior negativity that originates from the same areas. In general, a large part of the visual system seems to be involved in processing visual symmetry, and these areas involve similar networks to those responsible for detecting and recognising objects.", "People observe the symmetrical nature, often including asymmetrical balance, of social interactions in a variety of contexts. These include assessments of reciprocity, empathy, sympathy, apology, dialogue, respect, justice, and revenge. Reflective equilibrium is the balance that may be attained through deliberative mutual adjustment among general principles and specific judgments. Symmetrical interactions send the moral message \"we are all the same\" while asymmetrical interactions may send the message \"I am special; better than you.\" Peer relationships, such as can be governed by the golden rule, are based on symmetry, whereas power relationships are based on asymmetry. Symmetrical relationships can to some degree be maintained by simple (game theory) strategies seen in symmetric games such as tit for tat.", "", "Symmetry finds its ways into architecture at every scale, from the overall external views of buildings such as Gothic cathedrals and The White House, through the layout of the individual floor plans, and down to the design of individual building elements such as tile mosaics. Islamic buildings such as the Taj Mahal and the Lotfollah mosque make elaborate use of symmetry both in their structure and in their ornamentation. Moorish buildings like the Alhambra are ornamented with complex patterns made using translational and reflection symmetries as well as rotations. It has been said that only bad architects rely on a \"symmetrical layout of blocks, masses and structures\"; Modernist architecture, starting with International style, relies instead on \"wings and balance of masses\".", "Since the earliest uses of pottery wheels to help shape clay vessels, pottery has had a strong relationship to symmetry. Pottery created using a wheel acquires full rotational symmetry in its cross-section, while allowing substantial freedom of shape in the vertical direction. Upon this inherently symmetrical starting point, potters from ancient times onwards have added patterns that modify the rotational symmetry to achieve visual objectives. Cast metal vessels lacked the inherent rotational symmetry of wheel-made pottery, but otherwise provided a similar opportunity to decorate their surfaces with patterns pleasing to those who used them. The ancient Chinese, for example, used symmetrical patterns in their bronze castings as early as the 17th century BC. Bronze vessels exhibited both a bilateral main motif and a repetitive translated border design.", "A long tradition of the use of symmetry in carpet and rug patterns spans a variety of cultures. American Navajo Indians used bold diagonals and rectangular motifs. Many Oriental rugs have intricate reflected centers and borders that translate a pattern. Not surprisingly, rectangular rugs have typically the symmetries of a rectangle—that is, motifs that are reflected across both the horizontal and vertical axes (see ).", "Symmetry is not restricted to the visual arts. Its role in the history of music touches many aspects of the creation and perception of music.", "Symmetry has been used as a formal constraint by many composers, such as the arch (swell) form (ABCBA) used by Steve Reich, Béla Bartók, and James Tenney. In classical music, Bach used the symmetry concepts of permutation and invariance.", "Symmetry is also an important consideration in the formation of scales and chords, traditional or tonal music being made up of non-symmetrical groups of pitches, such as the diatonic scale or the major chord. Symmetrical scales or chords, such as the whole tone scale, augmented chord, or diminished seventh chord (diminished-diminished seventh), are said to lack direction or a sense of forward motion, are ambiguous as to the key or tonal center, and have a less specific diatonic functionality. However, composers such as Alban Berg, Béla Bartók, and George Perle have used axes of symmetry and/or interval cycles in an analogous way to keys or non-tonal tonal centers. George Perle explains \"C–E, D–F♯, [and] Eb–G, are different instances of the same interval... the other kind of identity.... has to do with axes of symmetry. C–E belongs to a family of symmetrically related dyads as follows:\" Thus in addition to being part of the interval-4 family, C–E is also a part of the sum-4 family (with C equal to 0). Interval cycles are symmetrical and thus non-diatonic. However, a seven pitch segment of C5 (the cycle of fifths, which are enharmonic with the cycle of fourths) will produce the diatonic major scale. Cyclic tonal progressions in the works of Romantic composers such as Gustav Mahler and Richard Wagner form a link with the cyclic pitch successions in the atonal music of Modernists such as Bartók, Alexander Scriabin, Edgard Varèse, and the Vienna school. At the same time, these progressions signal the end of tonality. The first extended composition consistently based on symmetrical pitch relations was probably Alban Berg's \"Quartet\", Op. 3 (1910).", "Tone rows or pitch class sets which are invariant under retrograde are horizontally symmetrical, under inversion vertically. See also Asymmetric rhythm.", "As quilts are made from square blocks (usually 9, 16, or 25 pieces to a block) with each smaller piece usually consisting of fabric triangles, the craft lends itself readily to the application of symmetry.", "Symmetries appear in the design of objects of all kinds. Examples include beadwork, furniture, sand paintings, knotwork, masks, and musical instruments. Symmetries are central to the art of M.C. Escher and the many applications of tessellation in art and craft forms such as wallpaper, ceramic tilework such as in Islamic geometric decoration, batik, ikat, carpet-making, and many kinds of textile and embroidery patterns.", "The relationship of symmetry to aesthetics is complex. Humans find bilateral symmetry in faces physically attractive; it indicates health and genetic fitness. Opposed to this is the tendency for excessive symmetry to be perceived as boring or uninteresting. People prefer shapes that have some symmetry, but enough complexity to make them interesting.", "Symmetry can be found in various forms in literature, a simple example being the palindrome where a brief text reads the same forwards or backwards. Stories may have a symmetrical structure, as in the rise:fall pattern of \"Beowulf\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Formation.", "Consolidation.", "Disbandment.", "Croatian-Romanian-Slovak friendship proclamation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first attempts seeking a mutual defense of the successor states of Austria-Hungary took place during the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. The most remarkable and ardent proponent of the certain alliance binding the successor states was Edvard Beneš, the foreign minister of Czechoslovakia from 1918 to 1935. Beneš played such a crucial role in establishing the Little Entente that he was regarded as its real founder. It also clearly reflected his belief in the necessity to develop democracy in not only Czechoslovakia but also other European states. The obvious aim of his proposed alliance was to prevent the resurgence of Hungarian power and the restoration of the Habsburg Monarchy, but its real purpose followed a much broader pattern. The alliance was designed to stop any encroachments on the independence of the member states committed by any European power. Beneš, therefore, intended to gain the respect of Hungary and other powers such as France, Germany and the United Kingdom. In addition, the Little Entente was to strengthen the influence of its member states in international deliberations. Another interpretation is based on considerations of the new balance of power in Europe after World War I. France planned to contain possible German aggression by forming an arrangement with German neighbours. Before World War I, Russia had served that purpose, but after the war, France was reluctant to establish normal diplomatic ties with Soviet Russia. Therefore, France sought alternative states near Germany with close ties to France. As the Little Entente fulfilled those conditions, France strongly supported its formation.", "A collective defense arrangement was signed in Belgrade on August 14, 1920, during a convention Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The treaty guaranteed mutual assistance in the event of an unprovoked attack launched by Hungary against any stipulator. Ratifications were exchanged in Belgrade on February 10, 1921. Subsequently, Beneš suggested participation in the emerging alliance to Romania on August 17, 1920, but his offer was rejected by the Romanian government. Although the mentioned treaty was signed, it did not serve as a regular allied convention. The allied conventions that formed the Little Entente were signed as follows: The mentioned conventions encompassed almost identical terms as the treaty of August 14, 1920. Again, it was stated that in the event of an unprovoked attack employed by Hungary against a certain stipulator, other parties should provide mutual assistance. In addition, the treaties defined the mutual assistance via a special military convention that was to be signed. Until such a convention came into force, interim measures were to be taken. The member states of the Little Entente also pledged themselves to co-operation the foreign policy towards Hungary. During its formation, the Little Entente had to prove its determination of being a safeguard against any restoration sponsored by the Habsburgs. Firstly, Charles I of Austria returned to Hungary from Switzerland on March 26, 1921. He reclaimed the Hungarian throne, but his action earned neither the support of Miklós Horthy nor the consent of the Little Entente. Thus, Charles was forced to leave the country on April 1, 1921. On October 20, 1921, however, he returned to Hungary and renewed his claims. The situation was complicated by the fact that Charles had managed to gain the support of a certain part of the army. The Little Entente reacted promptly, under the guidance of Beneš. Its member states began to mobilize their armies, and the threat of direct involvement from them was imminent. Moreover, other European powers expressed their opposition to Charles's attempts at restoration. The Hungarian government defeated Charles's followers and arrested him on October 24, 1921. That was followed by the Hungarian reluctance to deprive Charles of his titles and the increasing danger of a military incursion of the Little Entente into Hungary. Finally, the Hungarian government passed an act abrogating Charles's sovereign rights on November 10, 1921.", "Although the thwarted restoration of the Habsburgs was an unambiguous success, subsequent events revealed increasing tensions within the alliance. The Genoa Conference (April 10 to May 19, 1922) highlighted the different opinions among the member states. The problem arose from the possible recognition of the Soviet Union by its European counterparts. Czechoslovakia was mainly an industrial state and so it was disposed to normalise its relations with the Soviet Union and to recognize the newly-formed state. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Romania, however, were both agrarian countries that were uninterested in economic co-operation with the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, all member states participating in the Little Entente considered the Soviet Union as a threat. In the 1920s, France, as the main supporter of the Little Entente, pursued its policy towards the tightening of the alliance by launching a series of friendship treaties aimed at forging the relations between France; Czechoslovakia; the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes; and Romania. The mentioned treaties were signed as follows: The treaties obliged the parties to consult their foreign policies, particularly the security matters of the involved states. The inevitable consequence of the successful performance of the Little Entente was its institutionalisation. Guided by this purpose, the Pact of Organisation, also called \"The Little Entente System\" or \"The Reorganisation Pact\", was signed in Geneva on February 16, 1933, providing a legal framework for a permanent collaboration among the member states. According to the treaty, a Permanent Council and a Permanent Secretary were to be established. The council was designed for periodical meetings attended by the foreign ministers of the three countries, and the secretary was to provide a day-to-day routine operations of the Little Entente. The meetings of the council were to be held in the capitals of the member states at least three times per year, thus enhancing a regular harmonisation of the foreign policies pursued by the given countries. Moreover, by the implementation of the Economic Council into the organisation structure of the Little Entente, the member states declared their will to co-ordinate its economic interests as well. The successful performance of the Little Entente resulted in its institutionalisation. Guided by this purpose, the Pact of Organisation, also called \"The Little Entente System\" or \"The Reorganisation Pact\", was signed in Geneva on February 16, 1933. Ratifications were exchanged in Prague on May 30, 1933, and the treaty became effective on the same day. It was registered in \"League of Nations Treaty Series\" on July 4, 1933. The treaty was delivered by Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the member states: Bogoljub Jevtić for Yugoslavia, Nicolae Titulescu for Romania, and Edvard Beneš for Czechoslovakia. The aim of the Pact of Organisation was to provide a legal framework for a permanent collaboration among the member states. The objective was to be reached by an establishing of new institutions operating on behalf of the member states within the Little Entente. The main instruments of collaboration were:", "The resurgence of German power after 1933 had gradually undermined French influence in the Little Entente countries. In 1938, France betrayed the alliance and signed the Munich Agreement and gave part of Czechoslovakia to Nazi Germany. Besides that betrayal, rearmament by Hungary was permitted in the Bled agreement of 22 August 1938. France had seen the Little Entente as an opportunity, in the interests of French security, to revitalize the threat of a two-front war against Germany. To relieve that threat in 1934, Croatia and possibly Italy, Hungary and Bulgaria backed revolutionary Vlado Chernozemski, who assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia and the French minister of foreign affairs, two leading proponents of the Little Entente. That was a prelude to World War II.", "During World War II, Romania, the Independent State of Croatia and the Slovak State formed an alliance similar to the Little Entente with the purpose of stopping any further Hungarian expansion. The alliance was formed by Romanian Marshal Ion Antonescu." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "Pollution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The river rises in the Kyzyltas Mountains and flows initially north-northwestwards for about. It then turns to the west and flows in that direction for, then southwest for. The Nura turns north near Esengeldi for about, eventually turning southwest as it draws close to Nur-Sultan near the Irtysh River. From there, it flows southwest for almost, through a series of lakes, finally ending in the endorheic Lake Tengiz. The river's largest tributaries are the Sherubainura, Ulkenkundyzdy, and Akbastau rivers. It is heavily used for irrigation and municipal water supply. The average discharge at the mouth is. The Irtysh–Karaganda Canal crosses the Nura at, in what appears to be a tunnel. Some of the canals water is directed into the Nura (a chute below the dam at ), replenishing this river. The Samarkand Reservoir is constructed on the Nura downstream from the canal crossing (the dam is at ), providing a waterfront for the city of Temirtau.", "In 1972, an acetaldehyde factory in the city of Temirtau began to discharge large quantities of mercury waste into the river. Although the factory closed in 1997, large amounts of mercury remain in the river and the area around it. Most of the mercury is spread in alluvial soils for a stretch from Temirtau to the Intumak Reservoir, where most of the pollution was trapped. Despite that, significant levels of mercury are still found as far as downstream and during high water, contaminants are spread all over the floodplain, creating a widespread problem. There is an estimated of contaminated soil surrounding the site. Ash from coal-fired power plants also pollutes the river." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Economy.", "Fishing.", "Sheep farming.", "Tourism.", "Services and infrastructure.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Sea.", "Land.", "Population.", "Twin towns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "People have lived in the area for thousands of years, but not continuously. Remains of the Norse settlement can be found in the area. The church ruins of Dyrnæs can be found on the north-western outskirts of the town. The Landnám homestead, \"Landnamsgaarden\", can be found immediately to the west of the town. Dated to the year 1000, the homestead is among the oldest of the Norse ruins in the area. Excavation of the ruins began in 1953 with the discovery of the Narsaq stick, the first Viking Age runic inscription discovered in Greenland. The wider Narsaq area has some of the most striking Norse artefacts and ruins. Erik the Red's Brattahlid is located in present-day Qassiarsuk, and the Gardar bishop seat is in present-day Igaliku. Present day Narsaq was founded as Nordprøven (\"North Prøven\") in 1830, distinguishing it from Sydprøven (\"South Prøven\", modern Alluitsup Paa) established the same year. The initial settlement was founded as a trading colony of Qaqortoq, then named Julianehaab. A trading center was established here due to the natural deep water harbor which could accommodate ocean faring vessels,. Initially local seal hunters traded blubber and seal skin for continental goods, such as coffee, sugar, bread and buckwheat. Until approximately 1900 seal hunting formed the main economy for Narsaq. In the early 1900s seal hunting began to fail, and the main basis for the economy gradually shifted to fishing. The city's historical fishing village is from 1914. The main house of the historical village today houses the power company in the city. Simiutak at the Skovfjord mouth near Narsaq was a HF/DF radio range finding station called \"Bluie West Three\" during World War Two. The station commenced operations in January 1942, and was permanently manned until the end of the war. The population also increased during this period, from 25 in 1870, to 162 in 1919, and to 300 in 1930. However the settlement did not experience significant population growth until 1953, when its first prawn and fishing factory of Royal Greenland was established. The factory was subsequently closed in 2010. In 1959 the population exceeded 600, and Narsaq achieved town status. With 1,503 inhabitants, it is the ninth-largest town in Greenland. Several hundred people live in the surrounding community. The town is notable for the 1990 Narsaq massacre, a mass shooting where seven people were killed and one was wounded. The shooting was the worst in Greenland's history. Until December 31, 2008, the town was the administrative center of Narsaq Municipality in the Kitaa amt. In addition to the town, the municipality consisted of the Qassiarsuk, Igaliku and Narsarsuaq settlements, as well as several sheep and reindeer farms. On January 1, 2009, Narsaq became part of Kujalleq municipality, when the Kitaa amt, as well as the municipalities of Narsaq, Qaqortoq, and Nanortalik ceased to exist as administrative entities.", "", "Fishing is the mainstay of the local economy. Local fjords are full of marine life, including whales, salmon, and seals.", "Uniquely in Greenland, farming is possible on the plains to the north of the town, with several actively maintained arable fields. Of the 53 registered sheep farms in Greenland, 31 are located in the Narsaq area. The farms produce meat for domestic consumption, and the Narsaq slaughterhouse Neqi A/S, a wholly owned subsidiary of KNI, is the only slaughterhouse in the country. The sheep farming area of Tasiusaq is located in former Norse area.", "The third major part of the economy is tourism. South Greenland has experienced a decline in tourist revenue in recent years, but tourism still supports a significant percentage of the viable workforce. Popular activities include hiking, fishing, collecting rare minerals and taking boat trips to the ice cap.", "Today Narsaq has a town hall, two supermarkets, a church, a police station, a firestation, a primary school, several educational facilities, an internet café, a hospital, and several small shops. Greenland's first brewery, Greenland Brewhouse, was established in Narsaq in 2004. The town hospital is housed in a two-storey building and has 14 beds. The town health services also include a dental clinic. Narsaq church was designed by local carpenter Pavia Høegh in 1927. The church was refurbished and expanded in 1981. The only Food Science College in the country is located in Narsaq. The school, INUILI, is the main education center for chefs in Greenland, and it has a staff of 20.", "", "Narsaq Heliport operates year-round, linking Narsaq with Qaqortoq on the shores of Labrador Sea, and thus with Arctic Umiaq off-season route endpoint. It also links Narsaq with the large Narsarsuaq Airport, and indirectly with the rest of Greenland and Europe.", "The harbor of Narsaq is a natural coastal harbor with steep depth. Narsaq is a port of call for the Arctic Umiaq Line coastal ship in the summer season. The port can accommodate deep seagoing vessels due to the steep depth of the shore. The port authority for Narsaq is Royal Arctic Line, located in Nuuk. Port pilotage is available upon request, and is recommended.", "In contrast to the rest of Greenland, the wider Narsaq area has a relatively extensive network of traversable dirt and gravel roads, totalling over 120 kilometers and requiring DKK 500,000 annually for service. The longest stretch of road envelopes the northern end of Tunulliarfik Fjord, and connects the sheep farms of Qassiarsuk with the airport of Narsarsuaq. The roads are generally of poor construction, lacking crossfall for drainage, and using softer sandstone instead of harder granite, creating severe dust problems in the summer. For general transportation all-terrain vehicles are recommended. During winter dog sled routes are important transport links to the surrounding area.", "With 1,346 inhabitants, Narsaq is the second-largest town in the Kujalleq municipality. The population has decreased 25% relative to the 1990 levels, and has been decreasing over the last several years. Most towns and settlements in southern Greenland exhibit negative growth patterns over the last two decades, with many settlements rapidly depopulating.", "Narsaq is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and definitions.", "History.", "Before the Aztec Empire.", "Aztec warfare.", "Tepanec War.", "Imperial reforms.", "Early years of expansion.", "Later years of expansion.", "Spanish conquest.", "Government.", "Central administration.", "Provincial administration.", "Provincial structure.", "Ideology and state.", "Law." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"Aztec\" in modern usage would not have been used by the people themselves. It has variously been used to refer to the Triple Alliance empire, the Nahuatl-speaking people of central Mexico prior to the Spanish conquest, or specifically", "", "Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples who migrated to central Mexico from the north in the early 13th century. The migration story of the Mexica is similar to those of other polities in central Mexico, with supernatural sites, individuals, and events, joining earthly and divine history as they sought political legitimacy. According to the pictographic codices in which the Aztecs recorded their history, the place of origin was called Aztlán. Early migrants settled the Basin of Mexico and surrounding lands by establishing a series of independent city-states. These early Nahua city-states or \"altepetl\", were ruled by dynastic heads called \"tlahtohqueh\" (singular, \"tlatoāni\"). Most of the existing settlements had been established by other indigenous peoples before the Mexica migration. These early city-states fought various small-scale wars with each other, but due to shifting alliances,", "The Mexica rose to prominence as fierce warriors and were able to establish themselves as a military power. The importance of warriors and the integral nature of warfare in Mexica political and religious life helped propel them to emerge as the dominant military power prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. The new Mexica city-state allied with the city of Azcapotzalco and paid tribute to its ruler, Tezozomoc. With Mexica assistance, Azcopotzalco began to expand into a small tributary", "In 1426, the Tepanec king Tezozomoc died, and the resulting succession crisis precipitated a civil war between potential successors. The Mexica supported Tezozomoc's preferred heir, Tayahauh, who was initially enthroned as king. But his son, Maxtla, soon usurped the throne and turned against factions that opposed him, including the Mexica ruler Chimalpopoca. The latter died shortly thereafter, possibly assassinated by Maxtla. The new Mexica ruler Itzcoatl continued to defy Maxtla; he blockaded Tenochtitlan and demanded increased tribute payments. Maxtla similarly turned against the Acolhua, and the king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl, fled into exile. Nezahualcoyotl recruited military help from the king of Huexotzinco, and the Mexica gained the support of a dissident Tepanec city, Tlacopan. In 1427, Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan, and Huexotzinco went to war against Azcapotzalco, emerging victorious in 1428.", "Shortly after the formation of the Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl and Tlacopan instigated sweeping reforms on the Aztec state and religion. It has been alleged that Tlacaelel ordered the burning of some or most of the extant Aztec books, claiming that they contained lies and that it was \"not wise that all the people should know the paintings\". Even if he did order such book-burnings, it was probably limited primarily to documents containing political propaganda from previous regimes; he thereafter rewrote the history of the Aztecs, naturally placing the Mexica in a more central role. After Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl as the Mexica emperor, more reforms were instigated to maintain control over conquered cities. Uncooperative kings were replaced with puppet rulers loyal to the Mexica. A new imperial tribute system established Mexica tribute collectors that taxed the population directly, bypassing the authority of local dynasties. Nezahualcoyotl also instituted a policy in the Acolhua lands of granting subject kings tributary holdings in lands far from their capitals. This was done to create an incentive for cooperation with the empire; if a city's king rebelled, he lost the tribute he received from foreign land. Some rebellious kings were replaced by \"calpixqueh\",", "After the defeat of the Tepanecs, Itzcoatl and Nezahualcoyotl rapidly consolidated power in the Basin of Mexico and began to expand beyond its borders. The first targets for imperial expansion were Coyoacan in the Basin of Mexico and Cuauhnahuac and Huaxtepec in the modern Mexican state of Morelos. These conquests provided the new empire with a large influx of tribute, especially agricultural goods. On the death of Itzcoatl, Moctezuma I was enthroned as the new Mexica emperor. The expansion of the empire was briefly halted by a major four-year drought that hit the Basin of Mexico in 1450, and several cities in Morelos had to be re-conquered after the drought subsided. Moctezuma and Nezahualcoyotl continued to expand the empire east towards the Gulf of Mexico and south into Oaxaca. In 1468, Moctezuma I died and was succeeded by his son,", "Tizoc was succeeded by his brother Ahuitzotl in 1486. Like his predecessors, the first part of Ahuitzotl's reign was spent suppressing rebellions that were commonplace due to the indirect nature of Aztec rule. Ahuitzotl then began a new wave of conquests including the Oaxaca Valley and the Soconusco Coast. Due to increased border skirmishes with the Purépechas, Ahuitzotl conquered the border city of Otzoma and turned the city into a military outpost. The population of Otzoma was either killed or dispersed in the process. The Purépecha subsequently established fortresses nearby to protect against Aztec expansion. Ahuitzotl responded by expanding further west to the Pacific Coast of Guerrero. By the reign of Ahuitzotl, the Mexica were the largest and most powerful faction in the Aztec Triple Alliance. Building on", "Spanish expedition leader Hernán Cortés landed in Yucatán in 1519 with approximately 630 men (most armed with only a sword and shield). Cortés had actually been removed as the expedition's commander by the governor of Cuba, Diego Velásquez, but had stolen the boats and left without permission. At the island of Cozumel, Cortés encountered a shipwrecked Spaniard named Gerónimo de Aguilar who joined the expedition and translated between Spanish and Mayan. The expedition then sailed west to Campeche, where after a brief battle with the local army, Cortés was able to negotiate peace through his interpreter, Aguilar. The King of Campeche gave Cortés a second translator, a bilingual Nahua-Maya slave woman named La Malinche (she was known also as Malinalli [maliˈnalːi], Malintzin [maˈlintsin] or Doña Marina [ˈdoɲa maˈɾina] ). Aguilar translated from Spanish to Mayan and La Malinche translated from Mayan to Nahuatl. Once Malinche learned Spanish, she became Cortés's translator for both language and culture, and was a key figure in interactions with Nahua rulers. An important article, \"Rethinking Malinche\" by", "The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means. Like most European empires, it was ethnically very diverse, but unlike most European empires, it was more a system of tributes than a single unitary form of government. In the theoretical framework of imperial systems posited by American historian Alexander J. Motyl the Aztec empire was an informal type of empire in that the Alliance did not claim supreme authority over its tributary provinces; it merely expected tributes to be paid. The empire was also territorially discontinuous, i.e. not all of its dominated territories were connected by land. For example, the southern peripheral zones of Xoconochco were not in immediate contact with the central part of the empire. The hegemonic nature of the Aztec empire can be seen in the fact that generally local rulers were restored to their positions once their city-state was conquered and the Aztecs did not interfere in local affairs as long as the tribute payments were made. Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were organized as city-states (individually known as \"altepetl\" in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs). These were small polities ruled by a king or \"tlatoani\" (literally \"speaker\", plural \"tlatoque\") from an aristocratic dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepeme. Even after the empire was formed in 1428 and began its program of expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonic form of control. It should be remembered that the term \"Aztec empire\" is a modern one, not one used by the Aztec themselves. The Aztec realm was at its core composed of three Nahuatl-speaking city states in the densely populated Valley of Mexico. Over time, asymmetries of power elevated one of those city states, Tenochtitlan, above the other two. The \"Triple Alliance\" came to establish hegemony over much of central Mesoamerica, including areas of great linguistic and cultural diversity. Administration of the empire was performed through largely traditional, indirect means. However, over time something of a nascent bureaucracy may have been beginning to form insofar as the state organization became increasingly centralized.", "Before the reign of Nezahualcoyotl (1429–1472), the Aztec empire operated as a confederation along traditional Mesoamerican lines. Independent altepetl were led by tlatoani (lit., \"speakers\"), who supervised village headmen, who in turn supervised groups of households. A typical Mesoamerican confederation placed a \"Huey Tlatoani\" (lit., \"great speaker\") at the head of several tlatoani. Following Nezahualcoyotl, the Aztec empire followed a somewhat divergent path, with some tlatoani of recently conquered or otherwise subordinated altepetl becoming replaced with \"calpixque\" stewards charged with collecting tribute on behalf of the Huetlatoani rather than simply replacing an old tlatoque with new ones from the same set of local nobility. Yet the Huey tlatoani was not the sole executive. It was the responsibility of the Huey tlatoani to deal with the \"external\" issues of empire; the management of tribute, war, diplomacy, and expansion were all under the purview of the Huey tlatoani. It was the role of the \"Cihuacoatl\" to govern a given city itself. The Cihuacoatl was always a close relative of the Huey tlatoani; Tlacaelel, for example, was the brother of Moctezuma I. Both", "Traditionally, provinces and altepetl were governed by hereditary tlatoani. As the empire grew, the system evolved further and some tlatoani were replaced by other officials. The other officials had similar authority to tlatoani. As has already been mentioned, directly appointed stewards (singular \"calpixqui\", plural \"calpixque\") were sometimes imposed on altepetl instead of the selection of provincial nobility to the same position of tlatoani. At the height of empire, the organization of the state into tributary and strategic provinces saw an elaboration of this system. The 38 tributary provinces fell under the supervision of high stewards, or \"huecalpixque\", whose authority extended over the lower-ranking calpixque. These calpixque and huecalpixque were essentially managers of the provincial tribute system which was overseen and coordinated in the paramount capital of Tenochtitlan not by the \"huetlatoani\", but rather by a separate position altogether: the \"petlacalcatl\". On the occasion that a recently conquered altepetl was seen as particularly restive, a", "Originally, the Aztec empire was a loose alliance between three cities: Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and the most junior partner, Tlacopan. As such, they were known as the 'Triple Alliance.' This political form was very common in Mesoamerica, where alliances of city-states were ever fluctuating. However, over time, it was Tenochtitlan which assumed paramount authority in the alliance, and although each partner city shared spoils of war and rights to", "Rulers, be they local teteuctin or tlatoani, or central Huetlatoani, were seen as representatives of the gods and therefore ruled by divine right. \"Tlatocayotl\", or the principle of rulership, established that this divine right was inherited by descent. Political order was therefore also a cosmic order, and to kill a tlatoani was to transgress that order. For that reason, whenever a tlatoani was killed or otherwise removed from their station, a relative and member of the same bloodline was typically placed in their stead. The establishment of the office of Huetlatoani understood through the creation of another level of rulership, \"hueitlatocayotl\", standing in superior contrast", "The most developed code of law was developed in the city-state of Texcoco under its ruler Nezahualcoyotl. It was a formal written code, not merely a collection of customary practices. The sources for knowing about the legal code are colonial-era writings by Franciscan Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, Franciscan Fray Juan de Torquemada, and Texcocan historians Juan Bautista Pomar, and Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl. The law code in Texcoco under Nezahualcoyotl was legalistic, that is cases were tried by particular types of evidence and the social status of the litigants was disregarded, and consisted of 80 written laws. These laws called for severe, publicly administered punishments, creating a legal framework of social control. Much less is known about the legal system in Tenochtitlan, which might be less legalistic or sophisticated as those of Texcoco for this period. It was established under the reign of Moctezuma I. These laws served to establish and govern relations between the state, classes, and individuals. Punishment was to be meted out solely by state authorities. Nahua mores were enshrined in these laws, criminalizing public acts of homosexuality, drunkenness, and nudity, not to mention more universal proscriptions against theft, murder, and property damage. As stated before, \"pochteca\" could serve as judges, often exercising judicial oversight of their own members. Likewise, military courts dealt with both cases within the military and without during wartime. There was an appeal process, with appellate courts standing between local, typically market-place courts, on the provincial level and a supreme court and two special higher appellate courts at Tenochtitlan. One of those two special courts dealt with cases arising within Tenochtitlan, the other with cases originating from outside the capital. The ultimate judicial authority laid in hands of the \"Huey tlatoani\", who had the right to appoint lesser judges." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "Environment.", "Conservation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Jaú\" comes from that of one of the largest fish in Brazil, the gilded catfish or jau (\"Zungaro zungaro\"), after which the main river of the park is named. The park is in the Amazon biome in the Japurá-Solimões-Negro moist forests ecoregion. It covers an area of. It was created by decree 85.200 of 24 September 1980. It is administered by the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation. It covers parts of the municipalities of Barcelos, Codajás and Novo Airão in the state of Amazonas. The park is one of the largest protected areas in Brazil. It is about northwest of Manaus and contains the entire Jaú River basin between the Unini River to the north and the Carabinani River to the south. All three rivers flow east to enter the right bank of the Rio Negro. The eastern part of the park adjoins the Rio Unini Extractive Reserve to the north, which runs along the opposite bank of the Unini River. The park is bounded to the northwest by the Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve. To the east, near the Rio Negro, the park adjoins the Rio Negro State Park North Section to the south.", "The park's terrain is representative of the Negro-Solimões interfluvial plateau. It has two main areas: the Trombetas/Negro plateau and the lower western Amazon plateau. The higher area has hills with flat tops at cut by valleys, while the lower area has altitudes of about. There are large areas of seasonally flooded land with poor drainage, and some permanent lakes. Average annual rainfall is over, and the wettest months occur in March and September, when maximum short wave solar radiation is being received and so maximum convectional rainfall occurs. Temperatures range from with an average of. Vegetation types are dense rainforest (77%), open rainforest (14%), transition from rainforest to campinarana (7%) and campinarana (2%). Botanists have catalogued about 400 plant species, several of which are restricted to certain environments such as the uplands and the flooded areas. 263 species of fish have been recorded, some new to science.", "The park is classed as IUCN protected area category II (national park). The objective is to preserve an Amazonian black water ecosystem for environmental education, interaction with local communities, sustainable tourism and the research. The park is designed as a mega-reserve and world heritage site for present and future generations. Protected species in the park include the margay (Leopardus wiedii), jaguar (Panthera onca), giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) and Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis). Jaú National Park was inscribed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 2000. It became part of the Central Amazon Ecological Corridor, established in 2002. In 2003 the property was expanded by the addition of the Anavilhanas National Park, Amanã Sustainable Development Reserve and Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve to form the Central Amazon Conservation Complex, a larger World Heritage Site. The park became part of the Lower Rio Negro Mosaic, created in 2010. The conservation unit is supported by the Amazon Region Protected Areas Program. Another reason why the Jaú park is conservated is that of the group of people that call themselves the \"okampha\" (Oh//camp//ah). The Okampa originated in the park long before it had even been discovered, having been living there for almost two centuries. They are a very secluded people who never show themselves to tourists or even other native groups that live there. Very few people have had the opportunity to actually see an okamphian." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Complications.", "Causes.", "Diagnosis.", "Differential diagnosis.", "Sinus.", "Ventricular.", "Supraventricular.", "Atrial fibrillation.", "AV nodal reentrant tachycardia.", "AV reentrant tachycardia.", "Junctional tachycardia.", "Management.", "Unstable.", "Terminology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "4", "4", "4", "4", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Tachycardia can lead to fainting. When the rate of blood flow becomes too rapid, or fast blood flow passes on damaged endothelium, it increases the friction within vessels resulting in turbulence and other disturbances. According to the Virchow's triad, this is one of the three conditions that can lead to thrombosis (i.e., blood clots within vessels).", "Some causes of tachycardia include: Drug related:", "The upper threshold of a normal human resting heart rate is based on age. Cutoff values for tachycardia in different age groups are fairly well standardized; typical cutoffs are listed below: Heart rate is considered in the context of the prevailing clinical picture. For example, in sepsis >90 bpm is considered tachycardia. When the heart beats excessively or rapidly, the heart pumps less efficiently and provides less blood flow to the rest of the body, including the heart itself. The increased heart rate also leads to increased work and oxygen demand by the heart, which can lead to rate related ischemia. Relative tachycardia involves a greater increase in rate than would be expected in a given illness state.", "An electrocardiogram (ECG) is used to classify the type of tachycardia. They may be classified into narrow and wide complex based on the QRS complex. Equal or less than 0.1s for narrow complex. Presented order of most to least common, they are: Tachycardias may be classified as either narrow complex tachycardias (supraventricular tachycardias) or wide complex tachycardias. Narrow and wide refer to the width of the QRS complex on the ECG. Narrow complex tachycardias tend to originate in the atria, while wide complex tachycardias tend to originate in the ventricles. Tachycardias can be further classified as either regular or irregular.", "The body has several feedback mechanisms to maintain adequate blood flow and blood pressure. If blood pressure decreases, the heart beats faster in an attempt to raise it. This is called reflex tachycardia. This can happen in response to a decrease in blood volume (through dehydration or bleeding), or an unexpected change in blood flow. The most common cause of the latter is orthostatic hypotension (also called postural hypotension). Fever, hyperventilation, diarrhea and severe infections can also cause tachycardia, primarily due to increase in metabolic demands. An increase in sympathetic nervous system stimulation causes the heart rate to increase, both by the direct action of sympathetic nerve fibers on the heart and by causing the endocrine system to release hormones such as epinephrine (adrenaline), which have a similar effect. Increased sympathetic stimulation is usually due to physical or psychological stress. This is the basis for the so-called fight-or-flight response, but such stimulation can also be induced by stimulants such as ephedrine, amphetamines or cocaine. Certain endocrine disorders such as pheochromocytoma can also cause epinephrine release and can result in tachycardia independent of nervous system stimulation. Hyperthyroidism can also cause tachycardia. The upper limit of normal rate for sinus tachycardia is thought to be 220 bpm minus age.", "Ventricular tachycardia (VT or V-tach) is a potentially life-threatening cardiac arrhythmia that originates in the ventricles. It is usually a regular, wide complex tachycardia with a rate between 120 and 250 beats per minute. A medically significant subvariant of Ventricular Tachycardia is called Torsades de Pointes (literally meaning \"Twisting of the Points\" due to its appearance on an EKG), which tends to result from a long QT interval. Both of these rhythms normally last for only a few seconds to minutes\" (paroxysmal tachycardia)\", but if VT persists it is extremely dangerous, often leading to ventricular fibrillation.", "This is a type of tachycardia that originates from above the ventricles, such as the atria. It is sometimes known as paroxysmal atrial tachycardia (PAT). Several types of supraventricular tachycardia are known to exist.", "Atrial fibrillation is one of the most common cardiac arrhythmias. In general, it is an irregular, narrow complex rhythm. However, it may show wide QRS complexes on the ECG if a bundle branch block is present. At high rates, the QRS complex may also become wide due to the Ashman phenomenon. It may be difficult to determine the rhythm's regularity when the rate exceeds 150 beats per minute. Depending on the patient's health and other variables such as medications taken for rate control, atrial fibrillation may cause heart rates that span from 50 to 250 beats per minute (or even higher if an accessory pathway is present). However, new onset atrial fibrillation tends to present with rates between 100 and 150 beats per minute.", "AV nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is the most common reentrant tachycardia. It is a regular narrow complex tachycardia that usually responds well to the Valsalva maneuver or the drug adenosine. However, unstable patients sometimes require synchronized cardioversion. Definitive care may include catheter ablation.", "AV reentrant tachycardia (AVRT) requires an accessory pathway for its maintenance. AVRT may involve orthodromic conduction (where the impulse travels down the AV node to the ventricles and back up to the atria through the accessory pathway) or antidromic conduction (which the impulse travels down the accessory pathway and back up to the atria through the AV node). Orthodromic conduction usually results in a narrow complex tachycardia, and antidromic conduction usually results in a wide complex tachycardia that often mimics ventricular tachycardia. Most antiarrhythmics are contraindicated in the emergency treatment of AVRT, because they may paradoxically increase conduction across the accessory pathway.", "Junctional tachycardia is an automatic tachycardia originating in the AV junction. It tends to be a regular, narrow complex tachycardia and may be a sign of digitalis toxicity.", "The management of tachycardia depends on its type (wide complex versus narrow complex), whether or not the person is stable or unstable, and whether the instability is due to the tachycardia. Unstable means that either important organ functions are affected or cardiac arrest is about to occur.", "In those that are unstable with a narrow complex tachycardia, intravenous adenosine may be attempted. In all others immediate cardioversion is recommended.", "The word \"tachycardia\" came to English from New Latin as a neoclassical compound built from the combining forms \"tachy-\" + \"-cardia\", which are from the Greek ταχύς \"tachys\", \"quick, rapid\" and καρδία, \"kardia\", \"heart\". As a matter both of usage choices in the medical literature and of idiom in natural language, the words \"tachycardia\" and \"tachyarrhythmia\" are usually used interchangeably, or loosely enough that precise differentiation is not explicit. Some careful writers have tried to maintain a logical differentiation between them, which is reflected in major medical dictionaries and major general dictionaries. The distinction is that \"tachycardia\" be reserved for the rapid heart rate itself, regardless of cause, physiologic or pathologic (that is, from healthy response to exercise or from cardiac arrhythmia), and that \"tachyarrhythmia\" be reserved for the pathologic form (that is, an arrhythmia of the rapid rate type). This is why five of the previously referenced dictionaries do \"not\" enter cross-references indicating synonymy between their entries for the two words (as they do elsewhere whenever synonymy is meant), and it is why one of them explicitly specifies that the two words not be confused. But the prescription will probably never be successfully imposed on general usage, not only because much of the existing medical literature ignores it even when the words stand alone but also because the terms for specific types of arrhythmia (standard collocations of adjectives and noun) are deeply established idiomatically with the \"tachycardia\" version as the more commonly used version. Thus SVT is called supraventricular tachycardia more than twice as often as it is called supraventricular tachyarrhythmia; moreover, those two terms are always completely synonymous—in natural language there is no such term as \"healthy/physiologic supraventricular tachycardia\". The same themes are also true of AVRT and AVNRT. Thus this pair is an example of when a particular prescription (which may have been tenable 50 or 100 years earlier) can no longer be invariably enforced without violating idiom. But the power to differentiate in an idiomatic way is not lost, regardless, because when the specification of physiologic tachycardia is needed, that phrase aptly conveys it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Contributions.", "Algebra.", "Arithmetic.", "Astronomy.", "Trigonometry.", "Geography.", "Jewish calendar.", "Other works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Few details of al-Khwārizmī's life are known with certainty. He was born into a Persian family and Ibn al-Nadim gives his birthplace as Khwarezm in Greater Khorasan (modern Khiva, Xorazm Region, Uzbekistan). Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari gives his name as Muḥammad ibn Musá al-Khwārizmiyy al-Majūsiyy al-Quṭrubbaliyy (). The epithet \"al-Qutrubbulli\" could indicate he might instead have come from Qutrubbul (Qatrabbul), a viticulture district near Baghdad. However, Rashed suggests: Regarding al-Khwārizmī's religion, Toomer writes: Ibn al-Nadīm's \"Kitāb al-Fihrist\" includes a short biography on al-Khwārizmī together with a list of the books he wrote. Al-Khwārizmī accomplished most of his work in the period between 813 and 833. After the Muslim conquest of Persia, Baghdad became the centre of scientific studies and trade, and many merchants and scientists from as far as China and India traveled to this city, as did al-Khwārizmī. He worked in Baghdad as a scholar at the House of Wisdom established by Caliph al-Ma’mūn, where he studied the sciences and mathematics, which included the translation of Greek and Sanskrit scientific manuscripts. Douglas Morton Dunlop suggests that it may have been possible that Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was in fact the same person as Muḥammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, the eldest of the three Banū Mūsā.", "Al-Khwārizmī's contributions to mathematics, geography, astronomy, and cartography established the basis for innovation in algebra and trigonometry. His systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations led to \"algebra\", a word derived from the title of his book on the subject, \"The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing\". \"On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals\" written about 820, was principally responsible for spreading the Hindu–Arabic numeral system throughout the Middle East and Europe. It was translated into Latin as \"Algoritmi de numero Indorum\". Al-Khwārizmī, rendered as (Latin) \"Algoritmi\", led to the term \"algorithm\". Some of his work was based on Persian and Babylonian astronomy, Indian numbers, and Greek mathematics. Al-Khwārizmī systematized and corrected Ptolemy's data for Africa and the Middle East. Another major book was \"Kitab surat al-ard\" (\"The Image of the Earth\"; translated as Geography), presenting the coordinates of places based on those in the \"Geography\" of Ptolemy but with improved values for the Mediterranean Sea, Asia, and Africa. He also wrote on mechanical devices like the astrolabe and sundial. He assisted a project to determine the circumference of the Earth and in making a world map for al-Ma'mun, the caliph, overseeing 70 geographers. When, in the 12th century, his works spread to Europe through Latin translations, it had a profound impact on the advance of mathematics in Europe.", "\"The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing\" ( ) is a mathematical book written approximately 820 CE. The book was written with the encouragement of Caliph al-Ma'mun as a popular work on calculation and is replete with examples and applications to a wide range of problems in trade, surveying and legal inheritance. The term \"algebra\" is derived from the name of one of the basic operations with equations (, meaning \"restoration\", referring to adding a number to both sides of the equation to consolidate or cancel terms) described in this book. The book was translated in Latin as \"Liber algebrae et almucabala\" by Robert of Chester (Segovia, 1145) hence \"algebra\", and also by Gerard of Cremona. A unique Arabic copy is kept at Oxford and was translated in 1831 by F. Rosen. A Latin translation is kept in Cambridge. It provided an exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree, and discussed the fundamental methods of \"reduction\" and \"balancing\", referring to the transposition of terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation. Al-Khwārizmī's method of solving linear and quadratic equations worked by first reducing the equation to one of six standard forms (where \"b\" and \"c\" are positive integers) by dividing out the coefficient of the square and using the two operations ( \"restoring\" or \"completion\") and (\"balancing\"). is the process of removing negative units, roots and squares from the equation by adding the same quantity to each side. For example, \"x\" = 40\"x\" − 4\"x\" is reduced to 5\"x\" = 40\"x\". is the process of bringing quantities of the same type to the same side of the equation. For example, \"x\" + 14 = \"x\" + 5 is reduced to \"x\" + 9 = \"x\". The above discussion uses modern mathematical notation for the types of problems that the book discusses. However, in al-Khwārizmī's day, most of this notation had not yet been invented, so he had to use ordinary text to present problems and their solutions. For example, for one problem he writes, (from an 1831 translation) In modern notation this process, with \"x\" the \"thing\" ( \"shayʾ\") or \"root\", is given by the steps, Let the roots of the equation be \"x\" = \"p\" and \"x = q\". Then formula_4, formula_5 and So a root is given by Several authors have also published texts under the name of, including Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī, Abū Kāmil Shujāʿ ibn Aslam, Abū Muḥammad al-‘Adlī, Abū Yūsuf al-Miṣṣīṣī, 'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Turk, Sind ibn ‘Alī, Sahl ibn Bišr, and Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī. J.J. O'Conner and E.F. Robertson wrote in the \"MacTutor History of Mathematics archive\": R. Rashed and Angela Armstrong write: According to Swiss-American historian of mathematics, Florian Cajori, Al-Khwarizmi's algebra was different from the work of Indian mathematicians, for Indians had no rules like the <nowiki>\"</nowiki>restoration<nowiki>\"</nowiki> and <nowiki>\"</nowiki>reduction<nowiki>\"</nowiki>. Regarding the dissimilarity and significance of Al-Khwarizmi's algebraic work from that of Indian Mathematician Brahmagupta, Carl Benjamin Boyer wrote: It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khowarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-Khowarizmi is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek \"Arithmetica\" or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers. Nevertheless, the \"Al-jabr\" comes closer to the elementary algebra of today than the works of either Diophantus or Brahmagupta, because the book is not concerned with difficult problems in indeterminant analysis but with a straight forward and elementary exposition of the solution of equations, especially that of second degree. The Arabs in general loved a good clear argument from premise to conclusion, as well as systematic organization – respects in which neither Diophantus nor the Hindus excelled.", "Al-Khwārizmī's second most influential work was on the subject of arithmetic, which survived in Latin translations but lost in the original Arabic. His writings include the text \"kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī\" ('Book of Indian computation'), and perhaps a more elementary text, \"kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī\" ('Addition and subtraction in Indian arithmetic'). These texts described algorithms on decimal numbers (Hindu–Arabic numerals) that could be carried out on a dust board. Called \"takht\" in Arabic (Latin: \"tabula\"), a board covered with a thin layer of dust or sand was employed for calculations, on which figures could be written with a stylus and easily erased and replaced when necessary. Al-Khwarizmi's algorithms were used for almost three centuries, until replaced by Al-Uqlidisi's algorithms that could be carried out with pen and paper. As part of 12th century wave of Arabic science flowing into Europe via translations, these texts proved to be revolutionary in Europe. Al-Khwarizmi's Latinized name, \"Algorismus\", turned into the name of method used for computations, and survives in the modern term \"algorithm\". It gradually replaced the previous abacus-based methods used in Europe. Four Latin texts providing adaptions of Al-Khwarizmi's methods have survived, even though none of them is believed to be a literal translation: \"Dixit Algorizmi\" ('Thus spake Al-Khwarizmi') is the starting phrase of a manuscript in the University of Cambridge library, which is generally referred to by its 1857 title \"Algoritmi de Numero Indorum\". It is attributed to the Adelard of Bath, who had also translated the astronomical tables in 1126. It is perhaps the closest to Al-Khwarizmi's own writings. Al-Khwarizmi's work on arithmetic was responsible for introducing the Arabic numerals, based on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system developed in Indian mathematics, to the Western world. The term \"algorithm\" is derived from the algorism, the technique of performing arithmetic with Hindu-Arabic numerals developed by al-Khwārizmī. Both \"algorithm\" and \"algorism\" are derived from the Latinized forms of al-Khwārizmī's name, \"Algoritmi\" and \"Algorismi\", respectively.", "Al-Khwārizmī's (, \"astronomical tables of \"Siddhanta\"\") is a work consisting of approximately 37 chapters on calendrical and astronomical calculations and 116 tables with calendrical, astronomical and astrological data, as well as a table of sine values. This is the first of many Arabic \"Zijes\" based on the Indian astronomical methods known as the \"sindhind\". The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. This work marked the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. The original Arabic version (written c. 820) is lost, but a version by the Spanish astronomer Maslamah Ibn Ahmad al-Majriti (c. 1000) has survived in a Latin translation, presumably by Adelard of Bath (January 26, 1126). The four surviving manuscripts of the Latin translation are kept at the Bibliothèque publique (Chartres), the Bibliothèque Mazarine (Paris), the Biblioteca Nacional (Madrid) and the Bodleian Library (Oxford).", "Al-Khwārizmī's \"Zīj al-Sindhind\" also contained tables for the trigonometric functions of sines and cosine. A related treatise on spherical trigonometry is also attributed to him. Al-Khwārizmī produced accurate sine and cosine tables, and the first table of tangents.", "Al-Khwārizmī's third major work is his (, \"Book of the Description of the Earth\"), also known as his \"Geography\", which was finished in 833. It is a major reworking of Ptolemy's 2nd-century \"Geography\", consisting of a list of 2402 coordinates of cities and other geographical features following a general introduction. There is only one surviving copy of, which is kept at the Strasbourg University Library. A Latin translation is kept at the Biblioteca Nacional de España in Madrid. The book opens with the list of latitudes and longitudes, in order of \"weather zones\", that is to say in blocks of latitudes and, in each weather zone, by order of longitude. As Paul Gallez points out, this excellent system allows the deduction of many latitudes and longitudes where the only extant document is in such a bad condition as to make it practically illegible. Neither the Arabic copy nor the Latin translation include the map of the world itself; however, Hubert Daunicht was able to reconstruct the missing map from the list of coordinates. Daunicht read the latitudes and longitudes of the coastal points in the manuscript, or deduces them from the context where they were not legible. He transferred the points onto graph paper and connected them with straight lines, obtaining an approximation of the coastline as it was on the original map. He then does the same for the rivers and towns. Al-Khwārizmī corrected Ptolemy's gross overestimate for the length of the Mediterranean Sea from the Canary Islands to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean; Ptolemy overestimated it at 63 degrees of longitude, while al-Khwārizmī almost correctly estimated it at nearly 50 degrees of longitude. He \"also depicted the Atlantic and Indian Oceans as open bodies of water, not land-locked seas as Ptolemy had done.\" Al-Khwārizmī's Prime Meridian at the Fortunate Isles was thus around 10° east of the line used by Marinus and Ptolemy. Most medieval Muslim gazetteers continued to use al-Khwārizmī's prime meridian.", "Al-Khwārizmī wrote several other works including a treatise on the Hebrew calendar, titled (, \"Extraction of the Jewish Era\"). It describes the Metonic cycle, a 19-year intercalation cycle; the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishrei shall fall; calculates the interval between the Anno Mundi or Jewish year and the Seleucid era; and gives rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Hebrew calendar. Similar material is found in the works of Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī and Maimonides.", "Ibn al-Nadim's, an index of Arabic books, mentions al-Khwārizmī's (), a book of annals. No direct manuscript survives; however, a copy had reached Nusaybin by the 11th century, where its metropolitan bishop, Mar Elyas bar Shinaya, found it. Elias's chronicle quotes it from \"the death of the Prophet\" through to 169 AH, at which point Elias's text itself hits a lacuna. Several Arabic manuscripts in Berlin, Istanbul, Tashkent, Cairo and Paris contain further material that surely or with some probability comes from al-Khwārizmī. The Istanbul manuscript contains a paper on sundials; the \"Fihrist\" credits al-Khwārizmī with (). Other papers, such as one on the determination of the direction of Mecca, are on the spherical astronomy. Two texts deserve special interest on the morning width () and the determination of the azimuth from a height (). He also wrote two books on using and constructing astrolabes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Gorky Colony.", "Dzerzhinsky labour commune.", "Reception.", "Book publications.", "Brovary labour colony.", "In Moscow: flight, books.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Criticism and response." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Anton Semyonovich Makarenko was born in Belopolye, Kharkov Governorate, to Semyon Grigorievich Makarenko, who worked at a railway depot as a painter, and Tatyana Mikhaylovna (née Dergachova), daughter of a Russian soldier from Nikolayev. In September 1905, having graduated from a four-year college in Kremenchug, Makarenko took a one-year teachers' course and at the age of seventeen, began teaching at a railway college at Dolinskaya station near Kherson where he worked from September 1911 till October 1914. In August 1914 he enrolled into the Poltava Training College but had to interrupt his education and in September 1916 joined the Russian army which he was demobilized from in March 1917, due to poor eyesight. The same year he graduated the college with honours.", "Makarenko went on to work as a teacher in Poltava and later Kryukov where, in 1919, he became the local college's director.", "In 1920 he was invited to head the Poltava Colony for Young Offenders. A year later it became the Gorky Colony and soon attracted the attention of Maxim Gorky himself. In 1923 Makarenko published two articles on the Gorky Colony (in \"Golos Truda\" newspaper and \"Novimy Stezhkami\" magazine) and two years later made a public report at the All-Ukrainian Conference for the orphanage teachers.", "In 1927 Makarenko was appointed as the head of the Dzerzhinsky labour commune, an orphanage for street children near Kharkov, where the most incorrigible thieves and swindlers were known to be put into rehabilitation. Makarenko succeeded in gaining their respect, combining in his method insistence and respect, school education and productive labour.", "However, 1928 saw the onset of a wave of criticism aimed at Makarenko. In March 1928 his report at the Ukrainian Pedagogical Institute concerning his work in the Gorky Colony received hostile treatment. In September of that year he was fired from the Gorky Colony, and had to concentrate on his work in Kharkov. Makarenko's methods were highly appreciated by Maxim Gorky who believed that his \"amazingly successful educational experiment [was] of world-wide significance.\" The correspondence between the two started in July 1925 and continued until Gorky's death. In 1928 the famous writer visited the two colonies and left much impressed; next year in an essay called \"Over the Union of Soviets\" he hailed Makarenko as \"the new type of pedagogue.\"", "Encouraged by Gorky, whom he admired, Makarenko wrote \"The Pedagogical Poem\" (better known in the West under its English title, \"Road to Life\") based on the true stories of his pupils from the orphanage for street children, which he started in 1925 and published in 1933-1935. Before that, in 1932, Makarenko saw his first story being published, \"The March of the 30th Year\". In 1934 he became a member of the Soviet Union of Writers.", "In 1935 Makarenko started working at the NKVD in Kiev as the Chief Assistant of the Labour Colony Department. In 1936 he was appointed the head of another colony, in Brovary, and in less than a year turned an unruly bunch of pupils into a highly disciplined working collective.", "Accused of being critical towards Stalin and supporting the Ukrainian opposition, Makarenko had to flee Kiev in order to avoid the arrest and settled in Moscow where he lived \"under special supervision.\" He continued writing, and in 1937 his acclaimed \"The Book for Parents\" came out, followed by \"Flags on the Battlements\" (translated into English as \"Learning to Live\") in 1938, a sequel to \"Road to Life\". In February 1939 he received the Order of the Red Banner of Labour, a high-profile Soviet award.", "According to official version published by Soviet authorities, Anton Semyonovich Makarenko died of heart failure in a suburban train at the Golitsyno railway station of the Moscow Railway's Smolensk line, aged 51. He was buried in Moscow, at the Novodevichy Cemetery. Margarita Barskaya, his assistant, which collaborated with Makarenko to produce a movie based on \"Flags on the Battlements\", died three months later, reportedly committing suicide by jumping out of a window.", "Although there was some opposition by the authorities at the early stages of Makarenko's \"experiments\", the Soviet establishment eventually came to hail his colonies as a grand success in communist education and rehabilitation. Among his key ideas were \"as much exigence towards the person as possible and as much respect for him as possible\", the use of positive peer pressure on the individual by the collective, and institutionalized self-government and self-management of that collective. Makarenko was one of the first Soviet educators to urge that the activities of various educational institutions — i.e., the school, the family, clubs, public organizations, production collectives and the community existing at the place of residence — should be integrated.", "Criticism of Makarenko's ideas were raised by Soviet educators and Russian dissidents both before and after the fall of Soviet communism. The humanist educator Vasyl Sukhomlynsky ventured in an unpublished manuscript, “Our Good Family” (1967), against \"Makarenko's false statement that the main objective of Soviet moral and character education is found in the collective.\" Vladimir Sirotin (Kharkov 1966 - Moscow 2016) described Makarenko as \"the bard of punitive pedagogy\" and as an ideologue of \"command pedagogy\", a system attempting to suppress the personality and being contrary to democratic freedoms and human rights, including the natural rights of child and parents. Makarenko's system has been faulted for giving the child collective too much power over the individual child. This critique is not shared by some Western analysts of Makarenko's pedagogic system, who regard him as keeping a good balance between the individual personality and the welcome influence of the guided collective, seen as a link in integrating the individual into the wider society. The Makarenko system has been studied, among others, by Scandinavian care workers dealing with young drug abusers who couldn't be helped efficiently by using other approaches. There are also similarities between Makarenko's pedagogy and the work of authors currently writing on the concept of group work. Makarenko's holistic view makes him a pioneer in this regard, holding the enlightened, but often ignored position that the individual is a complex being, with a multitude of potentials and needs. Some controversial statements from later works are seen as either authentic, the result of political pressure, or outright falsifications of his writings in a time when his work became canonised by the Soviet education system." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life and background.", "Education and later life.", "Intellectual life.", "Legacy.", "Phenomenology.", "Social phenomenology.", "The four divisions of the lifeworld." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "", "Schutz was born on 13 April 1899 in Vienna, Austria, into an upper-middle-class Jewish family as an only child. Following his graduation from high school he was drafted into the Austrian army, where he quickly rose to the American equivalent rank of second lieutenant. His army regiment was dispatched to fight in a series of heavy battles on the Italian front (WWI).", "In 1918, Schutz enrolled at the University of Vienna, where he earned his law degree. During his time at the University of Vienna he also enrolled at the Viennese Academy of International Trade from 1919 to 1920 and adopted a concentration in international law. During his time at the University of Vienna, Schutz went to lectures given by Max Weber, and felt that Weber had left the problem of meaning unanswered. As noted by Wagner (1983), Schutz's fascination with the problem of meaning was a result of his experience in combat, combined with returning to starving and economically decimated Vienna. In 1926 Schutz married Ilse Heim, after developing a well-established and prominent career in international banking. He became the chief financial officer for Reitler and Company, the Vienna banking firm. He was once described by Edmund Husserl as “a banker by day and a philosopher by night.” In 1933 the threat of Hitler's rise in Germany caused Schutz and other Viennese intellectuals to flee Austria in order to seek asylum in allied countries. Consequently, Schutz and his family relocated to Paris in 1938 in political exile. Schutz worked as an international lawyer for Reitler and Company, and moved to the United States in 1939, where he became a faculty member of The New School. He taught sociology and philosophy as well as serving as chair of the Philosophy department. Schutz is unique as a scholar of the social sciences in that he pursued a career in law for most of his life, while teaching part-time at the New School for Social Research in New York. Moreover, he produced key papers in phenomenological sociology that fill four volumes (published by Nijhoff, The Hague), while working full-time at the bank. Schutz received a substantial amount of assistance from his wife, Ilse, who transcribed his working notes and letters from his taped dictations. Schutz died on 20 May 1959 in New York City at the age of 60.", "While Schutz primarily focused on phenomenology and social science methodology his principal aim was to create a philosophical foundation for the social sciences. Schutz was strongly influenced by Ludwig von Mises, Henri Bergson, William James, and Edmund Husserl. Contrary to common belief, while Schutz's work paralleled George Herbert Mead’s analysis of the meanings within social interactions, Schutz was highly critical of Mead’s behavioristic approach. Although Schutz was never a student of Husserl, he and colleague Felix Kaufmann intensively studied Husserl's work in order to seek a basis for the interpretive sociology derived from Max Weber. In 1932, Schutz’s efforts resulted in his first published book, \"Der sinnhafte Aufbau der sozialen Welt\" (literally, \"the meaningful structure of the social world\") which was published in English as \"The Phenomenology of the Social World\". Schutz took up the generic emphasis of phenomenology, arguing that everyday life – other than philosophical or scientific theories – is most important for analysis. In this work, Schutz both applauded and criticized Weber's thinking on related issues. Schutz very much admired Weber’s teachings about the “ideal type,” which does not allow for personal interests or values in the context of social theory. This state is referred to as the value-free state. Building from Weber’s concept of “ideal type”, Schutz maintained that sociological questions should be considered value-relevant, not simply value-free. He viewed the technique of bracketing, drawn from Husserlian phenomenology, as a way beyond the limitations of ideal-type analysis. This publication brought him to the attention of Husserl, whom he visited frequently and corresponded with until Husserl's death in 1938. Even so, when Husserl asked Schutz to be his assistant, he was unable to accept the offer at Freiburg University for personal reasons. Schutz's main concerns were with how people grasp the consciousness of others while they live within their own stream of consciousness. He talked much about intersubjectivity, but in a larger sense. He used it to mean a concern with the social world, specifically the social nature of knowledge. A great deal of his work deals with the \"lifeworld\". Within this, people create social reality under the constraints of preexisting social and cultural factors and structures. He was very focused on the \"dialectical relationship between the way people construct social reality and the obdurate social and cultural reality that they inherit from those who preceded them in the social world\". Schutz is also known for his belief that humans attempt to typify everything — to categorize people and things to better understand them within the context of society. He believed that the various typifications we use inform how we understand and interact with people and objects in the social world. Schutz’s theories and conceptions are illuminated through an intense and insightful correspondence with the Harvard scholar Talcott Parsons. The thrust of the discussion centered on the meaning of the concept “social action”. Whether the Schutz-Parsons correspondence can be characterized as “dialogue” rather than “debate” has been analyzed by Rehorick (1980). Further insights into the fundamental differences between Schutz and Parsons is provided by a critical examination of original correspondence that brought in a third scholarly voice—that of Eric Voegelin. This discussion shows that conceptual and theoretical differences between Schutz and Parsons stem from different “ways of knowing”, implying fundamentally different orientations toward social scientific thinking.", "Schutz's writings had a lasting impact on sociology, both on phenomenological approaches to sociology (especially through the work of Thomas Luckmann and Peter L. Berger) and in ethnomethodology through the writings of Harold Garfinkel. Luckmann was heavily influenced by Schutz's work. Luckmann, a student of Schutz's (along with Peter L. Berger), ultimately finished Schutz's work on the structures of the Lifeworld after Schutz died by filling out his unfinished notes. Berger and Luckmann went on to use Schutz's work to further understand human culture and reality, through the development of a new form of the sociology of knowledge. As noted by Farganis (2011), Peter Berger was arguably the best-known living sociologist influenced by Schutz, owing his creation of social construction theory which explains how the processes of externalization, objectification, and internalization contribute to the social construction of reality.", "Phenomenology originated with Edmund Husserl. Schutz met Husserl and studied his work. Phenomenology is the study of things as they appear (phenomena). It is also often said to be descriptive rather than explanatory: a central task of phenomenology is to provide a clear, undistorted description of the ways things appear\". There are many assumptions behind phenomenology that help explain its creation. First, it rejects the concept of objective research. Phenomenologists would rather group presumptions through a process called \"phenomenological epoche\". Second, phenomenology believes that analyzing the daily human behavior will provide one with a comprehensive understanding of nature. The third assumption is that persons, not individuals, should be explored and questioned. Sociologically speaking, this is in part because persons can be better understood by the unique ways they reflect and symbolize the society he or she lives in. Fourth, phenomenologists prefer to gather \"capta\", or \"conscious experience\", rather than traditional data. Finally, phenomenology is considered to be oriented on discovery, and therefore phenomenologists gather research using methods that are far less restricting than in other sciences.", "Social phenomenology is concerned with how people use ordinary, everyday interactions to produce a feeling of reality and intersubjectivity. Most of Schutz's work concerned the methods used for the construction of reality through everyday experiences. The social construction of reality and ethnomethodology are disciplinary extensions beyond the social phenomenology of Alfred Schutz. As noted by Farganis (2011) phenomenological sociology is characterized as particularly subjective in nature because its emphasis of understanding reality through the perspective of the acting subject rather than through the lens of the scientific observer. Rather than attempting to uncover and document the social structures which influence our social world Schutz and other sociological phenomenologists seek not only to identify the content of our consciousness related to our conception of the social reality of everyday life but also, how this reality comes to assume the form it is. In essence, Schutz and social phenomenologists are principally concerned with the happenings of everyday life or what Schutz refers to as the ‘lifeworld’. As noted by Ritzer (2011) the lifeworld “is an intersubjective world in which people both create social reality and are constrained by the preexisting social and cultural structures created by their predecessors.\" Within this world, relationships between the social and natural world are what come into doubt. There is this existence of meaning which comes into play yet most people simply accept the world how it is and never second guess the concept or problem of meaning.[14] Schutz delves even more into specific relationships such as the difference between intimate face-to-face relationships and distant and impersonal relationships.", "Schutz's division of Husserl's \"Lebenswelt\" (the mundane lifeworld) into four distinct sub-worlds is perhaps his most influential theoretical contribution. The theory of the lifeworld is that social experience creates a world that is separated between the social reality that has been directly experienced and social reality that is on the horizon of direct experience. The former consisted of the \"Umwelt\" of what Schutz termed consociates or fellow-men – of the man who \"shares with me a community of space and a community of time\". The Concept of umwelt (life-world): the environment is defined through agent’s perception and action. In contrast, those who Schutz did not deem his fellow-men, he put them in three classes: the world of contemporaries (Mitwelt), the world of predecessors (Vorwelt). and the world of successors (Folgewelt). The last two represent the past and the future, whereas one's contemporaries share a community of time, if not space, and are different from the predecessors and successors because it is possible for them to become fellow-men or consociates. Schutz was interested in documenting the transition from direct to indirect experience and the series of experiences in between. He also wanted to map the progressive anonymisation of the contemporaries (\"Mitwelt)\", which was a measurement of increasing anonymity of \"my absent friend, his brother whom he has described to me, the professor whose books I have read, the postal clerk, the Canadian Parliament, abstract entities like Canada herself, the rules of English grammar, or the basic principles of jurisprudence\". Schutz argued that the more one goes into the contemporary world, the more anonymous the contemporary inhabitants become, with the most anonymous being artifacts of any kind that hold meaning, context, and suggest there are unknown people. In his later writings, Schutz explored how everyday social experiences that pertain to these dimensions are most often intertwined in varying degrees of anonymity. For instance, \"if in a face-to-face relationship with a friend I discuss a magazine article dealing with the attitude of the President and Congress toward China, I am in a relationship not only with the perhaps anonymous contemporary writer of the article but also with the contemporary individual or collective actors on the social scene designated by the terms, 'President', 'Congress', 'China'\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Overview.", "First series.", "Second series.", "Third series.", "Variants.", "The station wagon.", "Thema 8·32.", "Thema Limousine.", "Engines.", "Chrysler 300C based Lancia Thema.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Thema was Lancia's luxury car based on the all-new Type Four platform, the others being the Fiat Croma, the Saab 9000 and, later, the Alfa Romeo 164. The Thema was available as a saloon and as a station wagon designed and produced by Pininfarina.", "The Lancia Thema was announced in May 1984, then introduced to the motoring press with an event held in October 1984 in Vienna, and to the general public at the Turin Motor Show in November of the same year. The first series Thema was built between 1984 and 1988, with four different models initially available. Two came with a twin cam 8-valve, fuel injected 1,995 cc 4-cylinder petrol engine, in naturally aspirated guise on the Thema i.e. or turbocharged and intercooled on the Thema i.e. turbo. Engine output was 120 PS and 165 PS respectively. The most expensive model was the Thema 6V, powered by a 150 PS, 2,849 cc V6, tuned for smoothness. On most European markets a 2,445 cc, 100 PS four-cylinder turbocharged and intercooled four-cylinder diesel engine was also available, on the Thema turbo ds. 1986 saw the introduction of the Pininfarina-designed Thema Station Wagon, available with the two turbocharged engines only, and of the Ferrari V8-engined Thema 8·32.", "The second series Thema was presented in the Paris Motor Show in September 1988. New 16-valve 2.0-litre engines replaced the previous 8-valve units, increasing the power output to on the naturally aspirated Thema i.e. 16v and to on the Thema turbo 16v. The 8-valve 2-litre, now producing, remained on sale on the Thema i.e. base model. The six-cylinder on the Thema V6 was only mildly revised. The diesel engine on the Thema turbo ds increased marginally in capacity, to 2,499 cc, and more significantly in output, to. A number of small visual updates were made to freshen the Thema's look. Upfront there was a more prominent grille with vertical instead of horizontal bars, and the turn indicators had been moved beneath the main headlamp units, under horizontal dark-tinted lenses. At the rear all model badging was removed, and the turn signals and backup lamp lenses were now tinted red. Finally the side rubbing strips, side skirts, wheel covers and 8-spoke alloy wheels were redesigned. The station wagon and the 8·32 received similar updates. With five engines available of the saloon, three on the SW (the two 16-valve petrols and the turbo diesel) and the 8·32, the Thema range consisted of nine different models. The different models received almost no visual distinctions, aside from the 8·32. Other models looked largely identical aside from badging, wheel dimensions, and wheel design (along with body-coloured mirror housings on top versions). Additionally the 4- and 6-cylinder petrol engines were also produced in catalytic converter-equipped versions, with slightly reduced output, for sale on markets where such equipment was mandatory.", "The series two was then replaced by the facelifted third and last series, introduced in the Paris Motor Show in September 1992 and produced from 1992-1994. Four trim levels—base, LE, LS and LX—were introduced across the range; the 2.9-litre V6 engine was replaced by a more powerful 175 PS 3.0-litre unit, sourced from Alfa Romeo. Production of the Thema ceased in 1994 when Lancia withdrew from RHD markets (including the United Kingdom) in response to falling sales and the Thema was replaced by the Lancia Kappa.", "", "In addition to the saloon, a station wagon was jointly developed and produced by Lancia and Pininfarina in Grugliasco. It was shown in prototype form at the September 1985 Frankfurt Motor Show, and in definitive form at the March 1986 Geneva Motor Show. Zagato had also shown a station wagon proposal earlier, at the 1985 Geneva Motor Show. This prototype, which remained a design study, with a larger glass area in the rear and with more discreet D-pillars than for the Pininfarina variant. Pininfarina was also tasked with producing the new bodystyle. The Lancia factory assembled all the body-in-white parts shared with the saloon; the incomplete bodies were sent to Pininfarina, where they were completed and painted, and final assembly was carried out. The station wagon version was never offered in a right-hand drive variant. In total 21,074 Thema station wagons would be built by Pininfarina between 1986 and 1994 in their Borgo San Paolo plant.", "First shown at the Turin Auto Show in 1986, the Lancia Thema 8·32 (\"8\" standing for the number of cylinders and \"32\" for the number of valves) was assembled at Lancia's S. Paolo plant in Turin. It used a 2,927 cc, [[[[Ferrari Dino engine#Quattrovalvole|Tipo F105L]], [[Ferrari]] [[V8 engine|V8]]. This engine was based on the unit used in the [[Ferrari 308 GTB|Ferrari 308]] and in the [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial Quattrovalvole|Ferrari Mondial Quattrovalvole]], and some of the componentry was assembled by [[Ducati]] from castings made at Maranello. The engine differed from other Ferrari V8s of the time in that it was equipped with a [[V8 engine#Crankshaft design|cross-plane type crankshaft]] rather than the usual flat-plane crankshaft, smaller valves and different firing order. All this to make the engine characteristics more suitable in a four-door luxury saloon. In non catalysed form the engine produced at 6,750 rpm, and the car was capable of 0–100 km/h in 6.8 seconds and a top speed of. Catalysed versions were slightly detuned to which gave 0–100 km/h in 7.2 seconds and a top speed of. The transmission was a 5-speed [[Manual transmission|manual gearbox]]; there was no automatic option. The braking system used larger 294 mm vented front discs and the standard 251 mm rear ones from the other Themas. All 8·32s featured [[Jetronic|Bosch KE3 Jetronic]] fuel injection, [[Anti-lock braking system|ABS]], [[ZF Friedrichshafen|ZF]]'s brand new Servotronic electronically controlled rack-and-pinion power steering (which varied steering wheel effort according to vehicle speed), and a retractable rear [[spoiler (car)|spoiler]]. The latter, designed to increase high speed stability, was controlled by the driver via a rotary switch on the right stalk. In closed position, it would fit flush with the boot lid. The tyres were specially developed 205/55 VR15 [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company|Goodyears]] on five-spoke 6J×15 [[alloy wheels]]. The car offered a handmade wood-and-[[Alcantara (material)|Alcantara]] (or optional [[Poltrona Frau]] leather) interior, and was complete with similar luxury equipment as LX versions of the Thema. Stitched leather covered the entire dashboard, the steering wheel (including centre), gear and handbrake levers and booths, centre console, door panels and sun visors, while the headlining was Alcantara. A bespoke dashboard fascia housed two main instruments, six small auxiliary gauges, and triple round air conditioning vents. Like the door cappings and the lids concealing the radio and ashtray, it was veneered in matte varnish [[Burl|burr]] wood. The instrumentation had black dials with yellow hands and markings; it included water thermometer, oil thermometer and pressure gauge, and check panels for the lights and the drivetrain. The seats (and matching door panel inserts) were trimmed in beige or date brown Alcantara as standard, with black or brown leather was an optional extra. Brown interiors got colour-matching switchgear, carpets and trim. Irrespective of interior selection, Thema 8·32 buyers could choose from five paint colours, all metallics: Blizzard Blue, Winner Red, Quartz Grey, Reflex Green and Black. A double hand-painted pinstripe (the upper matched to body colour, the lower yellow) ran along the sides and the rear of the car. Besides the paint scheme, retractable spoiler and wheels, the only exterior details setting the 8·32 apart from other Themas were yellow \"8·32\" badges, a silver eggcrate-type grille, and twin exhaust outlets. Some notable options were automatic climate control, electrically actuated sunroof, provision for a [[car phone]] in the front armrest, and rear individual power seats. In 1988 the 8·32 received series 2 updates like other Themas, including new lights front and rear, a smaller grille badge, removal of model badging at the rear and on the side skirts, and the new side rubbing strips (previously absent on this model). There were no third series 8·32s. This version of the Thema was produced in limited numbers, with 2370 Series 1 built between 1986 and 1988 and 1601 Series 2 built between 1989 and 1992. All were left-hand drive, although one Thema 8·32 was converted to right hand drive by TAK Motor Co. in South Africa in 1987 for the MD of TAK. The Thema 8·32's key competitors were some of the fastest saloon models of the late 1980s including the [[Audi 100]] Quattro, [[BMW 5 Series|BMW M535i]], [[Ford Sierra|Ford Sierra RS Cosworth]], [[Saab 9000]] 2.3 Turbo S, and the [[Lotus Carlton|Vauxhall Lotus Carlton/Opel Lotus Omega]].", "[[File:Lancia Thema Limousine.jpg|thumb|A Lancia Thema Limousine]] Built only on request by wealthy customers and Fiat-Group executives, the Lancia Thema Limousine featured the same interior as the LX and the 8.32 versions. Most of them were powered by a 2.8 L \"[[PRV engine|PRV]]\" V6 engine, replaced in the last ones by the 3.0 L [[Alfa Romeo V6 engine]]. Only 24 Thema Limousines were built. The wheelbase of the car was extended by to, with a resulting overall length of. The weight increased to, or by just over one fifth. The price, meanwhile, was up nearly sixty percent over a comparably equipped regular wheelbase Thema 6V.", "With the exception of the [[Ferrari Dino engine#Quattrovalvole|8.32 Ferrari engine]], Thema powerplants originated from the [[Fiat]] engine series designed by [[Aurelio Lampredi]], the famed engine designer formerly of [[Ferrari]] and [[Alfa Romeo]]. The [[straight-4]] 2.0 L [[petrol engine]], available in both naturally aspirated and [[turbocharged]] versions, was refined and offered good performance. Earlier Themas were also offered with a 2.8 L \"[[PRV engine|PRV]]\" V6 engine, developed in cooperation with [[Peugeot]], [[Renault]], and [[Volvo]]. This unit was replaced in 1992 with a 3.0 L [[Alfa Romeo V6 engine]] (Fiat had bought Alfa Romeo in 1986 and gained access to this engine).", "Starting in the 2011 model year and ending in early 2014, the Chrysler 300C was sold in Europe's left hand drive markets as the Lancia Thema, and as a right hand drive Chrysler 300C in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]].", "[[Category:Lancia vehicles|Thema]] [[Category:Front-wheel-drive vehicles]] [[Category:Executive cars]] [[Category:Sedans]] [[Category:Station wagons]] [[Category:1990s cars]] [[Category:Cars introduced in 1984]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Early life.", "College years and depression.", "Career and marriage.", "Final depressive episode and death.", "Following Plath's death.", "Works.", "\"The Colossus\".", "\"The Bell Jar\".", "\"Double Exposure\".", "\"Ariel\".", "Other works.", "Journals and letters.", "Hughes controversies.", "Themes and legacy.", "Popular recognition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Sylvia Plath was born on October 27, 1932, in Boston, Massachusetts. Her mother, Aurelia Schober Plath (1906–1994), was a second-generation American of Austrian descent, and her father, Otto Plath (1885–1940), was from Grabow, Germany. Plath's father was an entomologist and a professor of biology at Boston University who authored a book about bumblebees. On April 27, 1935, Plath's brother Warren was born, and in 1936 the family moved from 24 Prince Street in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, to 92 Johnson Avenue, Winthrop, Massachusetts. Plath's mother, Aurelia, had grown up in Winthrop, and her maternal grandparents, the Schobers, had lived in a section of the town called Point Shirley, a location mentioned in Plath's poetry. While living in Winthrop, eight-year-old Plath published her first poem in the \"Boston Herald\"s children's section. Over the next few years, Plath published multiple poems in regional magazines and newspapers. At age 11, Plath began keeping a journal. In addition to writing, she showed early", "In 1950 Plath attended Smith College, a private women's liberal arts college in Massachusetts. She excelled academically, and wrote to her mother. While at Smith she lived in Lawrence House, and a plaque can be found outside her old room. She edited \"The Smith Review.\" After her third year of college Plath was awarded a coveted position as a guest editor at \"Mademoiselle\" magazine, during which she spent a month in New York City. The experience was not what she had hoped it would be, and many of the events that took place during that summer were later used as inspiration for her novel \"The Bell Jar.\" She was furious at not being at a meeting the editor had arranged with Welsh poet Dylan Thomas—a writer whom she loved, said one of her boyfriends, \"more than life itself.\" She hung around the White Horse Tavern and the Chelsea Hotel for two days, hoping to meet Thomas, but he was", "Plath first met poet Ted Hughes on February 25, 1956. In a 1961 BBC interview (now held by the British Library Sound Archive), Plath describes how she met Ted Hughes: I'd read some of Ted's poems in this magazine and I was very impressed and I wanted to meet him. I went to this little celebration and that's actually where we met... Then we saw a great deal of each other. Ted came back to Cambridge and suddenly we found ourselves getting married a few months later... We kept writing poems to each other. Then it just grew out of that, I guess, a feeling that we both were writing so much and having such a fine time doing it, we decided that this should keep on. The couple", "Before her death, Plath tried several times to take her own life. On August 24, 1953, Plath overdosed on pills in the cellar of her mother's home. In June1962, Plath drove her car off the side of the road, into a river, which she later said was an attempt to take her own life. In January1963, Plath spoke with John Horder, her general practitioner and a close friend who lived near her. She described the current depressive episode she was experiencing; it had been ongoing for six or seven months.", "An inquiry on the day following Plath's death gave a ruling of suicide. Hughes was devastated; they had been separated for six months. In a letter to an old friend of Plath's from Smith College, he wrote, \"That's the end of my life. The rest is posthumous.\" Plath's gravestone, in Heptonstall's parish churchyard of St Thomas", "Plath wrote poetry from the age of eight, her first poem appearing in the \"Boston Traveller\". By the time she arrived at Smith College she had written over 50 short stories and published in a raft of magazines. In fact Plath desired much of her life to write prose and stories, and she felt that poetry was an aside. But, in sum, she was not successful in publishing prose. At Smith she majored in English and won all the major prizes in writing and scholarship. Additionally, she won a summer editor position at the young women's magazine \"Mademoiselle\", and, on her graduation in 1955, she won the Glascock Prize for \"Two Lovers and a Beachcomber by the Real Sea\". Later, she wrote for the university publication, \"Varsity\".", "By the time Heinemann published her first collection, \"The Colossus and Other Poems\" in the UK in late 1960, Plath had been short-listed several times in the Yale Younger Poets book competition and had had work printed in \"Harper's\", \"The Spectator\" and \"The Times Literary Supplement\". All the poems in \"The Colossus\" had already been printed in major US and British journals and she had a contract with \"The New Yorker\". It was, however, her 1965 collection \"Ariel\", published posthumously, on which Plath's reputation", "Plath's semi-autobiographical novel, which her mother wished to block, was published in 1963 and in the US in 1971. Describing the compilation of the book to her mother, she wrote, \"What I've done is to throw together events from my own life, fictionalising to add color—it's a pot boiler really, but I think it will show how isolated a person feels when he is suffering a breakdown... I've tried to picture my world and the people in it as seen", "In 1963, after \"The Bell Jar\" was published, Plath began working on another literary work titled \"Double Exposure.\" It was never published and the manuscript disappeared around 1970. According to Hughes, Plath left behind \"some 130 [typed] pages of another novel, provisionally titled \"Double Exposure\". \" Theories about what", "It was Plath's publication of \"Ariel\" in 1965 that precipitated her rise to fame. The poems in \"Ariel\" mark a departure from her earlier work into a more personal arena of poetry. Robert Lowell's poetry may have played a part in this shift as she cited Lowell's 1959 book \"Life Studies\" as a significant influence, in an interview just before her death. Posthumously published in 1966, the impact of \"Ariel\" was dramatic, with its dark and potentially autobiographical descriptions of mental illness in poems such as '\"Tulips\", \"Daddy\" and \"Lady Lazarus\". Plath's work is often held within the genre of confessional poetry and the style of her work compared to other contemporaries, such as Robert Lowell and W. D. Snodgrass. Plath's close friend Al Alvarez, who has written about her extensively, said of her later work: \"Plath's case is complicated by the fact that, in her mature work, she deliberately used the details of her everyday life as raw material for her art. A casual visitor or unexpected", "In 1971, the volumes \"Winter Trees\" and \"Crossing the Water\" were published in the UK, including nine previously unseen poems from the original manuscript of \"Ariel\". Writing in \"New Statesman,\" fellow poet Peter Porter wrote: \"Crossing the Water\" is full of perfectly realised works. Its most striking impression is of a front-rank artist in the process of discovering her true power.", "Plath's letters were published in 1975, edited and selected by her mother Aurelia Plath. The collection, \"Letters Home: Correspondence 1950–1963\", came out partly in response to the strong public reaction to the publication of \"The Bell Jar\" in America. Plath began keeping a diary from the age of 11 and continued doing so until her suicide. Her adult diaries, starting from her first year at Smith College in 1950, were first published in 1982 as \"The Journals of Sylvia Plath,\" edited by Frances McCullough, with Ted Hughes as consulting editor. In 1982, when Smith College acquired Plath's remaining journals, Hughes sealed two of them until February 11, 2013, the 50th anniversary of", "As Hughes and Plath were legally married at the time of her death, Hughes inherited the Plath estate, including all her written work. He has been condemned repeatedly for burning Plath's last journal, saying he \"did not want her children to have to read it.\" Hughes lost another journal and an unfinished novel, and instructed that a collection of Plath's papers and journals should not be released until 2013. He has been accused of attempting to control the estate for his own ends, although royalties from Plath's poetry were placed into a trust account for their two children, Frieda and Nicholas. Plath's gravestone has been repeatedly vandalized by those aggrieved that \"Hughes\" is written on the stone; they have attempted to chisel it off, leaving only the name \"Sylvia Plath.\" When Hughes' mistress Assia Wevill killed herself and their four-year-old daughter Shura in 1969, this practice intensified. After each defacement, Hughes had the damaged stone removed, sometimes leaving the site unmarked during repair. Outraged mourners accused Hughes in the media of dishonoring her name by removing the stone. Wevill's death led to claims that Hughes had been abusive to both Plath and Wevill. Radical feminist poet Robin Morgan published the poem \"Arraignment\", in which she openly accused Hughes of the battery and murder of Plath. Her book \"Monster\" (1972) \"included a piece in which a gang of Plath aficionados are imagined castrating Hughes, stuffing his penis into his mouth and then blowing out his brains. Hughes threatened to sue Morgan. The book was withdrawn by the publisher", "Sylvia Plath's early poems exhibit what became her typical imagery, using personal and nature-based depictions featuring, for example, the moon, blood, hospitals, fetuses, and skulls. They were mostly imitation exercises of poets she admired such as Dylan Thomas, W. B. Yeats and Marianne Moore. Late in 1959, when she and Hughes were at the Yaddo writers' colony in New York State, she wrote the seven-part \"Poem for a Birthday\", echoing Theodore Roethke's \"Lost Son\" sequence, though its theme is her own traumatic breakdown and suicide attempt at 20. After 1960 her work moved into a more surreal landscape darkened by a sense of imprisonment and looming death, overshadowed by her father. \"The Colossus\" is shot through with themes of death, redemption and resurrection. After Hughes left, Plath produced, in less than two months, the 40 poems of rage, despair, love, and vengeance on which her reputation mostly rests. Plath's landscape poetry, which she wrote throughout her life, has been described as \"a rich and important area of her work that is often overlooked... some of the best of which was written about the Yorkshire moors.\" Her September 1961 poem \"Wuthering Heights\" takes its title from the Emily Brontë novel, but its content and style is Plath's own particular vision of the Pennine landscape. It was Plath's publication of \"Ariel\" in 1965 that precipitated her rise to fame. As soon as it was published, critics began to see the collection as the charting of Plath's increasing desperation or death wish. Her dramatic death became her most famous aspect, and remains so. \"Time\" and \"Life\" both reviewed the slim volume of \"Ariel\" in the wake of her death. The critic at \"Time\" said: \"Within a week of her death, intellectual London was hunched over copies of a strange and terrible poem she had written during her last sick slide toward suicide. 'Daddy' was its title; its subject was her morbid love-hatred of her father; its style was as brutal as a truncheon. What is more, 'Daddy' was merely the first jet of flame from a literary dragon who in the last months of her life breathed a burning river of bile across the literary landscape. [...] In her most ferocious poems, 'Daddy' and 'Lady Lazarus,' fear, hate, love, death and the poet's own identity become fused at black heat with the figure of her father, and through him, with the guilt of the German exterminators and the suffering of their Jewish victims. They are poems, as Robert Lowell says in his preface to \"Ariel\", that 'play Russian roulette with six cartridges in the cylinder.'\" Some in the feminist movement saw Plath as speaking for their experience, as a \"symbol of blighted female genius.\" Writer Honor Moore describes \"Ariel\" as marking the beginning of a movement, Plath suddenly visible as \"a woman on paper\", certain and audacious. Moore says: \"When Sylvia Plath's \"Ariel\" was published in the United States in 1966, American women noticed. Not only women who ordinarily read poems, but housewives and mothers whose ambitions had awakened [...] Here was a woman, superbly trained in her craft, whose final poems uncompromisingly charted female rage, ambivalence, and grief, in a voice with which many women identified.\" Some feminists threatened to kill Hughes in Plath's name. Smith College, Plath's alma mater, holds her literary papers in the Smith College Library. In 2018, \"The New York Times\" published an obituary for Plath as part of the Overlooked history project.", "The United States Postal Service introduced a postage stamp featuring Plath in 2012. On October 27, 2019, Google commemorated the 87th anniversary of her birth with a Google Doodle in North America, parts of South America and Europe, Russia and Japan." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early precursors.", "Joseph Déjacque and the Revolutions of 1848.", "International Workingmen's Association.", "Peter Kropotkin.", "Organizationalism vs. insurrectionarism and expansion.", "Methods of organising: platformism vs. synthesism.", "Spanish Revolution of 1936.", "Post-war years.", "Contemporary times.", "Economic theory.", "Philosophical debates.", "Motivation.", "Freedom, work and leisure.", "Individualism and collectivism.", "Property.", "Communes as an economic democracy.", "Revolution and transition.", "Free association of communes as opposed to the nation-state.", "Example societies through history.", "Early examples.", "Gift economies and commons-based organising.", "Korean Anarchist Movement.", "Urban communities.", "Give-away shops." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Anarcho-communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, respectively. Gerrard Winstanley, who was part of the radical Diggers movement in England, wrote in his 1649 pamphlet \"The New Law of Righteousness\" that there \"shall be no buying or selling, no fairs nor markets, but the whole earth shall be a common treasury for every man\" and \"there shall be none Lord over others, but every one shall be a Lord of himself\". The", "An early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as \"libertarian\". Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, \"it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature\". According to the anarchist historian Max Nettlau, the first use of the term libertarian communism was in November 1880, when a French anarchist congress employed it to more clearly identify its doctrines. The French anarchist journalist Sébastien Faure, later founder and editor of the four-volume \"Anarchist Encyclopedia,\" started the weekly paper \"Le Libertaire\" (\"The Libertarian\") in 1895. Déjacque \"rejected Blanquism, which was based on a division between the 'disciples of the great people's Architect' and 'the people, or vulgar herd,' and was equally opposed to all the variants of social republicanism, to the dictatorship of one", "As a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy, anarcho-communism was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Emilio Covelli, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa and other ex Mazzinian republicans. The collectivist anarchists advocated remuneration for the type and amount of labor adhering to the principle \"to each according to deeds\", but they held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. As Mikhail Bakunin's associate James Guillaume put it in his essay \"Ideas on Social Organization\" (1876): \"When [...] production comes to outstrip consumption [...] everyone will draw what he needs from the abundant social reserve of commodities, without fear of depletion; and the moral sentiment which will be more highly developed among free and equal workers will prevent, or greatly reduce, abuse and waste\". The collectivist anarchists sought to collectivize ownership of the means of production while retaining payment proportional to the amount and kind of labor of each individual, but the anarcho-communists sought to extend the concept", "Peter Kropotkin (1842–1921), often seen as the most important theorist of anarchist communism, outlined his economic ideas in \"The Conquest of Bread\" and \"Fields, Factories and Workshops\". Kropotkin felt that cooperation is more beneficial than competition, arguing in his major scientific work \"\" that this was well-illustrated in nature. He advocated the abolition of private property (while retaining respect for personal property) through the \"expropriation of the whole of social wealth\" by the people themselves, and for the economy to be co-ordinated through a horizontal network of voluntary associations where goods are distributed according to the physical needs of the individual, rather than according to labor. He further argued that these \"needs,\" as society progressed, would not merely be physical needs but \"[a]s soon as his material wants are satisfied, other needs, of an artistic character, will thrust themselves forward the more ardently. Aims of life vary with each and every individual; and", "At the Berne conference of the International Workingmen's Association in 1876, the Italian anarchist Errico Malatesta argued that the revolution \"consists more of deeds than words\", and that action was the most effective form of propaganda. In the bulletin of the Jura Federation he declared \"the Italian federation believes that the insurrectional fact, destined to affirm socialist principles by deed, is the most efficacious means of propaganda\". As anarcho-communism emerged in the mid-19th century, it had an intense debate with Bakuninist collectivism and as such within the anarchist movement over participation in syndicalism and the workers movement as well as on other issues. So \"In the theory of the revolution\" of anarcho-communism as elaborated by Peter Kropotkin and others \"it is the risen people who are the", "In Ukraine the anarcho-communist guerrilla leader Nestor Makhno led an independent anarchist army in Ukraine during the Russian Civil War. A commander of the peasant \"Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine\", also known as the \"Anarchist Black Army\", Makhno led a guerrilla campaign opposing both the Bolshevik \"Reds\" and monarchist \"Whites\". The revolutionary autonomous movement of which he was a part made various tactical military pacts while fighting various forces of reaction and organizing the Free Territory of Ukraine, an anarchist society, committed to resisting state authority, whether capitalist or Bolshevik. After successfully repelling Austro-Hungarian, White, and Ukrainian Nationalist forces, the Makhnovists militia forces and anarchist communist territories in the Ukraine were eventually crushed by Bolshevik military forces. In the Mexican Revolution the Mexican Liberal Party was established and during the early 1910s it led a series of military offensives leading to the conquest and occupation of certain towns and districts in Baja California", "The most extensive application of anarcho-communist ideas (i.e. established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon) happened in the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution. In Spain, the national anarcho-syndicalist trade union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right-wing election victory. In 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling", "Anarcho-communism entered into internal debates once again over the issue of organization in the post-World War II era. Founded in October 1935 the Anarcho-Communist Federation of Argentina (FACA, Federación Anarco-Comunista Argentina) in 1955 renamed itself as the Argentine Libertarian Federation. The Fédération Anarchiste (FA) was founded in Paris on December 2, 1945, and elected the platformist anarcho-communist George Fontenis as its first secretary the next year. It was composed of a majority of activists from the former FA (which supported Voline's Synthesis) and some members of the former Union Anarchiste, which supported the CNT-FAI support to the Republican government during the Spanish Civil War, as well as some young Resistants. In 1950 a clandestine group formed within the FA called Organisation Pensée Bataille (OPB) led by George Fontenis. The \"Manifesto", "\"Libertarian Communism\" was a socialist journal founded in 1974 and produced in part by members of the Socialist Party of Great Britain. The synthesist Italian Anarchist Federation and the platformist Federation of Anarchist Communists continue existing today in Italy but insurrectionary anarchism continues to be relevant as the recent establishment of the Informal Anarchist Federation shows. In the 1970s, the French Fédération Anarchiste evolved into a joining of the principles of both synthesis anarchism and platformism but later the platformist organizations Libertarian Communist Organization (France) in 1976 and Alternative libertaire in 1991 appeared with this last one existing until today alongside the synthesist Fédération Anarchiste. In", "The abolition of money, prices, and wage labor is central to anarchist communism. With distribution of wealth being based on self-determined needs, people would be free to engage in whatever activities they found most fulfilling and would no longer have to engage in work for which they have neither the temperament nor the aptitude. Anarcho-communists argue that there is no valid way of measuring the value of any one person's economic contributions because all wealth is a common product of current and preceding generations. For instance, one could not measure the value of a factory worker's daily production without taking into account how transportation, food, water, shelter, relaxation, machine efficiency, emotional mood etc. contributed to their production. To truly give numerical economic value to anything, an overwhelming amount of externalities and contributing factors would need to be taken into account – especially current or past labor contributing to the", "", "Anarchist communists reject the claim that wage labor is necessary because people are lazy and selfish by \"human nature\". They often point out that even the so-called \"idle rich\" sometimes find useful things to do despite having all their needs satisfied by the labour of others. Anarcho-communists generally do not agree with the belief in a pre-set \"human nature\", arguing that human culture and behavior is very largely determined by socialization and the mode of production. Many anarchist communists, like Peter Kropotkin, also believe that human evolutionary tendency is for humans to cooperate with each other for mutual benefit and survival instead of existing as", "Anarchist communists support communism as a means for ensuring the greatest freedom and well-being for everyone, rather than only the wealthy and powerful. In this sense, anarchist communism is a profoundly egalitarian philosophy. Anarchist communism as an anarchist philosophy is against hierarchy in all its forms. Anarchist communists do not think that anyone has the right to be anyone else's master, or 'boss' as this is a concept of capitalism and the state and implies authority over the individual. Some contemporary anarchist communists and advocates of post-left anarchy, such as Bob Black, reject the concept of work altogether in favor of turning necessary subsistence tasks", "Some anarcho-communists (and collectivist anarchists as well) reject individualism and collectivism as illusory concepts. They argue that individuals sacrificing themselves for the \"greater\", or being ruled by the \"community\" or \"society\", is not possible because society is composed of individuals rather than being a cohesive unit separate from the individual, and argue that collective control over the individual is tyrannical and thus antithetical to anarchism. Others, such as Lucien van der Walt and Michael Schmidt, argue that: \"The anarchists did not [...] identify freedom with the right of everybody to do exactly what one", "Anarchist communists counter the capitalist conception that communal property can only be maintained by force and that such a position is neither fixed in nature nor unchangeable in practice, citing numerous examples of communal behavior occurring naturally even within capitalist systems. Anarchist communists call for the abolition of private property while maintaining respect for personal property. As such the prominent anarcho-communist Alexander Berkman maintained that \"The revolution abolishes private ownership of the means of production and distribution, and with it goes capitalistic business. Personal possession remains only in the things you use. Thus, your watch is your own, but the watch factory belongs to the people. Land, machinery, and all other public utilities will be collective property, neither to be bought nor sold. Actual use will be considered the only title-not to ownership but to possession. The organization of the coal miners, for example, will be", "Anarcho-communism has been critical of a simple call for worker's ownership of workplaces and their administration as cooperatives. While not at odds with syndicalism as a tactic, it opposes the vision of anarcho-syndicalism as a theory, which sees a post-capitalist economy being made up of federations of industrial syndicates. Anarcho-communism proposes that the future society be organised territorially through free communes (localities) instead of industrially through workers'", "According to platformist anarcho-communist Wayne Price: Leninists believe that without a transitional period of state control (their interpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat), it would be impossible for any revolution to maintain the momentum or cohesion to defend the new society against external and internal threats. Friedrich Engels noted: \"Without a previous social revolution the abolition of the state is nonsense; the abolition of capital is in itself the social revolution and involves a change in the whole method of production.\" Alternatively, such quotations have", "Anarcho-communism calls for a decentralized confederal form in relationships of mutual aid and free", "", "There have been several attempts, both successful and unsuccessful, at creating other anarchist-communist societies throughout much of the world. Anarchist-communists and some green anarchists (especially anarcho-primitivists) argue that hunter-gatherer tribes, like families, were early forms of anarchist-communism due to their egalitarian nature. Both an ancient and modern day example of anarcho-communism being utilised by an isolated population would be by the hunter-gatherers of North Sentinel Island. North Sentinel Island is one of the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal, occupied by the Sentinelese tribe who've inhabited the island for a least 60,000 years. They practice a kind of primitive communism, where", "In anthropology and the social sciences, a gift economy (or gift culture) is a mode of exchange where valuable goods and services are regularly given without any explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards (i.e. no formal \"quid pro quo\" exists). Ideally, voluntary and recurring gift exchange circulates and redistributes wealth throughout a community, and serves to build societal ties and obligations. In contrast to a barter economy or a market economy, social norms and custom governs gift exchange, rather than an explicit exchange of goods or services for money or some other commodity. Traditional societies dominated by gift exchange were small in scale and geographically remote from each other. As states formed to regulate trade and commerce within their boundaries, market exchange came to dominate. Nonetheless, the practice of gift exchange continues to play an important role in modern society. One prominent example is scientific research, which can be described as a gift economy. Contrary to popular conception, there is no evidence that societies relied primarily on barter before using money for trade. Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economics, and in more complex economies, on debt. When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or would-be enemies. The expansion of the Internet has witnessed a resurgence of the", "The Korean Anarchist Movement in Korea led by Kim Chwa-chin briefly brought anarcho-communism to Korea. The success was short-lived and much less widespread than the", "Trumbullplex, as an example of an anarchist community, operates to serve the common good through sheltering residents within a neighbourhood of Detroit, Michigan. This allows individuals who've previously gone into debt by means of rent to escape their economic burdens and join a democratic commune. The commune has", "Give-away shops, free shops, or free stores, are stores where all goods are free. They are similar to charity shops, with mostly second-hand items—only everything is available at no cost. Whether it is a book, a piece of furniture, a garment or a household item, it is all freely given away, although some operate a one-in, one-out–type policy (swap shops). The free store is a form of constructive direct action that provides a shopping alternative to a monetary framework, allowing people to exchange goods and" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History of Czechoslovak military in the USSR.", "Formation.", "Combat history.", "Commanders.", "Organisation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The First Czechoslovak Independent Field Battalion, which was formed in Buzuluk in the Urals, was the first Allied unit fighting alongside the Red Army in Soviet territory. It was formed from former members of the Czechoslovak Legion, Czechoslovak citizens (mostly refugees) living in the Soviet Union, Slovak prisoners-of-war and defectors, and Volhynian Czechs (Soviet citizens of Czech origin). Lieutenant-colonel Ludvík Svoboda was appointed to become the commander of the unit on 15 July 1942. Despite the plans of the Czechoslovak political leadership, who intended to keep the unit intact to help with the future liberation of the Czechoslovakia, the officers of the battalion tried to bring the unit into the fight as soon as possible. After sending a personal letter to Joseph Stalin, they eventually succeed and the battalion was sent into action. Notably, it took part in the defensive battle of Sokolovo, a part of the larger Third Battle of Kharkov, in March 1943. At the time, it was one of the most well armed infantry battalions on the East Front – fully equipped with automatic guns and semiautomatic infantry weapons. However, the battalion lacked heavier anti-tank weapons and artillery, which was to be provided by supporting Soviet units. Because of this, during the battle, when facing parts of the German armored division, the battalion suffered heavy losses and was later withdrawn from the front line. In May 1943, the remnants of the 1st Czechoslovak Independent Field Battalion and the 1st Czechoslovak Reserve Regiment were reorganized into 1st Czechoslovak Independent Brigade. The reinforcements were largely Rusyn and Ukrainian prisoners released from the gulags. The brigade played a key role in the 1943 battle of Kiev, and its troops were some of the first to reach the center of the Ukrainian capital city. The brigade suffered only low losses: 33 dead and missing, 82 wounded. At the time the brigade had a strength of 3,348 personnel.", "After the liberation of large parts of Ukraine in 1943/44, thousands of Volhynian Czechs volunteered to enter the Czechoslovak army. At the same time, thousands of Slovak prisoners of war, captured or deserted from Slovak Army, were regrouped and trained as the new parachute unit. This enabled to build the army corps. The corps was created on April 10, 1944 at Chernivtsi and his headquarters moved to Sadagura. The 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps consisted of three (later four) infantry brigades and of tank, artillery, engineer and other support units. Some of these units were later reorganized into higher independent units, such as Tank Brigade and Mixed Air Division. While most of the Czechoslovak units served as part of the Corps, some may have been detached for operations with Red Army formations and units as required. In late autumn 1944, when parts of Czechoslovakia (Ruthenia and western Slovakia) were already liberated, a new infantry brigade was formed and the support units transformed into higher units.", "By the time that the Soviet offensive entered Czechoslovakia, it had grown to corps size. In the autumn of 1944, 13,000 members of the corps participated in the Battle of Dukla Pass, and after fierce fighting they finally set foot on their native soil once more. Czechoslovak troops were also involved in the Prague Offensive, the last major World War II battle in Europe. The Corps initially served within the 1st Ukrainian Front's 38th Army. From September 4, 1944, as the part of 38th Army the Corps participated in the East Carpathian Strategic Offensive Operation (8 September 1944 – 28 September 1944). During this operation, from 14,900 personnel the Corps suffered a loss of 1,630 dead and 4,069 wounded. While majority of the Corps fought in the Dukla Pass, the 2nd Parachute Brigade and the 1st Czechoslovak Independent Fighter Air Regiment were relocated behind the enemy lines as the direct support to the Slovak National Uprising. After the Uprising was suppressed, the Fighter Regiment was withdrawn, while the soldiers of 2nd Parachute Brigade continued in partisan warfare in Slovak mountains until the battlefront came to central Slovakia. In November 1944 Corps was reassigned to 4th Ukrainian Front's, 1st Guards Army, only the artillery units saw the action within the 1st Ukrainian Front's in the Soviet offensive near Jasło. As part of 4th Ukrainian Front, 18th Army the Corps took part in the secondary battles until the end of the war and participated in the liberation of central Slovakia and east Moravia. However the 1st Tank Brigade, 1st Czechoslovak Mixed Air Division and some infantry units were reassigned again to the 1st Ukrainian Front's 38th Army and fought in the hardest fights in the Moravian-Ostrava Operation. At the end of the war the remnants of the Tank Brigade formed so called Fast Group in the Prague Strategic Offensive Operation (6 May 1945 -11 May 1945) during which the Corps suffered 112 killed, and 421 wounded from a total of 48,400 personnel. The First Czechoslovak Army Corps ceased to exist shortly after the victorious end of the war. On 25 May 1945, the provisional organization of the Czechoslovak armed forces was approved, according to which there was a reorganization of the Czechoslovak army in peacetime. Since the end of the May 1945 the Corps was reorganized into the 1st Czechoslovak Army and its brigades were reorganized into respective divisions.", "The Corps's initial commander was Brigade General Jan Kratochvíl, who was replaced by Brigade General Ludvík Svoboda during the initial phase of Battle of Dukla Pass. The decision was made by Soviet authorities (Marshal Konev) but was subsequently confirmed by Czechoslovak government in London. Towards the end of the war Svoboda became Minister of Defence in the new government appointed in Košice and was replaced by Brigade General Karel Klapálek who however was recovering from injuries at the time and was therefore substituted by general Boček.", "The Corps composition on formation was: Air units operationally attached to the Corps were:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Professional career.", "\"Original Bluegrass Band\" and Monroe's heyday as a star.", "Folk revival.", "Later years.", "Death.", "Legacy and influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Monroe was born on his family's farm near Rosine, Kentucky, the youngest of eight children of James Buchanan \"Buck\" and Malissa (Vandiver) Monroe. His mother and her brother, Pendleton \"Pen\" Vandiver, were both musically talented, and Monroe and his family grew up playing and singing at home. Bill was of Scottish and English heritage. Because his older brothers Birch and Charlie already played the fiddle and guitar, Bill Monroe was resigned to playing the less desirable mandolin. He recalled that his brothers insisted he should remove four of the mandolin's eight strings so he would not play too loudly. Monroe's mother died when he was ten, and his father died six years later. By and by his brothers and sisters moved away, leaving Monroe to bounce between uncles and aunts until finally settling in with his disabled uncle Pendleton Vandiver, whom he often accompanied when Vandiver played the fiddle at dances. This experience inspired one of Monroe's most famous compositions, \"Uncle Pen,\" recorded in 1950, and the 1972 album \"Bill Monroe's Uncle Pen.\" On that album, Monroe recorded a number of traditional fiddle tunes he had often heard performed by Vandiver. Uncle Pen has been credited with giving Monroe \"a repertoire of tunes that sank into Bill's aurally trained memory and a sense of rhythm that seeped into his bones.\" Also significant in Monroe's musical life was Arnold Shultz, an influential fiddler and guitarist who introduced Monroe to the blues.", "In 1929, Monroe moved to Indiana to work at an oil refinery with his brothers Birch and Charlie, and childhood friend and guitarist William \"Old Hickory\" Hardin. Together with a friend Larry Moore, they formed the \"Monroe Brothers\", to play at local dances and house parties. Birch Monroe and Larry Moore soon left the group, and Bill and Charlie carried on as a duo, eventually winning spots performing live on radio stations, first in Indiana and then, sponsored by Texas Crystals, on several radio broadcasts in Shenandoah Iowa, Nebraska, South Carolina and North Carolina from 1934 to 1936. RCA Victor signed the Monroe Brothers to a recording contract in 1936. They scored an immediate hit single with the gospel song \"What Would You Give in Exchange For Your Soul?\" and ultimately recorded 60 tracks for Victor's Bluebird label between 1936 and 1938. After the Monroe Brothers disbanded in 1938, Bill Monroe formed The Kentuckians in Little Rock, Arkansas, but the group only lasted for three months. Monroe then left Little Rock for Atlanta, Georgia, to form the first edition of the Blue Grass Boys with singer/guitarist Cleo Davis, fiddler Art Wooten, and bassist Amos Garren. Bill had wanted \"Old Hickory\" to become one of the original members of his \"Blue Grass Boys\", however William Hardin had to decline. In October 1939, Monroe successfully auditioned for a regular spot on the Grand Ole Opry, impressing Opry founder George D. Hay with his energetic performance of Jimmie Rodgers's \"Mule Skinner Blues\". Monroe recorded that song, along with seven others, at his first solo recording session for RCA Victor in 1940; by this time, the Blue Grass Boys consisted of singer/guitarist Clyde Moody, fiddler Tommy Magness, and bassist Bill Wesbrooks. While the fast tempos and instrumental virtuosity characteristic of bluegrass music are apparent even on these early tracks, Monroe was still experimenting with the sound of his group. He seldom sang lead vocals on his Victor recordings, often preferring to contribute high tenor harmonies as he had in the Monroe Brothers. A 1945 session for Columbia Records featured an accordion, soon dropped from the band. Most importantly, while Monroe added banjo player David \"'Stringbean\" Akeman to the Blue Grass Boys in 1942, Akeman played the instrument in a relatively primitive style and was rarely featured in instrumental solos. Monroe's pre-1946 recordings represent a transitional style between the string-band tradition from which he came and the musical innovation to follow.", "Key developments occurred in Monroe's music with the addition of Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs to the Blue Grass Boys in December 1945. Flatt played a solid rhythm guitar style that would help to set the course for bluegrass timing. Scruggs played the banjo with a distinctive three-finger picking style that immediately caused a sensation among Opry audiences. Flatt and Scruggs joined a highly accomplished group that included fiddler Howdy Forrester and bassist Joe Forrester and would soon include fiddler Chubby Wise and bassist Howard Watts, who often performed under the name \"Cedric Rainwater\". In retrospect, this lineup of the Blue Grass Boys has been dubbed the \"Original Bluegrass Band\", as the music finally included all the elements that characterize bluegrass music, including breakneck tempos, sophisticated vocal harmony arrangements, and impressive instrumental proficiency demonstrated in solos or \"breaks\" on the mandolin, banjo, and fiddle. By this time, Monroe had acquired the 1923 Gibson F5 model \"Lloyd Loar\" mandolin, which became his trademark instrument for the remainder of his career. The 28 songs recorded by this version of the Blue Grass Boys for Columbia Records in 1946 and 1947 soon became classics of the genre, including \"Toy Heart\", \"Blue Grass Breakdown\", \"Molly and Tenbrooks\", \"Wicked Path of Sin\", \"My Rose of Old Kentucky\", \"Little Cabin Home on the Hill\", and Monroe's most famous song \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\". The last-named was recorded by Elvis Presley in 1954, appearing as the B-side of his first single for Sun Records. Monroe gave his blessing to Presley's rock and roll cover of the song, originally a slow ballad in waltz time, and in fact re-recorded it himself with a faster arrangement after Presley's version became a hit. Several gospel-themed numbers are credited to the \"Blue Grass Quartet\", which featured four-part vocal arrangements accompanied solely by mandolin and guitar – Monroe's usual practice when performing \"sacred\" songs. Both Flatt and Scruggs left Monroe's band in early 1948, soon forming their own group, the Foggy Mountain Boys. In 1949, after signing with Decca Records, Monroe entered what has been called the \"golden age\" of his career with what many consider the classic \"high lonesome\" version of the Blue Grass Boys, featuring the lead vocals and rhythm guitar of Jimmy Martin, the banjo of Rudy Lyle (replacing Don Reno), and fiddlers such as Merle \"Red\" Taylor, Charlie Cline, Bobby Hicks, William Hicks and Vassar Clements. This band recorded a number of bluegrass classics, including \"My Little Georgia Rose\", \"On and On\", \"Memories of Mother and Dad\", and \"Uncle Pen\", as well as instrumentals such as \"Roanoke\", \"Big Mon\", \"Stoney Lonesome\", \"Get Up John\", and the mandolin feature \"Raw Hide\". Carter Stanley joined the Blue Grass Boys as guitarist for a short time in 1951 during a period when The Stanley Brothers had temporarily disbanded. On January 16, 1953 Monroe was critically injured in a two-car wreck. He and \"Bluegrass Boys\" bass player, Bessie Lee Mauldin, were returning home from a fox hunt north of Nashville. On highway 31-W, near White House, their car was struck by a drunken driver. Monroe, who had suffered injuries to his back, left arm and nose, was rushed to General Hospital in Nashville. It took him almost four months to recover and resume touring. In the meantime Charlie Cline and Jimmy Martin kept the band together. By the late 1950s, however, Monroe's commercial fortunes had begun to slip. The rise of rock-and-roll and the development of the \"Nashville sound\" in mainstream country music both represented threats to the viability of bluegrass. While still a mainstay on the Grand Ole Opry, Monroe found diminishing success on the singles charts, and struggled to keep his band together in the face of declining demand for live performances.", "Monroe's fortunes began to improve during the American folk music revival of the early 1960s. Many college students and other young people were beginning to discover Monroe, associating his style more with traditional folk music than with the country-and-western genre with which it had previously been identified. The word \"bluegrass\" first appeared around this time to describe the sound of Monroe and similar artists such as Flatt and Scruggs, the Stanley Brothers, Reno and Smiley, Jim and Jesse, and the Osborne Brothers. While Flatt and Scruggs immediately recognized the potential for a lucrative new audience in cities and on college campuses in the North, Monroe was slower to respond. Under the influence of Ralph Rinzler, a young musician and folklorist from New Jersey who briefly became Monroe's manager in 1963, Monroe gradually expanded his geographic reach beyond the traditional southern country music circuit. Rinzler was also responsible for a lengthy profile and interview in the influential folk music magazine \"Sing Out!\" that first publicly referred to Monroe as the \"father\" of bluegrass. Accordingly, at the first bluegrass festival organized by Carlton Haney at Roanoke, Virginia in 1965, Bill Monroe was the central figure. In 1964, before the Grateful Dead got together, Jerry Garcia caravanned across the country from California to tag along with Monroe. The growing national popularity of Monroe's music during the 1960s was also apparent in the increasingly diverse background of musicians recruited into his band. Non-southerners who served as Blue Grass Boys during this period included banjo player Bill Keith and singer/guitarist Peter Rowan from Massachusetts, fiddler Gene Lowinger from New Jersey, banjo player Lamar Grier from Maryland, banjo player Steve Arkin from New York, and singer/guitarist Roland White and fiddler Richard Greene from California.", "Even after the folk revival faded in the mid-1960s, it left a loyal audience for bluegrass music. Bluegrass festivals became common, with fans often traveling long distances to see a number of different acts over several days of performances. In 1967 Monroe himself founded an annual bluegrass festival at Bean Blossom in southern Indiana, a park he had purchased in 1951, which routinely attracted a crowd of thousands; a double LP from the festival featuring Monroe, Jimmy Martin, Lester Flatt, and Jim and Jesse was released in 1973. The annual \"Bill Monroe Bean Blossom Bluegrass Festival\" is now the world's oldest continuously running annual bluegrass festival. Monroe's compositions during his later period were largely instrumentals, including \"Jerusalem Ridge\", \"Old Dangerfield\" (originally spelled Daingerfield after the town in East Texas), and \"My Last Days on Earth\"; he settled into a new role as a musical patriarch who continued to influence younger generations of musicians. Monroe recorded two albums of duets in the 1980s; the first featured collaborations with country stars such as Emmylou Harris, Waylon Jennings, and The Oak Ridge Boys, while the second paired him with other prominent bluegrass musicians. A 1989 live album celebrated his 50th year on the Grand Ole Opry. Monroe also kept a hectic touring schedule. On April 7, 1990, Monroe performed for Farm Aid IV in Indianapolis, Indiana along with Willie Nelson, John Mellencamp, Neil Young and with many other artists.", "Monroe's last performance occurred on March 15, 1996. He ended his touring and playing career in April, following a stroke. Monroe died on September 9, 1996, in Springfield, Tennessee, four days before his 85th birthday.", "Bill Monroe was made an honorary Kentucky Colonel in 1966. He was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1970, the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1971, and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (as an \"early influence\") in 1997. Jimmie Rodgers, Bob Wills, Hank Williams Sr., and Johnny Cash are the only other performers honored in all three. As the \"father of bluegrass\", he was also an inaugural inductee into the International Bluegrass Music Hall of Honor in 1991. Monroe was a recipient of a 1982 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts, which is the United States government's highest honor in the folk and traditional arts. That year's fellowships were the first bestowed by the NEA. In 1993, he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, and he was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1995. His well-known song \"Blue Moon of Kentucky\" has been covered not only by bluegrass but also rock and country artists, most notably Elvis Presley, Paul McCartney, and Patsy Cline. In 2003, CMT had Bill Monroe ranked No. 16 on \"CMT 40 Greatest Men of Country Music\". Artists that claimed to be influenced by or to be playing the bluegrass genre were often bullied by Bill Monroe. He always considered himself the father and caretaker of bluegrass. He would often say of new bands that did not perform to his standards, \"That ain't no part of nothin'.\" Even those who question the scope of bluegrass refer to Monroe as a \"musical giant\" and recognize that \"there would be no bluegrass without Bill Monroe.\" More than 150 musicians played in the Blue Grass Boys over the nearly 60 years of Monroe's performing career. Monroe tended to recruit promising young musicians who served an apprenticeship with him before becoming accomplished artists in their own right. Some of Monroe's band members who went on to greater prominence include singer/guitarists Clyde Moody, Lester Flatt, Jack Cook, Mac Wiseman, Jimmy Martin, Carter Stanley, Del McCoury, Peter Rowan, Roland White, Roland Dunn and Doug Green; banjo players Earl Scruggs, Buck Trent, Don Reno, Stringbean, Sonny Osborne, and Bill Keith; and fiddlers Tommy Magness, Chubby Wise, Vassar Clements, Byron Berline, Kenny Baker, Bobby Hicks, Gordon Terry, Randall Franks and Glen Duncan. Monroe also regularly performed with flat-picking guitar virtuoso Doc Watson. Modern bluegrass singer and mandolin player Ricky Skaggs was influenced by Monroe. Skaggs was only six years old, in 1960, when he first got to perform on stage with Monroe and his band at the high school in Martha, Kentucky. He stated, \"I think Bill Monroe's importance to American music is as important as someone like Robert Johnson was to blues, or Louis Armstrong. He was so influential: I think he's probably the only musician that had a whole style of music named after his band.\" In 1999, the portion of Indiana State Road 135 running from Morgantown through to Nashville, Indiana was dedicated to Bill Monroe and is known as the Bill Monroe Memorial Highway. On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Bill Monroe among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal Studios fire." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Themes.", "Utopianism.", "Inverted Crusoeism.", "Examples.", "Robinsonade proper.", "Science fiction robinsonade.", "Apocalyptic fantasy robinsonade.", "Film.", "Comics.", "Television.", "Video games.", "Examples.", "Literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In the view of Dublin-born novelist James Joyce, Robinson Crusoe is a symbol of the British Empire: \"He is the true prototype of the British colonist...\" Later works would, arguably, expand on a mythology of colonialism. In the archetypical robinsonade, the protagonist is suddenly isolated from the comforts of civilization, usually shipwrecked or marooned on a secluded and uninhabited island. He must improvise the means of his survival from the limited resources at hand. Some of the common themes include: See also themes for subgenres below.", "Unlike Thomas More's \"Utopia\" and romantic works which depicted nature as idyllic, \"Crusoe\" made it unforgiving and sparse. The protagonist survives by his wits and the qualities of his cultural upbringing, which also enable him to prevail in conflicts with fellow castaways or over local peoples he may encounter. However, he manages to wrest survival and even a certain amount of civilisation from the wilderness. Works that followed went both in the more utopian direction (\"Swiss Family Robinson\") and the dystopian direction (\"Lord of the Flies\").", "The term \"inverted Crusoeism\" is coined by J. G. Ballard. The paradigm of Robinson Crusoe has been a recurring topic in Ballard’s work. Whereas the original Robinson Crusoe became a castaway against his own will, Ballard's protagonists often choose to maroon themselves; hence \"inverted Crusoeism\" (e.g., Concrete Island). The concept provides a reason as to why people would deliberately maroon themselves on a remote island; in Ballard’s work, becoming a castaway is as much a healing and empowering process as an entrapping one, enabling people to discover a more meaningful and vital existence.", "One of the best known robinsonades is \"The Swiss Family Robinson\" (1812–27) by Johann Rudolf Wyss, in which a shipwrecked clergyman, his wife, and his four sons manage not only to survive on their island but also to discover the good life. Jules Verne strands his castaways in \"Mysterious Island\" (1874) with only one match, one grain of wheat, a metal dog collar, and two watches.", "The robinsonade proper also contains the following themes:", "The robinsonade genre also includes many space-travel science fiction works. The basic premise is that our astronauts arrive at new worlds, terraform them if necessary, then live and prosper there, building a civilization where none existed before. The vastness of interstellar space, and the constraints of relativistic physics, may keep them isolated for thousands of years from other human or non-human (possibly robotic) settlements scattered across the galaxy, hidden amongst hundreds of billions of other stars and planets; and in their new life, they may meet aliens, just as Robinson Crusoe met Man Friday. Genre SF robinsonades naturally tend to be set on uninhabited planets or satellites rather than islands. The Moon is the location of Ralph Morris's proto-SF \"The Life and Wonderful Adventures of John Daniel\" (1751), and of John W Campbell Jr's paean to human inventiveness, \"The Moon is Hell\" (1950). A classic example of an SF robinsonade which has all the elements of the robinsonade proper is Tom Godwin's \"The Survivors\", as well as J. G. Ballard's \"Concrete Island\". A more recent example is Andy Weir's 2011 \"The Martian\". Joanna Russ' \"We Who Are About To... (1977) is a radical feminist objection to the entire genre.", "\"Sears List of Subject Headings\" recommends that librarians also catalog apocalyptic fantasies—such as Cormac McCarthy's popular novel \"The Road\", or even Robert A. Heinlein's \"Starship Troopers\"—as robinsonades.", "\"Robinson Crusoe on Mars\" is the story of the survivor of a space ship crash on the planet Mars. \"Lt. Robin Crusoe, U.S.N.\" is a 1966 comedic retelling, featuring a US Navy pilot and an astrochimp named Floyd. \"Enemy Mine\" is the SF story of a human and enemy alien who crash land on a barren planetoid and eventually cooperate to survive. \"The Martian\" is the story of a human astronaut stranded on Mars after a storm forces the rest of the crew to depart and the effort to recover him. \"Cast Away\" is the story of a FedEx employee (Tom Hanks) who is the sole survivor of a plane crash and is stranded on a deserted island for four years.", "In 1940 Mort Weisinger created Green Arrow, a millionaire castaway turned to vigilante. Years later, Gold Key Comics, produced a comic series, titled \"Space Family Robinson\", in the early 1960s and later producer Irwin Allen, created his own version of a similar concept, about another Space Family Robinson, known as \"Lost in Space\", for CBS. The first appearance of a space-faring Robinson family (unrelated to the series' Robinsons) was in a comic book published by Gold Key Comics, \"The Space Family Robinson\", December 1962. Space Family Robinson was published as a total of 59 issues, from 1962 to 1982. The first issue was published in December 1962. With issue #15 (January, 1966), the \"Lost in Space\" title was added to the cover. The book \"Silver Age: The Second Generation of Comic Artists\" by Daniel Herman explains that when the \"Lost in Space\" TV series came out in 1965, it was obvious that it was inspired, at least in part, by the comic book, but CBS, the network airing the show, had never acquired the license from Western Publishing. Rather than sue CBS or Irwin Allen, Western decided to reach a settlement which allowed them to use \"Lost in Space\" for the title of the comic book. Since CBS and Irwin Allen licensed shows to Western, Western didn't want to antagonize them. Also, the TV show title probably helped sales of the comic book.", "The \"Lost in Space\" TV series is an adaptation of the novel \"The Swiss Family Robinson\". The astronaut family of Dr. John Robinson, accompanied by an Air Force pilot and a robot, set out from an overpopulated Earth in the spaceship \"Jupiter 2\" to visit a planet circling the star Alpha Centauri with hopes of colonizing it. Their mission in 1997 (the official launch date of the \"Jupiter 2\" was October 16, 1997) is immediately sabotaged by Dr. Zachary Smith, who slips aboard their spaceship and reprograms the robot to destroy the ship and crew. Smith is trapped aboard, and saves himself by prematurely reviving the crew from suspended animation. They save the ship, but consequent damage leaves them lost in space. Eventually they crash on an alien world, later identified as Priplanis, where they must survive a host of adventures. Smith (whom the show's writer originally intended to kill off) remains through the series as a source of comedic cowardice and villainy, exploiting the forgiving (or forgetful) nature of the Robinsons.", "Several videogames have explored this theme, placing players in hostile environments where they must work towards a specific goal or merely survive. As such, robinsonade video games can be included in the broader survival game genre. A few examples of this genre are the games in the \"Stranded\" series, \"Stranded Deep,\" \"The Forest\" and more recently Minecraft.", "", "Ordered by date of publication" ] }

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{ "title": [ "First generation (\"Typ\" 6Y; 1999–2007).", "Engines.", "Trim levels.", "Fabia VRS.", "Second generation (\"Typ\" 5J; 2007–2014).", "Facelift.", "Marketing.", "United Kingdom.", "China.", "India.", "Engines.", "Related models.", "Motorsport.", "Third generation (\"Typ \"NJ; 2015–present).", "Safety.", "Engines.", "Facelift.", "Motorsport.", "Concept cars." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The first generation Fabia (given the internal type code \"6Y\") was officially presented at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 1999 and production of this model started in October the same year. The estate version Fabia Combi was introduced in September 2000 at the Paris Motor Show. It was the first model to use the Volkswagen Group's A04 platform, which it shared with the Volkswagen Polo Mk4 and SEAT Ibiza. In the United Kingdom, for 2000, this car won \"What Car?\"'s \"Car of the Year\". The range started with the 1.0 8v Classic (which was cheaper than Volkswagen's smaller 3-door 1.0 Lupo when it went on sale) to the 1.9 PD TDi VRS. Part of the Fabia's success was the fact that all of its mechanical parts were developed by or in conjunction with Volkswagen, but were offered in a package that is priced to undercut other models in the Volkswagen Group. The only traces of non-VW Škoda left in the Fabia are the 1.0 and 1.4 8v \"MPI\" engines, which were modifications to Škoda's own 1.3 engine, and were used in pre-Volkswagen Škodas such as the Estelle and Favorit. In 2004 the Fabia received a facelift, with changed front fog lights and grille, slightly different rear lights, new steering wheel and revised specification levels. The VRS also had its final gearbox ratio changed. Most importantly, the Sport model was added, with the 1.4 petrol being offered with a manual transmission. This engine was quickly dropped for the 1.2 HTP, which while not as powerful, was a much more free revving engine giving a more sporty feel and flexible drive. The Sport also had its specification changed to include red seat belts and sunset privacy glass from the B pillar to the rear. Again in 2006, the Fabia range was shown at the Geneva Motor Show had minor specification revisions. These include a center rear headrest, a central three-point seatbelt and an additional four bodywork colours. The 1.4 16v petrol engine was replaced with a more powerful 1.4 16v engine.", "The term MPI (Multi-Point Injection) is used by Škoda to differentiate from 16v models and (in the case of the Octavia Mk2) FSI engines. The version of the 1.4 16v was only mated to Volkswagen's four-speed automatic transmission with fuzzy logic operation until the addition of earlier Sport models which mated it with a manual transmission. The 1.4 8v was dropped in 2003. The Fabia's overall performance and fuel consumption figures fall behind other city cars and small family cars as it is larger and heavier. However, the 1.2 HTP (High Torque Performance) engine was developed specifically for the Fabia and offers better performance and fuel economy, and was later used in Volkswagen's own Polo due to its high acclaim. It was also the highest displacement 3 cylinder petrol engine until 2014 and BMW's 1.5 litre 3 cylinder turbo engine.", "At launch, the Fabia was available in three trim levels: Classic, Comfort, and Elegance. Later in the Fabia's life the mid-range Comfort model was dropped for the name Ambiente to fit in with the rest of the range. Other models available throughout the car's lifespan included Ambiente SE, Blackline, Silverline, Sport, Bohemia (estate only, run-out model) and VRS. Various safety features and minor changes were made over time. Easy and Junior models were sold in Eastern European markets where the buying power is lower. Some of these Fabias do not have painted bumpers, side mirrors or gloveboxes. The Junior didn't have power steering and the steering wheel was 'borrowed' from Octavia I. Because of that, it was slightly bigger, with a diameter of 380 mm instead of the regular 370 mm found on all the other Fabia models. Also sold in such markets is the Fabia Praktik, which is a panel van version of the Fabia with the rear windows and seats removed. A lesser powered version of the 1.4 MPI with just is also sold in Eastern Europe. The downfall of this weaker engine was that it struggled to shift the weighty car. Unless on flat surfaces it struggled to achieve higher than 30MPG.", "Introduced in 2003, the Fabia VRS, while not the first diesel hot hatch, was the first exclusively diesel hot hatch, having no petrol equivalent. The engine is Volkswagen Group's 1.9 litre Pumpe-Düse Turbocharged Direct Injection diesel engine, producing and at 1900 rpm, with a six-speed manual gearbox. It was named the \"Diesel Car of the Year 2003\" in the Scottish Car of the Year Awards. It also falls in a low tax band (Band C) in the UK, further increasing its cost benefits over its (chiefly petrol-powered) counterparts (although this is disputed, as most VRSs are tax band F, costing £145 a year as of 2017). Official figures state 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) takes 9.6 seconds, but several motoring magazines and websites have measured faster times (around the 7.0–7.5 seconds range) (\"Autocar\": 7.1 seconds, Auto Express: 8.1 seconds, and FastHatchbacks.com: 8.5 seconds). The in gear acceleration times are 50–70 mph in 5.6 seconds, quicker than BMW's 330i which takes 6.0 seconds. 20–40 mph in 2.4 seconds is as quick as the Lotus Elise 111R. Despite this the Fabia VRS can achieve better than. The Fabia VRS has a top speed of. The VRS was shown to be quicker than a similarly priced MINI Cooper around Top Gear's and Fifth Gear's test tracks. In 2007 1,000 Special Edition Fabia VRS models were produced featuring individually numbered black leather seats with blue piping, sporty red brake callipers, \"Race Blue\" metallic paint, cruise control, darkened rear windows and a six CD autochanger. This model was known as the Fabia VRS SE. The last Mk1 Fabia VRS came off the production line in March 2007 – being UK 2007/07 registered. There is also a 2009 version, which is believed to be a late registration. According to Škoda UK, there were only 22 of these 2007 registered marks (not including the 1000 Special Edition VRS SEs).", "The second generation Fabia (internal type code \"5J\") was officially presented at the Geneva Auto Show in March 2007 and was sold from April 2007. It still uses the PQ24 platform. The car is however slightly larger than its predecessor and takes styling cues from the Roomster, Škoda's small MPV. The exterior of the two cars, Roomster and Fabia, were designed simultaneously to create synergies by Thomas Ingenlath and Peter Wouda. The estate variant was officially announced in August 2007 and was introduced at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2007. Compared with the first generation the new Combi is longer, higher and the boot has grown by 54 litres (to 480 litres total). The engine portfolio is the same as the hatchback version, without the 1.2 44 kW one. The initial petrol engine line-up was a mixture of newer engines from Audi and some carry-overs from the outgoing model. In comparison to the 1st-generation Fabia, both basic 1.2-litre 3-cylinders gained 4 kW each: new power peak was 44 kW (60 PS), and 51 kW (70 PS). There was only a single 1.4-litre 16v petrol on this model, producing 63 kW (86 PS). The range-topping petrol engine was the 1.6-litre 4-cylinder with variable valve timing producing 77 kW (105 PS). There was also an option to mate this engine with a 6-speed tiptronic transmission sourced from Aisin. The diesel range featured the same 51 kW (70 PS) and 59 kW (80 PS) 1.4-litre Pumpe-Düse 3-cylinders from the predecessor model. The top-of-the-range diesel was a 1.9-litre Pumpe-Düse 4-cylinder producing 77 kW (105 PS). The second generation Fabia trim levels were Classic, Ambiente, Sport and Elegance. In the UK the trim levels were called 1, 2, Sport, 3, and GreenLine (later S, SE, Elegance, and GreenLine). In India, the trim levels were Active, Classic, Ambiente and Elegance. All models sold within the EU were equipped with ABS, front passenger, driver and side airbags. Curtain airbags and ESC were available as an option. Though the sedan body, and the VRS version were discontinued (the latter until facelift in 2010), the 2nd-generation Fabia offered variety of new choices. The GreenLine model was the most environmentally-friendly Fabia, with 59 kW 1.4-litre diesel 3-cylinder consuming 4.1 l/100 km, which is 109 g of CO2 per km. At the Frankfurt International Motor Show (IAA) 2007 Škoda presented near-production-state design study of the Fabia Scout: a rugged version of the Fabia Combi. However, it was until May 2009 when this car finally started to roll off the production line in Mladá Boleslav. The new-generation Fabia featured a specific design element: a roof in different colour than the rest of the body was available as an option.", "The facelifted Fabia and Fabia Combi were premiered at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show. The updated version can be easily distinguished from prior versions by the different shape of the front bumper and front fog lights. Inside, new steering wheels were a noticeable difference. Though their shape remained the same, headlights with a projector module underwent technical changes: for full beam, a separate reflector is fitted on the inner side of the lamp, while the projector module (providing a dimmed beam) is on the outer side. The engine line-up was updated along with a facelift, too. 1.2-litre TSI turbocharged petrol engines came as a replacement of the previous 1.4 and 1.6-litre MPI engines, providing significant improvements to fuel consumption and corresponding reductions in CO2 emissions. The Aisin automatic transmission previously used was also replaced with the 7-speed DSG dual-clutch gearbox (optional on 77 kW (105 PS; 103 hp) 1.2 TSI models), providing a reduction of over 30% in CO2 emissions for the 77 kW (105 PS; 103 hp) automatic derivative (compared to the previous 1.6-litre). Diesel engines were updated to the common rail system and four-valve technology. With the facelift a sports VRS version returned to the range, now available as both hatchback and estate. This model features the same 1.4-litre twin-charged petrol engine as the Volkswagen Polo Mk5 GTI, producing 132 kW (180 PS) and is mated with a 7-speed DSG dual-clutch transmission as standard. With top speed 226 km/h (Fabia Combi VRS), this is the fastest production Fabia ever. The VRS had its own version of the cake advertisement – ‚Mean Green‘, with a darker rock version of \"My Favorite Things\". The GreenLine model received new technology, as well. Manufacturer's combined consumption for the Fabia GreenLine with brand-new 55 kW 1.2-litre 3-cylinder diesel engine is 3.4 l/100 km, which is 88 g CO2 per km. Gerhard Plattner, Austrian economy driver, managed to reach 2,006 km on a single tank of fuel, that is 2.21 l/100 km (127.8 mpg imp / 106.4 mpg US). New to the lot was Monte Carlo version for both Fabia and Fabia Combi, using design features if the Škoda Fabia Sports Design Concept presented at 2009 Geneva Motor Show. At the 30th Wörthersee GTI Treffen, Škoda revealed Fabia VRS 2000 design study based on Super 2000 rally car. 4 May 2012 Škoda produced 3-millionth Fabia. The number included 1,788,063 1st-generation cars, and another 1,211,937 2nd-generation Fabias.", "", "For the launch of the new Fabia, Škoda UK commissioned an advertising campaign called \"Cake\", featuring the making of a Fabia car out of cake which swapped rivets for raisins, metal for marzipan and spark plugs for sugar.", "Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive introduced the new Fabia to the public at the 2008 Guangzhou Motor Show. It was launched in China for the 2009 model year.", "Škoda India launched the latest version of Fabia in 2008. The car was well praised by Indian motor magazines, but it couldn't live up to the hype created by the previous generation Octavia. Fabia has not succeeded in this market due to dealer problems, steep prices and Škoda trying to position itself as a luxury marque. Škoda India has decided to bring in more powerful engines at better prices and taken strict measures to improve dealer quality levels and curb excessive service costs.", "The initial petrol engine lineup was a mixture of newer engines from Audi and some carry overs from the outgoing model. The base 1.2 remains the same (44 kW) while the higher powered version has its power output upped to. There was only a single 1.4 litre 16v petrol on this model, producing. The range topping petrol engine was the 1.6 16v engine producing. There was also an option to link this engine to a six speed tiptronic transmission sourced from Aisin. Diesel engines consisted of the same and 1.4 TDI units from before. The range topping diesel was a 1.9 TDI producing. The top-of-the-line VRS model features the same 1.4 litre engine as the Volkswagen Polo Mk5 GTI, producing and is fitted with a seven-speed DSG semi automatic transmission as standard. The VRS had its own version of the cake advertisement, with a darker rock version of \"My Favorite Things\". Overview of engines available for the 2nd-generation Fabia (A05, Type 5J), incl. facelifted model. Petrol engines Diesel engines", "The Škoda Roomster is a multi-purpose vehicle, also available as a panel van, that is based on the same platform and that also features the same front end design. In 2011, the Škoda Rapid was launched in India, a four-door sedan car featuring the same front end design as the second generation Fabia, but based instead on the newer PQ25 platform. It is related with the 2010 Volkswagen Vento, also developed in India, which is essentially a three-box version of the Volkswagen Polo Mk5. It is produced by Škoda India exclusively for the Indian market. It also has a slightly different interior.", "The Motorsport division of Škoda AUTO builds Škoda Fabia Super 2000 rally car. Since its debut in 2009, the Fabia Super 2000 won 14 international titles and 22 national championships. Lars Larsson won the FIA European Rallycross Championship in 2007. Sergey Zagumennov did the same in 2014", "The third generation Fabia was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in October 2014, with sales starting in the following month. Production was launched prior to the end of August 2014 in Mladá Boleslav, with manufacturing of the estate version first occurring in December 2014. Due to the low sales of RS models from the previous model generation, a hot hatch variant is not planned for production. The Mk3 Fabia - like the \"facelifted\" Mk5 Volkswagen Polo starting 2014 - underwent a major technical revision, being based on the PQ26 platform: a mixture of the PQ25 platform (Volkswagen Polo MK5 pre-facelift, 2009-2014) and the MQB platform, which is currently used by seven Volkswagen Group models. The chassis has been modified to \"revert back to the Fabia’s original, first-generation design\" by becoming 90 mm wider and 30 mm lower, resulting in more interior and boot space. Despite being 8 mm shorter, the Mk3 Fabia still offers more passenger room due to its extended wheelbase. Simultaneously, its weight has been reduced by. A similar approach was applied to the styling, according to Škoda designer Marko Jevtic: \"It [the Mk3 model] has the qualities of the first Fabia, [...] We wanted its simplicity; we did not want to overload the design.\" The Mk3 Fabia won the \"Overall winner\" and \"Best small car\" categories of the 2015 What Car? Car of the Year awards.", "The 3rd generation Fabia now comes equipped with the Front assist safety system. It gathers data from a radar sensor to automatically warn the driver and apply the brakes at the possibility of a collision at certain speeds.", "The powertrain selection for the Mk3 Fabia was borrowed from the current Mk5 Polo, although the missing 1.2 litre TDI engine was slated to be included in the fuel economy-oriented Greenline model that was due for release in late 2015. Instead, the Greenline name was dropped, in favour of using the TDI nameplate, and a newer inline-three 1.4 litre engine was put to use in the Diesel model instead, with two different levels of power output available. The 1.2 litre inline-three petrol engines from the Mk2 model were replaced by smaller but more efficient 1.0 litre engines, introduced from June 2017.", "The Mk3 Fabia and Fabia Combi were facelifted for the 2018 model year. The trim levels for the Fabia have been reorganised, with the S model continuing as the entry level trim level, with the Monte Carlo now being the range topping model, with the SE, the Colour Edition, and the SE L bridging the gap in between respectively. Revisions included a redesigned front-end, with a new wider grille and redesigned headlights, with the option of Full LED headlights now available. The rear of the car was also given a slight update with new bumper-mounted reflectors, and the option for Full LED rear lights, which are now included as standard on the range-topping Monte Carlo trim level. On the Interior of the car, the trim inserts and central transmission tunnel housing can now be customised with coloured trim.Also included on the interior of the vehicle, the Swing radio system on lower trim levels now includes a larger 6.5 inch display offered on the S model, with the SE model having the Swing Plus system included, with the 7 inch Amundsen system being offered on the SE and above. In terms of engines, the Diesel engines have been removed from the line-up, which means the model range consists of petrol engines only. The 1.0 MPI is offered on the lower spec S and SE models, with the more powerful 1.0 TSI being offered on the SE model and above.", "The Škoda Fabia R5 is a Group R rally version of the car and it has been competing in the European Rally Championship since the 2015 edition, as well as in the World Rally Championship-2, also since the 2015 edition.", "The Funstar (stylised as FUNStar) is a pick-up concept car based on the Mk3 Fabia. It was designed by Škoda Auto University students as a throwback to the Felicia Fun, a compact pick-up car produced during the 1990s. It was shown at the annual 2015 Wörthersee GTI fan meeting. The exterior received a unique paint make-up, complemented with green day-running lights, 18-inch wheels from the Octavia RS and bonnet vents. The pick-up bed required the removal of the C-pillars, necessitating wider B-pillars and stiffened side panels to retain structural strength. The Funstar is powered by a 1,2 litre TSI petrol engine, paired with a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission. A 1,8 litre engine was originally planned for use but could not be implemented due to its size." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Radical origins (1905–1906).", "Parliamentary opposition (1906–1917).", "1917 Revolution.", "Russian Civil War and decline (1918–1940).", "Refoundation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Constitutional Democratic Party was formed in Moscow on 12–18 October 1905 at the height of the Russian Revolution of 1905 when Tsar Nicholas II was forced to sign the October Manifesto granting basic civil liberties. The Kadets were to the immediate left of the Octobrists, another new formed party organized at the same time. Unlike the Octobrists, who were committed to constitutional monarchy from the start, the Kadets were at first ambiguous on the subject, demanding universal suffrage (even women's suffrage) and a Constituent Assembly that would determine the country's form of government. This radicalism was despite the fact 60% of Kadets were nobles. The Kadets were one of the parties invited by the reform-minded Prime Minister Sergei Witte to join his cabinet in October–November 1905, but the negotiations broke down over the Kadets' radical demands and Witte's refusal to drop notorious reactionaries like Petr Nikolayevich Durnovo from the cabinet. With some socialist and revolutionary parties boycotting the election to the First Duma in February 1906, the Kadets received 37% of the urban vote and won over 30% of the seats in the Duma. They interpreted their electoral win as a mandate and allied with the left-leaning peasant Trudovik faction, forming a majority in the Duma. When their declaration of legislative intent was rejected by the government at the start of the parliamentary session in April, they adopted a radical oppositionist line, denouncing the government at every opportunity. On 9 July, the government announced that the Duma was dysfunctional and dissolved it. In response, 120 Kadet and 80 Trudovik and Social Democrat deputies went to Vyborg (then a part of the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and thus beyond the reach of Russian police) and responded with the Vyborg Manifesto (or the \"Vyborg Appeal\"), written by Miliukov. In the manifesto, they called for passive resistance, non-payment of taxes and draft avoidance. The appeal failed to have an effect on the population at large and proved both ineffective and counterproductive, leading to a ban on its authors, including the entire Kadet leadership, from participation in future Dumas. This was further accentuated by the force of the tsar trying to control and deteriorate the power of the Duma. It was not until later in 1906, with the revolution in retreat, that the Kadets abandoned revolutionary and republican aspirations and declared their support for a constitutional monarchy. The government remained suspicious of the Kadets until the fall of the monarchy in 1917. Finnish liberal politician and professor of jurisdiction and politology Leo Mechelin was expelled 1903–1904 when the Kadets were preparing to form a party. Mechelin cooperated with them and wrote them a liberal constitution for Russia to be enforced when they would get into power. At the time of Vyborg Manifesto, Mechelin was already the leader of the Finnish government, or \"Mechelin's senate\" (1905–1908), which implemented the universal right to vote and freedoms of expression, press, congregation and association.", "When the Second Duma was convened on 20 February 1907, the Kadets found themselves in a difficult position. Their leadership was not represented in the Duma after the Vyborg Manifesto fiasco and their numbers were reduced to about 100. Although still the largest faction in the Duma, they no longer dominated the parliament and their attempts to concentrate on lawmaking were frustrated by radicals on the left and on the right who saw the Duma as a propaganda tool. Although the Kadets had moderated their position in the Second Duma, they refused to vote in May 1907 for a resolution denouncing revolutionary violence which gave the government of Pyotr Stolypin a pretext to dissolve the Second Duma on 3 June 1907 and change the electoral law to drastically limit the representation of leftist and liberal parties. Due to the changes in the electoral law, the Kadets were reduced to a relatively small (54 seats) opposition group in the Third Duma (1907–1912). Although excluded from the more important Duma committees, the Kadets were not entirely powerless and could determine the outcome of certain votes when allied with the centrist Octobrist faction against right-wing nationalist deputies. With the revolution crushed by 1908, they moderated their position even further as they voted to denounce revolutionary violence, no longer sought confrontation with the government and concentrated on influencing legislation whenever possible. By 1909, Miliukov could claim that the Kadets were now \"the opposition of His Majesty, not opposition to His Majesty\", which caused only moderate dissent among the left-leaning faction of the party. Although the Kadets, allied with the Progressive faction and the Octobrists, were able to push some liberal bills (religious freedoms, freedom of the press and of the labor unions) through the Duma, the bills were either diluted by the upper house of the parliament or vetoed by the tsar. The failure of their legislative program further discredited the Kadets' strategy of peaceful change through gradual reform. In 1910, the government rekindled its pre-revolutionary Russification campaign in an attempt to restrict minority rights, notably drastically curtailing Finland's autonomy. Most Kadets were opposed to these policies and allied with the left-wing of the Octobrists tried to blunt them as much as possible, but they were unsuccessful. However, a minority of Kadets headed by Pyotr Struve supported a moderate version of Russification, which threatened to split the party. With the increase in popular discontent after the Lena massacre on 4 April 1912 and a continuous decline in party membership after 1906, the rift in the party became more pronounced. Kadet leaders on the left like Central Committee member Nikolai Vissarionovich Nekrasov argued that the Duma experience had been a failure and that \"constructive work\" was pointless under an autocratic government. Kadet leaders on the right like Central Committee members Vasily Maklakov, Mikhail Chelnokov, Nikolai Gredeskul and Ariadna Tyrkova-Williams argued for a shift to the right. The disagreements were temporarily put aside in July 1914 at the outbreak of World War I when the Kadets unconditionally supported the government and found an outlet for their energies in various kinds of relief work under the umbrella of the All-Russian Union of Zemstvos and the All-Russian Union of Cities. Once the initial outburst of national unity feelings died down in mid-1915 as Russian retreat from Galicia showed the government's incompetence, the Kadets, together with the Progressive faction, the Octobrist faction and a part of the Nationalist faction in the Duma, formed the Progressive Bloc in August 1915 which was critical of the government's prosecution of the war and demanded a government of \"popular confidence\". As Russia's defeats in the war multiplied, the Kadets' opposition became more pronounced, culminating in Miliukov's speech in the Duma in October 1916 when he all but accused government ministers of treason.", "During the February Revolution of 1917, Kadet deputies in the Duma and other prominent Kadets formed the core of the newly formed Russian Provisional Government with five portfolios. Although exercising limited power in a situation known as dual power, the Provisional Government immediately attempted to deal with issues of the many nationalities in the Russian Empire. They introduced legislation abolishing all limitations based on religion and nationality and introduced an element of self-determination by transferring power from governors-general to local representatives. They issued a decree recognising Polish autonomy, more as a symbolic gesture in light of the German occupation of this territory. However, this tendency was limited as most of the ministers feared a break up of the empire. One of the Kadet leaders, Prince Lvov, became Prime Minister and Miliukov became Russia's Foreign Minister. A radical party just 11 years earlier, after the February Revolution the Kadets occupied the rightmost end of the political spectrum since all monarchist parties had been dissolved and the Kadets were the only openly functioning non-socialist party remaining. The Kadets' position in the Provisional Government was compromised when Miliukov's promise to the Entente allies to continue the war (18 April) was made public on 26 April 26. The resulting government crisis led to Miliukov's resignation and a powersharing agreement with moderate socialist parties on 4–5 May. The Kadets' position was further eroded during the July crisis when they resigned from the government in protest against concessions to the Ukrainian independence movement. The coalition was reformed later in July under Alexander Kerensky and survived yet another government crisis in early September. Sergei Fedorovich Oldenburg was Minister of Education and served briefly as chair of the short-lived Commission on Nationality Affairs. The Kadets had become a liability for their socialist coalition partners and an evidence of the treason of the moderated socialists, exposed by Bolshevik propaganda. With the Bolshevik seizure of power on 25–26 October and subsequent transfer of political power to the soviets, Kadet and other anti-Bolshevik newspapers were closed down and the party was suppressed by the new regime. Oldenburg and a group of several former ministers of the Provisional Government. By the summer of 1917, many prominent Kadets were supporters of Lavr Kornilov during the Kornilov affair.", "After the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War, most of the Kadet leadership was forced to emigrate and continued publishing newspapers abroad (mainly in Paris) until World War II. However, Oldenburg negotiated a working relationship between the Russian Academy of Science and the Bolsheviks, signing an agreement that the Academy supported the Soviet State in February 1918.", "A party called Constitutional Democratic Party – Party of Popular Freedom was founded in the then-Russian SFSR in 1990 and based on the program of the historical Kadet party. However, the party soon drifted into hardline nationalist politics and joined the national-communist National Salvation Front and supported the Supreme Soviet against President Yeltsin." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Origins.", "Ruling in Germany.", "Frederick Barbarossa.", "Henry VI.", "Philip of Swabia.", "Ruling in Italy.", "Frederick II.", "End of the Staufer dynasty.", "Members of the Hohenstaufen family.", "Kings of Italy.", "Kings of Sicily.", "Dukes of Swabia.", "Family tree of the House of Hohenstaufen." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name Hohenstaufen was first used in the 14th century to distinguish the \"high\" (\"hohen\") conical hill named Staufen in the Swabian Jura, in the district of Göppingen, from the village of the same name in the valley below. The new name was only applied to the hill castle of Staufen by historians in the 19th century, to distinguish it from other castles of the same name. The name of the dynasty followed, but in recent decades the trend in German historiography has been to prefer the name Staufer, which is closer to contemporary usage. The name \"Staufen\" itself derives from \"Stauf\" (OHG \"stouf\", akin to Early Modern English stoup), meaning \"chalice\". This term was commonly applied to conical hills in Swabia in the Middle Ages. It is a contemporary term for both the hill and the castle, although its spelling in the Latin documents of the time varies considerably: \"Sthouf\", \"Stophe\", \"Stophen\", \"Stoyphe\", \"Estufin\" etc. The castle was built or at least acquired by Duke Frederick I of Swabia in the latter half of the 11th century. Members of the family occasionally used the toponymic surname \"de Stauf\" or variants thereof. Only in the 13th century does the name come to be applied to the family as a whole. Around 1215 a chronicler referred to the \"emperors of Stauf\". In 1247, the Emperor Frederick II himself referred to his family as the \"domus Stoffensis\" (Staufer house), but this was an isolated instance. Otto of Freising (d. 1158) associated the Staufer with the town of Waiblingen and around 1230 Burchard of Ursberg referred to the Staufer as of the \"royal lineage of the Waiblingens\" (\"regia stirps Waiblingensium\"). The exact connection between the family and Waiblingen is not clear, but as a name for the family it became very popular. The pro-imperial Ghibelline faction of the Italian civic rivalries of the 13th and 14th centuries derived its name from Waiblingen. In Italian historiography, the Staufer are known as the \"Svevi\" (Swabians).", "The origin remains unclear, however, Staufer counts are mentioned in a document of emperor Otto III in 987 as descendants of counts of the region of \"Riesgau\" near Nördlingen in the Duchy of Swabia, who were related to the Bavarian \"Sieghardinger\" family. A local count Frederick (d. about 1075) is mentioned as progenitor in a pedigree drawn up by Abbot Wibald of Stavelot at the behest of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1153. He held the office of a Swabian count palatine; his son Frederick of Buren (c.1020–1053) married Hildegard of Egisheim-Dagsburg (d. 1094/95), a niece of Pope Leo IX. Their son Frederick I was appointed Duke of Swabia at Hohenstaufen Castle by the Salian king Henry IV of Germany in 1079. At the same time, Duke Frederick I was engaged to the king's approximately seventeen-year-old daughter, Agnes. Nothing is known about Frederick's life before this event, but he proved to be an imperial ally throughout Henry's struggles against other Swabian lords, namely Rudolf of Rheinfelden, Frederick's predecessor, and the Zähringen and Welf lords. Frederick's brother Otto was elevated to the Strasbourg bishopric in 1082. Upon Frederick's death, he was succeeded by his son, Duke Frederick II, in 1105. Frederick II remained a close ally of the Salians, he and his younger brother Conrad were named the king's representatives in Germany when the king was in Italy. Around 1120, Frederick II married Judith of Bavaria from the rival House of Welf.", "When the last male member of the Salian dynasty, Emperor Henry V, died without heirs in 1125, a controversy arose about the succession. Duke Frederick II and Conrad, the two current male Staufers, by their mother Agnes, were grandsons of late Emperor Henry IV and nephews of Henry V. Frederick attempted to succeed to the throne of the Holy Roman Emperor (formally known as the King of the Romans) through a customary election, but lost to the Saxon duke Lothair of Supplinburg. A civil war between Frederick's dynasty and Lothair's ended with Frederick's submission in 1134. After Lothair's death in 1137, Frederick's brother Conrad was elected King as Conrad III. Because the Welf duke Henry the Proud, son-in-law and heir of Lothair and the most powerful prince in Germany, who had been passed over in the election, refused to acknowledge the new king, Conrad III deprived him of all his territories, giving the Duchy of Saxony to Albert the Bear and that of Bavaria to Leopold IV, Margrave of Austria. In 1147, Conrad heard Bernard of Clairvaux preach the Second Crusade at Speyer, and he agreed to join King Louis VII of France in a great expedition to the Holy Land which failed. Conrad's brother Duke Frederick II died in 1147, and was succeeded in Swabia by his son, Duke Frederick III. When King Conrad III died without adult heir in 1152, Frederick also succeeded him, taking both German royal and Imperial titles.", "Frederick I (Reign 2 January 1155 – 10 June 1190), known as Frederick Barbarossa because of his red beard, struggled throughout his reign to restore the power and prestige of the German monarchy against the dukes, whose power had grown both before and after the Investiture Controversy under his Salian predecessors. As royal access to the resources of the church in Germany was much reduced, Frederick was forced to go to Italy to find the finances needed to restore the king's power in Germany. He was soon crowned emperor in Italy, but decades of warfare on the peninsula yielded scant results. The Papacy and the prosperous city-states of the Lombard League in northern Italy were traditional enemies, but the fear of Imperial domination caused them to join ranks to fight Frederick. Under the skilled leadership of Pope Alexander III, the alliance suffered many defeats but ultimately was able to deny the emperor a complete victory in Italy. Frederick returned to Germany. He had vanquished one notable opponent, his Welf cousin, Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony and Bavaria in 1180, but his hopes of restoring the power and prestige of the monarchy seemed unlikely to be met by the end of his life. During Frederick's long stays in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful colonization of Slavic lands. Offers of reduced taxes and manorial duties enticed many Germans to settle in the east in the course of the \"Ostsiedlung\". In 1163 Frederick waged a successful campaign against the Kingdom of Poland in order to re-install the Silesian dukes of the Piast dynasty. With the German colonization, the Empire increased in size and came to include the Duchy of Pomerania. A quickening economic life in Germany increased the number of towns and Imperial cities, and gave them greater importance. It was also during this period that castles and courts replaced monasteries as centers of culture. Growing out of this courtly culture, Middle High German literature reached its peak in lyrical love poetry, the Minnesang, and in narrative epic poems such as \"Tristan\", \"Parzival\", and the \"Nibelungenlied\".", "Frederick died in 1190 while on the Third Crusade and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI. Elected king even before his father's death, Henry went to Rome to be crowned emperor. He married Princess Constance of Sicily, and deaths in his wife's family gave him claim of succession and possession of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1189 and 1194 respectively, a source of vast wealth. Henry failed to make royal and Imperial succession hereditary, but in 1196 he succeeded in gaining a pledge that his infant son Frederick would receive the German crown. Faced with difficulties in Italy and confident that he would realize his wishes in Germany at a later date, Henry returned to the south, where it appeared he might unify the peninsula under the Hohenstaufen name. After a series of military victories, however, he fell ill and died of natural causes in Sicily in 1197. His underage son Frederick could only succeed him in Sicily and Malta, while in the Empire the struggle between the House of Staufen and the House of Welf erupted once again.", "Because the election of a three-year-old boy to be German king appeared likely to make orderly rule difficult, the boy's uncle, Duke Philip of Swabia, brother of late Henry VI, was designated to serve in his place. Other factions however favoured a Welf candidate. In 1198, two rival kings were chosen: the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia and the son of the deprived Duke Henry the Lion, the Welf Otto IV. A long civil war began; Philip was about to win when he was murdered by the Bavarian count palatine Otto VIII of Wittelsbach in 1208. Pope Innocent III initially had supported the Welfs, but when Otto, now sole elected monarch, moved to appropriate Sicily, Innocent changed sides and accepted young Frederick II and his ally, King Philip II of France, who defeated Otto at the 1214 Battle of Bouvines. Frederick had returned to Germany in 1212 from Sicily, where he had grown up, and was elected king in 1215. When Otto died in 1218, Fredrick became the undisputed ruler, and in 1220 was crowned Holy Roman Emperor. Philip changed the coat of arms from a black lion on a gold shield to three leopards, probably derived from the arms of his Welf rival Otto IV.", "The conflict between the Staufer dynasty and the Welf had irrevocably weakened the Imperial authority and the Norman kingdom of Sicily became the base for Staufer rule.", "Emperor Frederick II spent little time in Germany as his main concerns lay in Southern Italy. He founded the University of Naples in 1224 to train future state officials and reigned over Germany primarily through the allocation of royal prerogatives, leaving the sovereign authority and imperial estates to the ecclesiastical and secular princes. He made significant concessions to the German nobles, such as those put forth in an imperial statute of 1232, which made princes virtually independent rulers within their territories. These measures favoured the further fragmentation of the Empire. By the 1226 Golden Bull of Rimini, Frederick had assigned the military order of the Teutonic Knights to complete the conquest and conversion of the Prussian lands. A reconciliation with the Welfs took place in 1235, whereby Otto the Child, grandson of the late Saxon duke Henry the Lion, was named Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg. The power struggle with the popes continued and resulted in Fredrick's excommunication in 1227. In 1239, Pope Gregory IX excommunicated Fredrick again, and in 1245 he was condemned as a heretic by a church council. Although Frederick was one of the most energetic, imaginative, and capable rulers of the time, he was not concerned with drawing the disparate forces in Germany together. His legacy was thus that local rulers had more authority after his reign than before it. The clergy also had become more powerful. By the time of Frederick's death in 1250, little centralized power remained in Germany. The Great Interregnum, a period in which there were several elected rival kings, none of whom was able to achieve any position of authority, followed the death of Frederick's son King Conrad IV of Germany in 1254. The German princes vied for individual advantage and managed to strip many powers away from the diminished monarchy. Rather than establish sovereign states however, many nobles tended to look after their families. Their many male heirs created more and smaller estates, and from a largely free class of officials previously formed, many of these assumed or acquired hereditary rights to administrative and legal offices. These trends compounded political fragmentation within Germany. The period was ended in 1273 with the election of Rudolph of Habsburg, a godson of Frederick.", "Conrad IV was succeeded as duke of Swabia by his only son, two-year-old Conradin. By this time, the office of duke of Swabia had been fully subsumed into the office of the king, and without royal authority had become meaningless. In 1261, attempts to elect young Conradin king were unsuccessful. He also had to defend Sicily against an invasion, sponsored by Pope Urban IV (Jacques Pantaléon) and Pope Clement IV (Guy Folques), by Charles of Anjou, a brother of the French king. Charles had been promised by the popes the Kingdom of Sicily, where he would replace the relatives of Frederick II. Charles had defeated Conradin's uncle Manfred, King of Sicily, in the Battle of Benevento on 26 February 1266. The king himself, refusing to flee, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed. Conradin's campaign to retake control ended with his defeat in 1268 at the Battle of Tagliacozzo, after which he was handed over to Charles, who had him publicly executed at Naples. With Conradin, the direct line of the Dukes of Swabia finally ceased to exist, though most of the later emperors were descended from the Staufer dynasty indirectly. During the political decentralization of the late Staufer period, the population had grown from an estimated 8 million in 1200 to about 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns increased tenfold. The most heavily urbanized areas of Germany were located in the south and the west. Towns often developed a degree of independence, but many were subordinate to local rulers if not immediate to the emperor. Colonization of the east also continued in the thirteenth century, most notably through the efforts of the Teutonic Knights. German merchants also began trading extensively on the Baltic. The first ruling Hohenstaufen, Conrad III, like the last one, Conrad IV, was never crowned emperor. After a 20-year period (Great interregnum 1254–1273), the first Habsburg was elected king.", "", "\"Note: The following kings are already listed above as German Kings\"", "\"Note: Some of the following kings are already listed above as German Kings\"", "\"Note: Some of the following dukes are already listed above as German Kings\"", "Notes: \"For further detailed dynastic relationships, see also :Family tree of the German monarchs\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Origin.", "In Elizabethan England.", "Modern use.", "Movable do solfège.", "Major.", "Minor.", "Fixed do solfège.", "Chromatic variants.", "Comparison of the two systems.", "Note names.", "Other possibilities to denote solfège.", "Rainbow colors assigned by Isaac Newton." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Italian \"solfeggio\" and English/French \"solfège\" derive from the names of two of the syllables used: \"sol\" and \"fa\". The generic term \"solmization\", referring to any system of denoting pitches of a musical scale by syllables, including those used in India and Japan as well as solfège, comes from French \"solmisation\", from the Latin solfège syllables \"sol\" and \"mi\". The verb \"to sol-fa\" means to sing a passage in solfège.", "In eleventh-century Italy, the music theorist Guido of Arezzo invented a notational system that named the six notes of the hexachord after the first syllable of each line of the Latin hymn \"Ut queant laxis\", the \"Hymn to St. John the Baptist\", yielding \"ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la\". Each successive line of this hymn begins on the next scale degree, so each note's name was the syllable sung at that pitch in this hymn. <poem> Ut queant laxīs resonāre fībrīs Mīra gestōrum famulī tuōrum, Solve pollūtī labiī reātum, Sancte Iōhannēs. </poem> The words were written by Paulus Diaconus in the 8th century. They translate as: <poem> So that your servants may, with loosened voices, Resound the wonders of your deeds, Clean the guilt from our stained lips, O St. John. </poem> \"Ut\" was changed in the 1600s in Italy to the open syllable Do, at the suggestion of the musicologue Giovanni Battista Doni (based on the first syllable of his surname), and Si (from the initials for \"Sancte Iohannes\") was added to complete the diatonic scale. In Anglophone countries, \"si\" was changed to \"ti\" by Sarah Glover in the nineteenth century so that every syllable might begin with a different letter. \"Ti\" is used in tonic sol-fa (and in the famed American show tune \"Do-Re-Mi\"). An alternative theory argues that the solfège syllables (\"do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti\") derive from the syllables of an Arabic solmization system درر مفصّلات \"Durar Mufaṣṣalāt\" (\"Detailed Pearls\") (\"dāl, rā', mīm, fā', ṣād, lām, tā\"'), mentioned in the works of Francisci a Mesgnien Meninski in 1680 and later discussed by Jean-Benjamin de La Borde in 1780. However, there is no documentary evidence for this theory.", "In the Elizabethan era, England and its related territories used only four of the syllables: mi, fa, sol, and la. \"Mi\" stood for modern si, \"fa\" for modern do or ut, \"sol\" for modern re, and \"la\" for modern mi. Then, fa, sol and la would be repeated to also stand for their modern counterparts, resulting in the scale being \"fa, sol, la, fa, sol, la, mi, fa\". The use of \"fa\", \"sol\" and \"la\" for two positions in the scale is a leftover from the Guidonian system of so-called \"mutations\" (i.e. changes of hexachord on a note, see Guidonian hand). This system was largely eliminated by the 19th century, but is still used in some shape note systems, which give each of the four syllables \"fa\", \"sol\", \"la\", and \"mi\" a different shape. An example of this type of solmization occurs in Shakespeare's \"King Lear\", I, 2 (see ).", "Solfège is still used for sight reading training. In the U.S., traditional American country music was first recorded in the 1920s by solfège-trained singers, often too poor to afford a piano, who used sight reading as a way of making printed music into entertainment. Flanders Bays and \"Singing Bob\" Leonard were traveling music teachers who trained hundreds of students, among them The Carter Family, who recorded the first nationally distributed recordings of regional \"country\" music. There are two main types of solfège: \"Movable do\" and \"Fixed do\".", "In \"Movable do\", or \"tonic sol-fa\", each syllable corresponds to a scale degree. This is analogous to the Guidonian practice of giving each degree of the hexachord a solfège name, and is mostly used in Germanic countries, Commonwealth Countries, and the United States. One particularly important variant of movable do, but differing in some respects from the system described below, was invented in the nineteenth century by Sarah Ann Glover, and is known as tonic sol-fa. In Italy, in 1972, Roberto Goitre wrote the famous method \"Cantar leggendo\", which has come to be used for choruses and for music for young children. The pedagogical advantage of the movable-Do system is its ability to assist in the theoretical understanding of music; because a tonic is established and then sung in comparison to, the student infers melodic and chordal implications through his or her singing. Thus, while fixed-do is more applicable to instrumentalists, movable-do is more applicable to theorists and, arguably, composers.", "Movable do is frequently employed in Australia, China, Japan (with 5th being so, and 7th being si), Ireland, the United Kingdom, the United States, Hong Kong, and English-speaking Canada. The movable do system is a fundamental element of the Kodály method used primarily in Hungary, but with a dedicated following worldwide. In the movable do system, each solfège syllable corresponds not to a pitch, but to a scale degree: The first degree of a major scale is always sung as \"do\", the second as \"re\", etc. (For minor keys, see below.) In movable do, a given tune is therefore always sol-faed on the same syllables, no matter what key it is in. The solfège syllables used for movable do differ slightly from those used for fixed do, because the English variant of the basic syllables (\"ti\" instead of \"si\") is usually used, and chromatically altered syllables are usually included as well. If, at a certain point, the key of a piece modulates, then it is necessary to change the solfège syllables at that point. For example, if a piece begins in C major, then C is initially sung on \"do\", D on \"re\", etc. If, however, the piece then modulates to G major, then G is sung on \"do\", A on \"re\", etc., and C is then sung on \"fa\".", "Passages in a minor key may be sol-faed in one of two ways in movable do: either starting on do (using \"me\", \"le\", and \"te\" for the lowered third, sixth, and seventh degrees, and \"la\" and \"ti\" for the raised sixth and seventh degrees), which is referred to as \"do-based minor\", or starting on la (using \"fi\" and \"si\" for the raised sixth and seventh degrees). The latter (referred to as \"la-based minor\") is sometimes preferred in choral singing, especially with children. The choice of which system is used for minor makes a difference as to how you handle modulations. In the first case (\"do-based minor\"), when the key moves for example from C major to C minor the syllable do keeps pointing to the same note, namely C, (there's no \"mutation\" of do's note), but when the key shifts from C major to A minor (or A major), the scale is transposed from do = C to do = A. In the second case (\"la-based minor\"), when the key moves from C major to A minor the syllable do continues to point to the same note, again C, but when the key moves from C major to C minor the scale is transposed from do = C to do = E-flat.", "In \"Fixed do\", each syllable corresponds to the name of a note. This is analogous to the Romance system naming pitches after the solfège syllables, and is used in Romance and Slavic countries, among others, including Spanish-speaking countries. In the major Romance and Slavic languages, the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, and Si are used to name notes the same way that the letters C, D, E, F, G, A, and B are used to name notes in English. For native speakers of these languages, solfège is simply \"singing the names of the notes\", omitting any modifiers such as \"sharp\" or \"flat\" in order to preserve the rhythm. This system is called fixed do and is used in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Romania, Latin American countries and in French-speaking Canada as well as countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine, Georgia, Bulgaria, Greece, Armenia, Albania, North Macedonia, Mongolia, Iran, Israel, the Arab world, Turkey, and Taiwan where non-Romance languages are spoken. In the United States, the fixed-do system is principally taught at The Juilliard School in New York City, the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia, and the Cleveland Institute of Music in Cleveland, Ohio. In the fixed do system, shown above, accidentals do not affect the syllables used. For example, C, C, and C (as well as and, not shown above) are all sung with the syllable \"do\".", "Several chromatic fixed-do Systems that have also been devised to account for chromatic notes (and even for double-sharp and double-flat variants) are as follows:", "Movable Do corresponds to our psychological experience of normal tunes. If the song is sung a tone higher it is still perceived to be the same song, and the notes have the same relationship to each other, but in a fixed Do all the note names would be different. A movable Do emphasizes the musicality of the tune as the psychological perception of the notes is always relative to a key for the vast majority of people that do not have absolute pitch. Sotorrio argues that fixed-do is preferable for serious musicians, as music involving complex modulations and vague tonality is often too ambiguous with regard to key for any movable system. That is, without a prior analysis of the music, any movable-do system would inevitably need to be used like a fixed-do system anyway, thus causing confusion. With fixed-do, the musician learns to regard any syllable as the tonic, which does not force them to make an analysis as to which note is the tonic when ambiguity occurs. Instead, with fixed-do the musician will already be practiced in thinking in multiple/undetermined tonalities using the corresponding syllables. In comparison to the movable do system, which draws on short-term relative pitch skills involving comparison to a pitch identified as the tonic of the particular piece being performed, fixed do develops long-term relative pitch skills involving comparison to a pitch defined independently of its role in the piece, a practice closer to the definition of each note in absolute terms as found in absolute pitch. The question of which system to use is a controversial subject among music educators in schools in the United States. While movable do is easier to teach and learn, some feel that fixed do leads to stronger sight-reading and better ear training because students learn the relationships between specific pitches as defined independently, rather than only the function of intervals within melodic lines, chords, and chord progressions. If a performer has been trained using fixed do, particularly in those rare cases in which the performer has absolute pitch or well-developed long-term relative pitch, the performer may have difficulty playing music scored for transposing instruments: Because the \"concert pitch\" note to be performed differs from the note written in the sheet music, the performer may experience cognitive dissonance when having to read one note and play another. Especially in the early stages of learning a piece, when the performer has yet to gain familiarity with the melodic line of the piece as expressed in relative terms, it may be necessary to mentally re-transpose the sheet music in order to restore the notes to concert pitch. Those trained in fixed-do will argue that their act is the analogue of reading aloud in a language. Just as one reads this very sentence without parsing it grammatically, so too fixed-do is the direct sounding of the music. Where the movable-do system requires constant real-time analysis of the tonality and modulations in the score, in fixed-do the musician uses knowledge of the changing tonality to understand for example that the pitch class c-natural is the supertonic in B-Flat major or minor, and the dominant when the music modulates to F-major, but the c-note remains the same pitch. Instrumentalists who begin sight-singing for the first time in college as music majors find movable do to be the system more consistent with the way they learned to read music. For choirs, sight-singing fixed do using chromatic movable do syllables (see below) is more suitable than sight-singing movable do for reading atonal music, polytonal music, pandiatonic music, music that modulates or changes key often, or music in which the composer simply did not bother to write a key signature. It is not uncommon for this to be the case in modern or contemporary choral works.", "In the countries with fixed-do, these seven syllables (with Si replacing Ti) – rather than the letters C, D, E, F, G, A, and B – are used to name the notes of the C-Major scale. Here it would be said, for example, that Beethoven's Ninth Symphony (in D minor) is in \"Re minor\", and that its third movement (in B-flat major) is in \"Si-bemol major\". In Germanic countries, on the other hand, it is the letters that are used for this purpose (so that Beethoven's Ninth Symphony is said to be in \"d-Moll\") and the solfège syllables are encountered only in their use in sight-singing and ear training.", "", "Isaac Newton had associated the seven solfège syllables with the seven colors of the rainbow and surmised that each color vibrated accordingly (a concept possibly related to the modern view of chromesthesia). Thus, red has the least amount of vibration while violet vibrates the most." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Governance.", "Geography.", "Towns and villages.", "Culture.", "Sports.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Fife, bounded to the north by the Firth of Tay and to the south by the Firth of Forth, is a natural peninsula whose political boundaries have changed little over the ages. The Pictish king list and De Situ Albanie documents of the Poppleton manuscript mention the division of the Pictish realm into seven sub-kingdoms or provinces, one being Fife, though this is now regarded as a medieval invention. The earliest known reference to the common epithet \"The Kingdom of Fife\" dates from only 1678, in a proposition that the term derives from the quasi-regal privileges of the Earl of Fife. The notion of a kingdom may derive from a misinterpretation of an extract from Wyntoun. The name is recorded as \"Fib\" in A.D. 1150 and \"Fif\" in 1165. It was often associated with Fothriff. The hill-fort of Clatchard Craig, near Newburgh, was occupied as an important Pictish stronghold between the sixth and eighth centuries AD. Fife was an important royal and political centre from the reign of King Malcolm III onwards, as the leaders of Scotland gradually moved southwards away from their ancient strongholds around Scone. Malcolm had his principal home in Dunfermline and his wife Margaret was the main benefactor of Dunfermline Abbey. The Abbey replaced Iona as the final resting place of Scotland's royal elite, with Robert I amongst those to be buried there. The Earl of Fife was until the 15th century considered the principal peer of the Scottish realm, and was reserved the right of crowning the nation's monarchs, reflecting the prestige of the area. A new royal palace was gradually constructed at Falkland, formerly the stronghold of Clan MacDuff, and was used by successive monarchs of the House of Stuart, who favoured Fife for its rich hunting grounds. King James VI of Scotland described Fife as a \"beggar's mantle fringed wi gowd\", the golden fringe being the coast and its chain of little ports with their thriving fishing fleets and rich trading links with the Low Countries. Wool, linen, coal and salt were all traded. Salt pans heated by local coal were a feature of the Fife coast in the past. The distinctive red clay pan tiles seen on many old buildings in Fife arrived as ballast on trading boats and replaced the previously thatched roofs. In 1598, King James VI employed a group of 11 men from Fife, who became known as the Fife adventurers, to colonise the Isle of Lewis in an attempt to begin the \"civilisation\" and de-gaelicisation of the region. This endeavour lasted until 1609 when the colonists, having been opposed by the native population, were bought out by Kenneth Mackenzie, the clan chief of the Mackenzies. Fife became a centre of heavy industry in the 19th century. Coal had been mined in the area since at least the 12th century, but the number of pits increased ten-fold as demand for coal grew in the Victorian period. Previously rural villages such as Cowdenbeath rapidly swelled into towns as thousands moved to Fife to find work in its mines. The opening of the Forth and Tay rail bridges linked Fife with Dundee and Edinburgh and allowed the rapid transport of goods. Modern ports were constructed at Methil, Burntisland and Rosyth. Kirkcaldy became the world centre for the production of linoleum. Postwar Fife saw the development of Scotland's second new town, Glenrothes. Originally to be based around a coal mine, the town eventually attracted a high number of modern Silicon Glen companies to the region. Fife Council and Fife Constabulary also centre their operations in Glenrothes. There are numerous notable historical buildings in Fife, some of which are managed by the National Trust for Scotland or Historic Scotland. They include Dunfermline Abbey (the last resting place of Scottish royalty), the palace in Culross, Ravenscraig Castle in Kirkcaldy, Dysart Harbour area, Balgonie Castle near Coaltown of Balgonie, Falkland Palace (hunting palace of the Scottish Kings), Kellie Castle near Pittenweem, Hill of Tarvit (a historical house), St. Andrews Castle, St. Andrews Cathedral and St. Rule's Tower.", "Fife is represented by five constituency members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs) and four members of the United Kingdom parliament (MPs) who are sent to Holyrood and the British Parliament respectively. Following the 2015 general election, all four of the MPs constituencies were held by the Scottish National Party. In the 2017 general election, Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath was regained by Labour. At the same election, the seat of North East Fife became the closest seat in the country with the SNP holding a majority of 2 over the Liberal Democrats Three of the Scottish Parliament constituencies are held by the Scottish National Party: Cowdenbeath, Dunfermline, and Mid Fife and Glenrothes. One is held by the Scottish Liberal Democrats: North East Fife. Fife Council's administrative headquarters and Police Scotland's P Division (formerly Fife Constabulary) are based in Glenrothes. The Council meetings take place in Fife House (formerly known as Glenrothes House) in the town centre. The west wing of the building was built by the Glenrothes Development Corporation (GDC) as their offices in 1969, which was later used as the headquarters of Fife Regional Council. The former administrative seat was Cupar. Since the last Scottish election in 2012, Fife Council has been run as a minority by the Labour party, with a total of 35 seats, with support of Tory and independent councillors. Alex Rowley was elected leader of Fife Council but demitted office following his election as an MSP. David Ross succeeded as leader in February 2014. The SNP and the other parties form the opposition.", "Fife is a peninsula in eastern Scotland bordered on the north by the Firth of Tay, on the east by the North Sea and by the Firth of Forth to the south. The route to the west is partially blocked by the mass of the Ochil Hills. Almost all road traffic into and out of Fife has to pass over one of four bridges, south on the Forth Road Bridge (public transport and cyclists only) and Queensferry Crossing, west on the Kincardine Bridge or north-east via the Tay Road Bridge, the exception being traffic headed north on the M90. Tolls were abolished on the Tay Road Bridge and Forth Road Bridge on 11 February 2008. There are extinct volcanic features, such as the Lomond Hills which rise above rolling farmland, and Largo Law, a volcanic plug in the east. At, the West Lomond is the highest point in Fife. The coast has fine but small harbours, from the industrial docks in Burntisland and Rosyth to the fishing villages of the East Neuk such as Anstruther and Pittenweem. The large area of flat land to the north of the Lomond Hills, through which the River Eden flows, is known as the Howe of Fife. North of the Lomond Hills can be found villages and small towns in a primarily agricultural landscape. The areas in the south and west of Fife, including the towns of Dunfermline, Glenrothes, Kirkcaldy and the Levenmouth region are lightly industrial and more densely populated. The only areas which could claim to be heavily industrial are Rosyth, around the naval dockyard and perhaps the Mossmorran Natural Gas Liquids fractionation plant on the outskirts of Cowdenbeath. The east corner of Fife, along the string of villages between Earlsferry and Kingsbarns, and along with their hinterland, is known as the East Neuk (corner, or projecting point of land) of Fife; small settlements around sheltered harbours, with distinctive vernacular \"Dutch\" or corbie (crow) stepped gabled and stone-built architecture. The area has amongst the highest concentration of second homes and holiday lets in Scotland. The fishing industry, on which the coastal East Neuk settlements were built, has declined in recent years with the main fishing fleet now operating from Pittenweem and the harbour in Anstruther being used as a marina for pleasure craft. There are several islands located off the coast of Fife, such as the Isle of May, Inchkeith and Inchcolm. The former Preston Island south of Valleyfield is no longer an island following land reclamation work.", "Cupar took over as county town from Crail in the early 13th century. Glenrothes is now the administrative centre, after the decision to locate the headquarters of the newly established Fife Regional Council there in 1975. Fife's three major towns are Kirkcaldy, Dunfermline and Glenrothes. According to the 2012 estimate, Dunfermline is the largest settlement by population, followed by Kirkcaldy then Glenrothes. The next most sizeable towns by population are St Andrews, Cowdenbeath, Rosyth, Methil and Dalgety Bay. The rest of Fife includes smaller towns such as Inverkeithing, Kincardine, Anstruther, Lochgelly, Burntisland, Leven, Newburgh, Tayport and Cupar, and villages such as Springfield, Kinglassie, Kinghorn, Elie, Auchtertool, Crossgates, Ballingry and Auchtermuchty. The county was formerly divided into parishes, often but not always based on a town or village:", "Fife contains 4,961 listed buildings and 48 conservation areas. Domestic sites of importance include Falkland Palace, Kellie Castle, Dunfermline Palace, St Andrews Castle, Culross Palace and Kirkcaldy's Ravenscraig Castle. Fife has a number of ecclesiastical sites of historical interest. St Andrews Cathedral was home to the powerful Archbishopric of St Andrews, and later became a centre of the Scottish Reformation, while Dunfermline Abbey was the last resting place of a number of Scottish kings. Balmerino and Culross abbeys were both founded in the 13th century by the Cistercians, while a century before Lindores Abbey was founded by the Tironensians outside Newburgh; all were highly important sites. The Stanza Poetry Festival, East Neuk Festival, Pittenweem Arts Festival are events of national cultural importance. Smaller festivals like Cupar Arts Festival also take place. The Byre Theatre in St Andrews and Adam Smith Theatre in Kirkcaldy were both highly regarded as touring venues, the latter also being the base of the grand opera company Fife Opera. The Byre has re-opened in Autumn, 2014 following its going into administration in 2012.", "St Andrews in Fife is the home of golf, being home to the R&A, the governing body of the sport throughout the world, aside from the United States and Mexico. The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews, from which it was devolved in 2004, is the world's oldest golf club. Fife has four football clubs playing in the Scottish Professional Football League: Cowdenbeath, Dunfermline Athletic, East Fife (based in Methil), and Raith Rovers (based in Kirkcaldy). Kelty Hearts compete in the Lowland League, eight clubs play in the East of Scotland League while a further seven play in the SJFA East Region. Fife Flyers (based in Kirkcaldy) are the UK's oldest ice hockey club and play in Britain's top flight, the Elite Ice Hockey League. Fife is also home to eight rugby union clubs. Howe of Fife (based in Cupar), and Kirkcaldy play in Scottish Rugby's national leagues while Dunfermline, Rosyth Sharks, Glenrothes, Madras, Waid Academy (based in Anstruther) compete in the Caledonia regional leagues. University of St Andrews - the oldest rugby club in Fife - play in the British Universities & Colleges Sport (BUCS) system. Kingdom Kangaroos are Fife's only Australian Rules Football team, with training held in Rosyth and Kirkcaldy. Aberdour Shinty Club have two men's teams, two women's teams and multiple youth squads. Fife also has two competitive basketball teams; Dunfermline Reign, who play out of St Columba's High School in Dunfermline and compete across a number of national SBC competitions, and Fife Steel, a Kirkcaldy based team, operating a number of age groups, with a Senior men's and an under 19's team currently playing in Division 3 of the Lothian Men's Basketball League. Fife is the location of several of the nation's motorsport venues; Knockhill Racing Circuit, Scotland's national motorsport venue and the only FIA graded venue in the country, Cowdenbeath Racewall, a stock car oval racing venue, Lochgelly Raceway, a venue containing a drifting course and a 1/4 mile oval in and Crail Raceway, a venue located on a former military aerodrome containing a 1/4 mile drag strip and a karting circuit operated by the East of Scotland Kart Club.", "Locally published newspapers include the \"Fife Free Press\" in Kirkcaldy; the \"Dunfermline Press\" in Dunfermline; the \"Glenrothes Gazette\" in Glenrothes, the \"East Fife Mail\" in Leven, the \"Fife Herald\" in Cupar / Howe of Fife and the \"St Andrews Citizen\" in St Andrews. DC Thomson publishes Fife and West Fife editions of the \"Dundee Courier & Advertiser\", and the Counties Edition of the \"Evening Telegraph\" is sold in Fife. The only Fife-based radio station is Kingdom FM. There is also a community radio station that broadcasts each evening and is run solely by youths, called Fife Youth Radio. Other local radio stations, Radio Tay and Edinburgh's 97.3 Forth One, broadcast to the northern and southern parts of the region respectively." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Towns and villages.", "Council.", "Composition.", "Wards.", "Recent history.", "Inverclyde District.", "Education.", "Demography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "‡ Taken from Inverclyde Ward 1 figure, minus Kilmacolm settlement population.", "Until 2006, Inverclyde was the only authority in the United Kingdom not to have named electoral wards: whilst the local authority reserved its right to name wards, it failed to supply any to the Local Government Boundary Commission. This was rectified in the 2006 review; however, the six multi-member wards created for the 2007 elections used only vague geographical descriptions ('Inverclyde North', 'Inverclyde East', 'Inverclyde South West' etc), in contrast to the majority of names for.", "Following the Council elections of 2017 the current composition of Inverclyde Council is: The election resulted in no overall control of the council.", "Six multi-member wards (20 seats) were created for the 2007 election, replacing 20 single-member wards which had been in place since the 1980s. The representation was increased to 22 councillors across 7 seats for the 2017 election:", "The council gained national notoriety in 2005 following harsh criticism from the Accounts Commission regarding poor leadership and accountability. In November 2005 the council was given a 6-month deadline to reorganise and improve further, following the resignation of the council chief in September and organisational changes in the wake of the original report. Following this criticism, the Chief Executive of Inverclyde Council Robert Cleary stepped down and a new chief executive John Mundell was appointed. The position of Chief Executive commands an annual salary of £112,000. There was criticism over the benefits the outgoing chief executive received on leaving—he was given a six-figure severance payment and his pension will be approximately £50,000 per annum. In June 2006, changes were still ongoing: Inverclyde Council altered its directorship structure by adding new corporate director positions and removing senior manager positions. It was expected that the £90,000 a year posts will mostly be filled by new applicants, although existing Council workers were able to apply. There was some criticism with regards to the merging of council services; for instance, Education and Social Work merged and now share the same director. This was frowned upon as at the time the Director responsible for the two merged departments had an educational qualification, not a social work one. The 2007 council elections took place at the same time as the Scottish Parliament elections. The Liberal Democrats lost nine seats; Labour gained two but fell short of a majority. The SNP and Conservatives both entered the council with five seats and one seat respectively, while an independent candidate also won a place. In 2014, one of the Labour councillors, Vaughan Jones, became an independent member after announcing support for Scottish independence. In the 2014 independence referendum, the \"No\" vote won in Inverclyde by just 86 votes and a margin of 0.2%. By either measure, this was the narrowest result of any of the 32 council areas. In the 2016 EU Referendum, Inverclyde posted a \"Remain\" vote of almost 64%. In 2019, the Inverclyde Council Area was rated as the most deprived in Scotland by the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD), with Greenock Town Centre the most deprived community. (The term \"deprivation\" refers not only to low income according to the BBC, but may also include \"fewer resources and opportunities, for example in health and education\".) After the announcement, Deputy leader Jim Clocherty said that he hoped that investment money would arrive soon, and that \"no part of Scotland wants to be labelled as the'most deprived'\". A £3m investment was scheduled for Greenock Town Centre and there was also plan to create a new cruise visitor centre with other investment funds being expected.", "Inverclyde was one of nineteen local government districts in the Strathclyde region of Scotland, which existed between 1975 and 1996. The district was formed by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 from part of the county of Renfrewshire. The boundaries remain the same as those of the modern council area. The remaining parts of the County of Renfrew (Renfrewshire) were divided between two other districts: Eastwood and Renfrew District. In 1996 Inverclyde District was abolished under the provisions of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994. Most of its area became the new Inverclyde council area, with the regions - such as Strathclyde - disappearing entirely.", "Inverclyde has twenty primary schools serving all areas of its settlements. These are: These are connected to several Secondary schools which serve Inverclyde as follows:", "The average life expectancy for Inverclyde male residents (2013–2015) is 75.4 years, to rank 28th out of the 32 areas in Scotland. The average Inverclyde female lives for 80.4 years, to rank 26th out 32. There are large health disparities between settlements in Inverclyde with many health indicators being above the Scottish average in certain areas, whilst considerably below in others." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Prior to the Russian Revolution.", "Russian Revolution.", "After the October Revolution.", "In exile." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The party's ideology was built upon the philosophical foundation of Russia's Narodnik–populist movement of the 1860s–1870s and its worldview developed primarily by Alexander Herzen and Pyotr Lavrov. After a period of decline and marginalisation in the 1880s, the Narodnik–populist school of thought about social change in Russia was revived and substantially modified by a group of writers and activists known as \"neonarodniki\" (neo-populists), particularly Viktor Chernov. Their main innovation was a renewed dialogue with Marxism and integration of some of the key Marxist concepts into their thinking and practice. In this way, with the economic spurt and industrialisation in Russia in the 1890s, they attempted to broaden their appeal in order to attract the rapidly growing urban workforce to their traditionally peasant-oriented programme. The intention was to widen the concept of the people so that it encompassed all elements in society that opposed the Tsarist regime. The party was established in 1902 out of the Northern Union of Socialist Revolutionaries (founded in 1896), bringing together many local socialist revolutionary groups established in the 1890s, notably the Workers' Party of Political Liberation of Russia created by Catherine Breshkovsky and Grigory Gershuni in 1899. As primary party theorist emerged Viktor Chernov, the editor of the first party organ, \"Revolutsionnaya Rossiya\" (\"Revolutionary Russia\"). Later party periodicals included \"Znamia Truda\" (\"Labour's Banner\"), \"Delo Naroda\" (\"People's Cause\") and \"Volia Naroda\" (\"People's Will\"). Party leaders included Grigori Gershuni, Catherine Breshkovsky, Andrei Argunov, Nikolai Avksentiev, Mikhail Gots, Mark Natanson, Rakitnikov (Maksimov), Vadim Rudnev, Nikolay Rusanov, Ilya Rubanovich and Boris Savinkov. The party's programme was democratic socialist and agrarian socialist—it garnered much support among Russia's rural peasantry, who in particular supported their programme of land-socialisation as opposed to the Bolshevik programme of land-nationalisation—division of land to peasant tenants rather than collectivisation in state management. The party's policy platform differed from that of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP)—both Bolshevik and Menshevik—in that it was not officially Marxist (though some of its ideologues considered themselves such). The SR's agreed with Marx's analysis of capitalism, but not with his proposed solution. The SRs believed that both the labouring peasantry as well as the industrial proletariat were revolutionary classes in Russia. Whereas RSLDP defined class membership in terms of ownership of the means of production, Chernov and other SR theorists defined class membership in terms of extraction of surplus value from labour. On the first definition, small-holding subsistence farmers who do not employ wage labour are—as owners of their land—members of the petty bourgeoisie, whereas on the second definition, they can be grouped with all who provide rather than purchase labour-power, and hence with the proletariat as part of the labouring class. Chernov considered the proletariat as vanguard and the peasantry as the main body of the revolutionary army. The party played an active role in the 1905 Russian Revolution and in the Moscow and Saint Petersburg Soviets. Although the party officially boycotted the first State Duma in 1906, 34 SRs were elected while 37 were elected to the second Duma in 1907. The party also boycotted both the third Duma (1907-1912) and fourth Duma (1912–1917). In this period, party membership drastically declined and most of its leaders emigrated from Russia. A distinctive feature of party tactics until about 1909 was its heavy reliance on assassinations of individual government officials. These tactics were inherited from SRs' predecessor in the populist movement, Narodnaya Volya (“People's Will”), a conspiratorial organisation of the 1880s. They were intended to embolden the \"masses\" and intimidate (\"terrorize\") the Tsarist government into political concessions. The SR Combat Organisation (SRCO), responsible for assassinating government officials, was initially led by Gershuni and operated separately from the party so as not to jeopardise its political actions. SRCO agents assassinated two Ministers of the Interior, Dmitry Sipyagin and Vyacheslav von Plehve, Grand Duke Sergei Aleksandrovich, the Governor of Ufa N. M. Bogdanovich and many other high-ranking officials. In 1903, Gershuni was betrayed by his deputy, Yevno Azef, an agent of the Okhrana secret police, arrested, convicted of terrorism and sentenced to life at hard labour, managing to escape, flee overseas and go into exile. Azef became the new leader of the SRCO and continued working for both the SRCO and the Okhrana, simultaneously orchestrating terrorist acts and betraying his comrades. Boris Savinkov ran many of the actual operations, notably the assassination attempt on Admiral Fyodor Dubasov. However, terrorism was controversial for the party from the beginning. At its 2nd Congress in Imatra in 1906, the controversy over terrorism was one of the main reasons for the split between the SR Maximalists and the Popular Socialists. The Maximalists endorsed not only attacks on political and government targets, but also economic terror (i.e. attacks on landowners, factory owners and so on) whereas the Popular Socialists rejected all terrorism. Other issues also divided the defectors from the PSR as Maximalists disagreed with the SRs' strategy of a two-stage revolution as advocated by Chernov, the first stage being popular-democratic and the second labour-socialist. To Maximalists, this seemed like the RSDLP distinction between bourgeois-democratic and proletarian-socialist stages of revolution. Maximalism stood for immediate socialist revolution. Meanwhile, the Popular Socialists disagreed with the party's proposal to socialise the land (i.e. turn it over to collective peasant ownership) and instead wanted to nationalise it (i.e. turn it over to the state). They also wanted landowners to be compensated while the PSR rejected indemnities). Many SRs held a mixture of these positions. In late 1908, a Russian Narodnik and amateur spy hunter Vladimir Burtsev suggested that Azef might be a police spy. The party's Central Committee was outraged and set up a tribunal to try Burtsev for slander. At the trial, Azef was confronted with evidence and was caught lying, therefore he fled and left the party in disarray. The party's Central Committee, most of whose members had close ties to Azef, felt obliged to resign. Many regional organisations, already weakened by the revolution's defeat in 1907, collapsed or became inactive. Savinkov's attempt to rebuild the SRCO failed and it was suspended in 1911. Gershuni had defended Azef from exile in Zürich until his death there. The Azef scandal contributed to a profound revision of SR tactics that was already underway. As a result, it renounced assassinations (\"individual terror\") as a means of political protest. With the start of World War I, the party was divided on the issue of Russia's participation in the war. Most SR activists and leaders, particularly those remaining in Russia, chose to support the Tsarist government mobilisation against Germany. Together with the like-minded members of the Menshevik Party, they became known as \"oborontsy\" (\"defensists\"). Many younger defensists living in exile joined the French Army as Russia's closest ally in the war. A smaller group, the internationalists, which included Chernov, favoured the pursuit of peace through cooperation with socialist parties in both military blocs. This led them to participate in the Zimmerwald and Kienthal conferences with Bolshevik emigres led by Lenin. This fact was later used against Chernov and his followers by their right-wing opponents as alleged evidence of their lack of patriotism and Bolshevik sympathies.", "The February Revolution allowed the SRs to return to an active political role. Party leaders, including Chernov, returned to Russia. They played a major role in the formation and leadership of the soviets, albeit in most cases playing second fiddle to the Mensheviks. One member, Alexander Kerensky, joined the Provisional Government in March 1917 as Minister of Justice, eventually becoming the head of a coalition socialist-liberal government in July 1917, although his connection with the party was tenuous. He had served in the Duma with the social democratic Trudoviks, breakaway SRs that defied the party's refusal to participate in the Duma. After the fall of the first coalition in April–May 1917 and the reshuffling of the Provisional Government, the party played a larger role. Its key government official at the time was Chernov who joined the government as Minister of Agriculture. Chernov also tried to play a larger role, particularly in foreign affairs, but he soon found himself marginalised and his proposals of far-reaching agrarian reform blocked by more conservative members of the government. After the failed Bolshevik uprising of July 1917, Chernov found himself on the defensive as allegedly soft on the Bolsheviks and was excluded from the revamped coalition in August 1917. The party was now represented in the government by Nikolai Avksentiev, a defensist, as Minister of the Interior. This weakening of the party's position intensified the growing divide within it between supporters of the pluralistic Constituent Assembly, and those inclined toward more resolute, unilateral action. In August 1917, Maria Spiridonova advocated scuttling the Constituent Assembly and forming an SR-only government, but she was not supported by Chernov and his followers. This spurred the formation a small breakaway faction of the SR party known as the \"Left SRs\". The Left SR's were willing to temporarily cooperate with the Bolsheviks. The Left SRs believed that Russia should withdraw immediately from World War I and they were frustrated that the Provisional Government wanted to postpone addressing the land question until after the convocation of the Russian Constituent Assembly instead of immediately confiscating the land from the landowners and redistributing it to the peasants. Left SRs and Bolsheviks referred to the mainstream SR party as the \"Right SR\" party whereas mainstream SRs referred to the party as just \"SR\" and reserved the term \"Right SR\" for the right-wing faction of the party led by Catherine Breshkovsky and Avksentiev. The primary issues motivating the split were participation in the war and the timing of land redistribution. At the Second Congress of Soviets on 25 October, when the Bolsheviks proclaimed the deposition of the Provisional government, the split within the SR party became final. The Left SR stayed at the Congress and were elected to the permanent All-Russian Central Executive Committee executive (while initially refusing to join the Bolshevik government) while the mainstream SR and their Menshevik allies walked out of the Congress. In late November, the Left SRs joined the Bolshevik government, obtaining three ministries.", "In the election to the Russian Constituent Assembly held two weeks after the Bolsheviks took power, the party still proved to be by far the most popular party across the country, gaining 49.1% of the popular vote as opposed to the Bolsheviks' 24%. However, the Bolsheviks disbanded the Assembly in January 1918 and after that the SR lost political significance. The Left SRs became the coalition partner of the Bolsheviks in the Soviet government, although they resigned their positions after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (the peace treaty with the Central Powers that ended Russia's participation in World War I). A few Left SRs like Yakov Grigorevich Blumkin joined the Communist Party. Dissatisfied with the large concessions granted to Germany by the Bolsheviks in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, two Chekists who were left SRs assassinated the German ambassador to Russia, Count Wilhelm Mirbach early in the afternoon on 6 July. Following the assassination, the left SRs attempted a \"Third Russian Revolution\" against the Bolsheviks on 6–7 July, but it failed and led to the arrest, imprisonment, exile and execution of party leaders and members. In response, some SRs turned again to violence. A former SR, Fanny Kaplan, tried to assassinate Lenin on 30 August. Many SRs fought for the Whites or Greens in the Russian Civil War alongside some Mensheviks and other banned socialist elements. The Tambov Rebellion against the Bolsheviks was led by an SR, Aleksandr Antonov. In Ufa the SR's Provisional All-Russian Government was formed. However, after Admiral Kolchak was installed by the Whites as \"Supreme Leader\" in November 1918, he expelled all Socialists from the ranks. As a result, some SRs placed their organisation behind White lines at the service of the Red Guards and the Cheka. Following Lenin's instructions, a trial of SRs was held in Moscow in 1922, which led to protests by Eugene V. Debs, Karl Kautsky, and Albert Einstein among others. Most of the defendants were found guilty, but they did not plead guilty like the defendants in the later show trials in the Soviet Union in the late 1920s and the 1930s.", "The party continued its activities in exile. A Foreign Delegation of the Central Committee was established and based in Prague. The party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1923 and 1940." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Chess career.", "Early setbacks.", "2000 World Championship.", "After London.", "2004 title defense.", "2006 Reunification match.", "2007 world championship tournament in Mexico.", "2008 match.", "2009.", "2010.", "2011.", "2012.", "2013.", "2014.", "2015.", "2016.", "2018.", "2019.", "Deep Fritz match.", "Personal life.", "Assessment and legacy.", "Playing style.", "Contributions to chess." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Vladimir Kramnik was born in the town of Tuapse, on the shores of the Black Sea. His father's birth name was Boris Sokolov, but he took his stepfather's surname when his mother (Vladimir's grandmother) remarried. As a child, Vladimir Kramnik studied in the chess school established by Mikhail Botvinnik. His first notable result in a major tournament was his gold medal win as first reserve for the Russian team in the 1992 Chess Olympiad in Manila. His selection for the team caused some controversy in Russia at the time, as he was only a FIDE Master. However, his selection was supported by Garry Kasparov. He scored eight wins, one draw, and no losses, a performance of 2958, which won a gold medal for best rating performance. The following year, Kramnik played in the very strong tournament in Linares. He finished fifth, beating the then world number three, Vassily Ivanchuk, along the way. He followed this up with a string of good results, but had to wait until 1995 for his first major tournament win at normal time controls, when he won the strong Dortmund tournament, finishing it unbeaten. In 1995, Kramnik served as a second for Kasparov in the Classical World Chess Championship 1995 match against challenger Viswanathan Anand. Kasparov won the match 101⁄2–71⁄2. In January 1996, Kramnik became the world number-one rated player; although having the same FIDE rating as Kasparov (2775), Kramnik became number one by having played more games during the rating period in question. This was the first time since December 1985 that Kasparov was not world number one, and Kramnik's six month stretch (January through June 1996) as world number one would be the only time from January 1986 through March 2006 where Kasparov was not world number one. By becoming number one, Kramnik became the youngest ever to reach world number one, breaking Kasparov's record; this record would stand for 14 years until being broken by Magnus Carlsen in January 2010. Kramnik continued to produce good results, including winning at Dortmund (outright or tied) ten times from 1995 to 2011. He is the second of only nine chess players to have reached a rating of 2800 (the first being Kasparov). During his reign as world champion, Kramnik never regained the world number-one ranking, doing so only in January 2008 after he had lost the title to Viswanathan Anand; as in 1996, Kramnik had the same FIDE rating as Anand (2799) but became number one due to more games played within the rating period. Kramnik's 12 years between world number-one rankings is the longest since the inception of the FIDE ranking system in 1971.", "", "In the mid- and late-90s, Kramnik, although considered one of the strongest players in the world, suffered several setbacks in his attempts to qualify for a World Championship match. In 1994, he lost a quarterfinal candidates match for the PCA championship to Gata Kamsky 11⁄2–41⁄2, and later that year, lost a semifinal candidates match for the FIDE championship to Boris Gelfand with the score 31⁄2–41⁄2. In 1998, Kramnik faced Alexei Shirov in a Candidates match for the right to play Garry Kasparov for the Classical World Chess Championship, and lost 31⁄2–51⁄2. In 1999, Kramnik participated in the FIDE knockout championship in Las Vegas, and lost in the quarterfinals to Michael Adams 2–4.", "Suitable sponsorship was not found for a Kasparov–Shirov match, and it never took place. It appears Shirov refused to play for what he considered too small a prize fund. Kasparov decided to try to arrange a match with the highest rated player according to FIDE's rating list. At the time Anand was the highest rated player but Anand refused the match. Therefore, in March 2000 Kasparov announced he would play a match against Kramnik, who at the time was third in the rating list behind Kasparov and Anand (Shirov was fourth). This was somewhat controversial, especially since he had lost the qualifier to Shirov. It made Kramnik the first player since 1935 to play a world championship match without qualifying. In 2000, Kramnik played a 16-game match against Garry Kasparov in London, for the Classical Chess World Championship. Kramnik began the match as underdog, but his adoption of the Berlin Defence to Kasparov's Ruy Lopez opening was very effective. With the white pieces, Kramnik pressed Kasparov hard, winning Games 2 and 10 and overlooking winning continuations in Games 4 and 6. Kasparov put up little fight thereafter, agreeing to short draws with the white pieces in Games 9 and 13. Kramnik won the match 81⁄2–61⁄2 without losing a game. This was only the second time in history that a World Champion had lost a match without winning a single game, the other time being Lasker in 1921. It also marked the first time Kasparov had lost a World Championship match. Kramnik's performance won him the Chess Oscar for 2000; this was the first time he had received the award.", "In October 2002, Kramnik competed in Brains in Bahrain, an eight-game match against the chess computer Deep Fritz in Bahrain. Kramnik started well, taking a 3–1 lead after four games. However, in game five, Kramnik made what was described as the worst blunder of his career, losing a knight in a position which was probably drawn. He quickly resigned. He also resigned game six after making a speculative sacrifice, although subsequent analysis showed that he had drawing chances in the final position. The last two games were drawn, and the match ended tied at 4–4. In February 2004 Kramnik won the Tournament of Linares outright for the first time (he had tied for first with Kasparov in 2000), finishing undefeated with a +2 score, ahead of Garry Kasparov, the world's highest-rated player at the time.", "From 25 September 2004 until 18 October 2004, Kramnik retained his title as Classical World Chess Champion against challenger Péter Lékó at Brissago, Switzerland, by barely drawing the match in the last game. The 14-game match was poised in favor of Lékó right up until Kramnik won the final game, thus forcing a 7–7 draw and ensuring that Kramnik remained world champion. The prize fund was 1 million Swiss francs, which was about USD $770,000 at the time. Because of the drawn result, the prize was split between the two players.", "When Garry Kasparov broke with FIDE, the federation governing professional chess, to play the 1993 World Championship with Nigel Short, he created a rift in the chess world. In response, FIDE sanctioned a match between Anatoly Karpov and Jan Timman for the FIDE World Championship, which Karpov won. Subsequently, the chess world had seen two \"champions\": the \"classical\" championship, claiming lineage dating back to Steinitz; and the FIDE endorsed champion. When Kramnik defeated Kasparov and inherited Kasparov's title, he also inherited some controversies. At FIDE World Chess Championship 2005, Kramnik refused to participate, but indicated his willingness to play a match against the winner to unify the world championship. After the tournament, negotiations began for a reunification match between Kramnik and the new FIDE World Champion—Veselin Topalov of Bulgaria. In April 2006, FIDE announced a reunification match between Kramnik and Topalov—the FIDE World Chess Championship 2006. The match took place in Elista, Kalmykia. After the first four games, Kramnik led 3–1 (out of a maximum of 12). After the fourth game, however, Topalov's coach/manager Silvio Danailov protested that Kramnik was using the toilet suspiciously frequently, implying that he was somehow receiving outside assistance whilst doing so. Topalov said that he would refuse to shake hands with Kramnik in the remaining games. The Appeals committee decided that the players' toilets be locked and that they be forced to use a shared toilet, accompanied by an assistant arbiter. Kramnik refused to play the fifth game unless the original conditions agreed for the match were adhered to. As a result, the point was awarded to Topalov, reducing Kramnik's lead to 3–2. Kramnik stated that the appeals committee was biased and demanded that it be replaced. As a condition to continue the match, Kramnik insisted on playing the remaining games under the original conditions of the match contract, which allows use of the bathroom at the players' discretion. The controversy resulted in a heavy volume of correspondence to \"Chessbase\" and other publications. The balance of views from fans was in support of Kramnik. Prominent figures in the chess world, such as John Nunn, Yasser Seirawan, and Bessel Kok also sided with Kramnik. The Russian and Bulgarian Chess Federations supported their respective players. After twelve regular games the match was tied 6–6, although Kramnik continued to dispute the result of the unplayed fifth game until the end of the match. On 13 October 2006 the result of this disputed game became irrelevant as Kramnik won the rapid tie-break by a score of 21⁄2–11⁄2. Kramnik's victory helped him win the Chess Oscar for 2006, the second of his career.", "When Kramnik won the 2006 unification match, he also won Topalov's berth in the 2007 World Championship as the incumbent FIDE champion. Although the rationale behind his (and Garry Kasparov's) \"classical\" title is that the title should change hands by challenge match rather than by tournament, Kramnik stated that he would recognize the winner of this tournament as being the world champion. In the tournament, held in September 2007, Kramnik and Anand drew both of their games but Kramnik finished second. The tournament, and the world championship, was won by Viswanathan Anand.", "Pursuant to the agreement reached before the 2007 tournament Kramnik and Anand played a match of the World Championship title in 2008 in Bonn. He fell victim to Anand's superior preparation, and lost three of the first six games (two with the white pieces). Kramnik's play gradually improved, and although he managed a 29 move victory in game 10, he did not win any other game, and lost the match to Anand by a score of 61⁄2 to 41⁄2 (three wins to Anand, one win to Kramnik, seven draws).", "Kramnik had exceptionally good results in 2009, winning once again in Dortmund and then winning the Category 21 (average Elo = 2763) Tal Memorial in Moscow with 6/9 and a 2883 rating performance ahead of world champion Anand, Vassily Ivanchuk, Magnus Carlsen, Levon Aronian, Boris Gelfand, former FIDE world champion Ruslan Ponomariov, Peter Leko, Peter Svidler and Alexander Morozevich. At the time, the average Elo rating of the field made it the strongest tournament in history. Following this result, Kramnik stated that his goal was to regain the World Championship title. He also participated in the London Chess Classic in December, finishing second to Magnus Carlsen, losing their head-to-head encounter on the Black side of the English Opening. Kramnik's performance in 2009 allowed his rating (average of July 2009 and January 2010 ratings) to be high enough to qualify for the Candidates Tournament to determine the challenger for the World Chess Championship 2012.", "Kramnik began 2010 at the Corus chess tournament in the Netherlands, during which he defeated new world number one Carlsen with the Black pieces in their head-to-head encounter, ending Carlsen's 36-match unbeaten streak. A late loss to Viswanathan Anand knocked him out of first place, and Kramnik finished with 8/13, tying for second place with Alexei Shirov behind Carlsen's 81⁄2 points. In May 2010 it was revealed that Kramnik had aided Viswanathan Anand in preparation for the World Chess Championship 2010 against challenger Veselin Topalov. Anand won the match 61⁄2–51⁄2 to retain the title. In April–May 2010 he tied for 1st–3rd with Shakhriyar Mamedyarov and Gata Kamsky in the President's Cup in Baku and won the event on tie-break after all finished on 5/7. Kramnik also participated in Dortmund, but had a subpar showing, losing to eventual champion Ruslan Ponomariov and finishing in joint third place with 5/10. He then participated in the Grand Slam Chess Masters preliminary tournament in Shanghai from 3 to 8 September, where he faced world number four Levon Aronian, Alexei Shirov, and Wang Hao; the top two scorers qualified for the Grand Slam final supertournament from 9 to 15 October in Bilbao against Carlsen and Anand. Scoring 3/6, Kramnik tied for second place with Aronian behind the winner Shirov's 41⁄2/6. In the blitz playoff, Kramnik defeated Aronian to qualify along with Shirov for the Grand Slam final. Shortly after qualifying for the last stage of the Grand Slam, Kramnik played on board one for the Russian team in the 2010 Olympiad. He scored +2–0=7. Following the Olympiad, Kramnik participated in the Grand Slam Chess Masters final in Bilbao where he competed against Anand, Carlsen and Shirov. The average rating of the field was 2789, the highest in history. After defeating world number one Carlsen for the second consecutive time, and then Shirov in his first two games, Kramnik drew his final four games to finish in clear first with 4/6. This gave Kramnik the distinction of having won the two strongest tournaments in chess history. Kramnik's attempt to defend his 2009 title at the Tal Memorial in Moscow ended with a 7th place, while he finished 5th in the London Chess Classic in England.", "2011 brought varied results. In Wijk aan Zee Kramnik shared fifth with Maxime Vachier-Lagrave, and in the Candidates he was eliminated by Alexander Grischuk. He won Dortmund for the tenth time, with Lê Quang Liêm in second place, and shared third behind Peter Svidler and Alexander Morozevich in the Russian Superfinal. Kramnik won the third London Chess Classic with four wins and four draws, and a rating performance over 2900 Elo. Hikaru Nakamura came second. However, in the earlier 6th Tal Memorial 2011 Moscow he came 8th out of 10, with 2 losses (to Nepomniachtchi and Svidler) and 7 draws, with Magnus Carlsen winning the overall tournament on tiebreak from Levon Aronian.", "Kramnik played a friendly match against Levon Aronian, which finished 3–3 (with a win for Aronian in a rapid game that didn't count as tiebreak). In Tal Memorial he shared fourth place behind Magnus Carlsen, Fabiano Caruana and Teimour Radjabov. He finished second in the London Chess Classic behind Carlsen.", "Kramnik played in the 2013 Candidates Tournament, which took place in London, from 15 March to 1 April. He finished with +4−1=9, sharing the first place with Magnus Carlsen, who won due to having better tiebreaks. In the 2013 Alekhine Memorial tournament, held from 20 April to 1 May, Kramnik finished seventh, with +2−2=5. In the 2013 Tal Memorial tournament, held from 13 to 23 June, Kramnik finished tenth out of ten, with +0−3=6. In the Chess World Cup 2013, held in Norway from 11 August to 2 September, Kramnik finished in first place, defeating Dmitry Andreikin in the four-game final match 21⁄2–11⁄2.", "Kramnik's win at the Chess World Cup 2013 qualified him for the Candidates Tournament 2014. He finished equal third on 7 out of 14, and took third place on tie breaks.", "Kramnik did not succeed in defending his title in the Chess World Cup. In the third round he was defeated by Andreikin. He narrowly missed out on qualifying by rating for the Candidates Tournament 2016. This was the first Candidates Tournament Kramnik had missed, since their re-introduction in the 2012 World Championship cycle. He participated as one of 130 grandmasters at the combined World Rapid and Blitz Championships in Berlin that was organized by FIDE from 10 to 14 October. In the World Rapid Championship he remained unbeaten, winning five games of 15 and reaching the 6th place. Kramnik finished third in the World Blitz Championship in Berlin with 15 / 21. He was a half-point behind the winner Alexander Grischuk and lost second place on tiebreak to Maxime Vachier-Lagrave.", "Kramnik competed in the Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting, held from 917 July and finished joint second with 4/7. He played in the Tal Memorial (a ten-player round-robin tournament) in Moscow from 26 September6 October. He finished sixth with 4.5/9 in the opening blitz round-robin on 25 September, meaning that he was given one more game to play with the black pieces than with the white in the classical tournament. He finished joint fifth in the classical tournament, again with 4.5/9. He participated in three of the four events of the Grand Chess Tour (he withdrew from the Sinquefield Cup due to health issues and was replaced by Svidler): Kramnik played the Paris Grand Chess Tour speed chess tournament, the Your Next Move Grand Chess Tour speed chess tournament, and the London Chess Classic classical chess tournament. All the events of the Grand Chess Tour were 10-player round robin tournaments. The Paris Grand Chess Tour tournament was held from 912 June and was composed of a mixture of rapid and blitz games. Kramnik finished ninth with 5.5/18, above only comparatively low-rated wildcard player Laurent Fressinet. The Your Next Move Grand Chess Tour tournament was held from 1720 June in Leuven, Belgium. Like the Paris GCT, it was composed of a combination of rapid and blitz games. Kramnik finished joint eighth with 2.5/9. The London Chess Classic was held from 918 December. Kramnik finished joint third with 5/9.", "Kramnik seemed set to again narrowly miss qualifying for the Candidates on rating, but in late 2017 he was awarded the wild-card entry to the Candidates Tournament 2018. Kramnik started the Candidates tournament well, including a brilliant win with black against Levon Aronian in Round 3. But he faded and finished equal fifth out of eight, on 6.5 points of 14.", "Kramnik competed in the 81st Tata Steel Chess Tournament in January, where he finished last with a score of 41⁄2/13 (+2–6=5). He subsequently announced his retirement from professional chess: \"I already decided to finish my professional chess career a couple of months ago and now, after having played my last tournament, I would like to announce it publicly.\" He said he might still participate in rapid and blitz events and hold simultaneous exhibitions. He stated that he intends to focus on chess for children and education.", "Kramnik played a six-game match against the computer program Deep Fritz in Bonn, Germany from 25 November to 5 December 2006, losing 2–4 to the machine, with 2 losses and 4 draws. He received 500,000 Euros for playing and would have twice as much had he won the match. Deep Fritz version 10 ran on a computer containing two Intel Core 2 Duo CPUs. Kramnik received a copy of the program in mid-October for testing, but the final version included an updated opening book. Except for limited updates to the opening book, the program was not allowed to be changed during the course of the match. The endgame tablebases used by the program were restricted to five pieces even though a complete six-piece tablebase was widely available. The first game ended in a draw. A number of commentators claimed that Kramnik missed a win. The second game was won by Deep Fritz, due to a mistake by Kramnik, who failed to defend against a threatened mate-in-one. Susan Polgar called it the \"blunder of the century\". The third, fourth and fifth games of the match ended in draws. In the last game Kramnik played the aggressive Sicilian Defense in an attempt to win with black and hence even the match, but was outplayed by Fritz. Kramnik was forced to resign, and Fritz won the match 4–2. As of 2019, this has turned out to be the last major human-computer match. According to one expert at the time, \"\"I don’t know what one could get out of it\" [a further match] \"at this point. The science is done\"\".", "On 30 December 2006 Kramnik married French journalist Marie-Laure Germon. Their wedding took place in the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Paris. They have two children: daughter Daria, and son Vadim Vladimirovich. They are resident in Geneva. Kramnik has been diagnosed with ankylosing spondylitis, an uncommon form of arthritis. It causes him great physical discomfort while playing. In January 2006, Kramnik announced that he would skip the Corus Chess Tournament in Wijk aan Zee to seek out treatment for his arthritis. He returned from treatment in June 2006, playing in the 37th Chess Olympiad. He scored a +4 result, achieving the highest rating performance (2847) of the 1307 participating players.", "", "Garry Kasparov described Kramnik's style as pragmatic and tenacious, in the latter similar to Anatoly Karpov. He is one of the toughest opponents to defeat, losing only one game in over one hundred games leading up to his match with Kasparov, including eighty consecutive games without loss. Kasparov did not defeat Kramnik during their 2000 World Championship match, partly due to Kramnik's use of the Berlin Defence of the Ruy Lopez. Kramnik is renowned for his endgame skills.", "Kramnik has significantly shaped opening theory in chess. Viswanathan Anand has said of him in 2012: \"I don't know exactly how many lines he's established, but you get the impression that for the last 10 years we've only been using his ideas.... His stamp on opening theory is much more significant than mine.\" Kramnik's results with the white pieces against the King's Indian Defence made Kasparov drop the opening from his repertoire, and caused the opening to disappear from top-level play for many years. Kramnik's use of the Berlin Defence in his 2000 match against Kasparov led to a massive increase in the opening's popularity. Kramnik also revived the Catalan Opening." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Towards the top.", "1984 World Championship.", "World Champion.", "Break with and ejection from FIDE.", "Losing the title and aftermath.", "Retirement from chess.", "Post-retirement chess.", "Return from retirement.", "Politics.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "Views.", "Human Rights Foundation.", "Playing style.", "Olympiads and other major team events.", "Records and achievements.", "Chess ratings achievements.", "Other records.", "Chess and computers.", "Books and other writings.", "Early writings.", "\"My Great Predecessors\" series.", "\"Modern Chess\" series.", "\"Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov\" series.", "\"Winter Is Coming\".", "Historical revision.", "Other post-retirement writing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Kasparov was born Garik Kimovich Weinstein (Russian: Гарик Вайнштейн) in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR (now Azerbaijan), Soviet Union. His father, Kim Moiseyevich Weinstein, was Jewish, and his mother, Klara Shagenovna Kasparova, was Armenian. Kasparov has described himself as a \"self-appointed Christian\", although \"very indifferent\" and identifies as Russian. Kasparov began the serious study of chess after he came across a chess problem set up by his parents and proposed a solution. His father died of leukemia when Garry was seven years old. At the age of twelve, Garry, upon request of his mother Klara and with the consent of the family, adopted Klara's surname Kasparov, which was done to avoid possible antisemitic tensions, which were common in the USSR at the time. From age 7, Kasparov attended the Young Pioneer Palace in Baku and, at 10 began training at Mikhail Botvinnik's chess school under noted coach Vladimir Makogonov. Makogonov helped develop Kasparov's positional skills and taught him to play the Caro-Kann Defence and the Tartakower System of the Queen's Gambit Declined. Kasparov won the Soviet Junior Championship in Tbilisi in 1976, scoring 7 points of 9, at age 13. He repeated", "As a teenager, Kasparov tied for first place in the USSR Chess Championship in 1981–82. His first win in a superclass-level international tournament was scored at Bugojno, Yugoslavia in 1982. He earned a place in the 1982 Moscow Interzonal tournament, which he won, to qualify for the Candidates Tournament. At age 19, he was the youngest Candidate since Bobby Fischer, who was 15 when he qualified in 1958. At this stage, he was already the No. 2-rated player in the world, trailing only World Chess Champion Anatoly Karpov on the January 1983 list. Kasparov's first (quarter-final) Candidates match was against Alexander Beliavsky, whom he defeated 6–3 (four wins, one loss). Politics threatened Kasparov's semi-final against Viktor Korchnoi, which was scheduled to be played in Pasadena, California. Korchnoi had", "The World Chess Championship 1984 match between Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov had many ups and downs, and a very controversial finish. Karpov started in very good form, and after nine games Kasparov was down 4–0 in a \"first to six wins\" match. Fellow players predicted he would be whitewashed 6–0 within 18 games. In an unexpected turn of events, there followed a series of 17 successive draws, some relatively short, and others drawn in unsettled positions. Kasparov lost game 27 (5–0), then fought back with another series of draws until game 32 (5–1), earning his first-ever win against the World Champion. Another 14 successive", "The second Karpov-Kasparov match in 1985 was organized in Moscow as the best of 24 games where the first player to win 121⁄2 points would claim the World Champion title. The scores from the terminated match would not carry over; however, in the event of a 12–12 draw, the title would remain with Karpov. On 9 November 1985, Kasparov secured the title by a score of 13–11, winning the 24th game with Black, using a Sicilian defense. He was 22 years old at the time, making him the youngest ever World Champion, and breaking the record held by Mikhail Tal for over 20 years. Kasparov's win as Black in the 16th game has been recognized as one of the all-time masterpieces in chess history. As part of the arrangements following the aborted 1984 match, Karpov had been granted (in the event of his defeat) a right to rematch. Another match took place in 1986, hosted jointly in London and Leningrad, with each city hosting 12 games. At one point in the match, Kasparov opened a three-point lead and looked well on his way to a", "With the World Champion title in hand, Kasparov began opposing FIDE. In November 1986, he created the Grandmasters Association (GMA), an organization to represent professional chess players and give them more say in FIDE's activities. Kasparov assumed a leadership role. GMA's major achievement was in organizing a series of six World Cup tournaments for the world's top players. A somewhat uneasy relationship developed with FIDE, and a sort of truce was brokered by Bessel Kok, a Dutch businessman. This stand-off lasted until 1993, by which time a new challenger had qualified through the Candidates cycle for Kasparov's next World Championship defense: Nigel Short, a British grandmaster who had defeated Anatoly Karpov in a qualifying match, and then Jan Timman in the finals held in early 1993. After a confusing and compressed bidding process produced lower financial estimates than expected, the world champion and his challenger decided to play outside FIDE's jurisdiction, under another organization created by Kasparov called the Professional Chess Association (PCA). At this point, a great fracture occurred in the lineage of the FIDE World Championship. In an interview in 2007, Kasparov called the break with FIDE the worst mistake of his career, as it hurt the game in the long run. Kasparov and Short were ejected from FIDE, and played their", "The Kasparov-Kramnik match took place in London during the latter half of 2000. Kramnik had been a student of Kasparov's at the famous Botvinnik/Kasparov chess school in Russia, and had served on Kasparov's team for the 1995 match against Viswanathan Anand. The better-prepared Kramnik won game 2 against Kasparov's Grünfeld Defence and achieved winning positions in Games 4 and 6, although Kasparov held the draw in both games. Kasparov made a critical error in Game 10 with the Nimzo-Indian Defence, which Kramnik exploited to win in 25 moves. As White, Kasparov could not crack the passive but solid Berlin Defence in the Ruy Lopez, and Kramnik successfully drew all his games as Black. Kramnik won the match 81⁄2–61⁄2. Kasparov became the first player to lose a world championship match without winning a game since Emanuel Lasker's loss to José Raúl Capablanca in 1921. After losing the title, Kasparov won a series of major tournaments,", "After winning the prestigious Linares tournament for the ninth time, Kasparov announced on 10 March 2005 that he would retire from serious competitive chess. He cited as the reason a lack of personal goals in the chess world (he commented when winning the Russian championship in 2004 that it had been the last major title he had never won outright) and expressed frustration at the failure to reunify the world championship. Kasparov said he may play in some rapid chess events for fun, but intends to spend more time on his books, including both the \"My Great Predecessors\" series (see below) and a work on the links between decision-making in chess and in other areas of life, and will continue to involve himself in Russian politics, which he views as \"headed down the wrong path\". Kasparov has been married three times: to Masha, with whom he had a daughter before divorcing; to Yulia, with whom he had a son before their 2005 divorce; and to Daria (Dasha), with whom he has two children, a daughter born in 2006 and a son born in 2015. They live in New York City. Kasparov's wife manages his business activities worldwide as the founder of Kasparov International Management Inc.", "On 22 August 2006, in his first public chess games since his retirement, Kasparov played in the Lichthof Chess Champions Tournament, a blitz event played at the time control of 5 minutes per side and 3-second increments per move. Kasparov tied for first with Anatoly Karpov, scoring 41⁄2/6. Kasparov and Anatoly Karpov played a 12-game match from 21–24 September 2009, in Valencia, Spain. It consisted of four rapid (or semi rapid) games, in which Kasparov won 3–1, and eight blitz games, in which Kasparov won 6–2, winning the match with total result 9–3. The event took place exactly 25 years after the two players' legendary encounter at World Chess Championship 1984. Kasparov actively coached Magnus Carlsen for approximately one year beginning in February 2009. The collaboration remained secret until September 2009. Under Kasparov's tutelage, Carlsen in October 2009 became the youngest ever to achieve a FIDE rating higher than 2,800, and rose from world number four to world number one. While the pair initially planned to work together throughout 2010, in March of that year it was announced that Carlsen had split from Kasparov and would no longer be using him as a trainer. According to an interview with the German magazine \"Der Spiegel\", Carlsen indicated that he would remain in contact and that he would continue to attend training sessions with Kasparov, but in fact no further training sessions were held and the cooperation", "In 2017, Kasparov came out of retirement to participate in the inaugural St. Louis Rapid and Blitz tournament from 14–19 August, scoring 3.5/9 in the rapid", "", "Kasparov's grandfather was a staunch communist but Kasparov gradually began to have doubts about the Soviet Union's political system at age 13 when he traveled abroad for the first time to Paris for a", "After onset of pogroms against Armenians in Baku in January 1990, which left hundreds dead and injured and caused thousands of ethnic Armenians to flee Azerbaijan Kasparov together with his family fled from Baku to Moscow on a chartered plane. Later, Kasparov sold world champion's gold crown he won to support Armenian refugees from Baku. In May 1990, Kasparov took part in the creation of the Democratic Party of Russia, which at first was a", "After his retirement from chess in 2005, Kasparov turned to politics and created the United Civil Front, a social movement whose main goal is to \"work to preserve electoral democracy in Russia\". He has vowed to \"restore democracy\" to Russia by restoring the rule of law. Kasparov was instrumental in setting up The Other Russia, a coalition which opposes Putin's government. The Other Russia has been boycotted by the leaders of Russia's mainstream opposition parties, Yabloko and Union of Right Forces due to its inclusion of nationalist and radical groups. Kasparov has criticized these groups as being secretly under the auspices of the Kremlin. On 10 April 2005, Kasparov was in Moscow at a promotional event when he was struck over the head with a chessboard he had just signed.", "Kasparov was among the 34 first signatories and a key organizer of the online anti-Putin campaign \"Putin must go\", started on 10 March 2010. The campaign was begun by a coalition of opposition to Putin who regard his rule as lacking any rule of law. Within the text is a call to Russian law enforcement to ignore Putin's orders. By June 2011, there were 90,000 signatures. While the identity of the petition author remained anonymous, there was wide speculation that it was indeed Kasparov. On 17 August 2012, Kasparov was arrested and beaten outside of the Moscow court while attending the verdict reading in the case involving the all-female punk band Pussy Riot. On 24 August, he was cleared of charges that he took part in an unauthorized protest against the conviction of three members of Pussy Riot. Judge Yekaterina Veklich said there were \"no grounds to believe the testimony of the police\". He could still face criminal charges over a police officer's claims that the opposition leader bit his finger while he was being detained. He later thanked all the bloggers and reporters who provided video evidence that contradicted the testimony of the police. Kasparov wrote", "Kasparov wrote in \"Time\" on 18 September 2013 that he considered the \"chess metaphors thrown around during the world's response to the civil war in Syria\" to be \"trite\" and rejected what he called \"all the nonsense about 'Putin is playing chess and Obama is playing checkers,' or tic-tac-toe or whatever.\" Putin, argued Kasparov, \"did not have to outplay or outthink anyone. He and Bashar Assad won by forfeit when President Obama, Prime Minister Cameron and the rest of the so-called leaders of the free world walked away from the table.\" There is, he lamented, \"a new game at the negotiating table where Putin and Assad set the rules and will run the show under the protection of the U.N.\" Kasparov said in September 2013 that Russia was now a", "Kasparov was named Chairman of the Human Rights Foundation in 2011, succeeding the recently deceased author, activist, and former Czech president Václav Havel. On 31 January 2012,", "Kasparov's attacking style of play has been compared by many to Alekhine's. Kasparov has described his style as being influenced chiefly by Alekhine, Tal and Fischer. Kramnik has opined that \"[Kasparov's] capacity for study is second", "Kasparov played in a total of eight Chess Olympiads. He represented the Soviet Union four times and Russia four times, following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. In his 1980 Olympiad debut, he became, at age 17, the youngest player to represent the Soviet Union or Russia at that level, a record which was broken by Vladimir Kramnik in 1992. In 82 games, he has scored (+50−3=29), for 78.7% and won a total of 19 medals, including team gold", "", "Kasparov holds the record for the longest time as the No. 1 rated player in the worldfrom 1986 to 2005 (Vladimir Kramnik shared the No. 1 ranking with him once, in the January 1996 FIDE rating list). He was also briefly ejected from the list following his split from FIDE in 1993, but during that time he headed the rating list of the rival PCA. At the", "Kasparov holds the record for most consecutive professional tournament victories, placing first or equal first in 15 individual tournaments from 1981 to 1990. The streak was", "In 1983, Acorn Computers acted as one of the sponsors for Kasparov's Candidates semi-final match against Viktor Korchnoi. Kasparov was awarded a BBC Micro which he took back with him to Baku, making it perhaps the first western-made microcomputer to reach Baku at that time. In 1985, computer chess magazine editor Frederic Friedel invited Kasparov to his house, and the two of them discussed how a chess database program would be useful for preparation. Two years later, Friedel founded Chessbase, and gave a copy of the program to Kasparov who started using it in his preparation. In 1985, Kasparov played against thirty-two different chess computers in Hamburg, winning all games, but with some difficulty. On 22 October 1989, Kasparov defeated the chess computer Deep Thought in both games of a two-game match. In December 1992, Kasparov visited Frederic Friedel in his hotel room in Cologne, and played 37 blitz games against Fritz 2 winning 24, drawing 4 and losing 9. Kasparov cooperated in producing video material for the computer game Kasparov's Gambit released by Electronic Arts in November 1993. In April 1994, Intel acted as a sponsor for the first Professional Chess Association Grand Prix event in Moscow played a time control of 25 minutes per game. In May, Chessbase's Fritz 3 running on an Intel Pentium PC defeated Kasparov in their first in the Intel Express blitz tournament in Munich, but Kasparov managed to tie it for first, and then win the playoff with 3 wins and 2 draws. The next day, Kasparov lost to Fritz 3 again in a game on ZDF TV. In August, Kasparov was knocked out of the London Intel Grand Prix by Richard Lang's ChessGenius 2 program in the first round. In 1995, during Kasparov's world title match with Viswanathan Anand, he unveiled an opening novelty that had been checked with a chess engine, an approach that would become increasingly common in subsequent years. Kasparov played in a pair of six-game chess matches with an IBM supercomputer called Deep Blue. The first match was played in Philadelphia in 1996 and won by Kasparov. The", "", "Kasparov has written books on chess. He published a controversial autobiography when still in his early 20s, originally titled \"Child of Change\", later retitled \"Unlimited Challenge\". This book was subsequently updated several times after he became World Champion. Its content is mainly literary, with a small chess component of key unannotated games. He published an annotated games collection in 1985: \"Fighting Chess: My Games and Career\" and this book has also been updated several times in further editions. He also wrote a book annotating the games from his World Chess Championship 1985 victory, \"World Chess Championship", "In 2003, the first volume of his five-volume work \"Garry Kasparov on My Great Predecessors\" was published. This volume, which deals with the world chess champions Wilhelm Steinitz, Emanuel Lasker, José Raúl Capablanca, Alexander Alekhine, and some of their strong contemporaries, has received lavish praise from some reviewers (including Nigel Short), while attracting criticism from others for historical inaccuracies and analysis of games directly copied from unattributed sources. Through suggestions on the", "His book \"Revolution in the 70s\" (published in March 2007) covers \"the openings revolution of the 1970s–1980s\" and is the first book in a new series called \"Modern Chess Series\", which intends to cover his matches with Karpov and selected games. The book \"Revolution in the 70s\" concerns the revolution", "Kasparov is publishing", "In October 2015, Kasparov published a book titled \"Winter Is Coming: Why Vladimir Putin and the Enemies of the Free World Must Be Stopped\". The title is a", "Kasparov believes that the conventional history of civilization is radically incorrect. Specifically, he believes that the history of ancient civilizations is based on misdatings of events and achievements that actually occurred in the medieval period. He has cited several aspects of ancient history that he says are likely to be anachronisms. Kasparov has written in support of New Chronology (Fomenko), although", "In 2007, he wrote \"How Life Imitates Chess\", an examination of the parallels between decision-making in chess and in the business world. In 2008, Kasparov published a sympathetic obituary for Bobby Fischer, writing: \"I am often asked if I ever met or played Bobby Fischer. The answer is no, I never had that opportunity. But even though he saw me as a member of the evil chess establishment that he felt had robbed and cheated him, I am sorry I never had a chance to" ] }

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{ "title": [ "General characteristics.", "History.", "Background.", "1960s.", "1970s.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "2000s–2010s.", "Illumination.", "Connection to other circuits.", "Passive-matrix.", "Active-matrix technologies.", "Twisted nematic (TN).", "In-plane switching (IPS).", "Comparison to AMOLED.", "Super In-plane switching (S-IPS).", "Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS).", "Vertical alignment (VA).", "Blue phase mode.", "Quality control.", "\"Zero-power\" (bistable) displays.", "Advantages and disadvantages.", "Chemicals used.", "Environmental impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters (parallel and perpendicular), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. Most color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The color filters are made with a photolithography process. Red, green, blue and black resists are used. All resists contain a finely ground powdered pigment, with particles being just 40 nanometers across. The black resist is the first to be applied; this will create a black grid that will separate red, green and blue subpixels from one another. After the black resist has been dried in an oven and exposed to UV light through a photomask, the unexposed areas are washed away. Then the same process is repeated with the remaining resists. This fills the holes in the black grid (or matrix) with their corresponding colored resists. Another color-generation method used in early color PDAs and some calculators", "The origins and the complex history of liquid-crystal displays from the perspective of an insider during the early days were described by Joseph A. Castellano in \"Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry\". Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a different perspective until 1991 has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History Center. A description of Swiss contributions to LCD developments, written by Peter J. Wild, can be found at the \"Engineering and Technology History Wiki\".", "In 1888, Friedrich Reinitzer (1858–1927) discovered the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 (F. Reinitzer: \"Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Cholesterins, Monatshefte für Chemie (Wien) 9, 421–441 (1888)\"). In 1904, Otto Lehmann published his work \"\"Flüssige Kristalle\"\" (Liquid Crystals). In 1911, Charles Mauguin first experimented with liquid crystals confined between plates in thin layers. In 1922, Georges Friedel described the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in 3 types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). In 1927, Vsevolod Frederiks devised the electrically switched light valve, called the Fréedericksz transition, the essential effect of all LCD technology. In 1936, the Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patented the first", "In 1964, George H. Heilmeier, then working at the RCA laboratories on the effect discovered by Williams achieved the switching of colors by field-induced realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal. Practical problems with this new electro-optical effect made Heilmeier continue to work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the achievement of the first operational liquid-crystal display based on what he called the \"dynamic scattering mode\" (DSM). Application of", "On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect (TN) in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors. Hoffmann-La Roche then licensed the invention to the Swiss manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie which produced TN displays for wristwatches and other applications during the 1970s for the international markets including the Japanese electronics industry, which soon produced the first digital quartz wristwatches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products. James Fergason, while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute, filed an identical patent in the United States on April 22, 1971. In 1971, the company of Fergason, ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated), produced LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption. Tetsuro Hama and Izuhiko Nishimura of Seiko received a US patent dated February 1971, for an electronic wristwatch incorporating a TN-LCD. In 1972, the first wristwatch with TN-LCD was launched on the market: The Gruen Teletime which was a four digit display watch. In 1972,", "In 1983, researchers at Brown, Boveri & Cie (BBC) Research Center, Switzerland, invented the \"super-twisted nematic (STN) structure\" for passive matrix-addressed LCDs. H. Amstutz et al. were listed as inventors in the corresponding patent applications filed in Switzerland on July 7, 1983, and October 28, 1983. Patents were granted in Switzerland CH 665491, Europe EP 0131216, and many more countries. In 1980, Brown Boveri started a 50/50 joint venture with the Dutch Philips company, called Videlec. Philips had the required know-how to design and build integrated circuits for the control of large LCD panels. In addition, Philips had better access to markets for electronic components and intended to use LCDs in new product generations of hi-fi, video equipment and telephones. In 1984, Philips researchers Theodorus Welzen and Adrianus de Vaan invented a video speed-drive scheme that solved the slow response time of STN-LCDs, enabling high-resolution, high-quality, and smooth-moving video images on STN-LCDs. In 1985, Philips inventors Theodorus Welzen", "In 1990, under different titles, inventors conceived electro optical effects as alternatives to \"twisted nematic field effect LCDs\" (TN- and STN- LCDs). One approach was to use interdigital electrodes on one glass substrate only to produce an electric field essentially parallel to the glass substrates. To take full advantage of the properties of this \"In Plane Switching (IPS) technology\" further work was needed. After thorough analysis, details of advantageous embodiments are filed in Germany by Guenter Baur \"et al.\" and patented in various countries. The Fraunhofer Institute ISE in Freiburg, where the inventors worked, assigns", "In 2007 the image quality of LCD televisions surpassed the image quality of cathode-ray-tube-based (CRT) TVs. In the fourth quarter of 2007, LCD televisions surpassed CRT TVs in worldwide sales for the first time. LCD TVs were projected to account 50% of the 200 million TVs to be shipped globally in 2006, according to Displaybank. In October 2011, Toshiba announced 2560 × 1600 pixels on a 6.1-inch (155 mm) LCD panel, suitable for use in a tablet computer, especially for Chinese character display. The 2010s", "Since LCDs produce no light of their own, they require external light to produce a visible image. In a transmissive type of LCD, the light source is provided at the back of the glass stack and is called a backlight. Active-matrix LCDs are almost always backlit. Passive LCDs may be backlit but many use a reflector at the back of the glass stack to utilize ambient light. Transflective LCDs combine the features of a backlit transmissive display and a reflective display. The common implementations of LCD backlight technology are: Today, most LCD screens are being designed with an LED backlight instead of the traditional CCFL backlight, while that backlight is dynamically controlled with the video information (dynamic backlight control). The combination with the dynamic backlight control, invented by Philips researchers Douglas Stanton, Martinus Stroomer and Adrianus de Vaan, simultaneously increases the dynamic range of the display system (also marketed as \"HDR, high dynamic range television\" or called \"Full-area Local Area Dimming (FLAD)\" The LCD backlight systems are made highly efficient by applying optical films such as prismatic structure to gain the light into the desired viewer directions and reflective polarizing films that recycle the polarized light that was formerly absorbed by the first polarizer", "A standard television receiver screen, a modern LCD panel, has over six million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of wires needed for a 1080p display is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and", "Monochrome and later color passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displays) and the original Nintendo Game Boy until the mid-1990s, when color active-matrix became standard on all laptops. The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome). Passive-matrix LCDs are still used in the 2010s for applications less demanding than laptop computers and TVs, such as inexpensive calculators. In particular, these are used on portable devices where less information content needs to be displayed, lowest power consumption (no backlight) and low cost are desired or readability in direct sunlight is needed. Displays having a passive-matrix structure are employing \"super-twisted nematic\" STN (invented by Brown Boveri Research Center, Baden, Switzerland, in 1983; scientific details were published) or double-layer STN (DSTN) technology (the latter of which addresses a color-shifting problem with the former), and color-STN (CSTN) in which color is added by using an internal filter. STN LCDs have been optimized for passive-matrix addressing. They exhibit a sharper threshold of the contrast-vs-voltage characteristic than the original TN LCDs. This is important, because pixels are subjected to partial voltages even while not selected. Crosstalk between activated and non-activated pixels has to be handled properly by keeping the RMS voltage of non-activated pixels below the threshold voltage as discovered by Peter J. Wild in 1972, while activated pixels are subjected to voltages above threshold (the voltages according to the \"Alt & Pleshko\" drive scheme). Driving such STN displays according to the Alt & Pleshko drive scheme require very high line addressing voltages. Welzen and de Vaan invented an alternative drive scheme (a non \"Alt & Pleshko\" drive scheme) requiring much lower voltages, such that the STN display could be driven using low voltage CMOS technologies. STN LCDs have to be continuously refreshed by alternating pulsed voltages of one polarity during one frame and pulses of opposite polarity during the next frame. Individual pixels are addressed by the corresponding row and column circuits. This type of display is called \"passive-matrix addressed\", because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs with too many pixels and driven", "", "Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, polarized light passes", "In-plane switching is an LCD technology that aligns the liquid crystals in a plane parallel to the glass substrates. In this method, the electrical field is applied through opposite electrodes on the same glass substrate, so that the liquid crystals can be reoriented (switched) essentially in the same plane, although fringe fields inhibit a homogeneous reorientation. This requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. Before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2009, the additional transistors resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight and consuming more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. Currently Panasonic is using an enhanced version eIPS for their large size LCD-TV products as well as Hewlett-Packard in its WebOS based TouchPad tablet and their Chromebook 11.", "In 2011, LG claimed the smartphone LG Optimus Black (IPS LCD (LCD NOVA)) has the brightness up to 700 nits, while the competitor has only IPS LCD with 518 nits and double an active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display with 305 nits. LG also claimed the NOVA display to be 50 percent more efficient than regular LCDs and to consume only 50 percent of the power of AMOLED displays when producing white on screen. When it comes to contrast ratio, AMOLED display still performs best due to its underlying technology, where the black levels are displayed as pitch black and not as dark gray. On August 24, 2011, Nokia announced the Nokia 701 and also made the claim of the world's brightest display at 1000 nits. The screen also had Nokia's Clearblack layer, improving the contrast ratio and bringing it closer to that of the AMOLED screens.", "Super-IPS was later introduced after in-plane", "Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003, advanced fringe field switching is similar to IPS or S-IPS offering superior performance and color gamut with high luminosity. AFFS was developed by Hydis Technologies Co., Ltd, Korea (formally Hyundai Electronics, LCD Task Force). AFFS-applied notebook applications minimize color distortion while maintaining a wider viewing angle for a professional display. Color shift and deviation", "Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted", "Blue phase mode LCDs have been shown as engineering samples early in 2008, but they are not in mass-production. The physics", "Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers' policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea. As of 2005, though, Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard. Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies. Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard, which was made obsolete in 2008 with the release of ISO 9241, specifically ISO-9241-302, 303, 305, 307:2008 pixel defects. However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the", "The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations (\"black\" and \"white\") and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent Displays has also developed a \"no-power\" display that uses polymer stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (ChLCD). In 2009", "Some of these issues relate to full-screen displays, others to", "Several different families of liquid crystals are used in liquid crystals. The molecules used have to be anisotropic, and to exhibit mutual attraction. Polarizable rod-shaped molecules (biphenyls, terphenyls, etc.) are common. A common form is a pair of aromatic benzene rings, with a nonpolar moiety (pentyl, heptyl, octyl, or alkyl oxy group) on one end and polar (nitrile, halogen) on the other. Sometimes the benzene rings are separated with an acetylene group, ethylene, CH=N, CH=NO, N=N, N=NO, or ester group. In practice, eutectic mixtures of several chemicals are used, to achieve wider temperature operating range (−10..+60 °C for low-end and −20..+100 °C for high-performance displays). For example, the E7 mixture is composed of three biphenyls and one terphenyl: 39 wt.% of 4'-pentyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 24..35 °C), 36 wt.% of 4'-heptyl[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 30..43 °C), 16 wt.% of 4'-octoxy[1,1'-biphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 54..80 °C), and 9 wt.% of 4\"-pentyl[1,1':4',1\"-terphenyl]-4-carbonitrile (nematic range 131..240 °C).", "The production of LCD screens uses nitrogen trifluoride (NF) as an etching fluid during the production of the thin-film components. NF is a potent greenhouse gas, and its relatively long half-life may make it a potentially harmful contributor to global warming. A report in \"Geophysical Research Letters\" suggested that its effects were theoretically much greater than better-known sources of greenhouse gasses like carbon dioxide. As NF was not in widespread" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "1999 State Duma election.", "Creation of United Russia.", "2003 State Duma elections.", "2007 State Duma elections.", "Medvedev/Putin: 2008–2012.", "Putin/Medvedev: 2012–present.", "Current status.", "Federal Assembly.", "Party membership.", "Party platform.", "Electorate.", "Foreign opinions.", "International alliances.", "Structure.", "Internal groupings.", "Allegations of crime and corruption." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "United Russia's predecessor was the Unity bloc, which was created three months before the December 1999 Duma elections to counter the advance of the Fatherland – All Russia (OVR) party led by Yuri Luzhkov. The creation of the party was heavily supported by Kremlin insiders, who were wary of what looked like a certain OVR victory. They did not expect Unity to have much chance of success since President Boris Yeltsin was very unpopular and Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's ratings were still minuscule. The new party attempted to mimic OVR's formula of success, placing an emphasis on competence and pragmatism. Charismatic Minister of Emergency Situations Sergei Shoigu was appointed as the party leader. In 1999, Prime Minister Putin's popularity soared to double-digit figures after he decisively sent troops to the rebellious Chechnya republic as a retaliation for bombings attributed to terrorists in Moscow and other cities and in response to the Chechen invasion of Dagestan. Putin's war effort was hugely popular and portrayed positively by the Boris Berezovsky-owned Channel One Russia as well as by state-controlled RTR.", "Contrary to its creators' expectations, Unity's election campaign was a huge success and the party received 23.3% of the votes, considerably more than OVR's 13.3% and within one percentage point of the Communist Party's 24.3%. The popularity of the prime minister proved decisive for Unity's victory. The election results also made clear that Putin was going to win the 2000 presidential election, which resulted in competitors Luzhkov and Yevgeni Primakov dropping out. Yeltsin also gave Putin a boost by resigning as President on 31 December 1999.", "While Unity had initially had only one narrow purpose, limited only to the 1999 Duma elections, after the victory state officials began to transform the party into a permanent one. A large number of independent deputies who had been elected to the Duma were invited to join the party's delegation. Many OVR deputies also joined, including its leader Luzhkov. In April 2001, OVR and Unity leaders issued a joint declaration that they had started the process of unification. In July 2001, the unified party, called Union of Unity and Fatherland, held its founding congress and in December 2001 it became All-Russian Party of Unity and Fatherland, or more commonly, United Russia. In the second party congress in March 2003, Sergei Shoygu stood down and Boris Gryzlov was elected as the new party leader. Instead of the \"communism versus capitalism\" dichotomy that had dominated the political discourse in the 1990s, in the 1999–2000 electoral cycle Putin started to emphasize another reason to vote for his party: stability, which was yearned for by Russian citizens after a decade of chaotic revolutionary change. With the exception of the continued fighting in the Northern Caucasus, Putin delivered it. On 13 January 2003, United Russia had 257,000 members—behind Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (600,000) and the Communists (500,000).", "Throughout Putin's first years as president, the country's economy improved considerably, growing more each year than in all of the previous decade and Putin's approval ratings hovered well above 70%. Russia's economic recovery was helped by high prices for its primary exports such as oil, gas and raw materials. The passage rate of law proposals increased considerably after United Russia became the dominant party in the Duma. In 1996–1999, only 76% of the legislation that passed the third reading was signed by the President while in 1999–2003 the ratio was 93%. While Yeltsin had often relied on his decree powers to enact major decisions, Putin almost never had to. United Russia's dominance in the Duma enabled Putin to push through a wide range of fundamental reforms, including a flat income tax of 13%, a reduced profits tax, an overhaul of the labour market, breakups of national monopolies and new land and legal codes. United Russia characterised itself as wholly supportive of Putin's agenda, which proved a recipe for success and resulted in the party scoring a major victory in the 2003 Duma elections, receiving more than a third of the popular vote. Throughout its history, United Russia has been successful in using administrative resources to weaken its opponents. For example, state-controlled news media portrayed the Communist Party as hypocritical for accepting money from several \"dollar millionaires\" during the 2003 Duma election campaign. United Russia also introduced tougher party, candidate and voter registration requirements and increased the election threshold from 5% to 7% for the 2007 elections. Opposition parties also made several strategic mistakes. For example, Yabloko and the Union of Right Forces seemed to spend more effort attacking each other than Putin, which made it easier for United Russia to win over liberal voters on the strength of market reforms under Putin. The opposition parties faltered in the 2003 elections, with the Communists gaining just 52 seats, a drop from 113 in 1999. Liberal opponents fared even worse, with Yabloko and Union of the Right Forces failing to cross the 5 percent threshold.", "As the economy continued improving and Putin executed several popular moves, such as reining in the unpopular oligarchs, Putin's approval ratings stayed high and he won the 2004 presidential election with over 71% of the votes. The 2007 Duma elections proved a stunning victory for United Russia, which won 64.3% of the votes. The Communist Party became a distant second with 11.57% of the votes. Putin was the only name on United Russia's national list and his popularity helped the party to ensure victory. During the December 2007 election, the party was accused by voters and election monitoring group Golos of numerous election law violations banned in the Russian Constitution. The legislative agenda shifted somewhat after the 2007 elections. Anti-terrorism legislation, large increases in social spending and the creation of new state corporations became the dominant issues while less energy was devoted to economic reform.", "For the 2008 presidential election, United Russia nominated Dmitry Medvedev to succeed Putin. Medvedev received Putin's blessing and scored a clear victory, receiving 71% of the votes. As President, Medvedev nominated Putin as his Prime Minister. On 15 April of the same year, Putin accepted a nomination to become the party's leader, but declared that this did not mean he would become a member. Medvedev has also refused to become a member. During regional elections of 11 October 2009, United Russia won a majority of seats in almost every Russian municipality. Opposition candidates claim they were hindered from campaigning for the elections and some were denied places on the ballot. There are also accusations of widespread ballot stuffing and voter intimidation as well as statistical analysis results supporting these accusations. Support for United Russia was 53% in a poll held in October 2009. In 2010–2011 and following the economic crisis, support for United Russia went up and down, but declined overall. The share of the population ready to vote for the party reached its lowest point in January 2011 (35%) before recovering to 41% in March 2011. The Agrarian Party supported the candidacy of Dmitry Medvedev in the 2008 presidential election and it merged into United Russia.", "At the party's XII Congress held on 24 September 2011, Medvedev supported the candidacy of Prime Minister Putin in the presidential election of 2012—a move that effectively assured Putin would return to the presidency, given the party's near-total dominance of Russian politics. Medvedev accepted the invitation of Prime Minister Putin to head the party in the State Duma elections and said that in his opinion Putin should run for President in 2012. Delegates applauded this statement standing and they unanimously supported his candidacy for President. Medvedev responded immediately, saying that applause is proof of Putin's popularity among the people. Ten thousand participants of the meeting listened to Medvedev's speech. In total, the congress was attended by about 12,000 participants, guests and journalists. At the same congress, it was also approved by the election list of candidates from the party in the December elections to the State Duma. The list includes 416 party members and 183 non-partisan, 363 of them for the first time participate in the elections. On 29 September, the list was handed over to the Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation. The party-list was led by President Medvedev. 582 delegates of the Congress voted in support of the list, against one. The Election program of United Russia was announced during speeches of Medvedev and Putin. Medvedev has identified seven strategic priorities of government policy and Putin offered to cancel the erroneous tax debts of 36 million Russians in the amount of 30 billion rubles and increase from 10 October salaries of public sector employees by 6.5%. Putin also said that taxes for the wealthy citizens should be higher than for the middle class and offered to raise utility tariffs only excess baggage. Among other priorities, Putin called a complete re army and navy in 5–10 years, doubling the pace of road construction for 10 years, the creation or update of 25 million jobs in 20 years in and out of Russia in the five largest economies in the world. At the party's XIII Congress, held on 26 May 2012, Medvedev was elected chairman of United Russia. United Russia decided not use portraits of President Medvedev and President Putin during the fall election campaign. In March 2013, about 50 members of the United Russia from Abansky District of Krasnoyarsk Krai announced their withdrawal from the party. They sent an open letter (said to have been signed by 60 people) to the party chairman Medvedev, which criticized the activities of the party which according to them has ceased to fulfil its political function.", "", "United Russia currently holds 340 of the 450 seats in the State Duma. It heads all five of the Duma's commissions and holds 14 of the 26 committee chairmanships and 10 of the 16 seats in the Council of Duma, the Duma's steering committee. The speaker of the Duma is United Russia's Vyacheslav Volodin. The party has only informal influence in the upper house, the Federation Council, as the Council has rejected the use of political factions in decision making.", "In 2013, United Russia claimed it had 2 million members. According to a study conducted by Timothy J. Colton, Henry E. Hale and Michael McFaul after the March 2008 presidential elections, 30% of the Russian population are loyalists of the party.", "According to the party's 2003 political manifesto, \"The Path of National Success\", the party's goal is to unite the responsible political forces of the country, aiming to minimize the differences between rich and poor, young and old, state, business and society. The economy should combine state regulation and market freedoms, with the benefits of further growth distributed for the most part to the less fortunate. The party rejects left-wing and right-wing ideologies in favour of \"political centrism\" that could unite all sections of society. In addition, the official party platform emphasizes pragmatism and anti-radicalism. The party regards itself to be one of the heirs to Russia's tradition of statehood, both tsarist and communist. United Russia's long-time moniker is \"the party of real deeds\". United Russia has always characterised itself as wholly supportive of the agenda of the popular current President Vladimir Putin and this has proved key to its success. Since 2006, when Vladislav Surkov introduced the term sovereign democracy, many figureheads of the party have taken usage of the term. Former President and current Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev has criticised the term. United Russia voted against the Council of Europe resolution 1481 (Need for international condemnation of crimes of communist governments). The party has promoted explicitly conservative policies in social, cultural and political matters, both at home and abroad. Putin has attacked globalism and economic liberalism as well as scientific and technological progress. Putin has promoted new think tanks that bring together like-minded intellectuals and writers. For example, the Izborsky Club, founded in 2012 by Aleksandr Prokhanov, stresses Russian nationalism, the restoration of Russia's historical greatness and systematic opposition to liberal ideas and policies. Vladislav Surkov, a senior government official, has been one of the key ideologists during Putin's presidency. In cultural and social affairs, United Russia has collaborated closely with the Russian Orthodox Church. Mark Woods provides specific examples of how the Church under Patriarch Kirill of Moscow has backed the expansion of Russian power into Crimea and eastern Ukraine. More broadly, \"The New York Times\" reports in September 2016 how that Church's policy prescriptions support the Kremlin's appeal to social conservatives:", "According to studies, United Russia voters in 2006 were younger and more market-oriented than the average voter. The party's electorate includes a substantial share of state employees, pensioners and military personnel who are dependent on the state for their livelihood. Sixty-four percent of United Russia supporters are female. In the run-up to the 2011 Duma elections, it was reported that support for United Russia was growing among young people.", "Foreign media and observers describe United Russia as a pure \"presidential party\", with the main goal of securing the power of the Russian President in the Russian parliament. The vast majority of officeholders in Russia are members of the party, hence it is sometimes described as a \"public official party\" or \"administration party\". Due to this, it is also often labelled the \"Party of Power\".", "United Russia has signed cooperation agreements with the right-wing Freedom Party of Austria, Serbian Progressive Party, the Cambodian People's Party, the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party, and the League of Italy. Its youth wing, the Young Guard of United Russia, has an alliance with the youth wing of the right-wing populist Alternative for Germany, Young Alternative for Germany. The party has also signed cooperation agreements with the Serb nationalist Alliance of Independent Social Democrats of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Estonian Centre Party (though party leader Jüri Ratas recently claimed that the agreement has not been active for ten years and that there is no current cooperation between the parties). The party has proposed a cooperation agreement to the populist Five Star Movement (M5S). The Five Star Movement never gave a proper answer to the proposal and it is currently unknown whether it actually accepted the proposal or not. United Russia has also signed cooperation agreements with Kazakhstan's Nur Otan party, the Mongolian People's Party, the Uzbekistan Liberal Democratic Party, the People's Democratic Party of Tajikistan, the Party of Socialists of the Republic of Moldova, the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, the Communist Party of Vietnam, South Africa's African National Congress, the New Azerbaijan Party, the Prosperous Armenia party, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region, the Workers' Party of Korea, the Communist Party of Cuba, and the Philippines' PDP-Laban party. The party used to have an agreement with the Latvian Social Democratic Party \"Harmony\", but the agreement lapsed in 2016 and was not renewed.", "In April 2008, United Russia amended Section 7 of its charter, changing its heading from Party Chairman to Chairman of the Party and Chairman of the Party's Supreme Council. Under the amendments, United Russia may introduce a supreme elective post in the party, the post of the party's chairman, at the suggestion of Supreme Council and its chairman. The Supreme Council, led by the Supreme Council chairman, defines the strategy for the development of the party. The General Council has 152 members, is the foremost party platform in between party congresses and issues statements on important social or political questions. The Presidium of the General Council is led by a secretary, consists of 23 members and leads the political activity of the party, for instance election campaigns or other programmatic publications. United Russia introduced a local chapter system that mimicked the Japanese Liberal Democratic Party's (LDP) organization as a strong foundation for the one-party dominant system in the early 2000s. United Russia eagerly interviewed the LDP mission and studied their party structure. The number of party members was steadily increased by the introduction of the system. United Russia runs local and regional offices in all parts of the Russian Federation and also operates a foreign liaison office in Israel through a deal with the Kadima party. As of 20 September 2005, the party has a total of 2,600 local and 29,856 primary offices.", "United Russia is a large and diverse party and has several internal subdivisions. The party has 4 internal groupings, organized around common policy interests. In addition, the party makes use of four internal political clubs to debate policy: liberal conservative 4 November Club, social conservative Centre for Social Conservative Politics, conservative liberal State Patriotic Club and liberal Liberal Club. Based on this division, the party considered entering the 2007 Duma elections as three separate \"columns\" (liberal, conservative and social), but the idea was subsequently abandoned.", "United Russia has come in for criticism that it is \"the party of crooks and thieves\" (партия жуликов и воров, a term coined by activist Alexey Navalny) due to the continuing prevalence of corruption in Russia. In October 2011, Novaya Gazeta published an article describing how members of the public were writing the slogan on banknotes in protest. In December 2011, Putin rejected the accusation of corruption, saying that it was a general problem that was not restricted to one particular party: \"They say that the ruling party is associated with theft, with corruption, but it's a cliché related not to a certain political force, it's a cliché related to power [...] What's important, however, is how the ruling government is fighting these negative things\". A poll made in November 2011 found that more than one-third of Russians agreed with the characterisation of United Russia as \"the party of crooks and thieves\". After the 2011 legislative elections, a few leaders within United Russia called for investigations of fraud and reform of the party." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Underwriting of loans.", "Usual arrangements.", "Construction Management.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Almost all lenders are concerned that their money lent is repaid, so underwriting of construction loans usually focuses on how that might occur. In the most basic situation, that of an individual building a home for themselves, a business building a property for business use, or an investor building a property to rent out, the fundamental guideline is for the lender to imagine once the loan has been fully extended and converted into a normal mortgage and the building is occupied, whether the individual, business, or investor can afford to pay back the loan on a monthly basis. In the case of the individual, where the lender attempts to predict whether the individual can pay each month the loan payment that would occur once the person moves into the house, the lender would be primarily looking at the amount of income the individual receives. In the case of the business, a similar analysis would occur. In the case of an investor building rental property, a special appraisal would be ordered which would attempt to predict what the rents will be and whether they will be enough to pay back the loan, plus all expenses and still give the renter a certain minimum amount of income. The key point here is that no matter how valuable the building might be once completed, almost no lender would extend a loan for more than what the occupier could afford, because even though they will not have to make any payments during construction they would have to make monthly payments once completed and there can be no assurance that the owner would pay down the loan enough to make the monthly payments affordable once the project is completed. Beyond this guideline, the next most common rule is a minimum cash injection requirement. Even if, for example, a business might be able to afford a monthly payment of a loan high enough to pay for the entire construction project, many lenders would require them to instead use a certain minimum portion of their own cash to complete the project. The reason for this is both to psychologically and economically tie in the owner with the project (hopefully making it less likely that they would walk away from the project if something goes wrong), and to give the lender a cushion whereby if something goes wrong they are more likely to be able to sell the real estate at a value that would better cover the loan amount. This guideline is often termed a \"loan to cost\" requirement, i.e. the lender will only loan up to 85% of the project costs. The final major guideline is the maximum loan amount the lender will allow relative to the completed value of the project. This rule is designed to help ensure that, after the project is completed, if the borrower stops paying the payment, the lender can sell the property and hopefully recoup all the funds loaned. Construction Loans are often extended for developers who are seeking to build something but sell it immediately after building it. In this case, a special appraisal is ordered to attempt to predict the future sales value of the project. The first guideline above, affordability, is usually not used because the owner would immediately attempt to sell the property. However, it is used sometimes for example when a developer is building condominia, the lender might evaluate whether if the project was changed from condominia to apartments if the rents received would more than repay the loan each month. Cash injection requirements are often higher due to the added risk (the immediate need to sell). The loan to value requirements however are often the most impactful. This is because the value is often calculated differently than how people might assume. For example, if a developer is building a 20 unit condominium project, a lender might not just loan a certain percentage of the predicted future total value of the condominia, but only a certain percentage of the value of the condominium project if, because of an emergency or unforeseen circumstance, the entire building had to be sold at once to one buyer (known as a bulk sale). Since the realizable sales price in this case might be much lower, the maximum loan many lenders would extend would be much lower.", "Funds are taken from the loan through a process referred to as a \"draw\". A draw is the method by which funds are taken from the construction budget to pay material suppliers and contractors. Each lender has different requirements for processing a draw. For example, some allow the borrower to request draws online, while others require paperwork and periodic inspections. This process helps ensure that the loan proceeds are actually used for the construction and that the construction process is moving smoothly. The borrower is only charged interest on the amount borrowed at any one point. Instead of paying each month during construction, almost all construction loans in the United States have extra funds borrowed right away and stored in a locked account known as an \"interest reserve\". Each month the monthly payments are taken from the account so that the borrower does not have to start paying out of pocket until the project is completed. In Australia, progress draws are interest only to minimise the outgoings for the borrower. Once the construction has been completed the loan reverts to the requested payment option the borrower selected at underwriting (either interest only or principal and interest).", "Besides the underwriting guidelines detailed above, most lenders attempt to mitigate their risk in a variety of ways. The first involves due diligence on the general contractor, architect, soil upon which the property is to be built, environmental inspections, and appraisals. Then, while the construction process is ongoing, the lenders carefully inspect progress both to ensure construction is proceeding smoothly, as well as to ensure that all workers are being paid so that the security of the loan by the real estate is not violated by a mechanics lien.", "Construction loan" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Toponymy.", "Emergence as a county.", "Local government reform.", "Boundary dispute with Glasgow.", "Culture and community.", "Politics.", "Renfrewshire Council.", "Council composition.", "Electoral wards.", "UK Parliament.", "Scottish Parliament.", "Referendum results.", "Education.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The name of Renfrewshire derives from its county town, Renfrew, which has been attested since the Roman occupation of Britain. The name is believed to originate from Common Brittonic/Cumbric, from ren, as in Scottish Gaelic: \"rinn\", or as in Welsh: \"rhyn\" (a point or cape of land) and from frew, as in Welsh: \"fraw\", or \"ffrau\" (flow of water). This suggests a point of land near the flow of water, such as at the confluence of the Cart and Clyde rivers.", "The county of Renfrew was established by King Robert III from lands centring on the ancient lordship of Strathgryfe in 1402. Previously this had formed part of the county of Lanarkshire. Previously religious authority had extended over the area through the authority of Paisley Abbey over local churches in towns and villages. Following the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, Renfrewshire - as with the other counties of Scotland - gained greater powers and became governed by an elected county council, a position that remained until 1975. The centre of local government was moved from Renfrew to Paisley.", "In 1973, the historic county of Renfrewshire was divided into three districts - Renfrew District, Inverclyde District and Eastwood District within the wider Strathclyde region. The modern council area of Renfrewshire was subsequently created as one of the 32 local council areas following the 1996 reform of local government in Scotland, with altered boundaries. Barrhead, Neilston and Uplawmoor which were formerly in Renfrew District joined with Eastwood District to form East Renfrewshire.", "Following the creation of the Braehead shopping centre in 1999, the development formed part of a boundary dispute between Renfrewshire and the City of Glasgow, with the centre straddling the existing boundary line. In 2002, a Local Government Boundary Commission ruling eventually redrew the boundary to include all of the centre in Renfrewshire, as this was the original ancient boundary. The boundary runs along Kings Inch Drive and is marked by a chain linked fence at this point.", "Renfrewshire contains several places of interest. In the west of Renfrewshire, Castle Semple Loch at Lochwinnoch and the wider Clyde Muirshiel Regional Park are natural areas of interest, as is the Gleniffer Braes country park in the south. Paisley contains several historic buildings and notable sites, including Paisley Abbey, Paisley Museum and Coats Observatory, Paisley Town Hall, Coats Memorial Church, Sma' Shot Cottages and St Mirren Park (home of St Mirren F.C.). Outside of Paisley, Elderslie, the claimed birthplace of Scottish knight William Wallace, contains a monument in his honour, while the Weaver's Cottage at Kilbarchan is in the care of the National Trust for Scotland. The town of Johnstone is notable for Johnstone Castle, Johnstone High Parish Church and for containing a museum within a supermarket. The Braehead Arena in Renfrewshire close to the boundary with Glasgow is home to leading professional basketball team, the Scottish Rocks, who compete in the British Basketball League. The arena was also host to the 2000 Ford World Curling Championships.", "", "Renfrewshire Council is the elected local authority for Renfrewshire. Its consists of 43 directly elected councillors who elect from among their number a Provost to serve as the council's convener and ceremonial head and a leader of the council who is typically the head of the largest political group, often called the Administration. The council meets collectively as a full council and carries out a number of functions. Its Scheme of Delegated Functions sets out where the council has agreed to allow powers to be exercised by a committee (referred to as a \"board\" in Renfrewshire Council), a sub-committee, an officer of the council or a joint committee with one or more other councils. The council continues to reserve a number of functions that can only be carried out by the council acting as a whole. The council's paid service (known collectively as \"officers\") is headed by a chief executive, who is responsible to the elected council for the delivery of its policies. This executive wing is divided into seven departments: the Chief Executive's Department, Finance and Corporate Services, Education and Leisure Services, Environmental Services, Housing and Property Services, Planning and Transport, and Social Work. Each department is headed by a Director, who is also a non-political, paid member of staff.", "Following the 2017 Renfrewshire Council election, Renfrewshire Council is led by leader of the council Iain Nicholson who heads a Scottish National Party minority administration. The Provost of Renfrewsihre is Lorraine Cameron who also serves as councillor for Paisley Southwest ward. The full composition of the council is as follows:", "For the purposes of elections to Renfrewshire Council, the Renfrewshire area is divided geographically into a number of wards which then elect either three or four councillors each by the Single Transferable Vote system. The electoral system of local councils in Scotland is governed by the Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004, which first introduced proportional representation to councils in Scotland. These electoral wards, following a 2017 review and first used in the 2017 Renfrewshire Council election are as follows: Ward 1: Renfrew North and Braehead (4 councillors) Ward 2: Renfrew South & Gallowhill (3 councillors) Ward 3: Paisley Northeast & Ralston (3 councillors) Ward 4: Paisley Northwest (4 councillors) Ward 5: Paisley East and Central (3 councillors) Ward 6: Paisley Southeast (3 councillors) Ward 7: Paisley Southwest (4 councillors) Ward 8: Johnstone South and Elderslie (4 councillors) Ward 9: Johnstone North, Kilbarchan, Howwood and Lochwinnoch (4 councillors) Ward 10: Houston, Crosslee & Linwood (4 councillors) Ward 11: Bishopton, Bridge of Weir & Langbank (3 councillors) Ward 12: Erskine & Inchinnan (4 councillors)", "The two parliamentary constituencies covering Renfrewshire are Paisley and Renfrewshire North and Paisley and Renfrewshire South, being represented by Gavin Newlands and Mhairi Black respectively. Created in 2005, both seats and their predecessor constituencies had traditionally been safe seats for the Labour Party, until the Scottish National Party gained them with swings of over 26% in the SNP landslide at the 2015 general election. Although both constituencies were only marginally held by the party over Labour at the 2017 snap election, they returned to safe SNP majorities in the 2019 general election. British general election results in Renfrewshire 2005-2019! rowspan=\"2\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left;\" | Party! colspan=\"5\"|Votes cast! colspan=\"5\"|%! colspan=\"5\"|Seats!2005!2010!2015!2017!2019!2005!2010!2015!2017!2019!2005!2010!2015!2017!2019! colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left;\" |Margin!24,252!31,834!14,760!5,154!22,581!30.8!38.1!15.2!5.9!24.3! 2! 2! 2! 2! 2! colspan=\"2\" style=\"text-align:left;\" | Total! 78,745! 83,765! 96,688! 88,327! 92,766! 100%! 100%! 100%! 100%! 100%! 2! 2! 2! 2! 2", "Following the establishment of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, the Labour Party held the three seats covering Renfrewshire, although with lower majorities than their House of Commons equivalents. Constituency boundaries were redrawn for the 2011 Scottish Parliament election, with the new constituencies of Renfrewshire North and West and Paisley being gained by Derek Mackay and George Adam, who became the first SNP parliamentarians in Renfrewshire. The remaining Labour seat, Renfrewshire South, was gained by the SNP's Tom Arthur at the 2016 Scottish election, with the party obtaining safe majorities in all three seats.", "A majority of Renfrewshire rejected independence in the 2014 Scottish Independence referendum, although with 55,466 (47.2%) votes cast in favour and 62,067 (52.8%) against, the \"Yes\" vote was higher than the national result. The turnout was 117,612 or 87.3%, the highest recorded in the democratic era. With a turnout of 69.2% (88,197), Renfrewshire voted to remain in the 2016 European Union membership referendum with 64.8% (57,119) of votes cast in favour of remaining while 35.2% (31,010) were for leaving. This was the sixth highest vote for \"Remain\" out of Scotland's 32 councils.", "Renfrewshire contains the University of the West of Scotland, a new university that was granted university status in 1992 as the University of Paisley. Prior to this, the Paisley Technical College and School of Art was a Central Institution or polytechnic. In 2007 the university merged with Bell College, a further education college in Hamilton, South Lanarkshire and the UWS name was adopted. The university today has sites across the west of Scotland, notably also in Ayr and a joint campus in Dumfries; the main campus remains in Paisley. Further education is provided by Paisley Campus of West College Scotland in Paisley, which caters to around 20,000 students. The college also has sites in Inverclyde and West Dumbartonshire. Renfrewshire contains eleven state secondary schools, 51 primary schools and three schools for children with additional support needs.", "Renfrewshire is home to Scotland's second busiest airport, Glasgow International Airport, at Abbotsinch between Paisley and Renfrew. The presence of the airport and the proximity to Glasgow means that Renfrewshire supports one of the busiest transport infrastructures in Scotland. The airport is served by the M8 motorway, which terminates in the area, just east of Langbank, and is a major artery between northwest and southwest Scotland, via the Erskine Bridge. Developments to ease traffic flow have included a lifting of tolls on the Erskine Bridge, plans to extend the rail network to connect to the airport, and the M74 extension – which will handle traffic from Renfrewshire heading south, diverting it away from Glasgow city centre. Renfrewshire also has bus links provided by FirstGroup, McGill's Bus Services and other smaller operators." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Politician and banker.", "Member of parliament and finance minister.", "Governor of the national bank.", "Prime minister and president.", "Ryti–Tanner government during the Winter War.", "From prime minister to president.", "Towards German orientation.", "Continuation War.", "Early success and second term.", "Attempts at peace negotiations.", "Ryti–Ribbentrop Agreement.", "Last stages of career.", "War-guilt trials.", "Final years.", "Post-Soviet legacy.", "Freemason and believer in Fate and spirituality." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Risto Ryti was born in Huittinen, Satakunta, one of seven sons. His parents were Kaarle Evert Ryti, a farmer, and Ida Vivika Junttila. Although he came from a peasant farming background, during his childhood Ryti hardly participated in work on the family's large farm, being a bookish and academically inclined boy. He was educated briefly at Pori Grammar School, and was then tutored at home, before enrolling in the University of Helsinki in 1906 to study law. Ryti was the only one of seven sons to pass the university entrance examination; however his three sisters also matriculated. Ryti graduated in autumn 1909 as Finland was moving into the second period of Russification. Escaping an oppressive political atmosphere in the capital, Ryti returned to his roots in Satakunta, where he established himself as a lawyer in Rauma. During this period he became acquainted with Alfred Kordelin, one of Finland's richest men. Ryti became Kordelin's lawyer, and eventually the two men became close friends. During this period Ryti also undertook further studies, becoming a Master of Laws in 1912. In the spring of 1914 he moved to Oxford to study maritime law, but the outbreak of World War I forced him to return to Finland. In 1916 he married Gerda Paula Serlachius (1886–1984). They had three children, Henrik (1916-2002), Niilo (1919–1997), and Eva (1922–2009). In the period after the outbreak of World War I, before Finland achieved its independence, Ryti's business relationship with Kordelin grew even closer, and it appeared likely that Kordelin would ask Ryti to become general manager of his numerous business enterprises. However, in November 1917 Ryti and his wife witnessed the murder of Kordelin at the hands of a Russian Bolshevik. Russian seamen led by a Finnish tailor took Kordelin's party hostage, with the intent to rob them. Ryti, Kordelin's lawyer, refused to legally authorize the robbery despite being threatened at gunpoint. Armed White Guard soldiers were however present and the situation deteriorated into a gunfight. 20 people including Kordelin were killed. Ryti was saved by a malfunction in the enemy's firearm.", "", "During the Finnish Civil War Ryti played no active part, remaining in hiding with his family in Red-dominated Helsinki. Afterwards, however, he would become deeply involved in politics, being elected a National Progressive member of Parliament in 1919, at the age of thirty the second youngest member. In the same year, the party candidate, an admirer of Ryti, Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg, was elected the first president of Finland. Ryti served as a member of Parliament from 1919 to 1924 and from 1927 to 1929. During his first few years in Parliament, Ryti served as chairman of the Judiciary Committee, and later the Finance Committee. He also served as a member of Helsinki City Council from 1924 to 1927. According to the Finnish historian Martti Turtola, Ryti succeeded in politics in the first few years after the Finnish Civil War because his liberal, democratic, and republican ideals were popular then. Moreover, Ryti's personal political success continued even after his liberal-oriented National Progressive Party shrank to a fringe party, because he was considered an expert especially in economic policy and, very importantly, an impartial servant of the fatherland who refused to play partisan politics (see Martti Turtola, \"Risto Ryti: A Life for the Fatherland\"). In 1921, the thirty-two-year-old Ryti was appointed finance minister in the government of Juho Vennola. He served in that position twice until 1924. In 1923 President Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg appointed him governor of the Bank of Finland, a post he remained in until he became prime minister in 1939. Ryti only began to exercise his duties as chairman of the Bank of Finland after he resigned as finance minister in January 1924. During his early years in parliament, Ryti succeed in bringing order to the government budget. Although he was a Ståhlbergian, Ryti did not approve of pardoning Red prisoners. In his opinion, the Reds were criminals. Ryti refused to see the social background of the Finnish Civil War.", "In 1925 Ryti was also nominated as a presidential candidate at the age of 36. In the second round of voting, he received the most support. However, in the third round the Swedish People's Party, which held the balance, moved their votes to Lauri Kristian Relander, and Ryti lost to Relander by 109 votes to 172. Ryti's support increased over the years but was never enough in elections. During the 1930s he withdrew from daily politics, but influenced economic policies. Ryti was an orthodox supporter of classical liberal economics. He made his goal to tie the value of Finnish markka to the gold standard. Unlike many other European countries, Finland did not choose deflationary solutions under his leadership; and in 1926 the country shifted to the gold markka. However, after the Great Depression in 1929, Finland was forced to abandon the gold standard following the example of Great Britain. In the 1920s, Ryti established international contacts with the banking world of Scandinavia, and with Great Britain and the United States. The \"Wall Street Journal\" recognized his success. In 1934 he was awarded a British honour, being created a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) due to his great merits in Anglo-Finnish relations. He had excellent relations with the leaders of the Bank of England, due to his similar economic policies, such as the belief in the gold standard until the Great Depression, and due to his excellent command of English. In fact, Ryti could regularly telephone the Bank of England's leaders when he wanted to discuss economic or financial policies with them (see Martti Turtola, \"Risto Ryti: A Life for the Fatherland\"). Ryti participated in the activities of the League of Nations as a member of many committees dealing with economic questions and monetary policy. In the politics of the 1930s, Ryti was an important background figure. His social policy was two-minded. Ryti opposed work programmes for the unemployed and spending on assistance for poor. On the other hand, he thought that the benefits of the strong economics should be distributed evenly over the whole population, not just a few. Ryti played an important part in creating the social welfare of the late 1930s. In general, Ryti was opposed to state intervention in business and industry. He opposed Socialist economics and especially its Soviet forms. Furthermore, Ryti had experienced the Russification period and the Civil War, making him anti-Soviet. Ryti approved of neither German national socialism nor right-wing extremism, and he also opposed the Lapua movement. Ryti was an admirer of British civilisation and culture and of American free enterprise.", "", "Ryti had built up relations of trust with leading Social Democratic Party politician Väinö Tanner and President Kyösti Kallio. In late autumn 1939, Ryti was offered the post of prime minister, but he tried to turn down the offer. However, when the Winter War broke out on 30 November, Ryti agreed. He took his post on 1 December. Ryti concentrated on a realistic analysis of the situation, instead of pessimism or over-optimism. He and foreign minister Tanner agreed that the war must be brought to an end as quickly as possible. They both spoke fluent English and had close contact with the Western powers. At the beginning of the war, the Soviet Union formed a puppet government and cut connections with the Ryti–Tanner government. The Finnish Army fought defensively in battles during December 1939 and January 1940. This gained time and freedom for diplomatic manoeuvering. The Soviet Union was forced to drop the Terijoki Government and accept negotiations via Stockholm. The Western allies planned intervention influenced the Soviet government to seek an agreement. Ryti persuaded the rest of the cabinet to settle for peace and signed the Moscow Peace Treaty on 13 March 1940. The peace agreement, in which Finland lost large land areas and faced the burden of resettling 400,000 refugees, was generally considered crushing.", "Ryti had proved to be a strong prime minister, in contrast to his predecessor Aimo Cajander. President Kallio suffered a stroke in August, and also he had no great experience in foreign policy, so the heavy responsibilities of state leadership were shared by Ryti, Field Marshal C.G.E. Mannerheim, industrialist and general Rudolf Walden, and Tanner. Considering this and the fact Ryti had signed the peace treaty, Ryti became an acceptable figure for the post of president in December 1940 when Kallio resigned. The exceptional circumstances, such as the lack of a permanent place of residence for many Karelian refugees (see Turtola, \"Risto Ryti: A Life for the Fatherland\" and Virkkunen, \"The Finnish Presidents II\"), prevented the election of presidential electors, so a constitutional amendment was enacted by the parliament to enable the electors of 1937 to elect a successor to Kallio. Ryti was chosen with 288 votes out of 300. On the day of his retirement, 19 December 1940, Kallio suffered a fatal heart attack during a farewell gathering.", "Finland's changed policy from a Scandinavian orientation up to, and during, the Winter War, to a German orientation after the Winter War, was not in the least pursued by the convinced Anglophile Risto Ryti. He had no illusions about the true nature of Germany. Traditionally Finland had been associated with Britain by stronger commercial ties, but as the Baltic Sea was dominated by the Germans and Soviets, lost markets had to be found elsewhere, and the Germans were willing to trade. The relatively limited space given to Nazi German propaganda and ideology, or their domestic sympathizer fringe groups in Finland, can probably be seen as one of the many important joint contributions of Ryti, Tanner, and Mannerheim. Ryti's government must also be credited for the fact that Finland remained a genuine democracy unlike any other continental European country that participated in World War II. In August 1940 Ryti also agreed to secret military cooperation with Germany, in order to strengthen Finland's position vis-à-vis the threatening Soviet Union. Over time it became increasingly likely that the peace between the two great totalitarian powers would end, and the experts' opinion - even among the enemies of Germany - was that in case of invasion the Soviets could not stop the German war machine. Ryti apparently turned, step by step, to being in favour of seizing the opportunity to secure Finnish claims to areas he saw to be in the country's interests, in case the great realignment of ownership of East European territory by force were to materialize. Thus the cooperation begun in late 1940 ultimately developed in 1941 into preparations for re-annexation of the territories lost after the Winter War, in case Nazi Germany were to realize the rumoured plans for an assault on the Soviet Union. The Continuation War, when it commenced, would also come to include occupation of East Karelia, which nationalist circles had championed since the 1910s.", "", "When Germany's assault on the Soviet Union began in June 1941, Finland remained formally neutral until Soviet air raids gave an expected reason to fulfill the invasion plans some days later. Ryti made a radio speech after the outbreak of the Continuation War where he announced that Germany would win the war against the Soviet Union. The speech was later used against him at the War-responsibility trials. Afterwards Ryti stated he did not believe Germany would win as a whole but that its forces would defeat the Soviet Union. Finnish troops soon regained the territory lost in the Winter War and a substantial buffer zone beyond. A considerable number of members of parliament were not excited by the idea of crossing the old borders, but obviously Ryti convinced Tanner and the Social Democrats to remain in the cabinet despite their opposition to the conquest of East Karelia. Ryti's ability to thus maintain a broad coalition government strongly contributed to morale and perceived national unity. In fact, from January 1941 to March 1943, even the far-right Patriotic People's Movement (IKL) participated in the government (see, for example, Martti Turtola, \"Risto Ryti: A Life for the Fatherland\", Sakari Virkkunen, \"The Finnish Presidents II\", and \"The Republic's Presidents 1940-1956\" / Tasavallan presidentit 1940-1956). Ryti's mandate as president was intended to extend only through the rest of Kallio's term, i.e., to 1943, but as the government could not organize elections during the Continuation War, the electors from 1937 gathered to re-elect him. This exceptional procedure was mandated by a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament of Finland. Ryti was elected by an overwhelming majority. Ryti was willing to continue as president because he was among those who led Finland into the war, even though during the winter of 1942, both Ryti and Mannerheim had their doubts about German victory.", "Ryti wanted the government of Jukka Rangell to continue in office. However, the time had arrived for a \"peace government\", and it was formed after long negotiations by the chairman of the National Coalition Party, Professor Edwin Linkomies. He started preparations aimed at achieving peace with the Soviet Union in spring 1943. The Patriotic People's Movement was excluded from the government. The Soviet Union's major counter-offensive began on 9 June 1944, in a situation when Finland's relations with Germany were strained due to Finland's earlier attempts to secure a separate peace. There were speculations that a change of both government and president would ensue, but Marshal Mannerheim was unwilling to take the job of post-war prime minister even temporarily. Soon, Viipuri, the second biggest city of Finland, fell to the Red Army on 20 June. The Finnish government tried to create a link for negotiations via Stockholm. The Soviet government replied that it was ready to negotiate, but only after an assurance that Finland would surrender unconditionally. The demand divided the Finnish government as Ryti and Tanner were in favour of replying, but Mannerheim and Linkomies opposed it. The situation was tense, as Finland was in dire need of food as well as weapons and ammunition.", "At the same time, the German foreign minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop arrived in Finland on an unexpected visit. He called the Finnish government to commit itself to continue to fight against the Soviet Union. In return he promised military aid. Ryti had wanted parliament to decide on the matter. Mannerheim proposed the sending of a private letter. Finally, Ryti and Mannerheim compromised. The creation of a private letter from Ryti of the kind Mannerheim had envisioned was dealt with at a meeting of the Council of State. The compromise satisfied the Germans, and they expanded their military and food assistance. The military assistance helped the Finns stop the Red Army in the battle of Tali-Ihantala. Afterwards, the letter was named the Ryti–Ribbentrop Agreement. By mid-July the front situation was stabilized. Ryti signed a letter of resignation in which, against his will, he referred among other things to health reasons. The letter was presented to the cabinet; and it went into effect 4 August 1944. The Finnish parliament appointed Mannerheim president in early August 1944. Peace negotiations could begin again, this time from a stronger position although most territorial gains had been lost by this time. Probably neither Hitler nor any other German authorities had read Ryti's previous letter carefully enough, because Finland's decision at the start of September 1944 to end its informal military alliance or \"brotherhood-in-arms\" with Germany surprised and angered the Germans. Probably none of them thought that Ryti would resign soon, and thus give his successor a free hand to break ties with Germany and to start peace negotiations with the Soviet Union.", "", "After Ryti resigned from the presidency, he was reappointed governor of the Bank of Finland. Jukka Rangell stepped aside to clear the way for Ryti. In autumn 1944, he used tough measures, as he had done during the Great Depression ten years earlier, in the nation's monetary policy. The policy was to fight inflation and boost exports. However, in spring 1945 Finnish communists and the Soviet Union demanded he be tried as \"responsible for the war\". His defence lawyer was the former foreign minister Hjalmar Procopé. Ryti was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment. Along with Ryti, seven other high officials were sentenced to prison, although for shorter terms. The group was convicted using an ex post facto law, which had been instituted for the purpose by the parliament. Although the Finnish constitution prohibited such legislation, the act in question was passed as a constitutional amendment, with a qualified majority in the parliament. Both the court and the parliament faced severe pressure from the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom during the process. Ryti's health failed during his sentence. Most of his stomach had to be removed due to a tumour; in addition, he developed arthritis during his first winter of imprisonment. By 1949, all the other convicts of the war-responsibility trials had been released on parole, while Ryti was hospitalized. He was pardoned by President Juho Kusti Paasikivi that year.", "After being freed, Ryti never returned to public life. He concentrated on writing his memoirs but was not successful due to ill health. In 1952, he attended a university students' celebration where he accepted a badge of honour. Although he refused to return to politics, Ryti voted regularly. In May 1956, just five months before his death, he received an honorary doctorate in political science from the Helsinki University. Risto Ryti died in October 1956 and was buried with full presidential honors.", "After the Soviet Union collapsed, Ryti's reputation was publicly, but not officially, restored. The government's position on the propositions for the rehabilitation of Ryti and his fellow convicts has been that an official rehabilitation is unnecessary as the honour of the convicted has never been lost. The idea of annulling the sentences or the act retroactively has been considered to be unnecessary and contrary to Finnish judicial practice. In 1994, a statue of Ryti was unveiled near the Parliament House. In 2004, in the YLE TV-series Suuret Suomalaiset (\"Great Finns\") Risto Ryti got the second highest number of votes.", "Risto Ryti was a Freemason, but after his prison sentence, was required to give up membership in his lodge, as convicts were barred from membership. He had become a Freemason in 1924, but according to the Finnish Grand Lodge's assistant grand scribe Reijo Ahtokari, he did not very actively participate in Masonic activities. In January 1941, he appointed a fellow Freemason, Johan Wilhelm \"Jukka\" Rangell, as prime minister only after his secretary Lauri Puntila suggested that he do so. Ryti did, according to some of his friends and acquaintances, strongly believe in fate. After a dinner in the 1930s at the home of a friend, Alvar Renqvist, in Helsinki, Ryti told the other guests, according to, Alvar Renqvist's grandson: \"In my life, fate has been the ruling force. If it had not been benevolent, I would not sit here now.\" One of Finland's most famous clairvoyants, Aino Kassinen, recalled in her memoirs that she met Ryti in the 1930s in Helsinki, and got the understanding that Ryti strongly believed in people's being guided by the higher divine powers, and that he strongly believed in God, and had studied theosophy and anthroposophy. Ryti's wife Gerda was a much more active spiritualist and theosophist than Ryti himself; she even claimed to have a spirit guide." ] }