src_title
stringlengths 1
140
⌀ | tgt_title
stringlengths 1
140
⌀ | src_summary
stringlengths 41
2.74k
⌀ | tgt_summary
stringlengths 41
2.64k
⌀ | input_ids
sequence | attention_mask
sequence | labels
sequence | text
stringlengths 946
37.7k
⌀ | summary
stringlengths 29
3.02k
⌀ | gem_id
stringlengths 10
19
⌀ | gem_parent_id
stringlengths 10
19
⌀ | id
stringlengths 1
7
⌀ | src_document
sequence |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Closed-form expression | null | In mathematics, a closed-form expression is a mathematical expression expressed using a finite number of standard operations. It may contain constants, variables, certain "well-known" operations (e.g., + − × ÷), and functions (e.g., "n"th root, exponent, logarithm, trigonometric functions, and inverse hyperbolic functions), but usually no limit, differentiation, or integration. The set of operations and functions admitted in a closed-form expression may vary with author and context. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
51347,
111,
2499,
68587,
9523,
28,
5490,
2320,
678,
27140,
552,
4240,
11044,
35066,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
23,
155738,
3173,
23,
69407,
111,
66044,
4,
1614,
117474,
4,
127664,
1363,
4,
91853,
4,
136,
6,
108047,
74855,
4173,
10763,
4,
12638,
111,
3129,
83,
142,
131830,
53,
32354,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
70,
68587,
9523,
28,
5490,
2320,
83,
34333,
2661,
16792,
6863,
51347,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
237,
10,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
4,
17,
5,
13,
5,
23,
69407,
111,
131830,
53,
32354,
7,
12,
209683,
538,
51347,
111,
314,
45966,
136,
70801,
1771,
15,
95037,
71,
136,
22759,
927,
79385,
16,
28,
13722,
5256,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
17368,
187,
8962,
282,
9523,
4,
6,
108047,
74855,
7,
4,
136,
314,
372,
74855,
7,
4,
707,
30700,
538,
17368,
187,
8962,
282,
9523,
136,
171353,
157,
186518,
32354,
7,
5,
33306,
4,
2685,
621,
48220,
9523,
28,
13722,
5256,
15490,
155738,
9,
5037,
51347,
17368,
131830,
53,
32354,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
44,
425,
58,
48768,
44,
425,
58,
997,
106,
2203,
757,
5,
893,
16128,
111,
35187,
23,
291,
140363,
41637,
15005,
2822,
47,
134744,
538,
237,
9207,
31,
164,
154453,
83687,
7,
502,
6496,
450,
110,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
32316,
7,
23,
24233,
43701,
7,
4,
35509,
98,
70,
9879,
27781,
111,
155738,
9,
5037,
51347,
47,
35874,
1687,
15403,
7,
5,
108193,
214,
70,
80934,
111,
44,
19256,
51529,
58,
47,
26698,
78301,
32354,
7,
831,
15549,
70,
5423,
111,
28,
13722,
5256,
678,
155738,
9,
5037,
51347,
5,
52455,
1452,
202,
45023,
113068,
32354,
7,
53418,
186,
36510,
297,
23,
155738,
3173,
4,
117934,
1632,
16916,
7,
5361,
32354,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
18499,
32354,
707,
87506,
32354,
47,
186,
5299,
51529,
5,
1650,
83,
7722,
47,
86869,
70,
48220,
9523,
28,
5490,
2320,
2174,
4537,
59058,
429,
31,
186518,
32354,
7,
621,
99201,
4,
102971,
70,
29806,
83,
2060,
5792,
96704,
297,
144,
429,
2844,
71407,
47,
186,
80234,
5,
1326,
5941,
138155,
13909,
86685,
4,
442,
83,
167969,
169022,
47,
41591,
450,
70,
87506,
32354,
136,
3789,
5361,
32354,
7,
621,
5299,
51529,
16792,
54744,
6827,
208124,
7,
621,
38134,
538,
19882,
5,
893,
6,
140815,
125195,
15,
748,
125195,
23,
6,
140815,
3173,
16,
83,
10,
291,
140363,
70760,
125195,
64549,
297,
17368,
5299,
9,
69723,
19,
41018,
7,
450,
6,
50771,
61261,
12301,
20102,
47,
74481,
1363,
5,
209683,
47,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
7,
4,
70,
5423,
111,
5299,
9,
69723,
19,
32354,
7,
107003,
831,
285,
53,
59499,
47,
43701,
1284,
11343,
96853,
70,
62822,
187,
8962,
282,
9523,
41018,
7,
15,
11,
12071,
1363,
4,
1614,
117474,
4,
127664,
1363,
4,
136,
91853,
247,
78643,
21616,
2320,
47,
10,
2773,
1119,
54137,
15,
143321,
96853,
4173,
10763,
111,
70,
5675,
74855,
247,
459,
1970,
8962,
4432,
4,
136,
171353,
157,
186518,
32354,
7,
5,
33306,
4,
70,
18507,
111,
125195,
7,
90698,
47,
186,
6,
140815,
125195,
7,
17660,
7,
47,
186,
91257,
3501,
450,
100,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
7,
5,
360,
17311,
4,
5361,
32354,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
24782,
1428,
32354,
7,
136,
70,
87506,
32354,
621,
56104,
107003,
4,
136,
27983,
221,
621,
54241,
13,
36549,
136,
136475,
6,
175921,
7,
5,
2161,
70,
3789,
3535,
4,
17475,
7,
23,
4537,
4,
136,
28970,
7,
23,
17311,
4,
621,
205794,
39041,
48141,
5,
4263,
142,
6,
140815,
125195,
83687,
7,
4734,
70,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
41018,
7,
15,
11,
12071,
1363,
4,
1614,
117474,
4,
127664,
1363,
4,
91853,
4,
136,
78643,
21616,
2320,
47,
10,
168487,
1119,
54137,
16,
136,
168487,
53697,
7,
7068,
442,
83,
1286,
183037,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
142,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
125195,
5,
153335,
71,
9,
5037,
125195,
7,
621,
142,
5526,
1614,
9,
67413,
111,
6,
140815,
125195,
7,
4,
3129,
70541,
10,
876,
167457,
707,
142,
51,
99091,
297,
14012,
111,
86685,
111,
5299,
9,
69723,
19,
32354,
7,
5,
992,
5062,
70,
134744,
56,
6,
140815,
125195,
7,
4,
70,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
7,
54,
959,
26698,
54241,
13,
36549,
707,
136475,
6,
175921,
7,
74,
2725,
9319,
96853,
28970,
7,
707,
17475,
7,
5,
102627,
297,
4,
390,
70,
47002,
1104,
12137,
33843,
29987,
7,
70,
58391,
4,
2499,
62005,
223,
32354,
98,
70,
25072,
51514,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
237,
10,
17475,
111,
35874,
1687,
15403,
7,
4,
221,
2499,
18507,
111,
32354,
7,
70541,
214,
70,
35874,
1687,
15403,
7,
136,
155738,
1379,
17475,
7,
1221,
204988,
26698,
756,
62005,
223,
32354,
7,
5,
209683,
538,
4,
142,
28,
5490,
2320,
707,
5426,
111,
28,
13722,
5256,
83,
2804,
47,
765,
10,
155738,
9,
5037,
29806,
2174,
4,
136,
4734,
2174,
4,
99,
19713,
1632,
29806,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
237,
10,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
74,
136,
442,
83,
2804,
47,
765,
142,
6,
140815,
29806,
2174,
136,
4734,
2174,
99,
19713,
1632,
29806,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
237,
142,
6,
140815,
125195,
5,
8622,
83,
10,
1614,
17991,
149067,
19,
17721,
10,
44,
155648,
71,
9,
5037,
44,
137175,
58,
58,
136,
10,
44,
155648,
71,
9,
5037,
44,
2606,
1297,
58,
58,
23,
70,
35107,
111,
10,
44,
155648,
71,
9,
5037,
29806,
830,
45252,
297,
23,
136,
35064,
5,
62,
155738,
9,
5037,
707,
6,
140815,
29806,
83,
68018,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
142,
143726,
29806,
5,
581,
125195,
12,
83,
959,
23,
155738,
3173,
6637,
70,
29334,
1363,
22,
46741,
7,
142,
54241,
13,
14012,
111,
131830,
53,
41018,
7,
5,
33306,
4,
390,
166,
58838,
10,
84183,
238,
36549,
903,
125195,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
23,
70,
155738,
3173,
12,
581,
28970,
111,
10,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
1543,
707,
1543,
959,
68034,
186,
36510,
28236,
237,
10,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
5,
3293,
35187,
83,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
99710,
289,
9207,
31,
164,
154453,
4,
390,
60223,
53,
678,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
9207,
31,
164,
154453,
5,
581,
62822,
70,
58391,
111,
99710,
289,
9207,
31,
164,
154453,
83,
4743,
47,
33876,
1261,
796,
10745,
23,
70,
149635,
7,
136,
167777,
7,
136,
8311,
329,
15005,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
291,
140363,
41637,
4,
10,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
83,
10,
291,
140363,
70760,
125195,
36510,
297,
17368,
10,
94418,
13,
14012,
111,
5570,
41018,
7,
5,
1650,
1543,
70541,
53697,
7,
4,
77336,
7,
4,
24233,
44,
19256,
9,
69723,
19,
58,
41018,
7,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
4,
997,
48768,
34070,
6,
83059,
247,
136,
32354,
7,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
4,
44,
19,
58,
927,
74855,
4,
1119,
54137,
4,
459,
1970,
8962,
39,
4,
171353,
157,
186518,
32354,
7,
4,
136,
23,
37676,
59058,
837,
9120,
32354,
7,
247,
1284,
56104,
110,
17475,
4,
99710,
2320,
4,
707,
157353,
5,
581,
5423,
111,
41018,
7,
136,
32354,
7,
36456,
3674,
23,
10,
155738,
9,
5037,
125195,
1543,
285,
53,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2364579 | en-train-2364579 | 2364579 | {
"title": [
"Example: roots of polynomials.",
"Alternative definitions.",
"Analytic expression.",
"Comparison of different classes of expressions.",
"Dealing with non-closed-form expressions.",
"Transformation into closed-form expressions.",
"Differential Galois theory.",
"Mathematical modelling and computer simulation.",
"Closed-form number.",
"Numerical computations.",
"Conversion from numerical forms."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The solutions of any quadratic equation with complex coefficients can be expressed in closed form in terms of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and square root extraction, each of which is an elementary function. For example, the quadratic equation is tractable since its solutions can be expressed as a closed-form expression, i.e. in terms of elementary functions: Similarly solutions of cubic and quartic (third and fourth degree) equations can be expressed using arithmetic, square roots, and cube roots, or alternatively using arithmetic and trigonometric functions. However, there are quintic equations without closed-form solutions using elementary functions, such as \"x\" − \"x\" + 1 = 0. An area of study in mathematics referred to broadly as Galois theory involves proving that no closed-form expression exists in certain contexts, based on the central example of closed-form solutions to polynomials.",
"Changing the definition of \"well known\" to include additional functions can change the set of equations with closed-form solutions. Many cumulative distribution functions cannot be expressed in closed form, unless one considers special functions such as the error function or gamma function to be well known. It is possible to solve the quintic equation if general hypergeometric functions are included, although the solution is far too complicated algebraically to be useful. For many practical computer applications, it is entirely reasonable to assume that the gamma function and other special functions are well known since numerical implementations are widely available.",
"An analytic expression (or expression in analytic form) is a mathematical expression constructed using well-known operations that lend themselves readily to calculation. Similar to closed-form expressions, the set of well-known functions allowed can vary according to context but always includes the basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), exponentiation to a real exponent (which includes extraction of the th root), logarithms, and trigonometric functions. However, the class of expressions considered to be analytic expressions tends to be wider than that for closed-form expressions. In particular, special functions such as the Bessel functions and the gamma function are usually allowed, and often so are infinite series and continued fractions. On the other hand, limits in general, and integrals in particular, are typically excluded. If an analytic expression involves only the algebraic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation to a rational exponent) and rational constants then it is more specifically referred to as an algebraic expression.",
"Closed-form expressions are an important sub-class of analytic expressions, which contain a bounded or an unbounded number of applications of well-known functions. Unlike the broader analytic expressions, the closed-form expressions do not include infinite series or continued fractions; neither includes integrals or limits. Indeed, by the Stone–Weierstrass theorem, any continuous function on the unit interval can be expressed as a limit of polynomials, so any class of functions containing the polynomials and closed under limits will necessarily include all continuous functions. Similarly, an equation or system of equations is said to have a closed-form solution if, and only if, at least one solution can be expressed as a closed-form expression; and it is said to have an analytic solution if and only if at least one solution can be expressed as an analytic expression. There is a subtle distinction between a \"closed-form \"function\"\" and a \"closed-form \"number\"\" in the discussion of a \"closed-form solution\", discussed in and below. A closed-form or analytic solution is sometimes referred to as an explicit solution.",
"",
"The expression: is not in closed form because the summation entails an infinite number of elementary operations. However, by summing a geometric series this expression can be expressed in the closed form:",
"The integral of a closed-form expression may or may not itself be expressible as a closed-form expression. This study is referred to as differential Galois theory, by analogy with algebraic Galois theory. The basic theorem of differential Galois theory is due to Joseph Liouville in the 1830s and 1840s and hence referred to as Liouville's theorem. A standard example of an elementary function whose antiderivative does not have a closed-form expression is: whose antiderivative is (up to constants) the error function:",
"Equations or systems too complex for closed-form or analytic solutions can often be analysed by mathematical modelling and computer simulation.",
"Three subfields of the complex numbers C have been suggested as encoding the notion of a \"closed-form number\"; in increasing order of generality, these are the Liouville numbers (not to be confused with Liouville numbers in the sense of rational approximation), EL numbers and elementary numbers. The Liouville numbers, denoted L, form the smallest \"algebraically closed\" subfield of C closed under exponentiation and logarithm (formally, intersection of all such subfields)—that is, numbers which involve \"explicit\" exponentiation and logarithms, but allow explicit and \"implicit\" polynomials (roots of polynomials); this is defined in. L was originally referred to as elementary numbers, but this term is now used more broadly to refer to numbers defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of algebraic operations, exponentials, and logarithms. A narrower definition proposed in, denoted E, and referred to as EL numbers, is the smallest subfield of C closed under exponentiation and logarithm—this need not be algebraically closed, and correspond to \"explicit\" algebraic, exponential, and logarithmic operations. \"EL\" stands both for \"Exponential-Logarithmic\" and as an abbreviation for \"elementary\". Whether a number is a closed-form number is related to whether a number is transcendental. Formally, Liouville numbers and elementary numbers contain the algebraic numbers, and they include some but not all transcendental numbers. In contrast, EL numbers do not contain all algebraic numbers, but do include some transcendental numbers. Closed-form numbers can be studied via transcendental number theory, in which a major result is the Gelfond–Schneider theorem, and a major open question is Schanuel's conjecture.",
"For purposes of numeric computations, being in closed form is not in general necessary, as many limits and integrals can be efficiently computed.",
"There is software that attempts to find closed-form expressions for numerical values, including RIES, identify in Maple and SymPy, Plouffe's Inverter, and the Inverse Symbolic Calculator."
]
} |
Apophony | null | In linguistics, apophony (also known as ablaut, (vowel) gradation, (vowel) mutation, alternation, internal modification, stem modification, stem alternation, replacive morphology, stem mutation, internal inflection etc.) is any sound change within a word that indicates grammatical information (often inflectional). | null | [
250004,
250054,
51204,
75189,
53,
83,
218094,
1029,
297,
23,
14941,
237,
70,
44,
10433,
6236,
58,
2244,
8420,
108154,
5256,
450,
27489,
6044,
62548,
34153,
237,
581,
60212,
23,
6097,
2244,
8420,
7,
16188,
7,
67842,
538,
10,
60212,
23,
1492,
184,
707,
43585,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
44,
6953,
64,
18873,
64,
77524,
74054,
62621,
54613,
53,
24073,
58944,
64,
12794,
13,
74054,
2831,
111,
116483,
24073,
6953,
64,
35821,
74054,
707,
122092,
11,
70760,
14012,
24073,
519,
8364,
64,
429,
7717,
51029,
9925,
6097,
45730,
108154,
5256,
32354,
122092,
257,
71407,
831,
186,
51592,
237,
1836,
621,
27983,
183234,
47,
122092,
11,
70760,
133784,
31195,
15,
66,
44,
3355,
31586,
141,
129344,
51029,
113307,
13,
70,
25632,
12,
581,
2244,
8420,
75939,
1830,
17721,
44,
14,
58,
136,
44,
11,
58,
117414,
7,
10,
60212,
17721,
13379,
136,
11015,
1492,
184,
23,
70,
80836,
44,
6953,
64,
18873,
740,
11853,
70,
11015,
1492,
184,
83,
117414,
71,
390,
70,
2244,
8420,
44,
11,
58,
1660,
237,
70,
11015,
1492,
184,
83,
117414,
71,
98,
70,
42792,
44,
461,
2676,
58,
678,
70,
11015,
1492,
184,
133784,
425,
44,
9,
297,
740,
18852,
90825,
4,
70,
97308,
133784,
425,
44,
9,
7,
58,
98,
70,
2565,
44,
81415,
58,
1556,
70,
5701,
122092,
11,
70760,
32354,
237,
70,
169424,
111,
70,
2244,
8420,
44,
7039,
58,
23,
70,
2565,
44,
429,
7717,
58,
15,
136913,
44,
7039,
58,
75939,
90,
678,
44,
16635,
58,
23,
70,
80836,
44,
519,
8364,
64,
429,
7717,
51029,
1657,
1681,
10840,
4,
5792,
4,
831,
75939,
13,
23,
48322,
450,
621,
11814,
122092,
257,
71407,
5,
893,
27781,
83,
70,
103510,
23,
14941,
111,
42792,
9,
157,
309,
80836,
7,
678,
62548,
91084,
7,
1284,
129927,
214,
23,
104506,
449,
111,
10,
160,
5038,
408,
9120,
158,
1681,
1236,
12,
17006,
110527,
7,
111,
6885,
75189,
53,
85493,
186768,
538,
1295,
65572,
4743,
47,
6,
75189,
109622,
12479,
14,
57860,
450,
621,
14432,
122092,
11,
70760,
29367,
15,
748,
6,
178851,
14071,
29367,
16,
3229,
70,
65998,
216806,
70,
12479,
14,
57860,
83,
72856,
5,
62771,
83,
70,
7225,
678,
14941,
44,
519,
8364,
64,
429,
7717,
58,
136,
44,
372,
51821,
64,
14473,
3134,
740,
51204,
75189,
53,
1543,
83687,
67842,
52895,
111,
108154,
5256,
4,
26719,
2244,
8420,
7,
4,
158,
1681,
10840,
4,
502,
991,
18403,
80854,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
70334,
4,
954,
1165,
2661,
140909,
247,
136,
3853,
164917,
66139,
4,
6044,
237,
1416,
134393,
15,
191,
2244,
8420,
7,
194,
581,
45730,
108154,
5256,
1543,
186,
11814,
23,
34334,
10763,
25958,
707,
30057,
43315,
538,
5,
581,
17311,
32354,
111,
10,
34475,
75939,
1830,
1221,
56566,
98,
70,
46876,
5,
51204,
75189,
53,
27983,
83687,
7,
2244,
8420,
7,
5,
93951,
9,
183921,
10,
7119,
1003,
15,
135832,
44,
6953,
9,
18873,
18939,
136,
30839,
1771,
286,
143,
1003,
24073,
519,
8364,
9,
429,
7717,
74054,
119056,
36917,
4,
621,
5299,
243,
525,
297,
27781,
7,
5,
116267,
27781,
83,
1295,
4860,
161,
12,
14847,
442,
32497,
47,
97308,
7,
4,
10,
39210,
2244,
8420,
42068,
1363,
23,
62,
46048,
9893,
54311,
9,
284,
61305,
238,
15,
11,
84420,
9523,
46876,
16,
83,
122925,
214,
70,
6,
244016,
45730,
47,
28,
237,
127887,
23,
903,
23180,
12,
581,
2244,
8420,
75939,
1830,
1543,
83687,
1286,
3501,
1660,
10,
15549,
23,
2244,
8420,
31897,
5,
360,
1913,
24360,
58500,
46876,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
353,
72601,
4,
42792,
7,
765,
36549,
111,
36418,
7,
7440,
70,
2244,
8420,
75939,
90,
15,
43452,
70141,
678,
142,
49814,
133784,
425,
16,
114141,
214,
10,
12921,
1492,
184,
9,
202532,
5,
353,
72601,
2244,
8420,
10,
7119,
1003,
4,
8,
96819,
98,
70,
42792,
4,
1543,
186,
10,
15549,
23,
2244,
8420,
4,
2244,
8420,
140909,
4,
1416,
134393,
4,
136,
64,
748,
70334,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
70,
42792,
36418,
44,
9,
161,
1366,
64,
9,
4928,
4868,
58,
44,
188,
34831,
142,
9803,
116419,
58,
1556,
10,
3622,
111,
611,
162515,
7,
111,
70,
190,
13736,
7,
136,
201,
128746,
4,
16750,
214,
23,
361,
12921,
42792,
36418,
3173,
7,
15,
14,
5,
13,
5,
44,
9,
161,
1366,
830,
44,
9,
4731,
709,
127,
830,
44,
9,
161,
12625,
830,
44,
9,
4731,
709,
1717,
830,
44,
9,
161,
26,
830,
44,
9,
4731,
830,
44,
9,
4928,
4868,
51029,
116267,
42792,
36418,
44,
9,
17995,
2246,
127,
64,
9,
735,
8848,
58,
44,
188,
59226,
58,
1556,
10,
12921,
5423,
111,
108154,
5256,
136,
13736,
9,
202532,
162515,
7,
4,
16750,
214,
23,
138,
12921,
3173,
7,
15,
14,
5,
13,
5,
44,
9,
17995,
2246,
127,
830,
44,
9,
735,
8848,
830,
44,
9,
177,
4745,
58,
2077,
179117,
223,
502,
991,
18403,
80854,
4,
6044,
237,
70334,
4,
954,
1165,
2661,
140909,
4,
136,
11405,
4,
1543,
186,
14037,
23,
108154,
5256,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
39272,
7717,
1556,
70,
25632,
70334,
108154,
5256,
3129,
621,
11814,
30057,
43315,
538,
12,
153549,
19,
4527,
7,
12921,
2244,
8420,
140909,
7,
47,
117414,
14012,
136,
122092,
11,
70760,
127501,
98,
3603,
1779,
12,
14941,
1556,
75939,
214,
11405,
103510,
7,
450,
117414,
36766,
62548,
34153,
621,
3603,
1779,
15,
13448,
271,
954,
1165,
2661,
11405,
297,
16,
707,
42792,
7,
15,
191633,
954,
1165,
2661,
11405,
297,
194,
3293,
17660,
7,
47,
186,
70,
7225,
678,
34153,
23,
14941,
450,
21449,
1295,
42845,
12,
1250,
991,
18403,
108154,
5256,
621,
68018,
7968,
53,
64807,
237,
959,
237,
10,
10644,
111,
6885,
75189,
53,
1284,
43257,
237,
502,
991,
18403,
261,
55923,
90,
4,
3129,
621,
51529,
4,
67842,
538,
4,
237,
44,
149239,
55923,
90,
830,
44,
59104,
55923,
90,
830,
707,
44,
5072,
202,
55923,
90,
740,
1657,
1681,
1236,
75939,
1830,
83,
39210,
538,
51529,
237,
158,
1681,
1236,
199334,
707,
158,
1681,
1236,
6671,
2320,
5,
873,
6821,
117414,
7,
7278,
4935,
42792,
7,
8305,
75939,
1830,
111,
70,
36418,
9,
33870,
158,
1681,
1236,
5,
11853,
70,
75939,
1830,
83687,
7,
6,
179546,
47691,
136,
5381,
1803,
47691,
12,
202395,
46876,
7,
621,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
147158,
41637,
4,
6885,
75189,
53,
15,
289,
991,
51529,
237,
10,
7119,
1003,
4,
15,
965,
8420,
16,
6671,
2320,
4,
15,
965,
8420,
16,
199334,
4,
75939,
1830,
4,
70796,
129344,
4,
36418,
129344,
4,
36418,
75939,
1830,
4,
456,
133266,
5844,
6,
178851,
25443,
4,
36418,
199334,
4,
70796,
23,
34334,
10763,
3021,
5,
16,
83,
2499,
45730,
15549,
28032,
10,
2565,
450,
117414,
7,
122092,
11,
70760,
4677,
15,
31,
60441,
34128,
8996,
43315,
194,
2
] | null | null | en-train-54559 | en-train-54559 | 54559 | {
"title": [
"Description.",
"Types.",
"Vowel gradation.",
"Prosodic apophony.",
"Consonant apophony.",
"Indo-European linguistics.",
"Indo-European ablaut.",
"Ablaut versus umlaut.",
"Stem alternations and other morphological processes.",
"Transfixation.",
"Replacive morphemes.",
"Ablaut-motivated compounding."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Apophony is exemplified in English as the \"internal\" vowel alternations that produce such related words as The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in tense or aspect (e.g. \"sing/sang/sung\"), transitivity (\"rise/raise\"), part of speech (\"sing/song\"), or grammatical number (\"goose/geese\"). That these sound alternations function grammatically can be seen as they are often equivalent to grammatical suffixes (an \"external modification\"). Compare the following: The vowel alternation between \"i\" and \"a\" indicates a difference between present and past tense in the pair \"sing/sang\". Here the past tense is indicated by the vowel \"a\" just as the past tense is indicated on the verb \"jump\" with the past tense suffix \"-ed\". Likewise, the plural suffix \"-s\" on the word \"books\" has the same grammatical function as the presence of the vowel \"ee\" in the word \"geese\" (where \"ee\" alternates with \"oo\" in the pair \"goose/geese\"). Consonants, too, can alternate in ways that are used grammatically. An example is the pattern in English of verb-noun pairs with related meanings but differing in voicing of a postvocalic consonant: Most instances of apophony develop historically from changes due to phonological assimilation that are later grammaticalized (or morphologized) when the environment causing the assimilation is lost. Such is the case with English \"goose/geese\" and \"belief/believe\".",
"Apophony may involve various types of alternations, including vowels, consonants, prosodic elements (such as tone, syllable length), and even smaller features, such as nasality (on vowels). The sound alternations may be used inflectionally or derivationally. The particular function of a given alternation will depend on the language.",
"Apophony often involves vowels. Indo-European ablaut (English \"sing-sang\") and Germanic umlaut (\"goose-geese\"), mentioned above, are well attested examples. Another example is from Dinka: When it comes to plurals, a common vowel alteration in Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (a Semitic language) is shifting the ɑ sound to e as shown in this table: The vowel alternation may involve more than just a change in vowel quality. In Athabaskan languages, such as Navajo, verbs have series of stems where the vowel alternates (sometimes with an added suffix) indicating a different tense-aspect. Navajo vowel ablaut, depending on the verb, may be a change in vowel, vowel length, nasality, and/or tone. For example, the verb stem \"-kaah/-ką́\" \"to handle an open container\" has a total of 16 combinations of the 5 modes and 4 aspects, resulting in 7 different verb stem forms (i.e. \"-kaah\", \"-kááh\", \"-kaał\", \"-kááł\", \"-ka’\", \"-ká\", \"-ką́\"). Another verb stem \"-géésh/-gizh\" \"to cut\" has a different set of alternations and mode-aspect combinations, resulting in 3 different forms (i.e. \"-géésh\", \"-gizh\", \"-gish\"):",
"Various prosodic elements, such as tone, syllable length, and stress, may be found in alternations. For example, Vietnamese has the following tone alternations which are used derivationally: Albanian uses different vowel lengths to indicate number and grammatical gender on nouns: English has alternating stress patterns that indicate whether related words are nouns (first syllable stressed) or verbs (second syllable stressed). This tends to be the case with words in English that came from Latin: Prosodic alternations are sometimes analyzed as not as a type of apophony but rather as prosodic affixes, which are known, variously, as \"suprafixes\", \"superfixes\", or \"simulfixes\".",
"Consonant alternation is commonly known as consonant mutation or consonant gradation. Bemba indicates causative verbs through alternation of the stem-final consonant. Here the alternation involves spirantization and palatalization: Celtic languages are well known for their initial consonant mutations.",
"",
"In Indo-European linguistics, ablaut is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as sing, sang, sung, and song. The difference in the vowels results from the alternation (in the Proto-Indo-European language) of the vowel \"e\" with the vowel \"o\" or with no vowel. To cite a few other examples of Indo-European ablaut, English has a certain class of verbs, called strong verbs, in which the vowel changes to indicate a different grammatical tense-aspect. As the examples above show, a trade in the vowel of the verb stem creates a different verb form. Some of the verbs also have a suffix in the past participle form.",
"In Indo-European linguistics, umlaut is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as foot and feet or strong and strength. The difference in the vowels results from the influence (in Proto-Germanic or a later Germanic language) of an \"i\" or \"y\" (which has since been lost) on the vowel which (in these examples) becomes \"e\". To cite another example of umlaut, some English weak verbs show umlaut in the present tense. Germanic a-mutation are processes analogous to umlaut but involving the influence of an \"a\" (or other non-high vowel) or \"u\" respectively instead of an \"i\". In Indo-European historical linguistics the terms \"ablaut\" and \"umlaut\" refer to different phenomena and are not interchangeable. \"Ablaut\" is a process that dates back to Proto-Indo-European times, occurs in all Indo-European languages, and refers to (phonologically) unpredictable vowel alternations of a specific nature. From an Indo-European perspective, it typically appears as a variation between \"o\", \"e\", and no vowel, although various sound changes result in different vowel alternations appearing in different daughter languages. \"Umlaut\", meanwhile, is a process that is particular to the Germanic languages and refers to a variation between back vowels and front vowels that was originally phonologically predictable, and was caused by the presence of an or in the syllable following the modified vowel. From a diachronic (historical) perspective, the distinction between ablaut and umlaut is very important, particularly in the Germanic languages, as it indicates where and how a specific vowel alternation originates. It is also important when taking a synchronic (descriptive) perspective on old Germanic languages such as Old English, as umlaut was still a very regular and productive process at the time. When taking a synchronic perspective on modern languages, however, both processes appear very similar. For example, the alternations seen in \"sing/sang/sung\" and \"foot/feet\" both appear to be morphologically conditioned (e.g. the alternation appears in the plural or past tense, but not the singular or present tense) and phonologically unpredictable. By analogy, descriptive linguists discussing synchronic grammars sometimes employ the terms \"ablaut\" and \"umlaut\", using \"ablaut\" to refer to morphological vowel alternation generally (which is unpredictable phonologically) and \"umlaut\" to refer to any type of regressive vowel harmony (which is phonologically predictable). Ambiguity can be avoided by using alternative terms (\"apophony\", \"gradation\", \"alternation\", \"internal modification\" for \"ablaut\"; \"vowel harmony\" for \"umlaut\") for the broader sense of the words.",
"Stem modifications (i.e. apophony) may co-occur with other morphological processes, such as affixation. An example of this is in the formation of plural nouns in German: Here the singular/plural distinction is indicated through ablaut and additionally by a suffix \"-er\" in the plural form. English also displays similar forms with a \"-ren\" suffix in the plural and a \"-en\" suffix in the past participle forms along with the internal vowel alternation: Chechen features this as well: A more complicated example comes from Chickasaw where the positive/negative distinction in verbs displays vowel ablaut along with prefixation (\"ak-\") and infixation (\"-'-\"):",
"The nonconcatenative morphology of the Afroasiatic languages is sometimes described in terms of apophony. The alternation patterns in many of these languages is quite extensive involving vowels and consonant gemination (i.e. doubled consonants). The alternations below are of Modern Standard Arabic, based on the root k–t–b \"write\" (the symbol indicates gemination on the preceding consonant): Other analyses of these languages consider the patterns not to be sound alternations, but rather discontinuous roots with discontinuous affixes, known as \"transfixes\" (sometimes considered \"simulfixes\" or \"suprafixes\"). Some theoretical perspectives call up the notion of morphological templates or morpheme \"skeletons\". It would also be possible to analyze English in this way as well, where the alternation of \"goose/geese\" could be explained as a basic discontinuous root \"g-se\" that is filled out with an infix \"-oo-\" \"(singular)\" or \"-ee-\" \"(plural)\". Many would consider this type of analysis for English to be less desirable as this type of infixal morphology is not very prevalent throughout English and the morphemes \"-oo-\" and \"-ee-\" would be exceedingly rare. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, \"Israeli\" (Modern Hebrew) has many verbs that follow the Indo-European \"Ablaut\" rather than the Semitic \"transfixation\". For example, the Israeli verbs השפריץ \"ishpríts\" \"splashed (masculine 3rd person singular)\" and השפרצתי \"ishprátsti\" \"splashed (masculine 1st person singular)\" are based \"not\" on a root *\"sh.p.r.ts.\" but rather on the stem \"shpr⌂ts\", which is traceable back to the Yiddish שפריץ \"shprits\", which means \"splash, spout, squirt\" (see German \"Spritz\"). Zuckermann argues that \"shpr⌂ts\" is similar to Indo-European stems such as English \"s⌂ng\" (as in \"sing-sang-song-sung\") and German \"spr⌂ch\" \"speak\" (as in \"spricht-sprechen-sprach-gesprochen-Spruch\").",
"Another analytical perspective on sound alternations treats the phenomena not as merely alternation but rather a \"replacive\" morpheme that replaces part of a word. In this analysis, the alternation between \"goose/geese\" may be thought of as \"goose\" being the basic form where \"-ee-\" is a replacive morpheme that is substituted for \"oo\". This usage of the term \"morpheme\" (which is actually describing a replacement process, and not a true morpheme), however, is more in keeping with Item-and-Process models of morphology instead of Item-and-Arrangement models.",
"Ablaut reduplication or ablaut-motivated compounding is a type of word formation of \"expressives\" (such as onomatopoeia or ideophones). Examples of these in English include: Here the words are formed by a reduplication of a base and an alternation of the internal vowel. Some examples in Japanese: Some examples in Chinese:"
]
} |
Bruxism | null | Bruxism is excessive teeth grinding or jaw clenching. It is an oral parafunctional activity; i.e., it is unrelated to normal function such as eating or talking. Bruxism is a common behavior; reports of prevalence range from 8% to 31% in the general population. Several symptoms are commonly associated with bruxism, including hypersensitive teeth, aching jaw muscles, headaches, tooth wear, and damage to dental restorations (e.g. crowns and fillings). Symptoms may be minimal, without patient awareness of the condition. | null | [
250004,
250054,
17006,
3395,
2750,
13639,
425,
621,
220,
15876,
111,
70,
2967,
4,
40101,
6637,
2685,
621,
110,
153698,
4,
707,
6637,
70,
153698,
621,
959,
217064,
47,
186,
137272,
678,
10,
501,
1977,
59207,
136,
98845,
214,
2967,
5,
581,
153698,
111,
60268,
13639,
33102,
39,
621,
56104,
2684,
108938,
109312,
7103,
259,
6048,
4,
136,
7068,
191975,
10,
99500,
4,
136,
70,
153698,
111,
10,
98845,
214,
62122,
3129,
74918,
7,
5201,
538,
12960,
38075,
13,
17660,
47,
124632,
19,
8305,
70,
5155,
4,
136,
1543,
959,
186,
13379,
98,
259,
6048,
5,
19528,
33102,
39,
1543,
22304,
10,
96551,
111,
24092,
7,
136,
153698,
4,
26719,
12,
19528,
33102,
39,
83,
56104,
96391,
297,
6637,
111,
70,
93425,
111,
70,
9433,
15,
840,
18,
39210,
538,
47,
29827,
95549,
136,
24503,
247,
43257,
3501,
70,
9433,
68034,
5,
581,
21334,
84616,
450,
831,
186,
139392,
71,
20271,
13639,
33102,
39,
831,
765,
226886,
289,
93425,
98,
70,
82761,
7,
111,
1163,
7636,
31667,
5426,
4,
24,
110987,
70,
120,
12421,
4,
70,
21318,
123841,
136,
70,
88353,
1363,
111,
70,
46516,
2661,
678,
70,
169569,
15,
2347,
2167,
46903,
62305,
35975,
124416,
7,
194,
581,
123635,
7,
111,
152344,
120639,
450,
27992,
47,
25813,
70,
79,
434,
831,
2843,
186,
195052,
16792,
1836,
621,
8035,
121876,
71,
645,
136,
36917,
111,
3638,
32354,
5,
52455,
104345,
7,
5303,
47,
29827,
95549,
237,
10,
179804,
6620,
111,
13639,
33102,
39,
4,
1284,
3060,
13416,
10,
92635,
111,
10,
24491,
76755,
17721,
47,
29827,
95549,
136,
13639,
33102,
39,
5,
717,
29827,
95549,
143434,
390,
47,
29827,
9,
188,
9,
188,
29827,
5470,
83,
24117,
71,
243,
416,
1363,
5,
3293,
83,
70,
2684,
115723,
10644,
111,
47,
29827,
95549,
450,
74918,
7,
23,
13639,
33102,
39,
4,
136,
52490,
7,
70,
95699,
5782,
289,
71579,
15,
2347,
333,
1916,
71579,
16,
111,
70,
120,
12421,
5,
581,
24763,
31913,
136,
103510,
111,
243,
416,
1363,
56566,
7,
98,
3642,
70,
13639,
33102,
39,
74918,
7,
4,
28,
5,
177,
5,
4,
3229,
70,
831,
12741,
136,
30041,
4970,
7,
111,
70,
2343,
232,
214,
187,
17007,
621,
109133,
26548,
12638,
3789,
80707,
538,
4,
390,
70,
22631,
111,
70,
2450,
141,
915,
81423,
519,
532,
123635,
7,
4,
903,
831,
37105,
47,
70,
179493,
7565,
111,
70,
30041,
2317,
121303,
7,
111,
70,
120,
12421,
5,
717,
98845,
70,
12912,
120,
12421,
4,
2684,
3395,
3871,
47,
1305,
3408,
2363,
46516,
2661,
40225,
7,
4,
117934,
2685,
83,
142,
144573,
121303,
47,
121303,
4,
18507,
4830,
30041,
2317,
76755,
5,
41021,
678,
13639,
33102,
39,
581,
21455,
450,
95699,
5782,
289,
77890,
15,
162,
1543,
74918,
20271,
13639,
33102,
39,
16,
83,
10,
7278,
4935,
31461,
23,
21859,
54613,
164,
136,
21318,
3598,
1814,
83,
959,
38134,
538,
68186,
71,
5,
1650,
83,
17569,
450,
70,
21318,
19,
1803,
19881,
674,
1543,
35644,
47,
124735,
95699,
5782,
289,
15,
3137,
214,
16,
84616,
390,
130720,
23709,
3060,
111,
70,
32881,
111,
70,
144,
272,
31,
320,
7359,
271,
4,
3129,
1543,
16750,
23,
124735,
47,
29827,
3268,
2481,
4,
49903,
6097,
65572,
621,
39531,
55356,
17006,
3395,
678,
13639,
33102,
39,
1221,
16981,
110,
24503,
5,
581,
169424,
707,
79385,
111,
24503,
14602,
959,
204988,
16106,
19309,
678,
70,
27708,
2481,
111,
98845,
214,
707,
501,
1977,
59207,
5,
581,
24503,
23,
70,
123635,
7,
111,
152344,
120639,
143434,
390,
13639,
33102,
39,
831,
186,
1884,
14534,
47,
123635,
24503,
7103,
81979,
5,
581,
24503,
1543,
186,
29131,
645,
70,
55291,
111,
70,
79,
434,
15,
147147,
720,
16,
707,
23,
70,
110664,
15,
99736,
10836,
247,
136,
1543,
186,
151552,
237,
10,
10336,
46994,
707,
142,
10,
59207,
79,
434,
5,
17006,
15,
8789,
959,
756,
16,
13639,
33102,
39,
96853,
501,
1977,
59207,
37772,
62952,
390,
23860,
720,
136,
58663,
164,
123635,
94407,
74,
1284,
3060,
13639,
34058,
7,
501,
1977,
206,
136,
98845,
12912,
120,
12421,
4734,
4,
3129,
83687,
7,
20187,
22631,
111,
70,
23860,
720,
136,
58663,
164,
123635,
7,
5,
581,
2167,
46903,
62305,
35975,
124416,
7,
61261,
1543,
2843,
24209,
24503,
7844,
4,
3129,
83,
56104,
29131,
1660,
23,
12912,
111,
70,
67896,
4,
581,
123635,
7,
111,
152344,
120639,
15,
2347,
58663,
164,
4,
23860,
720,
4,
2450,
141,
136,
80707,
915,
81423,
519,
532,
123635,
7,
16,
621,
80836,
297,
98,
40101,
5609,
136,
4488,
25842,
47,
25813,
70,
46516,
2661,
4,
3129,
113633,
7,
136,
122753,
7,
10932,
6863,
87758,
88353,
1363,
678,
70,
169569,
99,
70,
2167,
46903,
62305,
35975,
124416,
7,
5,
31384,
111,
70,
123635,
7,
4488,
47,
57849,
67,
70,
46516,
2661,
15,
155648,
70,
113008,
247,
136,
27060,
2843,
621,
75412,
23,
80707,
15,
8752,
47,
5609,
247,
502,
9774,
29888,
707,
10267,
42,
71232,
112664,
7,
5,
3010,
7636,
1363,
15,
1430,
14775,
16,
83,
10,
27140,
37817,
2647,
25667,
103488,
450,
831,
186,
6226,
6259,
40101,
390,
1614,
144729,
9433,
90,
707,
390,
6,
144729,
9433,
90,
5,
360,
79165,
15490,
13639,
33102,
39,
707,
3789,
121,
137175,
289,
69924,
4,
20271,
9908,
7844,
7432,
70,
79,
434,
83,
137567,
99,
10588,
136,
70,
120,
12421,
621,
959,
23,
5470,
4,
40494,
12960,
142146,
4,
91,
434,
190358,
707,
290,
14775,
5,
1650,
83,
25902,
3674,
450,
70,
120,
12421,
621,
23,
5470,
100,
40715,
3501,
387,
14633,
117,
5155,
4,
153161,
20271,
290,
14775,
136,
91,
434,
190358,
5,
28723,
538,
20271,
60268,
4,
70,
87093,
6635,
123635,
7,
621,
23,
71232,
4743,
47,
240877,
137043,
2926,
121,
14907,
164,
4,
136,
70,
79,
434,
83,
56104,
9803,
5,
31384,
13639,
33102,
39,
103488,
83,
6,
239530,
1771,
678,
333,
67,
37772,
55111,
90,
111,
1492,
927,
7,
111,
10,
17932,
15,
5062,
290,
14775,
247,
136,
3060,
765,
51713,
333,
67,
37772,
55111,
90,
111,
106,
47,
496,
94131,
15,
11030,
19,
59207,
194,
31384,
79165,
501,
1977,
206,
15490,
88551,
80707,
112664,
7,
5,
19528,
33102,
39,
831,
2843,
186,
28601,
297,
237,
10,
171986,
111,
57346,
4935,
4,
51,
144729,
158,
117474,
111,
123635,
7,
5,
3293,
205794,
83687,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
19528,
33102,
39,
83,
218527,
120,
12421,
98845,
214,
707,
79,
434,
501,
1977,
59207,
5,
1650,
83,
142,
30202,
121,
137175,
289,
103488,
74,
17,
5,
13,
5,
4,
442,
83,
51,
174822,
47,
3638,
32354,
6044,
237,
118992,
707,
56661,
5,
19528,
33102,
39,
83,
10,
39210,
123166,
74,
117729,
111,
151497,
3956,
37457,
1295,
95531,
47,
138,
13961,
23,
70,
4537,
43904,
5,
48752,
289,
153698,
621,
39210,
538,
137272,
678,
13639,
33102,
39,
4,
26719,
59058,
176302,
13,
120,
12421,
4,
10,
59207,
79,
434,
123635,
7,
4,
10336,
934,
90,
4,
47,
29827,
95549,
4,
136,
82649,
47,
130546,
14359,
30494,
7,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
13081,
7710,
7,
136,
26292,
5180,
194,
149450,
7,
1543,
186,
20187,
4,
15490,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2192455 | en-train-2192455 | 2192455 | {
"title": [
"Signs and symptoms.",
"Tooth wear.",
"Tooth mobility.",
"Pain.",
"Causes.",
"Diagnosis.",
"Management.",
"Dental treatment.",
"Dental guards and occlusal splints.",
"Psychosocial interventions.",
"Medication.",
"Botulinum toxin.",
"Biofeedback.",
"Occlusal adjustment/reorganization.",
"Epidemiology.",
"History.",
"Society and culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Most people who brux are unaware of the problem, either because there are no symptoms, or because the symptoms are not understood to be associated with a clenching and grinding problem. The symptoms of sleep bruxism are usually most intense immediately after waking, and then slowly abate, and the symptoms of a grinding habit which occurs mainly while awake tend to worsen through the day, and may not be present on waking. Bruxism may cause a variety of signs and symptoms, including: Bruxism is usually detected because of the effects of the process (most commonly tooth wear and pain), rather than the process itself. The large forces that can be generated during bruxism can have detrimental effects on the components of masticatory system, namely the teeth, the periodontium and the articulation of the mandible with the skull (the temporomandibular joints). The muscles of mastication that act to move the jaw can also be affected since they are being utilized over and above of normal function.",
"Many publications list tooth wear as a consequence of bruxism, but some report a lack of a positive relationship between tooth wear and bruxism. Tooth wear caused by tooth-to-tooth contact is termed attrition. This is the most usual type of tooth wear that occurs in bruxism, and affects the occlusal surface (the biting surface) of the teeth. The exact location and pattern of attrition depends on how the bruxism occurs, e.g., when the canines and incisors of the opposing arches are moved against each other laterally, by the action of the medial pterygoid muscles, this can lead to the wearing down of the incisal edges of the teeth. To grind the front teeth, most people need to posture their mandible forwards, unless there is an existing edge to edge, class III incisal relationship. People with bruxism",
"The view that occlusal trauma (as may occur during bruxism) is a causative factor in gingivitis and periodontitis is not widely accepted. It is thought that the periodontal ligament may respond to increased occlusal (biting) forces by resorbing some of the bone of the alveolar crest, which may result in increased tooth mobility, however these changes are reversible",
"Most people with bruxism will experience no pain. The presence or degree of pain does not necessarily correlate with the severity of grinding or clenching. The pain in the muscles of mastication caused by bruxism can be likened to muscle pain after exercise. The pain may be felt over the angle of the jaw (masseter) or in the temple (temporalis), and may be described as a headache or an aching jaw. Most (but not all) bruxism includes clenching force provided by masseter and temporalis muscle groups; but some bruxers clench and grind front teeth only, which involves minimal action of the masseter and temporalis muscles. The temporomandibular joints themselves may also become painful, which is usually felt just in front of the ear,",
"The muscles of mastication (the temporalis, masseter, medial and lateral pterygoid muscles) are paired on either side and work together to move the mandible, which hinges and slides around its dual articulation with the skull at the temporomandibular joints. Some of the muscles work to elevate the mandible (close the mouth), and others also are involved in lateral (side to side), protrusive or retractive movements. Mastication (chewing) is a complex neuromuscular activity that can be controlled either by subconscious processes or by conscious processes. In individuals without bruxism or other parafunctional activities, during wakefulness the jaw is generally at rest and the teeth are not in contact, except while speaking, swallowing or chewing. It is estimated that the teeth are in contact for less than 20 minutes per day, mostly during chewing and swallowing. Normally during sleep, the voluntary muscles are inactive due to physiologic motor paralysis, and the jaw is usually open. Some bruxism activity is rhythmic with bite force pulses of tenths of a second (like chewing), and some have longer bite force pulses of 1 to 30 seconds (clenching). Some individuals clench without significant lateral movements. Bruxism can also be regarded as a disorder of repetitive, unconscious contraction of muscles. This typically involves the masseter muscle and the anterior portion of the temporalis (the large outer muscles that clench), and the lateral pterygoids, relatively small bilateral muscles that act together to perform sideways grinding. The cause of bruxism is largely unknown, but it is generally accepted to have multiple possible causes. Bruxism is a parafunctional activity, but it is debated whether this represents a subconscious habit or is entirely involuntary. The relative importance of the various identified possible causative factors is also debated. Awake bruxism is thought to be usually semivoluntary, and often associated with stress caused by family responsibilities or work pressures. Some suggest that in children, bruxism may occasionally represent a response to earache or teething. Awake bruxism usually involves clenching (sometimes the term \"awake clenching\" is used instead of awake bruxism), but also possibly grinding, and is often associated with other semivoluntary oral habits such as cheek biting, nail biting, chewing on a pen or pencil absent mindedly, or tongue thrusting (where the tongue is pushed against the front teeth forcefully). There is evidence that sleep bruxism is caused by mechanisms related to the central nervous system, involving sleep arousal and neurotransmitter abnormalities. Underlying these factors may be psychosocial factors including daytime stress which is disrupting peaceful sleep. Sleep bruxism is mainly characterized by \"rhythmic masticatory muscle activity\" (RMMA) at a frequency of about once per second, and also with occasional tooth grinding. It has been shown that the majority (86%) of sleep bruxism episodes occur during periods of sleep arousal. One study reported that sleep arousals which were experimentally induced with sensory stimulation in sleeping bruxists triggered episodes of sleep bruxism. Sleep arousals are a sudden change in the depth of the sleep stage, and may also be accompanied by increased heart rate, respiratory changes and muscular activity, such as leg movements. Initial reports have suggested that episodes of sleep bruxism may be accompanied by gastroesophageal reflux, decreased esophageal pH (acidity), swallowing, and decreased salivary flow. Another report suggested a link between episodes of sleep bruxism and a supine sleeping position (lying face up). Disturbance of the dopaminergic system in the central nervous system has also been suggested to be involved in the etiology of bruxism. Evidence for this comes from observations of the modifying effect of medications which alter dopamine release on bruxing activity, such as levodopa, amphetamines or nicotine. Nicotine stimulates release of dopamine, which is postulated to explain why bruxism is twice as common in smokers compared to non-smokers.",
"Early diagnosis of bruxism is advantageous, but difficult. Early diagnosis can prevent damage that may be incurred and the detrimental effect on quality of life. A diagnosis of bruxism is usually made clinically, and is mainly based on the person's history (e.g. reports of grinding noises) and the presence of typical signs and symptoms, including tooth mobility, tooth wear, masseteric hypertrophy, indentations on the tongue, hypersensitive teeth (which may be misdiagnosed as reversible pulpitis), pain in the muscles of mastication, and clicking or locking of the temporomandibular joints. Questionnaires can be used to screen for bruxism in both the clinical and research settings. For tooth grinders who live in same household with other people, diagnosis of grinding is straightforward: Housemates or family members would advise a bruxer of recurrent grinding. Grinders who live alone can likewise resort to a sound-activated tape recorder. To confirm the condition of clenching, on the other hand, bruxers may rely on such devices as the Bruxchecker, Bruxcore, or a beeswax-bearing biteplate. The Individual (personal) Tooth-Wear Index was developed to objectively quantify the degree of tooth wear in an individual, without being affected by the number of missing teeth. Bruxism is not the only cause of tooth wear. Another possible cause of tooth wear is acid erosion, which may occur in people who drink a lot of acidic liquids such as concentrated fruit juice, or in people who frequently vomit or regurgitate stomach acid, which itself can occur for various reasons. People also demonstrate a normal level of tooth wear, associated with normal function. The presence of tooth wear only indicates that it had occurred at some point in the past, and does not necessarily indicate that the loss of tooth substance is ongoing. People who clench and perform minimal grinding will also not show much tooth wear. Occlusal splints are usually employed as a treatment for bruxism, but they can also be of diagnostic use, e.g. to observe the presence or absence of wear on the splint after a certain period of wearing it at night. The most usual trigger in sleep bruxism that leads a person to seek medical or dental advice is being informed by sleeping partner of unpleasant grinding noises during sleep. The diagnosis of sleep bruxism is usually straightforward, and involves the exclusion of dental diseases, temporomandibular disorders, and the rhythmic jaw movements that occur with seizure disorders (e.g. epilepsy). This usually involves a dental examination, and possibly electroencephalography if a seizure disorder is suspected. Polysomnography shows increased masseter and temporalis muscular activity during sleep. Polysomnography may involve electroencephalography, electromyography, electrocardiography, air flow monitoring and audio–video recording. It may be useful to help exclude other sleep disorders; however, due to the expense of the use of a sleep lab, polysomnography is mostly of relevance to research rather than routine clinical diagnosis of bruxism. Tooth wear may be brought to the person's attention during routine dental examination. With awake bruxism, most people will often initially deny clenching and grinding because they are unaware of the habit. Often, the person may re-attend soon after the first visit and report that they have now become aware of such a habit. Several devices have been developed that aim to objectively measure bruxism activity, either in terms of muscular activity or bite forces. They have been criticized for introducing a possible change in the bruxing habit, whether increasing or decreasing it, and are therefore poorly representative to the native bruxing activity. These are mostly of relevance to research, and are rarely used in the routine clinical diagnosis of bruxism. Examples include the \"Bruxcore Bruxism-Monitoring Device\" (BBMD, \"Bruxcore Plate\"), the \"intra-splint force detector\" (ISFD), and electromyographic devices to measure masseter or temporalis muscle activity (e.g. the \"BiteStrip\", and the \"Grindcare\").",
"Treatment for bruxism revolves around repairing the damage to teeth that has already occurred, and also often, via one or more of several available methods, attempting to prevent further damage and manage symptoms, but there is no widely accepted, best treatment. Since bruxism is not life-threatening, and there is little evidence of the efficacy of any treatment, it has been recommended that only conservative treatment which is reversible and that carries low risk of morbidity should be used. The main treatments that have been described in awake and sleep bruxism are described below.",
"Bruxism can cause significant tooth wear if it is severe, and sometimes dental restorations (crowns, fillings etc.) are damaged or lost, sometimes repeatedly. Most dentists therefore prefer to keep dental treatment in people with bruxism very simple and only carry it out when essential, since any dental work is likely to fail in the long term. Dental implants, dental ceramics such as Emax",
"Occlusal splints (also termed dental guards) are commonly prescribed, mainly by dentists and dental specialists, as a treatment for bruxism. Proponents of their use claim many benefits, however when the evidence is critically examined in systematic reviews of the topic, it is reported that there is insufficient evidence to show that occlusal splints are effective for sleep bruxism. Furthermore, occlusal splints are probably ineffective for awake bruxism, since they tend to be worn only during sleep. However, occlusal splints may be of some benefit in reducing the tooth wear that may accompany bruxism, but by mechanically protecting the teeth rather than reducing the bruxing activity itself. In a minority",
"Given the strong association between awake bruxism and psychosocial factors (the relationship between sleep bruxism and psychosocial factors being unclear), the role of psychosocial interventions could be argued to be central to the management. The most simple form of treatment is therefore reassurance that the condition does not represent a serious disease, which may act to alleviate contributing stress. Sleep hygiene education should be provided by the clinician, as well",
"Many different medications have been used to treat bruxism, including benzodiazepines, anticonvulsants, beta blockers, dopamine agents, antidepressants, muscle relaxants, and others. However, there is little, if any, evidence for their respective and comparative efficacies with each other and when compared to a placebo. A multiyear systematic review to investigate the evidence for drug treatments in sleep bruxism published in 2014 (\"Pharmacotherapy for Sleep Bruxism\". Macedo, et al.) found \"insufficient evidence on the",
"Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is used as a treatment for bruxism, however there is only one randomized control trial which has reported that BoNT reduces the myofascial pain symptoms. This scientific study was based on thirty people with bruxism who received BoNT injections into the muscles of mastication and a control group of people with bruxism who received placebo injections. Normally multiple trials with larger cohorts are required to make any firm statement about the efficacy of a treatment. In 2013, a further randomized control trial investigating BoNT in bruxism started. There is also little information available about the safety and long term followup of this treatment for bruxism. Botulinum toxin causes muscle paralysis/atrophy by inhibition of",
"Biofeedback is a process or device that allows an individual to become aware of, and alter physiological activity with the aim of improving health. Although the evidence of biofeedback has not been tested for awake bruxism, there is recent evidence for the efficacy of biofeedback in the management of nocturnal bruxism in small",
"As an alternative to simply reactively repairing the damage to teeth and conforming to the existing occlusal scheme, occasionally some dentists will attempt to reorganize the occlusion in the belief that this may redistribute the forces and reduce the amount of damage inflicted on the dentition.",
"There is a wide variation in reported epidemiologic data for bruxism, and this is largely due to differences in the definition, diagnosis and research methodologies of these studies. E.g. several studies use self-reported bruxism as a measure of bruxism, and since many people with bruxism are not aware of their habit, self-reported tooth grinding and clenching habits may be a poor measure of the true prevalence. The ICSD-R states that 85–90% of the general population grind their teeth to a degree at some point during their life, although only 5% will develop a clinical condition. Some studies have reported that awake bruxism affects females more commonly than males, while in sleep",
"\"La bruxomanie\" (a French term, translates to \"bruxomania\") was suggested by Marie Pietkiewics in 1907. In 1931, Frohman first coined the term bruxism. Occasionally recent medical publications will use the word bruxomania with bruxism, to denote specifically bruxism that occurs while awake; however, this term can be considered historical and the modern equivalent would be awake bruxism or diurnal bruxism. It has been shown that the type of research into bruxism has changed over time. Overall between 1966 and",
"Clenching the teeth is generally displayed by humans and other animals as a display of anger, hostility or frustration. It is thought that in humans, clenching the teeth may be an evolutionary instinct to display teeth as weapons, thereby threatening a rival or a predator. The phrase \"to grit one's teeth\" is the grinding or clenching of the teeth in anger, or to accept a difficult or unpleasant situation and deal with it in a determined way. In the Bible there are several references to \"gnashing of teeth\" in both the Old Testament, and the New Testament, where the phrase \"wailing and gnashing of teeth\" describes what an imaginary king believes is occurring in the darkness outside of his son's wedding venue.() In David Lynch's 1977 film \"Eraserhead\", Henry Spencer's partner (\"Mary X\") is shown tossing and turning in her sleep, and snapping her jaws together violently and noisily, depicting sleep bruxism. In Stephen King's 1988 novel \"The Tommyknockers\", the sister of central character Bobbi Anderson also had bruxism. In the 2000 film \"Requiem for a Dream\", the character of Sara Goldfarb (Ellen Burstyn) begins taking an amphetamine-based diet pill and develops bruxism. In the 2005 film \"Beowulf & Grendel\", a modern reworking of the Anglo-Saxon poem \"Beowulf\", Selma the witch tells Beowulf that the troll's name Grendel means \"grinder of teeth\", stating that \"he has bad dreams\", a possible allusion to Grendel traumatically witnessing the death of his father as a child, at the hands of King Hrothgar. The Geats (the warriors who hunt the troll) alternatively translate the name as \"grinder of men's bones\" to demonize their prey. In George R. R. Martin's \"A Song of Ice and Fire\" series, King Stannis Baratheon grinds his teeth regularly, so loudly it can be heard \"half a castle away\". In rave culture, recreational use of ecstasy is often reported to cause bruxism. Among people who have taken ecstasy, while dancing it is common to use pacifiers, lollipops or chewing gum in an attempt to reduce the damage to the teeth and to prevent jaw pain. Bruxism is thought to be one of the contributing factors in \"meth mouth\", a condition potentially associated with long term methamphetamine use."
]
} |
Anonymity | null | Anonymity describes situations where the acting person's identity is unknown. Some writers have argued that namelessness, though technically correct, does not capture what is more centrally at stake in contexts of anonymity. The important idea here is that a person be non-identifiable, unreachable, or untrackable. Anonymity is seen as a technique, or a way of realizing, a certain other values, such as privacy, or liberty. | null | [
250004,
250054,
160193,
10,
3445,
1543,
104851,
10,
4989,
9,
32166,
76755,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
10,
216473,
16,
678,
15700,
19085,
15490,
204988,
17116,
2400,
214,
165197,
135812,
214,
4677,
47,
450,
19085,
5,
360,
903,
7225,
4,
442,
1543,
186,
80234,
100,
70,
3445,
47,
137633,
10,
36998,
6,
42485,
56,
4,
35839,
10,
74189,
5264,
5,
89536,
99726,
111,
74189,
5264,
7,
621,
5551,
123055,
4,
128911,
11627,
7,
4,
22299,
20596,
101935,
4,
9836,
101935,
4,
4620,
15426,
101935,
4,
3021,
5,
62,
74189,
5264,
22,
19736,
70,
3789,
19085,
47,
3126,
12921,
89914,
1295,
70,
5701,
3445,
136,
4,
2685,
1272,
4,
47,
137633,
10,
4989,
9,
32166,
76755,
5,
436,
184,
11547,
5264,
7,
621,
38134,
538,
11814,
23,
2265,
33120,
7,
136,
3789,
20513,
36398,
4,
102971,
78684,
3060,
5526,
4516,
81450,
7,
1884,
1815,
9790,
47,
20947,
34,
29838,
74189,
5264,
2481,
5,
31384,
3630,
17368,
10,
74189,
5264,
2806,
186,
81113,
538,
90698,
47,
186,
17368,
44,
45616,
11547,
5264,
2481,
58,
959,
44,
66,
45757,
2481,
830,
1284,
68018,
70,
21,
3055,
83,
11814,
47,
15005,
47,
15044,
15,
73,
4537,
4,
10,
16648,
7440,
70,
8437,
182324,
111,
70,
3445,
83,
2837,
1234,
52021,
16,
187763,
2481,
1543,
34390,
70,
15426,
41159,
1632,
117,
329,
60877,
47,
765,
100,
2363,
61972,
4,
136,
87388,
7,
70,
24725,
6097,
61972,
13648,
120262,
765,
98,
2363,
216473,
5,
3293,
831,
765,
155034,
93425,
4,
15044,
80234,
136,
182,
39,
7844,
47,
67842,
68036,
75412,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
442,
1543,
186,
11814,
100,
55182,
21533,
36322,
41637,
23,
3784,
6496,
2499,
107013,
19085,
47,
7398,
6982,
707,
8060,
707,
2837,
45639,
2499,
12096,
111,
103488,
707,
144239,
5,
360,
77104,
289,
53550,
7,
4,
52184,
2481,
1543,
63769,
3395,
47,
122273,
3357,
32692,
136,
34698,
7,
15490,
30783,
111,
14432,
352,
88500,
7,
7,
674,
5,
87673,
77104,
289,
2450,
831,
22691,
72761,
6,
219488,
4,
23,
66044,
47,
52184,
2481,
5,
3293,
56282,
7,
72761,
456,
22189,
2320,
100,
456,
88832,
4,
136,
56282,
7,
40907,
707,
308,
54487,
123166,
707,
35107,
1295,
2405,
93,
54700,
70,
216473,
111,
70,
119578,
5,
3293,
831,
186,
48588,
141,
3229,
45252,
214,
4552,
14375,
26866,
7,
4,
707,
308,
54487,
28368,
7,
707,
36510,
214,
16912,
707,
122273,
214,
15824,
7,
450,
1543,
3884,
22008,
23,
72761,
4,
53477,
4,
707,
8437,
77064,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
85325,
103488,
4,
707,
51,
114366,
4,
707,
1810,
143,
24243,
68894,
16912,
194,
360,
4488,
53550,
7,
4,
70,
17262,
2684,
39210,
3173,
7,
111,
52184,
10821,
36398,
621,
89160,
199015,
16530,
90,
4,
59121,
58269,
4,
136,
26265,
56,
11338,
46389,
214,
5,
29117,
14,
43315,
538,
4,
70,
95307,
7432,
111,
52184,
10821,
53702,
289,
36398,
41110,
7,
8,
96819,
98,
70,
4527,
4,
678,
53702,
289,
110297,
7,
707,
164031,
7,
205794,
21778,
1399,
4126,
237,
103210,
95307,
136,
809,
2852,
21778,
1399,
4126,
237,
103210,
23,
189958,
67,
5,
187763,
2481,
4527,
136,
95307,
7432,
765,
2843,
2809,
14037,
47,
186,
207583,
62548,
47,
70,
31897,
111,
151618,
678,
22799,
27060,
99,
4488,
5,
17106,
10846,
21778,
1399,
4126,
40907,
212678,
4,
52184,
10821,
707,
36137,
9,
66,
45757,
10821,
4738,
7,
27983,
22691,
10,
221,
2631,
11728,
100,
226586,
5844,
77104,
289,
123166,
5,
581,
13579,
44,
18,
27722,
58,
83,
68018,
11814,
47,
15005,
47,
8382,
2750,
81810,
23,
6044,
226586,
5844,
123166,
5,
231839,
13,
52184,
2481,
83,
27983,
105945,
23,
21334,
131126,
7,
5,
242520,
3395,
765,
12921,
55182,
21533,
136,
99644,
6827,
132539,
7,
47,
903,
34754,
4,
41866,
237,
10,
5744,
6,
88322,
13450,
6431,
5,
3293,
52184,
2481,
83,
142,
5526,
31461,
23,
131126,
55182,
53,
4,
136,
123166,
23,
113949,
6044,
237,
10,
1427,
818,
5,
3293,
21778,
1399,
4126,
52184,
2481,
831,
186,
134454,
297,
390,
118299,
6044,
237,
6,
110092,
5,
10760,
201950,
123166,
136,
19911,
2481,
621,
2843,
90698,
47,
186,
142,
170920,
21543,
111,
1820,
52184,
2481,
5,
187763,
2481,
2843,
28897,
7,
103210,
25550,
297,
50582,
6044,
237,
116983,
7,
47,
4092,
538,
36510,
61261,
118861,
70,
50531,
7,
1836,
187016,
47,
51339,
2363,
74464,
151814,
538,
5,
180585,
60091,
124161,
7,
831,
59959,
70,
57137,
111,
107222,
7,
5,
31384,
107222,
7,
12601,
47,
4527,
49456,
3229,
129004,
190704,
4127,
7,
15,
5062,
11969,
329,
10484,
707,
72977,
247,
47,
56282,
7666,
4295,
1295,
6,
197564,
214,
4677,
707,
72846,
214,
2856,
23,
70,
22690,
5,
68021,
126381,
621,
3126,
297,
47,
10,
3445,
25,
7,
9351,
4,
136,
831,
186,
11814,
47,
103882,
3789,
4677,
4,
6044,
237,
67808,
29823,
4,
24089,
14012,
4,
3021,
5,
581,
50061,
19346,
5426,
509,
126809,
47,
63769,
111670,
52184,
10821,
124161,
7,
5,
116267,
27781,
2806,
186,
241,
5264,
2481,
4,
3129,
20653,
30482,
10,
59038,
98,
10,
43373,
25,
7,
232045,
5,
14847,
7398,
28661,
214,
308,
54487,
4127,
7,
136,
11374,
4,
52184,
2481,
30482,
5941,
38516,
107222,
7,
1286,
104577,
678,
707,
1286,
109269,
47,
81810,
23,
70,
124161,
5,
52455,
160624,
939,
103391,
4527,
126381,
450,
165197,
135812,
70,
107222,
44173,
9966,
23,
12638,
124161,
15,
7522,
172,
38526,
100,
14432,
30280,
1363,
4,
707,
100,
15265,
2676,
1363,
707,
48031,
60042,
7,
247,
707,
450,
27992,
237,
10,
54744,
6827,
74189,
5264,
4,
100,
4527,
23,
2053,
324,
592,
5,
187763,
2481,
831,
2843,
186,
11814,
237,
10,
48431,
26548,
8437,
502,
166643,
191,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
3229,
375,
266,
19514,
51,
19729,
7844,
61972,
4,
5941,
49602,
7,
81887,
47,
71864,
6,
221160,
390,
70,
26950,
111,
160608,
214,
64,
63127,
214,
2363,
2577,
7,
678,
35006,
3132,
707,
7021,
7,
4,
136,
95549,
16712,
3132,
707,
3789,
3535,
29256,
5180,
23,
12989,
47,
959,
31358,
2499,
51287,
35662,
7,
5,
360,
5808,
297,
46824,
4,
94407,
111,
49602,
7,
1543,
57119,
67,
98,
10,
24233,
13452,
15490,
122273,
214,
47,
12638,
3789,
2363,
123055,
707,
3789,
165197,
6,
42485,
2886,
4677,
5,
581,
14277,
44,
3957,
14978,
174462,
59061,
7341,
58,
8,
18695,
3674,
10,
127663,
289,
133258,
390,
3395,
2750,
1902,
8306,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
187763,
2481,
98363,
7,
113949,
7440,
70,
1030,
1916,
3445,
25,
7,
182324,
83,
51,
69723,
19,
5,
31384,
6,
70035,
7,
765,
106926,
297,
450,
9351,
9393,
7432,
4,
21208,
121392,
538,
26785,
4,
14602,
959,
141621,
2367,
83,
1286,
9879,
538,
99,
145054,
23,
43701,
7,
111,
52184,
2481,
5,
581,
5526,
6528,
3688,
83,
450,
10,
3445,
186,
351,
9,
42485,
2886,
4,
51,
70443,
2886,
4,
707,
51,
125728,
2886,
5,
187763,
2481,
83,
51592,
237,
10,
61353,
4,
707,
10,
3917,
111,
14823,
214,
4,
10,
24233,
3789,
142424,
4,
6044,
237,
57137,
4,
707,
14788,
939,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1265347 | en-train-1265347 | 1265347 | {
"title": [
"Pseudonymity.",
"Psychological effects.",
"Anonymity, commerce, and crime.",
"Anonymity in charity.",
"Issues facing the anonymous.",
"Referring to the anonymous.",
"Anonymity and the press.",
"Anonymity on the Internet.",
"Arguments for and against anonymity.",
"Anonymous (group).",
"Legal protection of anonymity.",
"United States.",
"European Union.",
"International legislation.",
"Anonymity and politics.",
"Anonymity and pseudonymity in art.",
"Mathematics of anonymity."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Sometimes a person may desire a long-term relationship (such as a reputation) with another party without necessarily disclosing personally identifying information to that party. In this case, it may be useful for the person to establish a unique identifier, called a pseudonym. Examples of pseudonyms are pen names, nicknames, credit card numbers, student numbers, bank account numbers, etc. A pseudonym enables the other party to link different messages from the same person and, thereby, to establish a long-term relationship. Pseudonyms are widely used in social networks and other virtual communication, although recently some important service providers like Google try to discourage pseudonymity. Someone using a pseudonym would be strictly considered to be using \"pseudonymity\" not \"anonymity\", but sometimes the latter is used to refer to both (in general, a situation where the legal identity of the person is disguised)",
"Anonymity may reduce the accountability one perceives to have for their actions, and removes the impact these actions might otherwise have on their reputation. This can have dramatic effects, both useful and harmful to various parties involved. Thus, it may be used for psychological tactics involving any respective party to purport or support or discredit any sort of activity or belief. In conversational settings, anonymity may allow people to reveal personal history and feelings without fear of later embarrassment. Electronic conversational media can provide physical isolation, in addition to anonymity. This prevents physical retaliation for remarks, and prevents negative or taboo behavior or discussion from tarnishing the reputation of the speaker. This can be beneficial when discussing very private matters, or taboo subjects or expressing views or revealing facts that may put someone in physical, financial, or legal danger (such as illegal activity, or unpopular, or outlawed political views). In work settings, the three most common forms of anonymous communication are traditional suggestion boxes, written feedback, and Caller ID blocking. Additionally, the appropriateness of anonymous organizational communication varies depending on the use, with organizational surveys or assessments typically perceived as highly appropriate and firing perceived as highly inappropriate. Anonymity use and appropriateness have also been found to be significantly related to the quality of relationships with key others at work. With few perceived negative consequences, anonymous or semi-anonymous forums often provide a soapbox for disruptive conversational behavior. The term \"troll\" is sometimes used to refer to those who engage in such disruptive behavior. Relative anonymity is often enjoyed in large crowds. Different people have different psychological and philosophical reactions to this development, especially as a modern phenomenon. This anonymity is an important factor in crowd psychology, and behavior in situations such as a riot. This perceived anonymity can be compromised by technologies such as photography. Groupthink behavior and conformity are also considered to be an established effect of internet anonymity. Anonymity also permits highly trained professionals such as judges to freely express themselves regarding the strategies they employ to perform their jobs objectively.",
"Anonymous commercial transactions can protect the privacy of consumers. Some consumers prefer to use cash when buying everyday goods (like groceries or tools), to prevent sellers from aggregating information or soliciting them in the future. Credit cards are linked to a person's name, and can be used to discover other information, such as postal address, phone number, etc. The ecash system was developed to allow secure anonymous transactions. Another example would be Enymity, which actually makes a purchase on a customer's behalf. When purchasing taboo goods and services, anonymity makes many potential consumers more comfortable with or more willing to engage in the transaction. Many loyalty programs use cards that personally identify the consumer engaging in each transaction (possibly for later solicitation, or for redemption or security purposes), or that act as a numerical pseudonym, for use in data mining. Anonymity can also be used as a protection against legal prosecution. For example, when committing unlawful actions, many criminals attempt to avoid identification by the means of obscuring/covering their faces with scarves or masks, and wear gloves or other hand coverings in order to not leave any fingerprints. In organized crime, groups of criminals may collaborate on a certain project without revealing to each other their names or other personally identifiable information. The movie \"The Thomas Crown Affair\" depicted a fictional collaboration by people who had never previously met and did not know who had recruited them. The anonymous purchase of a gun or knife to be used in a crime helps prevent linking an abandoned weapon to the identity of the perpetrator.",
"There are two aspects, one, giving to a large charitable organization obscures the beneficiary of a donation from the benefactor, the other is giving anonymously to obscure the benefactor both from the beneficiary and from everyone else. There are many reasons this is done. Anonymous charity has long been a widespread and durable moral precept of many ethical and religious systems, as well as being in practice a widespread human activity. A benefactor may not wish to establish any relationship with the beneficiary, particularly if the beneficiary is perceived as being unsavory. Benefactors may not wish to identify themselves as capable of giving. A benefactor may wish to improve the world, as long as no one knows who did it, out of modesty, wishing to avoid publicity. Another reason for anonymous charity is a benefactor who does not want a charitable organization to pursue them for more donations, sometimes aggressively.",
"Attempts at anonymity are not always met with support from society. Anonymity sometimes clashes with the policies and procedures of governments or private organizations. In the United States, disclosure of identity is required to be able to vote, though the secret ballot prevents disclosure of individual voting patterns. In airports in most countries, passengers are not allowed to board flights unless they have identified themselves to airline or transportation security personnel, typically in the form of the presentation of an identification card. On the other hand, some policies and procedures require anonymity.",
"When it is necessary to refer to someone who is anonymous, it is typically necessary to create a type of pseudo-identification for that person. In literature, the most common way to state that the identity of an author is unknown is to refer to them as simply \"Anonymous\". This is usually the case with older texts in which the author is long dead and unable to claim authorship of a work. When the work claims to be that of some famous author the pseudonymous author is identified as \"Pseudo-\", as in Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, an author claiming—and long believed—to be Dionysius the Areopagite, an early Christian convert. \"Anonymus\", in its Latin spelling, generally with a specific city designation, is traditionally used by scholars in the humanities to refer to an ancient writer whose name is not known, or to a manuscript of their work. Many such writers have left valuable historical or literary records: an incomplete list of such \"Anonymi\" is at Anonymus. In the history of art, many painting workshops can be identified by their characteristic style and discussed and the workshop's output set in chronological order. Sometimes archival research later identifies the name, as when the \"Master of Flémalle\"—defined by three paintings in the Städelsches Kunstinstitut in Frankfurt— was identified as Robert Campin. The 20th-century art historian Bernard Berenson methodically identified numerous early Renaissance Florentine and Sienese workshops under such sobriquets as \"Amico di Sandro\" for an anonymous painter in the immediate circle of Sandro Botticelli. In legal cases, a popularly accepted name to use when it is determined that an individual needs to maintain anonymity is \"John Doe\". This name is often modified to \"Jane Doe\" when the anonymity-seeker is female. The same names are also commonly used when the identification of a dead person is not known. The semi-acronym Unsub is used as law enforcement slang for \"Unknown Subject of an Investigation\". The military often feels a need to honor the remains of soldiers for whom identification is impossible. In many countries, such a memorial is named the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.",
"Most modern newspapers and magazines attribute their articles to individual editors, or to news agencies. An exception is the Markker weekly \"The Economist.\" All British newspapers run their leaders, or editorials, anonymously. \"The Economist\" fully adopts this policy, saying \"Many hands write \"The Economist\", but it speaks with a collective voice\". Guardian considers that \"\"people will often speak more honestly if they are allowed to speak anonymously\"\". According to Ross Eaman, in his book \"The A to Z of Journalism\", until the mid-19th century, most writers in Great Britain, especially the less well known, did not sign their names to their work in newspapers, magazines and reviews.",
"Most commentary on the Internet is essentially done anonymously, using unidentifiable pseudonyms. While these usernames can take on an identity of their own, they are frequently separated and anonymous from the actual author. According to the University of Stockholm this is creating more freedom of expression, and less accountability. Wikipedia is collaboratively written mostly by authors using either unidentifiable pseudonyms or IP address identifiers, although a few have used identified pseudonyms or their real names. However, the Internet was not designed for anonymity: IP addresses serve as virtual mailing addresses, which means that any time any resource on the Internet is accessed, it is accessed from a particular IP address, and the data traffic patterns to and from IP addresses can be intercepted, monitored, and analysed, even if the content of that traffic is encrypted. This address can be mapped to a particular Internet Service Provider (ISP), and this ISP can then provide information about what customer that IP address was leased to. This does not necessarily implicate a specific individual (because other people could be using that customer's connection, especially if the customer is a public resource, such as a library), but it provides regional information and serves as powerful circumstantial evidence. Anonymizing services such as I2P and Tor address the issue of IP tracking. In short, they work by encrypting packets within multiple layers of encryption. The packet follows a predetermined route through the anonymizing network. Each router sees the immediate previous router as the origin and the immediate next router as the destination. Thus, no router ever knows both the true origin and destination of the packet. This makes these services more secure than centralized anonymizing services (where a central point of knowledge exists). Sites such as Chatroulette, Omegle, and Tinder (which pair up random users for a conversation) capitalized on a fascination with anonymity. Apps like Yik Yak, Secret and Whisper let people share things anonymously or quasi-anonymously whereas Random lets the user to explore the web anonymously. Other sites, however, including Facebook and Google+, ask users to sign in with their legal names. In the case of Google+, this requirement led to a controversy known as the nymwars. The prevalence of cyberbullying is often attributed to relative Internet anonymity, due to the fact that potential offenders are able to mask their identities and prevent themselves from being caught. A principal in a high school stated that comments made on these anonymous site are \"especially vicious and hurtful since there is no way to trace their source and it can be disseminated widely. \"Cyberbullying, as opposed to general bullying, is still a widely-debated area of Internet freedom in several states. Though Internet anonymity can provide a harmful environment through which people can hurt others, anonymity can allow for a much safer and relaxed internet experience. In a study conducted at Carnegie Mellon University, 15 out of 44 participants stated that they choose to be anonymous online because of a prior negative experience during which they did not maintain an anonymous presence. Such experiences include stalking, releasing private information by an opposing school political group, or tricking an individual into traveling to another country for a job that did not exist. Participants in this study stated that they were able to avoid their previous problems by using false identification online. David Chaum is called the Godfathers of anonymity and he has a claim to be one of the great visionaries of contemporary science. In the early 1980s, while a computer scientist at Berkeley, Chaum predicted the world in which computer networks would make mass surveillance a possibility. As Dr Joss Wright explains: \"David Chaum was very ahead of his time. He predicted in the early 1980s concerns that would arise on the internet 15 or 20 years later.\" There are some people though that consider anonymity in internet being a danger for our society as a whole. David Davenport, an assistant professor in the Computer Engineering Department of Bilkent University in Ankara, Turkey, considers that by allowing anonymous Net communication, the fabric of our society is at risk. \"Accountability requires those responsible for any misconduct be identified and brought to justice. However, if people remain anonymous, by definition, they cannot be identified, making it impossible to hold them accountable.\" he says.",
"As A. Michael Froomkin says: \"\"The regulation of anonymous and pseudonymous communications promises to be one of the most important and contentious Internet-related issues of the next decade\".\" Anonymity and pseudonymity can be used for good and bad purposes. And anonymity can in many cases be desirable for one person and not desirable for another person. A company may, for example, not like an employee to divulge information about improper practices within the company, but society as a whole may find it important that such improper practices are publicly exposed. Good purposes of anonymity and pseudonymity: There has always, however, also been a dark side of anonymity: The border between illegal and legal but offensive use is not very sharp, and varies depending on the law in each country.",
"Anonymous (used as a mass noun) is a loosely associated international network of activist and hacktivist entities. A website nominally associated with the group describes it as \"an internet gathering\" with \"a very loose and decentralized command structure that operates on ideas rather than directives\". The group became known for a series of well-publicized publicity stunts and distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks on government, religious, and corporate websites. An image commonly associated with Anonymous is the \"man without a head\" represents leaderless organization and anonymity.",
"Anonymity is perceived as a right by many, especially the anonymity in the internet communications. The partial right for anonymity is legally protected to various degrees in different jurisdictions.",
"The tradition of anonymous speech is older than the United States. Founders Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote \"The Federalist Papers\" under the pseudonym \"Publius\" and \"the Federal Farmer\" spoke up in rebuttal. The US Supreme Court has repeatedly recognized rights to speak anonymously derived from the First Amendment. The pressure on anonymous communication has grown substantially after the 2001 terrorist attack on the World Trade Center and the subsequent new political climate. Although it is still difficult to oversee their exact implications, measures such as the US Patriot Act, the European Cybercrime Convention and the European Union rules on data retention are only few of the signs that the exercise of the right to the anonymous exchange of information is under substantial pressure. An above-mentioned 1995 Supreme Court ruling in \"McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission\" reads: \"\"(...) protections for anonymous speech are vital to democratic discourse. Allowing dissenters to shield their identities frees them to express critical minority views... Anonymity is a shield from the tyranny of the majority.... It thus exemplifies the purpose behind the Bill of Rights and of the First Amendment in particular: to protect unpopular individuals from retaliation... at the hand of an intolerant society.\"\" However, anonymous online speech is not without limits. It is clearly demonstrated in a case from 2008, one in which the defendant stated on a law-school discussion board that two women should be raped, an anonymous poster's comments may extend beyond free speech protections. In the case, a Connecticut federal court must apply a standard to decide whether the poster's identity should be revealed. There are several tests, however, that the court could apply when considering this issue.",
"The right to internet anonymity is also covered by European legislation that recognizes the fundamental right to data protection, freedom of expression, freedom of impression. The European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights recognizes in Article. 8 (Title II: “Freedoms”) the right of everyone to protection of personal data concerning him. The right to privacy is now essentially the individual's right to have and to maintain control over information about him.",
"One of the most controversial international legal acts, regarding this subject is Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA). As of February 2015, the treaty was signed -but not all ratified- by 31 states as well as the European Union. Japan was on 4 October 2012 the first to ratify the treaty. It creates an international regime for imposing civil and criminal penalties on Internet counterfeiting and copyright infringement. Although ACTA is intentionally vague, leaving signatories to draw precise rules themselves, critics say it could mean innocent travellers having their laptops searched for unlicensed music, or being jailed for carrying a generic drug. Infringers could be liable for the total loss of potential sales (implying that everyone who buys a counterfeit product would have bought the real thing). It applies to unintentional use of copyright material. It puts the onus on website owners to ensure they comply with laws across several territories. It has been negotiated secretively and outside established international trade bodies, despite EU criticisms.",
"The history of anonymous expression in political dissent is both long and with important effect, as in the Letters of Junius or Voltaire's \"Candide\", or scurrilous as in pasquinades. In the tradition of anonymous British political criticism, \"The Federalist Papers\" were anonymously authored by three of America's Founding Fathers. Without the public discourse on the controversial contents of the U.S. Constitution, ratification would likely have taken much longer as individuals worked through the issues. The United States Declaration of Independence, however, was not anonymous. If it had been unsigned, it might well have been less effective. John Perry Barlow, Joichi Ito, and other U.S. bloggers express a very strong support for anonymous editing as one of the basic requirements of open politics as conducted on the Internet.",
"Anonymity is directly related to the concept of obscurantism or pseudonymity, where an artist or a group attempts to remain anonymous, for various reasons, not limited to: adding an element of mystique to themselves or their work, attempting to avoid what is known as the \"cult of personality\" or hero worship, where the charisma, good looks, wealth or other unrelated or mildly related aspects of the person(s) is the main reason for interest in their work, rather than the work itself; also the ability to break into a field or area of interest normally dominated by males, such as James Tiptree, Jr, the famous science fiction author who was actually a woman named Alice Bradley Sheldon, as seems to also be the case with JT LeRoy. The reasons for choosing this approach vary. Some, such as Thomas Pynchon, and J. D. Salinger who seem to want to avoid the \"limelight\" of popularity, simply want to live private lives. This would appear to be the case with De Onbekende Beeldhouwer (Anonymous Sculptor), whose exhibited work in Amsterdam attracted strong attention in the 1980s and 1990s. Some others include avant-garde ensemble The Residents, costumed comedy rock band The Radioactive Chicken Heads, and until 2004, musician Jandek. This is frequently applied in fiction, from The Lone Ranger, Superman, and Batman, where a hidden identity is assumed.",
"Suppose that only Alice, Bob, and Carol have keys to a bank safe and that, one day, contents of the safe go missing (lock not violated). Without additional information, we cannot know for sure whether it was Alice, Bob or Carol who emptied the safe. Notably, each element in {Alice, Bob, Carol} could be the perpetrator with a probability of 1. However, as long as none of them was convicted with 100% certainty, we must hold that the perpetrator remains anonymous and that the attribution of the probability of 1 to one of the players has to remain undecided. If Carol has a definite alibi at the time of perpetration, then we may deduce that it must have been either Alice or Bob who emptied the safe. In this particular case, the perpetrator is not completely anonymous anymore, as both Alice and Bob now know \"who did it\" with a probability of 1."
]
} |
Carl Rogers | null | Carl Ransom Rogers (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach (or client-centered approach) to psychology. Rogers is widely considered to be one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored for his pioneering research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1956. | null | [
250004,
250054,
48861,
7,
509,
103122,
98,
18982,
382,
4,
115275,
4,
23,
128366,
5227,
4,
199937,
4,
10,
165473,
275,
111,
58823,
5,
18763,
67373,
4,
80490,
62,
5,
48861,
7,
4,
509,
10,
9782,
185118,
4,
10,
237626,
76,
6562,
390,
52240,
1363,
5,
18763,
42732,
4,
60592,
276,
5,
3003,
54700,
4,
509,
10,
5368,
55474,
136,
30396,
1003,
171403,
5,
25075,
509,
70,
22759,
927,
111,
2363,
37195,
20020,
5,
48861,
7,
509,
54497,
136,
5809,
12301,
5299,
8108,
52358,
134077,
5,
77168,
214,
142,
53019,
23,
10,
81113,
167821,
136,
82,
127,
21533,
65998,
237,
142,
144,
867,
25299,
99,
70,
279,
13403,
429,
111,
3291,
33209,
53,
4,
764,
100512,
10,
43257,
54015,
3674,
4,
41371,
136,
80244,
71,
3445,
4,
136,
163629,
71,
10,
51359,
136,
142,
1747,
51606,
2320,
100,
70,
57456,
55300,
23,
10,
138155,
8999,
5,
18763,
5117,
80997,
44126,
509,
6,
177849,
4,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
220474,
1104,
63129,
40514,
4,
7440,
764,
509,
10,
2831,
111,
70,
135488,
19,
2481,
111,
76569,
215713,
11,
122930,
85,
4,
134629,
390,
32692,
136,
7068,
42615,
5,
1913,
32070,
387,
4,
25632,
1919,
63445,
24745,
47,
172416,
4,
9098,
4,
100,
142,
21640,
14949,
108870,
4,
764,
26859,
47,
92814,
1919,
167821,
158,
21605,
5256,
5,
717,
4358,
4049,
17306,
40383,
1919,
80997,
44126,
4,
764,
29966,
297,
10,
28622,
233234,
44,
168754,
444,
87,
22,
33558,
70,
185236,
2953,
4,
7103,
3129,
764,
68872,
47,
15549,
1919,
80997,
5,
360,
58410,
4,
764,
150180,
71,
1295,
12535,
111,
220474,
136,
22,
27722,
297,
99,
32528,
581,
109622,
42923,
53,
15,
46568,
5753,
6406,
194,
31384,
6032,
7103,
19364,
7,
764,
100512,
142,
10,
2347,
1419,
5,
106073,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
142,
10,
2347,
1419,
39395,
23,
1919,
80997,
4,
48861,
7,
155605,
21449,
47,
186,
151552,
237,
163963,
9523,
5,
33306,
4,
23,
1919,
14432,
5369,
442,
83,
113771,
764,
113091,
1672,
41205,
2481,
5,
38692,
86,
4,
2750,
55950,
48861,
7,
136,
79786,
678,
4049,
98,
10,
14012,
111,
46505,
7,
20271,
1919,
2704,
1492,
5369,
4,
33022,
7,
450,
4,
52,
73,
1919,
14432,
5369,
1919,
9803,
7432,
47,
16981,
9969,
2118,
71,
4049,
47,
224344,
70,
6,
116311,
111,
10,
6,
91403,
47,
3129,
764,
220642,
6044,
606,
76144,
42991,
237,
759,
7,
70760,
4,
41205,
4,
136,
159527,
33,
1803,
974,
48861,
7,
103876,
71,
450,
2685,
83,
10,
2773,
39,
44,
372,
9480,
71,
58,
57456,
55182,
53,
4,
10,
2773,
39,
3129,
764,
21449,
47,
494,
731,
237,
44,
2347,
19538,
16126,
275,
2886,
4,
70,
41205,
1242,
24372,
6626,
5369,
764,
25737,
70,
28622,
53,
47,
29966,
165136,
7,
29693,
4,
121328,
12535,
4,
113054,
214,
142,
276,
5,
284,
5,
23,
61786,
136,
10,
13000,
5,
397,
5,
23,
66426,
5,
51404,
21721,
214,
1919,
22072,
289,
4488,
4,
764,
81810,
71,
23,
29041,
35187,
5,
360,
28730,
4,
48861,
7,
149976,
237,
14364,
111,
70,
67081,
100,
70,
1914,
57241,
111,
41649,
6704,
53,
47,
91345,
23,
128359,
1515,
4,
2356,
5753,
5,
28090,
61540,
47,
27712,
764,
59619,
71,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
128359,
1515,
136,
54397,
44,
3957,
95612,
289,
183367,
111,
70,
15649,
123829,
58,
5173,
112227,
4,
35509,
98,
1919,
16981,
23,
20697,
678,
63134,
71,
20020,
5,
1529,
509,
37515,
538,
79507,
71,
23,
64549,
214,
1919,
23282,
9,
30090,
297,
51515,
390,
70,
1305,
9,
919,
107,
9198,
66,
69982,
126472,
1771,
41361,
111,
71047,
134405,
4,
41866,
237,
148696,
428,
297,
23,
70,
4488,
111,
134405,
25,
7,
17116,
14,
8705,
4,
959,
297,
56465,
3378,
136,
2265,
4488,
29574,
1290,
117361,
478,
1218,
2480,
5,
360,
27712,
48861,
7,
100512,
16030,
111,
56465,
289,
55182,
53,
99,
157997,
22836,
12535,
4,
7440,
764,
54397,
1919,
17932,
12877,
4,
44,
10625,
309,
1428,
214,
136,
153748,
106864,
58,
15,
175654,
194,
360,
442,
4,
48861,
7,
42459,
297,
450,
70,
23282,
4,
390,
137633,
214,
10,
76755,
678,
142,
100094,
4,
26946,
214,
70,
13631,
1419,
4,
831,
103608,
34844,
3387,
136,
21647,
70,
149201,
63559,
47,
456,
137656,
2363,
6897,
5,
360,
18608,
4,
764,
509,
77049,
71,
47,
5423,
1257,
10,
184638,
2069,
27585,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
58823,
5,
360,
40191,
764,
509,
3163,
89829,
34202,
111,
70,
15672,
115066,
21533,
56187,
5,
51404,
10,
16030,
111,
55182,
53,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
58823,
15,
99270,
1104,
68518,
4,
48861,
7,
104902,
47,
137633,
10,
184638,
2069,
27585,
162711,
678,
70,
152363,
136,
2685,
55080,
297,
96335,
47,
83324,
70,
60266,
7432,
111,
1919,
150624,
5,
18763,
90791,
7,
136,
3790,
10484,
118775,
23,
44,
441,
150,
2517,
9,
174426,
297,
230656,
58,
5173,
62634,
136,
44,
683,
4861,
3089,
106864,
136,
17915,
2481,
87377,
58,
15,
191664,
194,
6561,
111,
1919,
150180,
25921,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
58823,
4,
14978,
119892,
4,
170920,
70,
170918,
216741,
7432,
44284,
15,
683,
5,
647,
5,
618,
5,
16,
112664,
5,
116267,
9836,
4,
79834,
13,
384,
5,
15937,
71,
2397,
4,
2750,
509,
20949,
1919,
13000,
5,
397,
5,
23,
6,
119598,
53,
4,
126809,
70,
41361,
111,
102489,
214,
35509,
98,
48861,
3378,
178463,
5,
360,
36327,
4,
48861,
7,
100512,
70,
5117,
34202,
111,
70,
15672,
62903,
111,
153748,
9319,
2631,
64370,
5,
1529,
189924,
55182,
53,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
220474,
4,
201897,
15,
205403,
1104,
82036,
4,
20271,
3129,
1733,
764,
54397,
1632,
111,
1919,
2965,
9,
69723,
19,
42840,
4,
44,
20320,
873,
277,
214,
15270,
58,
15,
160733,
194,
62,
9836,
111,
1919,
2685,
4,
157530,
83416,
4969,
4,
2806,
738,
98,
47,
85493,
3775,
10023,
22042,
87398,
5,
25075,
48861,
7,
136,
58480,
3010,
17336,
5173,
8318,
1104,
89149,
53918,
11226,
297,
10,
112664,
35839,
135877,
1771,
55182,
53,
3129,
157578,
6863,
280,
344,
23,
70,
23936,
7,
5,
360,
40418,
4,
764,
509,
3163,
89829,
10,
9593,
17336,
111,
70,
15672,
62903,
111,
64624,
136,
28745,
7,
5,
25075,
48861,
7,
509,
2843,
1632,
111,
70,
3395,
2750,
9655,
297,
70,
6,
58944,
111,
85283,
147,
29178,
8780,
23,
70,
27631,
7,
5,
194397,
38440,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
25075,
33041,
5084,
48861,
7,
15,
67884,
2240,
53,
382,
4,
115275,
46,
22482,
201,
4,
22059,
16,
509,
142,
15672,
55182,
1419,
136,
54940,
70,
14037,
1314,
111,
70,
135877,
1771,
51515,
15,
748,
23282,
9,
30090,
297,
51515,
16,
47,
55182,
53,
5,
48861,
7,
83,
38134,
538,
90698,
47,
186,
1632,
111,
70,
14037,
214,
67373,
7,
111,
69982,
106864,
25188,
136,
509,
20338,
297,
100,
1919,
53918,
13,
4209,
25188,
678,
70,
60992,
100,
6206,
34971,
164,
5252,
210017,
1657,
179236,
7,
390,
70,
15672,
115066,
21533,
56187,
15,
59000,
16,
23,
36327,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-924360 | en-train-924360 | 924360 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Theory.",
"Nineteen propositions.",
"Development of the personality.",
"Fully functioning person.",
"Incongruence.",
"Psychopathology.",
"Applications.",
"Person-centered therapy.",
"Learner-centered teaching.",
"Rogerian rhetorical approach.",
"Cross-cultural relations.",
"Person-centered, dialogic politics.",
"Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Rogers was born on January 8, 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. His father, Walter A. Rogers, was a civil engineer, a Congregationalist by denomination. His mother, Julia M. Cushing, was a homemaker and devout Baptist. Carl was the fourth of their six children. Rogers was intelligent and could read well before kindergarten. Following an education in a strict religious and ethical environment as an altar boy at the vicarage of Jimpley, he became a rather isolated, independent and disciplined person, and acquired a knowledge and an appreciation for the scientific method in a practical world. His first career choice was agriculture, at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he was a part of the fraternity of Alpha Kappa Lambda, followed by history and then religion. At age 20, following his 1922 trip to Peking, China, for an international Christian conference, he started to doubt his religious convictions. To help him clarify his career choice, he attended a seminar entitled \"Why am I entering the Ministry?\", after which he decided to change his career. In 1924, he graduated from University of Wisconsin and enrolled at Union Theological Seminary (New York City). Sometime afterwards he became an atheist. Although referred to as an atheist early in his career, Rogers eventually came to be described as agnostic. However, in his later years it is reported he spoke about spirituality. Thorne, who knew Rogers and worked with him on a number of occasions during his final ten years, writes that, “in his later years his openness to experience compelled him to acknowledge the existence of a dimension to which he attached such adjectives as mystical, spiritual, and transcendental.” Rogers concluded that there is a realm \"beyond\" scientific psychology, a realm which he came to prize as \"the indescribable, the spiritual.\" After two years he left the seminary to attend Teachers College, Columbia University, obtaining an M.A. in 1928 and a Ph.D. in 1931. While completing his doctoral work, he engaged in child study. In 1930, Rogers served as director of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in Rochester, New York. From 1935 to 1940 he lectured at the University of Rochester and wrote \"The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child\" (1939), based on his experience in working with troubled children. He was strongly influenced in constructing his client-centered approach by the post-Freudian psychotherapeutic practice of Otto Rank, especially as embodied in the work of Rank's disciple, noted clinician and social work educator Jessie Taft. In 1940 Rogers became professor of clinical psychology at Ohio State University, where he wrote his second book, \"Counseling and Psychotherapy\" (1942). In it, Rogers suggested that the client, by establishing a relationship with an understanding, accepting therapist, can resolve difficulties and gain the insight necessary to restructure their life. In 1945, he was invited to set up a counselling center at the University of Chicago. In 1947 he was elected President of the American Psychological Association. While a professor of psychology at the University of Chicago (1945–57), Rogers helped to establish a counselling center connected with the university and there conducted studies to determine the effectiveness of his methods. His findings and theories appeared in \"Client-Centered Therapy\" (1951) and \"Psychotherapy and Personality Change\" (1954). One of his graduate students at the University of Chicago, Thomas Gordon, established the Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) movement. Another student, Eugene T. Gendlin, who was getting his Ph.D. in philosophy, developed the practice of Focusing based on Rogerian listening. In 1956, Rogers became the first President of the American Academy of Psychotherapists. He taught psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (1957–63), during which time he wrote one of his best-known books, \"On Becoming Person\" (1961). A student of his there, Marshall Rosenberg, would go on to develop Nonviolent Communication. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (1908–70) pioneered a movement called humanistic psychology which reached its peak in the 1960s. In 1961, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Carl Rogers was also one of the people who questioned the rise of McCarthyism in the 1950s. Through articles, he criticized society for its backward-looking affinities. Rogers continued teaching at University of Wisconsin until 1963, when he became a resident at the new Western Behavioral Sciences Institute (WBSI) in La Jolla, California. Rogers left the WBSI to help found the Center for Studies of the Person in 1968. His later books include \"Carl Rogers on Personal Power\" (1977) and \"Freedom to Learn for the 80's\" (1983). He remained a resident of La Jolla for the rest of his life, doing therapy, giving speeches and writing. Rogers's last years were devoted to applying his theories in situations of political oppression and national social conflict, traveling worldwide to do so. In Belfast, Northern Ireland, he brought together influential Protestants and Catholics; in South Africa, blacks and whites; in Brazil people emerging from dictatorship to democracy; in the United States, consumers and providers in the health field. His last trip, at age 85, was to the Soviet Union, where he lectured and facilitated intensive experiential workshops fostering communication and creativity. He was astonished at the numbers of Russians who knew of his work. Between 1974 and 1984, Rogers, together with his daughter Natalie Rogers, and psychologists Maria Bowen, Maureen O'Hara, and John K. Wood, convened a series of residential programs in the US, Europe, Brazil and Japan, the Person-Centered Approach Workshops, which focused on cross-cultural communications, personal growth, self-empowerment, and learning for social change. In 1987, Rogers suffered a fall that resulted in a fractured pelvis: he had life alert and was able to contact paramedics. He had a successful operation, but his pancreas failed the next night and he died a few days later after a heart attack.",
"Rogers' theory of the self is considered to be humanistic, existential, and phenomenological. His theory is based directly on the \"phenomenal field\" personality theory of Combs and Snygg (1949). Rogers' elaboration of his own theory is extensive. He wrote 16 books and many more journal articles describing it. Prochaska and Norcross (2003) states Rogers \"consistently stood for an empirical evaluation of psychotherapy. He and his followers have demonstrated a humanistic approach to conducting therapy and a scientific approach to evaluating therapy need not be incompatible.\"",
"His theory (as of 1951) was based on 19 propositions: In relation to No. 17, Rogers is known for practicing \"unconditional positive regard\", which is defined as accepting a person \"without negative judgment of... [a person's] basic worth\".",
"With regard to development, Rogers described principles rather than stages. The main issue is the development of a self-concept and the progress from an undifferentiated self to being fully differentiated. In the development of the self-concept, he saw conditional and unconditional positive regard as key. Those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualize themselves. Those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard feel worthy only if they match conditions (what Rogers describes as \"conditions of worth\") that have been laid down for them by others.",
"Optimal development, as referred to in proposition 14, results in a certain process rather than static state. He describes this as \"the good life\", where the organism continually aims to fulfill its full potential. He listed the characteristics of a fully functioning person (Rogers 1961):",
"Rogers identified the \"real self\" as the aspect of one's being that is founded in the actualizing tendency, follows organismic valuing, needs and receives positive regard and self-regard. It is the \"you\" that, if all goes well, you will become. On the other hand, to the extent that our society is out of sync with the actualizing tendency, and we are forced to live with conditions of worth that are out of step with organismic valuing, and receive only conditional positive regard and self-regard, we develop instead an \"ideal self\". By ideal, Rogers is suggesting something not real, something that is always out of our reach, the standard we cannot meet. This gap between the real self and the ideal self, the \"I am\" and the \"I should\" is called \"incongruity\".",
"Rogers described the concepts of \"congruence\" and \"incongruence\" as important ideas in his theory. In proposition #6, he refers to the actualizing tendency. At the same time, he recognized the need for \"positive regard\". In a fully congruent person, realizing their potential is not at the expense of experiencing positive regard. They are able to lead lives that are authentic and genuine. Incongruent individuals, in their pursuit of positive regard, lead lives that include falseness and do not realize their potential. Conditions put on them by those around them make it necessary for them to forgo their genuine, authentic lives to meet with the approval of others. They live lives that are not true to themselves, to who they are on the inside out. Rogers suggested that the incongruent individual, who is always on the defensive and cannot be open to all experiences, is not functioning ideally and may even be malfunctioning. They work hard at maintaining and protecting their self-concept. Because their lives are not authentic this is a difficult task and they are under constant threat. They deploy \"defense mechanisms\" to achieve this. He describes two mechanisms: \"distortion\" and \"denial\". Distortion occurs when the individual perceives a threat to their self-concept. They distort the perception until it fits their self-concept. This defensive behavior reduces the consciousness of the threat but not the threat itself. And so, as the threats mount, the work of protecting the self-concept becomes more difficult and the individual becomes more defensive and rigid in their self structure. If the incongruence is immoderate this process may lead the individual to a state that would typically be described as neurotic. Their functioning becomes precarious and psychologically vulnerable. If the situation worsens it is possible that the defenses cease to function altogether and the individual becomes aware of the incongruence of their situation. Their personality becomes disorganised and bizarre; irrational behavior, associated with earlier denied aspects of self, may erupt uncontrollably.",
"",
"Rogers originally developed his theory to be the foundation for a system of therapy. He initially called this \"non-directive therapy\" but later replaced the term \"non-directive\" with the term \"client-centered\" and then later used the term \"person-centered\". Even before the publication of \"Client-Centered Therapy\" in 1951, Rogers believed that the principles he was describing could be applied in a variety of contexts and not just in the therapy situation. As a result, he started to use the term \"person-centered approach\" later in his life to describe his overall theory. Person-centered therapy is the application of the person-centered approach to the therapy situation. Other applications include a theory of personality, interpersonal relations, education, nursing, cross-cultural relations and other \"helping\" professions and situations. In 1946 Rogers co-authored \"Counseling with Returned Servicemen\" with John L. Wallen (the creator of the behavioral model known as \"The Interpersonal Gap\"), documenting the application of person-centered approach to counseling military personnel returning from the second world war. The first empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the client-centered approach was published in 1941 at the Ohio State University by Elias Porter, using the recordings of therapeutic sessions between Carl Rogers and his clients. Porter used Rogers' transcripts to devise a system to measure the degree of directiveness or non-directiveness a counselor employed. The attitude and orientation of the counselor were demonstrated to be instrumental in the decisions made by the client.",
"The application to education has a large robust research tradition similar to that of therapy with studies having begun in the late 1930s and continuing today (Cornelius-White, 2007). Rogers described the approach to education in \"Client-Centered Therapy\" and wrote \"Freedom to Learn\" devoted exclusively to the subject in 1969. \"Freedom to Learn\" was revised two times. The new Learner-Centered Model is similar in many regards to this classical person-centered approach to education. Rogers and Harold Lyon began a book prior to Rogers death, entitled \"On Becoming an Effective Teacher—Person-centered Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon\", which was completed by Lyon and Reinhard Tausch and published in 2013 containing Rogers last unpublished writings on person-centered teaching. Rogers had the following five hypotheses regarding learner-centered education:",
"In 1970, Richard Young, Alton L. Becker, and Kenneth Pike published \"Rhetoric: Discovery and Change\", a widely influential college writing textbook that used a Rogerian approach to communication to revise the traditional Aristotelian framework for rhetoric. The Rogerian method of argument involves each side restating the other's position to the satisfaction of the other. In a paper, it can be expressed by carefully acknowledging and understanding the opposition, rather than dismissing them.",
"The application to cross-cultural relations has involved workshops in highly stressful situations and global locations including conflicts and challenges in South Africa, Central America, and Ireland. Along with Alberto Zucconi and Charles Devonshire, he co-founded the Istituto dell'Approccio Centrato sulla Persona (Person-Centered Approach Institute) in Rome, Italy. His international work for peace culminated in the Rust Peace Workshop which took place in November 1985 in Rust, Austria. Leaders from 17 nations convened to discuss the topic \"The Central America Challenge\". The meeting was notable for several reasons: it brought national figures together as people (not as their positions), it was a private event, and was an overwhelming positive experience where members heard one another and established real personal ties, as opposed to stiffly formal and regulated diplomatic meetings.",
"Some scholars believe there is a politics implicit in Rogers's approach to psychotherapy. Toward the end of his life, Rogers came to that view himself. The central tenet of a Rogerian, person-centered politics is that public life does not have to consist of an endless series of winner-take-all battles among sworn opponents; rather, it can and should consist of an ongoing dialogue among all parties. Such dialogue would be characterized by respect among the parties, authentic speaking by each party, and – ultimately – empathic understanding among all parties. Out of such understanding, mutually acceptable solutions would (or at least could) flow. During his last decade, Rogers facilitated or participated in a wide variety of dialogic activities among politicians, activists, and other social leaders, often outside the U.S. In addition, he lent his support to several non-traditional U.S. political initiatives, including the \"12-Hour Political Party\" of the Association for Humanistic Psychology and the founding of a \"transformational\" political organization, the New World Alliance. By the 21st century, interest in dialogic approaches to political engagement and change had become widespread, especially among academics and activists. Theorists of a specifically Rogerian, person-centered approach to politics as dialogue have made substantial contributions to that project.",
"Carl Rogers served on the board of the Human Ecology Fund from the late 50s into the 60s, which was a CIA-funded organization that provided grants to researchers looking into personality. In addition, he and other people in the field of personality and psychotherapy were given a lot of information about Khrushchev. \"We were asked to figure out what we thought of him and what would be the best way of dealing with him. And that seemed to be an entirely principled and legitimate aspect. I don't think we contributed very much, but, anyway, we tried.\""
]
} |
Volker Zotz | null | Volker Helmut Manfred Zotz (born October 28, 1956) is an eminent Austrian philosopher, religious studies scholar, Buddhologist and a prolific author. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
5880,
9136,
14449,
62038,
3674,
23,
54114,
929,
136,
93403,
47,
102126,
5,
122397,
56,
5880,
9136,
509,
103122,
23,
6557,
916,
23,
122,
6,
202261,
4,
102126,
4,
7440,
764,
29966,
297,
131830,
53,
10696,
136,
11192,
10696,
5,
18763,
33946,
23,
41205,
2481,
12441,
4049,
47,
142,
39395,
35187,
111,
14949,
2481,
237,
5299,
237,
111,
42878,
136,
76438,
42615,
7,
5,
4865,
204971,
4049,
2684,
509,
131007,
49063,
6,
119598,
53,
136,
216569,
5,
14847,
5880,
9136,
509,
37195,
8927,
764,
100512,
10,
13036,
17116,
14,
8705,
111,
69727,
62,
48898,
2959,
2016,
2082,
85,
4,
678,
136565,
764,
509,
20903,
24189,
1919,
47219,
23,
20231,
5,
133698,
1919,
11192,
10696,
13312,
4,
5880,
9136,
2843,
435,
70,
42179,
33598,
63243,
2945,
65158,
4,
124901,
25647,
764,
6777,
959,
64557,
53520,
678,
4,
1284,
678,
136565,
764,
1902,
142,
108938,
121122,
111,
25647,
5,
24372,
25975,
26518,
1295,
9920,
159,
133,
56884,
18,
19694,
19188,
23,
6557,
916,
23,
70,
19340,
7,
4,
764,
91376,
1919,
5117,
85745,
7,
23,
6626,
21950,
7,
136,
10,
21261,
5,
1301,
10,
108810,
14,
10821,
36746,
748,
5880,
9136,
1902,
47,
51339,
136659,
5997,
21775,
111,
30700,
117907,
66,
4516,
23,
10,
1649,
6953,
5368,
5,
28090,
25695,
764,
22282,
71,
131007,
31047,
39,
1379,
108890,
27822,
142508,
1679,
136,
6,
119598,
53,
1379,
54010,
126741,
136290,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
181103,
5,
1529,
119140,
297,
538,
206735,
297,
1919,
96335,
23,
181103,
47,
55080,
25188,
136,
44457,
18244,
23,
5596,
4,
56250,
136,
61408,
136,
47,
53299,
41205,
23189,
1295,
69727,
62,
48898,
2959,
2016,
2082,
85,
5,
360,
21735,
5880,
9136,
75204,
10,
13000,
5,
391,
5,
1295,
70,
12535,
111,
181103,
100,
1919,
22072,
289,
159688,
44,
1511,
474,
118081,
1830,
4,
159838,
1363,
165,
77373,
224,
131007,
127,
39186,
566,
54993,
137201,
48135,
1242,
3293,
186533,
1363,
32603,
1636,
70,
79507,
111,
131007,
31047,
39,
98,
30839,
6,
119598,
53,
4,
163136,
136,
29394,
20271,
70,
13316,
8,
94815,
5,
5880,
9136,
1556,
2809,
10,
59619,
42,
111,
131007,
49063,
6,
119598,
53,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
181103,
5,
13501,
764,
109133,
47,
15758,
7440,
764,
509,
10,
16030,
136,
25188,
56,
99,
12563,
11159,
319,
12535,
136,
180,
18554,
12535,
23,
217267,
136,
99,
24116,
11412,
12535,
23,
71667,
100,
1492,
5369,
5,
133698,
70,
14922,
23,
15758,
764,
509,
79507,
71,
15286,
38526,
390,
70,
131007,
497,
106622,
61845,
1727,
31,
8294,
17117,
301,
5,
360,
8272,
5880,
9136,
509,
6,
140545,
297,
16030,
111,
6,
119598,
53,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
211546,
5,
1913,
450,
1733,
764,
509,
2843,
128169,
99,
57181,
1760,
12535,
5,
86247,
988,
1919,
191225,
538,
4488,
4,
122397,
56,
5880,
9136,
26,
7,
28811,
95771,
93002,
4049,
237,
42179,
136,
201569,
5,
581,
21950,
4,
44,
135946,
5236,
830,
83,
70,
2684,
5700,
12877,
98,
6863,
28451,
23,
30839,
46876,
4,
186085,
456,
35662,
297,
136,
3900,
143,
3674,
3934,
40368,
46876,
7,
5,
5880,
9136,
83,
10,
105207,
32786,
111,
70,
40779,
11,
3596,
2921,
395,
110561,
11,
4,
14037,
297,
390,
69727,
62,
48898,
2959,
2016,
2082,
85,
23,
55591,
5,
360,
70,
39395,
11704,
7,
5880,
9136,
173969,
297,
10,
35187,
11698,
35839,
44,
38882,
1410,
658,
58,
23,
66724,
3129,
83,
142,
81887,
99,
28852,
23709,
10,
41421,
9,
93782,
6,
119598,
53,
111,
42615,
5,
66016,
13211,
5880,
9136,
1556,
2809,
70,
132442,
37772,
50155,
5941,
111,
4440,
1410,
658,
26,
7,
162807,
103391,
4,
6044,
237,
117528,
73342,
214,
67842,
99644,
6827,
136,
70,
109622,
28451,
7,
5,
122397,
56,
5880,
9136,
83,
139505,
47,
70,
66724,
19,
6,
70035,
136,
142,
42294,
771,
106622,
157908,
5880,
9136,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
122397,
56,
204137,
1572,
41347,
5880,
9136,
15,
57332,
18374,
29835,
36327,
16,
83,
142,
192471,
66724,
19,
6,
119598,
56,
4,
167821,
96335,
191225,
4,
131007,
497,
106622,
136,
10,
113200,
14486,
42179,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-546286 | en-train-546286 | 546286 | {
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The Zotz family originated in Tyrol and spread to Germany. Volker Zotz was born in Landau in der Pfalz, Germany, where he attended elementary school and high school. His interest in spirituality led him to an early study of Christianity as well as of Indian and Chinese religions. What impressed him most was Buddhist philosophy and meditation. When Zotz was sixteen he became a major disciple of Lama Anagarika Govinda, with whom he was close until his death in 1985. During his high school days, Zotz also met the author Oscar Kiss Maerth, whose ideas he did not completely agree with, but with whom he had an intense exchange of ideas. After graduating from Max Slevogt High School in Landau in the 1970s, he published his first poems in two volumes and a novel. As a conscientious objector Zotz had to perform eighteen months of alternative civilian service in a nursing home. From 1978 he studied Buddhism under Ernst Steinkellner and philosophy under Kurt Rudolf Fischer at the University of Vienna. He repeatedly interrupted his studies in Vienna to conduct research and fieldwork in India, Nepal and Afghanistan and to receive spiritual training from Lama Anagarika Govinda.",
"In 1986 Zotz received a Ph. D. from the University of Vienna for his doctoral thesis \"Zur Rezeption, Interpretation und Kritik des Buddhismus im deutschen Sprachraum.\" This dissertation investigates the influence of Buddhism on German philosophy, literature and culture during the Fin de siècle. Zotz has been a lecturer of Buddhist philosophy at the University of Vienna. 1989 he moved to Japan where he was a professor and researcher at Ryukoku University and Otani University in Kyoto and at Rissho University in Tokyo for ten years. During the period in Japan he was influenced considerably by the Buddhologist Takamaro Shigaraki. In 1999 Zotz was appointed professor of philosophy at the University of Luxembourg. At that time he was also teaching at Saarland University. Besides his scholarly work, Volker Zotz’s European audience knows him as author and publicist. The volume, \"Buddha\", is the most popular book on its topic in German language, regularly reprinted and translated into several languages. Zotz is a leading member of the Arya Maitreya Mandala, founded by Lama Anagarika Govinda in 1933. In the early 1990s Zotz initiated a study centre called \"Komyoji\" in Austria which is an attempt at describing a cross-cultural philosophy of religion. Since 1994 Zotz has been the driving force behind many of Komyoji’s educational programs, such as workshops explaining various philosophical and theological topics. Volker Zotz is married to the Austrian writer and anthropologist Birgit Zotz."
]
} |
Denmark and the euro | null | Denmark uses the krone as its currency and does not use the euro, having negotiated the right to opt out from participation under the Maastricht Treaty of 1992. In 2000, the government held a referendum on introducing the euro, which was defeated with 46.8% voting yes and 53.2% voting no. The Danish krone is part of the ERM II mechanism, so its exchange rate is tied to within 2.25% of the euro. | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
70,
190248,
1363,
9433,
111,
70,
201290,
4804,
67530,
23,
12839,
70,
188676,
27759,
31089,
71,
10,
37503,
4743,
47,
171484,
289,
96679,
5,
581,
188676,
171484,
144570,
190,
20155,
111,
70,
366,
150,
11533,
25,
7,
35707,
1405,
23,
70,
7225,
111,
10,
12302,
111,
95934,
38529,
939,
6,
67466,
5,
4927,
5,
387,
111,
12376,
45578,
5,
4263,
903,
64209,
674,
83,
959,
435,
4,
442,
1221,
186,
63559,
47,
27980,
10,
37503,
5,
581,
37503,
16750,
297,
23,
836,
5,
14427,
111,
70,
43904,
20875,
214,
26548,
70,
190248,
1363,
111,
70,
201290,
4804,
67530,
4,
12960,
4734,
7218,
5,
11587,
43374,
71,
23,
1238,
141775,
5,
581,
6,
168519,
20756,
164,
5798,
150,
1363,
27759,
111,
146864,
23,
12839,
58055,
214,
111,
78771,
42991,
97135,
9893,
91441,
7,
136,
70,
7142,
133969,
7,
34658,
189275,
20668,
111,
70,
40,
9821,
23,
70,
188676,
223606,
136,
127298,
18822,
71,
450,
70,
37503,
2806,
72546,
2046,
190238,
3129,
509,
959,
70,
7225,
5,
581,
190248,
1363,
111,
70,
201290,
4804,
67530,
44841,
47,
186,
10,
220,
18092,
223,
51957,
390,
756,
70,
32786,
117249,
23,
70,
3747,
136,
70,
188676,
44,
5021,
58,
127298,
87279,
10,
88551,
31089,
100,
70,
53333,
157353,
9433,
5,
146864,
509,
959,
70,
4734,
23295,
83,
1159,
214,
10,
37503,
100,
70,
190248,
1363,
111,
70,
201290,
4804,
67530,
5,
360,
9942,
2685,
509,
10,
19336,
144732,
100,
70,
85689,
53,
136,
70,
120552,
43904,
2843,
43374,
71,
23,
1238,
141775,
111,
70,
190248,
1363,
111,
70,
4804,
67530,
5,
581,
188676,
44,
5021,
58,
136,
70,
92265,
44,
18144,
9613,
53389,
58,
621,
51529,
23,
191225,
538,
130370,
237,
70,
20022,
1830,
111,
70,
39220,
29888,
133238,
7,
118861,
3835,
8060,
100,
28811,
157353,
5,
360,
70,
5369,
7103,
201290,
4,
70,
28811,
157353,
2577,
71,
1286,
68894,
199178,
53,
136,
502,
9,
100743,
1363,
39624,
10133,
5809,
110,
51713,
456,
538,
98,
194314,
8060,
581,
29806,
47,
70,
92635,
111,
3835,
8060,
100,
70,
53333,
28811,
157353,
23,
146864,
83,
51529,
237,
44,
2347,
9907,
15612,
516,
5453,
740,
361,
1810,
111,
382,
68036,
23,
70,
188676,
366,
150,
11533,
44,
27591,
28942,
150298,
58,
21449,
25842,
23,
8060,
111,
903,
152132,
5,
581,
5201,
2831,
111,
70,
9907,
15612,
516,
5453,
35060,
71,
111,
70,
50336,
100,
201,
43922,
9,
6056,
7,
12,
32528,
130367,
16070,
4,
151301,
48748,
136,
207068,
4,
117400,
136,
2005,
184593,
136,
105226,
23,
70,
4568,
93402,
111,
70,
28811,
103739,
6635,
32528,
5,
1913,
70,
28811,
70615,
184679,
534,
1104,
1530,
14487,
12839,
23,
155918,
13593,
4,
70,
28811,
119893,
176506,
47,
6097,
22759,
43922,
9,
6056,
7,
5,
38396,
146864,
64457,
42938,
90,
23,
70,
104758,
131182,
1215,
17032,
8780,
1995,
15,
12501,
594,
1995,
16,
678,
10,
14838,
41039,
2320,
8753,
111,
6,
38405,
5442,
91021,
5,
241,
25656,
1995,
83,
10,
188347,
121122,
34515,
63647,
7440,
70,
42938,
214,
76726,
1221,
765,
47,
28960,
70,
121122,
34515,
17366,
111,
70,
2714,
5,
581,
241,
25656,
1995,
83,
10,
188347,
121122,
34515,
63647,
4,
23,
3129,
70,
123,
4745,
226649,
136,
3789,
42938,
214,
76726,
25,
226649,
621,
280,
134229,
47,
70,
2714,
5,
114063,
538,
146864,
83,
70,
4734,
23295,
42938,
214,
23,
70,
241,
25656,
1995,
5,
3293,
44930,
16188,
7,
10,
9454,
1363,
111,
70,
16648,
450,
13835,
71,
1295,
24427,
47,
8272,
678,
28601,
47,
70,
35473,
7880,
4,
3129,
62952,
10,
21373,
142,
72988,
226649,
100,
70,
46941,
13,
5,
581,
46941,
13,
1556,
2809,
2831,
111,
70,
241,
25656,
1995,
191619,
16792,
106,
18982,
8272,
4,
3229,
442,
91995,
71,
70,
7311,
241,
25656,
5,
3293,
35388,
90,
442,
83,
56065,
47,
52350,
28032,
787,
91021,
40101,
5609,
111,
10,
58735,
297,
34515,
111,
106,
2714,
105950,
47,
2861,
158332,
10991,
26470,
15,
109513,
70,
92319,
34515,
134776,
12231,
12744,
136,
70,
1407,
56,
34515,
6,
180347,
3882,
82839,
5,
3293,
8753,
4,
787,
91021,
4,
83,
24,
18304,
6488,
3501,
70,
31140,
8753,
11814,
100,
2684,
241,
25656,
1995,
43032,
5,
33306,
4,
70,
121122,
34515,
1556,
93544,
28032,
81730,
3949,
111,
70,
61924,
71,
34515,
4,
3853,
40715,
3501,
70,
5423,
17475,
7,
5,
360,
70,
241,
25656,
1995,
70,
85727,
15881,
4620,
4,
62172,
9907,
9802,
4,
136,
70,
241,
47307,
375,
4007,
7,
47,
70,
40780,
53,
111,
70,
188676,
226649,
28032,
70,
34475,
14838,
41039,
2320,
8753,
5,
14847,
70,
188676,
226649,
60899,
107314,
70,
176506,
54799,
17475,
7,
4,
442,
83,
1257,
47,
70,
85727,
15881,
4620,
47,
23632,
13,
24189,
70,
17366,
83,
4420,
28032,
70,
14838,
41039,
2320,
8753,
5,
581,
241,
47307,
621,
37911,
297,
47,
23632,
13,
237,
5299,
2174,
70,
85727,
15881,
4620,
83,
959,
19048,
47,
5,
581,
121122,
34515,
111,
70,
2714,
83,
83324,
71,
8305,
70,
100677,
136,
35968,
111,
70,
188676,
226649,
35845,
47,
2714,
5,
717,
71864,
7730,
107314,
70,
14838,
41039,
2320,
17475,
7,
70,
85727,
15881,
4620,
1556,
6626,
72977,
47,
126596,
70,
17265,
100677,
136,
121122,
34515,
5,
581,
5117,
55516,
83,
113449,
8305,
70,
59038,
136,
143092,
9709,
107,
117538,
47,
126596,
70,
19882,
17265,
17366,
5,
581,
17932,
55516,
83,
142,
126596,
674,
111,
70,
33946,
34515,
5,
581,
28811,
15881,
4932,
83,
55080,
214,
147794,
53,
44930,
41371,
538,
1295,
70,
15889,
27759,
7,
1295,
70,
2714,
18979,
76726,
136,
1556,
70,
10,
464,
111,
27167,
40780,
53,
5,
3293,
26950,
450,
70,
241,
25656,
1995,
76726,
237,
5299,
237,
241,
23330,
76726,
621,
68772,
1257,
95934,
38529,
939,
23,
147794,
53,
102880,
47,
64457,
765,
27167,
40780,
53,
5,
14847,
27759,
7,
388,
13,
70,
58963,
53,
23,
147794,
53,
44930,
4,
1836,
388,
13,
70,
81273,
47,
35644,
47,
85727,
25313,
129517,
7,
5,
146864,
25,
7,
226649,
83,
280,
134229,
47,
70,
226649,
111,
70,
2714,
18979,
3129,
83,
959,
142,
24087,
226649,
16128,
6637,
70,
42938,
214,
76726,
765,
10,
230612,
238,
8063,
105823,
7,
5,
228072,
4,
70,
147794,
53,
44930,
55080,
297,
23,
70,
2714,
18979,
83,
959,
204988,
48588,
141,
100,
70,
25313,
16648,
23,
146864,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
146864,
4527,
7,
70,
46941,
13,
237,
6863,
226649,
136,
14602,
959,
4527,
70,
2714,
4,
19441,
9807,
118,
27686,
70,
7108,
47,
43922,
1810,
1295,
105226,
1379,
70,
201290,
4804,
67530,
111,
86591,
360,
88922,
70,
27759,
34658,
10,
37503,
98,
39864,
214,
70,
2714,
4,
3129,
509,
8,
88981,
297,
678,
7621,
5,
11991,
20875,
214,
72272,
136,
8934,
5,
12807,
20875,
214,
110,
5,
581,
188676,
46941,
13,
83,
2831,
111,
70,
241,
25656,
1995,
191619,
4,
221,
6863,
121122,
34515,
83,
146543,
47,
28032,
787,
91021,
111,
70,
2714,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2335552 | en-train-2335552 | 2335552 | {
"title": [
"Current Status – ERM II.",
"History.",
"Early monetary unions in Denmark (1873–1914).",
"European Monetary System and pre-euro monetary co-operation.",
"Pre-eurozone documents (1992–1999).",
"Euro referendum (2000).",
"Possible second euro referendum.",
"Usage today.",
"Consequences of a euro adoption.",
"Public opinion.",
"Danish dominions.",
"Possible euro coin design."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In the ratification process of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 the Danish government issued a referendum due to constitutional requirements. The Danish constitution requires 5/6 of the parliament's approval in the case of a transfer of sovereignty cf. art. 20 of Grundloven. If this requirement is not met, it will be necessary to host a referendum. The referendum resulted in 50.7% of the population voting against the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty, while only 49.3% voted in favour. The bourgeois coalition government of Denmark in 1992 consisting of Conservatives Agrarian Liberals and the Social democrats held approximately 80% of the seats in the Danish Parliament and therefore believed that the referendum would easily get approved which was not the case. The ratification of the Maastricht Treaty needed to be a unanimous decision by all the member states in the EU and the Danish \"No\" therefore posed a significant issue for the further integration process. Denmark was not the only country issuing a referendum for the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty. In France there was a small majority for the treaty and the Irish population also voted in favour of the ratification of the Treaty. The Danish \"No\" and the French \"Petit oui\" are known in scholarly circles as the erosion of the permissive consensus regarding public support for European integration. In the years after Maastricht, the European integration faced more political scrutiny and pro-integration politicians could no longer rely on diffuse support The solution to the lack of public support for the further European integration in Denmark is known as \"the National Compromise\". 7 out of 8 parties in the Danish parliament \"Folketinget\" came together in support of this proposal. The main part of the National Compromise consisted of the request for 4 opt-outs: Union citizenship, Common Security and Defense, Justice and Home Affairs and participation in the last phase of the European Monetary Union. At the European Council summit 11–12 December 1992 in Edinburg, the European leaders agreed to these four opt-outs. Today Denmark instead participates in the Exchange Rate Mechanism II (ERM II) with a fluctuation band of ±2.25%. ERM II is a fixed exchange rate regime where the participating countries will have to follow the exchange rate level of the euro. The ERM II is a fixed exchange rate regime, in which the danish currency and other participating countries' currency are pegged to the euro. Currently Denmark is the only country participating in the ERM II. This policy marks a continuation of the situation that existed from 1982 to 1999 with regard to the Deutsche Mark, which provided a similar anchor currency for the krone. The krone has been part of the ERM II mechanism since 1 January 1999, when it replaced the original ERM. This implies it is required to trade within 2.25% either side of a specified rate of 1 euro equal to 7.46038 kroner (making the lower rate 7.29252 and the upper rate 7.62824). This band, 2.25%, is narrower than the 15% band used for most ERM II members. However, the exchange rate has kept within 0.5% of the defined rate, even less than the set limits. In the ERM II the domestic Central bank, Danmarks Nationalbank, and the ECB commits to the stability of the Danish currency within the given fluctuation band. When the Danish currency goes beyond the agreed upon limits, it is up to the domestic Central bank to intervene until the level is back within the fluctuation band. The ECB are obliged to intervene as well if the domestic Central bank is not able to. The exchange rate of the euro is determined through the supply and demand of the Danish currency relative to euro. To avoid going beyond the fluctuation limits the domestic Central bank has two tools to adjust the money supply and exchange rate. The first tool is intervention through the purchase and selling currencies to adjust the available money level. The second tool is an adjustment of the interest rate. The European Central Bank is conducting monetary policy independently from the national governments from the eurozone countries and has the aim of price stability. This means that the ERM II countries as well as EMU countries are giving up sovereignty in monetary policies to instead have price stability. When governments lose the autonomy in monetary policy, they lose the ability to respond to domestic economic shocks. Denmark's currency is pegged to the currency of the eurozone which is not an optimal currency area because the participating countries have asymmetric business cycles. Therefore, the monetary policy conducted in the eurozone is not necessarily beneficial for the economic situation in Denmark. The policy-aim of keeping a fixed exchange rate policy is to keep stable economic development and stable prices. Stable prices can be translated into low inflation. Fixed exchange rate policy based on the euro creates a framework for low inflation in the long run. The role of the ECB is set up in the Treaties and the monetary policy conducted should have price stability as its main aim. The ECB has defined price stability as a yearly growth in consumption prices under, but close to 2% in the middle to long run. The policy competences of the ECB are heavily influenced by the German Bundesbank policies and therefore have as main goal to have price stability and to be independent from national governments. The loss of autonomy in monetary policy in Denmark is not significant, as Denmark has had a fixed exchange rate since the end of the Second World War and has participated in several monetary cooperation systems. Therefore, the adoption of ERM II is not a change in this sense or a loss of autonomy in monetary policy as it has been limited since the creation of the Bretton Woods system. Denmark has even gained more influence in the decision-making process through the EU and the ERM II than it had in previous monetary systems. Even though the Danish central bank governor does not participate in the governing council of the ECB, where the monetary policy and guidelines are formulated and adopted, Denmark have other channels of influence. Even if Denmark did have a seat at the governing council of the ECB, it would not necessarily get more influence. Small member countries in the governing council of the ECB cannot generally expect that it will get an equivalent say compared to larger members due to informal rules and practices. Denmark's finance minister participates in the ECOFIN council in the Council of the European Union and therefore has some interactions with other eurozone countries and participates in the decision-making process in this institution. The tendency of ECOFIN topics increasingly being transferred and therefore more discussed in the Eurogroup meetings is therefore again a limitation for Danish influence on monetary decisions. Denmark does not participate in Eurogroup meetings but participates in preparatory meetings before, and meetings after the actual Eurogroup meeting. Denmark is interested in being kept informed as decisions in these meetings will also affect Denmark's economy. Other channels of influence and interaction with other officials can be done through ESCB framework, IMF, OECD and the Central bank of Denmark also participates in ECB committees. The participation in the ECB committees is essential in the fact that the influence over monetary policy has improved compared to earlier systems. The ECB can also use adjustment of interest rates to influence the exchange rate of the euro. An exchange rate is determined bilaterally relative to other currencies. If there is higher interest in one country relative to another, it will attract foreign capital and therefore the value of the currency will increase. Due to the fixed exchange rate regime in Denmark, the exchange rate level will always be close to the one of the eurozone's, and then the inflation rates will also be similar. A fixed exchange rate is a suitable tool to bring down inflation. A growth in economic activity can lead to inflation. Inflation in an economy is not necessarily hurtful as it can enable economic growth and create price and wage adjustment. There are several attractive elements of low levels of inflation while having too high levels of inflation in the long run will result in the increase of prices due to higher levels of employment. Higher levels of employment and increased prices will also lead to higher wages which will hurt firm's competitiveness on international markets. When firms are less competitive, they will lose market shares and it will lead to an increase of unemployment. In the end, an economy will be worse off with high unemployment just with higher prices and wages. Besides maintaining low inflation levels, keeping a fixed exchange is also beneficial in other ways. It can reduce transaction costs and exchange rate uncertainty in international trade. The decrease in fluctuations of currency reduces uncertainty for traders and therefore stimulates international trade. Status of the level of convergence of the danish economy",
"",
"On 5 May 1873 Denmark with Sweden fixed their currencies against gold and formed the Scandinavian Monetary Union. Prior to this date Denmark used the Danish rigsdaler divided into 96 rigsbank skilling. In 1875, Norway joined this union. A rate of 2.48 kroner per gram of gold, or roughly 0.403 grams per krone was established. An equal valued \"krone\" of the monetary union replaced the three legacy currencies at the rate of \"1 krone\" = 1⁄2 Danish rigsdaler = 1⁄4 Norwegian speciedaler = 1 Swedish riksdaler. The new currency became a legal tender and was accepted in all three countries. This monetary union lasted until 1914 when World War I brought an end to it. But the name of the currencies in each country remained unchanged.",
"The collapse of the Bretton Woods system destabilised European markets and delayed the wish to have monetary integration in the member states of the European Economic Community. (Today EU). The Bretton Woods system was a system where exchange rates remained stable while having inflation under control. The dollar was pegged to the gold standard and the 14 European participating countries became convertible with the dollar. In the EU, further monetary cooperation and stable exchange rates were considered necessary to facilitate the creation of the internal market. The Werner Report was a draft proposal in the EU framework to have monetary cooperation to facilitate the internal market. This draft was based on a system where all participating countries’ currencies were already fully convertible, and when the Bretton Woods system collapsed, there were no central currency to peg the currencies on and therefore the idea for monetary integration was postponed. The first step toward a more integrated monetary system in Europe was the Basel agreement which created the European Currency Snake. The Smithsonian Agreement was an international agreement outside the EU framework which provided a new dollar standard to which the EEC currencies’ exchange rates were pegged to and where the European currency snake could fluctuate within. The currencies were though still allowed to fluctuate within 2.25% of the new dollar standard. The European Currency Snake entered into force on 24 April 1972 and was a tool to provide monetary stability. As the Currency Snake entered into force during the accession procedure of Denmark, United Kingdom and Ireland, those three currencies entered the system 1 May 1972. Shortly after, the Danish Crown came under speculative attacks and was forced to abandon the system but the joined again a few months later. The Smithsonian agreement collapsed in 1973 also due to speculative attacks and the US let the dollar float freely. This development made it unsustainable to maintain the European Currency Snake system. The snake cooperation was negatively impacted by exogenous pressures e.g. oil crises, the weakness of the dollar and differences of economic policy. Participants were forced to abandon the system and some even rejoined e.g. Denmark. In the last year of the operation of the snake, its area was only comprised Germany, the Benelux countries and Denmark. The next attempt to create monetary stability in the EEC (today EU) was the European Monetary System which was established in 1979. In the beginning Denmark was 1 out of 8 participating countries in the EMS. The EMS created a system of European Currency Unit and an Exchange Rate Mechanism. The system set up a central rate and then bilateral rates were established between members. The EMS was similar to the Bretton Woods system but did not officially have an individual currency at the center, but Germany came to dominate the monetary system, due to Germany's size relative to the other participating countries and their central bank's success with controlling inflation. The EMS provided a stable system though it was still possible to have adjustable exchange rates and the Danish government used any opportunity to devaluate the currency. The Danish economy experienced economic issues in the 1980s, and the government introduced several economic reforms. The economic issues were triggered by the world-wide recession in 1973-72 which were caused by a combination of the exhaustion of the Fordist production method of mass production and consumption and increase of oil prices due to the Arab-Israeli war. These exogenous shocks hurt the Danish economy hard and the recession caused inflationary pressures. Denmark saw a rise of inflation and unemployment. Inflation kept increasing due to attempts by firms to gain profit by raising prices, while a formal system of wage-price indexation increased levels of wages. The most significant reform was the decision to opt for a fixed exchange rate policy in 1982 and the government stopped devaluating the Danish currency. The currency was then pegged against the German D-mark. The next step for European monetary integration was the entrance into the third stage of the EMU with the adoption of the Euro. Denmark would not enter the third phase of the EMU with the other EU countries due to the opt-out of the EMU and would therefore not adopt the common currency. In 1998 Denmark entered an agreement with the EU about participating in the Exchange Rate Mechanism II with a narrow fluctuation band of +/- 2.25 pct instead of the +/- 15pct which is the standard fluctuation band in the mechanism. This agreement was negotiated and finalised in the ECOFIN Council 25–27 September 1998. The main difference between ERM and ERM II is that the currencies participating in the ERM II system are no longer linked to bilateral parities with other participating currencies as they were in the original ERM system, but instead linked to the Euro.",
"The Maastricht Treaty of 1992 required that EU member states join the euro. However, the treaty gave Denmark the right to opt out from participation, which they subsequently did following a referendum on 2 June 1992 in which Danes rejected the treaty. Later that year Denmark negotiated the Edinburgh Agreement, under which Denmark was granted further opt-outs, which led to the Maastricht Treaty being accepted in a referendum on 18 May 1993. As the result, Denmark is not required to join the eurozone. Denmark did however participate in Stage 2 of EMU, which was considered the preparatory phase for the introduction of the euro. As a part of this process, the National Bank of Denmark participated in various aspects of the planning of the euro as it was still considered to be very important for future Danish economic policy. According to a history published by the central bank, \"Firstly, it was important to create a solid framework for price stability in the euro area, making it an appropriate anchor for the Danish fixed-exchange-rate policy. Secondly, Denmark had an interest in developing an expedient framework for exchange rate cooperation between the euro area and the non-euro area member states. Thirdly, Denmark had a general interest in the formulation of the ground rules for Stage 3 of EMU to ensure that Denmark would be able to adopt the single currency at a later stage on the same terms as those applying to the initial euro area member states.\"",
"A referendum held on 28 September 2000 rejected membership of the eurozone. 87.6% of eligible voters turned out, with 46.8% voting yes and 53.2% voting no. Most political parties, media organisations and economic actors in Denmark campaigned in favour of adopting the euro. However, a couple of major parties campaigned against. Had the vote been favourable, Denmark would have joined the eurozone on 1 January 2002, and introduced the banknotes and coins in 2004. The immediate run-up to the referendum saw a significant weakening of the euro vs. the US dollar. Some analysts believe that this resulted in a general weakening of confidence in the new currency, directly contributing to its rejection. The bank believes that the debate was \"coloured by the view that, on account of its fixed-exchange-rate policy, Denmark had already reaped some of the benefits of joining the euro area.\"",
"On 22 November 2007, the newly re-elected Danish government declared its intention to hold a new referendum on the abolition of the four exemptions, including exemption from the euro, by 2011. It was unclear if people would vote on each exemption separately, or if people would vote on all of them together. However, the uncertainty, both in terms of the stability of the euro and the establishment of new political structures at the EU level, resulting first from eruption of the Financial Crisis and then subsequently from the related European government-debt crisis, led the government to postpone the referendum to a date after the end of its legislative term. When a new government came to power in September 2011, they outlined in their government manifest, that a euro referendum would not be held during its four-year term, due to a continued prevalence of this uncertainty. As part of the European elections in 2014, it was argued collectively by the group of pro-European Danish parties (Venstre, Konservative, Social Democrats and Radikale Venstre), that an upcoming euro referendum would not be in sight until the \"development dust had settled\" from creation of multiple European debt crisis response initiatives (including the establishment of Banking Union, and the Commission's – still in pipeline – proposal package for creating a strengthened genuine EMU). When a new Venstre-led government came to power in June 2015, their government manifest did not include any plans for holding a euro referendum within their four-year legislative term. There has been some speculation that the result of a Danish referendum would affect the Swedish debate on the euro.",
"The euro can be used in some locations in Denmark, usually in places catering to tourists, such as museums, airports and shops with large numbers of international visitors. However, change is usually given in kroner. Double krone-euro prices are used on all ferries going between Denmark and Germany. On 10 January 2020, the 500 euro note was phased out in Denmark as part of the fight against money laundering and the financing of terrorism, meaning \"handing out, handing in, exchanging, using as payment or transferring\" the banknote in Denmark was made illegal. At the time, the banknote was worth 3,737 Danish kroner (DKK), more than three times the highest denomination of the domestic currency, the thousand-kroner banknote. The European Central Bank had stopped issuing the banknote in 2019, but was critical of the law. In an opinion published in February 2019, it argued that it conflicted with the principle of \"sincere cooperation\" set out in Article IV of the Treaty on European Union, and noted that no ban was planned for other high-value units of currency, such as the highest Swiss franc banknote, worth more than 6,500 DKK at the time.",
"If Denmark were to adopt the euro, the monetary policy would be transferred from the Danmarks Nationalbank to the ESCB. In theory this would limit the ability of Denmark to conduct an independent monetary policy. However, a study of the history of the Danish monetary policy shows that, \"while Denmark does not share a single currency, its central bank has always tracked changes made by the ESCB\". However, whilst outside the euro, Denmark does not have any representation in the ESCB direction. This motivated the support for an adoption of the euro by former Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen: \"De facto, Denmark participates in the euro zone but without having a seat at the table where decisions are made, and that's a political problem\". Furthermore, the ESCB does not defend the Danish krone exchange rate. This is done by Danmarks Nationalbank, and the Danish government. In a crisis it can be tough for a small country to defend its exchange rate. The expected practical advantages of euro adoption are a decrease of transaction costs with the eurozone, a better transparency of foreign markets for Danish consumers, and more importantly a decrease of the interest rates which has a positive effect on growth. However, when joining the euro, Denmark would abandon the possibility to adopt a different monetary policy from the ECB. If ever an economic crisis were to strike specifically the country it would have to rely only on fiscal policy and labour market reforms. In the wake of the 2010 European sovereign debt crisis European leaders established the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) which is a special purpose vehicle aimed at preserving financial stability in Europe by providing financial assistance to eurozone states in difficulty. It has two parts. The first part expands a €60 billion stabilisation fund (European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism). All EU countries contribute to this fund on a pro-rata basis, whether they are eurozone countries or not. The second part, worth €440 billion consists of government-backed loans to improve market confidence. All eurozone economies will participate in funding this mechanism, while other EU members can choose whether to participate. Unlike Sweden and Poland, Denmark has refused to help fund this portion of the EFSF. If Denmark joined the eurozone it would then be obliged to help fund the second portion.",
"There have been numerous polls on whether Denmark should abolish the krone and join the euro. The actual wording of the questions have varied. In 2008 and 2009 they generally, but not always, showed support among Danes for adopting the euro. Since 2011, polls have consistently shown majority opposition to joining the Eurozone. \"Greens Analyseinstitut\", a public opinion research company, has generally asked \"How would you vote at a possible new referendum about participation of Denmark in the common currency?\".",
"The Faroe Islands currently use the Faroese króna, a localised version of the Danish krone but legally the same currency. Such notes are normally not accepted by shops in Denmark proper, or foreign exchange bureaus, but exchanged 1:1 in Danish banks. Greenland currently uses ordinary Danish kroner but has considered introducing its own currency, the Greenlandic krone in a system similar to that of the Faroese one. Both continue to use Danish coins. It remains unclear if Greenland and the Faroe Islands would adopt the euro should Denmark choose to do so. Both are parts of the Kingdom of Denmark, but remain outside the EU. For this reason, they do not take part in EU referenda.",
"Before Denmark's 2000 referendum on the issue, Danmarks Nationalbank and the Royal Mint were asked by the Ministry of Economics to propose possible designs for the future Danish euro coins. The suggested design was based on the designs of the Danish 10- and 20-krone coins, with Queen Margrethe II on the front, and the 25- and 50-øre coins, switching their back motif (a crown) to the front of the euro coins."
]
} |
Cultural lag | null | The term cultural lag refers to the notion that culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, and the resulting social problems that are caused by this lag. In other words, cultural lag occurs whenever there is an unequal rate of change between different parts of culture causing a gap between material and non-material culture. Subsequently, cultural lag does not only apply to this idea only, but also relates to theory and explanation. It helps by identifying and explaining social problems to predict future problems in society. The term was first coined in William F. Ogburn's 1922 work "Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature". | null | [
250004,
250054,
44,
178735,
87377,
678,
133071,
47,
58806,
136,
34525,
87377,
58,
83,
10,
63445,
4488,
390,
30355,
106622,
25031,
563,
5,
3183,
105236,
5,
3293,
4488,
509,
106157,
23,
188304,
35743,
47,
37348,
678,
2265,
65572,
136,
57553,
7,
5,
360,
903,
4488,
764,
5117,
43780,
297,
70,
13579,
242,
93782,
8475,
25,
47,
98363,
10,
8475,
17721,
4912,
136,
351,
9,
39886,
29394,
7,
5,
3183,
105236,
117249,
450,
2685,
83,
10,
43599,
17721,
89160,
15380,
142424,
136,
70,
121392,
2773,
31075,
23,
70,
8999,
5,
3293,
4488,
509,
80343,
99,
70,
1733,
111,
6863,
54452,
136,
91048,
22729,
47,
70,
37348,
111,
242,
93782,
8475,
25,
136,
70,
7722,
51347,
450,
5809,
30022,
6097,
37348,
5,
3293,
509,
959,
70,
5117,
1733,
6097,
37348,
765,
2809,
54811,
99,
4,
1284,
903,
83,
70,
5117,
1733,
450,
2773,
51347,
3542,
8121,
71,
5,
3183,
105236,
25,
7,
154453,
509,
959,
38134,
538,
68186,
71,
99,
5117,
4743,
47,
3395,
19441,
12921,
206019,
7,
111,
70,
4488,
5,
360,
70,
12877,
764,
2843,
41653,
70,
22759,
120103,
111,
121392,
34754,
4,
3129,
621,
12,
23,
57241,
4,
183278,
1363,
4,
45755,
92105,
4,
136,
126596,
674,
5,
360,
70,
4488,
764,
42459,
7,
450,
158978,
87907,
111,
15549,
136,
42658,
83,
55556,
4,
1284,
450,
442,
83,
79197,
297,
390,
2265,
57553,
7,
5,
581,
12877,
1902,
17664,
297,
10,
17664,
297,
57553,
4743,
47,
70,
15824,
450,
5941,
29481,
297,
1919,
90791,
7,
23,
5941,
12921,
48322,
5,
360,
44,
178735,
87377,
678,
133071,
47,
58806,
136,
34525,
87377,
4,
58,
10670,
157272,
30355,
106622,
25031,
563,
5,
3183,
105236,
43780,
7,
70,
13579,
242,
93782,
8475,
25,
5,
3183,
105236,
117249,
1919,
159688,
111,
15380,
8475,
23,
903,
4488,
5,
1529,
17378,
450,
70,
31344,
111,
2684,
5744,
2265,
15549,
83,
4912,
29394,
5,
18763,
154453,
111,
15380,
8475,
42459,
7,
450,
10,
14922,
111,
6034,
71,
20314,
674,
74918,
7,
3229,
70,
351,
9,
39886,
29394,
83,
237875,
47,
39908,
47,
3525,
4912,
27289,
5,
581,
25545,
65572,
4912,
29394,
37772,
3789,
63920,
111,
29394,
47,
15549,
4,
1284,
70,
34515,
111,
15549,
23,
6097,
3789,
63920,
111,
29394,
83,
5045,
72803,
56,
5,
1529,
117249,
450,
3395,
6867,
23,
10,
11341,
111,
25,
192,
6616,
20314,
674,
25,
6637,
111,
903,
5,
3183,
105236,
30482,
140526,
450,
764,
112730,
10,
150675,
31486,
23,
3115,
6496,
70,
31089,
111,
2265,
28,
137089,
5,
1529,
60899,
98,
47,
5154,
450,
70,
22759,
7,
3115,
6496,
120103,
111,
2265,
28,
137089,
621,
12,
23,
57241,
4,
78643,
80973,
183278,
1363,
4,
45755,
92105,
4,
136,
126596,
674,
5,
3293,
4488,
509,
36998,
136,
80343,
99,
70,
1733,
111,
6863,
104345,
5,
44,
20320,
105141,
136,
87377,
58,
83,
10,
4488,
390,
25031,
563,
5,
3183,
105236,
3129,
83,
10,
42486,
111,
714,
43240,
1295,
70,
5369,
62977,
1104,
160733,
5,
1650,
83,
142,
96730,
1363,
111,
2265,
15549,
136,
29394,
1295,
70,
80280,
111,
10,
30355,
106622,
5,
581,
714,
28451,
7,
45252,
297,
23,
70,
4488,
621,
84797,
71,
3934,
22759,
28451,
7,
12,
2265,
28,
137089,
4,
2265,
12768,
7,
4,
16610,
9,
16428,
65572,
4,
136,
70,
28368,
5844,
23,
70,
2265,
41664,
7,
5,
3293,
42486,
111,
43240,
160477,
7,
29394,
136,
2265,
15549,
23,
70,
8999,
5,
581,
90791,
7,
136,
4677,
23,
44,
20320,
105141,
136,
87377,
58,
136622,
47,
186,
26794,
80973,
136,
80234,
47,
903,
5155,
5,
360,
44,
80163,
6644,
215072,
4,
58,
884,
2082,
717,
4902,
603,
1810,
59801,
70,
9638,
18,
33558,
11405,
136,
2837,
180324,
450,
25545,
15549,
3395,
12319,
3229,
1836,
621,
28368,
297,
47,
5792,
5045,
15549,
23,
5792,
16610,
111,
10,
1733,
5,
717,
4902,
603,
17378,
450,
100510,
83,
1379,
519,
214,
10,
167201,
1295,
142,
25297,
100510,
47,
10,
44,
59104,
9,
121896,
141,
58,
100510,
5,
1529,
117249,
450,
903,
197108,
214,
34515,
111,
15549,
83,
216806,
3395,
47,
12319,
2837,
135457,
297,
1295,
70,
29394,
5,
717,
4902,
603,
187,
21325,
450,
40197,
83,
44841,
17721,
70,
197108,
297,
121297,
111,
15549,
23,
100510,
136,
70,
84046,
42632,
111,
14135,
57553,
5,
717,
4902,
603,
17378,
450,
442,
83,
959,
69201,
47,
81887,
47,
72803,
707,
3853,
6226,
70,
25545,
15549,
136,
450,
442,
83,
7722,
100,
70,
22690,
47,
54410,
8108,
100510,
83,
43542,
100,
442,
5,
717,
4902,
603,
17378,
450,
70,
4734,
3917,
47,
13695,
6,
155159,
316,
2806,
186,
47,
28282,
2265,
136,
3525,
3357,
144314,
7,
5,
141075,
7,
3871,
47,
186,
3884,
23,
3687,
221,
450,
25545,
29394,
15549,
831,
186,
115700,
71,
136,
6226,
6259,
5,
360,
44,
441,
7136,
82451,
56822,
12,
1657,
63928,
619,
581,
30675,
4,
58,
22758,
619,
18237,
335,
35838,
669,
738,
3934,
2367,
70,
154453,
136,
23755,
111,
15380,
8475,
20653,
83,
5,
10660,
738,
3934,
22443,
1672,
70,
26847,
8060,
214,
136,
70,
26847,
58580,
34,
1916,
70,
23755,
111,
15380,
8475,
5,
10660,
151575,
13,
3183,
105236,
25,
7,
140526,
1672,
15380,
8475,
136,
3249,
2856,
1286,
28219,
2886,
5,
581,
4488,
151575,
90,
70,
6,
116311,
111,
15380,
8475,
136,
6863,
81273,
47,
144681,
92054,
136,
98363,
15380,
15549,
23,
100510,
5,
581,
4488,
2843,
60899,
3934,
70,
89515,
329,
111,
70,
23755,
111,
15380,
8475,
47,
30355,
165439,
102880,
23,
70,
8999,
5,
23994,
136,
351,
9,
39886,
29394,
15044,
621,
10,
6957,
2831,
111,
70,
154453,
111,
15380,
8475,
5,
581,
154453,
117249,
450,
4912,
29394,
216479,
7,
136,
65572,
5045,
63773,
56,
3501,
351,
9,
39886,
29394,
5,
23994,
29394,
8035,
72761,
8966,
4,
6044,
237,
55556,
619,
150449,
4,
136,
351,
9,
39886,
29394,
8035,
351,
9,
34053,
7,
21533,
8966,
4,
6044,
237,
42615,
4,
6397,
7,
4,
136,
91736,
5,
3775,
9,
39886,
29394,
8475,
7,
50155,
4912,
29394,
6637,
70,
42632,
111,
14135,
57553,
83,
5045,
72803,
56,
3501,
70,
42632,
111,
4912,
15549,
5,
2356,
26868,
17514,
136,
72761,
8966,
450,
3249,
3395,
25,
7,
60742,
99156,
621,
126809,
11907,
11001,
5155,
4,
8966,
6044,
237,
42615,
7,
136,
6397,
7,
621,
959,
5,
3293,
83,
15400,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
13579,
15380,
8475,
15005,
7,
47,
70,
110,
1363,
450,
29394,
51776,
1733,
47,
105556,
1257,
678,
39713,
21533,
76106,
7,
4,
136,
70,
16750,
214,
2265,
44402,
450,
621,
143434,
390,
903,
8475,
5,
360,
3789,
34153,
4,
15380,
8475,
74918,
7,
217684,
2685,
83,
142,
773,
71723,
34515,
111,
15549,
17721,
12921,
63920,
111,
29394,
216806,
10,
43599,
17721,
4912,
136,
351,
9,
39886,
29394,
5,
8273,
184,
26513,
18,
538,
4,
15380,
8475,
14602,
959,
4734,
59911,
47,
903,
6528,
4734,
4,
1284,
2843,
33444,
90,
47,
154453,
136,
187136,
5,
1650,
112397,
390,
135812,
214,
136,
73342,
214,
2265,
44402,
47,
92054,
22690,
44402,
23,
100510,
5,
581,
13579,
509,
5117,
43780,
297,
23,
25031,
563,
5,
3183,
105236,
25,
7,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2267316 | en-train-2267316 | 2267316 | {
"title": [
"Social Change With Respect to Nature and Original Change (1922).",
"Works on Cultural Lag.",
"Social Change With Respect to Nature and Original Change (1922).",
"By: William F. Ogburn.",
"On Culture and Change (1964).",
"By: William F. Ogburn.",
"Future Shock (1970).",
"By: Alvin Toffler.",
"Cultural Lag: Conception & Theory (1997).",
"By: Richard L. Brinkman, June E. Brinkman.",
"Material and non-material culture.",
"Material culture.",
"Non-material culture.",
"Problems with cultural lag."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"\"Social Change with Respect to Nature and Original Change\" is a 1922 work by sociologist William F. Ogburn. This work was crucial in drawing attention to issues with social changes and responses. In this work he first coined the term 'cultural lag' to describe a lag between material and non-material cultures. Ogburn states that there is a gap between traditional cultural values and the technical realities in the world. This work was innovative at the time of its release and brought light to the issues of 'cultural lag' and the possible solutions that could fix these issues. This was not the first time these issues have been looked at, but this is the first time that real solutions were presented. Ogburn's theory was not widely accepted at first due to people having different interpretations of the work. In the book he also details the four factors of technical development, which are: invention, accumulation, diffusion, and adjustment. In the work he suggests that primary engine of change and progress is technology, but that it is tempered by social responses. The book had mixed a mixed response due to the fact that many interpreted his findings in many different ways.",
"",
"",
"In \"Social Change with Respect to Nature and Original Change,\" renowned sociologist William F. Ogburn coins the term 'cultural lag'. Ogburn states his thesis of cultural lag in this work. He says that the source of most modern social change is material culture. His theory of cultural lag suggests that a period of maladjustment occurs when the non-material culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions. The rapid changes material culture force other parts of culture to change, but the rate of change in these other parts of culture is much slower. He states that people live in a state of'maladjustment' because of this. Ogburn makes claims that he played a considerable role in solving the issue of social evolution. He goes on to say that the fours solving factors of social evolution are: invention, exponential accumulation, diffusion, and adjustment. This work was unique and innovative at the time of its publication.",
"",
"\"On Culture and Change\" is a work by William F. Ogburn which is a collection of 25 works from the years 1912–1961. It is an examination of social change and culture from the perspective of a sociologist. The 25 topics discussed in the work are separated into four topics: social evolution, social trends, short-run changes, and the subjective in the social sciences. This collection of works examines culture and social change in the world. The findings and information in \"On Culture and Change\" continues to be influential and useful to this day.",
"",
"In \"Future Shock,\" Alvin Toffler outlines the shattering stress and disorientation that rapid change people feel when they are subjected to too much change in too short of a time. Toffler says that society is undergoing a transformation from an industrial society to a \"super-industrial\" society. He states that this accelerating rate of change is causing people to feel disconnected from the culture. Toffler argues that balance is needed between the accelerated rates of change in society and the limited pace of human response. Toffler says that it is not impossible to attempt to slow or even control the rapid change and that it is possible for the future to arrive before society is ready for it. Toffler says that the only way to keep equilibrium would be to create social and new personal regulators. Strategies need to be put in place so that rapid culture change can be shaped and controlled.",
"",
"In \"Cultural Lag: Conception & Theory,\" Richard & June Brinkman go into what the theory and concept of cultural lag actually is. They go into detail about the points supporting and the points disputing the concept of cultural lag. They evaluate Ogburn's claims about cultural lag and make them more understandable. The work evaluates the existence of cultural lag and its ability to possibly predict and describe cultural change in society. The work also goes into the relevance of the concept of cultural lag to socioeconomic policies in the world.",
"Material and non-material culture both are a big part of the theory of cultural lag. The theory states that material culture evolves and changes much quicker than non-material culture. Material culture being physical things, such as technology & infrastructure, and non-material culture being non-physical things, such as religion, ideals, and rules. Non-material culture lags behind material culture because the pace of human response is much slower than the pace of material change. New inventions and physical things that make people's lives easier are developed every single day, things such as religions and ideals are not. This is why there is cultural lag, if there is an invention created that goes against people's ideals it will take some time in order for them to accept the new invention and use it.",
"Material culture is a term used by sociologists that refers to all physical objects that humans create that give meaning or define a culture. These are physical things that can be touched, feel, taste, or observe with a sense. The term can include things like houses, churches, machines, furniture, or anything else that a person may have some sentimental for. The term can also include somethings that cannot be seen but can be used. Things like the internet and television are also covered under the material culture definition. Material culture changes rapidly and changes depending where in the world somebody is. The environment may present different challenges in different parts of the world that is why material culture is so different everywhere. For example, houses in the heart of Tokyo are going to be smaller than the houses in Austin, Texas.",
"Non-material culture is a term used by sociologists that refers to non-physical things such as ideas, values, beliefs, and rules that shape a culture. There are different belief systems everywhere in the world, different religions, myths, and legends that people may believe in. These non-physical things can be information passed down from past generations or new ideas thought up by somebody in today's world. Non-Material culture tends to lag behind material culture due to the fact that it is easier to create a physical object that people will use than it is to create a system of beliefs or ideals that people will use and follow. Non-material culture tends to be very different wherever in the world someone is. This is because people from different backgrounds and areas in the world were raised on different ideals and beliefs that help shape society and culture.",
"Cultural lag creates problems for a society in a multitude of ways. The issue of cultural lag tends to permeate any discussion in which the implementation of some new technology is a topic. For example, the advent of stem cell research has given rise to many new, potentially beneficial medical technologies; however these new technologies have also raised serious ethical questions about the use of stem cells in medicine. In this example, the cultural lag is the fear of people to use a new possibly beneficial medical practices because of ethical issues. This shows that there really is a disconnect between material culture (Stem cell research) and non-material culture (Issues with ethics). Cultural lag is seen as an issue because failure to develop broad social consensus on appropriate applications of modern technology may lead to breakdowns in social solidarity and the rise of social conflict. Another issue that cultural lag causes is the rise of social conflict. Sometimes, people realize that they are disconnected with what is going on in society and they try to do everything they can to get back into the loop. This may result in a race to eliminate the cultural lag. For example, in the 1980s the arms race was in full effect. This is partly because one country discovered how to efficiently and safely use the widely thought unsafe nuclear power/energy. Once the United States was able to successfully harvest nuclear energy into a weapon many other countries realized that maybe nuclear energy isn't that bad and started to build weapons of mass destruction of their own. Issues can also arise when an aspect of culture changes so rapidly that society is unable to prepare or adjust to it. This is seen in the example of cars overtaking other modes of transportation in the past. Since the production and ownership of cars increased so rapidly society was unable to keep up with it. Broader roads, traffic rules, and separate lanes for horses did not come until some time after automobiles became a part of the mainstream culture. This caused dangerous situations for pedestrians and the people driving these new automobiles. Sometimes society is not ready for the future and this could cause dangerous situations for certain people or groups of people."
]
} |
Hwa Rang Do | null | Hwa Rang Do, also known as "The Way of the Flowering Knights" () is a comprehensive Korean martial art that was developed in the 1960s by Joo Bang Lee and his brother Joo Sang Lee. Hwa Rang Do as a martial art has multiple areas of focus including stand up fighting with open-hand striking, weapons, throws and takedowns, ground fighting, various types of meditative practices, intellectual and character development, and artistic and cultural pursuits. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
70116,
289,
4927,
111,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
509,
24,
4806,
7103,
10,
177155,
1419,
100307,
156206,
12989,
111,
70,
159,
2298,
60097,
3815,
20271,
70,
129335,
9,
605,
214,
3815,
7,
92329,
23,
2367,
83,
5036,
25134,
26320,
5,
32255,
27150,
453,
51529,
237,
572,
634,
5445,
15,
3665,
31715,
74,
6,
2603,
65701,
16,
3542,
98174,
3674,
1295,
10,
27150,
32070,
47,
26292,
88551,
31486,
7,
23,
44951,
7,
4,
9782,
4516,
4,
136,
116338,
115,
2449,
5,
32255,
79165,
3542,
133291,
97629,
538,
1295,
70,
121678,
14449,
136,
187,
5176,
15182,
2408,
136,
12441,
43032,
111,
70,
134744,
56,
3835,
2750,
3542,
151552,
237,
66105,
246,
15,
1052,
1463,
9,
246,
12,
6,
139438,
1048,
74,
6,
65701,
41051,
194,
3293,
21115,
8305,
67842,
123055,
21,
14437,
8305,
70,
3970,
53,
244700,
73327,
8946,
24189,
1836,
3542,
51521,
538,
2837,
8262,
297,
99,
70,
86595,
111,
70,
39869,
191,
73327,
8946,
5,
581,
5744,
70116,
289,
4927,
111,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
509,
14037,
297,
390,
6626,
133915,
82953,
7,
4,
62884,
26387,
19824,
136,
62884,
22986,
19824,
4,
2750,
26859,
2363,
70116,
289,
4927,
23189,
678,
2363,
67373,
2750,
189924,
2856,
15127,
246,
136,
39760,
246,
99,
10,
27150,
32070,
5,
360,
37719,
4,
2363,
67373,
79786,
1810,
10,
35142,
678,
10,
2667,
92,
2750,
509,
4000,
538,
51529,
237,
45384,
18337,
31033,
11,
47,
29574,
67,
1919,
775,
7,
23,
89160,
133915,
15380,
23189,
5,
45384,
18337,
31033,
11,
63043,
297,
47,
41361,
28032,
10,
40250,
450,
1902,
6863,
74855,
7,
678,
70,
142,
45964,
572,
634,
5445,
4,
3129,
764,
35839,
44,
72955,
9,
163877,
341,
20430,
58,
15,
13179,
10787,
10622,
74,
6,
44023,
29716,
75133,
194,
15,
110361,
450,
44,
397,
4244,
58,
83,
20653,
1919,
44759,
4,
959,
1919,
9351,
5,
1650,
83,
166904,
538,
183234,
47,
44,
3334,
4007,
57,
429,
26808,
740,
16,
149766,
62884,
26387,
19824,
136,
1919,
82953,
62884,
22986,
19824,
25550,
297,
678,
45384,
18337,
31033,
11,
99,
70,
1061,
177,
11061,
433,
46068,
23,
70,
30267,
20430,
192859,
15,
50645,
927,
26320,
247,
8108,
70,
36356,
6056,
111,
70,
133915,
5550,
136,
1836,
1902,
47,
18738,
13,
127067,
47,
71864,
70,
52287,
271,
116338,
5,
581,
19824,
14449,
456,
116292,
297,
47,
178397,
136,
45384,
18337,
31033,
11,
4,
59499,
47,
70,
19824,
14449,
4,
456,
116292,
297,
47,
80021,
13,
71175,
5,
581,
19824,
82953,
7,
136475,
2363,
23189,
678,
45384,
18337,
31033,
11,
3229,
1836,
5809,
24189,
10932,
27631,
3229,
2363,
14449,
109133,
53333,
127067,
47,
930,
23773,
5,
873,
214,
5792,
2060,
16065,
47,
21342,
2363,
23189,
4,
1836,
80723,
47,
186,
75412,
678,
70,
4000,
70116,
289,
4927,
142080,
23,
70,
16128,
5,
8622,
4,
1836,
435,
10,
70116,
289,
22104,
24,
4806,
4960,
14,
161358,
9,
7,
43386,
4,
10,
17823,
118,
23850,
111,
930,
217,
69376,
9,
1294,
6355,
62,
5898,
9,
33356,
461,
17750,
136,
2750,
83,
125296,
71,
237,
70,
67373,
111,
5744,
1391,
38988,
3911,
5,
10660,
136475,
2363,
23189,
678,
4960,
14,
8305,
70,
27631,
7,
136,
100512,
189893,
1391,
38988,
3911,
196592,
7,
23,
178397,
23,
70,
39395,
23936,
7,
5,
1650,
509,
2843,
10932,
23936,
3229,
70,
19824,
82953,
7,
100512,
75412,
678,
10,
4513,
7680,
17823,
118,
23850,
24,
4806,
102473,
360,
9,
841,
68129,
4,
2750,
509,
23,
70,
39395,
34754,
111,
10,
133915,
70116,
289,
4927,
35839,
1461,
92,
1061,
929,
104525,
5,
581,
481,
83687,
674,
678,
102473,
360,
9,
841,
68129,
134620,
23,
70,
4122,
9,
25,
4598,
7,
136,
70,
19824,
82953,
7,
136475,
47,
4488,
28032,
70,
1391,
38988,
3911,
26908,
24189,
28015,
5,
360,
28015,
4,
45384,
18337,
31033,
11,
68,
71,
136,
25737,
70,
44759,
111,
44,
8331,
3314,
58,
47,
62884,
26387,
19824,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
4331,
26518,
4049,
237,
70,
9318,
927,
208479,
26837,
111,
903,
44759,
5,
581,
6626,
82953,
7,
7068,
34739,
756,
2363,
70116,
289,
81693,
51359,
136,
139392,
71,
70,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
954,
1165,
4223,
5,
10660,
170920,
70,
9351,
44,
841,
634,
32515,
984,
58,
237,
6863,
10002,
77630,
939,
84797,
1295,
2363,
83687,
674,
111,
678,
70,
1391,
38988,
3911,
26908,
15,
28575,
56786,
11389,
7,
111,
2363,
10696,
25,
7,
9351,
99201,
572,
634,
5445,
9,
605,
20430,
136,
572,
634,
5445,
9,
6495,
38988,
3911,
16,
136,
1836,
136475,
678,
2363,
572,
634,
5445,
128169,
7,
5,
360,
31060,
4,
62884,
22986,
19824,
109133,
47,
70,
14098,
46684,
47,
4034,
10,
10696,
136,
23,
29172,
4,
62884,
26387,
19824,
134629,
4,
35971,
70,
6661,
44816,
167565,
1314,
111,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
678,
4049,
5,
194397,
70,
19340,
7,
136,
15643,
7,
4,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
3514,
434,
87420,
39897,
136,
70,
123594,
16797,
117249,
237,
5299,
237,
20662,
6863,
16188,
98,
70,
21640,
70116,
289,
4927,
28302,
5,
149766,
62884,
26387,
19824,
136,
62884,
22986,
19824,
51339,
297,
23,
58309,
20623,
32837,
5256,
23,
70,
127067,
65272,
14098,
46684,
4,
17311,
2481,
23,
39897,
136,
157487,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
98,
1910,
45831,
26719,
52,
115743,
25,
7,
8942,
2822,
28236,
2398,
136,
52,
14256,
69723,
19,
17170,
7,
792,
11205,
78458,
4,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
25921,
2750,
25550,
297,
1379,
70,
19824,
82953,
7,
1884,
39272,
52129,
11617,
241,
17032,
164,
15,
113108,
9,
142413,
247,
3542,
20531,
678,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
25,
7,
83687,
674,
678,
70,
7082,
126140,
193764,
136,
25132,
59591,
7,
4,
4911,
7,
172915,
78301,
144189,
2481,
47,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
25,
7,
70116,
289,
4927,
23189,
5,
360,
66044,
4,
6637,
111,
2367,
509,
8035,
122399,
28032,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
4,
5941,
70116,
289,
22104,
7,
20271,
903,
1733,
100512,
60892,
23,
2367,
70,
4927,
1902,
47,
18645,
5,
438,
22819,
123055,
99201,
6524,
1474,
143,
32221,
44587,
4,
2750,
25550,
297,
23,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
100,
10,
16610,
12960,
136,
2750,
14432,
8305,
604,
83687,
674,
678,
111862,
31,
9,
161397,
67,
4,
100512,
70,
5117,
117776,
6661,
205002,
111,
23182,
4393,
9,
163891,
9006,
67,
5,
360,
70,
15643,
7,
3934,
70,
39395,
11704,
7,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
4,
2843,
51529,
237,
44,
3957,
42261,
111,
70,
158591,
214,
114996,
7,
58,
15,
16,
83,
10,
199083,
133915,
70116,
289,
4927,
450,
509,
126809,
23,
70,
23936,
7,
390,
62884,
26387,
19824,
136,
1919,
82953,
62884,
22986,
19824,
5,
572,
634,
32515,
984,
237,
10,
70116,
289,
4927,
1556,
48716,
58555,
111,
32153,
26719,
9157,
1257,
181952,
678,
9803,
9,
12336,
22223,
6048,
4,
142172,
7,
4,
104250,
7,
136,
5646,
34695,
7,
4,
61585,
181952,
4,
67842,
52895,
111,
67822,
4935,
41361,
7,
4,
91768,
289,
136,
62816,
34754,
4,
136,
84172,
136,
15380,
7398,
68879,
7,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1546611 | en-train-1546611 | 1546611 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Ancient Hwarang.",
"Founding of the modern art.",
"Early days in America.",
"Time of change and development.",
"2010 to present.",
"Philosophy.",
"Hwa Rang Do Maeng Se.",
"Seven principles of training.",
"Martial system overview: Mu Sul.",
"Four categories of training.",
"Curriculum: belt/sash rank system.",
"Tournaments and competitions.",
"Meditative and healing practices: Ki Gong and In Sul.",
"Active meditation: Yang Ki Gong.",
"Passive meditation: Um Ki Gong.",
"Healing methods: In Sul."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"The martial art of Hwa Rang Do was named after a buddhist elite youth order of the Silla kingdom during the Three-Kingdoms Period in what is now South Korea. These young men known as Hwarang (화랑; 花郎) were cultivated from a young age to fill significant roles in politics, civil service, and military duties. These individuals were selected exclusively from the royal family and aristocracy and led members of the broader public who were described as Nangdo (Rang-do: 낭도; 郎徒). This group through various names lasted through the Koryŏ Dynasty until they were officially disbanded at the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty.",
"The modern martial art of Hwa Rang Do was founded by two Korean brothers, Joo Bang Lee and Joo Sang Lee, who started their martial art training with their father who taught them Yudo and Kumdo at a young age. In 1942, their father worked out a deal with a monk who was locally known as Suahm Dosa to educate his sons in traditional Korean cultural training. Suahm Dosa claimed to practice within a tradition that had its roots with the ancient Hwarang, which he called \"Um-Yang Kwon\" (음양권; 陰陽拳). (Note that \"Dosa\" is actually his title, not his name. It is roughly equivalent to \"hermit sage expert\".) Both Joo Bang Lee and his brother Joo Sang Lee trained with Suahm Dosa at the Sogwangsa Temple in the Kangwon Province (North Korea), before the breakout of the Korean War and they had to flee south to avoid the communist military. The Lee family relocated to Seoul and Suahm Dosa, according to the Lee family, relocated to Odae Mountain. The Lee brothers continued their training with Suahm Dosa when they could until around 1950 when their family moved further south to Daegu. Being too far away to continue their training, they began to be involved with the local martial art communities in the area. There, they met a martial artist named Choi Yong-sool, a practitioner of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu and who is recognized as the father of modern Hapkido. They continued their training with Choi through the 1950s and became registered Hapkido instructors in Seoul in the early 1960s. It was also around 1960 when the Lee brothers became involved with a Kung Fu practitioner named Suh In-Hyuk, who was in the early development of a Korean martial art called Kuk Sool Won. Their involvement with Suh In-Hyuk ended in the mid-'60s and the Lee brothers continued to work within the Hapkido community until 1968. In 1968, Suahm Dosa died and left the title of \"Do Ju\" to Joo Bang Lee, as well as designating him as the 58th successive holder of this title. The two brothers then took all their martial arts knowledge and generated the Hwa Rang Do syllabus. They established the name \"Hwa Rang Do\" as its own entity separate from their involvement of with the Hapkido community (earlier versions of their school's name included Hwarang-Kwon and Hwarang-Hapkido) and they continued with their Hwarang teachings. In 1969, Joo Sang Lee moved to the United States to start a school and in 1972, Joo Bang Lee followed, taking the World Headquarters of Hwa Rang Do with him.",
"Through the 1970s and 1980s, Hwa Rang Do grew throughout California and the adjacent states as well as making its mark on the international martial art scene. Both Joo Bang Lee and Joo Sang Lee performed in expo style demonstrations in the south west United States, particularity in California and Arizona, as well as on TV shows including “That's Incredible!” and “Unknown Powers”. Notably, Hwa Rang Do students who trained under the Lee brothers like Vietnam veteran Michael Echanis (1950-1978), were fundamental with Hwa Rang Do's involvement with the US Army Rangers and Special Forces, thus bringing additional credibility to Hwa Rang Do's martial art training. In addition, because of what was being offered within Hwa Rang Do, many martial artists during this time became interested in what the art had to offer. Notable names included Graciela Casillas, who trained in Hwa Rang Do for a short while and who later through her involvement with Kempo-Karate, became the first female World Champion of professional full-contact Karate. In the 1980s into the early 1990s, Hwa Rang Do continued to grow in the United States as well as the South-East Pacific. Joo Bang Lee's sons, Henry Taejoon Lee and Eric Taehyun Lee moved into the spotlight by performing at martial art expos and demonstrations throughout the US and Europe. Henry Taejoon Lee was also involved with expanding Hwa Rang Do in college clubs throughout southern California by establishing the Intercollegiate Hwarang Society. This sub-group of the World Hwa Rang Do Association was in operation from the mid-1980s to the early to mid-1990s. Their main focus was to introduce college students to Hwa Rang Do and foster a sense of community and brotherhood within a college environment. Towards the early to mid 1990s, other universities in the US used the Intercollegiate Hwarang Society as a model to set up their own college clubs, especially where black sashes were either going to school or were employed as professors, with the same goals as the Intercollegiate Hwarang Society. As of 2019, the only existing club from this time that is still up and running is the University of Wisconsin Eau Claire Hwa Rang Do/Tae Soo Do Club, which was established in 1995.",
"As Hwa Rang Do moved into the 1990s and the new millennium, the younger generation began to make its mark on the art. In the 1990s, Hwa Rang Do schools, while continuing to grow in the United States and the South-East Pacific, began to expand throughout Europe. Because of the demonstrations presented by the Lee family in Europe through the 1980s as well as students who had been traveling to train with Joo Bang Lee, schools were opening up in countries like Italy, the Netherlands, and Germany. Because of the amount of travel, Henry Taejoon Lee was involved in much of these developments making trips to Europe to help with the growth and development there. Today, Italy is one of the largest centers of Hwa Rang Do in the world with over a dozen Academies and clubs. It was also in 1990 that the World Hwa Rang Do Association introduced an introductory program to help new students learn and develop their skills in a more sport-like atmosphere. The program was named Tae Soo Do (Way of the Warrior Spirit: 태수도; 太手道). Students who learn Tae Soo Do learn the basic fundamentals of kicking and punching. They are also introduced to beginner level sweeps, throws, and ground fighting. A black belt in Tae Soo Do has the same level of quality as a black belt in other martial arts including Tae Kwon Do and Karate. Once a student has a Black belt, they receive an honorary Yellow sash in the color ranks of Hwa Rang Do. In 2005, Henry Taejoon Lee headed operations to expand and grow the application programs within Hwa Rang Do to keep their students competitive with the larger martial art community and to expand their understanding of the many aspects of the core material. Depending on the strengths of the instructors at the academies, certain programs will have a larger emphasis than others. However, these programs are standard with all WHRDA licensed academies.",
"Depending on the school, Hwa Rang Do academies and clubs will either stay truer to the traditional aspects of the art, focusing more on the core material and traditional self-defense or they will embrace the expanded application programs and work to grow their skills within a competitive sport environment. Many clubs and academies, however, look to find a balance between the two. WHRDA has continued its development of the sports applications by improving the quality of the Gotoogi, Gumtoogi, and Bongtoogi programs as well as introducing an advanced sparring program called Yongtoogi (Courageous Fighting Skill: 용투기; 勇鬪技). Yongtoogi was initially introduced in 2012 and has become the standard for all Hwa Rang Do color sash and black sash sparring. Yongtoogi consist of full round, semi-contact sparring, with kickboxing, throws, and ground submissions. Also in 2011, the World Hwa Rang Do Association applied for 501c3 not-for-profit tax status. “Our desire to expand our humanitarian work around the globe led to the change,” said Grandmaster Taejoon Lee, President of the World Hwa Rang Do Association. Many of the members of WHRDA participate in public self-defense clinics, humanitarian organizations like the Peace Corp, as well as other independent humanitarian missions both locally and internationally to help with this cause.",
"",
"Hwa Rang Do, in addition to its martial training, teaches moral principles with the belief that those who receive martial arts training must also be taught to use their skills responsibly. The foundation of Hwa Rang Do's code of ethics is the Hwa Rang Do Maeng Se (맹세), composed of the O Gye, and the Gyo Hun. The Hwarang O Gye is rooted in the ancient warrior code originally developed by a Buddhist monk known as Won Gwang Beop Sa in the Three Kingdoms Period. This code included loyalty to one's Lord, piety to your parents, trust among friends, courage in battle, and discrimination in killing. Because of the changes in political structures in both Korea and the Americas, Joo Bang Lee updated the English translation to reflect modern society. In addition to these five rules, he developed the Gyo Hun to support the O Gye. The five rules and nine philosophical principles of Hwa Rang Do.",
"In addition to the Maeng Se, the Mul Sul practices of Hwa Rang Do follow what is known as the Seven Principles of Training. They are:",
"",
"Within the martial systems known as Mu Sul, a practitioner will learn various forms, techniques, and sparring methods. They will also learn meditation methods and mental-character development. The core traditional Mu Sul practices are divided into four categories: Nae Gong (internal power): Nae Gong involves specific meditation practices that help with relaxation, building power, and increasing one’s physical performance of the art. These meditation methods are divided into both passive (Eum) and active (Yang) methods. These meditative practices are seen as ways for practitioners to break past their perceived limitations and perform extraordinary feats! Oe Gong (external power): Oe Gong is the physical part of the martial art where one takes what one has cultivated through Nae Gong practices and applies them. Oe Gong is divided into 21 areas of focus, including long and short forms, basic striking techniques, kicking test, and various self-defense techniques including defense against grabs and holds, defense against kicks, joint locks, throws, sweeps, and open handed defenses against various types of weapons. In addition to these, practitioners of Hwa Rang Do take advantage of the various sparring systems to truly test their skills in a dynamic and non-staged environment. These systems include sport-like point sparring system, situational awareness defense drills, full round semi-full contact sparring (Yongtoogi), and ground fighting with throws (Gotoogi). Mugi Gong (weapons power): Mugi Gong is the weapons training portion of Hwa Rang Do. Various techniques and forms using weapons are taught including Ssang Jeol Bong (nunchaku), Jang Bong (long staff), and the Jang Geom (sword). Defense against other weapons, such as the knife (Dan Geom), short stick (Dan Bong), and cane are taught, but training with those weapons does not occur until black sash ranks. Traditionally, there are 20 different weapon categories that are taught at the master levels whose methods can be expanded out to include 108 traditional weapons. To keep up with their skills in weapons, there are also various sparring programs that students can use to test their skills. These include situational awareness defense drills, traditional Asian sword sparring (Gumtoogi) and Asian stick sparring (Bongtoogi). Sin Gong (mental power): Sin Gong involves developing control over the human mind by cultivating focus and concentration, awareness of both yourself and others, and personal character development within the Hwarang honor systems. In addition to coming to a deeper understanding of Hwa Rang Do’s Maeng Se, there are traditionally 13 sub-categories of Sin Gong which include learning basic Asian emergency medical practices, methods of hermitage, methods of concealment as well as studying Asian models of psychology and philosophy.",
"Unlike many other martial arts, Hwa Rang Do, with the Tae Soo Do introductory program, has three levels of training. Each level has its own curriculum and belt ranking system. With this structure, a student will receive a black belt upon graduating into the next tier of training (excluding the Black Sash Ranks in the upper tier). Tae Soo Do Belt Ranks: Within the Tae Soo Do program, practitioners will have belts to mark their progression in the art. The belt system in Tae Soo Do consists of 9 ranks, each with its own curriculum. Training at this level can take 3–5 years before a student receives their black belt and students work to not only develop an understanding of the fundamentals in the martial program, but they actively train to apply what they learn through various application methods. These belt ranks include: Each Belt consists of an open hand long form, basic attack techniques, kicking test, sets of defensive techniques, weapons forms at Yellow Belt, Blue Belt, and Half-Black Belt, as well as sparring methods which include a sport-like point sparring program and a ground fighting grappling program. There is also weapons sparring available to Tae Soo Do students, but this is optional depending on the school and academy. Hwa Rang Do Color Sash Ranks: Once a student has graduated the Tae Soo Do program, they receive their black belt and begin the color sash ranks in Hwa Rang Do. Once a student begins their training in Hwa Rang Do, the focus of the training shifts to provide a deeper understanding of the material and show a greater diversity of applications one can use. At one point, there were 9 ranks of color sashes, but with the inclusion of Tae Soo Do, much of the material that was in the first two sashes were similar to Tae Soo Do, so advancements through those ranks were removed. Students are still required to learn the material, but the information is now part of the training at Yellow Sash. Depending on the student, training at this level can take 7–12 years before a student can become a Cho Dan (First degree Black Sash). The color sash rank system includes: Each Sash consist of an open hand long form, basic attack techniques, a set of defensive techniques, kicking test, short forms, and sparring methods, which will include full round semi-contact sparring, submission grappling, and weapons sparring with blades and sticks. There are also weapons forms at Yellow sash, Blue Sash, and Half-Black sash as it is in Tae Soo Do. Hwa Rang Do Black Sash Ranks: After receiving a black sash, a practitioner earns the title Jo Gyo Nim (assistant instructor). In addition, every degree of black sash has its own title and has its respective knowledge level with curriculum. Note: Ninth and tenth degrees black sashes are honorary positions and there can only ever be one of each at any one time within the organization. When a student moves into the Black Sash ranks, they dive deeper into the material they have learned up to this point and there is a stronger emphasis on weapons training, meditation practices, and specialized skill sets in various area of training. The material at each sash at this point can vary greatly, but will at least consist of an open hand long form and various sets of defensive techniques.",
"Students in Hwa Rang Do and Tae Soo Do have the opportunity to compete in tournaments throughout the year. In the United States, tournaments are performed by academies and are hosted on a local and state level. There are also regional and national tournaments in the US and in other countries. Once a year, the World Hwa Rang Do Association host the Hwa Rang Do World Tournaments which coincides with their World Conferences each summer. The format and divisions for tournaments are determined by WHRDA with many different options for competition. Students are not required to compete in all divisions, but they are encouraged to participate in as much as possible. Tournament divisions include: All rules and regulations are presented in the Hwa Rang Do M.A.S.T.E.R. Rules, Gotoogi Rules, and the Shibum Rules.",
"Hwa Rang Do, in addition to its martial practices also includes various types of traditional Korean meditation practices that have various functions as well as introductory training in Asian Medicine. The meditation methods are divided into active (Yang) and passive (Um) practices.",
"The active meditation practices are developed to help practitioners build physical strength, flexibility, and intensity in focus through isometric practices. Within the curriculum, there are 7 different methods used.",
"The passive meditation practices are developed to help practitioners focus the mind, cultivate stillness, and help relax the body. These practices are similar to Korean Buddhist and Taoist meditation practices, which include 5 different postures or mantras to represent the 5 elements in Taoist philosophy.",
"Joo Bang Lee has stated that if you learn to cause harm, you must also learn how to heal. Hwa Rang Do also offers training in Traditional Asian Medicine through its World Headquarters. Whether an individual club or academy offers such training though depends on the Head Instructor and whether they are certified to teach such practices. The healing skills in Hwa Rang Do are divided into 6 categories: Through the study of both the martial and healing skills in Hwa Rang Do, a practitioner will have an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the human body. This will not only help in a self-defense situation, but will also help the practitioner to understand and appreciate the value of human life and this type of understanding is crucial to the further development of their character."
]
} |
Lúthien and Beren | null | Lúthien and Beren are fictional characters in the fantasy-world Middle-earth of the English author J. R. R. Tolkien. She is an elf, daughter of Thingol and Melian. He is a mortal man. The complex tale of their love for each other and the quest they are forced to follow, triumphing against overwhelming odds but ending in tragedy, appears in "The Silmarillion", the epic poem "The Lay of Leithian", the Grey Annals section of "The War of the Jewels", and in other texts in Tolkien's legendarium, where it plays a central part. Their story is told to Frodo by Aragorn in "The Lord of the Rings". | null | [
250004,
250054,
133566,
4450,
33,
509,
10,
1413,
4670,
15,
8859,
17603,
73,
16,
2448,
26531,
4,
70,
4734,
29041,
111,
540,
34,
6003,
214,
929,
4,
60097,
111,
148812,
10519,
4,
136,
1919,
41,
33,
4,
79694,
66,
70,
3596,
11,
4,
20662,
604,
23552,
9,
516,
16300,
4,
23552,
9,
97368,
86,
5,
4687,
509,
103122,
23,
70,
42552,
7,
111,
70,
4804,
90,
4,
59499,
47,
70,
95996,
7714,
8080,
5,
1913,
604,
127319,
4,
70,
35011,
6,
132641,
44,
93,
11727,
2822,
379,
58,
29695,
306,
297,
100,
70,
5117,
1733,
23,
148812,
10519,
5,
133566,
4450,
33,
25,
7,
99691,
678,
70,
67573,
332,
2076,
33,
83,
90698,
70,
44,
206,
29469,
58,
111,
70,
15432,
1727,
96222,
89593,
390,
212754,
66570,
74,
764,
35839,
442,
44,
2347,
77924,
583,
111,
70,
759,
927,
25443,
740,
540,
1900,
71,
509,
133566,
4450,
33,
25,
7,
6782,
9,
79139,
1681,
136,
10463,
6504,
19,
509,
60887,
297,
1295,
604,
1829,
540,
3666,
136,
70,
25674,
59745,
111,
40115,
1055,
748,
5,
4687,
83,
151552,
237,
70,
163710,
4612,
111,
70,
540,
3132,
136,
237,
70,
2684,
34923,
76849,
111,
70,
1632,
2355,
4,
891,
971,
330,
867,
5,
2076,
33,
509,
70,
775,
111,
2775,
583,
936,
136,
22411,
10011,
4,
10,
1572,
111,
70,
121678,
13038,
111,
335,
1025,
748,
111,
85452,
9482,
1830,
360,
69822,
4,
133566,
4450,
33,
25,
7,
60887,
1236,
1172,
11697,
509,
35839,
44,
647,
1353,
5613,
830,
70,
31267,
214,
4612,
111,
70,
540,
3132,
4,
91084,
450,
604,
62607,
44961,
7,
450,
111,
133566,
4450,
33,
8081,
971,
67238,
5,
133566,
4450,
33,
509,
5117,
193429,
24145,
184750,
111,
30733,
14152,
583,
4,
124901,
42732,
4,
241,
7241,
11697,
111,
884,
71723,
31,
151760,
4,
509,
70,
76849,
111,
6003,
214,
929,
25,
7,
82953,
5,
581,
13765,
111,
133566,
4450,
33,
136,
2076,
33,
83,
191551,
297,
23,
44,
3957,
59144,
111,
10463,
6504,
19,
136,
1172,
11697,
740,
581,
9351,
44,
866,
971,
4450,
33,
58,
135179,
47,
29459,
44,
85,
46526,
56,
111,
189067,
58,
23,
10,
120712,
9893,
18403,
220734,
111,
39981,
41066,
4,
1284,
442,
831,
2843,
186,
3900,
143,
3674,
44,
12986,
7,
5084,
740,
44,
16734,
4096,
67238,
58,
509,
10,
9351,
34475,
47,
604,
390,
2076,
33,
5,
1650,
218500,
26950,
44,
85,
46526,
56,
111,
70,
6057,
1294,
77488,
14,
20016,
830,
3129,
101717,
90,
44,
54350,
214,
1935,
740,
581,
9351,
44,
33189,
33,
58,
26950,
44,
2844,
272,
58,
23,
39981,
41066,
5,
2076,
33,
24124,
133566,
4450,
33,
123,
21896,
1379,
6,
59533,
58944,
23,
604,
67373,
25,
7,
100,
525,
4,
136,
77736,
23,
5161,
678,
604,
4,
100,
2412,
509,
70,
2684,
34923,
111,
540,
3132,
136,
1111,
5,
1529,
192942,
23,
70,
208429,
7,
32599,
214,
47,
186,
43573,
20174,
47,
133566,
4450,
33,
47,
23996,
604,
4,
1284,
930,
22493,
4,
604,
29041,
44462,
34391,
136,
4755,
23,
19612,
136,
82393,
4,
156672,
2076,
33,
136,
4,
13693,
13,
6496,
4049,
47,
186,
10,
56409,
26249,
4,
15756,
34,
3674,
100,
133566,
4450,
33,
47,
18738,
13,
5,
1913,
5117,
2412,
192942,
51,
432,
6496,
4,
237,
2412,
1902,
8306,
122446,
30783,
707,
24503,
5,
47009,
2412,
24124,
2076,
33,
25,
7,
208429,
136,
13028,
16065,
5,
4966,
237,
2412,
58558,
23,
70,
40472,
4588,
4,
2076,
33,
23996,
297,
604,
16294,
5,
133566,
4450,
33,
13028,
16065,
23,
129517,
4,
13693,
13,
6496,
442,
47,
186,
142,
26249,
20974,
6048,
604,
23,
70,
109412,
7,
5,
1529,
4989,
297,
100,
604,
4,
159029,
604,
8081,
971,
67238,
5,
6561,
5155,
23,
51065,
3229,
133566,
4450,
33,
509,
123,
21896,
98,
10,
50997,
130473,
613,
42,
167457,
390,
2360,
21135,
7,
4,
2412,
6079,
4,
38075,
33,
214,
2076,
33,
1295,
1919,
22,
62956,
674,
5,
1529,
13028,
47,
604,
4,
136,
13438,
2412,
37842,
47,
144281,
136,
764,
13625,
297,
44,
16734,
4096,
67238,
740,
14847,
133566,
4450,
33,
13959,
297,
54799,
4049,
100,
70,
5117,
1733,
2412,
159826,
27686,
1919,
5161,
5,
1529,
6721,
5281,
604,
98,
70,
66265,
4,
1284,
2412,
146614,
71,
16065,
136,
764,
77736,
3934,
10,
53894,
60268,
111,
10314,
4240,
136,
2348,
7,
7,
5,
360,
1919,
56816,
111,
224,
109637,
4,
2412,
118775,
8108,
4049,
4,
136,
23,
70,
72483,
555,
117604,
5423,
604,
3535,
23,
1919,
136,
6,
15182,
136709,
1919,
10336,
26548,
604,
57262,
5,
28090,
7068,
98,
1836,
435,
23410,
538,
5,
3293,
21365,
6777,
959,
4568,
5,
930,
22493,
4,
2750,
2843,
78302,
604,
4,
113771,
604,
41714,
678,
2076,
33,
47,
604,
67373,
5,
145733,
79694,
66,
1631,
14534,
604,
71390,
26548,
442,
4,
6003,
214,
929,
509,
83324,
71,
959,
47,
2633,
2076,
33,
1108,
1294,
1919,
76849,
4,
136,
5423,
10,
48903,
214,
538,
69201,
66211,
237,
70,
14799,
112,
27167,
12,
2076,
33,
1902,
47,
19095,
4049,
1632,
111,
70,
15432,
1727,
7870,
1295,
5919,
519,
927,
25,
7,
70599,
174462,
5,
6003,
214,
929,
6777,
959,
67153,
2076,
33,
1810,
54969,
237,
764,
1902,
103036,
71,
133566,
4450,
33,
450,
764,
2806,
69463,
2076,
33,
25,
7,
6897,
5,
133566,
4450,
33,
1902,
10,
37831,
111,
2076,
33,
16500,
214,
178707,
23,
70,
7943,
15227,
13380,
7,
111,
70,
47443,
111,
47390,
3132,
4,
136,
92973,
642,
29590,
54799,
604,
26498,
5,
4687,
221,
46526,
70,
184638,
111,
604,
42732,
2750,
30745,
604,
450,
2076,
33,
509,
157364,
13,
23,
70,
16423,
13,
5245,
111,
6987,
1900,
4,
70,
49721,
47443,
25,
7,
28,
5115,
23414,
86216,
5,
133566,
4450,
33,
68872,
47,
30098,
2076,
33,
5,
4687,
37170,
930,
22493,
100,
4358,
4,
1284,
764,
139647,
53,
297,
604,
47,
6003,
214,
929,
5,
717,
13695,
604,
46002,
4,
70,
18813,
1902,
604,
56050,
297,
23,
70,
11192,
90356,
7,
111,
10,
6782,
186,
7101,
53201,
5,
930,
22493,
509,
152382,
678,
49146,
9927,
5,
133566,
4450,
33,
100,
42504,
4049,
4,
136,
97025,
297,
10,
1774,
47,
144281,
5,
345,
6953,
604,
49846,
289,
14537,
4,
133566,
4450,
33,
22,
62956,
297,
604,
24887,
3934,
10,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
133566,
4450,
33,
136,
2076,
33,
621,
127663,
289,
124850,
23,
70,
115135,
9,
32554,
102256,
9,
13,
90134,
111,
70,
14941,
42179,
821,
5,
627,
5,
627,
5,
212754,
5,
4687,
83,
142,
99718,
4,
76849,
111,
6003,
214,
929,
136,
79694,
66,
5,
1529,
83,
10,
67573,
332,
5,
581,
27140,
9342,
111,
2363,
5161,
100,
12638,
3789,
136,
70,
38694,
1836,
621,
168861,
47,
28960,
4,
231296,
214,
26548,
645,
434,
6865,
14578,
103044,
1284,
86658,
23,
124257,
1459,
4,
135179,
23,
44,
3957,
15432,
1727,
96222,
830,
70,
28,
18695,
85745,
44,
3957,
239,
53,
111,
636,
25320,
66,
830,
70,
95996,
7714,
8080,
40059,
111,
44,
3957,
5550,
111,
70,
845,
8420,
7,
830,
136,
23,
3789,
7986,
7,
23,
212754,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2104556 | en-train-2104556 | 2104556 | {
"title": [
"Context.",
"Etymology.",
"Fictional biography.",
"Meeting.",
"The quest of the Silmaril.",
"Vision and imprisonment.",
"Celegorm, Curufin and the dance of Lúthien before Morgoth.",
"Return to Doriath and death of Beren.",
"Lúthien becomes mortal for Beren.",
"Return to life, and death.",
"Heraldic emblem.",
"Earlier versions.",
"Inspirations.",
"The Tolkien grave."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Lúthien was a Telerin (Sindarin) princess, the only child of Elu Thingol, king of Doriath, and his queen, Melian the Maia, making her half-royal, half-divine. She was born in the Years of the Trees, according to the Grey Annals. At her birth, the white flower \"niphredil\" bloomed for the first time in Doriath. Lúthien's romance with the mortal man Beren is considered the \"chief\" of the Silmarillion tales by Tolkien himself; he called it \"the kernel of the mythology\". Elrond was Lúthien's great-grandson and Aragorn was descended from her via Elros and the Royal Family of Númenor. She is described as the Morning Star of the Elves and as the most beautiful daughter of the one god, Ilúvatar. Beren was the son of Emeldir and Barahir, a Man of the royal House of Bëor of Dorthonion In contrast, Lúthien's descendant Arwen was called \"Evenstar\", the Evening Star of the Elves, meaning that her beauty reflects that of Lúthien Tinúviel. Lúthien was first cousin once removed of Galadriel, whose mother, Eärwen of Alqualondë, was the daughter of Thingol's brother. The story of Lúthien and Beren is mirrored in \"The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen\".",
"The name \"Lúthien\" appears to mean \"daughter of flowers\" in a Beleriandic dialect of Sindarin, but it can also be translated \"blossom\". \"Tinúviel\" was a name given to her by Beren. It literally means \"daughter of the starry twilight\", which signifies \"nightingale\". The name \"Beren\" means \"brave\" in Sindarin.",
"",
"Beren saw Lúthien dancing under moonrise in her father's forest, and fell in love with her, for she was the most beautiful of Elves and Men. He stood in the shadows wishing to be near enough to Lúthien to touch her, but Daeron, her childhood friend and partner in music and dance, noticed Beren and, believing him to be a wild animal, shouted for Lúthien to flee. At first she stood unmoving, as she had never experienced fear or pain. Then she saw Beren's shadow and ran away. But as she hid in the foliage, Beren touched her arm. Lúthien ran away in shock, believing it to be an animal stalking her in the woods. He longed for her, calling her Tinúviel. One day in summer when Lúthien was dancing on a green hill surrounded by hemlocks, she sang, awakening Beren from his enchantment. He ran to her, and again she tried to escape and he cried \"Tinúviel\". When Lúthien gazed upon him for the first time she reciprocated his love. He kissed her on the lips, but she slipped away and he fell into a deep sleep of grief and bliss. In his hour of despair, she appeared before him, and in the Hidden Kingdom set her hand in his and cradled his head against her breast. From then on they met secretly.",
"This joy did not last. Daeron, who also loved her, reported her meeting with Beren to her father. Though Melian warned her husband against it, Thingol was determined not to let Beren marry his daughter, and set a seemingly impossible task as the bride price: Beren had to bring him one of the Silmarils from Morgoth's Iron Crown. Thingol did not kill Beren outright as he had promised Lúthien that he would spare Beren's life.",
"Lúthien had a vision of Beren lying suffering in the hellish pits of the Lord of Wolves, and horror weighed upon her heart. She sought the counsel of her mother who told her that Beren was captive in the dungeons of Sauron, the Dark Lord's evil lieutenant. Lúthien decided to save Beren. She asked Daeron for help, but he betrayed her to Thingol. To keep her safe, the King had her guarded in the high branches of a great beech tree. Daeron was filled with remorse. Lúthien forgave him, and devised a plan to escape. Using her magical power, Lúthien enchanted her hair into a cloak to lull her guards to sleep, and ran from her prison. On her way to rescue Beren, she found Huan, the Hound of Valinor, and was taken to his master Celegorm. He, plotting to force her to marry him, offered to help her, asking her to follow him to Nargothrond. When she arrived, Celegorm held her hostage and forbade her to talk to anyone else. Huan took pity on her, betraying his master, and freed her. Huan was granted the power to speak, and together they escaped from Nargothrond. They came to Sauron's Isle, and Lúthien sang a call to Beren. He answered, thinking it his imagination. Sauron, also hearing her song, sought to catch her, sending wolf after wolf to slay Huan, but each time the hound killed them. Finally going himself, Sauron transformed into the most powerful of all werewolves. Huan flinched, but Lúthien smothered Sauron's lunge in the folds of her enchanted cloak. Sauron changed into different shapes, but Huan bested him. Lúthien forced the defeated Sauron to surrender the keys of his tower; he fled in the shape of a vampire. Lúthien destroyed the Tower and freed its prisoners. Finding Beren, she thought him dead and fell down beside him in grief, but with the rising sun he awoke and they were reunited. Huan returned to his master Celegorm, and the couple walked the woods once more in joy.",
"Beren pleaded with Lúthien to return to her father, but she refused. As they were about to embrace, Celegorm and Curufin appeared, exiled because of Lúthien's escape from Nargothrond. Seeking revenge, they fought Beren, and Huan again fought on Lúthien's side. Beren defeated them, but spared their lives at Lúthien's request. Beren stole one of their horses, but as the couple fled, Curufin shot at Lúthien. Beren jumped in front of the arrow to save her. By Lúthien's magic and love Beren was restored to life. As she slept he went to Angband to get the Silmaril. When Lúthien discovered Beren had left, she and Huan disguised themselves as Thuringwethil, the vampire servant of Morgoth, and Draugluin the Werewolf. She found Beren and joined his quest. At the gates of Angband they encountered the mighty werewolf Carcharoth. Lúthien forced him into a deep sleep. Together Beren and Luthien reached the Throne of Morgoth, but the Dark Lord saw through Lúthien's disguise. She declared herself and offered to sing for Morgoth. Filled with an evil lust, he accepted, and she put him and his entire court into a deep sleep, sealed with her cloak over Morgoth's eyes. She awakened Beren, and he cut a Silmaril from Morgoth's crown. However, as he tried for another Silmaril, his blade snapped, striking Morgoth's cheek and awakening him. Lúthien and Beren fled to the gates, where Carcharoth attacked them. Beren thrust the Silmaril into the wolf's face, but the wolf bit off Beren's hand and swallowed the Silmaril. Lúthien was left cradling a mortally wounded Beren in her arms, with the hosts of Angband on her heels. Lúthien sucked out the venom, and with her failing power tried to restore Beren. Just when all hope seemed lost, the Eagles of Manwë snatched them into the sky at the summons of Huan, carrying them to safety in Doriath.",
"Lúthien waited by Beren's side and healed him. Then together they entered and stood before the throne of Lúthien's father. Beren told Thingol that the quest was, indeed, fulfilled, and that he held a Silmaril in his hand. When Thingol demanded to see it, Beren showed him his stump. When he heard their story he was amazed and thought Beren to be above all other mortal men. They were married before Thingol's throne that day. Meanwhile, Carcharoth was ravaging all living beings on the borders of Doriath, empowered and enraged by the burning jewel in his stomach. Beren, Thingol, Huan, and other Elves went to defeat the beast. Beren was assaulted by the wolf; Huan leaped to his aid and killed the beast, but died soon afterwards of his wounds. Beren was carried to Doriath, where he died in Lúthien's arms.",
"In grief, Lúthien lay down and died, going to the Halls of Mandos, Lord of the Dead. There she sang a song of woe before the throne of Mandos, of the tribulations and suffering of both Elves and Men, the greatest ever sung, so touching that Mandos was moved to pity for the only time. He summoned Beren from the houses of the dead, and Lúthien's spirit met his for the last time by the shores of the sea. Mandos consulted with Manwë, King of Arda. Even Manwë could not change the fate of Men, and so he presented Lúthien with the only choice possible: to live in the immortal land of Valinor, where she could forget all her grief and enjoy eternal happiness along with her people and the Valar, but without Beren; or to return to Middle-earth with Beren as a mortal herself, accepting the Doom of Men. She chose mortality, relinquishing everything for Beren. Together in their new bodies, they returned to Doriath and released the winter of Thingol, who had been in grieving ever since his daughter's death. But Melian could not look at first into her daughter's eyes, since she could see the doom of mortality written in them.",
"Lúthien and Beren dwelt together in Ossiriand until after the sack of Menegroth. Their abode was known as \"Dor Firn-i-Guinar\": the \"Land of the Dead that Lived\". They had a son, Dior, called Eluchíl — the heir of Thingol. Years later, Thingol received the Nauglamír from Húrin, who had recovered it from the ruins of Nargothrond after the departure of Glaurung the dragon. Thingol decided to unite the greatest works of the Dwarves and the Elves, and recruited Dwarf smiths from Nogrod to complete his plan. Thingol was murdered by the Dwarves, who plundered Thingol's treasuries and took the Nauglamír. Beren and an army of Green Elves and Ents waylaid the returning Dwarf army. Beren reclaimed the Nauglamír, and Lúthien kept the necklace and the great jewel all her life. The beauty of Lúthien combined with the splendour of the gem and necklace made her home of Tol Galen the fairest land east of Valinor, but the Silmaril hastened Beren's and Lúthien's end, since her beauty enhanced by the jewel was too bright for mortal lands to bear. The Nauglamír was delivered to her son Dior. While Lúthien wore the necklace no one dared assail her, but when Dior took it the Sons of Fëanor ransacked the kingdom of Doriath and slew Dior and his wife Nimloth. Elrond the Half-elven and Arwen Evenstar were descendants of Lúthien, as was Aragorn, a descendant of Elrond's brother Elros. According to legend, her line would never be broken.",
"Tolkien's colour drawing of Lúthien's heraldic emblem features on the front cover of \"The Silmarillion\"'s first edition.",
"In the various versions of \"The Tale of Tinúviel\", Tolkien's earliest form of his tale, as published in \"The Book of Lost Tales\", her original name is \"Tinúviel\" (\"Lúthien\" was invented later). Beren is, in this earlier version, an \"Elf\" (specifically a Noldo, or \"Gnome\"), and Sauron has not yet emerged. In his place, they face Tevildo, the Prince of Cats, a monstrous cat who is the principal enemy of the Valinorean hound Huan. However Tolkien initially created the character of Beren as a mortal man before this in an even earlier but erased version of the tale. The story is also told in an epic poem in \"The Lays of Beleriand\", upon which most of the finer details of her life and relationship to Beren is extracted from in this article, since \"The Silmarillion\" provides only a generalization of the tale.",
"In a letter to his son Christopher, dated 11 July 1972, Tolkien requested the inscription below for his wife Edith's grave \"for she was (and knew she was) my Lúthien.\" He added, \"I never called Edith \"Luthien\" — but she was the source of the story... It was first conceived in a small woodland glade filled with hemlocks at Roos in Yorkshire where... she was able to live with me for a while.\" In a footnote to this letter, Tolkien added \"she knew the earliest form of the legend...also the poem eventually printed as Aragorn's song.\" Particularly affecting for Tolkien was Edith's conversion to the Catholic Church from the Church of England for his sake upon their marriage; this was a difficult decision for her that caused her much hardship, paralleling the difficulties and suffering of Lúthien from choosing mortality. The name may be derived from the Old English word \"lufian\", which means \"love\". The Tale of Beren and Lúthien also shares an element with folktales such as the Welsh Culhwch and Olwen and others — namely, the disapproving parent who sets a seemingly impossible task (or tasks) for the suitor, which is then fulfilled.",
"Edith and J.R.R. Tolkien lie in Wolvercote Cemetery in north Oxford. Their gravestone shows the association of Lúthien with Edith, and Tolkien with Beren. The stone reads:"
]
} |
French Bulldog | null | The French Bulldog is a breed of domestic dog. They are the result of a cross between Toy Bulldogs imported from England and local ratters in Paris, France, in the 1800s. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
5744,
92265,
33672,
38507,
91566,
60887,
7,
105237,
1295,
70,
10269,
7,
111,
70,
19146,
232,
39209,
7,
4,
142,
142,
45964,
160600,
1927,
372,
5,
581,
10269,
7,
3542,
93403,
87420,
70,
142,
45964,
8999,
390,
66084,
13,
4158,
66,
188535,
7,
5,
56101,
19146,
232,
39209,
10269,
7,
3542,
126809,
3934,
70,
14941,
3010,
18,
32920,
5,
62,
1614,
9,
4134,
297,
111,
70,
3010,
18,
32920,
509,
70,
33672,
33,
19937,
16865,
4,
10,
10644,
111,
10269,
11814,
100,
50208,
9,
79402,
214,
5,
105591,
29681,
6044,
237,
50208,
9,
79402,
214,
3542,
1810,
143,
24243,
23,
30715,
23,
543,
5843,
4,
137802,
6097,
44,
7235,
1181,
38507,
7,
58,
51,
212423,
74,
49903,
4,
1836,
1902,
2809,
35326,
100,
351,
9,
10033,
214,
89397,
16792,
99,
19713,
51374,
4,
221,
2363,
4527,
98816,
1295,
10,
2896,
214,
91566,
47,
10,
226792,
91566,
5,
717,
34390,
2363,
13267,
4,
3060,
33672,
38507,
7,
3542,
41421,
297,
678,
704,
25388,
7,
4,
673,
3055,
10269,
7,
1295,
70,
44,
7,
4689,
7,
58,
111,
30715,
5,
3311,
127357,
4,
70,
109451,
33672,
38507,
1902,
24209,
39210,
23,
30715,
136,
118775,
23,
19911,
2320,
45831,
3229,
1836,
80723,
10932,
128136,
5,
32255,
10269,
7,
642,
29590,
10932,
4,
102971,
61112,
3542,
2843,
19882,
99,
10269,
45831,
100,
8382,
2750,
642,
29590,
1379,
5,
1913,
70,
5701,
1733,
4,
21,
329,
133325,
1295,
438,
19514,
3915,
2750,
3542,
2837,
23935,
71,
390,
70,
81207,
135555,
80723,
47,
9615,
133,
23,
111413,
1459,
4,
9942,
5,
10660,
91048,
10,
96551,
111,
10269,
7,
678,
2856,
4,
26719,
109451,
33672,
38507,
7,
5,
581,
10269,
7,
100512,
5700,
23,
9942,
136,
10,
52350,
23,
76242,
71,
19336,
33672,
38507,
7,
509,
75935,
4,
678,
91566,
1314,
23,
30715,
135834,
645,
33672,
38507,
7,
450,
1836,
90698,
47,
186,
5792,
19336,
4,
707,
678,
193857,
7,
6044,
237,
67896,
7,
450,
192942,
1257,
5,
3311,
128136,
4,
2685,
3542,
10846,
109451,
33672,
38507,
7,
25737,
23,
30715,
4,
6044,
509,
2363,
5700,
2481,
23,
9942,
136,
4743,
47,
70,
162471,
7,
111,
17496,
10269,
31255,
1314,
5,
581,
19336,
33672,
38507,
10644,
128839,
538,
100512,
17569,
111,
237,
10,
91566,
4,
136,
75204,
10,
9351,
4,
70,
31649,
133,
246,
6261,
135177,
164,
5,
3293,
31661,
47691,
111,
70,
14941,
9351,
83,
2843,
10,
158,
117474,
111,
70,
34153,
44,
12630,
133,
58,
15,
12126,
16,
136,
44,
246,
6261,
58,
15,
72000,
32920,
707,
931,
365,
16865,
194,
581,
10269,
7,
3542,
103210,
54543,
2886,
136,
3542,
221,
46526,
7103,
390,
100510,
21,
34204,
136,
7270,
3378,
44794,
1636,
10,
5062,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
85403,
7,
6044,
237,
22104,
7,
4,
6,
70035,
7,
4,
136,
54543,
51517,
7,
5,
8622,
83,
17164,
111,
22104,
7,
24,
4806,
111954,
262,
3923,
136,
219167,
9,
866,
34773,
238,
2750,
765,
2809,
17569,
47,
765,
92265,
33672,
38507,
7,
23,
2363,
178829,
7,
5,
33306,
4,
115923,
3542,
959,
93544,
111,
70,
91566,
25,
7,
34754,
237,
442,
45,
74789,
71,
53333,
16065,
1295,
6863,
7311,
33672,
38507,
74855,
7,
5,
1301,
442,
98816,
4,
704,
25388,
31837,
1902,
2809,
91048,
23,
47,
85493,
110106,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
91566,
25,
7,
4989,
80560,
67896,
7,
5,
33672,
38507,
7,
3542,
4552,
5700,
23,
70,
11015,
4,
41866,
23,
65925,
14713,
5,
6561,
111,
6863,
6,
60502,
22230,
509,
70,
14941,
50208,
38507,
5,
15672,
7,
1902,
2809,
24927,
214,
92265,
33672,
38507,
7,
100,
10,
12960,
4,
1284,
442,
509,
959,
24189,
143359,
3229,
1836,
3542,
91048,
645,
23,
12989,
47,
5423,
1257,
142,
15672,
9,
77007,
91566,
214,
1528,
5,
10660,
3542,
153161,
6,
157272,
390,
100510,
21,
34204,
4,
2750,
5117,
44116,
297,
2856,
99,
70,
231601,
59062,
583,
7687,
41129,
17367,
23,
121049,
5,
10660,
174920,
13438,
23,
70,
25632,
6602,
678,
3853,
1286,
112820,
90,
4,
7440,
70,
73886,
9966,
111,
70,
91566,
2806,
738,
98,
47,
765,
22690,
13969,
41274,
7,
5,
581,
116983,
23,
9655,
99,
70,
10269,
7639,
4,
10,
8414,
5,
14787,
41474,
56,
4,
4734,
19667,
159690,
7,
678,
44,
75287,
67896,
7,
58,
2451,
28575,
7,
450,
18344,
48141,
99,
70,
6069,
4,
237,
678,
70,
5570,
100,
33672,
38507,
7,
5,
581,
21,
34204,
100,
4806,
70,
92265,
33672,
41129,
7687,
111,
21629,
136,
75935,
70,
91566,
5570,
3129,
11341,
71,
100,
70,
5117,
1733,
450,
70,
44,
56,
24762,
1777,
67896,
58,
509,
70,
26785,
10644,
5,
360,
70,
39395,
387,
927,
142642,
70,
91566,
47143,
297,
23,
2244,
6261,
100,
11192,
100510,
4,
678,
10269,
7,
151134,
44540,
100,
1257,
47,
3650,
63009,
136,
8035,
6,
157272,
390,
43032,
111,
26794,
80973,
87143,
6044,
237,
70,
14434,
4240,
14191,
7,
136,
70,
821,
5,
436,
5,
72085,
7,
5,
581,
15672,
59062,
583,
7687,
125296,
71,
70,
91566,
69405,
7103,
70,
91566,
11938,
509,
100,
4806,
4,
136,
390,
96903,
70,
92265,
33672,
38507,
509,
70,
809,
2480,
127,
2684,
5700,
10269,
91566,
23,
21629,
5,
360,
24159,
70,
15672,
59062,
583,
7687,
15,
12971,
441,
16,
30648,
297,
70,
92265,
33672,
38507,
237,
70,
534,
927,
2684,
5700,
91566,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
4,
25225,
214,
10,
189173,
6,
58944,
23,
5700,
2481,
1295,
8983,
927,
3687,
10,
8,
23662,
8108,
4,
23,
46730,
3311,
27580,
1836,
1902,
109133,
1257,
47,
24209,
70,
14610,
927,
2684,
5700,
15335,
441,
189893,
10269,
91566,
23,
70,
4602,
136,
390,
70,
505,
1836,
3542,
70,
22759,
927,
2684,
5700,
5,
3293,
3525,
33672,
38507,
91566,
174920,
100,
70,
5117,
1733,
23,
30715,
23,
154140,
4,
678,
14941,
33672,
38507,
91566,
1314,
23,
142,
75,
3454,
147,
237,
70,
92265,
24927,
7,
6777,
959,
23356,
70,
3525,
91566,
5570,
7,
23,
3687,
390,
903,
1733,
136,
1836,
36663,
47,
56282,
70,
14941,
31837,
1295,
41421,
4134,
297,
214,
678,
70,
92265,
5,
581,
59062,
583,
7687,
61475,
538,
125296,
71,
2856,
237,
10,
1614,
3509,
111,
70,
144573,
33672,
38507,
91566,
43257,
3501,
142,
167969,
3525,
91566,
5,
31384,
14941,
91566,
1314,
23,
903,
14922,
35326,
70,
92265,
33672,
38507,
7,
23,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
92265,
33672,
38507,
83,
10,
91566,
111,
85727,
10269,
5,
10660,
621,
70,
16750,
111,
10,
41421,
17721,
109451,
33672,
38507,
7,
76242,
71,
1295,
30715,
136,
4000,
12540,
23962,
23,
7270,
4,
9942,
4,
23,
70,
51374,
7,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-846970 | en-train-846970 | 846970 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Breed clubs and modern recognition.",
"Description.",
"Temperament.",
"Care.",
"Health.",
"Patella issues.",
"Temperature regulation-related issues.",
"Birth and reproduction.",
"Back and spine.",
"Eyes.",
"Brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome.",
"In popular culture.",
"Dog Show history.",
"Movies and television.",
"Celebrities who own French bulldogs.",
"French bulldogs in events."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The modern French Bulldog breed descends directly from the dogs of the Molossians, an ancient Greek tribe. The dogs were spread throughout the ancient world by Phoenician traders. British Molossian dogs were developed into the English Mastiff. A sub-breed of the Mastiff was the Bullenbeisser, a type of dog used for bull-baiting. Blood sports such as bull-baiting were outlawed in England in 1835, leaving these \"Bulldogs\" unemployed; however, they had been bred for non-sporting reasons since at least 1800, so their use changed from a sporting breed to a companion breed. To reduce their size, some Bulldogs were crossed with terriers, ratter dogs from the \"slums\" of England. By 1850, the Toy Bulldog had become common in England and appeared in conformation shows when they began around 1860. These dogs weighed around, although classes were also available at dog shows for those who weighed under. At the same time, lace workers from Nottingham who were displaced by the Industrial Revolution began to settle in Normandy, France. They brought a variety of dogs with them, including Toy Bulldogs. The dogs became popular in France and a trade in imported small Bulldogs was created, with breeders in England sending over Bulldogs that they considered to be too small, or with faults such as ears that stood up. By 1860, there were few Toy Bulldogs left in England, such was their popularity in France and due to the exploits of specialist dog exporters. The small Bulldog type gradually became thought of as a breed, and received a name, the Bouledogue Francais. This Francization of the English name is also a contraction of the words \"boule\" (ball) and \"dogue\" (mastiff or molosser). The dogs were highly fashionable and were sought after by society ladies and Parisian prostitutes alike, as well as creatives such as artists, writers, and fashion designers. There is record of artists named Edgar Degas and Toulouse-Lautrec who have been thought to have French Bulldogs in their paintings. However, records were not kept of the breed's development as it diverged further away from its original Bulldog roots. As it changed, terrier stock had been brought in to develop traits such as the breed's long straight ears.",
"Bulldogs were very popular in the past, especially in Western Europe. One of its ancestors was the English bulldog. Americans had been importing French Bulldogs for a while, but it was not until 1885 when they were brought over in order to set up an American-based breeding program. They were mostly owned by society ladies, who first displayed them at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1896. They arrived again in the following year with even more entries, where the judging of the breed would go on to have future ramifications. The judge in question at the dog show, a Mr. George Raper, only chose winners with \"rose ears\"—ears that folded at the tip, as with the standard for Bulldogs. The ladies formed the French Bull Dog Club of America and created the breed standard which stated for the first time that the \"erect bat ear\" was the correct type. In the early 20th century the breed remained in vogue for high society, with dogs changing hands for up to $3,000 and being owned by members of influential families such as the Rockefellers and the J. P. Morgans. The American Kennel Club recognized the breed quickly after the breed club was formed, and by 1906 the French Bulldog was the fifth most popular dog breed in America. In 2013, the American Kennel Club (AKC) ranked the French Bulldog as the 11th most popular breed in the United States, enjoying a sharp rise in popularity from 54th place a decade before, in 2003. By 2014, they had moved up to become the ninth most popular AKC registered dog breed in the USA and by the 2017 they were the fourth most popular. This new Bulldog breed arrived for the first time in England in 1893, with English Bulldog breeders in an uproar as the French imports did not meet the new breed standards in place by this time and they wanted to prevent the English stock from crossbreeding with the French. The Kennel Club initially recognized them as a subset of the existing Bulldog breed rather than an entirely new breed. Some English breeders in this period bred the French Bulldogs in order to resurrect the Toy Bulldog. On 10 July 1902, at the house of Frederick W. Cousens, a meeting was held to set up a breed club in order to seek individual recognition for the French breed. The adopted breed standard was the same one which was already in use in America, France, Germany and Austria. Despite opposition from Miniature Bulldog (the new breed name for the Toy Bulldog) and Bulldog breeders, in 1905, the Kennel Club changed its policy on the breed and recognized them separate from the English variety, initially as the Bouledogue Francais, then later in 1912 with the name changed to the French Bulldog. In 2019, the Dutch government forbade breeding of French Bulldogs.",
"\"The New Complete Dog Book: Official Breed Standards and All-New Profiles for 200 Breeds, 21st Edition\", is an official publication of the American Kennel Club and sets forth the Official Breed Standard for all breeds recognized by the AKC. Its specifications for the French Bulldog state that it should be muscular, with a soft and loose coat forming wrinkles. Some other breed characteristics and standards follow in this section in the next paragraph. The AKC Standard weight for a French Bulldog is maximum 28 pounds. The head of a French bulldog should be square shaped and large along with ears that symbolized bat ears. French bulldogs are also known as a flat faced breed. Eyes that are AKC Standard approved for French Bulldogs are dark and almost to the point of being black. Blue eyed French bulldogs are not AKC approved. The coat of a French bulldog should short haired and fine and silky. Acceptable colors under the breed standard are the various shades of brindle, fawn, cream or white with brindle patches (known as \"pied\"). The fawn colors can be any light through red. The most common colors are brindle, then fawn, with pieds being less common than the other colors. The breed clubs do not recognize any other colors or patterns. This is because some colors come linked with genetic health problems not usually found in the breed. These include blue coloration, which is linked with a form of alopecia (hair loss or baldness), sometimes known as \"Blue Dog Alopecia\". Although this is heavily disputed by some organizations, it has been suggested that the health, hair and skin conditions are caused by the color pigment (melanin) clumping in the hair shaft itself. Even dogs that are not blue can develop \"blue dog alopecia\" or canine follicular dysplasia.",
"The French Bulldog, like many other companion dog breeds, requires close contact with humans. If left alone for more than a few hours, they may experience separation anxiety. This is especially true when they are young, but persists into adulthood. Its anxiety may lead a French Bulldog to behave destructively and for its housebreaking to fail. The French Bulldog is sometimes called a \"Frog dog\" or a \"Clown dog.\" \"Frog dog\" is in reference to their wide round face and the way they sit with their hind legs spread out. \"Clown dog\" is because they are considered to be fun-loving, and indeed they have been described as the \"clowns of the dog world.\" French Bulldogs are often kept as companions. They rarely bark. The breed is patient and affectionate with their owners and can live with other breeds. French Bulldogs are agreeable dogs and are human/people oriented dogs as this makes them on the easier side to train even though they do have tendencies to be stubborn. It is noted that socializing puppies, including French bulldogs, can significantly impact the training of the puppy positively and is recommended. They are ranked 109th in Stanley Coren's \"The Intelligence of Dogs\". There are certain exceptions to this average level of canine intelligence; a French Bulldog named Princess Jacqueline which died in 1934 was claimed to be able to speak 20 words, in appropriate situations.",
"French Bulldogs do have certain health issues that owners can help avoid with proper care. For one, they have fairly minimal exercise needs, but do require at least daily short walks. Since French bulldogs fall into the dog category of a so-called \"flat faced dog\", strenuous exercise that results in heavy breathing specifically in hot temperatures should be avoided. While French bulldogs are at risk for obesity which can cause deeper health issues, weight gain can be avoided if they are taken on daily walks, weighed daily, and avoiding overfeeding and foods high in fat. Exercise is an effective way to keep French bulldogs healthy but it is imperative and recommended that French bulldogs should not be allowed near bodies of water as they are not capable of swimming due to their bodily structure being so heavy towards their front. Grooming for a French bulldog is fairly easy and requires some brushing as French bulldogs have a short, fine and silky coat. However, as a French bulldog has many wrinkles in the face, it is advised that one should clean between the wrinkles and keep them dry. As most dogs, French bulldogs will need the occasional bath but a brushing should suffice most of the time in order to have hair oils distributed evenly through the coat to maintain a natural shine. The AKC recommends that French bulldogs have health evaluation tests on hip dysplasia, a patellar evaluation, and ophthalmologist evaluation, and a cardiac exam as French bulldogs can have health problems in these areas.",
"As a consequence of selective breeding, French Bulldogs are disproportionately affected by health related problems. A UK breed survey report on 71 dog deaths put the average lifespan of French Bulldogs at 8 to 10 years, while the UK breed club suggests an average of 12 to 14 years. The AKC lists that the French Bulldog breed has a lifespan of 11 to 13 years. In 2013 a UK Medical Study reviewed the health of 2228 French Bulldogs under veterinary care in the UK. The study found that 1612 (72.4%) of these French Bulldog had at least one recorded health issue: \"The most common disorders recorded were ear infections (14.0%), diarrhea (7.5%) and conjunctivitis (3.2%). Skin problems were the most commonly reported group of disorders (17.9%). This study of over two thousand French Bulldogs provides a framework to identify the most important health priorities in French Bulldogs in the UK and can assist with reforms to improve health and welfare within the breed.\"",
"Patellar luxation is the dislocation of the patella. In dogs, the patella is a small bone that shields the front of the stifle joint in its hind legs. This bone is held in place by ligaments. As the knee joint is moved, the patella slides in a groove in the femur. The kneecap may dislocate toward the inside (medial) or outside (lateral) of the leg. This condition may be the result of injury or congenital deformities. Patellar luxation can affect either or both legs.",
"The French bulldog has only a single short coat. which combined with their compromised breathing system, makes it impossible for them to regulate their temperature efficiently. This means the dog may easily become cold, and are prone to heat stroke in hot and humid weather. In terms of grooming, the French Bulldog requires regular nail trimming, brushing, occasional bathing, and ear cleaning. French Bulldogs are also prone to allergies, which can cause eczema on the body. Allergies can be caused by foods, insect bites, and French Bulldogs can also be frequently prone to hay fever and ophthalmic diseases. As they are a brachycephalic breed, French Bulldogs are banned by several commercial airlines due to the numbers that have died while in the air. This is because dogs with snub noses find it difficult to breathe when they are hot and stressed. The temperature in a cargo space in an aircraft can rise as high as when waiting on the runway. It is also recommended that French Bulldogs live indoors and have access to air conditioning to regulate their body temperature when outside temperatures are high.",
"French Bulldogs require artificial insemination and, frequently, Caesarean section to give birth, with over 80% of litters delivered this way. Many French Bulldog stud dogs are incapable of naturally breeding. This is because French Bulldogs have very slim hips, making the male unable to mount the female to reproduce naturally. Therefore, breeders must undertake artificial insemination of female dogs. Female French bulldogs can also have erratic or'silent' heats, which may be a side effect of thyroid disease or impaired thyroid function.",
"French Bulldogs can also be prone to an assortment of back, disk and spinal diseases and disorders, most of which are thought to be related to the fact that they were selectively chosen from the dwarf examples of the Bulldog. This condition is also referred to as chondrodysplasia. French bulldogs are prone to having congenital hemivertebrae (also called \"butterfly vertebrae\"), which will show on an X-ray. More advanced technologies such as myelograms, CT scans, or magnetic resonance imaging are used to detect spinal cord compression. In October 2010, the UK French Bulldog Health Scheme was launched. The scheme consists of three levels: the first level, Bronze, designates a basic veterinary check which covers all the Kennel Club Breed Watch points of concern for the breed. The next level, Silver, requires a DNA test for hereditary cataracts, a simple cardiology test, and patella grading. The final level, Gold, requires a hip score and a spine evaluation. The European and UK French Bulldog fanciers and Kennel Clubs are moving away from the screw, cork-screw or 'tight' tail (which is an inbreed spinal defect), and returning to the short drop tail which the breed originally had. The UK breed standard now states that the tail should be \"undocked, [delete'very'] short, set low, thick at root, tapering quickly towards tip, preferably [delete 'either'] straight, [delete 'or kinked'] and long enough to cover anus. Never curling over back nor carried gaily.\"",
"French Bulldogs have a tendency towards eye issues. Cherry eye, or an everted third eyelid, has been known to occur, although it is more common in Bulldogs. Glaucoma, retinal fold dysplasia, corneal ulcers and juvenile cataracts are also conditions which have been known to afflict French Bulldogs. Screening of prospective breeding candidates through the Canine Eye Registration Foundation (CERF) can help eliminate instances of these diseases in offspring. The skin folds under the eyes of the French bulldog should be cleaned regularly and kept dry. Tear stains are common on lighter-colored dogs.",
"This is a syndrome occurs in French bulldogs and causes them to have multiple side effects as in difficulty breathing (which includes snoring, loud breathing). It happens in French bulldogs because they have narrow nostril openings, a long soft palate and fairly narrow tracheas. This issue can lead to death in French Bulldogs if they are not undergoing proper treatment. Increased factors should be taken into account like weather conditions and if the dog is high energy/excitement, or if the dog has any possible allergies. In order to treat these dogs and create a smoother airway to the lungs, a procedure must be done that takes out a portion of their soft palate. The results of the procedure show a minimum of 60% better airway passage to the lungs. Because of the Brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome, French Bulldogs must be managed in hot weather to make sure they have significant electrolytes and are kept track of. If the dog does show symptoms of overexertion and extremely heavy and dangerous breathing, it is recommended that the dog be hosed off with cool water for about 15 minutes until the dog seems to have calmed.",
"French Bulldogs are a very popular breed today and are very prevalent in social media culture. There is even a subreddit page that discusses \"all things french bulldog\". This section discusses their cultural legacy in dog shows, movies and television shows, celebrities who own them, and French bulldogs in famous events.",
"While no French Bulldogs have been Best in Show at either Crufts or the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, during the 1950s a French Bulldog won Best of Breed for eight years in a row at Westminster; the run ended with the dog's retirement after the 1960 show. The dog's owner, Amanda West, went on to win Best of Breed with other French Bulldogs for a further 10 years. In 2010, a Canadian French Bulldog became the first of his breed to win the Non-Sporting Group and make it through for consideration at the Best in Show round, eventually losing to a Scottish Terrier, Roundtown Mercedes of Maryscot.",
"Jason Schwartzman's French Bulldog, Arrow, made a cameo in his HBO detective comedy series \"Bored to Death\" in October 2010. The movie Due Date, filmed in 2010, starring Zach Galifinakis, Robert Downey Jr., & Jamie Foxx also features a French Bulldog named Honey. In a newer television show Queer Eye, a French bulldog named Bruley would make an appearance every show. Unfortunately, Bruley died in October 2019. A 2003 film, Bringing the House Down, also features a French Bulldog. There also is another 2003 film called Secondhand Lions that features a white French bulldog. On the ABC television show Modern Family, a French Bulldog plays the character of Stella, Jay Pritchet's doted on dog.",
"There are several celebrities who own French bulldogs whom are very notable. Denise Richards for one is a French bulldog owner and can be seen bringing her French bulldog to sets that she acted on. Dwayne \"The Rock\" Johnson also owns a French bulldog as a companion. The well known couple of Chrissy Teigen and John Legend own a beige Frenchie as well. High profiled celebrities like 2 Chainz, Madonna, and Lady Gaga also are owners. Actress and singer Hilary Duff owns a French bulldog named \"Beau\". Hugh Jackman, an Australian actor, is well known and often photographed running errands with his Frenchie. Reese Witherspoon, an American actress, was seen photographed walking her pet French bulldog in 2008. Another notable celebrity is Ashley Olsen, one of the two Olsen Twins, was spotted carrying her French bulldog around New York City in 2011. American comedian John Mulaney has a French bulldog named Petunia. Melanie Martinez owns two French Bulldog named Mouse and Peanut",
"The only French Bulldog aboard the \"RMS Titanic\" went down with the ship on 15 April 1912. First class passenger Robert Williams Daniel, a 27-year-old banker, had purchased the dog, named Gamin de Pycombe, for £150 (the equivalent of $17,000 in today's prices). A surviving passenger said that they had seen a French Bulldog swimming in the ocean after the ship sank."
]
} |
Indoor cycling | null | Indoor cycling, often also called spinning, as an organized sport, is a form of exercise with classes focusing on endurance, strength, intervals, high intensity (race days) and recovery, and involves using a special stationary exercise bicycle with a weighted flywheel in a classroom setting. When people took cycling indoors in the late 19th century, whether for reasons of weather or convenience, technology created faster, more compact and efficient machines over time. The first iterations of the stationary bike ranged from strange contraptions like the Gymnasticon to regular bicycles placed atop rollers. | null | [
250004,
250054,
35014,
90,
137567,
4527,
5361,
29367,
29398,
6635,
333,
75457,
7,
5,
106594,
7,
26698,
10,
135969,
289,
75186,
47,
2811,
40383,
70,
34844,
53,
111,
95212,
214,
4,
5361,
538,
115700,
71,
34831,
1299,
7,
4,
136,
48716,
126596,
674,
26847,
47,
11177,
70,
333,
75457,
47,
10,
37457,
111,
171503,
7,
5,
52455,
765,
10,
57888,
297,
12403,
434,
144009,
4,
3129,
40226,
1636,
70,
93425,
111,
23,
56,
4526,
136,
3095,
316,
3229,
31351,
214,
10,
2773,
333,
75457,
5,
581,
95212,
7,
621,
46979,
20051,
678,
4375,
34196,
7,
237,
98,
29681,
333,
75457,
7,
47,
63769,
1632,
57616,
47,
50065,
1257,
3229,
70,
3789,
83,
25944,
214,
7565,
5,
10660,
1543,
30700,
538,
765,
34196,
9393,
146510,
66695,
100,
4527,
678,
81993,
27686,
6,
166871,
148100,
5,
1342,
69819,
16610,
7,
36442,
47506,
136,
71864,
70,
1608,
420,
214,
143434,
390,
70,
40,
7710,
40,
8256,
23,
1379,
87690,
5,
4263,
70,
81979,
83,
959,
16940,
26785,
538,
707,
70,
171503,
25,
7,
19069,
83,
6494,
4,
232796,
831,
74918,
74,
44402,
678,
70,
92319,
4420,
136,
472,
86,
90,
621,
2684,
39210,
5,
717,
71864,
182260,
136,
36442,
47506,
442,
83,
5526,
47,
3249,
9077,
70,
3530,
9,
282,
17032,
21533,
19069,
111,
70,
171503,
83,
26785,
5,
10760,
6,
166871,
15528,
7,
765,
10,
38134,
37457,
111,
126596,
674,
4,
136,
442,
83,
85590,
47,
113054,
70,
26785,
169581,
41928,
47,
31351,
214,
5,
581,
40,
257,
19069,
8110,
186,
7108,
100,
70,
95274,
25,
7,
155955,
5,
581,
155955,
111,
70,
40,
257,
5608,
186,
23,
17366,
678,
70,
26177,
3229,
70,
95274,
83,
135203,
11737,
47,
70,
105823,
5,
112639,
18,
25958,
4,
70,
40,
257,
5608,
186,
5423,
23,
12989,
100,
70,
12912,
111,
70,
472,
86,
13,
47,
186,
105237,
23,
79259,
13315,
678,
70,
16446,
111,
70,
57616,
3229,
70,
95212,
83,
6275,
214,
40225,
5,
3293,
50339,
23,
10,
19069,
7440,
70,
472,
86,
13,
83,
161549,
13619,
99,
142,
55291,
17721,
28602,
136,
86475,
3229,
70,
6049,
83,
65042,
297,
678,
70,
57616,
10588,
214,
49878,
99,
70,
103136,
111,
70,
95212,
120472,
5,
10639,
133,
1299,
155955,
831,
186,
126596,
297,
100,
47506,
74,
40715,
122446,
171503,
7,
1543,
3444,
47,
5423,
2856,
77546,
47,
28,
6991,
92319,
4420,
20947,
39,
17883,
5,
62,
169022,
91067,
6275,
83,
47,
5423,
442,
23,
17366,
678,
70,
40,
257,
5,
62,
222201,
18507,
83687,
7,
10,
11001,
196592,
99,
70,
12912,
111,
70,
18507,
2750,
37105,
7,
70,
56480,
8305,
124374,
7,
450,
621,
82775,
47,
40226,
67,
70665,
136,
113949,
21373,
47,
31351,
214,
10,
15528,
98145,
7,
5,
31384,
111,
70,
112664,
7,
136,
19069,
7,
26698,
130473,
194637,
7,
4,
145320,
7,
136,
51514,
23189,
5,
62,
5299,
9,
4448,
122009,
196592,
4527,
7,
19612,
4,
98365,
4,
21176,
47691,
136,
22,
927,
86840,
9523,
100854,
47,
37105,
25921,
8305,
10,
51894,
450,
2965,
60813,
7,
2363,
37667,
17366,
136,
109458,
5,
17006,
196592,
7,
1221,
37105,
2367,
83,
35839,
142,
51514,
51894,
4,
7440,
25921,
1221,
145320,
4,
11675,
4,
194637,
4,
136,
88203,
756,
23,
70,
5701,
51894,
4,
1284,
2685,
1221,
959,
186,
45154,
2886,
103510,
47,
70,
81979,
7,
5,
360,
70,
39395,
3576,
7,
4,
44,
34290,
73,
9,
77007,
58,
61112,
450,
40226,
67,
98145,
27289,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
4,
32382,
39746,
7154,
16,
3542,
65508,
71,
5,
21432,
73,
9,
77007,
61112,
621,
82775,
47,
52295,
10,
171503,
25,
7,
98145,
112419,
5423,
136,
51312,
28927,
7154,
12960,
101904,
142,
108938,
105392,
9,
77007,
184732,
5,
72239,
16037,
5423,
109458,
35509,
98,
2363,
26498,
34515,
4,
3129,
831,
186,
72350,
71,
390,
3535,
707,
17368,
10,
26498,
34515,
12983,
136,
51894,
40226,
3674,
143834,
7,
23,
70665,
390,
144,
33558,
39746,
7154,
136,
19630,
6620,
5,
31384,
56480,
55076,
47,
76104,
10,
71644,
13,
4,
37511,
45966,
20753,
2481,
17366,
4,
678,
10,
26498,
34515,
111,
17721,
836,
136,
107997,
111,
18389,
12960,
27060,
22648,
2363,
26498,
121297,
77546,
23,
51514,
7,
111,
3877,
4036,
45966,
103488,
47,
90926,
111,
17721,
9365,
136,
483,
12807,
5,
6561,
111,
70,
13036,
92940,
7,
111,
23,
24401,
6,
166871,
83,
450,
12638,
95274,
831,
66161,
6226,
1919,
64,
3334,
17366,
111,
20753,
2481,
47,
60813,
81273,
707,
37667,
17366,
1284,
7464,
47143,
237,
10,
21115,
25842,
5,
581,
61112,
831,
127298,
186,
77099,
15292,
10821,
5,
1301,
142,
30700,
4,
56480,
831,
116983,
2363,
17366,
111,
1119,
56,
1363,
35845,
47,
10,
21778,
1399,
4126,
1119,
56,
1363,
105994,
5,
581,
196592,
5608,
115992,
10,
170198,
1119,
56,
1363,
105994,
1295,
106,
15,
157,
1119,
56,
1363,
99,
756,
16,
47,
209,
15,
192,
53950,
316,
1119,
56,
1363,
194,
98423,
171503,
83,
28897,
3674,
47,
28214,
67,
3642,
7941,
764,
64,
7816,
55076,
7,
47,
4488,
678,
70,
196592,
101904,
36457,
136,
84079,
65524,
674,
25842,
678,
121392,
136,
138155,
67660,
87420,
70,
18507,
5,
86247,
988,
6818,
592,
15,
191,
83080,
16,
17721,
2668,
121993,
158805,
23,
1496,
14633,
4,
23,
24401,
6,
166871,
2843,
90254,
1755,
70,
123635,
7,
111,
70,
92319,
14361,
5,
1650,
47,
1444,
70,
96137,
16615,
7,
136,
2057,
91693,
7,
4,
33233,
678,
20697,
70,
4420,
136,
26177,
7,
5,
1650,
831,
186,
34844,
47,
24765,
99,
70,
71644,
13,
17366,
23,
10,
18507,
450,
83,
72397,
297,
98186,
1286,
20753,
2481,
5,
581,
34844,
53,
111,
70,
184732,
83,
17055,
27686,
23,
6626,
48322,
12,
8622,
621,
43606,
56458,
112664,
7,
23,
70,
58383,
592,
26693,
5,
32255,
43606,
112664,
7,
12638,
4488,
10,
12921,
2831,
111,
70,
14361,
136,
32153,
98,
12921,
6049,
123635,
94407,
5,
581,
171503,
5608,
11343,
76104,
6226,
111,
70,
12403,
434,
144009,
390,
19441,
39746,
7154,
190659,
136,
47143,
214,
35064,
10,
19630,
6620,
111,
12062,
627,
20266,
5,
11205,
756,
15528,
7,
765,
10,
4092,
434,
144009,
4,
707,
25,
120102,
54452,
25,
4,
136,
442,
83,
7722,
450,
70,
12403,
434,
144009,
1221,
242,
16428,
16065,
25,
678,
70,
171503,
678,
70,
38516,
100,
216806,
182260,
5,
581,
171503,
5608,
186,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
24401,
6,
166871,
4,
27983,
2843,
35839,
25927,
592,
4,
237,
142,
5808,
297,
2896,
4,
83,
10,
3173,
111,
81979,
678,
61112,
32153,
214,
98,
28927,
7154,
4,
90254,
4,
51514,
7,
4,
11192,
20753,
2481,
15,
99407,
13312,
16,
136,
145951,
4,
136,
83687,
7,
17368,
10,
5361,
29398,
6635,
81979,
333,
75457,
678,
10,
57888,
297,
12403,
434,
144009,
23,
10,
217212,
53550,
5,
14847,
3395,
34739,
6,
166871,
23,
24401,
7,
23,
70,
72399,
953,
927,
142642,
4,
36766,
100,
89397,
111,
92949,
707,
50080,
6620,
4,
55556,
75935,
4271,
56,
4,
1286,
94928,
136,
93766,
116491,
645,
1733,
5,
581,
5117,
17,
720,
21094,
111,
70,
29398,
6635,
15528,
37457,
71,
1295,
114453,
2304,
254,
5256,
1884,
70,
219997,
13886,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1268194 | en-train-1268194 | 1268194 | {
"title": [
"Class content and goals."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"Classes generally use specialized stationary bicycles. Features include a mechanical device to modify the difficulty of pedaling, specially shaped handlebars, and multiple adjustment points to fit the bicycle to a range of riders. Many have a weighted flywheel, which simulates the effects of inertia and momentum when riding a real bicycle. The pedals are equipped with toe clips as on sports bicycles to allow one foot to pull up when the other is pushing down. They may alternatively have clipless receptacles for use with cleated cycling shoes. Padded shorts aid comfort and avoid the chafing caused by the sewn seams in underwear. If the exercise is not done correctly or the rider's position is bad, injuries can occur; problems with the lower back and knees are most common. To avoid injury and aid comfort it is important to make sure the bio-mechanical position of the rider is correct. Group cycling bikes have a wide range of adjustment, and it is essential to obtain the correct setup prior to riding. The seat position must be right for the participant's height. The height of the seat should be in level with the hip when the participant is standing next to the cycle. Horizontally, the seat should be set in order for the front of the knee to be directly in vertical line with the ball of the foot when the pedal is pointing forward. This results in a position where the knee is slightly bent at an angle between 25% and 35% when the leg is extended with the foot resting flat at the bottom of the pedal stroke. Handlebar height can be adjusted for comfort; less experienced riders may want to set them higher to ease lower back discomfort. A reasonable reference point is to set it in level with the seat. A typical class involves a single instructor at the front of the class who leads the participants through routines that are designed to simulate terrain and situations similar to riding a bike outdoors. Some of the movements and positions include hill climbs, sprints and interval training. A well-trained instructor uses music, motivation, visualization and enthusiastic coaching to lead students through a ride that best suits their fitness level and goals. Most instructors will lead what is called an interval ride, where students will sprint, run, climb, and jump all in the same ride, but there will not be definable pattern to the exercises. In the early 2000s, \"terrain-based\" classes that simulate outdoor conditions (e.g., wind resistance) were introduced. Terrain-based classes are designed to improve a rider's outdoor skill set and increase endurance while providing an intense cardio-based workout. Participants set goals based on their heart rate, which can be measured by hand or using a heart rate monitor and ride simulated variations in terrain by altering resistance and cadence. Some participants choose to maintain a moderate, aerobic intensity level, with a heart rate of between 50 and 85% of max while others drive their heart rates higher in intervals of anaerobic activity to levels of between 85 and 92%. One of the major advantages of indoor cycling is that each participant can exactly control his/her level of intensity to suit ability or fitness level but still remain as a group together. The classes can therefore be heterogeneous. As an alternative, participants can judge their level of exertion relative to a perceived exertion scale. The instructor should advise a recommended exertion scale from 1 (no exertion at all) to 10 (maximum exertion). Each rider is permitted to dictate how hard he/she chooses to work with the instructor providing active and dynamic encouragement together with technical and practical advice throughout the class. Besides burning (on average) between 300-500 kcal in 60 minutes, indoor cycling also strengthens the muscles of the lower body. It tones the quadriceps and hamstrings, along with working the back and hips. It can be difficult to stay at the moderate level in a class that is geared towards more intensity. The difficulty of the workout is modulated in two ways: There are five core movements in the Spinning programme. These five movements each work a different part of the body and focus on different leg muscle groups. The rider should always maintain control of the flywheel by having resistance applied and remaining below a cadence of 110 RPM. Not all bikes have a freewheel, or'smart release', and it is possible that the flywheel will 'run away' with the rider with the potential for causing injury. The rider should be able to maintain perfectly even pedal rotations at high resistance. This becomes difficult below 60 RPM cadence and failing to make 'perfect circles' increases the risk of knee and hip injury. A road cyclist will normally have a natural pedal cadence, of about 85 RPM and will control changes in terrain by changing gear to maintain this rate. The goal of the spinning programme is not to exceed this natural rate by more than 25 RPM higher (110 RPM) or lower (60 RPM) There are five further advanced movements based on those listed above. Most indoor cycling classes are coached with music. Riders may synchronize their pedalling to be in time with the rhythm of the music, thus providing an external stimulus to encourage a certain tempo. Often, the music chosen by the instructor is dance music or rock music set to a dance beat (i.e. 4/4 time), but not necessarily. This tends to help motivate participants to work harder than they might otherwise. The instructor also may choose specific songs for sprints, climbs, and jumps. While the music provides a tempo cue, the cadence does not need to be a multiple of the beat in order for the rider to feel in rhythm; the music therefore helps a rider maintain any constant cadence, not just a cadence that matches the beat. It may depend on the level of exertion whether or not someone changes position or the instructor can tell the class to change. A variation known as \"aqua cycling\" or \"hydrospinning\" also exists. In this, the stationary bicycles are underwater in a pool."
]
} |
Superheated steam | null | Superheated steam is steam at a temperature higher than its vaporization point at the absolute pressure where the temperature is measured. | null | [
250004,
250054,
947,
3595,
3674,
2288,
302,
83,
2288,
302,
450,
83,
23,
6,
155159,
316,
678,
764,
27686,
7401,
99,
70,
5701,
81147,
4,
17,
5,
13,
5,
4,
442,
1556,
959,
2809,
764,
27686,
36917,
70,
337,
49725,
6275,
100,
6863,
81147,
5,
3293,
83,
23,
69822,
47,
1601,
1106,
27686,
2288,
302,
4,
23,
3129,
70,
2288,
302,
15,
330,
4680,
16,
1556,
2809,
84797,
71,
1295,
70,
7401,
36069,
1974,
7,
7068,
78301,
80097,
1556,
2809,
49814,
5,
32255,
188171,
1363,
36069,
1974,
7,
621,
10,
22304,
111,
82649,
47,
2288,
302,
164552,
13,
146651,
7,
4,
70,
31635,
15400,
6044,
164552,
90,
456,
538,
98,
10,
100677,
111,
36898,
4,
1601,
1106,
27686,
2288,
302,
5,
140066,
2288,
302,
83,
131457,
3674,
2288,
302,
450,
1556,
2809,
4552,
161549,
1601,
1106,
27686,
5,
3293,
83,
959,
6,
129980,
47,
15549,
6863,
48302,
1747,
51606,
78458,
4,
1284,
83,
10,
6,
129980,
6,
58944,
23,
52768,
47,
71864,
188171,
1363,
44402,
4,
34475,
70,
83080,
86669,
23,
52768,
36880,
70,
2288,
302,
100677,
61404,
5,
717,
19364,
7,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
4,
3229,
1601,
1106,
26518,
509,
7464,
10,
40715,
9,
21732,
9,
106290,
73,
55556,
4,
6044,
2288,
302,
9,
48855,
214,
26038,
70,
188171,
1363,
9,
14426,
86675,
72382,
111,
1601,
1106,
26518,
15490,
186607,
449,
70,
221,
11727,
71412,
3674,
337,
34759,
707,
3100,
12056,
1363,
53088,
111,
4393,
1601,
1106,
26518,
5,
3311,
69822,
4,
7401,
101319,
450,
96853,
7401,
36069,
1974,
7,
83,
151552,
237,
36311,
2288,
302,
5,
4263,
36311,
2288,
302,
83,
764,
27686,
53333,
4,
70,
36069,
1974,
7,
70890,
33069,
67,
4,
136,
99,
10,
11192,
20174,
52768,
15,
143321,
56566,
7,
98,
70,
81147,
16,
756,
111,
70,
7401,
70890,
33069,
1636,
4,
70,
5426,
83,
23,
101319,
1104,
150,
94385,
6,
155159,
316,
4,
136,
442,
24209,
7,
44,
7,
26690,
3674,
2288,
302,
740,
947,
3595,
3674,
2288,
302,
83,
92940,
10821,
23,
80097,
12302,
4743,
47,
70,
11192,
19161,
18,
80097,
111,
101319,
47691,
5,
1650,
83,
10,
4552,
93766,
13736,
111,
80097,
12302,
5,
360,
21,
53,
669,
25,
7,
69407,
4,
131457,
3674,
2288,
302,
83,
99,
6863,
8,
434,
6275,
99,
70,
42518,
214,
52768,
136,
81147,
5,
581,
222201,
19161,
18,
80097,
111,
101319,
47691,
15,
748,
188171,
1363,
16,
83,
6,
134131,
335,
458,
64,
48543,
15,
144025,
136473,
472,
1375,
64,
8517,
16,
100,
131457,
3674,
2288,
302,
99,
99,
840,
94266,
1771,
81147,
5,
4265,
1106,
27686,
2288,
302,
509,
38134,
538,
11814,
23,
5201,
13315,
2288,
302,
43572,
31494,
90,
5,
947,
3595,
3674,
2288,
302,
1556,
17262,
5201,
6392,
71,
2187,
92674,
23,
10,
2288,
302,
87907,
12,
442,
70541,
7,
19336,
36069,
1974,
7,
111,
7401,
3129,
765,
47,
186,
14922,
71407,
3568,
122009,
1295,
70,
19932,
104532,
7,
74,
8035,
134995,
538,
99,
70,
337,
49725,
6275,
111,
7401,
100,
70,
337,
34759,
81147,
23,
4527,
4,
442,
23,
111599,
78458,
158,
118435,
7,
47,
3060,
192961,
23,
70,
2288,
302,
137158,
7,
136,
19932,
104532,
7,
50782,
70,
337,
34759,
4,
216806,
10,
2837,
184026,
1363,
2182,
86669,
111,
2288,
302,
21950,
237,
442,
14602,
221,
74,
136,
442,
44677,
10,
99162,
35968,
98,
70,
337,
34759,
5,
4265,
1106,
26518,
70,
2288,
302,
19014,
7,
442,
191984,
4,
138804,
7,
6863,
52768,
47,
10,
6275,
7440,
188171,
1363,
83,
5045,
40715,
47041,
136,
51312,
7,
6863,
21950,
207583,
5,
62,
69819,
25842,
4,
6097,
120103,
51312,
70,
14537,
136,
111503,
111,
70,
43572,
31494,
13,
5,
581,
5201,
6392,
71,
2187,
92674,
621,
70,
49814,
27140,
2481,
136,
11034,
111,
70,
1601,
156253,
56,
370,
23709,
136,
70,
64406,
13,
21543,
450,
70,
44,
48855,
58,
2288,
302,
1556,
98,
3100,
12056,
1363,
111,
98567,
82761,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
2288,
302,
3502,
3132,
5,
7525,
128396,
43572,
31494,
90,
6777,
959,
137567,
4527,
1601,
1106,
26518,
5,
581,
3638,
70767,
75412,
35971,
2288,
302,
7103,
70,
144314,
3502,
272,
136,
452,
6953,
442,
8305,
4989,
1601,
156253,
56,
43333,
7,
46132,
5361,
538,
21334,
11476,
70485,
7,
111,
70,
337,
34759,
5,
581,
1601,
156253,
56,
43333,
7,
1902,
10,
39531,
184,
24073,
114402,
37421,
18939,
1585,
71,
99,
70,
11476,
11728,
3564,
221,
450,
70,
2288,
302,
1902,
47,
27875,
70,
140909,
111,
70,
337,
34759,
99,
19713,
186351,
4,
39580,
214,
1257,
80097,
237,
442,
6777,
221,
5,
64511,
38516,
4527,
7,
111,
1601,
1106,
27686,
2288,
302,
26698,
12,
36898,
214,
4,
174033,
4,
135355,
214,
4,
132539,
177907,
4,
28,
254,
76634,
36898,
214,
136,
1346,
4527,
7440,
131457,
3674,
47,
103210,
1601,
1106,
27686,
2288,
302,
83,
56065,
99,
1632,
99,
840,
94266,
1771,
81147,
707,
99,
11192,
81147,
5,
41143,
100,
2288,
302,
36898,
214,
4,
2288,
302,
128713,
2320,
136,
165045,
9433,
214,
5,
36836,
7,
621,
23,
71579,
118299,
4,
174033,
118299,
4,
2288,
302,
36898,
214,
4,
377,
1803,
147852,
4,
165045,
132539,
9433,
214,
4,
71579,
36898,
214,
118299,
4,
314,
2852,
118299,
4,
48302,
76519,
136,
71819,
166364,
7,
5,
4265,
1106,
27686,
2288,
302,
83,
959,
56104,
11814,
23,
10,
80097,
121122,
42,
4743,
47,
27226,
80097,
12302,
552,
9,
13,
24500,
45964,
5,
360,
18831,
14653,
136,
64707,
3284,
8345,
95845,
7,
1601,
1106,
27686,
2288,
302,
83,
5201,
538,
11814,
100,
43613,
10366,
136,
174033,
60042,
7,
5,
101059,
1556,
2809,
11814,
100,
221,
379,
67788,
14578,
16792,
70,
100439,
7,
5,
101059,
83,
135989,
297,
3934,
70,
221,
379,
3129,
113660,
39555,
756,
107554,
4912,
47,
150844,
67,
15,
2347,
13579,
44,
1515,
379,
47691,
58,
83,
11814,
4,
1284,
442,
83,
959,
81113,
538,
26785,
16792,
756,
11948,
9,
43425,
8780,
621,
959,
204988,
152388,
194,
1061,
379,
67788,
14578,
83,
142,
60266,
30700,
47,
5941,
165045,
7,
23,
6,
177849,
4,
136,
83,
11814,
38134,
538,
390,
50997,
23923,
55993,
1314,
5,
83366,
2288,
302,
83,
102917,
538,
11814,
23,
903,
9433,
4,
1284,
2174,
221,
379,
52768,
7,
36917,
70,
337,
49725,
6275,
111,
7401,
621,
56065,
4,
1601,
1106,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
4265,
1106,
27686,
2288,
302,
83,
2288,
302,
99,
10,
52768,
77546,
3501,
6863,
101319,
47691,
6275,
99,
70,
89931,
81147,
7440,
70,
52768,
83,
72350,
71,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2237640 | en-train-2237640 | 2237640 | {
"title": [
"Saturated steam.",
"Uses.",
"Steam engine.",
"Processing.",
"Pest control."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Saturated steam is steam that is in equilibrium with heated water at the same pressure, i.e., it has not been heated above the boiling point for its pressure. This is in contrast to superheated steam, in which the steam (vapor) has been separated from the water droplets then additional heat has been added. These condensation droplets are a cause of damage to steam turbine blades, the reason why such turbines rely on a supply of dry, superheated steam. Dry steam is saturated steam that has been very slightly superheated. This is not sufficient to change its energy appreciably, but is a sufficient rise in temperature to avoid condensation problems, given the average loss in temperature across the steam supply circuit. Towards the end of the 19th century, when superheating was still a less-than-certain technology, such steam-drying gave the condensation-avoiding benefits of superheating without requiring the sophisticated boiler or lubrication techniques of full superheating. By contrast, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. If wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high enough temperature (which depends on the pressure) all of the water evaporates, the system is in vapor–liquid equilibrium, and it becomes \"saturated steam\". Saturated steam is advantageous in heat transfer due to the high latent heat of vaporization. It is a very efficient mode of heat transfer. In layman's terms, saturated steam is at its dew point at the corresponding temperature and pressure. The typical latent heat of vaporization (or condensation) is 970 Btu/lb (2256.5 kJ/kg) for saturated steam at atmospheric pressure.",
"",
"Superheated steam was widely used in main line steam locomotives. Saturated steam has three main disadvantages in a steam engine: it contains small droplets of water which have to be periodically drained from the cylinders; being precisely at the boiling point of water for the boiler pressure in use, it inevitably condenses to some extent in the steam pipes and cylinders outside the boiler, causing a disproportionate loss of steam volume as it does so; and it places a heavy demand on the boiler. Superheating the steam dries it effectively, raises its temperature to a point where condensation is much less likely and increases its volume significantly. Added together, these factors increase the power and economy of the locomotive. The main disadvantages are the added complexity and cost of the superheater tubing and the adverse effect that the \"dry\" steam has on lubrication of moving components such as the steam valves. Shunting locomotives did not generally use superheating. The normal arrangement involved taking steam after the regulator valve and passing it through long superheater tubes inside specially large firetubes of the boiler. The superheater tubes had a reverse (\"torpedo\") bend at the firebox end so that the steam had to pass the length of the boiler at least twice, picking up heat as it did so.",
"Other potential uses of superheated steam include: drying, cleaning, layering, reaction engineering, epoxy drying and film use where saturated to highly superheated steam is required at one atmospheric pressure or at high pressure. Ideal for steam drying, steam oxidation and chemical processing. Uses are in surface technologies, cleaning technologies, steam drying, catalysis, chemical reaction processing, surface drying technologies, curing technologies, energy systems and nanotechnologies. Superheated steam is not usually used in a heat exchanger due to low heat transfer co-efficient. In refining and hydrocarbon industries superheated steam is mainly used for stripping and cleaning purposes.",
"Steam has been used for soil steaming since the 1890s. Steam is induced into the soil which causes almost all organic material to deteriorate (the term \"sterilization\" is used, but it is not strictly correct since all micro-organism are not necessarily killed). Soil steaming is an effective alternative to many chemicals in agriculture, and is used widely by greenhouse growers. Wet steam is primarily used in this process, but if soil temperatures above the boiling point of water are required, superheated steam must be used."
]
} |
Generation | null | A generation is "all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively." It can also be described as, "the average period, generally considered to be about thirty years, during which children are born and grow up, become adults, and begin to have children. In kinship terminology, it is a structural term designating the parent-child relationship. It is also known as biogenesis, reproduction, or procreation in the biological sciences. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
2565,
44,
48281,
67,
58,
32497,
1295,
70,
42845,
44,
79446,
1292,
107,
830,
91084,
44,
188,
186,
3794,
740,
581,
2565,
44,
48281,
1363,
58,
237,
10,
44,
205072,
707,
552,
5922,
18,
58,
23,
2265,
41664,
101717,
90,
70,
64194,
14361,
111,
79165,
103122,
136,
38043,
99,
1672,
70,
5701,
1733,
4,
2684,
111,
136565,
621,
189275,
70,
5701,
32070,
136,
765,
21373,
25647,
4,
44402,
4,
136,
130812,
7,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
4,
33424,
83479,
136,
3731,
18,
83479,
194,
62,
8650,
141,
58093,
83,
10,
21115,
111,
38043,
8035,
7,
11764,
1916,
10,
11001,
29954,
23,
70,
13315,
111,
224,
16797,
1295,
142,
6,
60502,
1290,
5,
360,
126809,
24,
5256,
70,
83080,
8650,
141,
58093,
140909,
83,
23,
70,
11192,
387,
7,
136,
1556,
3853,
157578,
496,
5369,
23,
3060,
24,
5256,
5,
117969,
7,
6044,
237,
117396,
25297,
15032,
136,
35968,
100,
64720,
150385,
4,
27081,
15032,
4,
8,
5259,
297,
5117,
479,
7456,
27771,
136,
10,
117396,
51,
106290,
73,
939,
23,
15044,
188513,
91763,
136,
76755,
40780,
53,
765,
756,
162466,
71,
47,
70,
51312,
111,
70,
58093,
140909,
1295,
70,
72399,
543,
927,
142642,
47,
70,
13379,
5,
32255,
65572,
831,
186,
150380,
297,
47,
2265,
120103,
4,
6044,
237,
6,
69731,
136,
11341,
44930,
4,
7964,
47691,
4,
11408,
1830,
4,
136,
62548,
11651,
9,
67919,
77336,
7,
4,
106480,
10,
46667,
25,
7,
162807,
99,
25500,
674,
5,
1657,
37676,
538,
4,
23,
40715,
9,
229815,
297,
24,
5256,
4,
58093,
140909,
1556,
98816,
10176,
136,
47143,
7,
23,
70,
27226,
387,
7,
5,
893,
1940,
48281,
43315,
66360,
18,
23,
70,
72249,
14449,
4,
17721,
70,
27863,
136,
6626,
707,
1286,
111,
2363,
20020,
4,
83,
1632,
111,
40368,
7722,
84079,
7,
111,
10,
51634,
137175,
289,
14449,
5,
1311,
1799,
5256,
23,
87143,
621,
1614,
16751,
7,
28032,
87143,
678,
1286,
128652,
337,
6990,
10484,
136,
621,
17569,
47,
186,
10,
24092,
111,
14449,
51634,
137175,
5,
7142,
58093,
7,
621,
552,
5922,
933,
111,
3395,
103122,
23,
70,
5701,
5622,
37457,
136,
2750,
12008,
21373,
15380,
134858,
5,
581,
6528,
111,
10,
2265,
58093,
4,
23,
70,
10422,
450,
442,
83,
11814,
18925,
4,
21647,
297,
226649,
23,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
5,
135967,
47,
450,
70,
23755,
44,
48281,
1363,
58,
1902,
137567,
15005,
2822,
47,
14449,
151618,
136,
959,
134744,
56,
2265,
21115,
5180,
5,
360,
141745,
4,
92265,
95,
73140,
41382,
56,
55598,
13,
77152,
4273,
1902,
61924,
71,
10,
58093,
237,
4,
44,
5584,
3395,
552,
54376,
214,
23,
100510,
99,
2499,
34475,
1733,
740,
48752,
289,
12768,
7,
125568,
71,
10,
3525,
6528,
111,
58093,
7,
4,
237,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
4323,
107,
98,
4,
111,
10,
100510,
101637,
71,
3934,
12921,
39283,
7,
111,
3395,
35509,
98,
32070,
5,
32255,
12768,
7,
3542,
756,
62548,
47,
70,
9433,
90,
111,
5744,
15032,
4,
25297,
15032,
4,
707,
171827,
15032,
4,
3129,
1902,
2809,
151134,
70,
2577,
111,
14713,
16792,
70,
4122,
9444,
927,
142642,
5,
6561,
509,
10,
15549,
23,
13893,
2481,
1672,
1733,
136,
2265,
15549,
5,
581,
118055,
151497,
3956,
111,
22,
20016,
33,
674,
25647,
65524,
71,
70,
6528,
450,
100510,
136,
6897,
3542,
15549,
2886,
4,
136,
450,
91944,
1363,
5809,
42658,
5,
3293,
65524,
71,
70,
28,
5490,
2320,
111,
156206,
678,
2265,
75312,
8202,
136,
15549,
5,
200541,
60971,
3826,
238,
23,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
27983,
162393,
98,
70,
75312,
14775,
14537,
111,
156206,
79507,
71,
390,
112664,
7,
6044,
237,
44389,
98848,
4,
44389,
102126,
4,
159,
987,
39,
165,
391,
5445,
4,
70,
30839,
116233,
209410,
4,
136,
3789,
79880,
112664,
7,
5,
3311,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
4,
28811,
91768,
16765,
3542,
60458,
71,
154732,
47644,
111,
70,
8999,
23,
58093,
289,
69407,
2451,
73,
69407,
111,
156206,
214267,
1830,
136,
210214,
2320,
5,
32964,
5526,
22231,
1916,
120103,
47,
70,
15549,
23,
13893,
2481,
3542,
70,
15549,
23,
70,
25313,
45646,
111,
100510,
5,
88949,
111,
70,
25545,
2265,
136,
25313,
15549,
4,
27150,
453,
106480,
3542,
40715,
186,
16200,
33,
47,
2363,
67373,
7,
136,
14449,
180210,
3501,
1836,
1902,
2809,
5,
32774,
56,
2265,
136,
25313,
3268,
2481,
107003,
2856,
47,
21917,
1003,
2363,
180210,
47,
10,
5045,
117396,
192961,
3501,
1902,
89160,
538,
2809,
7722,
5,
29117,
14,
43315,
538,
4,
70,
59376,
136,
218963,
111,
67373,
7,
3542,
27983,
40715,
167224,
3501,
1836,
1902,
2809,
4743,
47,
39713,
21533,
136,
2265,
15549,
5,
133698,
903,
1733,
4,
70,
14922,
17721,
29041,
44462,
136,
25171,
44462,
4,
56104,
66933,
99,
152363,
707,
23,
116338,
4516,
4,
509,
2843,
124735,
100,
5941,
3395,
22,
33558,
35011,
9,
8447,
320,
74464,
5,
3293,
95487,
111,
3395,
509,
4552,
26794,
80973,
23,
93403,
214,
70,
25647,
111,
156206,
7844,
75312,
8202,
5,
116267,
5526,
31461,
509,
70,
36356,
34695,
111,
89160,
2265,
136,
18150,
6,
221160,
7,
5,
581,
93403,
111,
15889,
8780,
136,
5941,
111,
70,
120103,
450,
75935,
442,
15,
11,
15889,
24234,
4,
147158,
9523,
12840,
1409,
15032,
4,
3835,
53019,
4,
15811,
48448,
111,
4000,
17311,
31075,
16,
65524,
71,
10,
134744,
56,
10422,
111,
66165,
81551,
107314,
4000,
261,
124903,
5256,
5,
41021,
17569,
111,
61261,
118055,
538,
237,
2831,
111,
10,
100510,
4,
136,
903,
65524,
71,
6,
221160,
678,
94407,
107314,
70,
4000,
5,
8055,
13,
3288,
67,
509,
70,
5117,
6,
119598,
56,
47,
3249,
10,
85583,
81887,
47,
242161,
25958,
35187,
58093,
7,
5,
360,
44,
10625,
12824,
8,
99644,
13,
24491,
58,
3288,
67,
42459,
297,
450,
2265,
15549,
83,
83324,
71,
390,
58093,
289,
15549,
136,
23,
17311,
79612,
17721,
208479,
58093,
7,
5,
1301,
70,
43032,
111,
10,
34475,
58093,
32070,
4,
2363,
44,
73,
12729,
15390,
111,
2265,
17467,
1363,
58,
24209,
7,
37515,
56,
4,
3129,
23,
111599,
78458,
136,
204988,
19095,
7,
2856,
3934,
79612,
678,
70,
44,
33176,
150380,
13,
111,
156206,
58,
2451,
192457,
5,
64511,
5526,
3790,
24816,
7,
111,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
3542,
4939,
211524,
37837,
136,
96513,
11335,
2347,
53,
5,
240168,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
58093,
83,
44,
5584,
111,
70,
3395,
103122,
136,
38043,
99,
1672,
70,
5701,
1733,
4,
28601,
297,
143849,
538,
1242,
1650,
831,
2843,
186,
151552,
237,
4,
44,
2347,
83080,
14922,
4,
137567,
90698,
47,
186,
1672,
6,
95037,
939,
5369,
4,
20271,
3129,
20020,
621,
103122,
136,
55993,
1257,
4,
24209,
116127,
4,
136,
9842,
47,
765,
20020,
5,
360,
29842,
16070,
18614,
25443,
4,
442,
83,
10,
118990,
141,
13579,
4331,
26518,
70,
49129,
9,
206,
38472,
76755,
5,
1650,
83,
2843,
51529,
237,
3530,
15292,
6023,
4,
42238,
1363,
4,
707,
10402,
107,
2320,
23,
70,
333,
109622,
41664,
7,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1285158 | en-train-1285158 | 1285158 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Familial generation.",
"Social generation.",
"Generational theory.",
"Generational tension.",
"List of named generations.",
"Western world.",
"Other terminology."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The word \"generate\" comes from the Latin \"generāre\", meaning \"to beget\". The word \"generation\" as a \"Group or cohort\" in social science signifies the entire body of individuals born and living at about the same time, most of whom are approximately the same age and have similar ideas, problems, and attitudes (e.g., Beat Generation and Lost Generation).",
"A familial generation is a group of living beings constituting a single step in the line of descent from an ancestor. In developed nations the average familial generation length is in the high 20s and has even reached 30 years in some nations. Factors such as greater industrialisation and demand for cheap labour, urbanisation, delayed first pregnancy and a greater uncertainty in both employment income and relationship stability have all contributed to the increase of the generation length from the late 18th century to the present. These changes can be attributed to social factors, such as GDP and state policy, globalization, automation, and related individual-level variables, particularly a woman's educational attainment. Conversely, in less-developed nations, generation length has changed little and remains in the low 20s. An intergenerational rift in the nuclear family, between the parents and two or more of their children, is one of several possible dynamics of a dysfunctional family. Coalitions in families are subsystems within families with more rigid boundaries and are thought to be a sign of family dysfunction.",
"Social generations are cohorts of people born in the same date range and who share similar cultural experiences. The idea of a social generation, in the sense that it is used today, gained currency in the 19th century. Prior to that the concept \"generation\" had generally referred to family relationships and not broader social groupings. In 1863, French lexicographer Emile Littré had defined a generation as, \"all people coexisting in society at any given time\". Several trends promoted a new idea of generations, as the 19th century wore on, of a society divided into different categories of people based on age. These trends were all related to the processes of modernisation, industrialisation, or westernisation, which had been changing the face of Europe since the mid-18th century. One was a change in mentality about time and social change. The increasing prevalence of enlightenment ideas encouraged the idea that society and life were changeable, and that civilization could progress. This encouraged the equation of youth with social renewal and change. Political rhetoric in the 19th century often focused on the renewing power of youth influenced by movements such as Young Italy, Young Germany, Sturm und Drang, the German Youth Movement, and other romantic movements. By the end of the 19th century, European intellectuals were disposed toward thinking of the world in generational terms—in terms of youth rebellion and emancipation. Two important contributing factors to the change in mentality were the change in the economic structure of society. Because of the rapid social and economic change, young men particularly were less beholden to their fathers and family authority than they had been. Greater social and economic mobility allowed them to flout their authority to a much greater extent than had traditionally been possible. Additionally, the skills and wisdom of fathers were often less valuable than they had been due to technological and social change. During this time, the period between childhood and adulthood, usually spent at university or in military service, was also increased for many people entering white-collar jobs. This category of people was very influential in spreading the ideas of youthful renewal. Another important factor was the breakdown of traditional social and regional identifications. The spread of nationalism and many of the factors that created it (a national press, linguistic homogenisation, public education, suppression of local particularities) encouraged a broader sense of belonging beyond local affiliations. People thought of themselves increasingly as part of a society, and this encouraged identification with groups beyond the local. Auguste Comte was the first philosopher to make a serious attempt to systematically study generations. In \"Cours de philosophie positive\" Comte suggested that social change is determined by generational change and in particular conflict between successive generations. As the members of a given generation age, their \"instinct of social conservation\" becomes stronger, which inevitably and necessarily brings them into conflict with the \"normal attribute of youth\"—innovation. Other important theorists of the 19th century were John Stuart Mill and Wilhelm Dilthey. Sociologist Karl Mannheim was a seminal figure in the study of generations. He elaborated a theory of generations in his 1923 essay \"The Problem of Generations\". He suggested that there had been a division into two primary schools of study of generations until that time. Firstly, positivists such as Comte measured social change in designated life spans. Mannheim argued that this reduced history to \"a chronological table\". The other school, the \"romantic-historical\" was represented by Dilthey and Martin Heidegger. This school focused on the individual qualitative experience at the expense of social context. Mannheim emphasised that the rapidity of social change in youth was crucial to the formation of generations, and that not every generation would come to see itself as distinct. In periods of rapid social change a generation would be much more likely to develop a cohesive character. He also believed that a number of distinct sub-generations could exist. According to Gilleard and Higgs, Mannheim identified three commonalities that a generation shares: Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe developed the Strauss-Howe generational theory outlining what they saw as a pattern of generations repeating throughout American history. This theory became quite influential with the public and reignited an interest in the sociology of generations. This led to the creation of an industry of consulting, publishing, and marketing in the field. The theory has alternatively been criticized by social scientists and journalists who argue it is non-falsifiable, deterministic, and unsupported by rigorous evidence.",
"While the concept of a generation has a long history and can be found in ancient literature, there are also psychological and sociological dimensions in the sense of belonging and identity which may define a generation. The concept of a generation can be used to locate particular birth cohorts in specific historical and cultural circumstances, such as the \"Baby boomers\". Historian Hans Jaeger shows that, during this long history, two schools of thought coalesced regarding how generations form: the \"pulse-rate hypothesis\" and the \"imprint hypothesis.\" According to the pulse-rate hypothesis, a society's entire population can be divided into a series of non-overlapping cohorts, each of which develops a unique \"peer personality\" because of the time period in which each cohort came of age. The movement of these cohorts from one life-stage to the next creates a repeating cycle that shapes the history of that society. Currently, the most prominent example of pulse-rate generational theory is the Strauss-Howe generational theory; however, Jose Ortega y Gasset and Julián Marías followed this approach before them. Social scientists tend to reject the pulse-rate hypothesis because, as Jaeger explains, \"the concrete results of the theory of the universal pulse rate of history are, of course, very modest. With a few exceptions, the same goes for the partial pulse-rate theories. Since they generally gather data without any knowledge of statistical principles, the authors are often least likely to notice to what extent the jungle of names and numbers which they present lacks any convincing organization according to generations.\" Social scientists follow the \"imprint hypothesis\" of generations, which can be traced to Karl Mannheim's theory of generations. According to the imprint hypothesis, generations are only produced by specific historical events that cause young people to perceive the world differently than their elders. Thus, not everyone may be part of a generation; only those who share a unique social and biographical experience of an important historical moment will become part of a \"generation as an actuality.\" When following the imprint hypothesis, social scientists face a number of challenges. They cannot accept the labels and chronological boundaries of generations that come from the pulse-rate hypothesis (like Generation X or Millennial); instead, the chronological boundaries of generations must be determined inductively and who is part of the generation must be determined through historical, quantitative, and qualitative analysis. While all generations have similarities, there are differences among them as well. A 2007 Pew Research Center report called \"Millennials: Confident. Connected. Open to Change\" noted the challenge of studying generations: \"Generational analysis has a long and distinguished place in social science, and we cast our lot with those scholars who believe it is not only possible, but often highly illuminating, to search for the unique and distinctive characteristics of any given age group of Americans. But we also know this is not an exact science. We are mindful that there are as many differences in attitudes, values, behaviors, and lifestyles within a generation as there are between generations. But we believe this reality does not diminish the value of generational analysis; it merely adds to its richness and complexity.\" Another element of generational theory is recognizing how youth experience their generation, and how that changes based on where they reside in the world. \"Analyzing young people's experiences in place contributes to a deeper understanding of the processes of individualization, inequality, and of generation.\" Being able to take a closer looks at youth cultures and subcultures in different times and places adds an extra element to understanding the everyday lives of youth. This allows a better understanding of youth and the way generation and place play in their development. It is not where the birth cohort boundaries are drawn that is important, but how individuals and societies interpret the boundaries and how divisions may shape processes and outcomes. However, the practice of categorizing age cohorts is useful to researchers for the purpose of constructing boundaries in their work.",
"Norman Ryder, writing in \"American Sociological Review\" in 1965, shed light on the sociology of the discord between generations by suggesting that society \"persists despite the mortality of its individual members, through processes of demographic metabolism and particularly the annual infusion of birth cohorts\". He argued that generations may sometimes be a \"threat to stability\" but at the same time they represent \"the opportunity for social transformation\". Ryder attempted to understand the dynamics at play between generations. Amanda Grenier, in a 2007 essay published in \"Journal of Social Issues\", offered another source of explanation for why generational tensions exist. Grenier asserted that generations develop their own linguistic models that contribute to misunderstanding between age cohorts, \"Different ways of speaking exercised by older and younger people exist, and may be partially explained by social historical reference points, culturally determined experiences, and individual interpretations\". Karl Mannheim, in his 1952 book \"Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge\" asserted the belief that people are shaped through lived experiences as a result of social change. Howe and Strauss also have written on the similarities of people within a generation being attributed to social change. Based on the way these lived experiences shape a generation in regard to values, the result is that the new generation will challenge the older generation's values, resulting in tension. This challenge between generations and the tension that arises is a defining point for understanding generations and what separates them.",
"",
"The Western world includes Western Europe, the Americas, and Australasia. Many variations may exist within these regions, both geographically and culturally, which means that the list is broadly indicative, but very general. The contemporary characterization of these cohorts used in media and advertising borrows, in part, from the Strauss–Howe generational theory and generally follows the logic of the pulse-rate hypothesis.",
"The term generation is sometimes applied to a cultural movement, or more narrowly defined group than an entire demographic. Some examples include:"
]
} |
...Baby One More Time (song) | null | "...Baby One More Time" is the debut single by American singer Britney Spears from her debut studio album of the same title (1999). It was written by Max Martin and produced by Martin and Rami. After recording and sending a demo tape with an unused song from Toni Braxton, Spears signed a multi-album deal with Jive. "...Baby One More Time" is a pop song that refers to a girl's feelings after a break-up with her boyfriend. | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
18237,
10586,
4,
26530,
21816,
509,
23,
22120,
7,
678,
31095,
42225,
134852,
669,
47,
33284,
117776,
7426,
21115,
360,
157,
100033,
5,
54012,
86,
26530,
21816,
37170,
14449,
34391,
136,
141778,
183093,
174821,
4518,
5876,
11727,
100,
1919,
33153,
136,
230121,
10,
62690,
111,
26530,
21816,
5367,
214,
645,
10,
127325,
10186,
122046,
145597,
11531,
33233,
678,
3060,
75073,
5,
4518,
5876,
11727,
68872,
764,
36663,
47,
163451,
604,
47,
17164,
67967,
7,
4,
127298,
2412,
44841,
10,
23182,
53397,
5,
1529,
9325,
26530,
21816,
142,
51,
33740,
11531,
1295,
98765,
6163,
425,
1507,
74,
2412,
456,
90431,
5281,
100,
10,
5895,
136,
17164,
297,
604,
108171,
7,
23,
10,
12275,
678,
10,
45730,
185118,
5,
26530,
21816,
26983,
297,
47,
2356,
5753,
678,
70,
53397,
136,
435,
678,
159354,
7,
1295,
22759,
67967,
7,
4,
30646,
214,
47,
77261,
25876,
70,
5701,
5155,
5,
129335,
111,
70,
67967,
7,
6,
34590,
89829,
604,
4,
106926,
214,
95771,
7,
36663,
7426,
8753,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
26828,
5967,
126,
112860,
136,
70,
33365,
329,
61240,
4,
136,
44,
9319,
13,
58954,
25,
18,
7730,
47,
186,
15700,
140101,
4,
15700,
94388,
9014,
92260,
1681,
4,
707,
15700,
169661,
1242,
32964,
40859,
14432,
4,
159354,
7,
1295,
821,
96479,
89916,
176377,
11782,
7,
47,
4518,
5876,
11727,
5,
49952,
22925,
13918,
111,
62,
1230,
1052,
101681,
131705,
11341,
71,
1672,
26530,
21816,
25,
7,
20461,
1363,
450,
44,
23389,
25,
7,
4552,
41207,
47,
36802,
22008,
450,
32070,
2750,
831,
75060,
88965,
10941,
136,
60091,
149528,
5,
1449,
1326,
2499,
22104,
4,
70,
98365,
2451,
2347,
242,
31463,
111,
70,
6,
102577,
25,
2451,
83,
111531,
5526,
5,
3493,
212803,
1902,
450,
1242,
10660,
6,
140545,
297,
604,
47,
4488,
678,
108558,
51838,
135406,
56,
22392,
100,
10,
31150,
4,
2750,
113771,
538,
115700,
71,
604,
54479,
1295,
44,
17336,
56,
136,
40715,
160,
66433,
58,
117989,
47,
44,
46295,
38893,
4935,
538,
4,
51,
11714,
161,
38526,
212803,
1242,
24372,
129271,
70,
17164,
297,
4912,
4,
13918,
313,
24056,
9113,
820,
12989,
297,
10,
4393,
7156,
5,
26530,
21816,
1902,
7311,
538,
22,
25826,
297,
44,
294,
3334,
8613,
135451,
19612,
4,
1284,
27150,
56,
1286,
25171,
158,
99736,
6635,
58,
1284,
29131,
756,
7108,
678,
604,
67967,
25,
7,
164306,
111,
108558,
7,
4,
16792,
44,
23389,
7228,
1286,
10422,
47,
738,
7426,
4,
6637,
87,
831,
82393,
47,
442,
2451,
217,
25,
7,
1286,
163,
1242,
131705,
37170,
108558,
9920,
6470,
47,
23356,
26530,
21816,
23,
44,
27,
111753,
53,
6561,
5455,
19055,
58,
83,
10,
7003,
7426,
619,
82393,
9,
33554,
11531,
450,
4568,
7,
100,
17262,
14633,
136,
6,
95037,
939,
94131,
5,
581,
11531,
83,
150350,
71,
23,
70,
22799,
111,
313,
43967,
136,
83,
5423,
23,
70,
1733,
138256,
111,
201,
17357,
39210,
1733,
678,
10,
71644,
13,
2167,
111,
17461,
42659,
7,
117,
15393,
5,
5986,
199332,
136,
36049,
83,
21334,
538,
35509,
98,
96362,
5024,
14,
1900,
36049,
7,
4,
2684,
959,
78458,
30520,
3371,
25075,
4503,
25,
7,
44,
168660,
1215,
11954,
58,
3129,
45831,
21373,
11531,
150370,
4,
47617,
103510,
7,
4,
68590,
101275,
7,
136,
16569,
5962,
7,
5,
26530,
21816,
25,
7,
108171,
37457,
27734,
7,
645,
1632,
154447,
272,
1295,
241,
47,
313,
5,
581,
11531,
9842,
7,
678,
10,
17262,
9,
48345,
102908,
23,
70,
4950,
7,
37457,
111,
70,
16569,
4,
142,
73432,
450,
1556,
2809,
154186,
47,
5941,
3789,
52336,
4,
6044,
237,
44,
12137,
20255,
14434,
2583,
58,
15,
124168,
247,
44,
126597,
1215,
10091,
58,
15,
100986,
247,
44,
3957,
184,
22543,
7,
58,
105498,
136,
70,
73986,
11531,
111,
70,
1346,
44,
6979,
19725,
58,
4743,
47,
70,
15824,
34890,
180,
5387,
1272,
4,
42179,
111,
44,
3957,
11704,
7,
58,
119845,
4,
959,
297,
70,
11531,
44,
13689,
16406,
48141,
237,
307,
45226,
390,
3060,
35778,
7,
4,
14373,
308,
48398,
3934,
70,
5701,
8562,
111,
95771,
47,
136565,
70,
33365,
329,
61240,
19612,
149528,
297,
4,
27150,
7003,
7,
136,
479,
9,
8927,
7,
1242,
119497,
172014,
111,
56362,
94922,
6868,
297,
4,
44,
1065,
42940,
24624,
6561,
5455,
19055,
58,
83,
268,
5299,
9,
277,
144429,
4,
107137,
538,
137356,
71,
4,
136,
3853,
678,
26530,
21816,
25,
7,
108171,
205969,
7,
442,
60899,
80560,
100,
70,
211544,
15403,
7426,
113701,
320,
1242,
4687,
2843,
2804,
450,
70,
11531,
509,
10,
127308,
23,
70,
7426,
19612,
30773,
136,
49814,
4,
44,
116959,
83,
10176,
92814,
450,
242,
27,
111753,
53,
6561,
5455,
19055,
25,
1221,
186,
4989,
37629,
297,
237,
1632,
111,
70,
107767,
34165,
7,
111,
7426,
19612,
23,
4537,
4,
136,
442,
83,
10,
37515,
12912,
9,
142117,
237,
70,
160469,
13,
100,
70,
72399,
2510,
7,
7426,
3332,
148791,
1242,
19893,
122930,
111,
56888,
5,
277,
90698,
44,
27,
111753,
53,
6561,
5455,
19055,
58,
237,
26530,
21816,
25,
7,
2965,
11531,
4,
54433,
4,
44,
2347,
11531,
83,
4393,
111,
150522,
7,
136,
10,
6957,
154909,
7426,
45730,
5,
581,
11531,
509,
51521,
538,
9325,
47,
70,
15672,
5977,
29398,
7,
98,
18374,
24645,
82490,
2161,
7582,
21416,
9571,
4,
44,
27,
111753,
53,
6561,
5455,
19055,
58,
34377,
297,
98,
70,
44,
192948,
24351,
58,
9903,
805,
99,
14012,
729,
136,
47,
48398,
70,
116287,
6626,
136,
10,
23552,
21775,
14432,
100,
6626,
148390,
13,
40859,
4,
456,
133266,
214,
627,
1230,
571,
9,
7,
21228,
23243,
53,
25,
7,
44,
6495,
272,
2583,
78650,
2953,
5,
13207,
202,
60626,
79850,
4,
442,
194637,
297,
47,
14012,
9,
3630,
98,
70,
180972,
43609,
7,
110373,
5,
581,
11531,
157578,
70,
2663,
13162,
111,
70,
9903,
805,
43609,
7,
88583,
136,
24765,
297,
2685,
100,
22759,
148390,
13,
40859,
5,
3293,
155605,
25793,
2118,
71,
70,
11001,
47,
10,
133782,
316,
219508,
390,
70,
54877,
214,
164254,
56187,
111,
21629,
5,
145733,
959,
237,
37515,
237,
6863,
40575,
2776,
25720,
4,
44,
27,
111753,
53,
6561,
5455,
19055,
58,
2843,
122446,
150675,
1831,
20706,
4,
141753,
604,
5117,
2663,
1492,
5962,
98,
70,
9903,
805,
5345,
20706,
4,
16320,
6048,
99,
14012,
136659,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
44,
27,
111753,
53,
6561,
5455,
19055,
58,
83,
70,
34377,
11001,
390,
15672,
5367,
56,
212803,
26530,
21816,
1295,
604,
34377,
12275,
7156,
111,
70,
5701,
44759,
146783,
5,
1650,
509,
59121,
390,
9920,
6470,
136,
181653,
390,
6470,
136,
8446,
14,
5,
24372,
182304,
136,
135834,
10,
53397,
62690,
678,
142,
51,
33740,
11531,
1295,
98765,
6163,
425,
1507,
4,
26530,
21816,
181141,
10,
6024,
9,
54981,
35142,
678,
3291,
272,
5,
44,
27,
111753,
53,
6561,
5455,
19055,
58,
83,
10,
7426,
11531,
450,
15005,
7,
47,
10,
23040,
25,
7,
34698,
7,
7103,
10,
36356,
9,
2037,
678,
604,
177367,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-305644 | en-train-305644 | 305644 | {
"title": [
"Background.",
"Music and lyrics.",
"Critical reception.",
"Chart performance.",
"Music video.",
"Background.",
"Synopsis.",
"Reception.",
"Live performances.",
"Cover versions, samples and usage in media.",
"Legacy.",
"Credits and personnel.",
"Certifications."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In June 1997, Spears was in talks with manager Lou Pearlman to join female pop group Innosense. Lynne Spears asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song along with some pictures. Rudolph decided he wanted to pitch her to record labels, therefore she needed a professional demo. He sent Spears an unused song from Toni Braxton; she rehearsed for a week and recorded her vocals in a studio with a sound engineer. Spears traveled to New York with the demo and met with executives from four labels, returning to Kentwood the same day. Three of the labels rejected her, arguing audiences wanted pop bands such as the Backstreet Boys and the Spice Girls, and \"there wasn't going to be another Madonna, another Debbie Gibson, or another Tiffany.\" Two weeks later, executives from JIVE Records returned calls to Rudolph. Senior vice president of A&R Jeff Fenster stated about Spears's audition that \"It's very rare to hear someone that age who can deliver emotional content and commercial appeal. [...] For any artist, the motivation—the 'eye of the tiger'— is extremely important. And Britney had that.\" They appointed her to work with producer Eric Foster White for a month, who reportedly shaped her voice from \"lower and less poppy\" delivery to \"distinctively, unmistakably Britney.\" After hearing the recorded material, president Clive Calder ordered a full album. Spears had originally envisioned \"Sheryl Crow music, but younger more adult contemporary\" but felt all right with her label's appointment of producers, since \"It made more sense to go pop, because I can dance to it—it's more me.\" Fenster asked producer Max Martin to meet Spears in",
"\"...Baby One More Time\" is a teen pop & dance-pop song that lasts for three minutes and thirty seconds. The song is composed in the key of C minor and is set in the time signature of 4/4 common time with a moderate tempo of 93 beats per minute. Songwriting and production is largely based on previous Cheiron productions, most notably Robyn Carlsson's \"Show Me Love\" which shows similar song scheme, drum patterns, wah guitars and piano hits. Spears's vocal range spans over one octave from E to C. The song begins with a three-note motif in the bass range of the piano, an opening that has been compared to many other songs, such as \"We Will Rock You\" (1977), \"Start Me Up\" (1981), \"These Words\" (2004) and the theme song of the film \"Jaws\" due to the fact",
"Marc Oxoby, author of \"The 1990s\" (2003), noted the song \"was derided as vapid by some critics, yet tapped into the same kind of audience to whom the Spice Girls music appealed, young teens and pre-teens.\" Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic commented, \"[\"... Baby One More Time\" is] well-composed, tightly arranged, and even with Spears's vocal limitations it goes straight for the proverbial pop jugular.\" She also said that the song was a highlight in the pop music genre and added, \"There is little doubt that '...Baby One More Time' will be long remembered as one of the cornerstones of pop music in general, and it is a strong front-runner as the prototype for the late 90s pop resurgence.\" Bill Lamb of About.com considered \"...Baby One More Time\" as Spears's best song, saying, \"the song is full of hooks and a big mainstream pop sound.",
"The song was officially sent to the American radio stations on October 23, 1998. On November 21, 1998, \"...Baby One More Time\" debuted on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 at number 17 and topped the chart two and a half months later for two consecutive weeks, replacing R&B-singer Brandy's \"Have You Ever?\". Simultaneously, it climbed to number-one on the Canadian Singles Chart. The song reached the top spot of the Hot 100 Singles Sales and stayed there for four consecutive weeks. This eventually propelled the single to a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America. Though not as strong as its sales tallies, \"...Baby One More Time\" also experienced considerable airplay, becoming her first top ten hit on the Hot 100 Airplay, peaking at number eight. The single also became an all-around hit on Top 40 radio, going top ten on both the Top 40 Tracks and Rhythmic Top 40, and to number one for five weeks on the Mainstream Top 40. It spent 32 weeks on the Hot 100 and ended up at number five on Billboard magazine's year-end chart. As of June 2012, \"...Baby One More Time\" has sold 1,412,000 physical singles, with 511,000 paid digital downloads in the United States. It is Spears's best-selling physical single in the country. \"...Baby One More Time\" debuted at number 20 on the Australian Singles Chart,",
"",
"The music video was directed by Nigel Dick. After being chosen, Dick received criticism from his colleagues about wanting to work with Spears. He responded saying, \"It's a great song. I don't know anything about Britney. I never watched \"The Mickey Mouse Club\". She seems like a great kid and she's very enthusiastic, but I just love the song. It's just a great song\". The video's original setup was in high contrast to what eventually became the final product. The plan was to have the video in a cartoon-like environment, in a likely attempt to attract the audience of younger children. Spears was unhappy with this, and argued that she wanted her video to reflect the lives of her fans and wanted to set the video in a school. Spears",
"The video begins with Spears appearing bored in class at a Catholic high school. Her assistant Felicia Culotta played the role of Spears's teacher. When the bell rings, Spears runs out into the hall and begins a choreographed dance in the corridor. After this, Spears is outside, now adorned in a pink athletic outfit, and seen in a car. Along with a couple of other students, she performs a number of gymnastic moves before heading back inside. She",
"The schoolgirl outfit is considered to be one of Spears's iconic looks and is on display at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. The ensemble caused controversy among parents associations for showing the midriff of a sixteen-year-old. Spears faced the criticism saying, \"Me showing my belly? I'm from the South; you're stupid if you don't wear a sports bra [when you] go to dance class, you're going to be sweating your butt off.\" In 1999, \"...Baby One More Time\" earned Spears her first three MTV Video Music Award nominations, in the categories of Best Pop Video, Best Choreography, and Best Female Video. In a list compiled by VH1 in 2001, it was listed at number ninety in the best videos of all time. The video was the first of fourteen of her videos to retire on MTV's television series \"TRL\". On its final episode, a three-hour special aired on November 16, 2008, \"...Baby One More",
"The first ever live performance of the song was at the \"Singapore Jazz Festival\" in Singapore, May 16, 1998. At this show, she also performs for the first time ever, the song \"Sometimes\". Britney performed \"...Baby One More Time\" on several occasions. She performed the song on July 6, 1999, during her appearance at the Woodstock 99 festival. Neil Strauss, from \"The New York Times\", noted that \"all the backing music was on tape, and most of the vocals were recorded, with Ms. Spears just reinforcing selected words in choruses and singing an occasional snippet of a verse\". It was also performed at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards; after a classroom roll call ended, Spears appeared on the stage and began performing the song. Halfway through, she was joined by Justin Timberlake and the members of NSYNC for a dance routine. Afterwards, the band performed their hit \"Tearin' Up My Heart\". The song was also performed at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards, along with \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\", the 1999 Billboard Music Awards, the 1999 Smash Hits Poll Winners Party, the Christmas Day edition of Top of the Pops and the Greenwich Millennium concert on 31 December 1999, she also performed it with broadcasters David Dimbleby and Michael Buerk on 2000 Today. Spears performed the song in a medley with \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" at the 42nd Grammy Awards. Spears was wearing a turtleneck and a full tulle skirt at the beginning of the performance, while dancers surrounded her with enormous hand fans. After singing a shortened version of the song, she then took a few moments to shuffle into a form-fitting red rhinestone outfit (with side cutouts) and emerged onto a stage to perform \"...Baby One More Time.\" Spears was also criticized of lipsynching the song during her performance. Later, in 2003, Spears performed the song in a remixed form at \"Britney Spears: In the",
"\"...Baby One More Time\" has been covered on numerous occasions. One of the earliest live covers of the song was by the Scottish band Travis, recorded during one of their concerts at \"The Bay Tavern\" in Robin Hood's Bay, North Yorkshire, England. The song was later included in the release of their 1999 single, \"Turn\". Lead singer Francis Healey said, \"We did it for a laugh the first time. [..] And as we played it, the irony slipped from my smile. It's a very well-crafted song. It [has] that magic thing.\" \"The Guardian\" said this cover showed a new and more \"dark\" side of the band, commenting \"slowed down to a mournful crawl, it was amazing how ominous the couplet \"This loneliness is killing me / Hit me, baby, one more time\" sounded\". PopWreckoning.com called it \"perhaps the most well done cover of Britney's catalyst to eternal fame\". Spears heard their version while shopping in a mall and said, \"It was so weird. I liked it though, I thought it was cool. It was a very different vibe from what I did\". In July 2005, The Dresden Dolls performed a cover during their summer concerts while opening for Panic! at the Disco. On July 18, 2006, frontman Brendon Urie joined the band to perform the song in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. PopWreckoning.com said the cover was \"a strange twist to this pop ditty. It's obviously darker and actually tortured as opposed to Britney's school girl despair\". The song was featured in a scene in Madonna's directorial debut \"Filth and Wisdom\". On November 29, 2008, the same day Spears performed \"Womanizer\" on \"The X Factor\", contestants JLS performed a cover of the song that was deemed \"lame\" by judge Simon Cowell. In 2000, the song elements were used for the Jamaican Dancehall beat \"\" riddim. On July 13, 2009, Tori Amos covered the song live during her Sinful Attraction Tour at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland, California. On October 15, that year, Kris Allen covered the song for the first time at a concert in Seton High School in Cincinnati, Ohio. His rendition received positive reviews.",
"\"...Baby One More Time\" was listed at number twenty five in the greatest pop songs since 1963, in a list compiled by \"Rolling Stone\" and MTV in 2000. \"Blender\" listed it at number nine in The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born. The song was also listed as the 2nd best song of the 1990s by VH1 and in a listing compiled in 2003, ranked at number one in 100 Best Songs of the Past 25 Years. Bill Lamb of About.com ranked \"...Baby One More Time\" at number one on a compiled list with the Top 40 Pop Songs Of All Time. The music video was voted the third most influential promo in the history of pop music on a poll held by Jam!. \"...Baby One More Time\" is also one of the best-selling singles of all time, with over 9 million copies sold, and also earned Spears's first nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. In April 2005, the British TV network ITV aired a short series called \"Hit Me, Baby, One More Time\" hosted by Vernon Kay. The show pitted one-hit wonders who generally had their moments of fame in the 1980s against each other to play their own hits and a currently popular cover song. The favorites were chosen by audience voting. The American version of the show also aired on NBC later in the year, and it was also hosted by Kay. In the 2012 poll created by The Official Chart Company and ITV to discover The Nation's Favourite Number 1 Single of all-time, \"...Baby One More Time\" was listed as the seventh favorite",
"Credits for \"...Baby One More Time\" and \"Autumn Goodbye\"",
"!scope=\"col\" colspan=\"4\"| Digital"
]
} |
United Kingdom and the euro | null | The United Kingdom did not seek to adopt the euro as its official currency for the duration of its membership of the European Union (EU), and secured an opt-out at the euro's creation via the Maastricht Treaty in 1992. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
14098,
117604,
30957,
297,
70,
28811,
104758,
131182,
1215,
17032,
8780,
15,
12501,
594,
247,
10,
479,
107,
3181,
11090,
100,
30666,
214,
70,
2714,
4,
23,
18374,
96145,
581,
17274,
66933,
645,
11762,
910,
96090,
31577,
47,
13695,
6863,
226649,
4,
70,
160,
7030,
28063,
2069,
4,
28032,
70,
653,
118201,
17475,
7,
479,
34601,
71,
390,
241,
25656,
4,
1284,
509,
168861,
47,
82230,
70,
26693,
28032,
6626,
5369,
7103,
70,
160,
7030,
28063,
2069,
21449,
1379,
13036,
81147,
1295,
226649,
149575,
22230,
5,
581,
22,
1159,
214,
150631,
111,
611,
6088,
12839,
509,
221419,
538,
38913,
13482,
44,
97732,
64227,
1242,
133698,
70,
9807,
118,
21094,
111,
70,
201290,
4804,
67530,
111,
12839,
4,
70,
17274,
111670,
71,
142,
43922,
9,
6056,
1295,
30666,
214,
70,
2714,
5,
581,
27759,
111,
36770,
56195,
33744,
59689,
191316,
159978,
71,
450,
44,
1029,
272,
25313,
109921,
58,
8110,
186,
115081,
8108,
70,
27759,
5809,
67330,
70,
17274,
33284,
214,
70,
2714,
136,
103036,
71,
47,
16401,
10,
37503,
98,
209274,
2174,
8382,
43606,
25313,
109921,
3542,
435,
5,
1840,
194322,
53,
25,
7,
4804,
162,
44616,
5117,
202120,
297,
43606,
25313,
109921,
23,
18374,
10586,
4,
3229,
442,
509,
68872,
450,
70,
17274,
111503,
509,
2725,
9319,
6,
129980,
538,
158,
74789,
71,
678,
450,
111,
70,
10588,
111,
70,
3747,
4,
12488,
6,
129980,
538,
110677,
4,
47,
1660,
40383,
10,
67330,
2320,
111,
209274,
99,
450,
1733,
5,
116267,
164031,
509,
91376,
98,
483,
18237,
6052,
390,
119892,
40218,
4,
3229,
764,
509,
76710,
141,
1484,
111,
70,
5443,
1430,
27227,
5,
145733,
76104,
214,
70,
27759,
25,
7,
24491,
21455,
98,
70,
2714,
4,
70,
13416,
233,
144429,
209274,
6637,
22759,
1810,
111,
70,
43606,
109921,
3542,
959,
115081,
5,
33306,
4,
70,
6052,
12937,
2843,
959,
297,
70,
150675,
42658,
111,
70,
17274,
98186,
40407,
38543,
70,
43606,
109921,
16792,
10586,
4,
136,
70,
224,
481,
41159,
111,
20662,
44930,
115299,
47,
39908,
70,
17274,
111503,
47,
11522,
40407,
53,
70,
109921,
23,
22690,
5,
1650,
1059,
3674,
150675,
4989,
9,
32166,
72382,
47,
186,
21647,
297,
1295,
57693,
4,
129209,
538,
55080,
297,
79048,
136,
103739,
6635,
32528,
15,
647,
23330,
16,
209274,
5,
581,
17274,
2806,
2843,
765,
47,
23356,
70,
3747,
25,
7,
25313,
158,
814,
110343,
55738,
11,
15,
4613,
4438,
39334,
55738,
11,
16,
8108,
8035,
107003,
47,
30666,
70,
2714,
74,
3129,
99,
450,
1733,
70,
17274,
25,
7,
77253,
27759,
87024,
47,
70,
55215,
85727,
12996,
15,
69731,
16,
509,
36917,
70,
61924,
71,
159399,
7,
16200,
5,
581,
27759,
174176,
68034,
47,
10,
162738,
9,
9007,
42,
6785,
50491,
8108,
33284,
214,
70,
2714,
18979,
4,
23,
3784,
6496,
35707,
1405,
390,
70,
185464,
4,
223606,
4,
136,
70,
172378,
2182,
23,
10,
37503,
5,
40218,
4,
191316,
25,
7,
39457,
42,
4,
79986,
71,
1810,
209274,
23,
56434,
54433,
450,
70,
51957,
959,
47,
33284,
1902,
2809,
26785,
100,
130891,
136,
100,
14713,
5,
360,
14487,
43304,
17151,
145938,
991,
4,
70,
34202,
111,
70,
28811,
63871,
4,
30745,
92265,
5977,
450,
3060,
56101,
39624,
10133,
3542,
179635,
70,
25813,
6637,
111,
70,
93425,
111,
70,
7964,
53477,
52028,
5,
40218,
8,
93,
297,
450,
2685,
509,
2499,
15549,
23,
51521,
44930,
5,
360,
22482,
37771,
103739,
6635,
80042,
184593,
63871,
56,
2177,
74688,
19,
884,
561,
1174,
2804,
44,
2347,
18227,
450,
70,
56101,
160,
7030,
28063,
2069,
1221,
33284,
12,
11192,
1242,
581,
17274,
121447,
3525,
43780,
4331,
7,
23,
2021,
25632,
70,
25674,
62802,
25,
7,
129058,
456,
34198,
111,
70,
15889,
226649,
16792,
32380,
2749,
15032,
23,
32158,
5,
30839,
7123,
41260,
44,
47731,
144943,
58,
24124,
903,
237,
142,
14585,
1363,
450,
70,
23295,
1556,
110,
91177,
111,
101089,
214,
47,
70,
2714,
28032,
70,
100,
7717,
13,
2886,
22690,
5,
1650,
83,
49903,
142,
51,
5429,
75639,
101805,
450,
70,
43780,
4331,
7,
5608,
186,
98816,
11907,
1112,
5369,
47,
13695,
70,
43780,
4588,
63335,
5,
360,
70,
17274,
4537,
81843,
36404,
70,
91441,
138235,
7,
124735,
2363,
12008,
111,
70,
43374,
4,
1284,
72856,
40,
9821,
5,
6561,
111,
2363,
131264,
509,
47,
1957,
70,
17274,
456,
513,
14653,
241,
25656,
1995,
136,
155605,
33284,
214,
70,
2714,
4,
1284,
3229,
10,
5798,
150,
1363,
509,
100,
4806,
17721,
70,
91441,
138235,
7,
136,
70,
78771,
42991,
4,
70,
91441,
138235,
7,
176506,
450,
70,
17274,
2806,
959,
33284,
70,
2714,
20271,
903,
13579,
111,
27759,
5,
77168,
214,
70,
81843,
111,
10,
144732,
9,
11935,
65756,
42991,
27759,
23,
70,
221419,
81843,
4,
10,
37503,
98,
3747,
209274,
68034,
509,
34658,
4,
136,
70,
16750,
509,
23,
1238,
141775,
111,
137802,
70,
3747,
5,
66016,
70,
17274,
1556,
205850,
19,
1295,
70,
3747,
4,
2714,
6,
180064,
83,
138155,
538,
69201,
5,
31267,
2174,
27759,
136,
707,
3835,
33153,
3542,
47,
15549,
4,
70,
3747,
25,
7,
19069,
83,
450,
50960,
76726,
2806,
4734,
30666,
70,
2714,
8305,
209274,
111,
70,
3747,
5,
17106,
86905,
289,
1543,
2843,
40907,
538,
24725,
9020,
25,
7,
19069,
237,
10,
26708,
100,
2714,
34735,
214,
5,
581,
1061,
814,
38529,
44978,
79200,
7,
111,
62,
16417,
68779,
136,
23041,
99680,
98,
70,
90695,
111,
27939,
26992,
7,
65508,
71,
70,
2714,
99,
70,
5701,
1733,
237,
70,
47806,
111,
27939,
26992,
7,
4,
98,
106,
18982,
20907,
6422,
538,
4,
1836,
11814,
70,
27939,
5293,
818,
663,
7030,
5,
66016,
70,
23,
215131,
111,
27939,
26992,
7,
4,
85689,
3387,
28214,
67,
450,
56101,
43396,
90,
23,
27939,
26992,
7,
1221,
765,
70,
5701,
226649,
237,
70,
47806,
111,
27939,
26992,
7,
5,
32255,
621,
70,
4734,
44677,
1379,
56101,
6226,
7440,
70,
2714,
83,
8437,
98521,
5,
10660,
54,
959,
31089,
84797,
2714,
43780,
7,
5,
77168,
214,
70,
56101,
43374,
47,
205850,
1295,
70,
3747,
23,
18237,
20400,
217254,
4697,
796,
150,
3827,
4,
184293,
33744,
111,
27939,
26992,
7,
4,
171530,
450,
27939,
26992,
7,
32599,
297,
47,
765,
3747,
130367,
219475,
7,
47143,
100,
6097,
58555,
2174,
70,
17274,
8360,
5908,
47,
186,
10,
32786,
5,
581,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
14098,
117604,
6777,
959,
40,
343,
47,
30666,
70,
2714,
237,
6863,
51521,
226649,
100,
70,
115,
30494,
111,
6863,
209274,
111,
70,
28811,
32528,
15,
20214,
247,
136,
111670,
71,
142,
43922,
9,
6056,
99,
70,
2714,
25,
7,
166635,
1829,
70,
201290,
4804,
67530,
23,
86591,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1767523 | en-train-1767523 | 1767523 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Usage.",
"Cypriot Territories.",
"Gibraltar.",
"Clearing.",
"Exchange rate.",
"Considerations on membership.",
"Economics.",
"Public opinion.",
"Sterling zone.",
"Isle of Man.",
"Banknotes.",
"Convergence criteria."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The United Kingdom entered the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), a prerequisite for adopting the euro, in October 1990. The UK spent over £6 billion trying to keep its currency, the pound sterling, within the narrow limits prescribed by ERM, but was forced to exit the programme within two years after the pound sterling came under major pressure from currency speculators. The ensuing crash of 16 September 1992 was subsequently dubbed \"Black Wednesday.\" During the negotiations of the Maastricht Treaty of 1992, the UK secured an opt-out from adopting the euro. The government of former Prime Minister Tony Blair declared that \"five economic tests\" must be passed before the government could recommend the UK joining the euro and promised to hold a referendum on membership if those five economic tests were met. Her Majesty's Treasury first assessed five economic tests in October 1997, when it was decided that the UK economy was neither sufficiently converged with that of the rest of the EU, nor sufficiently flexible, to justify a recommendation of membership at that time. Another assessment was published on 9 June 2003 by Gordon Brown, when he was Chancellor of the Exchequer. Though maintaining the government's positive view on the euro, the report opposed membership because four out of the five tests were not passed. However, the 2003 document also noted the considerable progress of the UK towards satisfying the five tests since 1997, and the desirability of making policy decisions to adapt the UK economy to better satisfy the tests in future. It cited considerable long-term benefits to be gained from eventual, prudently conducted Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) membership. The UK would also have to meet the EU's economic convergence criteria (Maastricht criteria) before being allowed to adopt the euro; which at that time the UK's annual government deficit to the gross domestic product (GDP) was above the defined threshold. The government committed itself to a triple-approval procedure before joining the eurozone, involving approval by the Cabinet, Parliament, and the electorate in a referendum. Brown, Blair's successor, ruled out membership in 2007, saying that the decision not to join had been correct for Britain and for Europe. In December 2008, José Barroso, the President of the European Commission, told French radio that some British politicians were considering the move because of the effects of the global financial crisis. Brown denied that there was any change in official policy. In February 2009, Monetary Policy Affairs Commissioner Joaquín Almunia said \"the chance that the British pound sterling will join: high.\" The UK released new coin designs in 2008 following the Royal Mint's biggest redesign of the national currency since decimalisation in 1971. German news magazine \"Der Spiegel\" saw this as an indication that the country has no intention of switching to the euro within the foreseeable future. It is however an unwritten convention that the coin designs should be changed every 40 years to keep the coinage fresh. In the UK general election 2010, the Liberal Democrats increased their share of the vote, but lost seats. One of their aims was to see the UK rejoining ERM II and eventually joining the euro, but when a coalition was formed between the Liberal Democrats and the Conservatives, the Liberal Democrats agreed that the UK would not join the euro during this term of government. Following the election of a majority-Conservatives government in the subsequent election, a referendum on EU membership itself was held, and the result was in favour of leaving the EU. Since the UK has withdrawn from the EU, euro adoption is practically impossible. Even if government and or public opinion were to change, the EU's position is that third countries would only adopt the euro through membership of the EU. Withdrawal may also negatively impact London's position as a hub for euro clearing.",
"",
"The Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus introduced the euro at the same time as the Republic of Cyprus, on 1 January 2008. Previously, they used the Cypriot Pound. Since the independence of Cyprus, treaties dictate that British territories in Cyprus will have the same currency as the Republic of Cyprus. These are the only places under British control where the euro is legal tender. They do not issue separate euro coins. Following the British vote to withdraw from the EU in June 2016, Ioannis Kasoulidis, Foreign Minister of Cyprus, announced that Cyprus wished to have EU citizen privileges remain for these areas if the UK ceases to be a member.",
"The currency of Gibraltar is the Gibraltar pound, issued by the Government of Gibraltar. Unofficially, most retail outlets in Gibraltar also accept the euro, though some payphones and the Royal Gibraltar Post Office, along with all other government offices, do not.",
"London is home to three quarters of all euro clearing in the world, to a value of €927 billion. The second largest hub is Paris, which operates 11% of clearing. In light of the UK's withdrawal from the EU, the EU is looking at whether these operations should be forced to move from London to within the EU so the activities could be regulated by the European Central Bank.",
"In June 2003, Brown stated that the best exchange rate for the UK to join the euro would be around 73 pence per euro. On 26 May 2003, the euro had reached 72.1 pence, a value not exceeded until 21 December 2007. During the final months of 2008, the pound declined in value dramatically against the euro. The euro rose above 80 pence and peaked at 97.855 pence on 29 December 2008. This compares with its value between March and October 2008, when the value of the euro was about 78 pence, and its value of about 70 pence between April 2003 and August 2007. With the impact of the global financial crisis of 2008 on the British economy, including failing banks and plunging UK property values, some British analysts stated that adopting the euro was far preferable to any other possible solutions for Britain's economic problems. There was some media discussion about the possibility of adopting the euro. On 29 December 2008, the BBC reported that the euro had reached roughly 97.7 pence, due to poorer economic forecasts. This report stated that many analysts believed that parity with the euro was only a matter of time. At that time, some shops in Northern Ireland accepted the euro at parity, causing a large influx of shoppers from across the Irish border. This made some shops the most successful in their company for several weeks. Alex Salmond, the then First Minister of Scotland, called for more Scottish businesses to accept the euro to encourage tourism from the eurozone, noting that this is already done by organisations such as Historic Scotland. During 2009, the value of the euro against the pound fluctuated between 96.1 pence on 2 January and 84.255 pence on 22 June. In 2010, the value of the euro against the pound fluctuated between 91.140 pence on 10 March and 81.040 pence on 29 June. On 31 December 2010, the euro closed at 86.075 pence. A report in Britain's \"Daily Telegraph\" argued that the high euro had caused problems in the eurozone outside Germany. There was a fairly steady decline in the euro rate during 2013, 2014 and 2015 from 85 pence to 70 pence. During 2016, the pound declined against several currencies, meaning the euro rose, especially on 24 June 2016 (because of the EU referendum) when the euro rose from 76 pence to 82 pence and further the following days.",
"While the UK remained an EU member, its membership in the eurozone was only possible if it decided to drop its opt-out. Over the years, considerations on the impact of membership weighed heavily.",
"Some believed that removing the UK's ability to set its own interest rates would have detrimental effects on its economy. One argument was that currency flexibility is a vital tool and that the sharp devaluation of sterling in 2008 was just what Britain needed to rebalance its economy. Another objection is that many continental European governments have large unfunded pension liabilities. Opponents feared that if Britain adopted the euro, these liabilities could put a debt burden on the British taxpayer, though others have dismissed this argument as spurious. One of the underlying issues that stand in the way of monetary union is the structural difference between the UK housing market and those of many continental European countries. The entry of the UK into the eurozone would have likely resulted in increased trade with the other members of the eurozone. It could also have had a stabilising effect on the stock market prices in the UK. A simulation of the entry in 1999 indicated that it would have had an overall positive, though small, long term effect on the UK's GDP if the entry had been made with the rate of exchange of the pound to the euro at that time. With a lower rate of exchange, the entry would have had more clearly a positive effect on the UK's GDP. A 2009 study about the effect of an entry in the coming years claimed that the effect would likely be positive, improving the stability for the UK economy. An interesting parallel can be seen in the 19th century discussions concerning the possibility of the UK joining the Latin Monetary Union.",
"The wording of the question may have varied, but the figures showed that a majority of British people have been consistently against adopting the euro.",
"If the UK had joined the eurozone, this would also have affected the Crown dependencies and some British overseas territories that also use the pound sterling, or which have a currency on a par with sterling. In the Crown Dependencies, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, pounds all share the ISO 4217 code GBP. In the British Overseas Territories, Gibraltar, Falkland Islands, British Indian Ocean Territory and Saint Helena, pounds are also fixed so that £1 in the local currency equals £1 in sterling. The British Antarctic Territory and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands do not have their own currencies and use the pound sterling. When France adopted the euro, so did the French overseas departments and territories that used the French franc. The CFP franc, the CFA franc, and the Comorian franc, that are used in overseas territories and some African countries, had fixed exchange rates with the French franc, but not at par – for various historical reasons they were worth considerably less, at 1 French franc = 18.2 CFP francs, 75 Comorian francs or 100 CFA francs. The CFA franc and the Comorian franc are linked to the euro at fixed rates with free convertibility maintained at the expense of the French Treasury. The CFP franc is linked to the euro at a fixed rate. It was suggested that the sterling zone territories would, in the event of the UK adopting the euro, have four options: Gibraltar was in a different position, being within the EU as part of the UK's membership. If the UK were to have adopted the euro it might not have been possible to implement an opt-out for Gibraltar or whether it would have had a separate referendum.",
"It was the Manx Government's position that, if the United Kingdom had decided to participate in the euro, then it would be likely that the Isle of Man (which has its own currency, the Manx pound) would also choose to participate. Tynwald passed the Currency Act 1992 as part of preparations for the event that the UK decided to adopt the euro. In such a scenario, the Isle of Man wished to retain the right to issue its own currency, believing it to be an important public statement of independence. Retaining the island's own coinage also enables the Isle of Man Treasury to continue to benefit from the accrual of interest on the issued money (seigniorage). The Currency Act allows for the issue of a Manx euro currency at parity with the euro, referred to as a \"substitute euro\", which has an Isle of Man inscription on the obverse side of the coins. This proposal would essentially have replaced the \"substitute sterling\" with a \"substitute euro\", as they would have functioned in the same way. Manx versions of the euro coins and euro banknotes were designed. While the European Union is not obliged to accept the Manx desire to introduce a special Manx version of the euro, the Isle of Man could arguably introduce a currency pegged to the euro (akin to its situation now vis-à-vis the pound sterling, or the relationship between the euro and the Bulgarian lev). There is no precedent for divergent national versions, beyond customising the national side of euro coins in the same way as other eurozone members.",
"Some private sector banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland issue banknotes of their own design. The Banking Act, 2008 amended the rights of Scottish and Northern Irish banks to produce banknotes. This does not apply in Wales which uses Bank of England notes. In November 1999, in preparation for the introduction of the euro notes and coins across the eurozone, the European Central Bank announced a total ban on the issuing of banknotes by entities that were not national central Banks (\"Legal Protection of Banknotes in the European Union Member States\"). A move from sterling to the euro would have ended the circulation of sub-national banknotes as all euro banknotes of a given denomination have an identical design. However, as national variation is a requisite of euro coins, it would have remained an option for the Royal Mint to incorporate the symbols of the Home Nations into its designs for the British national sides of euro coinage.",
"Aside from approval in a domestic referendum, the UK would be required to meet the euro convergence criteria before being granted approval to adopt the euro. As of the last report by the European Central Bank in May 2018, the UK met 1 of 5 of the criteria."
]
} |
Phase diagram | null | A phase diagram in physical chemistry, engineering, mineralogy, and materials science is a type of chart used to show conditions (pressure, temperature, volume, etc.) at which thermodynamically distinct phases (such as solid, liquid or gaseous states) occur and coexist at equilibrium. | null | [
250004,
250054,
151301,
82761,
7,
111,
10,
93402,
117233,
621,
44,
59801,
111,
6,
155159,
316,
58,
707,
44,
153213,
337,
6990,
10484,
830,
3129,
15005,
47,
124519,
450,
16188,
27289,
1379,
3129,
48716,
93402,
7,
831,
552,
54376,
99,
6,
155159,
316,
5,
144226,
149307,
7,
74918,
33233,
124519,
111,
6,
155159,
316,
5,
36939,
7,
22819,
93402,
7,
621,
959,
127887,
23,
93402,
117233,
7,
237,
4,
8,
61518,
2363,
39210,
74918,
42,
6620,
4,
1836,
621,
959,
6,
155159,
316,
93402,
7,
5,
55903,
133,
26847,
621,
26847,
98,
93402,
117233,
7,
7440,
124519,
111,
6,
155159,
316,
1940,
7,
24762,
5,
55903,
133,
26847,
16188,
27289,
99,
3129,
17262,
12921,
93402,
7,
831,
552,
54376,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
70,
7401,
93402,
117233,
1556,
10,
162738,
6275,
42518,
214,
47,
70,
11001,
52768,
136,
81147,
99,
3129,
18652,
4,
41931,
4,
136,
9060,
13,
10821,
7401,
831,
552,
54376,
23,
10,
144142,
6,
155159,
316,
15,
136,
10,
2878,
289,
101319,
81147,
111,
6,
194,
581,
18652,
223,
83,
70,
52768,
35064,
3129,
70,
161451,
83,
144142,
23,
70,
18652,
11341,
5,
581,
41931,
223,
83,
70,
52768,
36917,
3129,
70,
161451,
83,
144142,
23,
10,
41931,
11341,
5,
8622,
1543,
186,
10,
43599,
17721,
70,
18652,
223,
136,
41931,
223,
74,
28032,
70,
43599,
4,
70,
161451,
58055,
7,
111,
10,
17664,
6644,
111,
224128,
7,
136,
41931,
15,
5062,
10,
44,
10791,
56216,
51029,
27985,
214,
79552,
7,
621,
27983,
149133,
64807,
98,
70,
18231,
111,
70,
115700,
111,
2363,
93402,
117233,
5,
581,
30362,
18,
93402,
117233,
7,
621,
81147,
1104,
98334,
13,
117233,
7,
111,
10,
11001,
8781,
161451,
4,
6044,
237,
7401,
5,
581,
10,
31195,
42518,
47,
70,
81147,
136,
52768,
5,
581,
93402,
117233,
45831,
4,
23,
81147,
1104,
98334,
13,
32628,
4,
70,
124519,
111,
6,
155159,
316,
707,
93402,
337,
6990,
10484,
17721,
70,
17262,
93402,
7,
111,
18652,
4,
41931,
4,
136,
9060,
5,
581,
9709,
3132,
98,
70,
93402,
117233,
7639,
70,
26847,
7440,
70,
4092,
48302,
15,
2940,
3789,
16406,
4126,
183871,
16,
24209,
7,
351,
9,
140815,
12,
2363,
30057,
42991,
678,
15072,
47,
70,
176866,
90,
15,
98334,
13,
136,
81147,
23,
903,
27781,
16,
15549,
2837,
133891,
79850,
15,
2055,
9167,
18,
538,
194,
1326,
27781,
4,
70,
80097,
177399,
111,
10,
116419,
152382,
678,
6,
2980,
1221,
15549,
219817,
538,
237,
70,
116419,
83,
764,
27686,
11015,
70,
21501,
1916,
6275,
5,
581,
9803,
32628,
7,
4,
7440,
70,
4092,
48302,
83,
6,
140815,
4,
42518,
47,
11001,
93402,
10776,
7,
5,
43609,
93402,
10776,
7,
621,
84797,
71,
390,
124519,
111,
351,
9,
140815,
289,
123166,
4,
7440,
93402,
149307,
7,
74918,
4,
3129,
621,
35839,
93402,
337,
6990,
10484,
5,
360,
70,
117233,
98,
70,
7108,
4,
70,
93402,
6,
99091,
6635,
17721,
41931,
136,
9060,
14602,
959,
21342,
23,
49919,
37838,
5,
175399,
4,
442,
121011,
90,
99,
10,
6275,
98,
70,
93402,
117233,
35839,
70,
130306,
6275,
5,
3293,
44961,
7,
70,
15824,
450,
4,
99,
111531,
11192,
52768,
7,
136,
81147,
7,
4,
70,
41931,
136,
9060,
13,
10821,
93402,
7,
24209,
106985,
34971,
4745,
2886,
4,
23,
2367,
83,
51529,
237,
10,
1601,
59869,
21533,
79552,
5,
360,
7401,
4,
70,
130306,
6275,
74918,
7,
99,
10932,
44,
618,
58,
2203,
4,
44,
254,
58,
2203,
136,
44,
3538,
58,
2203,
6,
129971,
5279,
64,
39,
5,
581,
6,
116311,
111,
70,
41931,
1104,
3923,
130306,
6275,
122273,
7,
10,
91,
20016,
920,
12282,
2481,
23,
67967,
2069,
70,
11001,
93402,
10776,
7,
5,
14847,
7730,
1295,
70,
41931,
47,
70,
9060,
13,
10821,
93402,
4,
1632,
56104,
41421,
90,
70,
93402,
6,
99091,
6635,
4,
1284,
442,
83,
7722,
47,
55076,
10,
60875,
450,
8306,
41421,
90,
70,
6,
99091,
6635,
390,
7730,
47,
70,
7108,
111,
70,
130306,
6275,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
70,
41931,
136,
9060,
13,
10821,
93402,
7,
831,
171759,
19686,
79850,
3934,
12638,
3789,
5,
581,
18652,
1104,
150,
94385,
93402,
6,
99091,
6635,
831,
4734,
3564,
23,
10,
130306,
6275,
2174,
70,
18652,
136,
41931,
93402,
7,
765,
70,
5701,
954,
3019,
15123,
21115,
5,
1326,
2684,
161451,
7,
4,
70,
18652,
1104,
150,
94385,
93402,
6,
99091,
6635,
15,
748,
119485,
9709,
272,
16,
23,
70,
93402,
117233,
1556,
10,
24491,
91,
89059,
221,
450,
70,
21501,
1916,
6275,
51312,
7,
678,
81147,
5,
3293,
83,
29568,
217684,
70,
18652,
93402,
83,
168,
2189,
3501,
70,
41931,
93402,
5,
581,
117396,
70,
81147,
98,
10,
34475,
161451,
4,
70,
20903,
42,
25842,
70,
49711,
70838,
111,
70,
161451,
621,
91048,
47,
12638,
3789,
4,
3129,
51312,
7,
70,
21543,
111,
70,
161451,
25,
7,
1940,
432,
133,
25667,
84616,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
70,
161451,
144570,
10,
77546,
52768,
100,
6863,
49711,
70838,
47,
765,
20174,
48302,
47,
36356,
1810,
111,
70,
188347,
103510,
111,
70,
18652,
93402,
136,
30957,
70,
41931,
93402,
5,
62,
21373,
23755,
4027,
25720,
47,
41931,
1104,
3923,
93402,
65572,
5,
27646,
83,
142,
131527,
3129,
1556,
10,
18652,
9,
150,
94385,
6,
99091,
6635,
678,
40907,
91,
89059,
221,
450,
70,
21501,
1916,
6275,
227204,
7,
678,
81147,
5,
3293,
74918,
7,
6637,
6,
2980,
15,
97281,
7401,
16,
83,
40715,
168,
184,
3501,
41931,
7401,
4,
237,
127887,
390,
70,
15824,
450,
6,
2980,
21917,
9821,
98,
7401,
5,
1913,
10,
233239,
17366,
4,
6,
2980,
83,
40715,
168,
184,
6637,
442,
1556,
10,
1286,
1119,
41745,
272,
33120,
111,
64707,
1409,
337,
33770,
3129,
144570,
10,
117396,
37451,
1363,
111,
7401,
49711,
70838,
5,
64511,
131527,
7,
26698,
2874,
432,
299,
136,
2464,
561,
927,
5,
581,
34292,
111,
70,
91,
89059,
104,
58,
683,
58,
64,
71,
58,
618,
58,
83,
34475,
390,
70,
33198,
122979,
1900,
28,
5490,
2320,
100,
119485,
15,
76681,
214,
16,
7440,
6732,
58,
841,
58,
83,
70,
80097,
111,
119485,
3129,
83,
11343,
24491,
4,
136,
6732,
58,
856,
58,
83,
70,
21950,
15549,
100,
119485,
5,
1326,
2684,
161451,
7,
6732,
58,
856,
58,
83,
24491,
221,
450,
70,
91,
89059,
83,
24491,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
93402,
117233,
23,
72761,
290,
6133,
1294,
4,
177907,
4,
23911,
1663,
53,
4,
136,
76319,
41664,
83,
10,
10644,
111,
116287,
11814,
47,
7639,
27289,
15,
11856,
3408,
4,
52768,
4,
21950,
4,
3021,
5,
16,
99,
3129,
182342,
242554,
25958,
117781,
93402,
7,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
18652,
4,
41931,
707,
9060,
13,
10821,
117249,
16,
74918,
136,
552,
54376,
99,
6,
155159,
316,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1560215 | en-train-1560215 | 1560215 | {
"title": [
"Overview.",
"Types.",
"2-dimensional diagrams.",
"Pressure vs temperature.",
"Other thermodynamic properties.",
"3-dimensional diagrams.",
"Binary mixtures.",
"Crystals.",
"Mesophases."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Common components of a phase diagram are \"lines of equilibrium\" or \"phase boundaries\", which refer to lines that mark conditions under which multiple phases can coexist at equilibrium. Phase transitions occur along lines of equilibrium. Metastable phases are not shown in phase diagrams as, despite their common occurrence, they are not equilibrium phases. Triple points are points on phase diagrams where lines of equilibrium intersect. Triple points mark conditions at which three different phases can coexist. For example, the water phase diagram has a triple point corresponding to the single temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and gaseous water can coexist in a stable equilibrium ( and a partial vapor pressure of ). The solidus is the temperature below which the substance is stable in the solid state. The liquidus is the temperature above which the substance is stable in a liquid state. There may be a gap between the solidus and liquidus; within the gap, the substance consists of a mixture of crystals and liquid (like a \"slurry\"). Working fluids are often categorized on the basis of the shape of their phase diagram.",
"",
"",
"The simplest phase diagrams are pressure–temperature diagrams of a single simple substance, such as water. The axes correspond to the pressure and temperature. The phase diagram shows, in pressure–temperature space, the lines of equilibrium or phase boundaries between the three phases of solid, liquid, and gas. The curves on the phase diagram show the points where the free energy (and other derived properties) becomes non-analytic: their derivatives with respect to the coordinates (temperature and pressure in this example) change discontinuously (abruptly). For example, the heat capacity of a container filled with ice will change abruptly as the container is heated past the melting point. The open spaces, where the free energy is analytic, correspond to single phase regions. Single phase regions are separated by lines of non-analytical behavior, where phase transitions occur, which are called phase boundaries. In the diagram on the right, the phase boundary between liquid and gas does not continue indefinitely. Instead, it terminates at a point on the phase diagram called the critical point. This reflects the fact that, at extremely high temperatures and pressures, the liquid and gaseous phases become indistinguishable, in what is known as a supercritical fluid. In water, the critical point occurs at around \"T\" =, \"p\" = and \"ρ\" = 356 kg/m. The existence of the liquid–gas critical point reveals a slight ambiguity in labelling the single phase regions. When going from the liquid to the gaseous phase, one usually crosses the phase boundary, but it is possible to choose a path that never crosses the boundary by going to the right of the critical point. Thus, the liquid and gaseous phases can blend continuously into each other. The solid–liquid phase boundary can only end in a critical point if the solid and liquid phases have the same symmetry group. For most substances, the solid–liquid phase boundary (or fusion curve) in the phase diagram has a positive slope so that the melting point increases with pressure. This is true whenever the solid phase is denser than the liquid phase. The greater the pressure on a given substance, the closer together the molecules of the substance are brought to each other, which increases the effect of the substance's intermolecular forces. Thus, the substance requires a higher temperature for its molecules to have enough energy to break out of the fixed pattern of the solid phase and enter the liquid phase. A similar concept applies to liquid–gas phase changes. Water is an exception which has a solid-liquid boundary with negative slope so that the melting point decreases with pressure. This occurs because ice (solid water) is less dense than liquid water, as shown by the fact that ice floats on water. At a molecular level, ice is less dense because it has a more extensive network of hydrogen bonding which requires a greater separation of water molecules. Other exceptions include antimony and bismuth. The value of the slope d\"P\"/d\"T\" is given by the Clapeyron equation for fusion (melting) where Δ\"H\" is the heat of fusion which is always positive, and Δ\"V\" is the volume change for fusion. For most substances Δ\"V\" is positive so that the slope is positive. However for water and other exceptions, Δ\"V\" is negative so that the slope is negative.",
"In addition to temperature and pressure, other thermodynamic properties may be graphed in phase diagrams. Examples of such thermodynamic properties include specific volume, specific enthalpy, or specific entropy. For example, single-component graphs of temperature vs. specific entropy (\"T\" vs. \"s\") for water/steam or for a refrigerant are commonly used to illustrate thermodynamic cycles such as a Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, or vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. Any two thermodynamic quantities may be shown on the horizontal and vertical axes of a two-dimensional diagram. Additional thermodynamic quantities may each be illustrated in increments as a series of lines – curved, straight, or a combination of curved and straight. Each of these iso-lines represents the thermodynamic quantity at a certain constant value.",
"It is possible to envision three-dimensional (3D) graphs showing three thermodynamic quantities. For example, for a single component, a 3D Cartesian coordinate type graph can show temperature (\"T\") on one axis, pressure (\"p\") on a second axis, and specific volume (\"v\") on a third. Such a 3D graph is sometimes called a \"p\"–\"v\"–\"T\" diagram. The equilibrium conditions are shown as curves on a curved surface in 3D with areas for solid, liquid, and vapor phases and areas where solid and liquid, solid and vapor, or liquid and vapor coexist in equilibrium. A line on the surface called a triple line is where solid, liquid and vapor can all coexist in equilibrium. The critical point remains a point on the surface even on a 3D phase diagram. For water, the 3D \"p\"–\"v\"–\"T\" diagram is seen here: An orthographic projection of the 3D \"p\"–\"v\"–\"T\" graph showing pressure and temperature as the vertical and horizontal axes collapses the 3D plot into the standard 2D pressure–temperature diagram. When this is done, the solid–vapor, solid–liquid, and liquid–vapor surfaces collapse into three corresponding curved lines meeting at the triple point, which is the collapsed orthographic projection of the triple line.",
"Other much more complex types of phase diagrams can be constructed, particularly when more than one pure component is present. In that case, concentration becomes an important variable. Phase diagrams with more than two dimensions can be constructed that show the effect of more than two variables on the phase of a substance. Phase diagrams can use other variables in addition to or in place of temperature, pressure and composition, for example the strength of an applied electrical or magnetic field, and they can also involve substances that take on more than just three states of matter. One type of phase diagram plots temperature against the relative concentrations of two substances in a binary mixture called a \"binary phase diagram\", as shown at right. Such a mixture can be either a solid solution, eutectic or peritectic, among others. These two types of mixtures result in very different graphs. Another type of binary phase diagram is a \"boiling-point diagram\" for a mixture of two components, i. e. chemical compounds. For two particular volatile components at a certain pressure such as atmospheric pressure, a boiling-point diagram shows what vapor (gas) compositions are in equilibrium with given liquid compositions depending on temperature. In a typical binary boiling-point diagram, temperature is plotted on a vertical axis and mixture composition on a horizontal axis. A simple example diagram with hypothetical components 1 and 2 in a non-azeotropic mixture is shown at right. The fact that there are two separate curved lines joining the boiling points of the pure components means that the vapor composition is usually not the same as the liquid composition the vapor is in equilibrium with. See Vapor–liquid equilibrium for more information. In addition to the above-mentioned types of phase diagrams, there are thousands of other possible combinations. Some of the major features of phase diagrams include congruent points, where a solid phase transforms directly into a liquid. There is also the peritectoid, a point where two solid phases combine into one solid phase during cooling. The inverse of this, when one solid phase transforms into two solid phases during cooling, is called the eutectoid. A complex phase diagram of great technological importance is that of the iron–carbon system for less than 7% carbon (see steel). The x-axis of such a diagram represents the concentration variable of the mixture. As the mixtures are typically far from dilute and their density as a function of temperature is usually unknown, the preferred concentration measure is mole fraction. A volume-based measure like molarity would be inadvisable.",
"Polymorphic and polyamorphic substances have multiple crystal or amorphous phases, which can be graphed in a similar fashion to solid, liquid, and gas phases.",
"Some organic materials pass through intermediate states between solid and liquid; these states are called mesophases. Attention has been directed to mesophases because they enable display devices and have become commercially important through the so-called liquid-crystal technology. Phase diagrams are used to describe the occurrence of mesophases."
]
} |
Economic growth | null | One can define economic growth as the increase in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time. Statisticians conventionally measure such growth as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product, or real GDP. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
25313,
75678,
34515,
83,
74481,
3674,
1295,
2053,
98,
6,
69731,
25902,
3674,
390,
76726,
25,
80835,
289,
184641,
5,
581,
34515,
111,
43722,
5570,
7,
285,
53,
38134,
538,
1295,
23295,
47,
23295,
4,
136,
53333,
17678,
70,
15549,
23,
38043,
5570,
7,
645,
1733,
41110,
7,
38134,
538,
1295,
23295,
47,
23295,
5,
873,
17336,
83,
10,
23180,
3129,
45831,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
136,
77253,
29367,
117,
3445,
6,
69731,
75678,
100,
10,
132216,
111,
76726,
645,
10,
14922,
111,
1672,
805,
5369,
5,
581,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
2053,
621,
126596,
297,
100,
41036,
1363,
4,
8311,
329,
1836,
621,
44,
30544,
740,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
15,
17678,
39210,
538,
35839,
44,
1264,
68236,
58,
6,
69731,
16,
83,
70,
6,
69731,
111,
70,
64194,
23295,
101637,
71,
390,
70,
14012,
111,
3395,
23,
70,
23295,
74,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
83,
228113,
538,
60223,
10821,
47,
44,
8216,
29838,
91763,
740,
6872,
14578,
538,
19336,
60212,
7,
23,
6602,
538,
6,
69731,
75678,
37105,
47,
21334,
65572,
23,
6,
69731,
3229,
217773,
297,
645,
1733,
5,
1326,
110527,
4,
23,
70,
36917,
23180,
4,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
23,
70,
14098,
117604,
23,
70,
6602,
111994,
509,
3650,
116574,
17331,
1913,
70,
5701,
1733,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
4,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
509,
3650,
204636,
966,
4,
92319,
3501,
70,
17274,
390,
1672,
12719,
5,
33306,
4,
23,
2021,
70,
19069,
7,
3542,
39531,
5281,
12,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
509,
3650,
8659,
4,
43955,
23,
70,
14098,
117604,
136,
3650,
9271,
4,
134131,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
4,
17,
5,
13,
5,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
23,
70,
7082,
509,
16279,
1286,
3501,
442,
509,
23,
70,
17274,
5,
1301,
70,
36917,
23180,
45831,
4,
903,
26950,
450,
6,
69731,
117,
3445,
3514,
434,
4,
98,
83080,
4,
390,
615,
72769,
117,
6602,
23,
70,
7082,
136,
390,
48733,
14427,
23,
70,
17274,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
10,
60212,
23,
6,
69731,
75678,
390,
4734,
10,
10846,
1492,
927,
7,
111,
10,
33297,
117,
6602,
50339,
23,
21334,
60212,
7,
23,
184345,
7,
3229,
70,
75678,
83,
70560,
2517,
645,
10,
58093,
5,
3293,
136,
3789,
150556,
7,
765,
12441,
3060,
63197,
271,
7,
47,
21455,
6,
69731,
75678,
237,
70,
2684,
5526,
2831,
111,
70,
44457,
111,
111789,
165439,
7,
12,
1650,
1556,
2809,
139999,
71,
450,
6,
69731,
75678,
83,
79507,
71,
390,
70,
13267,
111,
70,
111503,
5,
581,
41911,
17721,
6,
69731,
75678,
136,
6,
69731,
36880,
70,
76726,
99,
10,
17311,
6275,
111,
1733,
83,
158,
272,
425,
5,
220472,
51312,
7,
678,
6,
69731,
58359,
90,
6863,
360,
15889,
91763,
15426,
214,
4,
117,
68236,
140992,
831,
186,
74481,
3674,
17368,
70,
25632,
120103,
12,
140992,
117,
25072,
111,
18940,
107730,
15,
27775,
12996,
54613,
53,
247,
21974,
79786,
15,
29272,
7,
2481,
247,
70,
169209,
111,
70,
20697,
9,
4588,
43904,
20653,
20697,
15,
15866,
25258,
2320,
34515,
16,
136,
70,
123875,
111,
70,
20697,
9,
4588,
43904,
47,
70,
3622,
43904,
15,
80750,
48461,
7,
194,
44,
3957,
34515,
111,
15549,
111,
6,
69731,
64,
33554,
72403,
83,
70,
10554,
111,
70,
121297,
111,
15549,
111,
6097,
22759,
77336,
7,
1001,
2363,
41421,
38742,
1242,
109401,
271,
7,
157167,
1495,
17721,
16610,
9,
16428,
25313,
65572,
23,
36049,
136,
4989,
9,
16428,
25313,
75678,
5,
82990,
9,
16428,
143834,
23,
25313,
75678,
83,
24117,
71,
70,
44,
169600,
105823,
740,
9082,
538,
4,
63197,
271,
7,
150380,
13,
70,
1257,
7,
136,
7565,
7,
23,
70,
8063,
105823,
47,
14838,
41039,
21094,
23,
6,
197564,
13,
35968,
5,
360,
69822,
4,
25313,
75678,
83,
142837,
678,
70,
4989,
9,
16428,
12768,
23,
36049,
4743,
47,
118990,
141,
113660,
6044,
237,
39713,
21533,
75678,
136,
31461,
183278,
1363,
5,
8942,
1283,
5908,
23,
18940,
12996,
54613,
53,
15,
2347,
70460,
111,
70,
34292,
111,
140992,
47,
18940,
107730,
16,
765,
186768,
538,
2809,
70,
2684,
5526,
31344,
111,
2773,
117,
68236,
25313,
75678,
5,
44,
4153,
10,
170277,
25902,
67,
4,
78999,
43552,
12452,
32553,
434,
103876,
71,
450,
39713,
21533,
42658,
1556,
15426,
297,
100,
2248,
33297,
111,
70,
4989,
9,
32166,
6,
58944,
23,
345,
5,
294,
5,
117,
68236,
91763,
4,
678,
124735,
77021,
23,
10323,
73342,
214,
4734,
70,
47143,
214,
387,
33297,
1242,
8942,
1283,
5908,
23,
12996,
54613,
53,
92319,
70,
2773,
11034,
111,
4127,
7,
5,
9578,
70,
387,
927,
142642,
70,
2773,
27167,
111,
5941,
4127,
7,
77736,
390,
645,
21020,
5,
79048,
75678,
1556,
89160,
538,
2809,
150380,
297,
47,
70,
183278,
1363,
111,
14135,
136,
72761,
10323,
136,
70,
51312,
23,
12996,
54613,
53,
136,
166635,
111,
3525,
4127,
7,
187,
72219,
1295,
39713,
21533,
76106,
5,
27766,
9319,
91853,
111,
150385,
15,
146981,
47691,
16,
83,
2843,
20531,
47,
9588,
214,
12996,
54613,
53,
5,
117371,
25297,
47691,
39713,
21533,
32546,
23,
25313,
7,
23335,
416,
538,
15005,
7,
47,
72761,
10323,
4,
3129,
58055,
7,
111,
45646,
7,
15,
320,
177,
525,
82761,
111,
72761,
10323,
16,
136,
98154,
11814,
23,
8063,
15,
103149,
1294,
4,
31461,
53,
98154,
4,
13909,
7,
136,
23179,
98154,
4,
50961,
98154,
4,
8063,
117001,
4,
29874,
98154,
4,
3021,
5,
194,
10091,
47,
10,
6275,
51312,
7,
23,
70,
41170,
111,
10323,
117,
4488,
56,
621,
142,
5526,
22304,
111,
25313,
140992,
75678,
5,
32546,
83,
28368,
47,
45,
9222,
54700,
30646,
7,
6637,
111,
70,
41170,
450,
831,
186,
191984,
14145,
297,
136,
6637,
111,
70,
105925,
53142,
19,
111,
8,
51606,
2320,
5,
360,
70,
34754,
111,
25313,
154453,
70,
113068,
111,
91763,
509,
90698,
47,
186,
17721,
18940,
136,
70,
144044,
111,
3551,
136,
10323,
5,
360,
17309,
8,
23662,
7,
2685,
765,
2809,
40368,
67009,
52455,
70,
4524,
70760,
136,
156002,
6827,
51422,
7,
111,
25313,
75678,
150380,
13,
10,
13036,
31486,
47,
10,
23295,
25,
7,
17366,
111,
14135,
10323,
4,
61924,
71,
237,
70,
59376,
111,
70,
43904,
707,
70,
4488,
37772,
5,
28076,
10323,
1556,
2809,
99201,
23,
15044,
16169,
67413,
21533,
136,
3564,
62976,
10821,
75678,
115774,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
6561,
831,
61924,
25313,
75678,
237,
70,
51312,
23,
70,
41036,
1363,
9,
712,
20314,
297,
16839,
34292,
111,
70,
4127,
7,
136,
11374,
181653,
390,
142,
111503,
645,
1733,
5,
126124,
2624,
10133,
101805,
25958,
72350,
6044,
75678,
237,
70,
33297,
34515,
111,
51312,
23,
2773,
55215,
85727,
12996,
4,
707,
2773,
6,
69731,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2201350 | en-train-2201350 | 2201350 | {
"title": [
"Measurement.",
"Long-term growth.",
"Growth and innovation.",
"Determinants of per capita GDP growth.",
"Productivity.",
"Factor accumulation.",
"Other factors affecting growth.",
"Human capital.",
"Political institutions.",
"Entrepreneurs and new products.",
"Structural change.",
"Growth theories.",
"The Malthusian theory.",
"Classical growth theory.",
"Solow–Swan model.",
"Endogenous growth theory.",
"Unified growth theory.",
"Inequality and growth.",
"Theories.",
"Evidence: reduced form.",
"Evidence: mechanisms.",
"Importance of long-run growth.",
"Quality of life.",
"Equitable growth.",
"Global warming.",
"Resource constraint.",
"Energy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The economic growth rate is calculated from data on GDP estimated by countries' statistical agencies. The rate of",
"Living standards vary widely from country to country, and furthermore the change in living standards over time varies widely from country to country. Below is a table which shows GDP per person and annualized per person GDP growth for a selection of countries over a period of about 100 years. The GDP per person data are adjusted for inflation, hence they are \"real\". GDP per person (more commonly called \"per capita\" GDP) is the GDP of the entire country divided by the number of people in the country; GDP per person is conceptually analogous to \"average income\". Seemingly small differences in yearly GDP growth lead to large changes in GDP when compounded over time. For instance, in the above table, GDP per person in the United Kingdom in the year 1870 was $4,808. At the same time in the United States, GDP per person was $4,007, lower than the UK by about 20%. However, in 2008 the positions were reversed: GDP per person was $36,130 in the United Kingdom and $46,970 in the United States, i.e. GDP per person in the US was 30% more than it was in the UK. As the above table shows, this means that GDP per person grew, on average, by 1.80% per year in the US and by 1.47% in the UK. Thus, a difference in GDP growth by only a few tenths of a percent per year results in large differences in outcomes when the growth is persistent over a generation. This and other observations have led some economists to view GDP growth as the most important part of the field of macroeconomics:",
"It has been observed that GDP growth is influenced by the size of the economy. The relation between GDP growth and GDP across the countries at a particular point of time is convex. Growth increases with GDP reaches its",
"In national income accounting, per capita output can be calculated using the following factors: output per unit of labor input (labor productivity), hours worked (intensity), the percentage of the working-age population actually working (participation rate) and the proportion of the working-age population to the total population (demographics). \"The rate of change of GDP/population is the sum of the rates of change of these four variables plus their cross products.\" Economists distinguish between short-run economic changes in production and long-run economic growth. Short-run variation in economic growth is termed the \"business cycle\". Generally, economists attribute the ups and downs in the business cycle to fluctuations in aggregate demand. In contrast, economic growth is concerned with the long-run trend in production due to structural causes such as technological growth and factor accumulation.",
"Increases in labor productivity (the ratio of the value of output to labor input) have historically been the most important source of real per capita economic growth. \"In a famous estimate, MIT Professor Robert Solow concluded that technological progress has accounted for 80 percent of the long-term rise in U.S. per capita income, with increased investment in capital explaining only the remaining 20 percent.\" Increases in productivity lower the real cost of goods. Over the 20th century the real price of many goods fell by over 90%. Economic growth has traditionally been attributed to the accumulation of human and physical capital and the increase in productivity and creation of new goods arising from technological innovation. Further division of labour (specialization) is also fundamental to rising productivity. Before industrialization technological",
"Capital in economics ordinarily refers to physical capital, which consists of structures (largest component of physical capital) and equipment used in business (machinery, factory equipment, computers and office equipment, construction equipment, business vehicles, medical equipment, etc.). Up to a point increases in the amount of capital per worker are an important cause of economic output growth. Capital is subject to diminishing returns because of the amount that can be effectively invested and because of the growing burden of depreciation. In the development of economic theory the distribution of income was considered to be between labor and the owners of land and capital. In recent decades there have been several Asian",
"",
"Many theoretical and empirical analyses of economic growth attribute a major role to a country's level of human capital, defined as the skills of the population or the work force. Human capital has been included in both neoclassical and endogenous growth models. A country's level of human capital is difficult to measure since it is created at home, at school, and on the job. Economists have attempted to measure human capital using numerous proxies, including the population's level of literacy, its level of numeracy, its level of book production/capita, its average level of formal schooling, its average test score on international tests, and its cumulative depreciated investment in formal schooling. The most commonly-used measure of human capital is the level (average years) of school attainment in a country, building upon the data development of Robert Barro and Jong-Wha Lee. This measure is widely used because Barro and Lee provide data for numerous countries in five-year intervals for a long period of time. One problem with the schooling attainment measure is that the amount of human capital acquired in a year of schooling is not the same at all levels of schooling and is not",
"“As institutions influence behavior and incentives in real life, they forge the success or failure of nations.” In economics and economic history, the transition to capitalism from earlier economic systems was enabled by the adoption of government policies that facilitated commerce and gave individuals more personal and economic freedom. These included new laws favorable to the establishment of business, including contract law and laws providing for the protection of private property, and the abolishment of anti-usury laws. Much of this literature was built on the success story of the British state that after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 combined high fiscal capacity with constraints on the power of the king generating some respect for the rule of law. However, others have questioned that this institutional formula is not so easily replicable elsewhere as a change",
"Policymakers and scholars frequently emphasize the importance of entrepreneurship for economic growth. However, surprisingly few research empirically examine and quantify entrepreneurship's impact on growth. This is due to endogeneity - forces that drive economic growth also drive entrepreneurship. In other words, the empirical analysis of the impact of entrepreneurship on growth is difficult because of the joint determination of entrepreneurship and economic growth. A few papers use quasi-experimental designs, and have",
"Economic growth in the U.S. and other developed countries went through phases that affected growth through changes in the labor force participation rate and the relative sizes of economic sectors. The transition from an agricultural economy to manufacturing increased the size of the sector with high output per hour (the high-productivity manufacturing sector), while reducing the size of the sector with lower output per hour (the lower productivity agricultural sector).",
"",
"The Malthusian theory proposes that over most of human history technological progress caused larger population growth but had no impact on income per capita in the long run. According to the theory, while technologically advanced economies over this epoch were characterized by higher population density, their level of",
"In classical (Ricardian) economics, the theory of production and the theory of growth are based on the theory or law of variable proportions, whereby increasing either of the factors of production (labor or capital), while holding the other constant and assuming no technological change, will increase output, but at a diminishing rate that eventually will approach zero. These concepts have their origins in Thomas Malthus’s theorizing about agriculture. Malthus's examples included the number of seeds harvested relative to the number of seeds planted (capital) on a",
"Robert Solow and Trevor Swan developed what eventually became the main model used in growth economics in the 1950s. This model assumes that there are diminishing returns to capital and labor. Capital accumulates through investment, but its level or stock continually decreases due to depreciation. Due to the diminishing returns to capital, with increases in capital/worker and absent technological progress, economic output/worker eventually reaches a point where capital per worker and economic output/worker remain constant because annual investment in capital equals annual depreciation. This condition is called the'steady state'. In the Solow–Swan model if productivity increases through technological progress, then output/worker increases even when the economy is in the steady state. If productivity increases at a constant rate, output/worker",
"Unsatisfied with the assumption of exogenous technological progress in the Solow–Swan model, economists worked to \"endogenize\" (i.e., explain it \"from within\" the models) productivity growth in the 1980s; the resulting endogenous growth theory, most notably advanced by Robert Lucas, Jr. and his student Paul Romer, includes a mathematical explanation of technological advancement. This model also incorporated a new concept of human capital, the skills and knowledge that make workers productive. Unlike physical capital, human capital has increasing rates of return. Research done in this area has focused on what increases human capital (e.g. education) or technological change (e.g. innovation). On Memorial Day weekend in 1988, a conference in Buffalo brought together the great minds in economics the idea was to evaluate the conflicting theories of growth. Romer, Krugman, Barro, Becker were in attendance along many other rising star and high profiled",
"Unified growth theory was developed by Oded Galor and his co-authors to address the inability of endogenous growth theory to explain key empirical regularities in the growth processes of individual economies and the world economy as a whole. Unlike endogenous growth theory that focuses entirely on the modern growth regime and is therefore unable to explain the roots of inequality across nations, unified growth theory captures in a single framework the fundamental phases of the process of development in the course of human history: (i) the Malthusian epoch that was prevalent over most of human history, (ii) the escape from the Malthusian trap, (iii) the emergence of human capital as a central element in the growth process, (iv) the onset of the fertility decline, (v) the",
"",
"The prevailing views about the role of inequality in the growth process has radically shifted in the past century. The classical perspective, as expressed by Adam Smith, and others, suggests that inequality fosters the growth process. Specifically, since the aggregate saving increases with inequality due to higher property to save among the wealthy, the classical viewpoint suggests that inequality stimulates capital accumulation and therefore economic growth. The Neoclassical perspective that is based on representative agent approach denies the role of inequality in the growth process. It suggests that the while the growth process may affect inequality, income distribution has no impact on the growth process. The modern perspective which has",
"The reduced form empirical relationship between inequality and growth was studied by Alberto Alesina and Dani Rodrik, and Torsten Persson and Guido Tabellini. They find that inequality is negatively associated with economic growth in a cross-country analysis. Robert Barro reexamined the reduced form relationship between inequality on economic growth in a panel of countries. He argues that there is \"little overall relation between income inequality and rates of growth and investment\". However, his empirical strategy limits its applicability to the understanding of the relationship between inequality and growth for several reasons. First, his regression analysis control for education, fertility, investment, and it therefore excludes,",
"The Galor and Zeira's model predicts that the effect of rising inequality on GDP per capita is negative in relatively rich countries but positive in poor countries. These testable predictions have been examined and confirmed empirically in recent studies. In particular, Brückner and Lederman test the prediction of the model by in the panel of countries during the period 1970–2010, by considering the impact of the interaction between the level of income inequality and the initial level of GDP per capita. In line with the predictions of the model, they find that at the 25th percentile of initial income in the world sample, a 1 percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient increases income per capita by 2.3%, whereas at the 75th percentile of initial income a 1 percentage point",
"Over long periods of time, even small rates of growth, such as a 2% annual increase, have large effects. For example, the United Kingdom experienced a 1.97% average annual increase in its inflation-adjusted GDP between 1830 and 2008. In 1830, the GDP was 41,373 million pounds. It grew to 1,330,088 million pounds by 2008. A growth rate that averaged 1.97% over 178 years resulted in a 32-fold increase in GDP by 2008. The large impact of a relatively small growth rate over a long period of time is due to the power of exponential growth. The rule of 72, a mathematical result, states that if something grows at the rate of x% per year, then its level will double every 72/x years. For example, a growth rate of 2.5% per annum leads to a doubling of the GDP within 28.8 years, whilst a growth rate of 8% per year leads to a doubling of GDP within nine years. Thus, a small difference in economic growth rates between countries can result in very different standards of living for their populations if this small difference continues for many years.",
"One theory that relates economic growth with quality of life is the \"Threshold Hypothesis\", which states that economic growth up to a point brings with it an increase in quality of life. But at that point – called the threshold point – further economic growth can bring with it a deterioration in quality of life. This results in an upside-down-U-shaped curve, where the vertex of the curve represents the level of growth that should be targeted. Happiness has been shown to increase",
"While acknowledging the central role economic growth can potentially play in human development, poverty reduction and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, it is becoming widely understood amongst the development community that special efforts must be made to ensure poorer sections of society are able to participate in economic growth. The effect of economic growth on poverty reduction – the growth elasticity of poverty – can depend on the existing level of inequality. For instance, with low inequality a country with a growth rate of 2% per head and 40% of its population living in poverty, can halve poverty in ten years, but a country with high inequality would take nearly 60 years to achieve the same reduction. In the words of the Secretary General of the United Nations Ban Ki-Moon: \"While economic growth is necessary, it is not sufficient for progress on reducing poverty.\" Critics such as the Club of Rome argue that a narrow view of economic growth, combined with globalization, is creating a scenario where we could see a systemic collapse of our planet's natural resources. Concerns about negative environmental effects of growth have prompted some people to advocate lower levels of growth, or the abandoning of growth altogether. In academia, concepts",
"Up to the present, there is a close correlation between economic growth and the rate of carbon dioxide emissions across nations, although there is also a considerable divergence in carbon intensity (carbon emissions per GDP). Up to the present, there is also a direct relation between global economic wealth and the rate of global emissions. The Stern Review notes that the prediction that, \"Under business as usual, global emissions will be sufficient to propel greenhouse gas concentrations to over 550 ppm by 2050 and over 650–700 ppm by the end of this century is robust to a wide range of changes in model assumptions.\" The scientific consensus is that planetary ecosystem functioning without incurring dangerous risks requires stabilization at 450–550 ppm. As a consequence, growth-oriented environmental economists propose government intervention into switching",
"Many earlier predictions of resource depletion, such as Thomas Malthus' 1798 predictions about approaching famines in Europe, \"The Population Bomb, and the Simon–Ehrlich wager (1980) have not materialized. Diminished production of most resources has not occurred so far, one reason being that advancements in technology and science have allowed some previously unavailable resources to be produced. In some cases, substitution of more abundant materials, such as plastics for cast metals, lowered growth of usage for some metals. In the case of the limited resource of land, famine was relieved firstly by the revolution in transportation caused by railroads and steam ships, and later by the Green Revolution and chemical fertilizers, especially the Haber process for ammonia synthesis. Resource quality is composed of a variety of factors including ore grades, location, altitude above or below sea",
"Energy economic theories hold that rates of energy consumption and energy efficiency are linked causally to economic growth. The Garrett Relation holds that there has been a fixed relationship between current rates of global energy consumption and the historical accumulation of world GDP, independent of the year considered. It follows that economic growth, as represented by GDP growth,"
]
} |
East Lothian | null | East Lothian (; ; ) is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, as well as a historic county, registration county and lieutenancy area. The county was also known as Haddingtonshire. | null | [
250004,
250054,
77168,
214,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
12610,
6,
167618,
111,
130891,
4,
2091,
4450,
66,
509,
27623,
3674,
390,
53008,
50828,
1771,
9,
9217,
11,
6048,
893,
45964,
21689,
5245,
136,
100,
4806,
2831,
111,
70,
60097,
3815,
111,
70,
3430,
13606,
73,
4,
28032,
70,
19963,
180,
32502,
71,
707,
25074,
23924,
5,
360,
70,
361,
927,
142642,
4,
756,
111,
70,
3430,
13606,
73,
25,
7,
181991,
53,
77736,
47,
70,
2393,
1577,
4,
678,
2091,
4450,
66,
141753,
2831,
111,
70,
60097,
3815,
111,
2076,
4158,
11,
5,
2076,
4158,
11,
25072,
297,
3934,
70,
117604,
111,
23924,
34,
159997,
3129,
68034,
100512,
2831,
111,
70,
39395,
117604,
111,
30715,
5,
2091,
4450,
66,
21449,
1379,
70,
6226,
111,
70,
50695,
4745,
185610,
53,
23,
70,
209,
927,
142642,
5,
581,
67896,
150,
525,
91067,
47,
28129,
71,
42562,
72567,
237,
10,
54529,
53,
111,
176637,
74918,
2822,
23,
70,
427,
927,
142642,
4,
23,
6626,
178727,
7,
31089,
71,
390,
18813,
6765,
5,
28129,
71,
42562,
72567,
509,
17305,
5115,
53,
75412,
23,
10,
14012,
111,
92264,
136,
39395,
5744,
79612,
7,
136,
10,
14012,
111,
10204,
47314,
37702,
1577,
136,
33976,
7,
6044,
237,
27859,
1299,
120304,
4,
62691,
11,
47551,
120304,
136,
19946,
133,
1507,
120304,
5622,
1295,
903,
14922,
5,
360,
70,
427,
927,
136,
702,
927,
202032,
90,
4,
70,
73416,
111,
28129,
71,
42562,
509,
1632,
111,
70,
40,
9821,
111,
70,
87703,
111,
176637,
5,
18813,
25031,
70,
82209,
111,
176637,
11814,
70,
5381,
329,
1295,
1733,
47,
1733,
136,
442,
509,
70,
127319,
23935,
111,
42814,
1995,
23,
534,
16665,
5,
581,
5381,
329,
136,
59444,
3542,
96865,
297,
136,
34777,
11,
17704,
23,
427,
2485,
4,
390,
142,
14941,
187,
1176,
1379,
70,
75101,
111,
18813,
4939,
111,
30715,
5,
360,
427,
11648,
4,
70,
99381,
111,
27859,
1299,
509,
10,
125189,
13,
91375,
53,
100,
70,
84616,
111,
38157,
87,
111,
30715,
26548,
70,
84616,
111,
4939,
21786,
34837,
4,
70,
50695,
4745,
60097,
2750,
509,
38157,
25,
7,
4191,
2317,
5,
24453,
2091,
4450,
66,
509,
2843,
70,
1764,
111,
79612,
20271,
70,
627,
72089,
89568,
214,
4,
678,
27859,
1299,
120304,
96865,
18,
23,
423,
9285,
5,
133698,
70,
5550,
111,
70,
129335,
117604,
7,
4,
15700,
99381,
111,
27859,
1299,
34739,
3687,
23,
611,
2525,
17721,
50695,
4745,
1311,
127922,
56,
84616,
136,
70,
223606,
6635,
84616,
1379,
70189,
24727,
39,
19256,
5,
581,
223606,
6635,
84616,
3542,
91375,
14,
10821,
136,
19048,
47,
95685,
98,
47,
5646,
210479,
5,
77168,
214,
70,
9624,
1290,
2320,
111,
70,
185610,
53,
4,
46173,
93905,
135555,
136,
25515,
7,
111,
32528,
4,
30492,
1486,
84616,
3542,
23,
79612,
678,
92416,
84616,
4,
678,
70,
5201,
79612,
35971,
3687,
237,
2831,
111,
70,
729,
1837,
24116,
214,
136,
729,
4633,
24116,
214,
5,
9626,
70,
75101,
111,
10868,
4939,
83664,
13,
4,
70,
56101,
126140,
435,
678,
70,
30492,
52164,
1379,
28166,
38157,
211524,
99,
70,
99381,
111,
20703,
1507,
3180,
7,
23,
70,
65272,
111,
70,
54529,
53,
23,
6088,
729,
4633,
4,
678,
70,
30492,
1486,
5609,
21647,
214,
10,
88551,
91375,
53,
8108,
8035,
8,
88981,
297,
99,
70,
99381,
111,
41117,
365,
555,
23,
7071,
729,
9271,
5,
24172,
27759,
24124,
13036,
17690,
7,
23,
176637,
390,
70,
24172,
92416,
15,
294,
587,
74041,
16,
25515,
145810,
4,
3129,
26038,
28129,
71,
42562,
72567,
10,
54529,
53,
215394,
4,
456,
133266,
214,
110680,
32354,
7,
111,
70,
63871,
1314,
111,
121691,
538,
136,
4000,
117400,
7,
111,
70,
126609,
5,
360,
26527,
1379,
70,
24172,
92416,
15,
294,
587,
74041,
16,
25515,
29733,
4,
176637,
25,
7,
54529,
53,
215394,
7,
3542,
26725,
141,
4126,
136,
10,
3525,
5426,
111,
18150,
136,
103724,
215394,
7,
509,
75935,
5,
24453,
2091,
4450,
66,
59338,
509,
75935,
28032,
70,
91257,
2091,
4450,
66,
10776,
5,
581,
103724,
48402,
297,
70,
105719,
54529,
53,
111,
24453,
2091,
4450,
66,
1001,
70,
71119,
127,
111,
19314,
1428,
13593,
127,
136,
70,
366,
4745,
111,
148639,
90,
92,
15,
143321,
99201,
23706,
53,
13534,
136,
22392,
15182,
872,
16,
1295,
70,
54529,
53,
111,
23166,
365,
4450,
66,
5,
14847,
53333,
17690,
7,
23,
11891,
109133,
176637,
47,
10,
5426,
111,
2789,
25072,
6635,
4000,
207048,
4,
70,
5744,
215394,
16128,
111,
24453,
2091,
4450,
66,
509,
75935,
5,
24453,
2091,
4450,
66,
83,
156531,
660,
538,
28720,
5,
1650,
1556,
111,
184085,
2256,
7440,
70,
59444,
7,
111,
19314,
1428,
13593,
127,
4,
20703,
1507,
3180,
7,
4,
1311,
11960,
5556,
136,
13791,
503,
1507,
4,
16965,
32417,
4,
23924,
2076,
44726,
136,
27859,
1299,
28127,
33233,
70,
184085,
111,
70,
35526,
927,
111,
1326,
927,
5,
581,
184085,
1556,
40368,
10336,
15534,
136,
9118,
7,
4,
2684,
959,
78458,
2016,
7,
13534,
9631,
4,
8592,
143,
1459,
9631,
4,
16965,
32417,
41097,
4,
13552,
53,
39406,
271,
4,
8064,
86,
45709,
927,
4,
12628,
67139,
9631,
4,
35923,
7,
24673,
7,
4,
213912,
41097,
136,
6653,
7432,
41097,
5,
8622,
621,
40368,
19336,
90695,
7,
5773,
70,
184085,
144477,
111,
23924,
2076,
44726,
4,
70,
142105,
111,
6097,
8035,
3698,
3041,
4,
122930,
4,
156201,
133,
8962,
136,
96742,
14434,
5,
87293,
6626,
59444,
7,
621,
3551,
21135,
297,
4,
60532,
2517,
136,
28129,
71,
42562,
5,
717,
70,
127067,
621,
70,
239,
6947,
561,
481,
117889,
33233,
70,
6,
99091,
6635,
678,
2076,
44726,
72567,
74,
442,
83,
3688,
450,
11204,
8828,
25916,
7,
36293,
4,
70,
167375,
6275,
23,
70,
54529,
53,
99,
4,
831,
186,
14037,
5,
581,
32547,
8064,
86,
86608,
7,
8305,
28129,
71,
42562,
136,
40368,
111,
24453,
2091,
4450,
66,
25,
7,
54427,
7,
4,
58359,
214,
70,
35526,
927,
111,
1326,
927,
43573,
12628,
67139,
5,
581,
32547,
1184,
92,
86608,
7,
8305,
148639,
90,
92,
136,
19314,
1428,
13593,
127,
7440,
442,
20244,
2449,
99,
70,
144477,
111,
70,
59444,
3934,
70,
35526,
927,
111,
1326,
927,
5,
49953,
337,
34204,
111,
7401,
26698,
21072,
10638,
66,
43157,
4,
70,
22392,
712,
820,
174097,
17990,
4,
75359,
7,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
24453,
2091,
4450,
66,
15,
74,
2819,
1388,
83,
1632,
111,
70,
2789,
215394,
58555,
111,
176637,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
10,
105719,
54529,
53,
4,
164498,
54529,
53,
136,
23414,
51219,
27771,
16128,
5,
581,
54529,
53,
509,
2843,
51529,
237,
28129,
71,
42562,
72567,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2184654 | en-train-2184654 | 2184654 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Early history.",
"Medieval and early modern period.",
"Modern history.",
"Geography.",
"Transport.",
"Road.",
"Public transport.",
"Politics.",
"Parliament of the United Kingdom.",
"Scottish Parliament.",
"Local government.",
"Civil parishes.",
"Education.",
"Culture and community.",
"Symbols.",
"Local media.",
"Freedom of the County."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Following the end of the Roman occupation of Britain, Lothian was populated by Brythonic-speaking Ancient Britons and formed part of the kingdom of the Gododdin, within the Hen Ogledd or Old North. In the 7th century, all of the Gododdin's territory fell to the Angles, with Lothian becoming part of the kingdom of Bernicia. Bernicia united into the Kingdom of Northumbria which itself became part of the early Kingdom of England. Lothian came under the control of the Scottish monarchy in the 10th century. The earliest reference to Haddingtonshire as a county of Scotland occurred in the 12th century, in two charters issued by King David.",
"Haddingtonshire was heavily involved in a number of medieval and early modern conflicts and a number of fortified castles and buildings such as Dunbar Castle, Tantallon Castle and Dirleton Castle date from this period. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Palace of Haddington was one of the seats of the Kings of Scotland. King William the Lion of Scotland used the palace from time to time and it was the birthplace of Alexander II in 1198. The palace and town were burned and pillaged in 1216, by an English army under the command of King John of England. In 1296, the Battle of Dunbar was a decisive victory for the forces of Edward I of England against the forces of John Balliol, the Scottish king who was Edward's vassal. East Lothian was also the site of conflict during the Rough Wooing, with Dunbar Castle burnt in 1548. During the War of the Three Kingdoms, another Battle of Dunbar took place in 1650 between Scottish Covenanter forces and the Parliamentary forces under Oliver Cromwell. The Parliamentary forces were victorious and able to march on to take Edinburgh. Following the Restoration of the monarchy, Glorious Revolution and Acts of Union, Jacobite forces were in conflict with Government forces, with the main conflict taking place as part of the 1715 Rising and 1745 Rising. Under the command of Sir John Cope, the British Army met with the Jacobites under Charles Edward Stuart at the Battle of Prestonpans in the west of the county in September 1745, with the Jacobite side gaining a significant victory before being defeated at the Battle of Culloden in April 1746.",
"Local government saw major reforms in Scotland by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, which gave Haddingtonshire a county council, replacing earlier functions of the Commissioners of Supply and local Justices of the Peace. In 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, Scotland's county councils were dissolved and a new system of regional and district councils was created. East Lothian District was created within the wider Lothian region. The district comprised the historic county of East Lothian plus the burgh of Musselburgh and the parish of Inveresk (which included Wallyford and Whitecraig) from the county of Midlothian. When further reforms in 1996 moved Scotland to a system of 32 unitary local authorities, the modern council area of East Lothian was created.",
"East Lothian is predominantly rural. It has of coastline where the towns of Musselburgh, Prestonpans, Cockenzie and Port Seton, Gullane, North Berwick and Dunbar lie along the coast of the Firth of Forth. The coast has several headlands and bays, most notably Gosford Bay, Aberlady Bay, Gullane Point, Sandy Hirst, Tyne Mouth, Belhaven Bay, Barns Ness, Chapel Point and Torness Point. There are several small islands off the coast north of North Berwick, the largest of these being Fidra, Lamb, Craigleith and Bass Rock. Only two towns are landlocked, Tranent and Haddington. To the south are the Lammermuir Hills along the boundary with Berwickshire; it is here that Meikle Says Law, the highest point in the county at, can be found. The River Tyne flows through Haddington and several of East Lothian's villages, reaching the Firth of Forth near Belhaven. The River Esk flows through Inveresk and Musselburgh where it empties at the north of the town into the Firth of Forth. Major bodies of water include Pressmennan Lake, the Whiteadder Reservoir, Hopes Reservoir, Stobshiel Reservoir and Lammerloch Reservoir.",
"",
"The A1 road travels through East Lothian where it meets the Scottish Borders southbound and Edinburgh northbound. The A1 throughout East Lothian is dual carriageway and major junctions include Dunbar, Haddington, Tranent, Prestonpans and Musselburgh. Starting in Leith, the A199 road also travels through East Lothian beginning at Musselburgh and passing through Wallyford, Tranent, Macmerry and Haddington before joining the A1 in West Barns. Some non-primary routes in East Lothian are the A198, A1087, A6093 and A6137 roads.",
"East Lothian is served by seven railway stations: Dunbar and Musselburgh on the East Coast Main Line; and North Berwick, Drem, Longniddry, Prestonpans and Wallyford on the North Berwick Line. Rail service operators which travel through and stop at stations in the area include: Abellio ScotRail on both lines; and CrossCountry and London North Eastern Railway on the East Coast Main Line. Bus operators in East Lothian are: Lothian Buses and its subsidiary East Coast Buses, Eve Coaches of Dunbar, Prentice of Haddington and Borders Buses. East Coast Buses is the main bus service provider connecting the towns and villages of East Lothian to Edinburgh. The company has depots in North Berwick and Musselburgh.",
"",
"East Lothian is a constituency in the House of Commons, electing one Member of Parliament. It is one of only 4 UK Parliamentary Constituencies in Scotland which matches the boundaries of its Local Authority area. The other examples being Inverclyde, Moray, and Na h-Eileanan an Iar, East Lothian is one of the few UK Parliamentary Constituencies which fully covers the boundaries of its Council area. The current MP for East Lothian is Kenny Macaskill of the Scottish National Party.",
"Most of East Lothian is in the East Lothian Scottish Parliament constituency and South Scotland region with the exception of Musselburgh which is in Midlothian North and Musselburgh and the Lothians region.",
"East Lothian Council is based in the historic county town of Haddington, with the council meeting at the Haddington Town House and offices at nearby at John Muir House. The unitary local authority contains six wards, electing 22 councillors. Following the 2017 election, the council is composed of the following parties in each of the six wards:",
"In 1894, John Martine published \"Reminiscences and Notices of Ten Parishes of the County of Haddington\".",
"There are a range of schools in the county, including six state secondaries: Dunbar Grammar School, Knox Academy (formerly the Grammar School) in Haddington, Musselburgh Grammar School, North Berwick High School, Preston Lodge High School in Prestonpans and Ross High School in Tranent. There are two independent schools in the county. Loretto School is a day and boarding school in Musselburgh founded in 1827 and Belhaven Hill School, established in 1923 is a smaller preparatory school in Dunbar also providing boarding. In 2007, Queen Margaret University began its move to a new, purpose-built campus in Musselburgh within East Lothian, providing it with its first university.",
"",
"In November 2017, a county flag competition was launched in East Lothian to register an official flag of East Lothian. Anyone willing to enter this competition was allowed to enter, which resulted in 623 entries to the competition. The end of entry submission time was the 28th of February 2018. Four final flag designs will be placed in a vote to the residents of East Lothian. In December 2018 the winning design was announced, designed by Archie Martin, a local man from Musselburgh and residing in Gifford who had worked for the council for 23 years. Martin died in July 2018. The flag features a saltire representing East Lothian as the birthplace of Scotland's flag. A gold cross signifies the wealth of East Lothian's farmlands and reputation as the granary of Scotland with a lion in the centre representing the Haddington lion along with blue stripes to represent the rivers Esk and Tyne.",
"East Lothian is served by two local paid-for weekly newspapers, the \"East Lothian Courier\" and the \"East Lothian News\". The \"East Lothian Courier\" (often locally \"The Courier\") began as the Haddingtonshire Courier in 1859, before changing its name in 1971. It was owned by D&J Croal, based in Haddington, until its purchase by the Dunfermline Press Group in 2004. The \"East Lothian News\" was first published in 1971, as part of Scottish County Press Group, with editorial offices in Dalkeith and printing at Bonnyrigg (both in Midlothian). The Scottish County Press Group was acquired by Regional Independent Media in 2000, which was in turn bought by Johnston Press in 2002. There are two local community radio stations in East Lothian, broadcasting on FM and online. East Coast FM, based in Haddington, has been broadcasting since 2009. Radio Saltire, formerly East Lothian FM, is now based in Tranent. A number of sports personalities also have links with East Lothian:",
"The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the County of East Lothian."
]
} |
Networking hardware | null | Networking hardware, also known as network equipment or computer networking devices, are electronic devices which are required for communication and interaction between devices on a computer network. Specifically, they mediate data transmission in a computer network. Units which are the last receiver or generate data are called hosts, end systems or data terminal equipment. | null | [
250004,
250054,
28997,
214,
128779,
96853,
10,
134744,
37457,
111,
98154,
3129,
831,
186,
18507,
47314,
237,
56458,
33120,
82761,
7,
3129,
1940,
135457,
3789,
33120,
82761,
7,
4,
113490,
82761,
7,
3129,
831,
186,
14037,
23,
70,
56458,
707,
132988,
111,
10,
33120,
136,
76407,
707,
10975,
82761,
7,
3129,
205794,
1661,
98,
70,
94878,
6275,
111,
12921,
33120,
7,
5,
581,
2684,
39210,
8562,
111,
172532,
76407,
18925,
83,
10,
552,
8079,
9,
77007,
174580,
123666,
3129,
83,
10,
5570,
190440,
191,
98,
2684,
5744,
13909,
76519,
5,
171918,
172532,
1556,
24209,
118055,
538,
5700,
4,
41866,
100,
168627,
136,
3535,
100038,
128779,
5,
64511,
172532,
76407,
11814,
23,
13909,
7,
96853,
2053,
27585,
98154,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
11435,
10723,
7,
4,
63399,
10723,
7,
136,
132096,
58555,
247,
33120,
11374,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
100976,
4,
100940,
17854,
4,
3340,
4,
3021,
5,
16,
237,
5299,
237,
128779,
3129,
92784,
10941,
117989,
5,
2561,
214,
10,
91257,
21455,
4,
14288,
24089,
7,
4,
9961,
13909,
7,
136,
128779,
137272,
678,
70,
1820,
111,
8966,
1543,
2843,
186,
90698,
172532,
76407,
5,
1301,
55556,
129745,
7,
136,
8021,
9,
77007,
33120,
7,
621,
78779,
297,
3934,
33976,
150449,
136,
197540,
19537,
2449,
4,
33120,
76407,
1221,
24209,
142,
920,
12282,
10821,
13579,
36,
14775,
47,
70,
18410,
538,
118055,
14012,
111,
33120,
87709,
3564,
38496,
7,
5,
28997,
76407,
831,
186,
18507,
47314,
390,
6863,
31913,
136,
31486,
23,
70,
33120,
5,
31365,
33120,
82761,
7,
1940,
135457,
3789,
33120,
82761,
7,
5,
175833,
82761,
7,
831,
186,
14037,
23,
70,
56458,
707,
132988,
111,
10,
33120,
5,
155227,
707,
10975,
82761,
7,
3129,
205794,
1661,
98,
70,
94878,
6275,
111,
12921,
33120,
7,
15,
2472,
27781,
4,
17721,
142,
70796,
33120,
136,
142,
173591,
33120,
16,
26698,
12,
64511,
76407,
128779,
11814,
100,
137633,
214,
33120,
7,
707,
45,
289,
9,
2037,
94878,
7,
26698,
12,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
28997,
214,
76407,
4,
2843,
51529,
237,
33120,
98154,
707,
13909,
172532,
128779,
4,
621,
65133,
128779,
3129,
621,
56065,
100,
36398,
136,
182809,
17721,
128779,
98,
10,
13909,
33120,
5,
209052,
25958,
4,
1836,
2450,
67,
2053,
179965,
23,
10,
13909,
33120,
5,
46640,
7,
3129,
621,
70,
4568,
53299,
42,
707,
139392,
2053,
621,
35839,
27980,
7,
4,
3564,
76519,
707,
2053,
33949,
98154,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1689347 | en-train-1689347 | 1689347 | {
"title": [
"Range.",
"Specific devices.",
"Core.",
"Hybrid.",
"Border.",
"End stations."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Networking devices includes a broad range of equipment which can be classified as core network components which interconnect other network components, hybrid components which can be found in the core or border of a network and hardware or software components which typically sit on the connection point of different networks. The most common kind of networking hardware today is a copper-based Ethernet adapter which is a standard inclusion on most modern computer systems. Wireless networking has become increasingly popular, especially for portable and handheld devices. Other networking hardware used in computers includes data center equipment (such as file servers, database servers and storage areas), network services (such as DNS, DHCP, email, etc.) as well as devices which assure content delivery. Taking a wider view, mobile phones, tablet computers and devices associated with the internet of things may also be considered networking hardware. As technology advances and IP-based networks are integrated into building infrastructure and household utilities, network hardware will become an ambiguous term owing to the vastly increasing number of network capable endpoints.",
"Network hardware can be classified by its location and role in the network.",
"Core network components interconnect other network components.",
"Hybrid components can be found in the core or border of a network.",
"Hardware or software components which typically sit on the connection point of different networks (for example, between an internal network and an external network) include:",
"Other hardware devices used for establishing networks or dial-up connections include:"
]
} |
North Lanarkshire | null | North Lanarkshire () is one of 32 council areas of Scotland. It borders the northeast of the City of Glasgow and contains many of Glasgow's suburbs and commuter towns and villages. It also borders East Dunbartonshire, Falkirk, Stirling, South Lanarkshire and West Lothian. The council covers parts of the traditional counties of Dunbartonshire, Lanarkshire and Stirlingshire. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
142105,
2831,
111,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
4,
23,
70,
127067,
111,
70,
54529,
53,
4,
1556,
6863,
74855,
7,
23,
70,
32692,
54529,
53,
111,
10082,
66874,
72567,
4,
3129,
1556,
13835,
71,
16792,
10932,
70,
1733,
111,
18813,
6765,
87,
4,
2750,
79986,
71,
176637,
1295,
534,
2357,
47,
534,
14226,
5,
581,
54529,
53,
509,
35509,
10932,
70,
59444,
111,
10082,
66874,
4,
5036,
23,
25134,
10082,
66874,
72567,
4,
3129,
1902,
2809,
70,
1764,
111,
70,
5117,
223606,
111,
176637,
1379,
195784,
1995,
23,
483,
19051,
4,
136,
509,
2855,
3674,
71119,
127,
10778,
390,
6765,
23,
534,
2839,
5,
581,
144477,
9022,
63920,
111,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
3542,
23,
70,
105719,
54529,
3387,
111,
27859,
1299,
1507,
72567,
136,
159,
2826,
2069,
72567,
5,
581,
16128,
5036,
127918,
390,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
1556,
43606,
186768,
71119,
127,
7,
12,
5345,
14152,
13,
4,
1311,
257,
80728,
4,
38827,
4861,
927,
4,
115217,
19256,
136,
174837,
15519,
5,
581,
43904,
111,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
3514,
434,
69405,
20271,
70,
81207,
135555,
5,
360,
70,
543,
927,
142642,
70,
54529,
53,
25,
7,
59444,
7,
4,
26719,
115217,
19256,
4,
3542,
36457,
23,
67773,
13,
36049,
5,
581,
103882,
53,
111,
552,
289,
136,
193,
191,
6517,
40370,
7,
23,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
70,
33976,
111,
70,
181787,
47,
210479,
6,
68823,
7514,
4,
27198,
297,
70,
10776,
5,
581,
59444,
7,
111,
115217,
19256,
4,
1311,
257,
80728,
136,
174837,
15519,
100512,
70880,
111,
70,
193,
191,
136,
158285,
53099,
5,
32255,
95845,
7,
80723,
47,
206398,
23,
70,
17932,
23552,
111,
70,
387,
927,
142642,
4,
12960,
10,
75678,
74918,
2822,
23,
70,
53477,
136,
55556,
8916,
7,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
10,
75678,
23,
150535,
7,
11374,
62548,
47,
70,
99162,
4127,
7,
83629,
23,
70,
16128,
5,
581,
3525,
59444,
111,
7140,
1297,
76,
52366,
71062,
297,
25545,
538,
7103,
6661,
5550,
1995,
4,
136,
83,
5036,
70,
142105,
59444,
23,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
5,
581,
75678,
111,
70,
32774,
56,
181787,
57329,
17840,
16128,
3934,
70,
127067,
9,
1177,
48850,
2831,
111,
70,
54529,
53,
1556,
2843,
12441,
47,
10,
21334,
14012,
111,
148205,
289,
58555,
100,
375,
561,
23962,
5,
581,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
54529,
53,
16128,
509,
170920,
23,
11891,
237,
2831,
111,
10,
456,
40098,
111,
4000,
27759,
23,
70,
14098,
117604,
5,
3293,
509,
70,
42850,
23,
10,
36549,
111,
17690,
7,
4,
72134,
23,
145810,
678,
70,
137633,
674,
111,
10,
54529,
53,
215394,
100,
10082,
66874,
72567,
23,
145810,
136,
134629,
23,
26527,
390,
70,
10,
40285,
1363,
111,
70,
54529,
53,
136,
6863,
1563,
4970,
254,
1363,
3934,
70,
150679,
7832,
927,
238,
538,
112,
16843,
5,
581,
11891,
17690,
10,
40285,
67175,
7832,
927,
238,
538,
112,
4,
136,
170920,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
237,
10,
42564,
42,
111,
70,
103724,
7,
111,
7140,
1297,
76,
52366,
136,
38827,
4861,
927,
4,
7465,
92,
15534,
4,
115217,
19256,
136,
22759,
111,
70,
6,
19364,
7,
111,
7832,
927,
2590,
2082,
103724,
5,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
400,
90,
23,
70,
15881,
70237,
111,
176637,
4,
47,
70,
28,
4438,
111,
181787,
5,
1650,
400,
90,
98,
70,
176637,
25,
7,
144477,
1104,
49760,
927,
7401,
67175,
678,
70,
32547,
313,
538,
112,
86608,
214,
8305,
70,
65272,
111,
70,
54529,
53,
98,
6863,
3917,
47,
70,
120552,
27414,
4,
136,
70,
32547,
884,
15882,
23,
70,
28,
4438,
201505,
214,
3934,
70,
35526,
927,
111,
1326,
927,
43573,
210479,
5,
581,
144477,
9022,
58555,
58055,
111,
100,
525,
7,
237,
5299,
237,
77546,
58555,
6044,
237,
70,
38827,
4861,
927,
117889,
5,
581,
167375,
43904,
168,
7,
2481,
111,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
83,
23,
70,
27081,
52021,
127067,
9,
25617,
4,
3129,
83,
2831,
111,
70,
32774,
56,
181787,
57329,
17840,
16128,
5,
182688,
136,
8394,
48850,
58555,
621,
1286,
28720,
23,
62816,
4,
678,
120767,
141,
103488,
6044,
237,
22886,
53,
136,
163,
257,
40617,
214,
5,
581,
142105,
59444,
7,
23,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
621,
7140,
1297,
76,
52366,
4,
3129,
23,
2021,
1902,
10,
43904,
111,
190,
163090,
963,
4,
134629,
390,
1311,
257,
80728,
9451,
125157,
89149,
4,
5345,
14152,
13,
15,
10945,
4,
43955,
247,
136,
115217,
19256,
15,
6460,
4,
20840,
194,
581,
215394,
83,
7228,
1257,
111,
952,
6,
19364,
7,
4,
237,
28960,
7,
12,
1301,
111,
11075,
4,
70,
215394,
166577,
83,
12,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
23924,
10082,
66874,
72567,
15,
16,
83,
1632,
111,
2789,
215394,
58555,
111,
176637,
5,
1650,
132988,
7,
70,
144477,
13,
4438,
111,
70,
6406,
111,
181787,
136,
70541,
7,
5941,
111,
181787,
25,
7,
165473,
16145,
136,
375,
561,
720,
59444,
7,
136,
54427,
7,
5,
1650,
2843,
132988,
7,
24453,
27859,
1299,
1507,
72567,
4,
155270,
481,
92,
4,
159,
2826,
2069,
4,
25134,
10082,
66874,
72567,
136,
10542,
2091,
4450,
66,
5,
581,
215394,
29256,
7,
63920,
111,
70,
89160,
54529,
3387,
111,
27859,
1299,
1507,
72567,
4,
10082,
66874,
72567,
136,
159,
2826,
2069,
72567,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-628081 | en-train-628081 | 628081 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Geography and demographics.",
"Wards.",
"Politics and governance.",
"Political composition."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The largest part of North Lanarkshire, in the south of the county, has its roots in the history county of Lanarkshire, which has existed since around the time of King David I, who ruled Scotland from 1124 to 1153. The county was based around the town of Lanark, now in South Lanarkshire, which had been the site of the first Parliament of Scotland under Kenneth II in 978, and was granted burgh status by David in 1140. The northern parts of North Lanarkshire were in the historic counties of Dunbartonshire and Stirlingshire. The area now covered by North Lanarkshire has five historical burghs: Airdrie, Coatbridge, Kilsyth, Motherwell and Wishaw. The population of North Lanarkshire grew quickly during the Industrial Revolution. In the 18th century the county's towns, including Motherwell, were active in textile production. The discovery of coal and iron ore deposits in the 19th century, as well as the building of the Glasgow to Edinburgh railway, transformed the region. The towns of Motherwell, Coatbridge and Wishaw became centres of the iron and steel industry. These industries began to decline in the second half of the 20th century, while a growth occurred in the financial and technology sectors, as well as a growth in logistics services related to the heavy goods traffic in the area. The new town of Cumbernauld expanded rapidly after World War II, and is now the largest town in North Lanarkshire. The growth of the Greater Glasgow metropolitan area into the south-western part of the county has also led to a large number of residential areas for commuters. The North Lanarkshire county area was established in 1996 as part of a reorganisation of local government in the United Kingdom. This was the latest in a series of reforms, starting in 1889 with the establishment of a county council for Lanarkshire in 1889 and followed in 1975 by the abolition of the county and its absorption into the larger Strathclyde Region. The 1996 reform abolished Strathclyde, and established North Lanarkshire as a merger of the districts of Cumbernauld and Kilsyth, Monklands, Motherwell and four of the wards of Strathkelvin district.",
"North Lanarkshire lies in the Central Valley of Scotland, to the east of Glasgow. It lies on the Scotland's north–south watershed with the River Clyde flowing through the west of the county on its way to the Irish Sea, and the River Almond in the east emptying into the Firth of Forth near Edinburgh. The northern areas consist of forests as well as higher areas such as the Kilsyth Hills. The highest population density of North Lanarkshire is in the urbanised south-west, which is part of the Greater Glasgow metropolitan area. Northern and eastern areas are more rural in character, with agricultural activity such as dairy and meat farming. The largest towns in North Lanarkshire are Cumbernauld, which in 2008 had a population of 51,610, followed by Coatbridge (43,970), Airdrie (37,130), and Motherwell (32,120).",
"The council is made up of 21 wards, as follows:",
"",
"As of 2020, the council composition is:"
]
} |
Application software | null | Application software (app for short) is a program or group of programs designed for end users. Examples of an application include a word processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting application, a web browser, an email client, a media player, a file viewer, simulators, a console game or a photo editor. The collective noun application software refers to all applications collectively. This contrasts with system software, which is mainly involved with running the computer. | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
4677,
55556,
4,
142,
38415,
15,
9007,
247,
38415,
1528,
707,
38415,
10975,
83,
10,
13909,
1528,
82775,
47,
4358,
3395,
51339,
142,
103488,
5,
262,
96819,
98,
70,
103488,
100,
3129,
442,
509,
82775,
4,
142,
38415,
831,
45258,
67,
7986,
4,
101935,
4,
18215,
4,
6,
48461,
7,
136,
10,
162515,
111,
6097,
80854,
5,
31384,
38415,
98169,
7,
32153,
98,
10,
11001,
66211,
4,
6044,
237,
2565,
9433,
214,
74,
27060,
4,
35839,
78779,
297,
10975,
26698,
40368,
86685,
5,
53400,
9,
5429,
75639,
10975,
308,
3632,
7,
76519,
47,
23356,
70,
38937,
25,
7,
29458,
27117,
5,
53400,
9,
5429,
75639,
10975,
96853,
93403,
7816,
126,
110934,
7,
4,
2565,
14543,
42,
111789,
7,
4,
57456,
40226,
5256,
4,
18215,
4,
6,
48461,
7,
4,
136,
6,
114205,
26499,
7,
5,
31267,
3340,
46312,
7,
621,
10,
8562,
111,
38937,
10975,
5,
53400,
7,
28282,
903,
10975,
61261,
136,
27983,
645,
64747,
3642,
5526,
442,
83,
5,
581,
8,
2256,
2320,
17721,
5426,
10975,
6044,
237,
172852,
76519,
136,
38415,
10975,
83,
959,
24763,
4,
49903,
4,
136,
83,
46505,
25958,
70,
36746,
111,
17340,
7864,
53,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
1632,
111,
70,
22799,
17582,
23,
70,
44,
225221,
46684,
81,
5,
7244,
89499,
1242,
2874,
182825,
110324,
509,
36766,
7244,
25,
7,
2665,
56489,
1467,
31842,
509,
2831,
111,
6863,
3773,
172852,
5426,
707,
10,
37451,
2661,
63847,
111,
38415,
10975,
5,
1301,
15700,
27781,
4,
70,
165132,
64,
150040,
147453,
17340,
7864,
53,
83,
4,
23,
2831,
4,
4743,
47,
217573,
674,
1672,
70,
76755,
17721,
70,
29908,
77924,
583,
136,
70,
172852,
76519,
88303,
645,
903,
77924,
583,
5,
360,
3060,
52895,
111,
6,
55720,
69819,
76519,
4,
70,
38415,
10975,
136,
70,
172852,
5426,
10975,
1543,
186,
106985,
34971,
4745,
2886,
47,
70,
38937,
4,
237,
23,
70,
7225,
111,
10975,
11814,
47,
6226,
10,
310,
22578,
4,
12352,
58585,
707,
11948,
634,
272,
56190,
5,
581,
36917,
80934,
7,
1543,
39041,
112,
3060,
86685,
450,
1543,
32316,
98,
3060,
13909,
7,
23,
21334,
53702,
7,
5,
1326,
142,
30700,
80934,
111,
142,
4027,
12,
44,
1957,
104921,
214558,
25924,
1242,
581,
2565,
44,
101687,
58,
11814,
237,
142,
606,
170,
100034,
83,
959,
173072,
297,
47,
70,
44,
4390,
707,
117,
102,
14653,
47,
38415,
10975,
58,
91084,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
23755,
7,
6044,
237,
38415,
56037,
449,
101758,
15,
74220,
247,
38415,
10723,
4,
38415,
20513,
47691,
4,
38415,
6897,
75457,
24365,
136,
168627,
38415,
59911,
47,
756,
13909,
103391,
10,
5062,
4,
959,
1660,
38415,
10975,
5,
31384,
86685,
621,
19882,
23,
11389,
7,
100,
40368,
12921,
13651,
7,
74,
27060,
4734,
4488,
98,
1632,
136,
621,
4911,
7,
35839,
4,
100,
27781,
4,
10,
700,
87168,
38415,
44,
2472,
7244,
3773,
830,
707,
142,
44,
57934,
58,
38415,
100,
53019,
4,
707,
10,
44,
150040,
58,
6712,
5,
160193,
10,
3525,
136,
5700,
38415,
187,
62093,
3129,
4734,
127877,
98,
1632,
13651,
4,
118055,
70,
224,
481,
41159,
111,
450,
13651,
5,
3293,
83,
35839,
10,
200,
14155,
38415,
707,
44,
92,
33150,
4027,
740,
1326,
27781,
4,
28896,
94553,
238,
509,
70,
5117,
5744,
93403,
7816,
126,
10975,
100,
70,
4129,
1995,
136,
104902,
143092,
70,
7068,
9,
54936,
3357,
13909,
7,
3934,
23179,
7,
5,
1326,
226404,
442,
509,
2363,
3340,
10975,
5,
360,
17309,
5369,
4,
70,
16610,
33,
297,
13579,
44,
9007,
58,
15,
587,
73,
297,
23,
26771,
707,
110680,
16,
1556,
24209,
5700,
47,
15005,
47,
86685,
100,
14288,
128779,
6044,
237,
114513,
136,
115301,
4,
70,
16610,
33,
297,
3173,
14858,
214,
2363,
205794,
164917,
6,
70820,
154186,
47,
86685,
98,
6107,
7,
5,
31267,
1286,
78684,
4,
70,
16610,
33,
297,
11389,
83,
11814,
100,
86983,
38415,
10975,
237,
5299,
5,
8622,
621,
5941,
12921,
136,
30700,
48322,
23,
12989,
47,
18507,
40383,
38415,
10975,
5,
3311,
70,
8437,
6275,
111,
21455,
4,
38415,
10975,
83,
5201,
538,
18507,
47314,
678,
10,
22556,
16530,
51515,
4,
23,
41911,
47,
70,
38109,
111,
6863,
2704,
3564,
9,
223,
1314,
707,
1614,
34601,
4295,
15,
76228,
57693,
81814,
2182,
136,
4817,
2822,
1614,
59478,
90926,
194,
23752,
86685,
621,
2843,
18507,
47314,
23,
15072,
111,
70,
56037,
449,
46876,
23,
3129,
70,
31344,
18151,
83,
59121,
707,
71924,
297,
4,
136,
15072,
111,
2363,
60042,
136,
140992,
7,
5,
104921,
10975,
83,
56104,
157167,
67175,
54940,
6626,
5201,
61112,
12,
155738,
31344,
20209,
9803,
31344,
10975,
86685,
4,
136,
54940,
4092,
707,
180639,
53,
10975,
86685,
5,
43796,
53149,
6635,
10975,
83,
158012,
1379,
70,
97629,
112341,
4,
136,
10,
10975,
86872,
80731,
7,
84046,
127689,
38109,
5,
581,
9803,
9,
155648,
71,
24702,
133,
117249,
450,
10975,
1543,
186,
44,
59636,
4734,
100,
111938,
4,
1284,
959,
100,
129344,
740,
62771,
86685,
831,
4734,
2046,
15190,
9,
191,
390,
50960,
9,
15866,
90,
5,
5153,
136,
9803,
9,
60427,
10975,
35299,
186,
11675,
4,
15917,
3674,
4,
54324,
707,
65042,
297,
100,
2499,
60042,
4,
136,
20,
372,
214,
9803,
9,
35299,
186,
73197,
297,
707,
39531,
5281,
23,
70,
5701,
3917,
5,
563,
81801,
10975,
86685,
121447,
1379,
10,
4092,
86872,
1543,
186,
155241,
141,
136,
2843,
121678,
939,
9,
32087,
5,
181799,
4,
70,
101785,
4,
70,
26837,
707,
50960,
9,
71983,
22,
50930,
42,
111,
2499,
7108,
15,
137366,
54969,
4,
52350,
10015,
4,
33407,
4,
707,
44,
3834,
23,
456,
66961,
11,
18939,
621,
233234,
47,
15190,
131527,
7,
4,
205969,
7,
4,
1733,
8,
408,
4778,
707,
14700,
14,
2852,
112474,
47,
70,
86872,
69407,
111,
4527,
5,
16934,
9,
56206,
73,
10975,
83,
10,
10644,
111,
563,
81801,
4,
3129,
83,
121678,
939,
9,
32087,
136,
20,
9803,
538,
707,
70488,
538,
9,
831,
186,
11675,
4,
15917,
3674,
4,
73197,
297,
4,
39531,
5281,
4,
456,
179193,
297,
707,
75935,
23,
30057,
4935,
43240,
15490,
2499,
112341,
99,
179236,
136,
127298,
456,
202010,
5,
1650,
831,
3853,
186,
54324,
4,
1284,
15490,
12302,
2852,
70,
3835,
77758,
57266,
47,
3789,
11001,
28368,
7,
5,
16934,
9,
56206,
73,
61595,
831,
186,
121447,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
104921,
10975,
15,
9007,
100,
16610,
16,
83,
10,
1528,
707,
21115,
111,
103391,
82775,
100,
3564,
72095,
5,
89536,
99726,
111,
142,
38415,
26698,
10,
2565,
14543,
42,
4,
10,
93403,
7816,
126,
4,
142,
15426,
214,
38415,
4,
10,
1467,
31842,
4,
142,
3340,
23282,
4,
10,
2450,
58585,
4,
10,
11435,
21455,
56,
4,
40226,
22230,
4,
10,
130250,
6712,
707,
10,
16186,
30391,
5,
581,
143849,
110,
309,
38415,
10975,
15005,
7,
47,
756,
86685,
143849,
538,
5,
3293,
69822,
7,
678,
5426,
10975,
4,
3129,
83,
5201,
538,
75412,
678,
51042,
70,
13909,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1745824 | en-train-1745824 | 1745824 | {
"title": [
"Terminology.",
"Metonymy.",
"Apps and killer apps.",
"Classification.",
"By property and use rights.",
"By coding language.",
"By purpose and output."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"In information technology, an application (app), application program or application software is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, audio, graphics and a combination of these elements. Some application packages focus on a single task, such as word processing; others, called integrated software include several applications. User-written software tailors systems to meet the user's specific needs. User-written software includes spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, audio, graphics, and animation scripts. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. The delineation between system software such as operating systems and application software is not exact, however, and is occasionally the object of controversy. For example, one of the key questions in the \"United States v. Microsoft Corp.\" antitrust trial was whether Microsoft's Internet Explorer web browser was part of its Windows operating system or a separable piece of application software. As another example, the GNU/Linux naming controversy is, in part, due to disagreement about the relationship between the Linux kernel and the operating systems built over this kernel. In some types of embedded systems, the application software and the operating system software may be indistinguishable to the user, as in the case of software used to control a VCR, DVD player or microwave oven. The above definitions may exclude some applications that may exist on some computers in large organizations. For an alternative definition of an app: \" see Application Portfolio Management.\"",
"The word \"application\" used as an adjective is not restricted to the \"of or pertaining to application software\" meaning. For example, concepts such as application programming interface (API), application server, application virtualization, application lifecycle management and portable application apply to all computer programs alike, not just application software.",
"Some applications are available in versions for several different platforms; others only work on one and are thus called, for example, a geography application \"for Microsoft Windows\", or an \"Android\" application for education, or a \"Linux\" game. Sometimes a new and popular application arises which only runs on one platform, increasing the desirability of that platform. This is called a killer application or \"killer app\". For example, VisiCalc was the first modern spreadsheet software for the Apple II and helped selling the then-new personal computers into offices. For Blackberry it was their email software. In recent years, the shortened term \"app\" (coined in 1981 or earlier) has become popular to refer to applications for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, the shortened form matching their typically smaller scope compared to applications on PCs. Even more recently, the shortened version is used for desktop application software as well.",
"There are many different and alternative ways in order to classify application software. By the legal point of view, application software is mainly classified with a black box approach, in relation to the rights of its final end-users or subscribers (with eventual intermediate and tiered subscription levels). Software applications are also classified in respect of the programming language in which the source code is written or executed, and respect of their purpose and outputs.",
"Application software is usually distinguished among two main classes: closed source vs open source software applications, and among free or proprietary software applications. Proprietary software is placed under the exclusive copyright, and a software license grants limited usage rights. The open-closed principle states that software may be \"open only for extension, but not for modification\". Such applications can only get add-on by third-parties. Free and open-source software shall be run, distributed, sold or extended for any purpose, and -being open- shall be modified or reversed in the same way. FOSS software applications released under a free license may be perpetual and also royalty-free. Perhaps, the owner, the holder or third-party enforcer of any right (copyright, trademark, patent, or \"ius in re aliena\") are entitled to add exceptions, limitations, time decays or expiring dates to the license terms of use. Public-domain software is a type of FOSS, which is royalty-free and - openly or reservedly- can be run, distributed, modified, reversed, republished or created in derivative works without any copyright attribution and therefore revocation. It can even be sold, but without transferring the public domain property to other single subjects. Public-domain SW can be released under an (un)licens ing legal statement, which enforces those terms and conditions for an indefinite duration (for a lifetime, or forever).",
"Since the development and near-universal adoption of the web, an important distinction that has emerged, has been between web applications — written with HTML, JavaScript and other web-native technologies and typically requiring one to be online and running a web browser, and the more traditional native applications written in whatever languages are available for one's particular type of computer. There has been a contentious debate in the computing community regarding web applications replacing native applications for many purposes, especially on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Web apps have indeed greatly increased in popularity for some uses, but the advantages of applications make them unlikely to disappear soon, if ever. Furthermore, the two can be complementary, and even integrated.",
"Application software can also be seen as being either horizontal or vertical. Horizontal applications are more popular and widespread, because they are general purpose, for example word processors or databases. Vertical applications are niche products, designed for a particular type of industry or business, or department within an organization. Integrated suites of software will try to handle every specific aspect possible of, for example, manufacturing or banking worker, or accounting, or customer service. There are many types of application software: Applications can also be classified by computing platform such as a particular operating system, delivery network such as in cloud computing and Web 2.0 applications, or delivery devices such as mobile apps for mobile devices. The operating system itself can be considered application software when performing simple calculating, measuring, rendering, and word processing tasks not used to control hardware via command-line interface or graphical user interface. This does not include application software bundled within operating systems such as a software calculator or text editor."
]
} |
Ping (networking utility) | null | Ping is a computer network administration software utility used to test the reachability of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. It is available for virtually all operating systems that have networking capability, including most embedded network administration software. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
33429,
19537,
939,
509,
59121,
390,
41576,
57052,
7,
7,
23,
14487,
26819,
20271,
1919,
188513,
99,
70,
21786,
48242,
42477,
54593,
4597,
53,
4,
5036,
70,
7082,
126140,
42477,
54593,
4597,
53,
5,
62,
456,
10015,
390,
6765,
37837,
7,
98,
17368,
69010,
9088,
28,
3089,
43824,
7831,
100,
8021,
33120,
6,
47099,
164,
136,
72350,
9035,
105876,
297,
57052,
7,
7,
47,
28282,
70,
19537,
939,
47,
63134,
105727,
33120,
44402,
5,
581,
42179,
24,
4806,
442,
7103,
70,
45730,
450,
775,
147,
30482,
4,
16792,
6863,
55300,
25443,
83,
60223,
10821,
47,
775,
147,
25,
7,
28,
3089,
31913,
5,
581,
10,
15322,
5264,
56607,
126,
5337,
24447,
14854,
1264,
100,
6,
212003,
1556,
2809,
11814,
100,
645,
496,
5369,
4,
136,
102971,
57052,
7,
7,
17378,
450,
1295,
1919,
6275,
111,
21455,
6,
212003,
509,
959,
179140,
237,
142,
10,
15322,
5264,
4,
764,
1556,
224344,
71,
37837,
7,
26,
14700,
66,
6889,
111,
70,
9351,
5,
581,
5117,
121447,
11389,
509,
3835,
77758,
10975,
74,
756,
221419,
11389,
7,
765,
2809,
86872,
71,
1379,
70,
335,
22916,
86872,
5,
135668,
509,
5117,
99201,
23,
80196,
20429,
397,
5,
581,
5153,
85470,
11389,
509,
126809,
390,
51838,
92,
85371,
350,
136,
83,
86872,
71,
1379,
70,
527,
21130,
5,
13320,
34734,
434,
13534,
126809,
70,
853,
47013,
7285,
11389,
5,
1650,
83,
86872,
71,
1379,
70,
78999,
64779,
5,
627,
27529,
534,
4015,
479,
34601,
7,
450,
2499,
27980,
8110,
9433,
69010,
9088,
28,
3089,
50336,
7,
136,
31089,
28,
3089,
156405,
90,
23,
30646,
5,
581,
25632,
83,
70,
140992,
111,
51042,
33429,
98,
29908,
100,
135834,
43606,
502,
7438,
47,
70,
30388,
27980,
44,
1574,
5,
3355,
11,
33209,
5,
277,
58,
12,
3650,
33429,
20,
238,
190,
1426,
5,
3355,
11,
33209,
5,
277,
6,
212003,
1426,
5,
3355,
11,
33209,
5,
277,
15,
11591,
5,
1819,
117904,
2485,
5,
121763,
12,
9103,
2053,
390,
1636,
7911,
390,
1636,
1295,
17461,
5,
1819,
117904,
2485,
5,
10289,
12,
6,
1771,
2676,
454,
184,
864,
145407,
6,
3062,
141,
1369,
13683,
1733,
33000,
122336,
6460,
68163,
7911,
390,
1636,
1295,
17461,
5,
1819,
117904,
2485,
5,
10289,
12,
6,
1771,
2676,
454,
184,
864,
33000,
6,
3062,
141,
1369,
13683,
1733,
33000,
133760,
4046,
68163,
7911,
390,
1636,
1295,
17461,
5,
1819,
117904,
2485,
5,
10289,
12,
6,
1771,
2676,
454,
184,
864,
55257,
6,
3062,
141,
1369,
13683,
1733,
1369,
963,
5,
184929,
68163,
7911,
390,
1636,
1295,
17461,
5,
1819,
117904,
2485,
5,
10289,
12,
6,
1771,
2676,
454,
184,
864,
76067,
6,
3062,
141,
1369,
13683,
1733,
1369,
201464,
16360,
68163,
7911,
390,
1636,
1295,
17461,
5,
1819,
117904,
2485,
5,
10289,
12,
6,
1771,
2676,
454,
184,
864,
107947,
6,
3062,
141,
1369,
13683,
1733,
33000,
92134,
3768,
68163,
28229,
1426,
5,
3355,
11,
33209,
5,
277,
33429,
80835,
7,
28229,
190,
43824,
7831,
71872,
3674,
4,
190,
43824,
7831,
75204,
4,
89678,
3949,
43824,
126,
86669,
68807,
9,
59623,
881,
64,
3818,
177,
64,
24084,
64,
271,
71,
18548,
2203,
6,
201464,
16360,
12988,
5,
11648,
1019,
21553,
5,
966,
4046,
64,
134926,
9285,
68163,
581,
140992,
5303,
7,
12638,
502,
372,
26008,
136,
70,
50339,
113054,
297,
5,
201106,
442,
5303,
7,
70,
80835,
7,
111,
70,
64194,
3034,
5,
360,
903,
27781,
4,
70,
16610,
525,
68807,
24745,
1733,
509,
6,
201464,
16360,
68163,
4,
70,
83080,
509,
4068,
11648,
1019,
68163,
4,
136,
70,
38132,
34292,
509,
4541,
966,
4046,
68163,
5,
581,
72350,
674,
1902,
10,
5570,
30170,
2320,
111,
6,
134926,
9285,
68163,
5,
360,
50218,
111,
110,
57553,
1295,
70,
30388,
27980,
4,
2684,
208124,
7,
44116,
40101,
33720,
707,
14922,
71407,
28412,
185325,
7,
1672,
5527,
214,
1810,
5,
115861,
2661,
33429,
50339,
114141,
214,
10,
2967,
26698,
70,
25632,
12,
360,
7225,
111,
18499,
4,
70,
30388,
27980,
707,
142,
81814,
2182,
122188,
25379,
7,
4420,
142,
69010,
9088,
18499,
26008,
4,
100,
27781,
44,
40294,
51,
70443,
2886,
58,
707,
44,
13739,
866,
204839,
297,
23,
62621,
740,
360,
66044,
4,
6097,
89914,
26698,
70,
5117,
136659,
390,
1636,
111,
70,
7311,
26008,
15,
73,
903,
7225,
10336,
56,
111,
70,
69010,
9088,
28,
3089,
50336,
4,
26719,
70,
26746,
206,
34292,
247,
221,
70,
33429,
19537,
939,
831,
14858,
57553,
7,
47,
62038,
1916,
41,
10484,
5,
88342,
1771,
166577,
111,
142,
69010,
9088,
43824,
126,
12,
581,
44,
13,
3089,
50336,
58,
24073,
10366,
18939,
83,
142,
69010,
9088,
64,
16259,
9088,
910,
26008,
5,
581,
189543,
56,
136,
503,
944,
3956,
103332,
831,
186,
11814,
390,
70,
23282,
47,
14858,
70,
75836,
678,
70,
50336,
450,
143434,
70,
75836,
5,
360,
41361,
4,
2684,
29908,
76519,
4527,
10,
36998,
6,
42485,
56,
100,
11907,
33429,
9433,
4,
136,
40,
944,
3956,
14012,
83,
142,
118055,
14012,
28032,
450,
9433,
5,
3773,
4527,
7,
10,
188347,
6,
42485,
56,
4,
3129,
41110,
7,
17721,
3773,
11389,
7,
4,
136,
10,
40,
944,
3956,
14012,
450,
83,
4734,
168398,
99,
49935,
1733,
5,
581,
44,
13,
3089,
75836,
58,
83,
142,
69010,
9088,
26008,
139392,
71,
23,
57553,
47,
142,
28,
3089,
50336,
74,
442,
83,
81678,
1294,
100,
756,
27980,
7,
4,
136,
8110,
26698,
70,
24763,
8783,
63033,
75204,
23,
70,
50336,
5,
581,
8783,
63033,
111,
70,
43824,
126,
83,
137567,
152382,
678,
125429,
10001,
124850,
4,
237,
70,
140992,
111,
70,
808,
121422,
693,
2676,
19537,
939,
45831,
23,
70,
4568,
2789,
390,
1636,
111,
70,
25632,
27781,
15,
11,
46327,
70,
136659,
9,
61028,
69010,
9088,
10336,
56,
72134,
678,
6,
2077,
581,
8783,
63033,
1543,
26698,
10,
1733,
590,
2676,
114141,
214,
70,
1733,
111,
179965,
136,
10,
40,
944,
3956,
14012,
4,
3129,
621,
959,
14037,
23,
903,
27781,
5,
3293,
114864,
33429,
47,
9969,
6743,
70,
68807,
24745,
1733,
23,
10,
11341,
9393,
144996,
15490,
3871,
214,
47,
17164,
70,
1733,
111,
179965,
111,
12638,
43824,
126,
5,
581,
8783,
63033,
1543,
2843,
26698,
10,
44,
91088,
238,
43824,
126,
58,
100,
70,
145302,
9,
191,
9,
29946,
91363,
4,
1284,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
135668,
83,
10,
13909,
33120,
86052,
10975,
19537,
939,
11814,
47,
3034,
70,
58359,
41159,
111,
10,
27980,
98,
142,
2665,
151607,
15,
10931,
16,
33120,
5,
1650,
83,
19882,
100,
20513,
538,
756,
172852,
76519,
450,
765,
172532,
3540,
41159,
4,
26719,
2684,
6,
55720,
69819,
33120,
86052,
10975,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1072498 | en-train-1072498 | 1072498 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Invocation example.",
"Error indications.",
"Message format.",
"ICMP packet.",
"Echo request.",
"Echo reply.",
"Payload.",
"Security considerations."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The ping utility was written by Mike Muuss in December 1983 during his employment at the Ballistic Research Laboratory, now the US Army Research Laboratory. A remark by David Mills on using ICMP echo packets for IP network diagnosis and measurements prompted Muuss to create the utility to troubleshoot network problems. The author named it after the sound that sonar makes, since its methodology is analogous to sonar's echo location. The acronym Packet InterNet Groper for PING has been used for over 30 years, and although Muuss says that from his point of view PING was not intended as an acronym, he has acknowledged Mills’ expansion of the name. The first released version was public domain software; all subsequent versions have been licensed under the BSD license. Ping was first included in 4.3BSD. The FreeDOS version was developed by Erick Engelke and is licensed under the GPL. Tim Crawford developed the ReactOS version. It is licensed under the MIT License. RFC 1122 prescribes that any host must process ICMP echo requests and issue echo replies in return.",
"The following is the output of running ping on Linux for sending five probes to the target host \"www.example.com\": $ ping -c 5 www.example.com PING www.example.com (93.184.216.34): 56 data bytes 64 bytes from 93.184.216.34: icmp_seq=0 ttl=56 time=11.632 ms 64 bytes from 93.184.216.34: icmp_seq=1 ttl=56 time=11.726 ms 64 bytes from 93.184.216.34: icmp_seq=2 ttl=56 time=10.683 ms 64 bytes from 93.184.216.34: icmp_seq=3 ttl=56 time=9.674 ms 64 bytes from 93.184.216.34: icmp_seq=4 ttl=56 time=11.127 ms --- www.example.com ping statistics --- 5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0.0% packet loss round-trip min/avg/max/stddev = 9.674/10.968/11.726/0.748 ms The output lists each probe message and the results obtained. Finally it lists the statistics of the entire test. In this example, the shortest round trip time was 9.674 ms, the average was 10.968 ms, and the maximum value was 11.726 ms. The measurement had a standard deviation of 0.748 ms.",
"In cases of no response from the target host, most implementations display either nothing or periodically print notifications about timing out. Possible ping results indicating a problem include the following: In case of error, the target host or an intermediate router sends back an ICMP error message, for example \"host unreachable\" or \"TTL exceeded in transit\". In addition, these messages include the first eight bytes of the original message (in this case header of the ICMP echo request, including the quench value), so the ping utility can match responses to originating queries.",
"",
"Generic composition of an ICMP packet:",
"The \"echo request\" (\"ping\") is an ICMP/ICMP6 message. The Identifier and Sequence Number can be used by the client to match the reply with the request that caused the reply. In practice, most Linux systems use a unique identifier for every ping process, and sequence number is an increasing number within that process. Windows uses a fixed identifier, which varies between Windows versions, and a sequence number that is only reset at boot time.",
"The \"echo reply\" is an ICMP message generated in response to an echo request; it is mandatory for all hosts, and must include the exact payload received in the request.",
"The payload of the packet is generally filled with ASCII characters, as the output of the tcpdump utility shows in the last 32 bytes of the following example (after the eight-byte ICMP header starting with ): The payload may include a timestamp indicating the time of transmission and a sequence number, which are not found in this example. This allows ping to compute the round trip time in a stateless manner without needing to record the time of transmission of each packet. The payload may also include a \"magic packet\" for the Wake-on-LAN protocol, but the minimum payload in that case is longer than shown. The \"Echo Request\" typically does not receive any reply if the host was sleeping in hibernation state, but the host still wakes up from sleep state if its interface is configured to accept wakeup requests. If the host is already active and configured to allow replies to incoming ICMP \"Echo Request\" packets, the returned reply should include the same payload. This may be used to detect that the remote host was effectively woken up, by repeating a new request after some delay to allow the host to resume its network services. If the host was just sleeping in low power active state, a single request wakes up that host just enough to allow its \"Echo Reply\" service to reply instantly if that service was enabled. The host does not need to completely wake up all devices, and may return to low power mode after a short delay. Such configuration may be used to avoid a host to enter in hibernation state, with much longer wake up delay, after some time passed in low power active mode.",
"To conduct a denial-of-service attack, an attacker may send ping requests as fast as possible, possibly overwhelming the victim with ICMP echo requests. This technique is called a ping flood. Ping requests to multiple addresses, ping sweeps, may be used to obtain a list of all hosts on a network."
]
} |
Giacomo Puccini | null | Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini (,, ; 22 December 1858 29 November 1924) was an Italian opera composer who has been called "the greatest composer of Italian opera after Verdi". | null | [
250004,
250054,
150007,
36249,
509,
103122,
31631,
52621,
23643,
96270,
12150,
44767,
13,
95343,
5379,
150007,
36249,
23,
42041,
408,
4,
98848,
4,
23,
543,
10057,
5,
1529,
509,
70,
37195,
927,
111,
300,
86,
20020,
111,
44767,
13,
150007,
36249,
7435,
2681,
132869,
88235,
136,
105137,
76,
150625,
7435,
1197,
132869,
13903,
194,
581,
150007,
36249,
14449,
509,
170920,
23,
42041,
408,
237,
10,
4000,
24668,
68728,
8946,
390,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
6782,
9,
7134,
257,
9,
79139,
1021,
9319,
46,
2843,
24,
4806,
31631,
52621,
21067,
1530,
1104,
139305,
17727,
5,
3293,
5117,
31631,
52621,
150007,
36249,
509,
44,
192,
60451,
45,
377,
36737,
143,
58,
111,
70,
18826,
3674,
71582,
45,
1735,
6470,
31,
23,
42041,
408,
5,
1529,
509,
214493,
297,
23,
903,
19069,
390,
1919,
775,
4,
23643,
150007,
36249,
4,
136,
7068,
390,
23643,
25,
7,
775,
96270,
12150,
4,
136,
96270,
12150,
25,
7,
775,
44767,
13,
15,
1021,
9319,
111,
70,
28368,
111,
903,
5582,
194,
98423,
111,
6097,
453,
22282,
71,
19612,
99,
111930,
4,
136,
3060,
34739,
78301,
24668,
96335,
234311,
5,
96270,
12150,
150007,
36249,
22282,
71,
100,
10,
1733,
1379,
84996,
129756,
14,
13817,
5,
98423,
150350,
71,
19612,
100,
70,
106820,
5,
360,
66044,
4,
96270,
12150,
150350,
71,
40368,
6264,
7,
4,
136,
44767,
13,
150350,
71,
1632,
6264,
5,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
67373,
44767,
13,
105945,
10,
216473,
87420,
144477,
9022,
98848,
4,
136,
1919,
211088,
509,
142,
46505,
111,
3835,
931,
474,
592,
4,
99,
3129,
70,
7068,
9,
1021,
4806,
150350,
42,
84996,
49085,
943,
55080,
297,
150007,
36249,
54397,
142,
178992,
289,
63847,
35839,
70,
44,
87926,
416,
28984,
91,
7319,
12150,
58,
237,
10,
159688,
166577,
100,
70,
24408,
78771,
31667,
5,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
148729,
663,
54544,
24134,
136,
1853,
192609,
3542,
204971,
390,
70,
4488,
4,
136,
442,
509,
51339,
297,
99,
10,
9836,
20428,
99,
70,
17467,
31667,
98,
616,
20414,
163055,
4,
55080,
297,
390,
36160,
3036,
28984,
5,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
4488,
509,
10862,
78458,
8347,
297,
23,
70,
24408,
7717,
104345,
44,
15277,
115044,
13037,
830,
136,
4911,
7,
150007,
36249,
80723,
47,
45367,
10,
216473,
237,
10,
27150,
150350,
42,
111,
103036,
23,
24408,
7717,
19612,
130370,
5,
24372,
70,
9882,
13,
111,
70,
44,
87926,
416,
28984,
91,
7319,
12150,
830,
663,
54544,
24134,
136,
150007,
36249,
45252,
297,
70,
207116,
450,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
11737,
4488,
13648,
186,
142,
6264,
5,
663,
54544,
24134,
77049,
71,
150007,
36249,
47,
24765,
99,
1919,
23228,
4,
7440,
150007,
36249,
509,
65508,
71,
47,
15700,
27150,
332,
24,
4806,
123693,
31,
40788,
1500,
5,
150007,
36249,
136,
40788,
1500,
176506,
47,
57119,
67,
98,
142,
6264,
4,
100,
3129,
40788,
1500,
2806,
22691,
70,
11506,
10628,
5,
581,
4488,
4,
44,
5267,
24596,
14,
830,
509,
30957,
297,
3934,
10,
130412,
31411,
297,
390,
70,
1061,
1158,
11137,
19612,
80299,
214,
14380,
23,
163055,
15,
2347,
5701,
5174,
103941,
70867,
11179,
4,
10336,
111,
527,
5,
70867,
11179,
619,
1311,
5,
19612,
80299,
1314,
4,
509,
6,
129980,
538,
204971,
678,
44,
5267,
24596,
14,
58,
136,
6863,
27150,
150350,
42,
450,
764,
62458,
297,
10,
17932,
6264,
4,
3129,
2806,
16750,
23,
44,
69489,
1970,
740,
27985,
509,
186,
6967,
23,
166555,
3229,
40788,
1500,
80723,
20697,
1810,
70,
106117,
100,
70,
11506,
10628,
5,
150007,
36249,
122799,
158978,
166577,
23,
158972,
136,
178992,
2320,
23,
142399,
5,
44,
69489,
1970,
58,
9882,
297,
99,
239,
152653,
11,
98,
952,
7071,
145810,
47,
10,
39374,
145750,
57553,
5,
581,
4488,
509,
205850,
19,
100,
111666,
7,
7103,
6863,
50960,
23718,
5,
360,
10,
24408,
7717,
73962,
4,
5174,
103941,
70867,
11179,
91376,
10,
165815,
111,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
112419,
237,
10,
150350,
42,
4,
12960,
2161,
3739,
60636,
1919,
11737,
6264,
4,
44,
12662,
191,
1734,
408,
1003,
830,
150007,
36249,
171530,
450,
764,
2806,
33022,
1919,
10002,
11506,
10628,
221,
450,
44,
157,
150863,
111,
10,
11506,
18,
50694,
58,
5809,
5732,
379,
442,
5,
70867,
11179,
117,
37316,
48141,
4049,
47,
26946,
4518,
21407,
31,
31746,
73427,
9284,
237,
1919,
11506,
18,
50694,
4,
1284,
150007,
36249,
33662,
37170,
70867,
11179,
47,
87388,
4049,
1295,
70,
13452,
5,
65056,
3789,
11506,
3062,
64370,
3542,
7068,
75412,
678,
70,
6264,
4,
237,
150007,
36249,
178308,
98816,
1919,
7086,
1672,
70,
45646,
111,
70,
63847,
5,
1650,
509,
39555,
390,
27998,
450,
70,
2704,
6626,
4,
183964,
891,
11048,
136,
141425,
31631,
140090,
4,
21449,
25842,
47,
28484,
70,
6264,
5,
44,
12662,
191,
1734,
408,
1003,
58,
9882,
297,
99,
70,
52409,
31951,
31,
23,
4252,
73,
98,
116,
22482,
154140,
5,
3311,
187020,
329,
4,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
5117,
28927,
214,
538,
5700,
6264,
118775,
28032,
10,
5895,
111,
70,
9882,
13,
111,
131479,
25,
7,
4568,
6264,
4,
44,
919,
289,
590,
4902,
830,
3129,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
11737,
4488,
7103,
44,
12662,
191,
1734,
408,
1003,
58,
509,
44,
2729,
337,
127,
23846,
830,
10,
22759,
9,
47013,
6264,
35509,
98,
70,
543,
11703,
12877,
390,
80640,
10934,
1505,
4,
44,
2729,
71907,
8,
56352,
23846,
740,
44,
2729,
337,
127,
23846,
58,
9882,
297,
23,
4252,
73,
23,
121049,
4,
55080,
297,
390,
114867,
31,
717,
7,
4398,
943,
5,
17106,
73,
10,
10846,
5369,
4,
442,
1902,
2809,
51339,
297,
23,
5941,
111,
70,
105207,
6264,
18276,
7,
111,
14713,
4,
26719,
23,
130891,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
5,
1650,
509,
10,
5700,
36272,
4,
136,
47143,
7,
1632,
111,
70,
2684,
195409,
51339,
297,
6264,
7,
17669,
59121,
5,
581,
11506,
10628,
111,
70,
6264,
4,
4092,
538,
39908,
297,
1295,
10934,
1505,
25,
7,
91443,
1771,
21261,
4,
70163,
7,
131259,
80854,
111,
70,
35439,
20628,
67175,
6897,
111,
70,
27150,
72745,
7,
678,
70,
187641,
128746,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
47219,
111,
70,
27150,
40,
302,
95650,
1208,
32398,
5,
150007,
36249,
25,
7,
10002,
6897,
237,
10,
27150,
332,
23,
24408,
149976,
237,
10,
31344,
111,
46517,
100,
80854,
111,
70,
11506,
10628,
5,
133698,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
31631,
52621,
23643,
96270,
12150,
44767,
13,
95343,
5379,
150007,
36249,
15,
4,
4,
2819,
1039,
14487,
543,
10057,
1702,
7582,
58410,
16,
509,
142,
89176,
6264,
150350,
42,
2750,
1556,
2809,
35839,
44,
2347,
158036,
150350,
42,
111,
89176,
6264,
7103,
131479,
740,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2174573 | en-train-2174573 | 2174573 | {
"title": [
"Family and education.",
"Early career and first operas.",
"\"Le Villi\".",
"\"Edgar\".",
"\"Manon Lescaut\".",
"Middle career.",
"\"La bohème\".",
"\"Tosca\".",
"Automobile crash and near death.",
"\"Madama Butterfly\".",
"Later works.",
"\"La fanciulla del West\".",
"\"La rondine\".",
"\"Il trittico\": \"Il tabarro\", \"Suor Angelica\", and \"Gianni Schicchi\".",
"\"Turandot\".",
"Puccini and his librettists.",
"Puccini at Torre del Lago.",
"Marriage and affairs.",
"Politics.",
"Death.",
"Style and critical reception.",
"Works.",
"Centres for Puccini Studies."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Puccini was born Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini in Lucca, Italy, in 1858. He was the sixth of nine children of Michele Puccini (1813–1864) and Albina Magi (1830–1884). The Puccini family was established in Lucca as a local musical dynasty by Puccini's great-great-grandfather – also named Giacomo (1712–1781). This first Giacomo Puccini was \"maestro di cappella\" of the Cattedrale di San Martino in Lucca. He was succeeded in this position by his son, Antonio Puccini, and then by Antonio's son Domenico, and Domenico's son Michele (father of the subject of this article). Each of these men studied music at Bologna, and some took additional musical studies elsewhere. Domenico Puccini studied for a time under Giovanni Paisiello. Each composed music for the church. In addition, Domenico composed several operas, and Michele composed one opera. Puccini's father Michele enjoyed a reputation throughout northern Italy, and his funeral was an occasion of public mourning, at which the then-famed composer Giovanni Pacini conducted",
"Puccini wrote an orchestral piece called the \"Capriccio sinfonico\" as a thesis composition for the Milan Conservatory. Puccini's teachers Ponchielli and Bazzini were impressed by the work, and it was performed at a student concert at the conservatory on 14 July 1883, conducted by Franco Faccio. Puccini's work was favorably reviewed in the Milanese publication \"Perseveranza\", and thus Puccini began to build a reputation as a young composer of promise in Milanese music circles.",
"After the premiere of the \"Capriccio sinfonico\", Ponchielli and Puccini discussed the possibility that Puccini's next work might be an opera. Ponchielli invited Puccini to stay at his villa, where Puccini was introduced to another young man named Ferdinando Fontana. Puccini and Fontana agreed to collaborate on an opera, for which Fontana would provide the libretto. The work, \"Le Villi\", was entered into a competition sponsored by the Sozogno music publishing company in 1883 (the same",
"Giulio Ricordi, head of G. Ricordi & Co. music publishers, was sufficiently impressed with \"Le Villi\" and its young composer that he commissioned a second opera, which would result in \"Edgar\". Work was begun in 1884 when Fontana began working out the scenario for the libretto. Puccini finished primary composition in 1887 and orchestration in 1888. \"Edgar\" premiered at La Scala on 21 April 1889 to a lukewarm response. The work was withdrawn for revisions after its third performance. In a Milanese newspaper, Giulio Ricordi published a defense of Puccini's skill as a composer, while",
"On commencing his next opera, \"Manon Lescaut\", Puccini announced that he would write his own libretto so that \"no fool of a librettist\" could spoil it. Ricordi persuaded him to accept Ruggero Leoncavallo as his librettist, but Puccini soon asked Ricordi to remove him from the project. Four other librettists were then involved with the opera, as Puccini constantly changed his mind about the structure of the piece. It was almost by accident that the final two, Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa, came together to complete the opera. \"Manon Lescaut\" premiered at the Teatro Regio in Turin on 2 February 1893. By coincidence, Puccini's first enduringly popular opera appeared within a week of the premiere of Verdi's last opera, \"Falstaff\", which",
"",
"Puccini's next work after \"Manon Lescaut\" was \"La bohème\", a four-act opera based on the 1851 book by Henri Murger, \"La Vie de Bohème\". \"La bohème\" premiered in Turin in 1896, conducted by Arturo Toscanini. Within a few years, it had been performed in many of the leading opera houses of Europe, including in Britain, as well as in the United States. It was a popular success, and remains one of the most frequently performed operas ever written. The libretto of the opera, freely adapted from Murger's episodic novel, combines comic elements of the impoverished life of the young protagonists with the tragic aspects, such as the death of the young seamstress Mimí. Puccini's own life as a young man in Milan served as a source of inspiration for elements of the libretto. During his years as a conservatory student and in the years before \"Manon Lescaut\", he experienced poverty similar to that of the bohemians in \"La bohème\", including",
"Puccini's next work after \"La bohème\" was \"Tosca\" (1900), arguably Puccini's first foray into \"verismo\", the realistic depiction of many facets of real life including violence. Puccini had been considering an opera on this theme since he saw the play \"Tosca\" by Victorien Sardou in 1889, when he wrote to his publisher, Giulio Ricordi, begging him to get Sardou's permission for the work to be made",
"On 25 February 1903, Puccini was seriously injured in a car crash during a nighttime journey on the road from Lucca to Torre del Lago. The car was driven by Puccini's chauffeur and was carrying Puccini, his future wife Elvira, and their son Antonio. It went off the road, fell several metres, and flipped over. Elvira and Antonio were flung from the car and escaped with minor injuries. Puccini's chauffeur, also",
"The original version of \"Madama Butterfly\", premiered at La Scala on 17 February 1904 with Rosina Storchio in the title role. It was initially greeted with great hostility (probably largely owing to inadequate rehearsals). When Storchio's kimono accidentally lifted during the performance, some in the audience started shouting: \"The butterfly is pregnant\" and \"There is the little Toscanini\". The latter comment referred to her",
"After 1904, Puccini's compositions were less frequent. In 1906 Giacosa died and, in 1909, there was scandal after Puccini's wife, Elvira, falsely accused their maid Doria Manfredi of having an affair with Puccini. Finally, in 1912, the death of Giulio Ricordi, Puccini's editor and publisher, ended a productive period of his career.",
"Puccini completed \"La fanciulla del West\", based on a play by David Belasco, in 1910. This was commissioned by, and first performed at, the Metropolitan Opera in New York on 10 December 1910 with Met stars Enrico Caruso and Emmy Destinn for whom Puccini created the leading roles of Dick Johnson and Minnie. Toscanini, then the musical director of the Met, conducted. This was the first world premiere of an opera at the Met. The premiere was a",
"Puccini completed the score of \"La rondine\", to a libretto by Giuseppe Adami in 1916 after two years of work, and it was premiered at the Grand Théâtre de Monte Carlo on 27 March 1917. The opera had been originally commissioned by Vienna's Carltheater; however, the outbreak of World War I prevented the premiere from being given there. Moreover, the firm of Ricordi had declined the score of the opera – Giulio Ricordi's",
"In 1918, \"Il trittico\" premiered in New York. This work is composed of three one-act operas, each concerning",
"\"Turandot\", Puccini's final opera, was left unfinished, and the last two scenes were completed by Franco Alfano based on the composer's sketches. The libretto for \"Turandot\" was based",
"The libretto of \"Edgar\" was a significant factor in the failure of that opera. Thereafter, especially throughout his middle and late career, Puccini was extremely selective, and at times indecisive, in his choice of subject matter for new works. Puccini was deeply involved in the process of writing the libretto itself, requiring many iterative revisions of his libretti in terms of both structure and text. Puccini's relationships with his librettists were at times very difficult. His publisher, Casa Ricordi, was frequently required to mediate disputes and impasses between them. Puccini",
"From 1891 onwards, Puccini spent most of his time, when not traveling on business, at Torre del Lago, a small community about fifteen miles from Lucca situated between the Ligurian Sea and Lake Massaciuccoli, just south of Viareggio. Torre del Lago was the primary place for Puccini to indulge his love of hunting. \"I love hunting, I love cars: and for these things, in the isolation of Torre del Lago, I keep the faith.\" (\"Amo la caccia, adoro l’automobile: e",
"In the autumn of 1884, Puccini began a relationship with a married woman named Elvira Gemignani (née Bonturi, 1860–1930) in Lucca. Elvira's husband, Narciso Gemignani, was an \"unrepentant womanizer\", and Elvira's marriage was not a happy one. Elvira became pregnant by Puccini, and their son, Antonio (1886–1946), was born in Monza. Elvira left Lucca when the pregnancy began to show, and gave birth elsewhere to avoid gossip. Elvira, Antonio and Elvira's daughter by Narciso, Fosca (1880–1968), began to live with Puccini shortly afterwards. Narciso was killed by the husband of a woman that Narciso had an affair with, dying on 26 February 1903, one day after Puccini's car accident. Only then, in early 1904, were Puccini and Elvira able to marry, and to legitimize Antonio. The marriage between Puccini and Elvira was also troubled by infidelity, as Puccini had frequent affairs himself, including with well-known singers such as Maria Jeritza, Emmy Destinn, Cesira Ferrani, and Hariclea Darclée. In 1906, while attending",
"Unlike Wagner and Verdi, Puccini was not active in politics. Puccini biographer Mary Jane Phillips-Matz wrote: \"Throughout this entire period [of World War I and its immediate aftermath], Puccini's interest in politics was close to zero, as it had been all his life, so far as one can judge. He seemed almost indifferent to everything from mayoral elections in Viareggio to cabinet appointments in Rome.\" Another biographer speculates that Puccini may have been—if he had a political philosophy—a monarchist. Puccini's indifference to politics caused him problems during World War I. Puccini's long-standing and close friendship with Toscanini was interrupted for nearly a decade because of an argument in the summer of 1914 (in the opening months of the war) during which Puccini remarked that Italy could benefit from German organization. Puccini was also criticized during the war for his work on \"La rondine\" under a 1913 commission contract with an Austrian theater after Italy and Austria-Hungary became opponents in the war in 1915 (although the contract was ultimately cancelled). Puccini did not participate in the public war effort, but privately rendered assistance to individuals and families affected by the war. In 1919, Puccini was commissioned to write music to an ode by honoring",
"A chain smoker of Toscano cigars and cigarettes, Puccini began to complain of chronic sore throats towards the end of 1923. A diagnosis of throat cancer led his doctors to recommend a new and experimental radiation therapy treatment, which was being offered in Brussels. Puccini and his wife never knew how serious the cancer was, as the news was revealed only to his son.",
"Most broadly, Puccini wrote in the style of the late-Romantic period of classical music (see Romantic music). Music historians also refer to Puccini as a component of the \"giovane scuola\" (\"young school\"), a cohort of composers who came onto the Italian operatic scene as Verdi's career came to an end, such as Mascagni, Leoncavallo, and others mentioned below. Puccini is also frequently referred to as a \"verismo\" composer. Puccini's career extended from the end of the Romantic period into the modern period. He consciously attempted to 'update' his style to keep pace with new trends, but did not attempt to fully adopt a modern style. One critic, Anthony Davis has stated: \"Loyalty toward nineteenth-century Italian-opera traditions and, more generally, toward the musical language of his Tuscan heritage is one of the clearest features of Puccini's music.\" Davis also identifies, however, a \"stylistic pluralism\" in Puccini's work, including influences from \"the German symphonic tradition, French harmonic and orchestrational traditions, and, to a lesser extent, aspects of Wagnerian chromaticism\". In addition, Puccini frequently sought to introduce music or sounds from outside sources into his operas, such as his use of Chinese folk melodies in Turandot. All of Puccini's operas have at least one set piece for a lead singer that is separate enough from its surroundings that it can be treated as a distinct aria, and most of his works have several of these. At the same time, Puccini's work continued the trend away from operas constructed from a series of set pieces, and instead used a more \"through-composed\" or integrated construction. His works are strongly melodic. In orchestration, Puccini frequently doubled the vocal line in unison or at octaves in order to emphasize and strengthen the melodic line. \"Verismo\" is a style of Italian opera that began in 1890 with the first performance of Mascagni's \"Cavalleria rusticana\", peaked in the early 1900s, and lingered into the 1920s. The style is distinguished by realistic – sometimes sordid or violent – depictions of everyday life, especially the life of the contemporary lower classes. It by and large rejects the historical or mythical subjects associated with Romanticism. \"Cavalleria rusticana\", \"Pagliacci\", and \"Andrea Chénier\" are uniformly considered to be \"verismo\" operas. Puccini's career as a composer is almost entirely coincident in time with the \"verismo\" movement. Only his \"Le Villi\" and \"Edgar\" preceded \"Cavalleria rusticana\". Some view Puccini as essentially a \"verismo\" composer, while others, although acknowledging that he took part in the movement to some degree, do not view him as a \"pure\" \"verismo\" composer. In addition, critics differ as to the degree to which particular operas by Puccini are, or are not, properly described as \"verismo\" operas. Two of Puccini's operas, \"Tosca\" and \"Il tabarro,\" are universally considered to be \"verismo\" operas. Puccini scholar Mosco Carner places only two of Puccini's operas other than \"Tosca\" and \"Il tabarro\" within the \"verismo\" school: \"Madama Butterfly\",",
"Puccini wrote orchestral pieces, sacred music, chamber music, solo music for piano and organ and songs for voice and",
"Founded in 1996 in Lucca, the \"Centro di studi Giacomo Puccini\" embraces a wide range of approaches to the study of Puccini's work. In the USA, the American Center for Puccini Studies specializes in the presentation of unusual performing editions of composer's works and introduces neglected or unknown Puccini pieces. It was founded in 2004 by the singer and director Harry Dunstan."
]
} |
Raw image format | null | A camera raw image file contains minimally processed data from the image sensor of either a digital camera, a motion picture film scanner, or other image scanner. Raw files are named so because they are not yet processed and therefore are not ready to be printed or edited with a bitmap graphics editor. Normally, the image is processed by a raw converter in a wide-gamut internal color space where precise adjustments can be made before conversion to a "positive" file format such as TIFF or JPEG for storage, printing, or further manipulation. There are dozens of raw formats in use by different manufacturers of digital image capture equipment. | null | [
250004,
250054,
109997,
29569,
102158,
621,
68018,
214552,
538,
151552,
237,
44,
140915,
40907,
7,
830,
1284,
2725,
9319,
621,
1836,
40907,
7,
12488,
54,
70,
51,
63923,
297,
102158,
11764,
67,
75693,
43079,
5,
152201,
56,
4,
70,
109997,
2053,
3509,
7,
621,
1286,
1884,
172554,
71,
1284,
51,
229815,
297,
1346,
3129,
831,
186,
117176,
71,
4,
15,
100184,
1900,
71407,
126809,
247,
23,
10,
351,
9,
112,
36716,
5844,
144996,
48716,
20028,
23,
22046,
2661,
4,
39531,
55356,
98441,
47,
58359,
10,
21176,
538,
104851,
71,
29569,
5,
15,
194583,
172554,
71,
1346,
4,
34754,
83,
10,
11001,
19732,
450,
72761,
538,
27198,
7,
70,
51,
3355,
144429,
1346,
66617,
39799,
38526,
5,
16,
18852,
51,
229815,
297,
81828,
1771,
1346,
4,
10,
49649,
6338,
29569,
1543,
765,
10,
91257,
84079,
37457,
707,
10576,
914,
14311,
3501,
70,
126809,
1346,
707,
28412,
5,
992,
5062,
72761,
1346,
7103,
34754,
4,
70,
109997,
11435,
479,
86687,
7,
70,
4677,
141621,
71,
99,
70,
1733,
111,
197826,
5,
581,
60042,
111,
49649,
29569,
9384,
7,
83,
47,
30098,
4,
678,
15440,
86669,
111,
4677,
4,
2053,
113054,
297,
1295,
70,
43111,
5,
109997,
29569,
9384,
7,
621,
179140,
47,
141621,
70,
5977,
186518,
62816,
48242,
7,
111,
70,
28302,
4,
450,
83,
4,
72761,
4677,
1672,
70,
22729,
20753,
2481,
136,
10576,
111,
70,
28302,
4,
99,
70,
2965,
111,
70,
15593,
43111,
25,
7,
23718,
5,
17006,
49649,
29569,
11435,
9384,
7,
4343,
4677,
10422,
71,
59499,
47,
70,
700,
87739,
53,
111,
70,
43111,
25,
7,
11651,
16186,
9,
153524,
5844,
80854,
15,
43452,
70141,
35839,
98009,
7,
16,
43257,
3501,
26847,
23,
70,
84751,
2704,
29569,
12,
43111,
7,
678,
764,
3798,
6126,
289,
12830,
2837,
23935,
674,
4,
100,
27781,
4,
17164,
4677,
100,
12638,
111,
2363,
764,
3798,
6126,
25958,
9,
3827,
23935,
71,
38750,
7,
4,
3129,
10,
8,
587,
6238,
10975,
1221,
155605,
27198,
3934,
70,
148734,
10393,
320,
700,
87739,
53,
20271,
44,
140915,
168698,
740,
109997,
102158,
70541,
70,
4677,
56065,
47,
27489,
10,
21455,
2886,
29569,
1295,
70,
15593,
25,
7,
43111,
2053,
5,
581,
45646,
111,
49649,
102158,
27983,
28960,
7,
10,
39210,
103510,
12,
52455,
49649,
11435,
9384,
7,
4,
26719,
1995,
2737,
15,
45689,
6991,
6561,
247,
138,
46290,
15,
6495,
7,
1428,
22877,
247,
391,
22578,
4,
341,
2588,
4,
341,
21960,
15,
12110,
22367,
247,
313,
78691,
25109,
304,
25109,
363,
15,
54694,
191,
247,
241,
54612,
15,
647,
254,
1681,
247,
276,
28482,
15,
4613,
97090,
247,
6,
61611,
15,
5267,
2407,
247,
9960,
919,
541,
78691,
15,
14535,
1716,
247,
180,
54612,
15,
53774,
4650,
7332,
247,
436,
28482,
15,
76114,
86531,
247,
6,
78691,
304,
15,
55956,
162,
31,
6402,
16,
136,
62,
78691,
4,
159,
54612,
4,
26098,
304,
15,
294,
6833,
247,
621,
35509,
98,
70,
384,
159641,
11435,
9384,
5,
32255,
102158,
1543,
30170,
2182,
1295,
70,
384,
159641,
5570,
23,
10,
14012,
111,
48322,
4,
26719,
70,
4527,
111,
10,
351,
9,
66589,
11435,
10336,
56,
4,
70,
190440,
191,
111,
78301,
29569,
69141,
136,
70,
22,
136791,
1830,
111,
3060,
111,
70,
113005,
2053,
5,
138856,
25,
7,
49649,
172127,
26785,
7,
84183,
238,
45,
20820,
1363,
136,
17656,
31,
47148,
2243,
30494,
98,
6044,
15593,
7,
237,
70,
6,
103911,
363,
4,
678,
63559,
26785,
1830,
4677,
44136,
39,
78458,
99201,
23,
70,
49649,
5,
144226,
6561,
25,
7,
49649,
172127,
14304,
6644,
6561,
2843,
64600,
26785,
17514,
100,
84183,
6827,
45,
20820,
1363,
4,
17656,
31,
47148,
2243,
30494,
4,
7398,
8705,
5129,
81551,
136,
22799,
34165,
26785,
1830,
28,
19908,
1916,
70,
122925,
3540,
41159,
111,
139,
18,
9,
3767,
2480,
23,
10975,
136,
5361,
538,
82775,
76407,
4,
98,
2684,
49649,
102158,
1295,
645,
805,
12921,
15593,
7,
5,
581,
5701,
16401,
7,
100,
45286,
25,
7,
391,
17487,
38415,
4,
99,
19713,
100,
756,
1286,
135587,
15593,
7,
1884,
756,
163795,
221926,
7,
136,
70,
527,
36549,
111,
94928,
15593,
7,
5,
391,
8066,
4,
70,
53650,
6338,
40907,
9384,
4,
83,
142,
111938,
111,
70,
384,
159641,
2289,
2389,
9384,
136,
83,
146731,
678,
384,
159641,
64,
21290,
4,
136,
4527,
7,
67842,
9803,
9384,
7,
136,
64,
748,
5570,
7,
4,
26719,
5443,
3190,
23550,
10135,
4,
1193,
9088,
23550,
10135,
4,
8021,
20499,
23550,
10135,
4,
6,
112370,
6,
143907,
1511,
176866,
90,
4,
164766,
60641,
7,
4,
136,
216281,
5,
360,
6338,
6,
110092,
4,
70,
49649,
11435,
11301,
7,
70,
31486,
450,
81828,
1771,
1346,
11301,
7,
23,
1346,
6,
110092,
5,
109997,
102158,
4911,
7,
70541,
70,
4393,
158839,
15,
46280,
71407,
19100,
707,
25055,
3137,
16,
2053,
237,
12301,
1810,
1295,
12638,
111,
70,
15593,
25,
7,
29569,
43111,
98009,
7,
5,
581,
15593,
25,
7,
43111,
83,
39555,
23,
21690,
78458,
645,
33092,
678,
10,
10576,
46312,
10298,
53,
15,
441,
14676,
247,
56104,
10,
9631,
56,
46312,
4,
58055,
214,
111,
10,
236650,
111,
10,
116,
425,
304,
50944,
425,
111,
4842,
4,
50997,
4,
57571,
136,
15,
191633,
16,
50997,
46312,
7,
5,
6561,
143834,
98,
70,
9631,
56,
46312,
83,
70,
171052,
647,
46312,
111,
70,
22365,
93472,
9,
72697,
391,
14495,
9,
919,
175283,
4,
3129,
121122,
71,
70,
50997,
23,
70,
6,
48802,
6,
15555,
7,
678,
44,
195,
56,
27245,
58,
15,
11,
57571,
9,
99433,
707,
501,
1643,
10576,
194,
64511,
43111,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
9572,
272,
191,
1193,
363,
43111,
4,
141621,
4677,
105237,
23,
171052,
3173,
15,
223,
214,
17262,
98009,
43111,
7,
23,
12638,
31913,
194,
32255,
171052,
49649,
2053,
7464,
3871,
47,
186,
9433,
297,
47,
3249,
142,
29569,
11435,
4,
6637,
70,
49649,
171052,
142424,
42518,
47,
70,
57553,
7,
111,
70,
43111,
7,
4,
959,
47,
10,
5570,
10576,
32628,
1884,
91,
1052,
8359,
5,
32255,
2053,
54,
959,
3871,
47,
186,
8,
840,
508,
37534,
4,
49903,
5,
106516,
13482,
136,
1346,
218584,
43111,
7,
621,
205794,
80560,
653,
118201,
171052,
707,
171052,
568,
15,
136913,
44,
568,
58,
9157,
7,
100,
70,
78301,
20100,
9,
2822,
86723,
100,
101038,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
15593,
49649,
29569,
11435,
70541,
7,
20187,
538,
9433,
297,
2053,
1295,
70,
29569,
43111,
111,
40101,
10,
6338,
15593,
4,
10,
78112,
49726,
1346,
218584,
4,
707,
3789,
29569,
218584,
5,
109997,
102158,
621,
24,
4806,
221,
6637,
1836,
621,
959,
14373,
9433,
297,
136,
127298,
621,
959,
43542,
47,
186,
28412,
297,
707,
27211,
297,
678,
10,
4785,
62346,
6,
48461,
7,
30391,
5,
28723,
538,
4,
70,
29569,
83,
9433,
297,
390,
10,
49649,
172127,
23,
10,
38134,
9,
208,
14311,
70796,
10576,
32628,
7440,
134995,
126596,
9035,
831,
186,
7228,
8108,
142477,
47,
10,
44,
67890,
4935,
58,
11435,
9384,
6044,
237,
384,
159641,
707,
216281,
100,
132096,
4,
2448,
1916,
4,
707,
53333,
45258,
1363,
5,
8622,
621,
31236,
1755,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1447684 | en-train-1447684 | 1447684 | {
"title": [
"Rationale.",
"File contents.",
"Sensor image data.",
"Standardization.",
"Processing.",
"Benefits.",
"Software support.",
"Operating system support.",
"Apple macOS and iOS.",
"Microsoft Windows.",
"Windows Camera Codec Pack.",
"Windows Imaging Component (WIC).",
"Android.",
"Proprietary software.",
"Dedicated raw converters.",
"HTML5 browser-based apps.",
"Raw bitmap files."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"4",
"4",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Raw image files are sometimes incorrectly described as \"digital negatives\", but neither are they negatives nor do the unprocessed files constitute visible images. Rather, the Raw datasets are more like exposed but undeveloped film which can be converted, (electronically developed), in a non-destructive manner multiple times in observable, reversible steps to reach a visually desired image. (With exposed film, development is a single event that physically transforms the unexposed film irreversibly.) Like undeveloped photographic film, a raw digital image may have a wider dynamic range or color gamut than the developed film or print. Unlike physical film after development, the Raw file preserves the information captured at the time of exposure. The purpose of raw image formats is to save, with minimum loss of information, data obtained from the sensor. Raw image formats are intended to capture the radiometric characteristics of the scene, that is, physical information about the light intensity and color of the scene, at the best of the camera sensor's performance. Most raw image file formats store information sensed according to the geometry of the sensor's individual photo-receptive elements (sometimes called pixels) rather than points in the expected final image: sensors with hexagonal element displacement, for example, record information for each of their hexagonally-displaced cells, which a decoding software will eventually transform into the rectangular geometry during \"digital developing\".",
"Raw files contain the information required to produce a viewable image from the camera's sensor data. The structure of raw files often follows a common pattern: Many raw file formats, including IIQ (Phase One), 3FR (Hasselblad), DCR, K25, KDC (Kodak), CRW CR2 CR3 (Canon), ERF (Epson), MEF (Mamiya), MOS (Leaf), NEF NRW (Nikon), ORF (Olympus), PEF (Pentax), RW2 (Panasonic) and ARW, SRF, SR2 (Sony), are based on the TIFF file format. These files may deviate from the TIFF standard in a number of ways, including the use of a non-standard file header, the inclusion of additional image tags and the encryption of some of the tagged data. Panasonic's raw converter corrects geometric distortion and chromatic aberration on such cameras as the LX3, with necessary correction information presumably included in the raw. Phase One's raw converter Capture One also offers corrections for geometrical distortion, chromatic aberration, purple fringing and keystone correction emulating the shift capability of tilt-shift in software and specially designed hardware, on most raw files from over 100 different cameras. The same holds for Canon's DPP application, at least for all more expensive cameras like all EOS DSLRs and the G series of compact cameras. DNG, the Adobe digital negative format, is an extension of the TIFF 6.0 format and is compatible with TIFF/EP, and uses various open formats and/or standards, including Exif metadata, XMP metadata, IPTC metadata, CIE XYZ coordinates, ICC profiles, and JPEG.",
"In digital photography, the raw file plays the role that photographic film plays in film photography. Raw files thus contain the full resolution (typically 12- or 14-bit) data as read out from each of the camera's image sensor pixels. The camera's sensor is almost invariably overlaid with a color filter array (CFA), usually a Bayer filter, consisting of a mosaic of a 2x2 matrix of red, green, blue and (second) green filters. One variation on the Bayer filter is the RGBE filter of the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-F828, which exchanged the green in the RG rows with \"emerald\" (a blue-green or cyan color). Other sensors, such as the Foveon X3 sensor, capture information directly in RGB form (using three pixel sensors in each location). These RGB raw data still need to be processed to make an image file, because the raw RGB values correspond to the responses of the sensors, not to a standard color space like sRGB. These data do not need to be demosaiced, however. Flatbed and film scanner sensors are typically straight narrow RGB or RGBI (where \"I\" stands for the additional infra-red channel for automatic dust removal) strips that are swept across an image. The HDRi raw data format is able to store the infrared raw data, which can be used for infrared cleaning, as an additional 16-bit channel. The remainder of the discussion about raw files applies to them as well. Some scanners do not allow the host system access to the raw data at all, as a speed compromise. The raw data are processed very rapidly inside the scanner to select out the best part of the available dynamic range so only the result is passed to the computer for permanent storage, reducing the amount of data transferred and therefore the bandwidth requirement for any given speed of image throughput. To obtain an image from a raw file, this mosaic of data must be converted into standard RGB form. This is often referred to as \"raw development\". When converting from the four-sensor 2x2 Bayer-matrix raw form into RGB pixels, the green pair is used to control the luminance detail of the processed output pixel, while the red and blue, which each have half as many samples, are used mostly for the more slowly-varying chroma component of the image. If raw format data is available, it can be used in high-dynamic-range imaging conversion, as a simpler alternative to the multi-exposure HDI approach of capturing three separate images, one underexposed, one correct and one overexposed, and \"overlaying\" one on top of the other.",
"Providing a detailed and concise description of the content of raw files is highly problematic. There is no single raw format; formats can be similar or radically different. Different manufacturers use their own proprietary and typically undocumented formats, which are collectively known as raw format. Often they also change the format from one camera model to the next. Several major camera manufacturers, including Nikon, Canon and Sony, encrypt portions of the file in an attempt to prevent third-party tools from accessing them. This industry-wide situation of inconsistent formatting has concerned many photographers who worry that their valuable raw photos may someday become inaccessible, as computer operating systems and software programs become obsolete and abandoned raw formats are dropped from new software. The availability of high-quality open source software which decodes raw image formats, particularly dcraw, has helped to alleviate these concerns. An essay by Michael Reichmann and Juergen Specht stated \"here are two solutions – the adoption by the camera industry of A: Public documentation of RAW \"[sic]\" formats; past, present and future, or, more likely B: Adoption of a universal RAW \"[sic]\" format\". \"Planning for [US] Library of Congress Collections\" identifies raw-file formats as \"less desirable file formats\", and identifies DNG as a suggested alternative. DNG is the only raw image format for which industry-wide buy-in is being sought. It is based upon, and compatible with, the ISO standard raw image format ISO 12234-2, TIFF/EP, and is being used by ISO in their revision of that standard. The ISO standard raw image format is ISO 12234-2, better known as TIFF/EP. (TIFF/EP also supports \"non-raw\", or \"processed\", images). TIFF/EP provided a basis for the raw image formats of a number of cameras. For example, Nikon's NEF raw files are based on TIFF/EP, and include a tag which identifies the version of TIFF/EP they are based on. Adobe's DNG raw file format was based on TIFF/EP, and the DNG specification states \"DNG... is compatible with the TIFF-EP standard\". Several cameras use DNG as their raw image format, so in that limited sense they use TIFF/EP too. Adobe Systems launched this DNG raw image format in September 2004. By September 2006, several camera manufacturers had started to announce support for DNG in newer camera models, including Leica, Samsung, Ricoh, Pentax, Hasselblad (native camera support); and, Better Light (export). The Leica Digital-Modul-R (DMR) was first to use DNG as its native format. In September 2009 Adobe stated that there were no known intellectual property encumbrances or license requirements for DNG. There is a \"Digital Negative (DNG) Specification Patent License\", but it does not actually state that there \"are\" any patents held on DNG, and the September 2009 statement was made at least 4 years after this license was published. TIFF/EP began its 5-year revision cycle in 2006. Adobe offered the DNG specification to ISO to be part of ISO's revised TIFF/EP standard. A progress report in October 2008 from ISO about the revision of TIFF/EP stated that the revision \"... currently includes two \"interoperability-profiles,\" \"IP 1\" for processed image data, using \".TIF\" extension, and \"IP 2\" for \"raw\" image data, \".DNG\" extension\". It is \"IP 2\" that is relevant here. A progress report in September 2009 states that \"This format will be similar to DNG 1.3, which serves as the starting point for development.\" DNG has been used by open-source developers. Use by camera makers varies: the largest companies such as Canon, Nikon, Sony, and some others, do not use DNG. Smaller companies and makers of \"niche\" cameras who might otherwise have difficulty getting support from software companies frequently use DNG as their native raw image format. Pentax uses DNG as an optional alternative to their own raw image format. There are 15 or more such companies, even including a few that specialize in movie cameras. In addition, most Canon point & shoot cameras can support DNG by using CHDK. Canon Raw v2, CR2, is mostly based on TIFF and lossless Jpeg ITU-T81 Canon Raw v3, CR3 is based on ISO Base Media File Format (ISO/IEC 14496-12), with custom tags, and unknown \"crx\" codec.",
"To be viewed or printed, the output from a camera's image sensor has to be processed, that is, converted to a photographic rendering of the scene, and then stored in a standard raster graphics format such as JPEG. This processing, whether done in-camera or later in a raw-file converter, involves a number of operations, typically including: Demosaicing is only performed for CFA sensors; it is not required for 3CCD or Foveon X3 sensors. Cameras and image processing software may also perform additional processing to improve image quality, for example: When a camera saves a raw file it defers most of this processing; typically the only processing performed is the removal of defective pixels (the DNG specification requires that defective pixels be removed before creating the file). Some camera manufacturers do additional processing before saving raw files; for example, Nikon has been criticized by astrophotographers for applying noise reduction before saving the raw file. Some raw formats also allow nonlinear quantization. This nonlinearity allows the compression of the raw data without visible degradation of the image by removing invisible and irrelevant information from the image. Although noise is discarded this has nothing to do with (visible) noise reduction.",
"Nearly all digital cameras can process the image from the sensor into a JPEG file using settings for white balance, color saturation, contrast, and sharpness that are either selected automatically or entered by the photographer before taking the picture. Cameras that produce raw files save these settings in the file, but defer the processing. This results in an extra step for the photographer, so raw is normally only used when additional computer processing is intended. However, raw has numerous advantages over JPEG such as:",
"Cameras that support raw files typically come with proprietary software for conversion of their raw image data into standard RGB images. Other processing and conversion programs and plugins are available from vendors that have either licensed the technology from the camera manufacturer or reverse-engineered the particular raw format and provided their own processing algorithms.",
"",
"In January 2005, Apple released iPhoto 5, which offered basic support for viewing and editing many raw file formats. In April 2005, Apple's OS X 10.4 brought raw support to the operating system's ImageIO framework, enabling raw support automatically in the majority of macOS applications both from Apple (such as Preview, macOS's PDF and image viewing application, and Aperture, a photo post-production software package for professionals) as well as all third party applications which make use of the ImageIO frameworks. Semi-regular updates to macOS generally include updated support for new raw formats introduced in the intervening months by camera manufacturers. In 2016, Apple announced that iOS 10 would allow capturing raw images on selected hardware, and third party applications will be able to edit raw images through the operating system's Core Image framework.",
"",
"Microsoft supplies the free Windows Camera Codec Pack for Windows XP and later versions of Microsoft Windows, to integrate raw file viewing and printing into some Microsoft Windows tools. The codecs allow native viewing of raw files from a variety of specific cameras in Windows Explorer / File Explorer and Windows Live Photo Gallery / Windows Photo Gallery, in Windows Vista and Windows 7. As of October 2016, Microsoft had not released an updated version since April 2014, which supported some specific cameras by the following manufacturers: Canon, Casio, Epson, Fujifilm, Kodak, Konica Minolta, Leica, Nikon, Olympus, Panasonic, Pentax, Samsung, and Sony.",
"Microsoft Windows supports the Windows Imaging Component (WIC) codec standard. WIC was available as a stand-alone downloadable program for Windows XP Service Pack 2, and built into Windows XP Service Pack 3, Windows Vista, and later versions. Windows Explorer / File Explorer, and Windows Live Photo Gallery / Windows Photo Gallery can view raw formats for which the necessary WIC codecs are installed. Canon, Nikon, Sony, Olympus and Pentax have released WIC codecs for their cameras, although some manufactures only provide codec support for the 32-bit versions of Microsoft Windows. Commercial DNG WIC codecs are also available from Ardfry Imaging, and others; and FastPictureViewer Professional installs a set of WIC-enabled image decoders.",
"Android Lollipop 5.0, introduced in late 2014, can allow smartphones to take raw images, useful in low-light situations.",
"In addition to those listed under operating system support, above, the commercial software described below support raw formats.",
"The following products were launched as raw processing software to process a wide range of raw files, and have this as their main purpose:",
"A new class of raw file processing tools appeared with the development of HTML5 - rich Internet applications.",
"Less commonly, raw may also refer to a generic image file format containing only pixel color values. For example, \"Photoshop Raw\" files (.raw) contain 8-bits-per-channel RGB data in top-to-bottom, left-to-right pixel order. Dimensions must be input manually when such files are re-opened, or a square image is assumed. Due to its simplicity, this format is very open and compatible, though limited by its lack of metadata and run-length encoding. Especially in photography and graphic design, where color management and extended gamuts are important, and large images are common."
]
} |
Quipu | null | Quipu (also spelled khipu) are recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by a number of cultures in the region of Andean South America. Knotted strings were used by many other cultures such as the ancient Chinese and native Hawaiians, but such practices should not be confused with the quipu, which refers only to the Andean device. | null | [
250004,
250054,
44,
96010,
1766,
58,
83,
10,
5813,
4776,
11,
2565,
91084,
44,
92,
10869,
58,
707,
44,
188,
472,
10869,
740,
581,
69407,
44,
3181,
1766,
58,
136,
44,
52568,
1766,
58,
621,
42856,
10010,
2069,
143834,
7,
98,
70,
5701,
2565,
5,
44,
96010,
1766,
58,
83,
70,
89160,
195374,
10010,
2069,
4,
12960,
44,
52568,
1766,
58,
44961,
7,
70,
17309,
5813,
4776,
66,
136,
6631,
70889,
10010,
2069,
122925,
5,
17006,
4677,
17164,
297,
98,
70,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
58055,
7,
111,
101935,
23,
10,
32380,
2749,
5426,
4,
6044,
237,
44,
90278,
19,
185256,
7,
237,
106290,
73,
1065,
214,
268,
3129,
140280,
1902,
72856,
1286,
3501,
15700,
136,
84581,
238,
1065,
214,
268,
70,
388,
5908,
17721,
2856,
58,
7103,
70,
195374,
116000,
191,
5,
360,
70,
39395,
5369,
111,
70,
195374,
158,
75616,
111,
32969,
4,
195374,
51521,
7,
27983,
28702,
297,
98,
70,
569,
7332,
47,
9615,
133,
167956,
7,
645,
4000,
6,
191145,
81997,
7,
707,
4127,
7,
36049,
5,
44,
96010,
1766,
9779,
9522,
4439,
58,
15,
41732,
4776,
11,
44,
52568,
1766,
4268,
152176,
58,
44,
52568,
1766,
17496,
830,
97308,
12,
44,
52568,
1766,
4268,
152176,
73766,
18939,
5809,
186,
193421,
14534,
47,
29685,
4,
7440,
2363,
12877,
50453,
10366,
509,
75530,
93,
5281,
237,
35604,
209806,
111,
11015,
81997,
7,
5,
31384,
111,
70,
17075,
30591,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
3789,
66139,
4,
6044,
237,
10576,
4,
621,
17569,
47,
33636,
351,
9,
2606,
56,
1771,
4677,
4,
3129,
1556,
959,
2809,
32380,
94266,
297,
5,
1650,
83,
137567,
17569,
450,
70,
5426,
6777,
959,
26698,
24089,
9523,
26582,
7,
60223,
10821,
47,
120820,
111,
70,
6,
229231,
5,
33306,
135730,
4143,
1507,
1556,
42459,
297,
450,
70,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
11814,
10,
2394,
6635,
5426,
3129,
5809,
17164,
6,
75189,
109622,
707,
7643,
48461,
2053,
5,
18763,
9836,
1572,
299,
2888,
42483,
1556,
74955,
53333,
47,
7413,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
450,
8,
40899,
47,
14858,
149039,
7,
2053,
5,
581,
92635,
111,
10,
34735,
3126,
17721,
2499,
23,
15386,
79357,
32969,
686,
66,
46876,
7,
136,
70,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
1556,
186768,
538,
12441,
47,
70,
15811,
40322,
450,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
621,
959,
10,
16712,
10628,
48461,
32562,
5426,
136,
765,
110,
24089,
9523,
114792,
5,
17819,
163317,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
220474,
1556,
106926,
297,
450,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
621,
20653,
10,
484,
1544,
31,
48461,
46876,
4,
10,
5426,
111,
99638,
13,
26582,
54607,
206,
237,
19612,
110,
22062,
707,
22542,
16765,
86673,
15421,
53,
4677,
1284,
621,
959,
105237,
62548,
47,
70,
116483,
102678,
111,
10,
17311,
46876,
5,
581,
16584,
1766,
187781,
27331,
15,
605,
28399,
247,
186,
6967,
390,
135730,
4143,
1507,
4,
1543,
765,
21771,
8,
40899,
71,
70,
5117,
2565,
1295,
10,
569,
1766,
1104,
2347,
9351,
111,
10,
54427,
4,
16915,
34,
4776,
587,
1104,
143321,
4143,
1507,
18822,
7,
509,
33636,
297,
390,
10,
17262,
9,
2606,
1297,
40,
944,
3956,
4,
21373,
47,
10,
567,
10931,
18151,
5,
4263,
903,
158,
75161,
3408,
83,
26785,
4,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
621,
70,
4734,
51529,
27781,
111,
10,
27140,
46876,
17164,
297,
23,
10,
5691,
397,
5426,
5,
17006,
78684,
4,
35477,
86,
3905,
1760,
1556,
7228,
70,
5117,
24089,
9523,
32380,
94266,
674,
111,
10,
44,
3181,
1766,
4,
58,
223920,
70,
237259,
450,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
54,
959,
33636,
4677,
24089,
18,
71407,
5,
24372,
8035,
5470,
297,
390,
4000,
46667,
1215,
1430,
5455,
38361,
180,
14042,
587,
4,
70,
10336,
111,
70,
56187,
111,
88842,
1888,
2245,
23,
50733,
4,
3905,
1760,
509,
2855,
3674,
17203,
47,
70,
196529,
1294,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
111,
1735,
20178,
8,
88842,
1724,
5,
32255,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
3542,
121122,
71,
20271,
142,
543,
927,
142642,
214267,
1830,
26548,
70,
195374,
27759,
5,
62,
162515,
111,
10576,
4,
109197,
136,
6,
62479,
48225,
37105,
7,
47,
10,
3622,
111,
9199,
162515,
7,
23,
6097,
44,
3181,
7332,
830,
3129,
83,
28032,
70,
37457,
111,
10,
7643,
4861,
1165,
45966,
32562,
5426,
5,
5443,
90965,
214,
4677,
1672,
70,
214267,
1830,
8305,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
2806,
765,
56282,
297,
70,
195374,
207048,
1295,
100094,
70,
89914,
2174,
1836,
3542,
1940,
19462,
297,
4,
136,
70,
88842,
1724,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
621,
351,
9,
2606,
56,
1771,
5,
17106,
70,
4358,
111,
4000,
119893,
4,
2750,
151552,
70,
44,
3181,
1766,
58,
237,
44,
11,
46876,
111,
85825,
830,
3905,
1760,
509,
19048,
47,
3900,
19309,
70,
123055,
111,
70,
6626,
44,
3337,
72994,
830,
707,
14449,
42592,
4188,
4,
2750,
75204,
136,
9325,
70,
44,
3181,
1766,
740,
581,
153648,
28702,
297,
98,
24089,
9523,
91067,
7,
47,
70,
26249,
109197,
7,
136,
104988,
111,
70,
29191,
44,
3181,
1766,
58,
6,
32271,
7,
5,
94724,
25188,
1221,
81887,
47,
83324,
36766,
3905,
1760,
25,
7,
90791,
7,
621,
152431,
47,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
1295,
70,
8942,
11,
14922,
136,
110680,
5,
1784,
1883,
62,
40676,
136,
12452,
62,
40676,
4,
7103,
19441,
7968,
53,
64807,
40368,
75281,
44,
3181,
7332,
830,
765,
127887,
450,
2684,
4677,
98,
44,
3181,
7332,
58,
83,
54744,
238,
4,
136,
6097,
101935,
831,
186,
12301,
5,
98423,
234737,
111,
17075,
30591,
83,
10,
153939,
4,
136,
2685,
621,
17262,
5201,
52895,
111,
17075,
30591,
12,
8781,
645,
12336,
17075,
30591,
74,
44,
10617,
17075,
30591,
830,
58055,
214,
111,
142,
645,
12336,
472,
10869,
678,
1632,
707,
1286,
78301,
15504,
7,
74,
136,
26366,
9,
13,
22553,
17075,
30591,
5,
360,
70,
62,
40676,
7,
26,
5426,
4,
10,
22759,
927,
10644,
111,
472,
10869,
2451,
59994,
13,
9,
4390,
9,
13,
22553,
472,
10869,
678,
142,
4173,
165292,
2451,
164,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
44,
24821,
740,
62,
14012,
83,
33636,
297,
237,
10,
40,
944,
3956,
111,
472,
10869,
234737,
7,
23,
3647,
4068,
1326,
27781,
4,
2174,
201,
7,
33636,
7,
22759,
8781,
17075,
30591,
4,
138,
866,
33636,
7,
10,
4989,
472,
10869,
678,
17262,
15504,
7,
4,
241,
33636,
7,
10,
26366,
9,
4390,
9,
13,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
7644,
1766,
15,
289,
991,
160093,
297,
1907,
1766,
16,
621,
182304,
128779,
54543,
297,
1295,
79315,
7,
186768,
538,
11814,
390,
10,
14012,
111,
29394,
7,
23,
70,
10776,
111,
3493,
5073,
25134,
21629,
5,
70344,
18,
3674,
79315,
7,
3542,
11814,
390,
5941,
3789,
29394,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
142,
45964,
76438,
136,
24,
4935,
138393,
10133,
4,
1284,
6044,
41361,
7,
5608,
959,
186,
55681,
5281,
678,
70,
569,
1766,
4,
3129,
15005,
7,
4734,
47,
70,
3493,
5073,
75186,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-362177 | en-train-362177 | 362177 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Purpose.",
"Numerial system.",
"Literary uses.",
"History.",
"Tawantin Suyu.",
"Spanish invasion.",
"Contemporary social importance.",
"Tupicocha, Peru.",
"San Cristóbal de Rapaz, Peru.",
"Archaeological investigation.",
"Preservation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"\"Quipu\" is a Quechua word meaning \"knot\" or \"to knot\". The terms \"quipu\" and \"khipu\" are simply spelling variations on the same word. \"Quipu\" is the traditional Spanish spelling, while \"khipu\" reflects the recent Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift.",
"Most information recorded on the \"quipus\" consists of numbers in a decimal system, such as \"Indian chiefs ascertain[ing] which province had lost more than another and balanc[ing] the losses between them\" after the Spanish invasion. In the early years of the Spanish conquest of Peru, Spanish officials often relied on the quipus to settle disputes over local tribute payments or goods production. \"Quipucamayocs\" (Quechua \"khipu kamayuq\" \"khipu specialist\", plural: \"khipu kamayuqkuna\") could be summoned to court, where their bookkeeping was recognised as valid documentation of past payments. Some of the knots, as well as other features, such as color, are thought to represent non-numeric information, which has not been deciphered. It is generally thought that the system did not include phonetic symbols analogous to letters of the alphabet. However Gary Urton has suggested that the \"quipus\" used a binary system which could record phonological or logographic data. His student Manny Medrano has gone further to find \"quipus\" that decode to match census data. The lack of a clear link between any indigenous Peruvian languages and the \"quipus\" has historically led to the supposition that \"quipus\" are not a glottographic writing system and have no phonetic referent. Frank Salomon at the University of Wisconsin has argued that \"quipus\" are actually a semasiographic language, a system of representative symbolssuch as music notation or numeralsthat relay information but are not directly related to the speech sounds of a particular language. The Khipu Database Project (KDP), begun by Gary Urton, may have already decoded the first word from a quipu–the name of a village, Puruchuco–which Urton believes was represented by a three-number sequence, similar to a ZIP code. If this conjecture is correct, \"quipus\" are the only known example of a complex language recorded in a 3-D system. Most recently, Sabine Hyland has made the first phonetic decipherment of a \"quipu,\" challenging the assumption that \"quipus\" do not represent information phonetically. After being contacted by local woman Meche Moreyra Orozco, the head of the Association of Collatinos in Lima, Hyland was granted access to the epistolary \"quipus\" of San Juan de Collata. These \"quipus\" were exchanged during an 18th century rebellion against the Spanish government. A combination of color, fiber and ply direction leads to a total of 95 combinations in these \"quipus\", which is within the range of a logosyllabic writing system. Exchanging information about the rebellion through \"quipus\" would have prevented the Spanish authorities from understanding the messages if they were intercepted, and the Collata \"quipus\" are non-numeric. With the help of local leaders, who described the \"quipu\" as \"a language of animals\", Hyland was able to translate the names of the two \"ayllus\", or family lineages, who received and sent the \"quipu\". The translation relied on phonetic references to the animal fibers and colors of the relevant \"quipu\" cords. Future research will attempt to determine whether Hyland's findings are applicable to \"quipus\" from the Inca period and earlier.",
"Marcia Ascher and Robert Ascher, after having analyzed several hundred \"quipus\", have shown that most information on \"quipus\" is numeric, and these numbers can be read. Each cluster of knots is a digit, and there are three main types of knots: simple overhand knots; \"long knots\", consisting of an overhand knot with one or more additional turns; and figure-eight knots. In the Aschers’ system, a fourth type of knot—figure-of-eight knot with an extra twist—is referred to as \"EE\". A number is represented as a sequence of knot clusters in base 10. For example, if 4s represents four simple knots, 3L represents a long knot with three turns, E represents a figure-of-eight knot and X represents a space: This reading can be confirmed by a fortunate fact: \"quipus\" regularly contain sums in a systematic way. For instance, a cord may contain the sum of the next \"n\" cords, and this relationship is repeated throughout the \"quipu\". Sometimes there are sums of sums as well. Such a relationship would be very improbable if the knots were incorrectly read. Some data items are not numbers but what Ascher and Ascher call \"number labels\". They are still composed of digits, but the resulting number seems to be used as a code, much as we use numbers to identify individuals, places, or things. Lacking the context for individual quipus, it is difficult to guess what any given code might mean. Other aspects of a \"quipu\" could have communicated information as well: color-coding, relative placement of cords, spacing, and the structure of cords and sub-cords.",
"Some have argued that far more than numeric information is present and that \"quipus\" are a writing system. This would be an especially important discovery as there is no surviving record of written Quechua predating the Spanish invasion. Possible reasons for this apparent absence of a written language include an actual absence of a written language, destruction by the Spanish of all written records, or the successful concealment by the Inca peoples of those records. Making the matter even more complex, the Inca 'kept separate \"khipu\" for each province, on which a pendant string recorded the number of people belonging to each category.' This creates yet another step in the process of decryption in addition to the Spanish attempts at eradicating the system. Historians Edward Hyams and George Ordish believe quipus were recording devices, similar to musical notation, in that the notes on the page present basic information, and the performer would then bring those details to life. In 2003, while checking the geometric signs that appear on drawings of Inca dresses from the \"First New Chronicle and Good Government\", written by Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala in 1615, William Burns Glynn found a pattern that seems to decipher some words from \"quipus\" by matching knots to colors of strings. The August 12, 2005, edition of the journal \"Science\" includes a report titled \"Khipu Accounting in Ancient Peru\" by anthropologist Gary Urton and mathematician Carrie J. Brezine. Their work may represent the first identification of a \"quipu\" element for a non-numeric concept, a sequence of three figure-of-eight knots at the start of a \"quipu\" that seems to be a unique signifier. It could be a toponym for the city of Puruchuco (near Lima), or the name of the \"quipu\" keeper who made it, or its subject matter, or even a time designator. Beynon-Davies considers \"quipus\" as a sign system and develops an interpretation of their physical structure in terms of the concept of a data system. \"Khipu kamayuqkuna\" (knot makers/keepers, i.e., the former Inca record keepers) supplied colonial administrators with a variety and quantity of information pertaining to censuses, tribute, ritual and calendrical organization, genealogies, and other such matters from Inka times. Performing a number of statistical tests for quipu sample VA 42527, one study led by Alberto Sáez-Rodríguez discovered that the distribution and patterning of S- and Z-knots can organize the information system from a real star map of the Pleiades cluster. Laura Minelli, a professor of pre-Columbian studies at the University of Bologna, has discovered something which she believed to be a seventeenth-century Jesuit manuscript that describes literary \"quipus\", titled. This manuscript consists of nine folios with Spanish, Latin, and ciphered Italian texts. Owned by the family of Neapolitan historian Clara Miccinelli, the manuscript also includes a wool \"quipu\" fragment. Miccinelli believes that the text was written by two Italian Jesuit missionaries, Joan Antonio Cumis and Giovanni Anello Oliva, around 1610–1638, and Blas Valera, a mestizo Jesuit sometime before 1618. Along with the details of reading literary \"quipus\", the documents also discuss the events and people of the Spanish conquest of Peru. According to Cumis, since so many \"quipus\" were burned by the Spanish, very few remained for him to analyze. As related in the manuscript, the word Pacha Kamaq, the Inca deity of earth and time, was used many times in these \"quipus\", where the syllables were represented by symbols formed in the knots. Following the analysis of the use of \"Pacha Kamaq\", the manuscript offers a list of many words present in \"quipus\". However, Bruce Mannheim, the director of the Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Michigan, and Colgate University's Gary Urton, question its origin and authenticity. These documents seem to be inspired freely by a 1751 writing of Raimondo di Sangro, Prince of Sansevero.",
"",
"\"Quipucamayocs\" (Quechua \"khipu kamayuq\", \"khipu-authority\"), the accountants of Tawantin Suyu, created and deciphered the quipu knots. \"Quipucamayocs\" could carry out basic arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. They kept track of mita, a form of taxation. The \"quipucamayocs\" also tracked the type of labor being performed, maintained a record of economic output, and ran a census that counted everyone from infants to \"old blind men over 80\". The system was also used to keep track of the calendar. According to Guaman Poma, \"quipucamayocs\" could \"read\" the quipus with their eyes closed. \"Quipucamayocs\" were from a class of people, \"males, fifty to sixty\", and were not the only members of Inca society to use quipus. Inca historians used quipus when telling the Spanish about Tawantin Suyu history (whether they only recorded important numbers or actually contained the story itself is unknown). Members of the ruling class were usually taught to read quipus in the Inca equivalent of a university, the \"yachay wasi\" (literally, \"house of teaching\"), in the third year of schooling, for the higher classes who would eventually become the bureaucracy.",
"In 1532, the Spanish Empire's conquest of the Andean region began, with several Spanish conquerors making note of the existence of quipus in their written records about the invasion. The earliest known example comes from Hernando Pizarro, the brother of the Spanish military leader Francisco Pizarro, who recorded an encounter that he and his men had in 1533 as they traveled along the royal road from the highlands to the central coast. It was during this journey that they encountered several quipu keepers, later relating that these keepers \"untied some of the knots which they had in the deposits section [of the khipu], and they [re-]tied them in another section [of the khipu].\" The Spanish authorities quickly suppressed the use of \"quipus\". Christian officials of the Third Council of Lima banned and ordered the burning of all Quipus in 1583 because they were used to record offerings to non-Christian gods and were therefore considered idolatrous objects and an obstacle to religious conversion.",
"The \"quipu\" system operated as both a method of calculation and social organization, regulating regional governance and land use. While evidence for the latter is still under the critical eye of scholars around the world, the very fact that they are kept to this day without any confirmed level of fluent literacy in the system is testament to its historical'moral authority.' Today, \"khipu\" is regarded as a powerful symbol of heritage, only 'unfurled' and handled by 'pairs of [contemporary] dignitaries,' as the system and its 'construction embed' modern 'cultural knowledge.' Ceremonies in which they are 'curated, even though they can no longer be read,' is even further support for the case of societal honor and significance associated with the quipu. Even today, 'the knotted cords must be present and displayed when village officers leave or begin service, and draping the cords over the incoming office holders instantiates the moral and political authority of the past.' These examples are indicative of how the \"quipu\" system is not only fundamental mathematically or linguistically for the original Inca, but also for the cultural preservation of the original empire's descendants. Anthropologists and archaeologists working in Peru have highlighted two known cases where \"quipus\" have continued to be used by contemporary communities, albeit as ritual items seen as \"communal patrimony\" rather than as devices for recording information. The khipu system, being the efficient method of social management it was for the Inca, is also a link to the Cuzco census, as it was one of the primary methods of population calculation. This also has allowed historians and anthropologists to understand both the census and the \"decimal hierarchy\" system the Inca used, and that they were actually 'initiated together,' due to the fact that they were 'conceptually so closely linked.'",
"In 1994, the American cultural anthropologist Frank Salomon conducted a study in the Peruvian village of Tupicocha, where \"quipus\" are still an important part of the social life of the village. As of 1994, this was the only village where quipus with a structure similar to pre-Columbian \"quipus\" were still used for official local government record-keeping and functions, although the villagers did not associate their quipus with Inca artifacts.",
"The villagers of San Cristóbal de Rapaz (known as Rapacinos), located in the Province of Oyón, keep a quipu in an old ceremonial building, the \"Kaha Wayi\", that is itself surrounded by a walled architectural complex. Also within the complex is a disused communal storehouse, known as the \"Pasa Qullqa\", which was formerly used to protect and redistribute the local crops, and some Rapacinos believe that the \"quipu\" was once a record of this process of collecting and redistributing food. The entire complex was important to the villagers, being \"the seat of traditional control over land use, and the centre of communication with the deified mountains who control weather\". In 2004, the archaeologist Renata Peeters (of the UCL Institute of Archaeology in London) and the cultural anthropologist Frank Salomon (of the University of Wisconsin) undertook a project to conserve both the \"quipus\" in Rapaz and the building that it was in, due to their increasingly poor condition.",
"The archaeologist Gary Urton noted in his 2003 book \"Signs of the Inka Khipu\" that he estimated \"from my own studies and from the published works of other scholars that there are about 600 extant \"quipu\" in public and private collections around the world.\" According to the Khipu Database Project undertaken by Harvard University professor Gary Urton and his colleague Carrie Brezine, 751 quipus have been reported to exist across the globe. Their whereabouts range from Europe to North and South America. Most are housed in museums outside of their native countries, however some reside in their native locations under the care of the descendants of those who made the knot records. A table of the largest collections is shown below. While patrimonial quipu collections have not been accounted for in this database, their numbers are likely to be unknown. One prominent patrimonial collection held by the Rapazians of Rapaz, Peru, was recently researched by University of Wisconsin–Madison professor, Frank Salomon. The Anthropology/Archaeology department at the University of California at Santa Barbara also holds one \"quipu\".",
"\"Quipus\" are made of fibers, either spun and plied thread such as wool or hair from alpaca, llama, guanaco or vicuña, though are also commonly made of cellulose like cotton. The knotted strings of \"quipus\" were often made with an \"elaborate system of knotted cords, dyed in various colors, the significance of which was known to the magistrates\". Fading of color, natural or dyed, cannot be reversed, and may indicate further damage to the fibers. Colors can darken if attacked by dust or by certain dyes and mordants. \"Quipus\" have been found with adornments, such as animal shells, attached to the cords, and these non-textile materials may require additional preservation measures. \"Quipus\" are now preserved using techniques that will minimise their future degradation. Museums, archives and special collections have adopted preservation guidelines from textile practices. Environmental controls are used to monitor and control temperature, humidity and light exposure of storage areas. As with all textiles, cool, clean, dry and dark environments are most suitable. The heating, ventilating and air conditioning, or HVAC systems, of buildings that house quipu knot records are usually automatically regulated. Relative humidity should be 60% or lower, with low temperatures, as high temperatures can damage the fibres and make them brittle. Damp conditions and high humidity can damage protein-rich material. Textiles suffer damage from ultraviolet (UV) light, which can include fading and weakening of the fibrous material. When quipus are on display, their exposure to ambient conditions is usually minimized and closely monitored. Damage can occur during storage. The more accessible the items are during storage, the greater the chance of early detection. Storing quipus horizontally on boards covered with a neutral pH paper (paper that is neither acid or alkaline) to prevent potential acid transfer is a preservation technique that extends the life of a collection. The fibers can be abraded by rubbing against each other or, for those attached to sticks or rods, by their own weight if held in an upright position. Extensive handling of \"quipus\" can also increase the risk of further damage. \"Quipus\" are also closely monitored for mold, as well as insects and their larvae. As with all textiles, these are major problems. Fumigation may not be recommended for fiber textiles displaying mold or insect infestations, although it is common practice for ridding paper of mold and insects. Conservators in the field of library science have the skills to handle a variety of situations. Even though some quipus have hundreds of cords, each cord should be assessed and treated individually. \"Quipu\" cords can be \"mechanically cleaned with brushes, small tools and light vacuuming\". Just as the application of fungicides is not recommended to rid quipus of mold, neither is the use of solvents to clean them. Even when people have tried to preserve \"quipus\", corrective care may still be required. If \"quipus\" are to be conserved close to their place of origin, local camelid or wool fibres in natural colors can be obtained and used to mend breaks and splits in the cords. Rosa Choque Gonzales and Rosalia Choque Gonzales, conservators from southern Peru, worked to conserve the Rapaz patrimonial quipus in the Andean village of Rapaz, Peru. These \"quipus\" had undergone repair in the past, so this conservator team used new local camelid and wool fibers to spin around the area under repair in a similar fashion to the earlier repairs found on the quipu. When Gary Urton, professor of Anthropology at Harvard, was asked \"Are they [quipus] fragile?\", he answered, \"some of them are, and you can't touch them – they would break or turn into dust. Many are quite well preserved, and you can actually study them without doing them any harm. Of course, any time you touch an ancient fabric like that, you're doing some damage, but these strings are generally quite durable.\" Ruth Shady, a Peruvian archeologist, has discovered a \"quipu\" or perhaps \"proto-quipu\" believed to be around 5,000 years old in the coastal city of Caral. It was in quite good condition, with \"brown cotton strings wound around thin sticks\", along with \"a series of offerings, including mysterious fiber balls of different sizes wrapped in 'nets' and pristine reed baskets. Piles of raw cotton – uncombed and containing seeds, though turned a dirty brown by the ages – and a ball of cotton thread\" were also found preserved. The good condition of these articles can be attributed to the arid condition of Caral."
]
} |
Aberdeenshire | null | Aberdeenshire (; ) is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland. It takes its name from the County of Aberdeen which has substantially different boundaries. The Aberdeenshire council area includes all of the area of the historic counties of Aberdeenshire and Kincardineshire (except the area making up the City of Aberdeen), as well as part of Banffshire. The county boundaries are officially used for a few purposes, namely land registration and lieutenancy. | null | [
250004,
250054,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
1556,
10,
98870,
479,
66029,
238,
136,
105719,
604,
14,
16852,
5,
1650,
83,
70,
7001,
223,
111,
10,
21334,
14012,
111,
54311,
4353,
75708,
136,
42911,
731,
72944,
6,
227780,
109622,
15271,
4,
26719,
14407,
669,
37639,
4,
111862,
34165,
37639,
4,
18826,
188,
14407,
335,
118201,
136,
149109,
19,
19824,
5,
581,
16128,
509,
9615,
6259,
23,
70,
42911,
731,
72944,
390,
70,
873,
11,
1728,
29394,
4,
2750,
174920,
1295,
70,
127067,
10932,
3576,
1104,
156874,
77269,
5,
47002,
130370,
136,
78968,
1779,
3542,
64549,
297,
156531,
660,
538,
23,
903,
1615,
5,
360,
70,
70599,
72944,
4,
130473,
10204,
7,
3542,
88303,
5,
62,
67688,
70,
106,
271,
142642,
19831,
4,
70,
1218,
3355,
1799,
3395,
4,
2750,
765,
25737,
10176,
32692,
4,
3542,
18822,
71,
47,
765,
157176,
71,
33233,
70,
184085,
5,
581,
27860,
933,
3542,
70,
11737,
12937,
297,
23,
109261,
16037,
111,
70,
16128,
4,
136,
3542,
110,
14432,
3501,
7607,
1104,
20543,
19831,
5,
581,
12610,
7,
2843,
3542,
23,
70,
16128,
20271,
903,
14922,
4,
237,
1836,
25737,
24092,
7,
99,
37029,
7535,
5,
14949,
2481,
79507,
71,
70,
23,
109261,
16037,
39395,
98,
4,
136,
2685,
3542,
202395,
6,
124722,
3387,
99,
25074,
262,
56,
136,
7465,
53,
2647,
92,
5,
66016,
92264,
20028,
2685,
765,
2809,
10,
14012,
111,
89160,
60875,
7,
450,
41421,
297,
70,
101057,
127,
15,
11,
6,
48150,
111,
101120,
10821,
3551,
450,
65042,
7,
1295,
70,
77546,
23,
1760,
37457,
47,
70,
23924,
27414,
161549,
144477,
111,
47002,
67139,
16,
8305,
13379,
9,
5636,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
1295,
70,
50695,
4745,
61187,
15534,
47,
70,
194953,
7,
5,
31384,
111,
70,
2684,
5299,
51529,
136,
186768,
538,
5526,
28560,
102966,
621,
70,
60570,
31947,
101057,
127,
136,
7903,
41113,
101057,
127,
5,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
112730,
142,
5526,
31486,
23,
70,
181952,
17721,
70,
50695,
4745,
118820,
7,
5,
165854,
4727,
6766,
927,
136,
70,
165854,
4171,
17678,
3542,
6626,
111,
70,
150679,
118820,
7,
5,
4727,
86077,
77736,
99,
3350,
2676,
66150,
23,
209,
12243,
5,
133698,
70,
2393,
365,
9,
50645,
669,
75076,
1363,
4,
3789,
87143,
54410,
7,
6044,
237,
13038,
111,
21786,
34837,
4,
165854,
112297,
4,
136,
165854,
7140,
14578,
15,
10770,
3371,
194,
14847,
70,
181952,
54940,
271,
6097,
3525,
277,
1314,
16750,
297,
23,
70,
50695,
4745,
34210,
111,
213867,
329,
4,
70,
14941,
60097,
38157,
87,
26983,
297,
36880,
70,
16128,
186351,
4,
23,
427,
11648,
136,
702,
38775,
360,
702,
8368,
4,
12452,
70,
112297,
509,
91375,
14,
10821,
43573,
148639,
1162,
13,
5,
62,
10617,
678,
1919,
91375,
53,
21449,
3525,
87143,
4,
24,
110987,
70,
125666,
90,
136,
70,
119892,
7,
5,
32255,
3525,
87143,
5423,
70,
36541,
100,
70,
1257,
277,
214,
43876,
10484,
20271,
70,
616,
927,
136,
423,
927,
202032,
90,
5,
3293,
43876,
1294,
3514,
434,
124632,
20271,
136,
7103,
70,
75198,
1236,
106922,
1363,
4,
3229,
42615,
509,
15700,
31635,
100,
79612,
17721,
70,
118820,
7,
5,
581,
119892,
14449,
10,
10500,
2822,
47,
129574,
8780,
136,
70,
125666,
90,
47,
75198,
33752,
39,
5,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
509,
70,
105719,
40,
257,
111,
70,
118820,
262,
2676,
1515,
5,
129335,
141626,
90,
3542,
14037,
297,
23,
70,
16128,
41928,
47,
70,
729,
927,
142642,
4,
18813,
25,
7,
29693,
23,
25074,
8592,
112,
33,
26205,
117942,
4,
7798,
118940,
29693,
23,
8592,
112,
33,
20808,
121387,
4,
136,
70,
12535,
111,
7868,
2189,
13593,
127,
20808,
116354,
5,
24372,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
135555,
111,
611,
12772,
4,
142,
65042,
297,
88669,
7844,
14922,
509,
206735,
297,
4734,
390,
6044,
18738,
13,
1916,
47353,
6044,
237,
70,
24116,
214,
111,
729,
1837,
136,
70,
24116,
214,
111,
729,
4633,
5,
581,
21,
3055,
16750,
297,
23,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
82800,
66,
2408,
111,
241,
100711,
46363,
66,
8780,
136,
70,
36154,
2465,
14537,
111,
2515,
34695,
1314,
5,
893,
1615,
80723,
111,
124735,
120767,
141,
136,
25297,
42658,
5,
133698,
70,
729,
927,
142642,
4,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
509,
70,
31913,
111,
1286,
181952,
4,
27585,
297,
98,
70,
1784,
7162,
7,
111,
12982,
75287,
136,
70,
14941,
18543,
34210,
5,
3293,
14922,
2843,
24124,
124735,
180187,
4743,
47,
70,
51312,
23,
52350,
678,
102126,
4,
164111,
4,
136,
70,
61187,
6,
108210,
10484,
5,
581,
13379,
215394,
16128,
83,
24,
4806,
7103,
70,
105719,
54529,
53,
111,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
4,
3129,
1556,
12921,
337,
6990,
10484,
136,
509,
32997,
297,
237,
142,
86757,
16128,
23,
26527,
1379,
70,
24172,
92416,
15,
294,
587,
74041,
16,
25515,
29733,
5,
1650,
509,
91995,
71,
390,
48078,
63782,
28379,
70615,
136,
43606,
103724,
215394,
7,
12,
5458,
4902,
136,
18363,
66,
4,
119892,
4,
37029,
38931,
1212,
136,
262,
13,
8752,
4,
37647,
53,
136,
70,
6406,
111,
8592,
112,
33,
5,
24172,
27759,
32354,
7,
3542,
99764,
17721,
70,
6626,
90926,
5,
360,
11891,
4,
1379,
70,
24172,
92416,
3021,
15,
294,
587,
74041,
16,
25515,
13211,
4,
70,
5458,
4902,
136,
18363,
66,
103724,
4,
119892,
103724,
136,
37029,
38931,
1212,
136,
262,
13,
8752,
103724,
3542,
42564,
71,
47,
3173,
70,
13379,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
215394,
16128,
5,
37647,
53,
136,
70,
6406,
111,
8592,
112,
33,
3542,
7228,
2363,
10002,
215394,
58555,
5,
581,
13379,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
215394,
16128,
58055,
7,
111,
756,
111,
70,
105719,
54529,
3387,
111,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
136,
37029,
38931,
1212,
72567,
15,
3355,
19462,
70,
16128,
111,
8382,
6626,
54529,
3387,
20662,
1257,
70,
6406,
111,
8592,
112,
33,
247,
237,
5299,
237,
144477,
13,
4438,
126826,
7,
111,
5458,
4902,
72567,
5,
581,
43904,
111,
70,
215394,
16128,
1556,
9588,
33,
645,
9071,
16792,
32158,
47,
189275,
4,
33636,
214,
1398,
14427,
111,
176637,
25,
7,
3622,
5,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
25,
7,
43904,
1556,
124735,
390,
3569,
13961,
16792,
103844,
12960,
176637,
25,
7,
3622,
43904,
3514,
434,
390,
1031,
11991,
5,
581,
149039,
7,
5303,
7,
10,
35845,
538,
11192,
123875,
111,
1379,
611,
7,
136,
161549,
10846,
56,
3395,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
15,
74,
1388,
83,
1632,
111,
70,
2789,
215394,
58555,
111,
176637,
5,
1650,
51776,
6863,
9351,
1295,
70,
47064,
111,
8592,
112,
33,
3129,
1556,
193984,
538,
12921,
337,
6990,
10484,
5,
581,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
215394,
16128,
96853,
756,
111,
70,
16128,
111,
70,
105719,
54529,
3387,
111,
8592,
112,
33,
72567,
136,
37029,
38931,
1212,
72567,
15,
3355,
19462,
70,
16128,
20662,
1257,
70,
6406,
111,
8592,
112,
33,
247,
237,
5299,
237,
2831,
111,
5458,
4902,
72567,
5,
581,
54529,
53,
337,
6990,
10484,
621,
51521,
538,
11814,
100,
10,
10846,
60042,
7,
4,
24,
110987,
3551,
164498,
136,
23414,
51219,
27771,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-687140 | en-train-687140 | 687140 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Demographics.",
"Economy.",
"Governance and politics.",
"Notable features.",
"Hydrology and climate."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Aberdeenshire has a rich prehistoric and historic heritage. It is the locus of a large number of Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, including Longman Hill, Kempstone Hill, Catto Long Barrow and Cairn Lee. The area was settled in the Bronze Age by the Beaker culture, who arrived from the south around 2000–1800 BC. Stone circles and cairns were constructed predominantly in this era. In the Iron Age, hill forts were built. Around the 1st century AD, the Taexali people, who have left little history, were believed to have resided along the coast. The Picts were the next documented inhabitants of the area, and were no later than 800–900 AD. The Romans also were in the area during this period, as they left signs at Kintore. Christianity influenced the inhabitants early on, and there were Celtic monasteries at Old Deer and Monymusk. Since medieval times there have been a number of traditional paths that crossed the Mounth (a spur of mountainous land that extends from the higher inland range to the North Sea slightly north of Stonehaven) through present-day Aberdeenshire from the Scottish Lowlands to the Highlands. Some of the most well known and historically important trackways are the Causey Mounth and Elsick Mounth. Aberdeenshire played an important role in the fighting between the Scottish clans. Clan MacBeth and the Clan Canmore were two of the larger clans. Macbeth fell at Lumphanan in 1057. During the Anglo-Norman penetration, other families arrives such as House of Balliol, Clan Bruce, and Clan Cumming (Comyn). When the fighting amongst these newcomers resulted in the Scottish Wars of Independence, the English king Edward I traveled across the area twice, in 1296 and 1303. In 1307, Robert the Bruce was victorious near Inverurie. Along with his victory came new families, namely the Forbeses and the Gordons. These new families set the stage for the upcoming rivalries during the 14th and 15th centuries. This rivalry grew worse during and after the Protestant Reformation, when religion was another reason for conflict between the clans. The Gordon family adhered to Catholicism and the Forbeses to Protestantism. Aberdeenshire was the historic seat of the clan Dempster. Three universities were founded in the area prior to the 17th century, King's College in Old Aberdeen (1494), Marischal College in Aberdeen (1593), and the University of Fraserburgh (1597). After the end of the Revolution of 1688, an extended peaceful period was interrupted only by such fleeting events such as the Rising of 1715 and the Rising of 1745. The latter resulted in the end of the ascendancy of Episcopalianism and the feudal power of landowners. An era began of increased agricultural and industrial progress. During the 17th century, Aberdeenshire was the location of more fighting, centered on the Marquess of Montrose and the English Civil Wars. This period also saw increased wealth due to the increase in trade with Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries. The present council area is named after the historic county of Aberdeenshire, which has different boundaries and was abandoned as an administrative area in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. It was replaced by Grampian Regional Council and five district councils: Banff and Buchan, Gordon, Kincardine and Deeside, Moray and the City of Aberdeen. Local government functions were shared between the two levels. In 1996, under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994, the Banff and Buchan district, Gordon district and Kincardine and Deeside district were merged to form the present Aberdeenshire council area. Moray and the City of Aberdeen were made their own council areas. The present Aberdeenshire council area consists of all of the historic counties of Aberdeenshire and Kincardineshire (except the area of those two counties making up the City of Aberdeen), as well as northeast portions of Banffshire.",
"The population of the council area has risen over 50% since 1971 to approximately, representing 4.7% of Scotland's total. Aberdeenshire's population has increased by 9.1% since 2001, while Scotland's total population grew by 3.8%. The census lists a relatively high proportion of under 16s and slightly fewer people of working-age compared with the Scottish average. Aberdeenshire is one of the most homogeneous/indigenous regions of the UK. In 2011 82.2% of residents identified as 'White Scottish', followed by 12.3% who are 'White British', whilst ethnic minorities constitute only 0.9% of the population. The largest ethnic minority group are Asian Scottish/British at 0.8%. In addition to the English language, 48.8% of residents reported being able to speak and understand the Scots language. The fourteen biggest settlements in Aberdeenshire (with 2011 population estimates) are:",
"Aberdeenshire's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is estimated at £3,496m (2011), representing 5.2% of the Scottish total. Aberdeenshire's economy is closely linked to Aberdeen City's (GDP £7,906m) and in 2011 the region as a whole was calculated to contribute 16.8% of Scotland's GDP. Between 2012 and 2014 the combined Aberdeenshire and Aberdeen City economic forecast GDP growth rate is 8.6%, the highest growth rate of any local council area in the UK and above the Scottish rate of 4.8%. A significant proportion of Aberdeenshire's working residents commute to Aberdeen City for work, varying from 11.5% from Fraserburgh to 65% from Westhill. Average Gross Weekly Earnings (for full-time employees employed in work places in Aberdeenshire in 2011) are £572.60. This is lower than the Scottish average by £2.10 and a fall of 2.6% on the 2010 figure. The average gross weekly pay of people resident in Aberdeenshire is much higher, at £741.90, as many people commute out of Aberdeenshire, principally into Aberdeen City. Total employment (excluding farm data) in Aberdeenshire is estimated at 93,700 employees (Business Register and Employment Survey 2009). The majority of employees work within the service sector, predominantly in public administration, education and health. Almost 19% of employment is within the public sector. Aberdeenshire's economy remains closely linked to Aberdeen City's and the North Sea oil industry, with many employees in oil related jobs. The average monthly unemployment (claimant count) rate for Aberdeenshire in 2011 was 1.5%. This is lower than the average rates for Aberdeen City (2.3%), Scotland (4.2%) and the UK (3.8%).",
"The council has 70 councillors, elected in 19 multi-member wards by single transferable vote. The 2017 elections resulted in the following representation: The overall political composition of the council, following subsequent defections and by-elections, is as follows: The Council's Revenue Budget for 2012/13 totals approx £548 million. The Education, Learning and Leisure Service takes the largest share of budget (52.3%), followed by Housing and Social Work (24.3%), Infrastructure Services (15.9%), Joint Boards (such as Fire and Police) and Misc services (7.9%) and Trading Activities (0.4%). 21.5% of the revenue is raised locally through the Council Tax. Average Band D Council Tax is £1,141 (2012/13), no change on the previous year. The current chief executive of the Council is Jim Savege and the elected Council Leader is Jim Gifford. Aberdeenshire also has a Provost, who is Councillor Bill Howatson. The council has devolved power to six area committees: Banff and Buchan; Buchan; Formartine; Garioch; Marr; and Kincardine and Mearns. Each area committee takes decisions on local issues such as planning applications, and the split is meant to reflect the diverse circumstances of each area. (Boundary map)",
"The following significant structures or places are within Aberdeenshire:",
"There are numerous rivers and burns in Aberdeenshire, including Cowie Water, Carron Water, Burn of Muchalls, River Dee, River Don, River Ury, River Ythan, Water of Feugh, Burn of Myrehouse, Laeca Burn and Luther Water. Numerous bays and estuaries are found along the seacoast of Aberdeenshire, including Banff Bay, Ythan Estuary, Stonehaven Bay and Thornyhive Bay. Aberdeenshire is in the rain shadow of the Grampians, therefore it is a generally dry climate, with portions of the coast, receiving of moisture annually. Summers are mild and winters are typically cold in Aberdeenshire; Coastal temperatures are moderated by the North Sea such that coastal areas are typically cooler in the summer and warmer in winter than inland locations. Coastal areas are also subject to haar, or coastal fog."
]
} |
Duty cycle | null | A duty cycle or power cycle is the fraction of one period in which a signal or system is active. Duty cycle is commonly expressed as a percentage or a ratio. A period is the time it takes for a signal to complete an on-and-off cycle. As a formula, a duty cycle (%) may be expressed as: | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
65133,
7,
4,
115,
939,
105823,
83,
70,
169209,
111,
70,
70460,
111,
55111,
13,
115,
30494,
4,
707,
55111,
13,
6,
146984,
15,
683,
1456,
16,
47,
70,
3622,
14922,
15,
618,
16,
111,
70,
259,
272,
5037,
5,
1650,
83,
137567,
11814,
47,
33636,
1733,
115,
30494,
111,
10,
55111,
13,
3229,
442,
83,
11192,
798,
5,
360,
6338,
65133,
7,
4,
26073,
7,
621,
11814,
23,
148734,
10393,
320,
259,
272,
5037,
3129,
621,
33636,
297,
390,
62775,
106,
136,
62775,
757,
5,
50592,
238,
106,
9157,
7,
100,
169424,
111,
142,
39108,
55111,
13,
136,
757,
100,
6,
112199,
111,
142,
39108,
55111,
13,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
10,
26073,
15094,
35046,
76327,
16,
1556,
9071,
115,
939,
105823,
4,
6637,
70,
55111,
13,
47143,
7,
11192,
100,
22128,
111,
70,
14922,
707,
27226,
100,
22128,
111,
70,
14922,
5,
209683,
538,
4,
100,
55111,
13,
15,
14105,
14105,
16,
70,
115,
939,
105823,
1221,
186,
28602,
6637,
70,
55111,
13,
47143,
7,
11192,
4734,
100,
57294,
111,
70,
14922,
136,
47143,
7,
27226,
100,
83849,
111,
70,
14922,
5,
89917,
289,
2926,
7,
205794,
4527,
40715,
3501,
10,
3555,
115,
939,
105823,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
2174,
10,
2926,
127877,
100,
1632,
1810,
111,
805,
94131,
4,
707,
106,
83123,
111,
70,
1733,
4,
7068,
4,
6863,
115,
939,
105823,
83,
106,
83123,
4,
707,
106,
33297,
5,
21694,
184,
9,
146984,
17055,
2320,
15,
683,
107246,
16,
83,
11814,
23,
10,
96551,
111,
65133,
113949,
4,
6044,
237,
14537,
117989,
136,
6599,
429,
15913,
1363,
5,
360,
65133,
19612,
4,
19612,
142518,
90,
52825,
7,
285,
53,
70,
115,
939,
105823,
111,
2363,
18215,
9,
12176,
944,
27771,
362,
121226,
22230,
47,
113054,
10,
1614,
17991,
21543,
98,
70,
70334,
104988,
5,
3293,
61353,
83,
51529,
237,
55111,
13,
9,
146984,
17055,
2320,
5,
360,
70,
110264,
248,
71200,
42,
53099,
4,
70,
115,
939,
105823,
29458,
2320,
15005,
7,
47,
70,
673,
3674,
8305,
7077,
15,
86673,
83,
4,
28412,
297,
37967,
16,
111,
10,
75186,
117,
31150,
5,
360,
10,
79003,
214,
14537,
100677,
4,
70,
38132,
115,
939,
105823,
83,
61924,
71,
237,
70,
169209,
111,
1733,
23,
10,
12417,
67403,
13,
14922,
450,
442,
831,
186,
160404,
71,
19686,
79850,
8108,
645,
1106,
26518,
5,
581,
23755,
111,
115,
939,
105823,
7,
83,
2843,
11814,
47,
98363,
70,
103488,
111,
184940,
7,
136,
123635,
109197,
7,
5,
360,
108,
82451,
61404,
7,
100,
27781,
4,
10,
115,
939,
105823,
183037,
15005,
7,
47,
70,
123875,
111,
10,
105823,
14922,
23,
3129,
10,
184940,
47143,
7,
36457,
5,
6561,
3917,
47,
139392,
180663,
152018,
6,
108047,
259,
272,
26073,
7,
678,
106,
64,
58,
19,
58,
115,
939,
31461,
4,
7440,
44,
19,
58,
83,
142,
892,
1505,
4,
83,
47,
285,
53,
70,
115,
939,
105823,
24189,
70,
44,
19,
58,
927,
9,
88975,
238,
83,
207583,
15811,
11856,
297,
5,
1326,
18215,
9,
8262,
26073,
7,
4,
903,
831,
3853,
186,
16940,
44,
1272,
67896,
56128,
100,
27781,
4,
10,
6,
41734,
71,
571,
456,
77391,
23,
70,
138,
4216,
22313,
238,
42518,
7,
47,
53550,
70,
115,
939,
31461,
47,
62366,
678,
10,
22619,
1830,
111,
40186,
136,
6,
60488,
104,
571,
456,
77391,
42518,
7,
47,
10,
22619,
1830,
111,
107754,
3949,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
115,
939,
105823,
707,
14537,
105823,
83,
70,
6,
175921,
111,
1632,
14922,
23,
3129,
10,
26073,
707,
5426,
83,
36457,
5,
157611,
105823,
83,
39210,
538,
36510,
297,
237,
10,
169209,
707,
10,
70460,
5,
62,
14922,
83,
70,
1733,
442,
51776,
100,
10,
26073,
47,
28484,
142,
98,
9,
2940,
9,
16713,
105823,
5,
1301,
10,
26168,
4,
10,
115,
939,
105823,
15,
26244,
1543,
186,
36510,
297,
237,
12,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2402142 | en-train-2402142 | 2402142 | {
"title": [
"Applications.",
"Electrical and electronics.",
"Biological systems.",
"Generation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"In electronics, duty cycle is the percentage of the ratio of pulse duration, or pulse width (PW) to the total period (T) of the waveform. It is generally used to represent time duration of a pulse when it is high (1). In digital electronics, signals are used in rectangular waveform which are represented by logic 1 and logic 0. Logic 1 stands for presence of an electric pulse and 0 for absence of an electric pulse. For example, a signal (10101010) has 50% duty cycle, because the pulse remains high for 1/2 of the period or low for 1/2 of the period. Similarly, for pulse (10001000) the duty cycle will be 25% because the pulse remains high only for 1/4 of the period and remains low for 3/4 of the period. Electrical motors typically use less than a 100% duty cycle. For example, if a motor runs for one out of 100 seconds, or 1/100 of the time, then, its duty cycle is 1/100, or 1 percent. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is used in a variety of electronic situations, such as power delivery and voltage regulation. In electronic music, music synthesizers vary the duty cycle of their audio-frequency oscillators to obtain a subtle effect on the tone colors. This technique is known as pulse-width modulation. In the printer / copier industry, the duty cycle specification refers to the rated throughput (that is, printed pages) of a device per month. In a welding power supply, the maximum duty cycle is defined as the percentage of time in a 10-minute period that it can be operated continuously before overheating.",
"The concept of duty cycles is also used to describe the activity of neurons and muscle fibers. In neural circuits for example, a duty cycle specifically refers to the proportion of a cycle period in which a neuron remains active.",
"One way to generate fairly accurate square wave signals with 1/\"n\" duty factor, where \"n\" is an integer, is to vary the duty cycle until the \"n\"th-harmonic is significantly suppressed. For audio-band signals, this can even be done \"by ear\"; for example, a -40dB reduction in the 3rd harmonic corresponds to setting the duty factor to 1/3 with a precision of 1% and -60 dB reduction corresponds to a precision of 0.1%."
]
} |
Maximum transmission unit | null | In computer networking, the maximum transmission unit (MTU) is the size of the largest protocol data unit (PDU) that can be communicated in a single network layer transaction. The MTU relates to, but is not identical to the maximum frame size that can be transported on the data link layer, e.g. Ethernet frame. | null | [
250004,
250054,
276,
19454,
7,
59911,
47,
36398,
7,
91363,
7,
136,
33120,
135355,
7,
5,
581,
276,
19454,
83,
58735,
297,
23,
69407,
111,
390,
1636,
707,
44043,
3263,
7,
111,
70,
142105,
436,
18431,
450,
70,
135355,
831,
27875,
98,
19364,
7,
5,
276,
19454,
171859,
7,
56104,
108975,
23,
125413,
678,
10,
36398,
7,
101758,
15,
67099,
4,
35686,
11469,
4,
3021,
5,
194,
20744,
7,
15,
647,
9319,
1179,
4,
100,
27781,
16,
831,
30022,
70,
13267,
111,
142,
276,
19454,
74,
707,
76519,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
6275,
9,
188,
9,
38496,
35686,
22317,
16,
1543,
28288,
276,
19454,
99,
37067,
1733,
5,
9626,
538,
214,
2053,
3126,
136,
72761,
135355,
7,
56104,
15190,
645,
31251,
47,
70,
33120,
135355,
2053,
47,
186,
6181,
297,
4,
221,
100,
10,
34475,
38132,
123789,
13267,
111,
10,
57646,
1632,
27117,
47,
1614,
39989,
18,
70,
41170,
111,
645,
31251,
47,
74481,
67,
450,
57646,
25,
7,
276,
19454,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
678,
174580,
4,
70,
38132,
123789,
13267,
83,
423,
1819,
390,
1636,
4,
543,
390,
1636,
111,
3129,
621,
645,
31251,
15,
31251,
56,
136,
123789,
12765,
40,
944,
3956,
247,
16750,
214,
23,
142,
276,
19454,
111,
17551,
390,
1636,
5,
62,
150679,
276,
19454,
19095,
7,
117396,
227066,
6637,
12638,
33120,
43824,
126,
2258,
10484,
1286,
38937,
2053,
12960,
91363,
645,
31251,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
10336,
1314,
707,
1379,
538,
214,
117,
9,
29102,
126,
8,
5259,
7,
4,
47143,
188347,
74,
70,
16750,
214,
77546,
227066,
26950,
142,
136912,
23,
11876,
92,
91363,
8305,
7077,
5,
62,
150679,
276,
19454,
2843,
144570,
9433,
214,
111,
10846,
56,
43824,
7831,
100,
70,
5701,
41170,
111,
2053,
5,
360,
3060,
76519,
4,
117,
9,
29102,
126,
9,
63923,
214,
831,
186,
10,
130306,
23718,
205969,
5,
33306,
4,
903,
21647,
83,
959,
15490,
10,
7565,
8752,
5,
181268,
43824,
7831,
36,
143414,
53,
10,
72803,
3126,
100,
1286,
1733,
3501,
10,
164917,
43824,
126,
4,
216806,
117396,
8,
5259,
7,
47,
221419,
43824,
7831,
4,
136,
118055,
33120,
8,
5259,
136,
8,
5259,
143834,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
10,
17551,
9,
61028,
43824,
126,
4,
70,
142105,
107003,
390,
174580,
99,
70,
33120,
135355,
4,
21941,
1257,
10,
6370,
617,
92,
134927,
100,
1672,
1632,
17932,
5,
181268,
43824,
7831,
621,
2843,
186560,
23,
70,
169424,
111,
36398,
7,
18499,
7,
5,
4263,
110,
40225,
18499,
26785,
1830,
83,
11814,
4,
6,
66157,
1830,
111,
10,
11001,
4785,
23,
10,
43824,
126,
144570,
450,
70,
64194,
43824,
126,
186,
456,
30145,
4007,
3674,
4,
3129,
831,
186,
11034,
538,
5,
1913,
10,
34475,
4785,
18499,
34515,
4,
150679,
43824,
7831,
621,
1286,
168194,
47,
6,
66157,
1830,
5,
581,
481,
117396,
8783,
63033,
30482,
456,
30145,
54916,
111,
150679,
43824,
7831,
5646,
51713,
5,
262,
61518,
70,
40907,
93425,
98,
456,
30145,
21150,
115,
30494,
4,
21334,
43824,
7831,
831,
7464,
765,
10,
2043,
24491,
21543,
98,
3564,
9,
188,
9,
3611,
384,
17854,
23718,
5,
581,
2665,
91363,
14947,
509,
82775,
47,
4488,
645,
5941,
12921,
172532,
118299,
4,
12638,
111,
3129,
1543,
4527,
43824,
7831,
111,
12921,
13267,
7,
5,
51404,
10,
27980,
1221,
3714,
70,
276,
19454,
111,
6863,
10002,
101758,
136,
144681,
450,
111,
6863,
280,
1314,
15,
161063,
61475,
44540,
70704,
7,
247,
442,
1221,
959,
61475,
538,
3714,
70,
459,
25617,
276,
19454,
23,
10,
121293,
111,
22317,
47,
3789,
280,
1314,
5,
116267,
38516,
2967,
83,
450,
77546,
9,
67919,
91363,
7,
1543,
28282,
43824,
7831,
150679,
3501,
3853,
70,
4000,
3126,
8060,
7,
5,
8021,
334,
617,
114864,
38551,
2320,
3129,
101637,
7,
70,
2053,
25561,
3934,
126371,
4,
12638,
19336,
20174,
47,
211196,
67,
10,
58735,
297,
276,
19454,
205969,
5,
3293,
38551,
2320,
9433,
51776,
3687,
99,
70,
1820,
135355,
5,
581,
38551,
297,
43824,
7831,
621,
94419,
221,
450,
70,
8021,
135355,
111,
70,
78869,
27980,
93002,
442,
5608,
456,
93457,
70,
43824,
7831,
3934,
70,
7311,
2053,
25561,
5,
3164,
38551,
7,
111,
10,
43824,
126,
8110,
54410,
100,
70,
43824,
126,
47,
186,
90698,
75204,
5,
4263,
70,
33120,
36069,
7,
2499,
38551,
4,
70,
64194,
43824,
126,
83,
72856,
5,
14847,
70,
14012,
111,
43824,
7831,
450,
8110,
186,
38551,
297,
707,
70,
14012,
111,
38551,
7,
83,
6782,
4,
38551,
2320,
831,
22304,
51,
1283,
1681,
2886,
707,
51,
86,
26531,
6635,
645,
31251,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
67842,
80208,
214,
113949,
1543,
204839,
70,
276,
19454,
390,
4552,
10176,
237,
1836,
15190,
1660,
10,
10336,
56,
25,
7,
41965,
111,
2053,
5,
581,
66044,
83,
19336,
4,
1284,
12638,
43824,
126,
5036,
1556,
47,
186,
9325,
23,
6626,
38551,
7,
4,
70,
17932,
111,
3129,
2258,
10484,
4552,
10176,
8783,
63033,
5,
581,
5701,
41170,
111,
8783,
63033,
83,
8035,
109133,
4,
1284,
11907,
81814,
2182,
122188,
1556,
47,
40225,
186351,
237,
5941,
43824,
7831,
5,
581,
2665,
151607,
144570,
450,
27980,
7,
8110,
186,
19048,
47,
9433,
8021,
2053,
25561,
7,
111,
99,
19713,
190,
11835,
390,
1636,
15,
2472,
8021,
334,
29557,
707,
177535,
390,
1636,
15,
2472,
8021,
334,
59690,
5,
33306,
4,
903,
14602,
959,
479,
29786,
112,
3126,
135355,
7,
678,
142,
276,
19454,
164917,
3501,
903,
15440,
276,
19454,
1295,
158,
272,
38543,
8021,
2053,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
59499,
47,
8021,
334,
910,
25,
7,
29458,
2320,
4,
2174,
10,
17311,
3126,
135355,
53418,
75060,
142,
8021,
2053,
25561,
111,
177535,
390,
1636,
23,
10,
11001,
123789,
4,
7068,
70,
3126,
135355,
8110,
22691,
6863,
10002,
38551,
2320,
136,
22867,
89845,
38526,
191619,
4,
84797,
1295,
70,
8021,
38551,
2320,
191619,
4,
47,
63284,
450,
10,
177535,
9,
61028,
8021,
2053,
25561,
831,
186,
75060,
297,
4,
202810,
4,
47,
70,
8021,
135355,
5,
360,
70,
43701,
111,
2665,
151607,
4,
276,
19454,
15005,
7,
47,
70,
38132,
13267,
111,
142,
8021,
43824,
126,
450,
831,
186,
71872,
3674,
15490,
38551,
2320,
645,
10,
34475,
57646,
5,
581,
13267,
111,
142,
8021,
43824,
126,
96853,
8021,
10336,
1314,
1284,
39041,
988,
10336,
1314,
1295,
70,
3126,
135355,
5,
360,
70,
7225,
111,
142,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
13909,
172532,
4,
70,
38132,
179965,
25072,
15,
594,
19454,
16,
83,
70,
13267,
111,
70,
142105,
91363,
2053,
25072,
15,
683,
18431,
16,
450,
831,
186,
6,
127219,
3674,
23,
10,
11001,
33120,
135355,
124161,
5,
581,
276,
19454,
33444,
90,
47,
4,
1284,
83,
959,
31943,
6827,
47,
70,
38132,
123789,
13267,
450,
831,
186,
6181,
297,
98,
70,
2053,
3126,
135355,
4,
28,
5,
177,
5,
174580,
123789,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2117015 | en-train-2117015 | 2117015 | {
"title": [
"Applicability.",
"Tradeoffs.",
"Internet protocol.",
"MTUs for common media.",
"Ethernet maximum frame size.",
"Path MTU Discovery.",
"In other contexts."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"MTUs apply to communications protocols and network layers. The MTU is specified in terms of bytes or octets of the largest PDU that the layer can pass onwards. MTU parameters usually appear in association with a communications interface (NIC, serial port, etc.). Standards (Ethernet, for example) can fix the size of an MTU; or systems (such as point-to-point serial links) may decide MTU at connect time. Underlying data link and physical layers usually add overhead to the network layer data to be transported, so for a given maximum frame size of a medium one needs to subtract the amount of overhead to calculate that medium's MTU. For example, with Ethernet, the maximum frame size is 1518 bytes, 18 bytes of which are overhead (header and frame check sequence), resulting in an MTU of 1500 bytes.",
"A larger MTU brings greater efficiency because each network packet carries more user data while protocol overheads, such as headers or underlying per-packet delays, remain fixed; the resulting higher efficiency means an improvement in bulk protocol throughput. A larger MTU also requires processing of fewer packets for the same amount of data. In some systems, per-packet-processing can be a critical performance limitation. However, this gain is not without a downside. Large packets occupy a slow link for more time than a smaller packet, causing greater delays to subsequent packets, and increasing network delay and delay variation. For example, a 1500-byte packet, the largest allowed by Ethernet at the network layer, ties up a 14.4k modem for about one second. Large packets are also problematic in the presence of communications errors. If no forward error correction is used, corruption of a single bit in a packet requires that the entire packet be retransmitted, which can be costly. At a given bit error rate, larger packets are more susceptible to corruption. Their greater payload makes retransmissions of larger packets take longer. Despite the negative effects on retransmission duration, large packets can still have a net positive effect on end-to-end TCP performance.",
"The Internet protocol suite was designed to work over many different networking technologies, each of which may use packets of different sizes. While a host will know the MTU of its own interface and possibly that of its peers (from initial handshakes), it will not initially know the lowest MTU in a chain of links to other peers. Another potential problem is that higher-level protocols may create packets larger than even the local link supports. IPv4 allows fragmentation which divides the datagram into pieces, each small enough to accommodate a specified MTU limitation. This fragmentation process takes place at the internet layer. The fragmented packets are marked so that the IP layer of the destination host knows it should reassemble the packets into the original datagram. All fragments of a packet must arrive for the packet to be considered received. If the network drops any fragment, the entire packet is lost. When the number of packets that must be fragmented or the number of fragments is great, fragmentation can cause unreasonable or unnecessary overhead. For example, various tunneling situations may exceed the MTU by very little as they add just a header's worth of data. The addition is small, but each packet now has to be sent in two fragments, the second of which carries very little payload. The same amount of payload is being moved, but every intermediate router has to forward twice as many packets. The Internet Protocol requires that hosts must be able to process IP datagrams of at least 576 bytes (for IPv4) or 1280 bytes (for IPv6). However, this does not preclude link layers with an MTU smaller than this minimum MTU from conveying IP data. For example, according to IPv6's specification, if a particular link layer cannot deliver an IP datagram of 1280 bytes in a single frame, then the link layer must provide its own fragmentation and reassembly mechanism, separate from the IP fragmentation mechanism, to ensure that a 1280-byte IP datagram can be delivered, intact, to the IP layer.",
"In the context of Internet Protocol, MTU refers to the maximum size of an IP packet that can be transmitted without fragmentation over a given medium. The size of an IP packet includes IP headers but excludes headers from the link layer. In the case of an Ethernet frame this adds an overhead of 18 bytes, or 22 bytes with an IEEE 802.1Q tag for VLAN tagging or class of service. The MTU should not be confused with the minimum datagram size that all hosts must be prepared to accept. This is 576 bytes for IPv4 and of 1280 bytes for IPv6.",
"The IP MTU and Ethernet maximum frame size are configured separately. In Ethernet switch configuration, MTU may refer to Ethernet maximum frame size. In Ethernet-based routers, MTU normally refers to the IP MTU. If jumbo frames are allowed in a network, the IP MTU should also be adjusted upwards to take advantage of this. Since the IP packet is carried by an Ethernet frame, the Ethernet frame has to be larger than the IP packet. With the normal untagged Ethernet frame overhead of 18 bytes, the Ethernet maximum frame size is 1518 bytes. If a 1500 byte IP packet is to be carried over a tagged Ethernet connection, the Ethernet frame maximum size needs to be 1522 due to the larger size of an 802.1Q tagged frame. 802.3ac increases the standard Ethernet maximum frame size to accommodate this.",
"The Internet Protocol defines the \"path MTU\" of an Internet transmission path as the smallest MTU supported by any of the hops on the path between a source and destination. Put another way, the path MTU is the largest packet size that can traverse this path without suffering fragmentation. Standard Ethernet supports an MTU of 1500 bytes and Ethernet implementation supporting jumbo frames, allow for an MTU up to 9000 bytes. However, border protocols like PPPoE will reduce this. Path MTU Discovery exposes the difference between the MTU seen by Ethernet end-nodes and the Path MTU Unfortunately, increasing numbers of networks drop ICMP traffic (for example, to prevent denial-of-service attacks), which prevents path MTU discovery from working., Packetization Layer Path MTU Discovery, describes a Path MTU Discovery technique which responds more robustly to ICMP filtering. In an IP network, the path from the source address to the destination address may change in response to various events (load-balancing, congestion, outages, etc.) and this could result in the path MTU changing (sometimes repeatedly) during a transmission, which may introduce further packet drops before the host finds a new reliable MTU. A failure of Path MTU Discovery carries the possible result of making some sites behind badly configured firewalls unreachable. A connection with mismatched MTU may work for low-volume data but fail as soon as a host sends a large block of data. For example, with Internet Relay Chat a connecting client might see the initial messages up to and including the initial ping (sent by the server as an anti-spoofing measure), but get no response after that. This is because the large set of welcome messages sent at that point are packets that exceed the path MTU. One can possibly work around this, depending on which part of the network one controls; for example one can change the MSS (maximum segment size) in the initial packet that sets up the TCP connection at one's firewall.",
"MTU is sometimes used to describe the maximum PDU sizes in communication layers other than the network layer. The transmission of a packet on a physical network segment that is larger than the segment's MTU is known as jabber. This is almost always caused by faulty devices. Network switches and some repeater hubs have a built-in capability to detect when a device is jabbering."
]
} |
University of Vienna | null | The University of Vienna () is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world. With its long and rich history, the University of Vienna has developed into one of the largest universities in Europe, and also one of the most renowned, especially in the Humanities. It is associated with 20 Nobel prize winners and has been the academic home to many scholars of historical as well as of academic importance. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
12535,
509,
14037,
297,
98,
427,
11994,
106,
34131,
390,
126741,
7610,
4,
51978,
111,
66724,
4,
136,
1919,
6626,
82953,
7,
4,
51978,
7,
24748,
4830,
136,
151992,
4830,
4,
8311,
329,
70,
78301,
9351,
44,
6210,
192,
102524,
4518,
5876,
19379,
76,
740,
24372,
70,
28166,
12535,
23,
210721,
136,
2377,
14,
13817,
72173,
12535,
23,
171983,
4,
70,
12535,
111,
181103,
83,
70,
50960,
10332,
525,
152363,
23,
15881,
14713,
136,
70,
10332,
525,
152363,
23,
70,
158,
99736,
6635,
30839,
9,
9217,
11,
6048,
8999,
74,
442,
47143,
7,
10,
9655,
111,
80934,
237,
70,
28166,
12535,
23,
210721,
509,
30839,
9,
9217,
11,
6048,
3229,
14037,
297,
4,
5792,
5,
581,
12535,
111,
181103,
509,
40030,
297,
7103,
70,
12535,
111,
7270,
5,
33306,
4,
11584,
13,
34469,
310,
6777,
959,
12540,
40383,
70,
8,
297,
111,
137374,
450,
1902,
2809,
167244,
297,
390,
126741,
7610,
4,
183037,
23,
41911,
47,
70,
130625,
111,
70,
25443,
5,
3293,
509,
44136,
39,
78458,
4743,
47,
81147,
1119,
56,
3674,
390,
28166,
7610,
4,
152239,
12610,
31678,
56,
748,
4,
2750,
32599,
297,
47,
71864,
130412,
100,
70,
28166,
12535,
23,
210721,
5,
5659,
42,
6785,
509,
77681,
75204,
1295,
70,
11584,
13,
23,
702,
13903,
136,
70,
12535,
111,
181103,
509,
2855,
3674,
70,
10778,
111,
10,
4393,
152363,
4,
26719,
70,
75436,
202,
939,
111,
129574,
581,
25443,
5,
581,
5117,
152363,
33976,
142096,
23,
702,
12951,
5,
1650,
3514,
434,
3934,
70,
129058,
152363,
111,
70,
152239,
12610,
145359,
4,
136,
20271,
70,
68451,
111,
28076,
8780,
23,
70,
4122,
13386,
927,
142642,
509,
5368,
47,
1286,
3501,
6,
102525,
25921,
5,
360,
6863,
39395,
5369,
4,
70,
152363,
1902,
10,
2831,
538,
1791,
54689,
6827,
4,
2831,
538,
57476,
4935,
45646,
4,
23,
3129,
70,
853,
18770,
509,
99,
70,
2663,
4,
12960,
70,
25921,
1902,
10176,
5154,
136,
3542,
9615,
6259,
99,
70,
103136,
5,
581,
216843,
136,
52625,
7,
11764,
3674,
70,
22759,
7808,
202,
2449,
136,
3163,
89829,
70,
108858,
51521,
7,
1295,
444,
532,
271,
2363,
30648,
7,
5,
581,
25921,
4,
1284,
2843,
756,
3789,
47004,
109553,
15,
49545,
2481,
43032,
247,
3542,
101637,
71,
3934,
22759,
198919,
145704,
5,
581,
481,
3163,
89829,
45443,
43032,
4,
153161,
150180,
7,
61261,
4,
1902,
70,
7108,
47,
6,
100184,
70,
853,
18770,
5,
1529,
65903,
48141,
645,
70,
1657,
172,
86385,
3129,
99201,
32697,
22230,
111,
12638,
111,
70,
24,
5256,
136,
70,
7808,
202,
939,
8,
10133,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
645,
70,
12535,
151169,
53,
4,
23,
3129,
756,
152363,
148729,
42938,
297,
5,
106320,
85172,
7,
707,
149528,
7,
26548,
115299,
111,
7808,
202,
939,
390,
70,
25921,
1902,
47,
186,
91048,
40225,
390,
10,
216843,
707,
52625,
5,
873,
214,
90698,
10,
17523,
141,
105251,
4,
70,
152363,
134729,
297,
32233,
10,
5423,
12620,
20271,
70,
106922,
1363,
5,
360,
66044,
4,
70,
5117,
727,
429,
111,
181103,
390,
180,
139891,
84616,
1902,
222973,
214,
93425,
98,
70,
26349,
4,
105207,
47,
10,
189173,
206398,
4,
678,
4734,
496,
25921,
22,
27722,
297,
99,
70,
459,
25617,
6275,
5,
1326,
18813,
123693,
87,
4,
903,
131148,
450,
70,
152363,
5608,
186,
146543,
47,
70,
106820,
47,
142,
3853,
37515,
56,
79385,
4,
136,
23,
423,
11703,
764,
20600,
297,
70,
49659,
217,
81206,
2685,
5,
17106,
70,
22,
2263,
1916,
111,
70,
44,
31469,
89950,
76145,
88875,
58,
28,
61669,
390,
6,
88940,
748,
123693,
1995,
23,
611,
3742,
4,
70,
49659,
14481,
34739,
645,
128169,
99,
70,
70,
109622,
136,
99644,
6827,
7808,
202,
939,
4,
136,
4911,
7,
70,
152363,
100512,
10,
37515,
16200,
111,
129574,
8780,
100,
645,
3252,
5369,
5,
1650,
509,
4734,
23,
70,
23166,
9444,
927,
142642,
450,
2775,
11856,
5379,
175264,
168861,
70,
152363,
4420,
1379,
6226,
111,
70,
185610,
53,
5,
1840,
39457,
42,
33876,
1995,
104902,
23,
70,
53333,
17690,
111,
70,
152363,
4,
6,
190358,
15044,
75198,
10840,
136,
845,
19725,
47,
22,
27722,
237,
5299,
237,
39864,
214,
30839,
237,
70,
375,
69035,
30675,
46876,
111,
6,
188336,
5,
14195,
65572,
3542,
32872,
297,
23,
70,
9908,
111,
70,
135555,
23,
129706,
4,
678,
70,
161752,
6827,
75436,
202,
939,
8035,
116086,
71,
3934,
105950,
10778,
237,
581,
25443,
4,
36293,
136,
119210,
5,
45470,
390,
70,
17690,
7,
111,
151992,
4,
6,
108210,
542,
12613,
19,
165,
2291,
127,
133087,
4,
70,
152363,
509,
19048,
47,
69307,
10,
150679,
79385,
111,
108858,
147452,
5,
581,
43581,
5201,
33976,
98,
70,
21434,
71887,
509,
88303,
17721,
173195,
136,
166555,
390,
158465,
542,
8002,
9235,
5,
581,
96362,
5201,
33976,
509,
105866,
20903,
47,
70,
44,
294,
458,
776,
58,
132936,
15,
294,
458,
776,
1290,
16,
98,
87,
1972,
169,
35211,
5310,
68305,
4,
43581,
5368,
111,
70,
10332,
12535,
84084,
24073,
193485,
7,
118360,
18939,
136,
70,
66724,
19,
62903,
111,
28745,
7,
24073,
8655,
1515,
31769,
4986,
23940,
13,
122,
120187,
33,
51029,
58373,
3542,
36456,
3674,
237,
4393,
25921,
1295,
117430,
4,
102971,
2363,
96335,
3542,
84046,
47,
6,
197652,
53,
5,
581,
47143,
214,
130625,
7,
128839,
538,
134629,
60813,
4,
102971,
678,
150675,
8,
5259,
12,
119210,
23,
33418,
4,
36293,
23,
45913,
4,
75198,
1236,
581,
25443,
23,
61242,
136,
77681,
12610,
129574,
581,
25443,
23,
41906,
5,
5531,
5369,
7103,
70,
606,
21150,
111,
70,
5117,
117776,
25921,
4,
181674,
135430,
100512,
70,
5117,
46667,
47,
53299,
44,
127,
123941,
1830,
830,
141753,
16030,
111,
12610,
329,
83658,
7,
23,
91234,
74,
2412,
509,
2843,
70,
5117,
117776,
157167,
67175,
16030,
5,
360,
70,
72399,
23031,
7,
4,
70,
152363,
509,
23,
67788,
1459,
2130,
432,
379,
6637,
111,
2874,
9,
234446,
1771,
136,
2874,
9,
4233,
266,
9523,
103488,
390,
63920,
111,
70,
9836,
14361,
5,
43552,
5919,
24374,
8643,
66965,
509,
152388,
390,
10,
36770,
9836,
12960,
82800,
214,
70,
98441,
111,
70,
12535,
100,
10,
18507,
5,
18763,
162882,
56,
509,
14432,
121447,
390,
70,
83572,
31951,
282,
5,
77168,
214,
70,
154292,
4,
70,
3398,
3355,
2320,
111,
66724,
3934,
32774,
56,
102126,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
12535,
111,
181103,
15,
16,
83,
10,
3835,
152363,
105866,
23,
181103,
4,
66724,
5,
1650,
509,
14037,
297,
390,
51978,
4518,
5876,
11727,
7610,
23,
106,
34131,
136,
83,
70,
10332,
525,
152363,
23,
70,
30839,
9,
9217,
11,
6048,
8999,
5,
17106,
6863,
4989,
136,
98870,
32692,
4,
70,
12535,
111,
181103,
1556,
126809,
3934,
1632,
111,
70,
142105,
141626,
90,
23,
14713,
4,
136,
2843,
1632,
111,
70,
2684,
10670,
157272,
4,
41866,
23,
70,
135493,
3387,
5,
1650,
83,
137272,
678,
387,
34676,
494,
731,
159690,
7,
136,
1556,
2809,
70,
108858,
5368,
47,
5941,
191225,
7,
111,
186768,
237,
5299,
237,
111,
108858,
131011,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1006860 | en-train-1006860 | 1006860 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment.",
"From the 19th century onwards.",
"Location.",
"Organization.",
"Programmes.",
"Faculties and centres.",
"Famous members.",
"Faculty and scholars.",
"Alumni.",
"Nobel Prize Laureates.",
"The University Library.",
"Library history.",
"International acclaim."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"The University was founded on 12 March 1365 by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, and his two brothers, Dukes Albert III and Leopold III, hence the additional name \"Alma Mater Rudolphina\". After the Charles University in Prague and Jagiellonian University in Kraków, the University of Vienna is the third oldest university in Central Europe and the oldest university in the contemporary German-speaking world; it remains a question of definition as the Charles University in Prague was German-speaking when founded, too. The University of Vienna was modelled after the University of Paris. However, Pope Urban V did not ratify the deed of foundation that had been sanctioned by Rudolf IV, specifically in relation to the department of theology. This was presumably due to pressure exerted by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who wished to avoid competition for the Charles University in Prague. Approval was finally received from the Pope in 1384 and the University of Vienna was granted the status of a full university, including the Faculty of Catholic Theology. The first university building opened in 1385. It grew into the biggest university of the Holy Roman Empire, and during the advent of Humanism in the mid-15th century was home to more than 6,000 students. In its early years, the university had a partly hierarchical, partly cooperative structure, in which the Rector was at the top, while the students had little say and were settled at the bottom. The Magister and Doctors constituted the four faculties and elected the academic officials from amidst their ranks. The students, but also all other Supposita (university members), were divided into four Academic Nations. Their elected board members, mostly graduates themselves, had the right to elect the Rector. He presided over the Consistory which included procurators of each of the nations and the faculty deans, as well as over the University Assembly, in which all university teachers participated. Complaints or appeals against decisions of faculty by the students had to be brought forward by a Magister or Doctor. Being considered a Papal Institution, the university suffered quite a setback during the Reformation. In addition, the first Siege of Vienna by Ottoman forces had devastating effects on the city, leading to a sharp decline, with only 30 students enrolled at the lowest point. For King Ferdinand I, this meant that the university should be tied to the church to an even stronger degree, and in 1551 he installed the Jesuit Order there. With the enacting of the \"Sanctio Pragmatica\" edict by emperor Ferdinand II in 1623, the Jesuits took over teaching at the theological and philosophical faculty, and thus the university became a stronghold of Catholicism for over 150 years. It was only in the Mid-18th century that Empress Maria Theresa forced the university back under control of the monarchy. Her successor Joseph II helped in the further reform of the university, allowing both Protestants and Jews to enroll as well as introducing German as the compulsory language of instruction.",
"Big changes were instituted in the wake of the Revolution in 1848, with the Philosophical Faculty being upgraded into equal status as Theology, Law and Medicine. Led by the reforms of Leopold, Count von Thun und Hohenstein, the university was able to achieve a larger degree of academic freedom. The current main building on the Ringstraße was built between 1877 and 1884 by Heinrich von Ferstel. The previous main building was located close to the \"Stuben\" Gate (Stubentor) on Iganz Seipel Square, current home of the old University Church (\"Universitätskirche\") and the Austrian Academy of Sciences (\"Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften\"). Women were admitted as full students from 1897, although their studies were limited to Philosophy. The remaining departments gradually followed suit, although with considerable delay: Medicine in 1900, Law in 1919, Protestant Theology in 1923 and finally Roman Catholic Theology in 1946. Ten years after the admission of the first female students, Elise Richter became the first woman to receive \"habilitation\", becoming professor of Romance Languages in 1907; she was also the first female distinguished professor. In the late 1920s, the university was in steady turmoil because of anti-democratic and anti-Semitic activity by parts of the student body. Professor Moritz Schlick was killed by a former student while ascending the steps of the University for a class. His murderer was later released by the Nazi Regime. Following the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi regime, in 1938 the University of Vienna was reformed under political aspects and a huge number of teachers and students were dismissed for political and \"racial\" reasons. In April 1945, the then 22-year-old Kurt Schubert, later acknowledged doyen of Judaic Studies at the University of Vienna, was permitted by the Soviet occupation forces to open the university again for teaching, which is why he is regarded as the unofficial first rector in the post-war period. On 25 April 1945, however, the constitutional lawyer Ludwig Adamovich senior was elected as official rector of the University of Vienna. A large degree of participation by students and university staff was realized in 1975, however the University Reforms of 1993 and 2002 largely re-established the professors as the main decision makers. However, also as part of the last reform, the university after more than 250 years being largely under governmental control, finally regained its full legal capacity. The number of faculties and centers was increased to 18, and the whole of the medical faculty separated into the new Medical University of Vienna.",
"The University of Vienna does not have one single campus. Historically, the university started functioning from the First District near the Jesuit Church. Now, the academic facilities occupy more than sixty locations throughout the city of Vienna. The historical main building on the Ringstraße constitutes the university's centre and is commonly referred to as \"die Uni\". Most other larger university facilities and lecture halls are located nearby in the area of Vienna's First and Ninth District: the so-called new Lecture Hall Complex (Neues Institutgebäude, NIG), the lecture hall complex Althanstraße (UZA), the campus on the premises of the Historical General Hospital of Vienna, the Faculty of Law (Juridicum) and others. The Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna is housed in the Third District, as are the Department of Biochemistry and related research centres. Also worth mentioning is the Vienna Observatory, which belongs to the university, and the Institute for University Sports (USI), which offers training and recreational possibilities to all students of the university. In addition, the University of Vienna maintains facilities outside of Vienna in the Austrian provinces of Lower Austria, Upper Austria and Salzburg. These are mainly research and experimental departments for Biology, Astrophysics and Sports.",
"The University of Vienna, like all universities and academies in Austria, once featured a system of democratic representation. Power in the university was divided equally among three groups: students (the largest group), junior faculty and full professors. All groups had the right to send representatives to boards, who then voted on almost every issue. From 2002 on, the government of Austria, headed by chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel, reformed the university system, transforming the institutions into legal entities, but also concentrating power in the hands of the full professors. The reform also introduced a board of governors and tuition fees. In 2013 those amounted to about €381 per semester for students from Austria, the European Union as well as some non-EU countries, while students from developed non-EU countries usually pay double that amount. The reforms also separated the medical departments into separate medical schools, such as the Medical University of Vienna.",
"Students at the university can select from 181 degree programmes: 55 bachelor programmes, 110 master programmes, 3 diploma programs and 13 doctoral programmes. In the academic year 2013/14, the university awarded 7,745 first degrees (Bachelors and Diplomas), 1,424 Master's degrees and 568 Doctoral degrees. The university offers a number of Masters programs in English, namely: Some 6,900 scholars undertake the research and teaching activity of the university. Of these, approximately 1,000 engage actively in projects financed by third parties. The main fields of research at the university cover a wide spectrum of subjects: Catholic and Protestant Theology, Law, Economic Sciences and Computer Science, Philological-Cultural Studies and Historical-Cultural Studies, Social Sciences and Psychology, Life Sciences and Natural Sciences, Mathematics, Sports Sciences and Teacher Education.",
"The University of Vienna consists of 15 faculties and four centres:",
"",
"Nobel Prize Laureates who taught at the University of Vienna include Robert Bárány, Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Hans Fischer, Karl Landsteiner, Erwin Schrödinger, Victor Franz Hess, Otto Loewi, Konrad Lorenz and Friedrich Hayek. The University of Vienna was the cradle of the Austrian School of economics. The founders of this school who studied and later instructed at the University of Vienna included Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, Joseph Schumpeter, Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek. Other famous scholars who have taught at the University of Vienna are: Theodor W. Adorno, Alexander Van der Bellen, Manfred Bietak, Theodor Billroth, Ludwig Boltzmann, Ulrich Brand, Franz Brentano, Anton Bruckner, Rudolf Carnap, Conrad Celtes, Viktor Frankl, Sigmund Freud, Eduard Hanslick, Edmund Hauler, Leon Kellner, Hans Kelsen, Adam František Kollár, Johann Josef Loschmidt, Franz Miklosich, Oskar Morgenstern, Otto Neurath, Johann Palisa, Pope Pius II, Elise Richter, Baron Carl von Rokitansky, Rudolf von Scherer, August Schleicher, Moritz Schlick, Ludwig Karl Schmarda, Joseph von Sonnenfels, Josef Stefan, Olga Taussky-Todd, Walter G. Url, Leopold Vietoris, Jalile Jalil, Carl Auer von Welsbach, and Wilhelm Winkler.",
"Some of the University's better-known students include: Kurt Adler, Franz Alt, Wilhelm Altar, Maria Anwander, Bruno Bettelheim, Rudolf Bing, Lucian Blaga, Hedda Bolgar, Josef Breuer, F. F. Bruce, Elias Canetti, Ivan Cankar, Otto Maria Carpeaux, Christian Doppler, Felix Ehrenhaft, Mihai Eminescu, Stephen Ferguson Paul Feyerabend, Heinz Fischer, O. W. Fischer, Ivan Franko, Sigmund Freud, Alcide De Gasperi, Kurt Gödel, Ernst Gombrich, Erich Göstl, Franz Grillparzer, Werner Gruber, Jörg Haider, Hans Hahn, Theodor Herzl, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Edmund Husserl, Marie Jahoda, Max Jammer, Elfriede Jelinek, Percy Lavon Julian, Percy Julian, Karl Kautsky, Elisabeth Kehrer, Leon Kellner, Hans Kelsen, Hryhoriy Khomyshyn, Jan Kickert, Rudolf Kirchschläger, Arthur Koestler, Jernej Kopitar, Karl Kordesch, Arnold Krammer, Karl Kraus, Bruno Kreisky, Richard Kuhn, Paul Lazarsfeld, Ignacy Łukasiewicz, Gustav Mahler, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Lise Meitner, Gregor Mendel, Karl Menger, Franz Mesmer, Franz Miklosich, Alois Mock, Wolf-Dieter Montag, Matija Murko, Joachim Oppenheim, Eduard Pernkopf, Anton Piëch, Pope Pius III, Maxim Podoprigora, Hans Popper, Karl Popper, Otto Preminger, Wilhelm Reich, Peter Safar, Mordkhe Schaechter, Karl Schenkl, Arthur Schnitzler, Albin Schram, Joseph Schumpeter, Wolfgang Schüssel, John J. Shea, Jr., Felix Somary, Adalbert Stifter, Countess Stoeffel, Yemima Tchernovitz-Avidar, Eric Voegelin, Kurt Waldheim, Otto Weininger, Slavko Wolf, Eduard Zirm, Mordecai Sandberg, Sandra Wachter, Calvin Edouard Ward, Paul Niel, Stefan Zweig, and Huldrych Zwingli.",
"There are total 15 Nobel Prize Laureates affiliated to the University as follows:",
"The University Library of the University of Vienna comprises the Main Library and the 50 departmental libraries at the various university locations throughout Vienna. The library's primary responsibility is to the members of the university; however, the library's 350 staff members also provide access to the public. Use of the books in the reading halls is open to all persons without the need for identification, which is only required for checking out books. The library's website provides direct access to information such as electronic journals, online indices and databases.",
"Rudolf IV had already provided for a \"publica libraria\" in the Foundation Deed of 12 March 1365, where the valuable books bequeathed by deceased members of the University should be collected. Through many legacies, this collection was subsequently greatly increased and became the basis of the old \"Libreye\" that was accommodated in the same building as the student infirmary. In addition, there were libraries in the separate Faculties and in the Duke's College. From the 17th century onwards, interest in the old library, with its manuscripts and incunabulae, went into decline and the modern library in the Jesuit College came to the fore. In 1756, the oldest university library was finally closed down and its books, 2,787 volumes, were incorporated into the Court Library, of which Gerard van Swieten was then director. After the dissolution of the Jesuit order (1773), the new \"Academic Library\" was created out of the book collections of the five Lower Austrian Colleges and many duplicates from the Court Library. This was opened on 13 May 1777, the birthday of Maria Theresa of Austria, in the building of the Academic College. Initially, the stock consisted of some 45,000 books and during Emperor Joseph II's dissolution of the monasteries, this was soon considerably extended. In contrast to its antecedents, the new library was open to the general public. Between 1827 and 1829, it acquired the classicist extension (Postgasse 9) to the Academic College, in which it was to be accommodated until 1884. In this year, the main library, with some 300,000 books, moved to Heinrich von Ferstel's new Main Building on the Ring, where stacks for some 500,000 volumes had already been prepared. With an annual growth of up to 30,000 volumes, the surplus space was soon filled. Book storage space had to be extended continuously. One hundred years later, the complete library, including departmental and subject libraries, comprised more than 4.3 million volumes. Today, Vienna's University Library is the largest collection of books in Austria, still facing problems of space. In addition to the Main Library, which alone has to cope with an annual growth of 40,000 volumes, it includes three Faculty Libraries, 32 Subject Libraries and 26 Departmental Libraries. \"Data as of 2014\"",
"The University of Vienna has the highest ranking in Arts and Humanities, where it is placed 35 and 54th in the world according to the THE and QS ranking respectively. Outstanding subjects include Geography (ranked 28th globally in 2013), Linguistics and Philosophy (both 46th globally) and Law (ranked 32nd in Europe and 73rd globally). It is rated high in academic reputation and number of international students, but low in terms of faculty to student ratio and citations per faculty. An overview of the QS World University Rankings by subjects: The Times Higher Education World University Rankings by subjects:"
]
} |
Drum memory | null | Drum memory was a magnetic data storage device invented by Gustav Tauschek in 1932 in Austria. Drums were widely used in the 1950s and into the 1960s as computer memory. | null | [
250004,
250054,
62,
47617,
98323,
70541,
297,
10,
21334,
12924,
19932,
104532,
4,
552,
27686,
98,
70,
50782,
71579,
678,
10,
78874,
155116,
1771,
182304,
4912,
5,
1650,
5809,
186,
90698,
70,
479,
86927,
42,
47,
70,
7941,
28338,
22648,
15,
16291,
397,
247,
1284,
23,
70,
3173,
111,
10,
47617,
43257,
3501,
10,
49878,
28338,
5,
360,
2684,
4331,
7,
4,
1632,
707,
1286,
6,
15555,
7,
111,
188347,
12301,
9,
434,
18781,
10336,
7,
13028,
33233,
70,
4989,
10,
33102,
111,
70,
47617,
4,
1632,
100,
12638,
28560,
5,
581,
47617,
25,
7,
185373,
42856,
133291,
70,
27798,
10336,
136,
40485,
297,
100,
70,
2053,
47,
108975,
1379,
442,
237,
70,
47617,
69347,
15,
109645,
43315,
19161,
2408,
194,
11205,
756,
47617,
25072,
7,
3542,
82775,
678,
12638,
28560,
19441,
6863,
10002,
10336,
5,
31384,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
14941,
89917,
1514,
1062,
10854,
47617,
136,
70,
67569,
156662,
15491,
59020,
25013,
1902,
48716,
10336,
7,
98567,
10,
16610,
62488,
98,
70,
47617,
23,
69822,
47,
5744,
151323,
7,
4,
3129,
765,
1632,
10336,
117,
7007,
720,
71579,
5,
581,
23718,
111,
10,
47617,
678,
1632,
10336,
117,
28560,
83,
215667,
47,
450,
111,
10,
28338,
678,
1632,
10336,
117,
28560,
136,
83,
83324,
71,
39555,
167969,
390,
70,
47014,
43315,
19161,
2408,
4,
7440,
162,
23,
142,
151323,
678,
98567,
10336,
7,
6863,
23718,
96853,
10,
47014,
43315,
19161,
2408,
8,
5259,
1001,
70,
1733,
47,
19069,
70,
10336,
645,
70,
104851,
71,
28560,
15,
184,
343,
1733,
194,
360,
70,
1615,
3229,
47617,
7,
3542,
11814,
237,
5201,
20697,
98323,
4,
77848,
7,
27983,
6777,
15572,
316,
56037,
449,
2451,
2347,
77848,
2451,
748,
70,
6,
93457,
42,
4,
28,
5,
177,
5,
4,
131899,
1771,
43938,
289,
151169,
53,
7663,
15,
13055,
15383,
16,
2451,
40322,
297,
18151,
98,
70,
47617,
23,
6044,
10,
3917,
237,
47,
34390,
70,
41170,
111,
1733,
44841,
100,
70,
11737,
6,
188336,
47,
47014,
67,
3934,
3687,
1379,
70,
10336,
5,
10660,
6777,
903,
390,
5527,
214,
3642,
4989,
442,
2806,
5646,
7103,
72367,
214,
142,
6,
188336,
100,
70,
13909,
47,
186,
43542,
47,
12301,
70,
11737,
1632,
4,
7068,
22466,
214,
450,
6,
188336,
98,
70,
47617,
221,
450,
442,
2806,
54410,
1379,
10,
10336,
1660,
23,
1733,
5,
3293,
55300,
111,
5527,
214,
9,
277,
84615,
1363,
4,
35839,
70,
44,
44024,
31461,
58,
707,
44,
10433,
14507,
6496,
58,
15,
10433,
14507,
6496,
23,
28338,
132096,
247,
509,
11814,
100,
5941,
5369,
23,
132096,
98323,
185373,
7,
5,
21139,
7560,
92,
25,
7,
7311,
47617,
98323,
5173,
91887,
1902,
10,
177399,
111,
1672,
6,
183191,
4785,
7,
16156,
48413,
14251,
61028,
7,
194,
6561,
111,
70,
67896,
150,
525,
32354,
214,
13909,
7,
47,
187016,
47617,
98323,
509,
70,
25124,
2658,
16713,
1104,
33189,
1294,
13909,
15,
175654,
194,
1650,
4343,
71,
6,
63009,
4785,
7,
74,
49903,
4,
442,
6,
212423,
120096,
3956,
43257,
3501,
39411,
8780,
47,
4343,
70,
4677,
5,
581,
1810,
56,
71579,
111,
70,
47617,
509,
13315,
71,
678,
39108,
289,
5470,
7,
105207,
47,
6,
76009,
22230,
70541,
297,
28032,
5,
151269,
1771,
47617,
7,
3542,
126809,
100,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
19295,
53,
20271,
6661,
5550,
1995,
678,
70,
4488,
19686,
214,
99,
123470,
42477,
6,
228214,
7,
15,
24947,
16,
23,
41906,
136,
40191,
5,
893,
195935,
6,
24947,
35187,
509,
140528,
136,
113771,
47,
70,
19295,
53,
98,
18237,
17846,
40191,
5,
64511,
39395,
47617,
132096,
75186,
34754,
74918,
2822,
99,
2992,
92,
92712,
29693,
15,
65305,
2481,
111,
9020,
247,
107154,
12535,
4,
90540,
136,
70,
12535,
111,
30749,
5,
893,
6,
24947,
47617,
509,
70,
70796,
98323,
100,
70,
17672,
46705,
9,
568,
13909,
75060,
297,
47,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
19295,
53,
23,
18374,
27631,
5,
194397,
1143,
26255,
4,
6,
24947,
100512,
10,
91853,
111,
67569,
156662,
200513,
70,
64876,
76094,
47617,
237,
10,
2831,
111,
70,
67569,
156662,
42724,
40139,
23,
36327,
74,
12638,
47617,
4343,
71,
106,
203770,
124850,
5,
581,
5117,
46889,
9,
102446,
297,
13909,
4,
70,
90540,
42830,
4,
1902,
1672,
6,
107944,
14251,
61028,
7,
111,
47617,
98323,
15,
94068,
41929,
71,
47,
1672,
729,
14251,
61028,
7,
23,
70,
13293,
13956,
5,
1301,
72399,
237,
15643,
4,
150616,
16675,
64,
4633,
116491,
17368,
214706,
56458,
5201,
98323,
136,
47617,
7,
100,
68062,
26783,
3542,
7464,
23,
4527,
99,
5941,
111,
70,
7311,
67569,
1542,
15271,
5,
360,
335,
22916,
992,
4084,
136,
6863,
60887,
10840,
4,
248,
18548,
64,
131453,
509,
70,
9351,
111,
70,
114977,
20513,
98323,
15,
7,
634,
254,
16,
75186,
4,
16406,
6496,
1295,
70,
4527,
111,
47617,
37526,
1294,
9,
140464,
429,
128779,
237,
126502,
132096,
100,
37967,
23,
20513,
98323,
5,
151269,
1771,
47617,
98323,
25072,
7,
3542,
11814,
23,
70,
136043,
669,
69010,
74965,
83184,
6226,
27585,
7,
1295,
70,
86595,
23,
70,
39395,
23936,
7,
24189,
70,
9069,
84161,
116086,
7,
23,
70,
4122,
9,
70779,
7,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
131837,
98323,
509,
10,
214706,
2053,
132096,
75186,
26868,
297,
390,
63691,
21139,
7560,
92,
23,
60775,
23,
66724,
5,
131837,
7,
3542,
38134,
538,
11814,
23,
70,
27631,
7,
136,
3934,
70,
23936,
7,
237,
13909,
98323,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1493072 | en-train-1493072 | 1493072 | {
"title": [
"Technical design.",
"History."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"A drum memory contained a large metal cylinder, coated on the outside surface with a ferromagnetic recording material. It could be considered the precursor to the hard disk drive (HDD), but in the form of a drum rather than a flat disk. In most designs, one or more rows of fixed read-write heads ran along the long axis of the drum, one for each track. The drum's controller simply selected the proper head and waited for the data to appear under it as the drum turned (rotational latency). Not all drum units were designed with each track having its own head. Some, such as the English Electric DEUCE drum and the UNIVAC FASTRAND had multiple heads moving a short distance on the drum in contrast to modern HDDs, which have one head per platter surface. The performance of a drum with one head per track is comparable to that of a disk with one head per track and is determined almost entirely by the rotational latency, whereas in an HDD with moving heads its performance includes a rotational latency delay plus the time to position the head over the desired track (seek time). In the era when drums were used as main working memory, programmers often did optimum programming—the programmer—or the assembler, e.g., Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program (SOAP)—positioned code on the drum in such a way as to reduce the amount of time needed for the next instruction to rotate into place under the head. They did this by timing how long it would take after loading an instruction for the computer to be ready to read the next one, then placing that instruction on the drum so that it would arrive under a head just in time. This method of timing-compensation, called the \"skip factor\" or \"interleaving\" (interleaving in disk storage), was used for many years in storage memory controllers.",
"Tauschek's original drum memory (1932) had a capacity of about 500,000 bits (62.5 kilobytes). One of the earliest functioning computers to employ drum memory was the Atanasoff–Berry computer (1942). It stored 3,000 bits; however, it employed capacitance rather than magnetism to store the information. The outer surface of the drum was lined with electrical contacts leading to capacitors contained within. Magnetic drums were developed for the U.S. Navy during World War II with the work continuing at Engineering Research Associates (ERA) in 1946 and 1947. An experimental ERA study was completed and reported to the Navy on June 19, 1947. Other early drum storage device development occurred at Birkbeck College (University of London), Harvard University, IBM and the University of Manchester. An ERA drum was the internal memory for the ATLAS-I computer delivered to the U.S. Navy in October 1950. Through mergers, ERA became a division of UNIVAC shipping the Series 1100 drum as a part of the UNIVAC File Computer in 1956; each drum stored 180,000 characters. The first mass-produced computer, the IBM 650, had about 8.5 kilobytes of drum memory (later doubled to about 17 kilobytes in the Model 4). As late as 1980, PDP-11/45 machines using magnetic core main memory and drums for swapping were still in use at many of the original UNIX sites. In BSD Unix and its descendants, /dev/drum was the name of the default virtual memory (swap) device, deriving from the use of drum secondary-storage devices as backup storage for pages in virtual memory. Magnetic drum memory units were used in the Minuteman ICBM launch control centers from the beginning in the early 1960s until the REACT upgrades in the mid-1990s."
]
} |
Crowd | null | The crowd is a large group of people that are gathered or considered together. A crowd may be definable through a common purpose or set of emotions, such as at a political rally, a sports event, or during looting (this is known as a psychological crowd), or may simply be made up of many people going about their business in a busy area. The term "the crowd" may sometimes refer to the lower orders of people in general. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
13579,
44,
15322,
37281,
58,
83,
68018,
61924,
71,
23,
69822,
47,
3789,
21115,
3603,
1779,
100,
42486,
7,
111,
118103,
707,
85825,
4,
6044,
237,
6,
197564,
1830,
4,
95771,
4,
21115,
4,
46889,
4,
81158,
4,
132573,
223,
4,
3835,
4,
673,
73163,
136,
5675,
35133,
5,
188683,
25188,
56,
89811,
48025,
69101,
7,
23860,
7,
136,
131126,
7,
4,
54433,
450,
44,
441,
15555,
6468,
621,
61924,
71,
390,
2363,
99764,
88965,
134858,
4,
1284,
23860,
7,
621,
61924,
71,
390,
2363,
1940,
52368,
6,
219488,
1242,
360,
14135,
19633,
25443,
4,
70,
13579,
44,
432,
5125,
297,
58,
42856,
26950,
44,
180898,
21286,
131126,
297,
830,
237,
23,
10,
86352,
45210,
707,
19927,
5,
44,
9083,
5125,
214,
830,
2258,
10484,
10,
1286,
40907,
158,
157,
22062,
137272,
678,
50208,
38543,
5,
360,
26249,
224833,
4,
81158,
23709,
83,
10,
61353,
7440,
5941,
79165,
111,
1632,
114149,
44,
4451,
1257,
58,
98,
10,
150679,
11651,
111,
15700,
114149,
47,
22648,
2856,
16065,
5,
2501,
5125,
214,
224833,
83,
27983,
51592,
23,
263,
6468,
5,
7142,
128746,
621,
142837,
678,
70,
27643,
4,
24365,
136,
6226,
111,
131126,
7,
4,
15044,
1295,
70,
6275,
111,
21455,
111,
79165,
136,
94407,
5,
101153,
19,
131126,
6226,
83,
82775,
47,
117,
1159,
2873,
10,
131126,
47,
6,
143420,
678,
10,
17311,
21455,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
4,
68894,
168499,
90,
247,
707,
47,
70541,
94407,
47,
56282,
82649,
707,
81158,
224833,
5,
200541,
538,
131168,
71,
131126,
6226,
83,
56104,
55080,
297,
390,
27165,
232725,
1284,
98,
3060,
46505,
7,
116338,
84616,
621,
11814,
100,
106480,
21334,
707,
169907,
131126,
7,
5,
115066,
21533,
128746,
621,
142837,
678,
70,
55182,
53,
111,
70,
131126,
237,
10,
21115,
136,
70,
55182,
53,
111,
8382,
2750,
63769,
2363,
1221,
136,
112019,
7,
47,
186,
27257,
71,
390,
70,
131126,
15,
837,
927,
45252,
297,
1286,
199083,
538,
1379,
131126,
55182,
53,
194,
52455,
96335,
98,
131126,
7,
765,
34475,
149201,
7,
98,
3642,
131126,
7,
35644,
47,
12921,
113949,
5,
6561,
1877,
13416,
127308,
297,
5941,
22046,
2661,
123166,
7,
111,
131126,
7,
4,
26719,
77950,
450,
131126,
7,
621,
19048,
47,
3249,
25072,
297,
115299,
118861,
2363,
48225,
136,
38352,
111,
112664,
4,
3853,
2174,
4734,
10,
10846,
111,
6863,
43032,
765,
70,
4677,
56065,
47,
3249,
6044,
115299,
5,
581,
79385,
47,
3129,
27257,
71,
43032,
831,
52490,
70,
131126,
56566,
7,
98,
2363,
19069,
28032,
70,
21115,
4,
678,
8382,
23,
70,
131126,
25,
7,
56458,
47041,
47,
765,
10,
117396,
79507,
5,
9082,
538,
4,
25188,
1314,
23,
131126,
55182,
53,
765,
162393,
98,
70,
40907,
128746,
111,
131126,
7,
4,
1284,
959,
756,
131126,
7,
621,
174048,
13,
707,
40907,
23,
31425,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
23,
70,
86595,
111,
70,
99866,
112664,
131126,
7,
3542,
37170,
47,
3884,
98,
2363,
52305,
40989,
136,
95685,
103967,
538,
7565,
70,
48800,
5,
62,
1286,
9,
49748,
27781,
83687,
7,
70,
1661,
9,
5425,
20271,
70,
18543,
38927,
209410,
5,
135451,
6468,
831,
44961,
136,
66801,
70,
34658,
36696,
90,
111,
2363,
30355,
93782,
65998,
5,
10660,
831,
2843,
21265,
20603,
4935,
2265,
32354,
7,
4,
105233,
142458,
53,
142080,
5,
8622,
83,
84046,
25188,
3934,
70,
52895,
111,
131126,
136,
131126,
209274,
136,
2685,
83,
110,
133238,
7,
237,
47,
70,
40865,
1363,
111,
52895,
111,
131126,
7,
5,
32964,
17309,
191225,
7,
4,
276,
34298,
11999,
5173,
87053,
136,
2076,
10617,
979,
175454,
162393,
54799,
60042,
111,
6,
116311,
47,
99710,
2182,
54940,
131126,
7,
5,
276,
34298,
11999,
126809,
10,
5426,
111,
22759,
52895,
12,
63044,
4,
101805,
289,
4,
36510,
5844,
4,
136,
124030,
13,
5,
2076,
10617,
979,
18507,
47314,
131126,
7,
237,
6,
42706,
1290,
4,
32837,
1290,
4,
707,
38940,
10366,
4,
47,
16106,
19309,
47,
70,
60042,
100,
914,
9319,
214,
5,
116267,
51515,
47,
18507,
151138,
131126,
7,
83,
30355,
106622,
177592,
29252,
1991,
25,
7,
5426,
111,
88965,
20753,
2481,
5,
1529,
157167,
114942,
22759,
52895,
111,
131126,
7,
12,
63044,
4,
101805,
289,
4,
36510,
5844,
4,
136,
1030,
1916,
5,
18763,
5426,
83,
84079,
23,
31425,
4,
44136,
14578,
450,
10,
131126,
65572,
6863,
17366,
111,
88965,
20753,
2481,
645,
1733,
5,
135451,
6468,
831,
186,
36457,
15,
39,
102492,
16,
707,
101766,
13,
15,
41004,
69098,
194,
88441,
131126,
7,
831,
186,
53333,
101637,
71,
3934,
124030,
13,
4,
38940,
4994,
18,
4,
60556,
14,
4935,
4,
707,
36510,
5844,
81158,
7,
5,
12342,
19623,
5844,
81158,
7,
621,
27983,
48673,
136,
1810,
19364,
538,
162393,
5,
89536,
99726,
621,
101740,
1427,
30591,
136,
70,
339,
5,
284,
5,
12163,
933,
111,
86591,
156704,
4994,
18,
81158,
7,
621,
62816,
29367,
390,
10,
21334,
14012,
111,
20381,
76622,
3395,
31577,
47,
2046,
1810,
111,
10,
169907,
16648,
5,
9852,
28694,
14,
4935,
81158,
7,
74918,
3229,
21334,
101935,
111,
3395,
621,
181952,
100,
84046,
65514,
5,
893,
36510,
5844,
81158,
83,
2499,
3789,
21334,
21115,
111,
3395,
914,
9319,
214,
100,
142,
36457,
60042,
5,
18543,
45,
991,
115089,
6620,
4,
13950,
20428,
7,
4,
136,
167821,
15226,
1405,
7,
756,
6817,
1379,
903,
95487,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
131126,
83,
10,
21334,
21115,
111,
3395,
450,
621,
914,
9319,
297,
707,
90698,
25842,
5,
62,
131126,
1543,
186,
45154,
2886,
8305,
10,
39210,
60042,
707,
5423,
111,
112019,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
99,
10,
68894,
143107,
4,
10,
29681,
19732,
4,
707,
20271,
5078,
1916,
15,
100231,
83,
51529,
237,
10,
55182,
21533,
131126,
247,
707,
1543,
42856,
186,
7228,
1257,
111,
5941,
3395,
7730,
1672,
2363,
8063,
23,
10,
86352,
16128,
5,
581,
13579,
44,
2347,
131126,
58,
1543,
68018,
15005,
47,
70,
92319,
12989,
7,
111,
3395,
23,
4537,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-273309 | en-train-273309 | 273309 | {
"title": [
"Terminology.",
"Social aspects.",
"Psychological aspects.",
"Types of crowd."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The term \"crowd\" is sometimes defined in contrast to other group nouns for collections of humans or animals, such as aggregation, audience, group, mass, mob, populous, public, rabble and throng. Opinion researcher Vincent Price compares masses and crowds, saying that \"Crowds are defined by their shared emotional experiences, but masses are defined by their interpersonal isolation.\" In human sociology, the term \"mobbed\" simply means \"extremely crowded\", as in a busy mall or shop. \"Mobbing\", carries a more negative connotation associated with bullying. In animal behaviour, mobbing is a technique where many individuals of one species \"gang up\" on a larger individual of another species to drive them away. Mobbing behaviour is often seen in birds.",
"Social aspects are concerned with the formation, management and control of crowds, both from the point of view of individuals and groups. Often crowd control is designed to persuade a crowd to align with a particular view (e.g., political rallies), or to contain groups to prevent damage or mob behaviour. Politically organised crowd control is usually conducted by law enforcement but on some occasions military forces are used for particularly large or dangerous crowds.",
"Psychological aspects are concerned with the psychology of the crowd as a group and the psychology of those who allow their will and emotions to be informed by the crowd (both discussed more comprehensively under crowd psychology). Many studies on crowds have given insights on how crowds respond to different situations. One 2009 report highlighted many observable behaviors of crowds, including evidence that crowds are able to make united decisions regarding their direction and speed of movement, even if only a few of its members have the information required to make such decisions. The degree to which informed members can affect the crowd depends on their position within the group, with those in the crowd's core likely to have a greater influence. Generally, researchers in crowd psychology have focused on the negative aspects of crowds, but not all crowds are volatile or negative in nature. For example, in the beginning of the socialist movement crowds were asked to put on their Sunday dress and march silently down the street. A more-modern example involves the sit-ins during the Civil Rights Movement. Crowds can reflect and challenge the held ideologies of their sociocultural environment. They can also serve integrative social functions, creating temporary communities.",
"There is limited research into the types of crowd and crowd membership and there is no consensus as to the classification of types of crowds. Two recent scholars, Momboisse (1967) and Berlonghi (1995) focused upon purpose of existence to differentiate among crowds. Momboisse developed a system of four types: casual, conventional, expressive, and aggressive. Berlonghi classified crowds as spectator, demonstrator, or escaping, to correlate to the purpose for gathering. Another approach to classifying crowds is sociologist Herbert Blumer's system of emotional intensity. He distinguishes four types of crowds: casual, conventional, expressive, and acting. His system is dynamic in nature, presuming that a crowd changes its level of emotional intensity over time. Crowds can be active (mobs) or passive (audiences). Active crowds can be further divided into aggressive, escapist, acquisitive, or expressive mobs. Aggressive mobs are often violent and outwardly focused. Examples are football riots and the L.A. Riots of 1992. Escapist mobs are characterized by a large number of panicked people trying to get out of a dangerous situation. Acquisitive mobs occur when large numbers of people are fighting for limited resources. An expressive mob is any other large group of people gathering for an active purpose. Civil disobedience, rock concerts, and religious revivals all fall under this category."
]
} |
Torr | null | The torr (symbol: Torr) is a unit of pressure based on an absolute scale, defined as exactly of a standard atmosphere (101325 Pa). Thus one torr is exactly (≈ ). | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
25072,
9351,
44,
1290,
42,
58,
83,
59121,
23,
92319,
7225,
4,
12960,
6863,
26582,
24073,
98722,
42,
18939,
83,
11343,
59121,
678,
1407,
56,
9,
58437,
61475,
74,
26719,
23,
162515,
7,
678,
183114,
90,
136,
3789,
25072,
26582,
7,
4,
237,
23,
44,
39,
98722,
42,
58,
15,
123342,
1290,
42,
16,
707,
44,
98722,
42,
244012,
866,
64,
7,
58,
15,
1290,
42,
9,
150,
32778,
117,
17932,
194,
581,
26582,
15,
34,
8079,
58437,
16,
5608,
186,
11814,
678,
183114,
26582,
7,
15,
8805,
7,
4,
347,
98722,
42,
136,
8877,
1290,
42,
621,
26785,
4,
1284,
347,
1290,
42,
136,
8877,
98722,
42,
621,
959,
194,
581,
130352,
83,
68018,
214552,
538,
8,
157,
3674,
390,
70,
26582,
44,
618,
830,
3129,
83,
70,
10000,
26582,
100,
70,
31785,
143,
4,
70,
25072,
163,
162,
53089,
70,
90254,
111,
10,
214706,
44457,
5,
106073,
195409,
190647,
297,
4,
70,
30700,
10010,
2069,
44,
98722,
58,
83,
214552,
5,
6653,
416,
144002,
110281,
297,
150675,
35743,
3229,
764,
106804,
297,
70,
5117,
1143,
16820,
53,
1909,
102220,
47,
70,
4537,
3835,
5,
1529,
83,
22299,
297,
678,
68772,
70,
5117,
5744,
187136,
111,
99,
840,
94266,
1771,
81147,
5,
159,
45964,
64370,
99,
70,
1733,
3542,
16031,
678,
19336,
14838,
41039,
21094,
23,
155955,
450,
74918,
2822,
23,
1909,
102220,
7,
5,
14847,
6097,
14838,
41039,
21094,
3542,
189050,
237,
10,
155390,
111,
65572,
23,
99,
840,
94266,
1771,
81147,
4,
70,
41664,
111,
63934,
25443,
509,
103122,
5,
9578,
1733,
4,
6,
110216,
8877,
29089,
7,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
99,
757,
16207,
441,
21449,
47,
186,
28601,
297,
237,
70,
5570,
99,
840,
94266,
1771,
81147,
5,
360,
3486,
34639,
111,
6653,
416,
144002,
4,
70,
130352,
509,
61924,
71,
237,
10,
25072,
111,
81147,
105950,
47,
1632,
8877,
29089,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
99,
757,
16207,
441,
5,
33306,
4,
16792,
70,
197108,
1830,
4743,
47,
64002,
939,
46,
136,
4911,
7,
70,
57888,
111,
10,
3365,
316,
19,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
46,
83,
10,
32354,
111,
57849,
1363,
136,
21,
35810,
15,
693,
13,
47,
70,
2062,
22062,
136,
351,
9,
7,
94266,
14,
60089,
111,
70,
64883,
247,
903,
80934,
83,
73340,
318,
184,
136,
41110,
7,
390,
31913,
5,
360,
47765,
4,
70,
80934,
111,
70,
44,
257,
432,
157695,
58,
509,
15226,
5281,
390,
70,
15094,
927,
6,
56367,
20266,
16,
47,
70,
82424,
68186,
71,
80934,
12,
1632,
225748,
83,
105950,
47,
5,
581,
130352,
509,
7068,
15265,
5983,
297,
237,
111,
1632,
225748,
5,
3293,
11180,
19388,
7,
10,
134995,
80934,
450,
83,
220,
6332,
1234,
10821,
136,
41371,
111,
72350,
9035,
111,
70,
168,
7,
2481,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
707,
70,
197108,
1830,
4743,
47,
64002,
939,
98,
64883,
5,
44,
12662,
31,
186518,
25072,
7,
58,
621,
25072,
7,
6044,
237,
44,
123342,
29089,
7,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
58,
707,
44,
68982,
29089,
7,
111,
7401,
58,
450,
56566,
98,
142,
41591,
71,
168,
7,
2481,
111,
10,
79552,
136,
142,
41591,
71,
197108,
1830,
4743,
47,
64002,
939,
5,
581,
4527,
111,
6097,
25072,
7,
83,
20947,
3168,
17704,
5,
89726,
2347,
9393,
4,
7414,
186518,
25072,
7,
621,
124374,
538,
11814,
23,
54411,
136,
240877,
4867,
53,
4,
136,
1836,
21342,
47,
186,
11814,
23,
58555,
237,
9789,
237,
92949,
13416,
214,
136,
91,
90351,
45,
6496,
5,
581,
8877,
29089,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
390,
80934,
83,
15,
34070,
34070,
6,
247,
3129,
83,
35707,
53950,
27686,
678,
51529,
61689,
219,
58732,
111,
168,
7,
2481,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
136,
5570,
64002,
939,
5,
581,
130352,
83,
61924,
71,
237,
111,
1632,
5570,
225748,
4,
12960,
70,
225748,
83,
61924,
71,
237,
452,
6827,
7,
5,
228072,
4,
106,
6653,
42,
83,
105950,
47,
1342,
5,
581,
32380,
2749,
3173,
111,
903,
6,
175921,
15,
16,
83,
142,
54241,
21286,
4989,
4,
14922,
71407,
119140,
214,
32380,
2749,
15,
90197,
3611,
140909,
12,
543,
194,
581,
76755,
17721,
70,
130352,
136,
70,
8877,
29089,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
83,
12,
581,
60212,
17721,
1632,
8877,
29089,
111,
1143,
16820,
53,
136,
1632,
130352,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
17721,
1632,
225748,
15094,
81046,
2588,
472,
8335,
16,
136,
6,
110216,
2866,
841,
177,
15,
247,
83,
40715,
3501,
1632,
2831,
23,
59671,
19879,
15,
748,
40715,
3501,
6,
194,
3293,
19336,
60212,
83,
22024,
735,
2661,
100,
2684,
86685,
50782,
67957,
25443,
5,
64511,
25072,
7,
111,
81147,
26698,
12,
32255,
22759,
81147,
25072,
7,
621,
11814,
23,
12921,
53550,
7,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
70,
1909,
83,
11814,
23,
63934,
25443,
47,
13416,
99,
840,
94266,
1771,
81147,
7,
5,
581,
130352,
83,
11814,
23,
11192,
9,
54818,
60386,
6,
34053,
27744,
7,
136,
177907,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
130352,
15,
176726,
12,
6653,
42,
16,
83,
10,
25072,
111,
81147,
35509,
98,
142,
89931,
105994,
4,
61924,
71,
237,
66161,
111,
10,
5570,
225748,
15094,
2681,
2588,
1342,
194,
12613,
7,
1632,
130352,
83,
66161,
15,
244136,
6,
194,
2
] | null | null | en-train-259268 | en-train-259268 | 259268 | {
"title": [
"Nomenclature and common errors.",
"History.",
"Manometric units of pressure.",
"Conversion factors."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The unit name \"torr\" is written in lower case, while its symbol (\"Torr\") is always written with upper-case initial; including in combinations with prefixes and other unit symbols, as in \"mTorr\" (millitorr) or \"Torr⋅L/s\" (torr-litres per second). The symbol (uppercase) should be used with prefix symbols (thus, mTorr and millitorr are correct, but mtorr and milliTorr are not). The torr is sometimes incorrectly denoted by the symbol \"T\", which is the SI symbol for the tesla, the unit measuring the strength of a magnetic field. Although frequently encountered, the alternative spelling \"Tor\" is incorrect.",
"Torricelli attracted considerable attention when he demonstrated the first mercury barometer to the general public. He is credited with giving the first modern explanation of atmospheric pressure. Scientists at the time were familiar with small fluctuations in height that occurred in barometers. When these fluctuations were explained as a manifestation of changes in atmospheric pressure, the science of meteorology was born. Over time, 760 millimeters of mercury at 0 °C came to be regarded as the standard atmospheric pressure. In honour of Torricelli, the torr was defined as a unit of pressure equal to one millimeter of mercury at 0 °C. However, since the acceleration due to gravity – and thus the weight of a column of mercury – is a function of elevation and latitude (due to the rotation and non-sphericity of the Earth), this definition is imprecise and varies by location. In 1954, the definition of the \"atmosphere\" was revised by the (10th CGPM) to the currently accepted definition: one atmosphere is equal to. The torr was then redefined as of one atmosphere. This yields a precise definition that is unambiguous and independent of measurements of the density of mercury or the acceleration due to gravity on Earth.",
"\"Manometric units\" are units such as \"millimeters of mercury\" or \"centimeters of water\" that depend on an assumed density of a fluid and an assumed acceleration due to gravity. The use of these units is discouraged. Nevertheless, manometric units are routinely used in medicine and physiology, and they continue to be used in areas as diverse as weather reporting and scuba diving.",
"The millimeter of mercury by definition is ( × × ), which is approximated with known accuracies of density of mercury and standard gravity. The torr is defined as of one standard atmosphere, while the atmosphere is defined as pascals. Therefore, 1 Torr is equal to Pa. The decimal form of this fraction () is an infinitely long, periodically repeating decimal (repetend length: 18). The relationship between the torr and the millimeter of mercury is: The difference between one millimeter of mercury and one torr, as well as between one atmosphere (101.325 kPa) and 760 mmHg (), is less than one part in seven million (or less than ). This small difference is negligible for most applications outside metrology. Other units of pressure include: These four pressure units are used in different settings. For example, the bar is used in meteorology to report atmospheric pressures. The torr is used in high-vacuum physics and engineering."
]
} |
Jan Šindel | null | Jan Šindel (1370s – between 1455 and 1457), also known as Jan Ondřejův ( or "Joannes de Praga"), was a Czech medieval scientist and Catholic priest. He was a professor at Charles University in Prague and became the rector of the university in 1410. He lectured on mathematics and astronomy and was also a personal astrologer and physician of kings Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia and his brother Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. | null | [
250004,
250054,
3342,
3608,
73,
1743,
509,
103122,
23,
70,
211462,
19,
59444,
167087,
131093,
31895,
23,
70,
702,
5757,
7,
5,
1301,
10,
27150,
332,
764,
21449,
47,
210721,
47,
35187,
99,
28166,
12535,
5,
360,
165874,
707,
702,
5046,
764,
100512,
70,
18897,
111,
64624,
99,
210721,
12535,
5,
360,
616,
9016,
764,
79786,
99,
70,
366,
4745,
10696,
111,
70,
2907,
5,
115963,
84084,
23,
70,
1734,
2189,
52649,
111,
210721,
5,
147466,
764,
79786,
237,
10,
117914,
111,
291,
140363,
41637,
23,
181103,
4,
7440,
764,
2843,
22282,
71,
54411,
5,
47009,
764,
21449,
4420,
47,
210721,
136,
100512,
70,
16030,
111,
124931,
53,
99,
28166,
12535,
4,
7440,
764,
100512,
52625,
111,
119210,
136,
184028,
111,
70,
152363,
23,
616,
963,
5,
1913,
70,
86595,
764,
509,
10,
132756,
111,
4939,
20387,
1284,
14432,
764,
24765,
297,
129574,
5,
1529,
71864,
297,
167821,
167956,
7,
136,
12601,
2822,
41664,
5,
360,
616,
1819,
764,
100512,
10,
74413,
111,
210721,
2907,
5,
582,
2143,
117615,
5,
88949,
111,
70,
20387,
11090,
34210,
764,
1902,
47,
31358,
210721,
136,
21449,
47,
131094,
5,
360,
616,
3742,
104279,
168865,
764,
79786,
23,
10772,
195,
4969,
237,
10,
219600,
5,
360,
616,
6460,
764,
100512,
70,
3357,
219600,
111,
70,
31678,
56,
748,
26729,
164,
26770,
5,
360,
616,
8894,
764,
100512,
70,
8,
66,
111,
70,
5030,
4807,
34438,
117615,
23,
210721,
5,
1529,
1902,
10,
4127,
76755,
678,
357,
13,
11,
143942,
31,
3253,
58940,
282,
31,
27860,
22796,
9222,
15,
94068,
11584,
13,
3065,
223,
1995,
247,
2363,
42518,
6620,
1295,
70,
5369,
616,
4633,
1104,
2592,
13330,
1556,
2809,
9498,
56,
4126,
5,
1529,
68,
71,
31895,
17721,
616,
11663,
136,
616,
12243,
23,
210721,
5,
3608,
73,
1743,
25,
7,
116920,
6827,
23180,
7,
136,
22288,
7,
3542,
747,
17704,
538,
7464,
11814,
390,
8064,
3089,
6163,
1106,
5,
1529,
1902,
10,
5361,
400,
6048,
100,
116920,
6827,
128779,
5,
44978,
71,
98,
1919,
199015,
136,
74481,
5256,
4,
213560,
111,
30613,
9756,
64549,
297,
70,
210721,
3347,
20219,
501,
21135,
23,
616,
963,
5,
360,
24427,
4,
142,
135815,
15,
117180,
966,
3608,
73,
1743,
16,
509,
24,
4806,
7103,
4049,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
3342,
3608,
73,
1743,
24462,
5757,
7,
46,
17721,
616,
11663,
136,
616,
68518,
4,
2843,
51529,
237,
3342,
47824,
3729,
170,
101337,
15,
707,
44,
16604,
66,
1444,
8,
76145,
11,
74054,
509,
10,
103655,
92264,
172647,
136,
129574,
494,
525,
5,
1529,
509,
10,
16030,
99,
28166,
12535,
23,
210721,
136,
100512,
70,
184028,
111,
70,
152363,
23,
616,
963,
5,
1529,
59619,
71,
98,
291,
140363,
41637,
136,
124931,
53,
136,
509,
2843,
10,
3357,
72513,
4867,
56,
136,
219600,
111,
60097,
7,
601,
69098,
26253,
7610,
111,
211462,
136,
1919,
82953,
152239,
12610,
31678,
56,
748,
26729,
164,
26770,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-119606 | en-train-119606 | 119606 | {
"title": [
"Life.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Jan Šindel was born in the Bohemian town Hradec Králové probably in the 1370s. As a young man he came to Prague to study at Charles University. In 1395 or 1399 he became the Master of Arts at Prague University. In 1406 he worked at the parish school of the St. Nicolas Church in the Lesser Town of Prague. Later he worked as a teacher of mathematics in Vienna, where he also studied medicine. Then he came back to Prague and became the professor of astronomy at Charles University, where he became Doctor of Medicine and rector of the university in 1410. At the beginning he was a supporter of John Hus but later he stayed Catholic. He avoided religious disputes and preferred science. In 1418 he became a canon of Prague St. Vitus Chapter. Because of the Hussite Wars he had to leave Prague and came to Olomouc. In 1423–1436 he worked in Nuremberg as a physician. In 1432 he became the personal physician of the Emperor Sigismund. In 1441 he became the dean of the Vyšehrad Chapter in Prague. He had a good relationship with Enea Silvio Bartolomeo Piccolomini (later Pope Pius II), their correspondence from the years 1445–1447 has been preserved. He died probably between 1455 and 1457 in Prague.",
"Šindel's astronomical tables and maps were allegedly still used by Tycho Brahe. He had a special liking for astronomical devices. Based on his suggestion and calculations, Mikuláš of Kadaň constructed the Prague Orloj clock in 1410. In 1982, an asteroid (3847 Šindel) was named after him."
]
} |
Instance dungeon | null | In massively multiplayer online games, an instance is a special area, typically a dungeon, that generates a new copy of the location for each group, or for a certain number of players, that enters the area. Instancing, the general term for the use of this technique, addresses several problems encountered by players in the shared spaces of virtual worlds. It is not widely known when instances were first used in this genre. However, "The Realm Online" (1996) is sometimes credited as introducing the concept. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
2967,
831,
186,
11341,
71,
237,
28960,
7,
12,
11907,
58585,
86171,
47,
186,
44,
3957,
56889,
830,
91,
5259,
44,
3957,
89715,
830,
6,
114777,
13,
44,
3957,
108405,
830,
136,
113054,
44,
3957,
61707,
159,
47416,
740,
14847,
2685,
621,
137107,
111,
92865,
756,
75169,
70,
5701,
6712,
4,
123019,
959,
30309,
831,
186,
70,
40814,
5,
581,
2967,
111,
30309,
3444,
214,
47,
67153,
70,
5701,
84392,
136,
21647,
70,
2965,
241437,
100512,
162520,
23,
70,
6712,
44,
647,
814,
195136,
830,
7440,
40368,
94407,
111,
92865,
2806,
98438,
136,
68018,
182,
162,
7,
12638,
3789,
23,
70,
5701,
16423,
13,
191,
4,
23,
12989,
47,
2046,
47,
70,
84392,
7,
36069,
10366,
167224,
55769,
5,
581,
166635,
111,
110527,
7,
21334,
538,
86869,
7,
903,
5423,
111,
44402,
4,
137802,
4734,
26983,
2069,
47,
136,
1295,
70,
16423,
13,
191,
237,
10,
38516,
10512,
23,
58585,
119475,
58585,
65998,
7,
5,
22836,
71,
15700,
3917,
4,
110527,
7,
831,
186,
11814,
47,
34390,
70,
130412,
645,
65514,
28032,
70,
6712,
5,
110823,
90,
29888,
130412,
23,
6097,
32628,
7,
37105,
7,
47,
40368,
9232,
12915,
2886,
123166,
7,
6044,
237,
67153,
67788,
2069,
4,
5623,
7710,
44681,
4,
136,
300,
1648,
5078,
1916,
237,
92865,
54,
89778,
1836,
831,
47,
163629,
70,
84046,
152750,
7,
5,
360,
590,
60636,
479,
86687,
7,
70,
125907,
16981,
4,
16792,
3060,
125907,
106117,
7,
54,
959,
4488,
2174,
70,
58585,
83,
9454,
12097,
613,
42,
167457,
390,
3789,
92865,
4,
237,
23,
10,
212747,
53550,
5,
360,
116071,
16423,
13,
5245,
1543,
70541,
37515,
56,
3501,
115723,
81158,
7,
136,
41207,
4,
221,
46526,
9,
11,
46327,
98154,
5,
10660,
2843,
1543,
26698,
17366,
185190,
7,
136,
64,
748,
173072,
70,
14012,
111,
92865,
107003,
23,
12638,
110527,
47,
40197,
196216,
5,
48752,
289,
27528,
4527,
50631,
21896,
47,
105994,
70,
81158,
7,
47,
70,
92865,
25,
90926,
4,
136,
64,
748,
70,
14012,
111,
92865,
13379,
5,
262,
61518,
6863,
92940,
7,
4,
50631,
21896,
23,
41646,
42386,
7,
1556,
2809,
35778,
29367,
5,
58595,
19909,
31583,
24232,
4,
37105,
51517,
111,
44,
647,
814,
195136,
58,
136,
44,
58,
15,
837,
927,
111,
3129,
6777,
959,
60213,
50631,
21896,
99,
83184,
247,
54397,
142,
34666,
23,
4078,
106926,
214,
450,
110527,
7,
831,
40907,
538,
52490,
70,
6712,
25,
7,
26908,
4,
20513,
111503,
4,
15003,
19,
34515,
4,
136,
3789,
120103,
5,
360,
57553,
47,
903,
5582,
4,
41474,
127,
1204,
1515,
49814,
450,
50631,
21896,
5608,
186,
84046,
47,
113949,
23,
3129,
70,
166635,
111,
10,
44,
771,
27853,
20288,
58,
30482,
10422,
28032,
70,
43701,
111,
70,
127663,
289,
14997,
13,
292,
6044,
237,
70,
136346,
109385,
23,
70,
4612,
102057,
160981,
5,
6561,
8347,
56,
151552,
70,
1119,
41745,
272,
4527,
111,
50631,
21896,
23,
44,
284,
429,
111,
1657,
66,
58,
237,
44,
1065,
112,
6639,
38543,
268,
70,
10422,
111,
14700,
66,
29888,
7432,
142,
164949,
5608,
765,
740,
171855,
92865,
42938,
13,
23,
110527,
7,
17660,
7,
47,
93403,
1810,
43904,
7,
111,
92865,
4,
64457,
111,
142156,
214,
2856,
4,
3129,
1543,
34390,
707,
17366,
70,
4488,
63033,
100,
15044,
70,
10723,
136,
23282,
390,
17475,
214,
70,
14012,
111,
38516,
182809,
7,
17721,
92865,
136,
36746,
7,
5,
88949,
70,
58585,
124850,
23,
70,
110527,
54,
959,
3871,
47,
186,
150011,
98,
756,
70,
4677,
7730,
98,
50782,
70,
110527,
4,
136,
22925,
105274,
100,
70,
124850,
50782,
70,
110527,
4,
2685,
83,
142,
128512,
227204,
23,
35968,
7,
98,
70,
33120,
4,
678,
70,
2043,
16750,
8035,
40715,
8475,
100,
70,
92865,
5,
3293,
2843,
34390,
7,
70,
35968,
7,
98,
12638,
58585,
25,
7,
13909,
4,
237,
70,
14012,
111,
36746,
7,
47,
186,
9433,
297,
831,
186,
1286,
72546,
84046,
390,
70,
6712,
25,
7,
106001,
5,
581,
106001,
831,
11522,
31635,
1672,
70,
130481,
9,
58437,
23718,
96679,
23,
142,
110527,
6637,
1836,
54,
959,
765,
47,
16916,
106117,
7,
6044,
237,
75281,
7,
111,
92865,
60887,
214,
98,
2499,
31913,
99,
2499,
1733,
5,
181799,
70,
5117,
20513,
8999,
47,
4527,
110527,
7,
509,
70,
164949,
44,
3957,
5120,
39,
2823,
830,
83184,
297,
23,
98543,
202945,
23,
903,
6712,
509,
1119,
41745,
272,
538,
110527,
71,
4,
678,
11907,
133868,
35971,
3687,
23,
10,
5361,
17155,
50782,
111,
70,
9803,
8999,
5,
360,
44,
22769,
38472,
34210,
830,
52649,
64,
79858,
4594,
58555,
621,
75935,
98,
35968,
4,
678,
10,
3525,
44,
428,
144225,
58,
111,
450,
59444,
8035,
75935,
100,
11907,
805,
92865,
23,
442,
74,
92865,
831,
25813,
17721,
6097,
99,
1221,
5,
14847,
22,
33558,
142,
98873,
42,
2886,
79200,
707,
59797,
45023,
77905,
4,
10,
84797,
110527,
1221,
186,
75935,
100,
12638,
21115,
15,
5445,
214,
23,
13267,
1295,
116,
47,
427,
16,
111,
92865,
5,
60560,
7,
831,
11301,
678,
92865,
36880,
70,
32363,
13,
4,
237,
23,
44,
116751,
2823,
830,
33233,
678,
70,
92940,
7,
23,
72367,
117906,
214,
136,
65514,
111,
10,
89160,
48716,
10723,
3299,
100,
40024,
24447,
4,
70,
106001,
7,
5,
360,
44,
1052,
1811,
61278,
53347,
830,
110527,
7,
621,
11814,
153161,
23,
38694,
7,
4,
221,
450,
3789,
92865,
53418,
193943,
678,
70,
58585,
2750,
83,
20594,
70,
38694,
4,
6044,
237,
1777,
18,
2069,
55983,
541,
12233,
7,
707,
19441,
47,
163846,
10,
5361,
66211,
5,
10660,
621,
2843,
11814,
23,
24233,
25,
9222,
129675,
25,
5,
33306,
4,
2684,
84392,
7,
959,
62548,
47,
38694,
7,
621,
959,
110527,
71,
4,
221,
92865,
27983,
765,
47,
98438,
678,
12638,
3789,
47,
2046,
70,
152750,
1295,
200,
30319,
2856,
5,
10660,
621,
2843,
11814,
1119,
41745,
272,
538,
23,
70,
3525,
112419,
125669,
13,
3630,
4209,
5,
44,
1456,
14821,
71,
35046,
58,
1556,
10,
36998,
5426,
100,
6863,
110527,
7,
5,
1301,
33662,
237,
10,
58585,
98441,
98,
70,
42805,
16128,
4,
1492,
94131,
621,
34475,
100,
1257,
47,
17262,
3789,
92865,
47,
30957,
5,
76556,
46132,
4,
70,
110527,
56104,
185553,
7,
10,
3525,
13315,
111,
38694,
7,
4,
3129,
8110,
186,
140528,
47,
21647,
17203,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
106750,
538,
212747,
1118,
27528,
4,
142,
110527,
83,
10,
5361,
16128,
4,
205794,
10,
16423,
13,
191,
4,
450,
139392,
7,
10,
3525,
43658,
111,
70,
31913,
100,
12638,
21115,
4,
707,
100,
10,
24233,
14012,
111,
92865,
4,
450,
30957,
7,
70,
16128,
5,
360,
590,
60636,
4,
70,
4537,
13579,
100,
70,
4527,
111,
903,
61353,
4,
29823,
90,
40368,
44402,
190647,
297,
390,
92865,
23,
70,
99764,
32628,
7,
111,
20513,
8999,
7,
5,
1650,
83,
959,
38134,
538,
51529,
3229,
110527,
7,
3542,
5117,
11814,
23,
903,
30773,
5,
33306,
4,
44,
3957,
5120,
39,
2823,
58,
188078,
83,
68018,
22299,
297,
237,
39864,
214,
70,
23755,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-721555 | en-train-721555 | 721555 | {
"title": [
"Design considerations.",
"Technical considerations.",
"Usage."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The problem can be stated as follows: every player wants to be \"The Hero\", slay \"The Monster\", rescue \"The Princess\", and obtain \"The Magic Sword\". When there are thousands of players all playing the same game, clearly not everyone can be the hero. The problem of everyone wanting to kill the same monster and gain the best treasure became obvious in the game \"EverQuest\", where several groups of players would compete and sometimes harass each other in the same dungeon, in order to get to the monsters dropping valuable items. The creation of instances largely solves this set of problems, leaving only travelling to and from the dungeon as a potential risk in player versus player environments. Stated another way, instances can be used to reduce the competition over resources within the game. Excessive competition in these spaces leads to several undesirable behaviors such as kill stealing, spawn camping, and ninja looting as players do whatever they can to acquire the limited rewards. Instancing preserves the gaming experience, since some gaming scenarios do not work if the player is continually surrounded by other players, as in a multiplayer setting. Instance dungeons may contain stronger than usual mobs and rare, sought-after equipment. They also may include level restrictions and/or restrict the number of players allowed in each instance to balance gameplay. Several games use instancing to scale the mobs to the players' levels, and/or the number of players present. Despite its advantages, instancing in MMOGs has been criticized. Brad McQuaid, lead designer of \"EverQuest\" and \"\" (both of which did not feature instancing at launch), wrote an essay in 2005 arguing that instances can negatively affect the game's community, virtual economy, churn rate, and other factors. In response to this article, Raph Koster added that instancing should be limited to situations in which the creation of a \"pocket zone\" makes sense within the context of the fictional universe — such as the holodeck in the Star Trek franchise. One reviewer described the extensive use of instancing in \"Age of Conan\" as \"[destroying] the sense of expansiveness an MMORPG should have\".",
"Having players participate in instances tends to spread out populations of players, instead of concentrating them, which may reduce or level the workload for both the server and client by limiting the number of potential interactions between players and objects. Because the player characters in the instance do not need to be updated on all the information going on outside the instance, and vice versa for the characters outside the instance, there is an overall decrease in demands on the network, with the net result being less lag for the players. This also reduces the demands on each player's computer, as the number of objects to be processed can be more easily limited by the game's developer. The developer can better reason about the worst-case performance requirements in an instance because they do not have to consider scenarios such as hundreds of players descending on any location at any time.",
"Perhaps the first virtual world to use instances was the MMORPG \"The Realm Online\", launched in 1996. Combat in this game was extensively instanced, with every battle taking place in a special room outside of the open world. In \"Guild Wars\", Town/Outpost areas are created on demand, with a new \"district\" of that town being created for every 100 players in it; players can move between these at will. When entering an Explorable Area or Cooperative Mission, a separate instance will be created for each group (ranging in size from 2 to 12) of players. Players can play with players across the globe, as in \"EVE Online\", along with the advantages in load scaling and resources of a traditional multiple server model for ArenaNet, the developers. In \"RuneScape\", instances are used mostly in quests, so that other players cannot interfere with the player who is doing the quest, such as battling boss NPCs or having to accomplish a special task. They are also used in certain'minigames'. However, most monsters not related to quests are not instanced, so players often have to compete with each other to get the reward from killing them. They are also used extensively in the new skill Dungeoneering. \"Wizard101\" has a unique system for its instances. As soon as a player steps on the entry area, ten seconds are given for up to three other players to enter. Once inside, the instance usually triggers a new line of quests, which must be completed to gain access to other parts of the instance. If a player logs out or leaves through the \"front door\", progress wil be reset (a warning message will appear). If a player dies, flees, or teleports, data will then be reset in 30 minutes. If a monster is defeated in an instance, it stays defeated. Players can repeat instances as many times as they want."
]
} |
Sucrose | null | Sucrose is common sugar. It is a disaccharide, a molecule composed of two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is produced naturally in plants, from which table sugar is refined. It has the molecular formula CHO. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
2565,
44,
1159,
15322,
184,
58,
509,
43780,
297,
23,
169943,
390,
70,
14941,
290,
6133,
25031,
102617,
1295,
70,
92265,
44,
1159,
7612,
58,
24073,
1159,
1970,
18939,
136,
70,
189534,
165045,
133784,
425,
100,
101087,
7,
44,
9,
8364,
740,
581,
1563,
105160,
14,
27686,
13579,
44,
14168,
238,
58,
83,
27983,
11814,
100,
44,
1159,
15322,
184,
58,
23,
57456,
163136,
5,
581,
9351,
44,
7,
2263,
9254,
8364,
58,
509,
43780,
297,
23,
128136,
390,
70,
92265,
290,
6133,
206414,
73,
2076,
2347,
12631,
5,
80085,
9254,
8364,
83,
142,
228908,
13,
9351,
100,
101087,
7,
23,
4537,
4,
41866,
42593,
75287,
5,
360,
42593,
75287,
4,
70,
22460,
31648,
157935,
184,
136,
94260,
8364,
621,
3126,
297,
1829,
142,
28,
9319,
71052,
17721,
313,
418,
98,
70,
157935,
7,
8613,
1614,
309,
217,
136,
313,
304,
98,
70,
94260,
232,
8613,
25072,
5,
581,
71052,
83,
35839,
10,
100483,
587,
172,
18403,
3126,
4588,
5,
80488,
587,
184,
32316,
7,
156531,
660,
538,
237,
10,
17664,
6644,
111,
5961,
136,
9269,
44,
6493,
42483,
184,
58,
13882,
31648,
4,
1284,
4734,
70,
5961,
3173,
22317,
47,
94260,
8364,
5,
37527,
128616,
13,
68034,
32316,
7,
237,
10,
17664,
6644,
111,
5961,
136,
9269,
44,
11443,
66,
8364,
58,
13882,
31648,
4,
1284,
4734,
70,
9269,
13882,
1991,
22317,
47,
157935,
184,
5,
992,
5062,
2684,
6392,
238,
9254,
17996,
4,
70,
100483,
587,
172,
18403,
71052,
23,
42593,
75287,
83,
100,
4806,
17721,
70,
6,
241866,
3564,
7,
111,
15044,
157935,
184,
136,
94260,
8364,
4,
136,
959,
17721,
70,
6,
241866,
3564,
111,
1632,
136,
70,
351,
9,
241866,
3564,
111,
70,
3789,
5,
3293,
3126,
4588,
173702,
933,
53333,
337,
33770,
47,
3789,
30823,
9254,
2506,
25072,
7,
4,
136,
56282,
7,
42593,
75287,
1295,
150189,
79850,
131300,
214,
678,
2927,
120087,
136,
41263,
31667,
111789,
432,
133,
70838,
23,
70,
144996,
450,
157935,
184,
136,
3789,
6,
241866,
101087,
7,
54,
5,
66016,
42593,
75287,
70541,
7,
110,
10,
64970,
12259,
64707,
425,
8613,
94407,
4,
442,
83,
18507,
47314,
237,
10,
351,
9,
241866,
101087,
5,
103544,
75287,
224128,
119066,
7,
23,
70,
22460,
92768,
1771,
32628,
21115,
436,
304,
678,
17155,
9,
98334,
13,
10495,
24494,
171859,
7,
44,
11,
58,
2203,
53855,
15276,
5016,
653,
39,
4,
44,
275,
58,
2203,
757,
5,
132067,
12465,
653,
39,
4,
44,
238,
58,
2203,
757,
5,
176779,
2357,
653,
39,
4,
9269,
2203,
30669,
5,
11591,
114707,
5,
581,
7398,
2481,
111,
42593,
75287,
83,
72350,
71,
390,
4070,
57751,
15123,
4,
8305,
70,
2062,
22062,
111,
47880,
9,
771,
320,
29367,
22729,
390,
10,
101087,
29806,
5,
581,
29458,
2062,
22062,
99,
387,
16207,
441,
17368,
205811,
44,
991,
28483,
9,
397,
58,
22729,
15,
192531,
653,
39,
16,
83,
997,
14604,
5,
617,
119780,
5,
30964,
42,
26136,
121413,
7,
111,
101087,
621,
237,
20347,
297,
17368,
903,
171859,
5,
103544,
75287,
14602,
959,
150844,
67,
99,
68663,
27289,
5,
103544,
75287,
14602,
959,
6,
76681,
99,
11192,
52768,
7,
5,
175399,
4,
442,
8,
277,
78381,
7,
99,
47,
3173,
182427,
5,
18852,
3789,
2258,
837,
99735,
90,
4,
442,
375,
4223,
933,
47,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
136,
7401,
5,
37286,
214,
42593,
75287,
678,
70,
128713,
52825,
160,
1073,
7,
6664,
31355,
17957,
27489,
7,
70,
160692,
51529,
237,
13950,
126,
7841,
53,
450,
83,
11814,
47,
502,
5310,
79775,
13950,
126,
2926,
7,
5,
3293,
132539,
83,
208806,
112892,
1029,
297,
21208,
5,
31384,
111,
70,
44603,
14602,
2046,
89554,
128713,
29367,
47,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
4,
136,
3789,
132539,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
7401,
9,
3923,
122925,
132539,
2843,
5646,
3687,
5,
62,
1286,
152018,
70,
4524,
70760,
28,
5490,
2320,
83,
12,
103544,
75287,
96865,
7,
678,
170368,
1771,
43840,
4,
100,
4806,
390,
70,
132539,
111,
64707,
206,
1484,
1771,
43840,
136,
160,
1073,
7,
6664,
170368,
2182,
12,
103544,
75287,
831,
186,
8,
99735,
297,
678,
2906,
11443,
1771,
43840,
47,
3173,
10,
22556,
4,
44603,
9,
26932,
18652,
4,
237,
117414,
71,
23,
70,
25632,
6397,
29367,
28,
5490,
2320,
12,
581,
26168,
100,
42593,
75287,
25,
7,
8,
277,
40322,
831,
186,
33636,
297,
237,
10,
6626,
9,
95528,
132539,
12,
70,
5117,
112892,
1029,
297,
132539,
83,
8,
99735,
1830,
111,
42593,
75287,
47,
34166,
44603,
136,
7401,
4,
136,
7068,
44603,
128713,
62093,
47,
8244,
678,
180,
1295,
1831,
5,
126442,
14907,
164,
36356,
7,
70,
100483,
587,
172,
18403,
71052,
96760,
214,
42593,
75287,
3934,
157935,
184,
136,
94260,
8364,
5,
126442,
14907,
164,
83,
4,
49903,
4,
221,
72803,
450,
51347,
111,
42593,
75287,
831,
1661,
100,
5369,
678,
22024,
735,
2661,
15549,
5,
4263,
70,
193807,
13,
42593,
78728,
83,
49814,
4,
49903,
4,
70,
132539,
1221,
172337,
25545,
538,
5,
126442,
14907,
164,
831,
2843,
186,
197108,
297,
678,
43840,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
24709,
111,
15250,
147,
707,
107466,
130090,
4,
15044,
642,
344,
43840,
7,
5,
18852,
90825,
4,
9060,
62233,
43840,
2481,
96760,
7,
42593,
75287,
47,
157935,
184,
136,
94260,
8364,
20271,
45,
141933,
4,
70,
71052,
17721,
2856,
8035,
142,
10,
329,
1803,
71052,
3129,
831,
186,
148431,
390,
142,
43840,
5,
77878,
19,
15,
84396,
56,
16,
80097,
7,
111,
375,
4223,
1363,
111,
61586,
201464,
158805,
64,
17965,
100,
42593,
75287,
4,
12661,
132265,
100,
157935,
184,
4,
136,
12661,
124525,
100,
94260,
8364,
4,
45,
141933,
54452,
7,
1672,
201,
19336,
152514,
117,
16190,
111,
12638,
111,
6097,
38742,
5,
581,
3530,
12654,
2347,
6023,
111,
42593,
75287,
172337,
7,
1829,
70,
479,
86927,
4295,
345,
28399,
9,
39529,
587,
184,
136,
94260,
8364,
13007,
134208,
14612,
67,
4,
60199,
538,
64807,
390,
70,
193807,
13,
42593,
75287,
13545,
9,
134208,
14612,
67,
142518,
6991,
5,
581,
48302,
100,
70,
132539,
83,
21647,
297,
390,
70,
81993,
5528,
429,
111,
39074,
30833,
45,
134208,
14612,
67,
15,
26119,
683,
194,
103544,
75287,
83,
100,
4806,
390,
18153,
7,
136,
19932,
3922,
49369,
26206,
1284,
959,
390,
3789,
25150,
7,
5,
103544,
75287,
83,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
103544,
75287,
83,
39210,
101087,
5,
1650,
83,
10,
6392,
238,
9254,
2506,
4,
10,
49711,
75449,
150350,
71,
111,
6626,
22460,
7,
2263,
9254,
17996,
12,
157935,
184,
136,
94260,
8364,
5,
103544,
75287,
83,
181653,
6083,
538,
23,
18153,
7,
4,
1295,
3129,
23180,
101087,
83,
18831,
73,
297,
5,
1650,
1556,
70,
233239,
26168,
106697,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-787348 | en-train-787348 | 787348 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Physical and chemical properties.",
"Structural O-α--glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β--fructofuranoside.",
"Thermal and oxidative degradation.",
"Hydrolysis.",
"Synthesis and biosynthesis of sucrose.",
"Chemical synthesis.",
"Sources.",
"Production.",
"History of sucrose refinement.",
"Trends.",
"High-fructose corn syrup.",
"Types.",
"Cane.",
"Beet.",
"Cane versus beet.",
"Culinary sugars.",
"Mill white.",
"Blanco directo.",
"White refined.",
"Measurement.",
"Dissolved sugar content.",
"Consumption.",
"Nutritional information.",
"Metabolism of sucrose.",
"Tooth decay.",
"Glycemic index.",
"Gout.",
"UN dietary recommendation.",
"Religious concerns.",
"Trade and economics."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"4",
"3",
"4",
"4",
"4",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The word \"sucrose\" was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William Miller from the French \"sucre\" (\"sugar\") and the generic chemical suffix for sugars \"-ose\". The abbreviated term \"Suc\" is often used for \"sucrose\" in scientific literature. The name \"saccharose\" was coined in 1860 by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot. Saccharose is an obsolete name for sugars in general, especially sucrose.",
"",
"In sucrose, the monomers glucose and fructose are linked via an ether bond between C1 on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit. The bond is called a glycosidic linkage. Glucose exists predominantly as a mixture of α and β \"pyranose\" isomers, but only the α form links to fructose. Fructose itself exists as a mixture of α and β \"furanose\" isomers, but only the β isomer links to glucose. Unlike most disaccharides, the glycosidic bond in sucrose is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not between the reducing end of one and the non-reducing end of the other. This linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units, and prevents sucrose from spontaneously reacting with cellular and circulatory macromolecules in the manner that glucose and other reducing sugars do. Since sucrose contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-reducing sugar. Sucrose crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P2 with room-temperature lattice parameters \"a\" = 1.08631 nm, \"b\" = 0.87044 nm, \"c\" = 0.77624 nm, β = 102.938°. The purity of sucrose is measured by polarimetry, through the rotation of plane-polarized light by a sugar solution. The specific rotation at 20 °C using yellow \"sodium-D\" light (589 nm) is +66.47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter. Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions.",
"Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes at to form caramel. Like other carbohydrates, it combusts to carbon dioxide and water. Mixing sucrose with the oxidizer potassium nitrate produces the fuel known as rocket candy that is used to propel amateur rocket motors. This reaction is somewhat simplified though. Some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the water-gas shift reaction also take place. A more accurate theoretical equation is: Sucrose burns with chloric acid, formed by the reaction of hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate: Sucrose can be dehydrated with sulfuric acid to form a black, carbon-rich solid, as indicated in the following idealized equation: The formula for sucrose's decomposition can be represented as a two-step reaction: the first simplified reaction is dehydration of sucrose to pure carbon and water, and then carbon oxidises to CO with O from air.",
"Hydrolysis breaks the glycosidic bond converting sucrose into glucose and fructose. Hydrolysis is, however, so slow that solutions of sucrose can sit for years with negligible change. If the enzyme sucrase is added, however, the reaction will proceed rapidly. Hydrolysis can also be accelerated with acids, such as cream of tartar or lemon juice, both weak acids. Likewise, gastric acidity converts sucrose to glucose and fructose during digestion, the bond between them being an acetal bond which can be broken by an acid. Given (higher) heats of combustion of 1349.6 kcal/mol for sucrose, 673.0 for glucose, and 675.6 for fructose, digestion releases about 4 small calories per gram of each of these products.",
"The biosynthesis of sucrose proceeds via the precursors UDP-glucose and fructose 6-phosphate, catalyzed by the enzyme sucrose-6-phosphate synthase. The energy for the reaction is gained by the cleavage of uridine diphosphate (UDP). Sucrose is formed by plants and cyanobacteria but not by other organisms. Sucrose is found naturally in many food plants along with the monosaccharide fructose. In many fruits, such as pineapple and apricot, sucrose is the main sugar. In others, such as grapes and pears, fructose is the main sugar.",
"Although sucrose is almost invariably isolated from natural sources, its chemical synthesis was first achieved in 1953 by Raymond Lemieux.",
"In nature, sucrose is present in many plants, and in particular their roots, fruits and nectars, because it serves as a way to store energy, primarily from photosynthesis. Many mammals, birds, insects and bacteria accumulate and feed on the sucrose in plants and for some it is their main food source. Seen from a human consumption perspective, honeybees are especially important because they accumulate sucrose and produce honey, an important foodstuff all over the world. The carbohydrates in honey itself primarily consist of fructose and glucose with trace amounts of sucrose only. As fruits ripen, their sucrose content usually rises sharply, but some fruits contain almost no sucrose at all. This includes grapes, cherries, blueberries, blackberries, figs, pomegranates, tomatoes, avocados, lemons and limes. Sucrose is a naturally occurring sugar, but with the advent of industrialization, it has been increasingly refined and consumed in all kinds of processed foods.",
"",
"The production of table sugar has a long history. Some scholars claim Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar during the Gupta dynasty, around AD 350. Other scholars point to the ancient manuscripts of China, dated to the 8th century BC, where one of the earliest historical mentions of sugar cane is included along with the fact that their knowledge of sugar cane was derived from India. Further, it appears that by about 500 BC, residents of present-day India began making sugar syrup and cooling it in large flat bowls to make raw table sugar crystals that were easier to store and transport. In the local Indian language, these crystals were called \"khanda\" (खण्ड), which is the source of the word \"candy\". The army of Alexander the Great was halted on the banks of river Indus by the refusal of his troops to go further east. They saw people in the Indian subcontinent growing sugarcane and making \"granulated, salt-like sweet powder\", locally called \"sākhar\" (साखर), pronounced as \"sakcharon\" (ζακχαρον) in Greek (Modern Greek, \"zachari\" ζάχαρη). On their return journey, the Greek soldiers carried back some of the \"honey-bearing reeds\". Sugarcane remained a limited crop for over a millennium. Sugar was a rare commodity and traders of sugar became wealthy. Venice, at the height of its financial power, was the chief sugar-distributing center of Europe. Arabs started producing it in Sicily and Spain. Only after the Crusades did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began cultivating sugarcane in the West Indies in 1506 (Cuba in 1523). The Portuguese first cultivated sugarcane in Brazil in 1532. Sugar remained a luxury in much of the world until the 18th century. Only the wealthy could afford it. In the 18th century, the demand for table sugar boomed in Europe and by the 19th century it had become regarded as a human necessity. The use of sugar grew from use in tea, to cakes, confectionery and chocolates. Suppliers marketed sugar in novel forms, such as solid cones, which required consumers to use a sugar nip, a pliers-like tool, in order to break off pieces. The demand for cheaper table sugar drove, in part, colonization of tropical islands and nations where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and table sugar manufacturing could thrive. Growing sugar cane crop in hot humid climates, and producing table sugar in high temperature sugar mills was harsh, inhumane work. The demand for cheap and docile labor for this work, in part, first drove slave trade from Africa (in particular West Africa), followed by indentured labor trade from South Asia (in particular India). Millions of slaves, followed by millions of indentured laborers were brought into the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Islands, East Africa, Natal, north and eastern parts of South America, and southeast Asia. The modern ethnic mix of many nations, settled in the last two centuries, has been influenced by table sugar. Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The steam engine first powered a sugar mill in Jamaica in 1768, and, soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. During the same century, Europeans began experimenting with sugar production from other crops. Andreas Marggraf identified sucrose in beet root and his student Franz Achard built a sugar beet processing factory in Silesia (Prussia). The beet-sugar industry took off during the Napoleonic Wars, when France and the continent were cut off from Caribbean sugar. In 2010, about 20 percent of the world's sugar was produced from beets. Today, a large beet refinery producing around 1,500 tonnes of sugar a day needs a permanent workforce of about 150 for 24-hour production.",
"Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: sugarcane (\"Saccharum spp.\") and sugar beets (\"Beta vulgaris\"), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Minor commercial sugar crops include the date palm (\"Phoenix dactylifera\"), sorghum (\"Sorghum vulgare\"), and the sugar maple (\"Acer saccharum\"). Sucrose is obtained by extraction of these crops with hot water; concentration of the extract gives syrups, from which solid sucrose can be crystallized. In 2017, worldwide production of table sugar amounted to 185 million tonnes. Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, because sugarcane does not tolerate frost. Sugar beets, on the other hand, grow only in cooler temperate regions and do not tolerate extreme heat. About 80 percent of sucrose is derived from sugarcane, the rest almost all from sugar beets. In mid-2018, India and Brazil had about the same production of sugar – 34 million tonnes – followed by the European Union, Thailand, and China as the major producers. India, the European Union, and China were the leading domestic consumers of sugar in 2018. Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States (including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of processing plant capacity and the weather both influence the duration of harvesting and processing – the industry can store harvested beets until processed, but a frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable. The United States sets high sugar prices to support its producers, with the effect that many former purchasers of sugar have switched to corn syrup (beverage manufacturers) or moved out of the country (candy manufacturers). The low prices of glucose syrups produced from wheat and corn (maize) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with artificial sweeteners, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very low-cost goods.",
"High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is significantly cheaper as a sweetener for food and beverage manufacturing than refined sucrose. This has led to sucrose being partially displaced in U.S. industrial food production by HFCS and other non-sucrose natural sweeteners. Although reports in public media regard HFCS as unhealthy, clinical dietitians, medical professionals, and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) dismiss such concerns because \"Sucrose, HFCS, invert sugar, honey, and many fruits and juices deliver the same sugars in the same ratios to the same tissues within the same time frame to the same metabolic pathways\". While scientific authorities agree that dietary sugars are a source of empty calories associated with certain health problems, the belief that glucose-fructose syrups such as HFCS are especially unhealthy is not supported by scientific evidence. Health authorities and the FDA recommend limiting the overall consumption of sugar-based sweeteners.",
"",
"Since the 6th century BC, cane sugar producers have crushed the harvested vegetable material from sugarcane in order to collect and filter the juice. They then treat the liquid (often with lime (calcium oxide)) to remove impurities and then neutralize it. Boiling the juice then allows the sediment to settle to the bottom for dredging out, while the scum rises to the surface for skimming off. In cooling, the liquid crystallizes, usually in the process of stirring, to produce sugar crystals. Centrifuges usually remove the uncrystallized syrup. The producers can then either sell the sugar product for use as is, or process it further to produce lighter grades. The later processing may take place in another factory in another country. Sugarcane is a major component of Brazilian agriculture; the country is the world's largest producer of sugarcane and its derivative products, such as crystallized sugar and ethanol (ethanol fuel).",
"Beet sugar producers slice the washed beets, then extract the sugar with hot water in a \"diffuser\". An alkaline solution (\"milk of lime\" and carbon dioxide from the lime kiln) then serves to precipitate impurities (see carbonatation). After filtration, evaporation concentrates the juice to a content of about 70% solids, and controlled crystallisation extracts the sugar. A centrifuge removes the sugar crystals from the liquid, which gets recycled in the crystalliser stages. When economic constraints prevent the removal of more sugar, the manufacturer discards the remaining liquid, now known as molasses, or sells it on to producers of animal feed. Sieving the resultant white sugar produces different grades for selling.",
"It is difficult to distinguish between fully refined sugar produced from beet and cane. One way is by isotope analysis of carbon. Cane uses C4 carbon fixation, and beet uses C3 carbon fixation, resulting in a different ratio of C and C isotopes in the sucrose. Tests are used to detect fraudulent abuse of European Union subsidies or to aid in the detection of adulterated fruit juice. Sugar cane tolerates hot climates better, but the production of sugar cane needs approximately four times as much water as the production of sugar beet. As a result, some countries that traditionally produced cane sugar (such as Egypt) have built new beet sugar factories since about 2008. Some sugar factories process both sugar cane and sugar beets and extend their processing period in that way. The production of sugar leaves residues that differ substantially depending on the raw materials used and on the place of production. While cane molasses is often used in food preparation, humans find molasses from sugar beets unpalatable, and it consequently ends up mostly as industrial fermentation feedstock (for example in alcohol distilleries), or as animal feed. Once dried, either type of molasses can serve as fuel for burning. Pure beet sugar is difficult to find, so labelled, in the marketplace. Although some makers label their product clearly as \"pure cane sugar\", beet sugar is almost always labeled simply as sugar or pure sugar. Interviews with the 5 major beet sugar-producing companies revealed that many store brands or \"private label\" sugar products are pure beet sugar. The lot code can be used to identify the company and the plant from which the sugar came, enabling beet sugar to be identified if the codes are known.",
"",
"Mill white, also called plantation white, crystal sugar or superior sugar is produced from raw sugar. It is exposed to sulfur dioxide during the production to reduce the concentration of color compounds and helps prevent further color development during the crystallization process. Although common to sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well. After a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping; therefore this type of sugar is generally limited to local consumption.",
"Blanco directo, a white sugar common in India and other south Asian countries, is produced by precipitating many impurities out of cane juice using phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide, similar to the carbonatation technique used in beet sugar refining. Blanco directo is more pure than mill white sugar, but less pure than white refined.",
"White refined is the most common form of sugar in North America and Europe. Refined sugar is made by dissolving and purifying raw sugar using phosphoric acid similar to the method used for blanco directo, a carbonatation process involving calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies. It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of activated carbon or bone char. Beet sugar refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate raw stage. White refined sugar is typically sold as granulated sugar, which has been dried to prevent clumping and comes in various crystal sizes for home and industrial use: Brown sugar comes either from the late stages of cane sugar refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with a cane molasses syrup (blackstrap molasses). Brown sugar's color and taste becomes stronger with increasing molasses content, as do its moisture-retaining properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere, although proper handling can reverse this.",
"",
"Scientists and the sugar industry use degrees Brix (symbol °Bx), introduced by Adolf Brix, as units of measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved substance to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx sucrose solution has 25 grams of sucrose per 100 grams of liquid; or, to put it another way, 25 grams of sucrose sugar and 75 grams of water exist in the 100 grams of solution. The Brix degrees are measured using an infrared sensor. This measurement does not equate to Brix degrees from a density or refractive index measurement, because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When using a refractometer, one should report the result as \"refractometric dried substance\" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as having 20 °Bx RDS. This refers to a measure of percent by weight of \"total\" dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement.",
"Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes. Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks. Sucrose forms a major element in confectionery and desserts. Cooks use it for sweetening — its fructose component, which has almost double the sweetness of glucose, makes sucrose distinctively sweet in comparison to other carbohydrates. It can also act as a food preservative when used in sufficient concentrations. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called \"junk foods\".",
"Fully refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, thus providing only carbohydrate as dietary nutrient and 390 kilocalories per 100 g serving (USDA data, right table). There are no micronutrients of significance in fully refined sugar (right table).",
"In humans and other mammals, sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, by sucrase or isomaltase glycoside hydrolases, which are located in the membrane of the microvilli lining the duodenum. The resulting glucose and fructose molecules are then rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. In bacteria and some animals, sucrose is digested by the enzyme invertase. Sucrose is an easily assimilated macronutrient that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in blood glucose upon ingestion. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has an energy content of 3.94 kilocalories per gram (or 17 kilojoules per gram). If consumed excessively, sucrose may contribute to the development of metabolic syndrome, including increased risk for type 2 diabetes, weight gain and obesity in adults and children.",
"Tooth decay (dental caries) has become a pronounced health hazard associated with the consumption of sugars, especially sucrose. Oral bacteria such as \"Streptococcus mutans\" live in dental plaque and metabolize \"any\" free sugars (not just sucrose, but also glucose, lactose, fructose, and cooked starches) into lactic acid. The resultant lactic acid lowers the pH of the tooth's surface, stripping it of minerals in the process known as tooth decay. All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to \"Streptococcus sanguinis\" (formerly \"Streptococcus sanguis\") and \"Streptococcus mutans\". Sucrose is the only dietary sugar that can be converted to sticky glucans (dextran-like polysaccharides) by extracellular enzymes. These glucans allow the bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface and to build up thick layers of plaque. The anaerobic conditions deep in the plaque encourage the formation of acids, which leads to carious lesions. Thus, sucrose could enable \"S. mutans\", \"S. sanguinis\" and many other species of bacteria to adhere strongly and resist natural removal, e.g. by flow of saliva, although they are easily removed by brushing. The glucans and levans (fructose polysaccharides) produced by the plaque bacteria also act as a reserve food supply for the bacteria. Such a special role of sucrose in the formation of tooth decay is much more significant in light of the almost universal use of sucrose as the most desirable sweetening agent. Widespread replacement of sucrose by high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has not diminished the danger from sucrose. If smaller amounts of sucrose are present in the diet, they will still be sufficient for the development of thick, anaerobic plaque and plaque bacteria will metabolise other sugars in the diet, such as the glucose and fructose in HFCS.",
"Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of 50% glucose and 50% fructose and has a glycemic index of 65. Sucrose is digested rapidly, but has a relatively low glycemic index due to its content of fructose, which has a minimal effect on blood glucose. As with other sugars, sucrose is digested into its components via the enzyme sucrase to glucose (blood sugar). The glucose component is transported into the blood where it serves immediate metabolic demands, or is converted and reserved in the liver as glycogen.",
"The occurrence of gout is connected with an excess production of uric acid. A diet rich in sucrose may lead to gout as it raises the level of insulin, which prevents excretion of uric acid from the body. As the concentration of uric acid in the body increases, so does the concentration of uric acid in the joint liquid and beyond a critical concentration, the uric acid begins to precipitate into crystals. Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of gout.",
"In 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a new guideline on sugars intake for adults and children, as a result of an extensive review of the available scientific evidence by a multidisciplinary group of experts. The guideline recommends that both adults and children ensure their intake of free sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates) is less than 10% of total energy intake. A level below 5% of total energy intake brings additional health benefits, especially with regards to dental caries.",
"The sugar refining industry often uses bone char (calcinated animal bones) for decolorizing. About 25% of sugar produced in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter, the remainder being processed with activated carbon. As bone char does not seem to remain in finished sugar, Jewish religious leaders consider sugar filtered through it to be pareve, meaning that it is neither meat nor dairy and may be used with either type of food. However, the bone char must source to a kosher animal (e.g. cow, sheep) for the sugar to be kosher.",
"One of the most widely traded commodities in the world throughout history, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market. International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3 to over 60 cents per pound in the 50 years. About 100 of the world's 180 countries produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around 3 kilograms per person per annum in Ethiopia to around 40 kg/person/yr in Belgium. Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around 35 kg per person per year in middle income countries. Many countries subsidize sugar production heavily. The European Union, the United States, Japan, and many developing countries subsidize domestic production and maintain high tariffs on imports. Sugar prices in these countries have often exceeded prices on the international market by up to three times;, with world market sugar futures prices strong, such prices typically exceed world prices by two times. Within international trade bodies, especially in the World Trade Organization, the \"G20\" countries led by Brazil have long argued that, because these sugar markets in essence exclude cane sugar imports, the G20 sugar producers receive lower prices than they would under free trade. While both the European Union and United States maintain trade agreements whereby certain developing and less developed countries (LDCs) can sell certain quantities of sugar into their markets, free of the usual import tariffs, countries outside these preferred trade régimes have complained that these arrangements violate the \"most favoured nation\" principle of international trade. This has led to numerous tariffs and levies in the past. In 2004, the WTO sided with a group of cane sugar exporting nations (led by Brazil and Australia) and ruled the EU sugar-régime and the accompanying ACP-EU Sugar Protocol (whereby a group of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries receive preferential access to the European sugar market) illegal. In response to this and to other rulings of the WTO, and owing to internal pressures on the EU sugar-régime, the European Commission proposed on 22 June 2005 a radical reform of the EU sugar-régime, cutting prices by 39% and eliminating all EU sugar exports. The African, Caribbean, Pacific and least developed country sugar exporters reacted with dismay to the EU sugar proposals. On 25 November 2005, the Council of the EU agreed to cut EU sugar prices by 36% as from 2009. In 2007, it seemed that the U.S. Sugar Program could become the next target for reform. However, some commentators expected heavy lobbying from the U.S. sugar industry, which donated $2.7 million to US House and US Senate incumbents in the 2006 US election, more than any other group of US food-growers. Especially prominent lobbyists include The Fanjul Brothers, so-called \"sugar barons\" who made the single individual contributions of soft money to both the Democratic and Republican parties in the political system of the United States of America. Small quantities of sugar, especially specialty grades of sugar, reach the market as 'fair trade' commodities; the fair trade system produces and sells these products with the understanding that a larger-than-usual fraction of the revenue will support small farmers in the developing world. However, whilst the Fairtrade Foundation offers a premium of $60.00 per tonne to small farmers for sugar branded as \"Fairtrade\", government schemes such as the U.S. Sugar Program and the ACP Sugar Protocol offer premiums of around $400.00 per tonne above world market prices. However, the EU announced on 14 September 2007 that it had offered \"to eliminate all duties and quotas on the import of sugar into the EU\". The US Sugar Association has launched a campaign to promote sugar over artificial substitutes. The Association aggressively challenges many common beliefs regarding negative side-effects of sugar consumption. The campaign aired a high-profile television commercial during the 2007 Primetime Emmy Awards on FOX Television. The Sugar Association uses the trademark tagline \"Sugar: sweet by nature\"."
]
} |
Rural area | null | In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. The Health Resources and Services Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services defines the word "rural" as encompassing "...all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area. Whatever is not urban is considered rural." | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
25730,
4,
70,
55448,
100,
79048,
1311,
9,
21473,
1363,
136,
55441,
61924,
7,
10,
44,
4692,
68131,
1236,
538,
28720,
10776,
58,
237,
19441,
1286,
3501,
9071,
111,
70,
43904,
38043,
23,
28720,
142080,
7440,
10,
44,
42,
82451,
26908,
58,
1556,
10,
43904,
168,
7,
2481,
40715,
3501,
3252,
3395,
117,
6,
108047,
140635,
5,
360,
25730,
4,
70,
149039,
7,
91853,
1556,
2809,
11814,
47,
33636,
44,
80938,
7,
58,
136,
149039,
7,
51371,
3674,
1614,
9,
428,
25826,
7,
765,
2809,
11814,
47,
33636,
44,
277,
78055,
2449,
740,
5337,
12333,
67,
10776,
7,
765,
423,
47,
7218,
33297,
111,
2363,
43904,
38043,
23,
10,
28720,
26908,
5,
1914,
68131,
1236,
538,
27081,
10776,
7,
765,
40715,
3501,
423,
33297,
111,
2363,
43904,
38043,
23,
10,
28720,
26908,
5,
1914,
68131,
1236,
538,
28720,
10776,
7,
621,
18507,
47314,
237,
28720,
23205,
9,
712,
145,
16797,
4,
28720,
351,
9,
37165,
9,
712,
145,
16797,
136,
28720,
144477,
9022,
4,
25632,
198466,
38515,
18,
136,
75516,
669,
186348,
5,
91427,
23205,
9,
712,
145,
16797,
10776,
7,
621,
156531,
660,
538,
28720,
149039,
7,
91853,
7,
3129,
621,
123594,
16797,
47,
57329,
17840,
70880,
12960,
28720,
351,
9,
37165,
9,
712,
145,
16797,
10776,
7,
621,
8382,
156531,
660,
538,
28720,
149039,
7,
91853,
7,
3129,
621,
959,
123594,
16797,
47,
57329,
17840,
70880,
5,
91427,
144477,
9022,
10776,
7,
621,
156531,
660,
538,
28720,
149039,
7,
91853,
7,
450,
621,
14037,
40101,
167969,
707,
153161,
36917,
70,
25632,
124519,
111,
95103,
23,
12638,
140280,
12,
2356,
151645,
1760,
136,
21488,
72639,
4,
836,
927,
74,
5813,
33970,
8983,
927,
74,
200086,
4,
8983,
927,
74,
1572,
2986,
402,
4,
8934,
4216,
74,
947,
44860,
1430,
3206,
4,
24748,
11,
136,
56101,
121328,
4,
8983,
927,
5,
1301,
5299,
4,
28720,
144477,
9022,
10776,
7,
22,
277,
13409,
756,
111,
70,
109402,
191,
4,
23924,
25617,
154457,
90,
136,
1429,
76,
53720,
5,
126124,
28021,
25730,
61924,
7,
28720,
100,
2363,
43904,
54529,
7,
5,
3293,
80934,
1556,
98816,
645,
1733,
15,
21231,
5659,
17215,
425,
62,
23,
115,
436,
9393,
164,
82,
144,
5,
4,
5726,
194,
33417,
71407,
4,
442,
1556,
15005,
2822,
47,
70,
43904,
38043,
50782,
9615,
19929,
7,
111,
75534,
707,
10846,
56,
23,
109261,
16037,
5,
581,
43581,
80934,
117249,
450,
149039,
7,
28720,
83,
70,
43904,
50782,
9615,
19929,
7,
678,
10846,
56,
3501,
75534,
23,
109261,
16037,
136,
10,
43904,
168,
7,
2481,
35064,
4082,
3395,
117,
6,
108047,
140635,
15,
135206,
48242,
7,
25730,
4,
2691,
194,
382,
11267,
111,
70,
14098,
46684,
25,
23,
109261,
16037,
6867,
23,
165473,
761,
136,
27081,
58555,
4,
1284,
162708,
36,
143414,
53,
4734,
209,
33297,
111,
70,
23295,
5,
91427,
58555,
15,
36417,
4188,
16,
36,
143414,
53,
70,
47143,
214,
2510,
33297,
5,
581,
345,
5,
294,
5,
51292,
7921,
86907,
4,
70,
19052,
284,
25,
7,
79048,
42477,
12349,
4,
136,
70,
12133,
111,
25924,
136,
95457,
15,
670,
12689,
16,
765,
1380,
25842,
47,
4358,
61924,
28720,
58555,
5,
14098,
46684,
51292,
7921,
86907,
12,
581,
51292,
7921,
86907,
80934,
7,
15,
54936,
47,
70,
3576,
149039,
7,
247,
3129,
621,
35509,
98,
43904,
168,
7,
2481,
4,
61924,
7,
28720,
58555,
237,
756,
181991,
53,
50782,
51292,
7921,
86907,
9,
112,
5983,
297,
27081,
29367,
58555,
136,
27081,
234737,
7,
5,
19052,
284,
180,
12689,
12,
9626,
70,
31365,
44978,
71,
126124,
21533,
79200,
7,
11814,
390,
70,
180,
12689,
15,
277,
3796,
538,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
242,
47307,
6703,
28864,
7,
25,
247,
360,
27580,
70,
19052,
284,
150011,
2363,
28720,
248,
351,
9,
42,
82451,
16128,
80934,
7,
35509,
98,
70,
1532,
51292,
7921,
54529,
7,
5,
9907,
11588,
100,
43154,
126124,
28021,
15,
839,
69247,
16,
15226,
5281,
6863,
80934,
111,
28720,
115215,
23,
3295,
7103,
20697,
678,
70,
51292,
7921,
86907,
47,
28282,
10,
3525,
29096,
40865,
1363,
5426,
47,
10323,
20650,
98,
52295,
71,
20787,
587,
6238,
55556,
5,
91427,
16227,
80934,
7,
831,
186,
12921,
100,
137633,
214,
1379,
9,
86687,
71,
58555,
707,
16227,
517,
17203,
14,
83259,
23,
28720,
58555,
111,
70,
14098,
46684,
5,
129551,
47,
70,
3535,
14137,
4,
155455,
7,
111,
91427,
12,
62,
10639,
14137,
100,
19102,
80042,
13676,
1314,
136,
42477,
1314,
4,
44,
4332,
20816,
933,
111,
57329,
17840,
54529,
3387,
621,
137567,
17569,
47,
765,
23468,
17203,
47,
70,
35845,
538,
142156,
297,
16227,
11374,
111,
70,
54529,
53,
25,
7,
9879,
58555,
5,
33306,
4,
3060,
57329,
17840,
54529,
3387,
621,
221,
21334,
450,
1836,
70541,
19336,
59444,
7,
136,
28720,
4,
27148,
1428,
53,
27623,
3674,
58555,
450,
621,
54015,
3674,
1295,
6097,
9879,
234737,
7,
136,
2363,
42518,
214,
16227,
11374,
390,
72761,
125861,
7,
1242,
717,
29823,
903,
10644,
111,
28720,
16128,
4,
44,
30404,
18345,
18217,
153144,
4,
1575,
11,
37123,
875,
4,
136,
803,
26942,
48271,
90,
186348,
151552,
10,
55300,
25443,
47,
135812,
19336,
59444,
7,
136,
28720,
58555,
28032,
21334,
57329,
17840,
54529,
3387,
15,
37150,
441,
7,
16,
450,
3542,
54015,
3674,
1295,
9879,
58555,
390,
62488,
707,
3789,
72761,
66139,
1242,
3293,
100512,
70,
18217,
153144,
224149,
1363,
80934,
111,
28720,
5,
44,
571,
68336,
106252,
28720,
53019,
581,
18217,
153144,
224149,
1363,
1556,
2809,
80234,
100,
71062,
214,
70,
28,
7883,
83259,
100,
30361,
103391,
450,
30793,
28720,
43904,
7,
2451,
188,
26698,
70,
54015,
3674,
28720,
43904,
7,
111,
21334,
57329,
17840,
54529,
3387,
1242,
19102,
517,
117989,
23,
28720,
58555,
111,
70,
14098,
46684,
831,
186,
223920,
5,
28090,
4078,
73251,
4,
70,
34515,
111,
38516,
538,
56282,
2886,
17986,
47691,
7,
100,
10,
85691,
27289,
509,
167375,
23,
28720,
58555,
15,
162,
154186,
47,
21334,
57329,
17840,
4,
19336,
57329,
17840,
4,
707,
11948,
74132,
66,
58555,
194,
360,
30089,
4,
2685,
621,
12921,
110,
5256,
111,
44,
42,
82451,
16128,
58,
136,
44,
71013,
1294,
8752,
740,
91427,
58555,
621,
2499,
3687,
50782,
10,
14834,
2481,
25,
7,
27081,
34754,
15,
146049,
7,
4,
48800,
7,
16,
136,
442,
25,
7,
175100,
390,
152701,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
4537,
4,
10,
28720,
16128,
707,
23295,
8752,
83,
10,
20787,
48461,
16128,
450,
83,
105866,
50782,
59444,
7,
136,
162708,
5,
581,
19102,
152055,
7,
136,
40583,
141888,
111,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
63557,
111,
19102,
136,
28076,
40583,
61924,
7,
70,
2565,
44,
42,
82451,
58,
237,
22,
277,
13409,
214,
44,
27,
5584,
43904,
4,
185517,
4,
136,
181991,
53,
959,
99201,
28032,
142,
27081,
16128,
5,
4865,
30441,
83,
959,
27081,
83,
90698,
28720,
1242,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1441635 | en-train-1441635 | 1441635 | {
"title": [
"North America.",
"Canada.",
"United States.",
"Rural schools.",
"Rural health.",
"South America.",
"Brazil.",
"Europe.",
"Germany.",
"United Kingdom.",
"Rural health.",
"Asia.",
"India.",
"Japan.",
"Pakistan.",
"Human fertility."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"In Canada, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development defines a \"predominantly rural region\" as having more than 50% of the population living in rural communities where a \"rural community\" has a population density less than 150 people per square kilometre. In Canada, the census division has been used to represent \"regions\" and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent \"communities\". Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their population living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their population living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft and Beeman (1992). Rural metro-adjacent regions are predominantly rural census divisions which are adjacent to metropolitan centres while rural non-metro-adjacent regions are those predominantly rural census divisions which are not adjacent to metropolitan centres. Rural northern regions are predominantly rural census divisions that are found either entirely or mostly above the following lines of parallel in each province: Newfoundland and Labrador, 50th; Quebec 54th; Ontario, 54th; Manitoba, 53rd; Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, 54th. As well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts. This definition has changed over time (see Appendix A in du Plessis et al., 2002). Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or fewer inhabitants. The current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre (Statistics Canada, 2007).",
"84% of the United States' inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, but cities occupy only 10 percent of the country. Rural areas (villages) occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U.S. Census Bureau, the USDA's Economic Research Service, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) have come together to help define rural areas. United States Census Bureau: The Census Bureau definitions (new to the 2000 census), which are based on population density, defines rural areas as all territory outside Census Bureau-defined urbanized areas and urban clusters. USDA OMB: Under the Core Based Statistical Areas used by the OMB (commonly referred to as 'CBSA Codes'), In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts.",
"National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) revised its definition of rural schools in 2006 after working with the Census Bureau to create a new locale classification system to capitalize on improved geocoding technology.",
"Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. According to the handbook, Definitions of Rural: A Handbook for Health Policy Makers and Researchers, \"Residents of metropolitan counties are generally thought to have easy access to the relatively concentrated health services of the county's central areas. However, some metropolitan counties are so large that they contain small towns and rural, sparsely populated areas that are isolated from these central clusters and their corresponding health services by physical barriers.\" To address this type of rural area, \"Harold Goldsmith, Dena Puskin, and Dianne Stiles (1992) described a methodology to identify small towns and rural areas within large metropolitan counties (LMCs) that were isolated from central areas by distance or other physical features.\" This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural. \"Bhoomeet rural education The Goldsmith Modification has been useful for expanding the eligibility for federal programs that assist rural populations—to include the isolated rural populations of large metropolitan counties.\" Health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas (as compared to large metropolitan, small metropolitan, or micropolitan areas).",
"",
"In Brazil, there are different notions of \"rural area\" and \"countryside\". Rural areas are any place outside a municipality's urban development (buildings, streets) and it's carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside (\"interior\" in Portuguese) are officially defined as all municipalities outside the state/territory capital's metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesn't have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, except its capital is officially \"countryside\". Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and it's de facto a \"metropolitan state\", as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio. In the Federal District it's not applicable and there's no countryside as all of it is treated as the federal capital. Brasília is \"nominally\" the capital, but the \"capitality\" is shared through all Federal District, because Brazil de facto defines its capital as a municipality, and in municipal matters, the Federal District is treated and governs as a single municipality, city-state-like (Brasília, DF).",
"",
"The country is divided into 402 administrative districts: 295 rural districts and 107 urban districts. Germany is among the largest agricultural producers in the European Union. More than half of Germany's territory – almost 19 million hectares – is used for farming, and are located in the rural areas. Almost 10% of employees in Germany has work linked directly or indirectly with the agricultural, forest and fisheries sectors; approximately a fifth of them are employed in primary production. The implication is that, unlike in some other European countries, where rural areas are known for being backward when compared to urban areas, in Germany, the trend is changing. Due to the country's policy of equal living conditions, this is not the case in Germany. Rural areas receive nearly equivalent attention as the urban areas do. Also, through a special approach to rural development, usually referred to as Village Renewal, the challenges of rural Germany are taken care of.",
"In Britain, \"rural\" is defined by the government Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), using population data from the latest census, such as the United Kingdom Census 2001. These definitions have various grades, but the upper point is any local government area with more than 26% of its population living in a rural settlement or market town (\"market town\" being defined as any settlement which has permission to hold a street market). A number of measures are in place to protect the British countryside, including green belts.",
"In England an NHS patient is defined as rural if they live more than 1 mile (1.6 km) from either a doctor or a dispensing chemist. In Scotland a different definition of rural is used. This is important for defining whether the patient is expected to collect their own medicines. While doctors' surgeries in towns will not have a medicines dispensary instead expecting patients to use a high-street chemist to purchase their prescription medicines (in Scotland collection not purchase, as prescriptions are paid by the state), in rural village surgeries, an NHS medicines dispensary will be built into the same building.",
"",
"Rural areas are also known as the 'countryside' or a 'village' in India. It has a very low population density. In rural areas, agriculture is the chief source of livelihood along with fishing, cottage industries, pottery etc. The quest to discover the real rural India still continues in great earnest. Almost every economic agency today has a definition of rural India. Here are a few definitions: According to the Planning Commission, a town with a maximum population of 15,000 is considered rural in nature. In these areas the panchayat makes all the decisions. There are five persons in the panchayat. The National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) defines ‘rural’ as follows: RBI defines rural areas as those areas with a population of less than 49,000 (tier -3 to tier-6 cities). It is generally said that the rural areas house up to 70% of India's population. Rural India contributes a large chunk to India's GDP by way of agriculture, self-employment, services, construction etc. As per a strict measure used by the National Sample Survey in its 63rd round, called monthly per capita expenditure, rural expenditure accounts for 55% of total national monthly expenditure. The rural population currently accounts for one-third of the total Indian FMCG sales.",
"In Japan, rural areas are referred to as \"Inaka\" which translates literally to \"the countryside\" or \"one's native village\".",
"According to the 2017 census about 64% of Pakistanis live in rural areas. Most rural areas in Pakistan tend to be near cities, and are peri-urban areas. This is due to the definition of a rural area in Pakistan being an area that does not come within an urban boundary. The remote rural villagers of Pakistan commonly live in houses made of bricks, clay or mud. Socioeconomic status among rural Pakistani villagers is often based upon the ownership of agricultural land, which also may provide social prestige in village cultures. The majority of rural Pakistani inhabitants livelihoods is based upon the rearing of livestock, which also comprises a significant part of Pakistan's gross domestic product. Some livestock raised by rural Pakistanis include cattle and goats. However rural areas in Pakistan that are near cities are considered suburban areas or suburbs.",
"Rural residence is a fertility factor, with total fertility rates and pregnancy being higher among women in rural areas than among women in urban areas and the rural population is much younger than urban areas."
]
} |
Scientometrics | null | Scientometrics is the field of study which concerns itself with measuring and analysing scientific literature. Scientometrics is a sub-field of bibliometrics. Major research issues include the measurement of the impact of research papers and academic journals, the understanding of scientific citations, and the use of such measurements in policy and management contexts. In practice there is a significant overlap between scientometrics and other scientific fields such as information systems, information science, science of science policy, sociology of science, and metascience. | null | [
250004,
250054,
18799,
13047,
20193,
186518,
7,
83,
153161,
35509,
98,
70,
4488,
111,
1310,
343,
821,
5,
8,
6678,
143,
48025,
136,
79834,
13,
6389,
28394,
5,
581,
21,
3055,
75935,
70,
28745,
2079,
22062,
31471,
136,
14037,
297,
70,
43975,
100,
210017,
32007,
3129,
83,
17305,
5115,
53,
11814,
100,
13047,
20193,
186518,
114137,
5,
62,
171332,
108858,
68828,
4,
44,
294,
45964,
58174,
4439,
830,
509,
170920,
23,
25695,
5,
581,
25297,
47691,
111,
41664,
124735,
70,
102134,
939,
111,
104345,
7,
136,
25188,
184345,
7,
136,
70,
6,
58944,
111,
70,
13909,
7,
107003,
60266,
114137,
111,
903,
2053,
5,
51404,
70,
19633,
25443,
111,
41664,
162393,
98,
70,
123166,
111,
172647,
7,
4,
13047,
20193,
186518,
7,
162393,
98,
70,
114137,
111,
104345,
7,
5,
129551,
538,
4,
13047,
20193,
186518,
7,
83,
2843,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
70,
57456,
136,
156002,
6827,
35187,
111,
41664,
136,
6863,
184345,
7,
5,
147466,
4,
10932,
70,
15504,
111,
70,
142642,
4,
219836,
136,
77918,
111,
172647,
7,
136,
38016,
7,
21449,
1286,
3934,
70,
13162,
20016,
7,
5,
44978,
71,
98,
75422,
186518,
114137,
111,
57456,
104345,
7,
136,
15869,
5256,
4,
70,
198919,
187775,
111,
6661,
66821,
90,
24073,
294,
8467,
15251,
77918,
18939,
509,
5117,
91376,
23,
4821,
390,
70,
128291,
3291,
11,
31,
171742,
12535,
5,
161623,
120103,
100512,
142,
5526,
55516,
47,
55076,
17721,
12921,
68828,
7,
136,
70,
77918,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
198919,
187775,
111,
6661,
66821,
90,
136,
70,
19114,
19694,
56,
43154,
6661,
12535,
187775,
7,
15,
120363,
9,
36467,
214,
16,
100512,
10,
105207,
172075,
100,
70,
10778,
111,
141626,
90,
5,
581,
44,
127,
58,
9,
4711,
100512,
142,
5526,
172075,
111,
70,
12996,
54613,
53,
136,
24725,
111,
70,
4488,
111,
10,
172647,
5,
33306,
4,
30700,
42179,
9,
67919,
172075,
7,
765,
2809,
26171,
71,
15,
21231,
100,
27781,
194,
62,
67688,
70,
5701,
1733,
4,
33946,
111,
27759,
7,
23,
151575,
214,
25188,
100,
70,
60042,
111,
202120,
214,
70,
24725,
111,
41664,
163157,
124735,
5,
1301,
70,
77021,
7,
23,
57456,
25188,
3542,
99201,
237,
2831,
111,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
15672,
213188,
136,
853,
42232,
674,
25515,
111,
1877,
15,
166007,
247,
10,
13036,
25313,
28029,
223,
98169,
4,
103391,
1884,
106366,
11292,
62353,
19283,
3542,
5423,
1257,
47,
202120,
2174,
70,
24491,
24725,
98,
70,
111503,
2806,
20653,
74918,
5,
74644,
7,
111,
25188,
26698,
150234,
13,
4,
88779,
5844,
136,
181135,
43315,
51515,
90,
5,
581,
5201,
32153,
111,
96335,
765,
2809,
98,
38016,
289,
12996,
54613,
53,
225490,
7,
4,
38016,
289,
25188,
77918,
7,
4,
68828,
77918,
7,
137633,
214,
7808,
202,
939,
12996,
54613,
53,
136,
1492,
3408,
5570,
7,
4,
202120,
214,
70,
79507,
111,
2663,
191225,
538,
38440,
4,
136,
168698,
60641,
7,
111,
2663,
42179,
7,
136,
38016,
7,
23,
69407,
111,
25188,
23718,
6561,
88551,
90791,
23,
70,
44457,
83,
10,
24702,
133,
111,
11034,
57826,
1363,
47,
70,
21543,
450,
10,
55391,
6496,
53333,
90791,
7,
99,
10,
34475,
17366,
111,
131011,
55993,
78643,
80973,
538,
1286,
11034,
538,
23,
70,
1119,
40930,
6644,
111,
71834,
136,
65514,
5,
33306,
4,
3525,
234873,
1771,
150624,
23,
33938,
4,
36279,
52080,
136,
2053,
324,
592,
621,
141377,
450,
83,
959,
70,
7225,
100,
5941,
4677,
456,
97351,
1405,
136,
4173,
10763,
9,
77007,
44402,
5,
148641,
44457,
7,
621,
70,
32692,
111,
41664,
136,
55556,
4,
6,
119598,
53,
111,
41664,
136,
19633,
25443,
111,
57456,
51359,
5,
34419,
7,
23,
70,
44457,
26698,
44,
294,
45964,
58174,
4439,
4,
34419,
111,
70,
15672,
67081,
100,
32007,
28745,
136,
46473,
830,
136,
44,
238158,
111,
29833,
13,
62233,
7,
740,
581,
8357,
67081,
100,
49628,
20193,
186518,
7,
136,
29833,
13,
62233,
7,
14037,
297,
23,
13867,
83,
142,
125413,
111,
50582,
23,
70,
44457,
5,
5455,
17309,
150624,
456,
538,
98,
9803,
31344,
136,
9803,
2053,
47,
63284,
3900,
16082,
27771,
136,
42238,
14,
83259,
23,
13315,
678,
5744,
9803,
41664,
96679,
5,
1326,
110527,
4,
70,
992,
21284,
66769,
63262,
136,
160675,
25188,
98,
9803,
17203,
12768,
7,
83,
35509,
98,
2053,
456,
97351,
4126,
1295,
180,
11388,
9,
20266,
841,
3564,
38496,
7,
111,
137107,
111,
9803,
43878,
90,
62952,
390,
35773,
10484,
136,
38016,
7,
214574,
5,
581,
24725,
31461,
15,
29836,
16,
707,
68828,
24725,
31461,
15,
33205,
919,
16,
111,
142,
108858,
68828,
83,
10,
72350,
44961,
214,
70,
6602,
538,
83080,
14012,
111,
15869,
5256,
47,
17309,
38440,
91376,
23,
450,
68828,
5,
1650,
83,
195409,
11814,
237,
10,
502,
50878,
100,
70,
35845,
131011,
111,
10,
68828,
28032,
6863,
44457,
74,
68828,
7,
678,
77546,
24725,
120103,
621,
27983,
8,
195,
297,
47,
186,
1286,
5526,
3501,
8382,
678,
92319,
64333,
5,
581,
24725,
31461,
509,
97025,
297,
390,
79834,
13,
6389,
28394,
4,
70,
14037,
56,
111,
70,
43975,
100,
210017,
32007,
15,
32938,
194,
581,
28745,
2079,
22062,
31471,
15,
134165,
16,
83,
10,
15869,
1363,
63262,
7311,
538,
181653,
390,
70,
43975,
100,
210017,
32007,
15,
32938,
16,
136,
75935,
390,
79834,
13,
6389,
28394,
5,
1650,
509,
51521,
538,
83184,
297,
23,
38425,
5,
1650,
83,
5036,
6,
157272,
390,
133416,
24836,
50480,
15,
4692,
686,
79850,
70,
24018,
141949,
206984,
136,
28745,
8063,
111,
112074,
1681,
41325,
194,
581,
150679,
11389,
15,
218054,
2079,
22062,
31471,
60075,
4431,
71,
16,
29256,
7,
1286,
3501,
382,
4,
4283,
135818,
136,
88551,
68828,
7,
4,
36880,
3252,
80244,
7,
4,
1295,
33418,
47,
70,
13379,
5,
32255,
621,
30700,
538,
151552,
237,
70,
8999,
25,
7,
105207,
68828,
7,
111,
41664,
136,
55556,
4,
6637,
111,
10,
75992,
10821,
132216,
9433,
5,
893,
224344,
674,
63262,
15,
111345,
4745,
14941,
10010,
2069,
16,
707,
1030,
69723,
6259,
177,
674,
63262,
15,
127345,
14941,
10010,
2069,
16,
83,
10,
55300,
100,
63262,
214,
136,
7968,
53,
35401,
1030,
69723,
6259,
177,
9035,
23,
70,
57456,
163136,
136,
4,
4911,
7,
4,
102134,
1029,
90,
70,
24725,
111,
224344,
9035,
5,
33417,
71407,
4,
10,
191225,
538,
5582,
1556,
10,
40059,
23,
3129,
70,
42179,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
49628,
20193,
186518,
7,
83,
70,
44457,
111,
35187,
3129,
50509,
7,
68034,
678,
163,
162,
53089,
136,
60822,
214,
57456,
163136,
5,
49628,
20193,
186518,
7,
83,
10,
1614,
9,
28394,
111,
75422,
186518,
7,
5,
49953,
25188,
37348,
26698,
70,
72350,
674,
111,
70,
24725,
111,
25188,
15122,
7,
136,
108858,
68828,
7,
4,
70,
100094,
111,
57456,
15869,
5256,
4,
136,
70,
4527,
111,
6044,
72350,
9035,
23,
44930,
136,
24365,
43701,
7,
5,
360,
41361,
2685,
83,
10,
88551,
645,
6324,
17721,
13047,
20193,
186518,
7,
136,
3789,
57456,
44457,
7,
6044,
237,
4677,
76519,
4,
4677,
41664,
4,
41664,
111,
41664,
44930,
4,
19633,
25443,
111,
41664,
4,
136,
23550,
175201,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-942200 | en-train-942200 | 942200 | {
"title": [
"Historical development.",
"Methods.",
"Common scientometric indexes.",
"Impact factor.",
"Science Citation Index.",
"Acknowledgement index.",
"Criticisms."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Modern scientometrics is mostly based on the work of Derek J. de Solla Price and Eugene Garfield. The latter created the Science Citation Index and founded the Institute for Scientific Information which is heavily used for scientometric analysis. A dedicated academic journal, \"Scientometrics\", was established in 1978. The industrialization of science increased the quantity of publications and research outcomes and the rise of the computers allowed effective analysis of this data. While the sociology of science focused on the behavior of scientists, scientometrics focused on the analysis of publications. Accordingly, scientometrics is also referred to as the scientific and empirical study of science and its outcomes. Later, around the turn of the century, evaluation and ranking of scientists and institutions came more into the spotlights. Based on bibliometric analysis of scientific publications and citations, the Academic Ranking of World Universities (\"Shanghai ranking\") was first published in 2004 by the Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Impact factors became an important tool to choose between different journals and the rankings such as the Academic Ranking of World Universities and the Times Higher Education World University Rankings (THE-ranking) became a leading indicator for the status of universities. The \"h\"-index became an important indicator of the productivity and impact of the work of a scientist. However, alternative author-level indicators have been proposed (see for example). Around the same time, interest of governments in evaluating research for the purpose of assessing the impact of science funding increased. As the investments in scientific research were included as part of the U.S. American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA), a major economic stimulus package, programs like STAR METRICS were set up to assess if the positive impact on the economy would actually occur.",
"Methods of research include qualitative, quantitative and computational approaches. The main focus of studies have been on institutional productivity comparisons, institutional research rankings, journal rankings establishing faculty productivity and tenure standards, assessing the influence of top scholarly articles, and developing profiles of top authors and institutions in terms of research performance One significant finding in the field is a principle of cost escalation to the effect that achieving further findings at a given level of importance grow exponentially more costly in the expenditure of effort and resources. However, new algorithmic methods in search, machine learning and data mining are showing that is not the case for many information retrieval and extraction-based problems. Related fields are the history of science and technology, philosophy of science and sociology of scientific knowledge. Journals in the field include \"Scientometrics, Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology\", and \"Journal of Informetrics\". The International Society for Scientometrics and Informetrics founded in 1993 is an association of professionals in the field. More recent methods rely on open source and open data to ensure transparency and reproducibility in line with modern open science requirements. For instance, the Unpaywall index and attendant research on open access trends is based on data retrieved from OAI-PMH endpoints of thousands of open archives provided by libraries and institutions worldwide.",
"",
"The impact factor (IF) or journal impact factor (JIF) of an academic journal is a measure reflecting the yearly average number of citations to recent articles published in that journal. It is frequently used as a proxy for the relative importance of a journal within its field; journals with higher impact factors are often deemed to be more important than those with lower ones. The impact factor was devised by Eugene Garfield, the founder of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI).",
"The Science Citation Index (SCI) is a citation index originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) and created by Eugene Garfield. It was officially launched in 1964. It is now owned by Clarivate Analytics (previously the Intellectual Property and Science business of Thomson Reuters). The larger version (Science Citation Index Expanded) covers more than 8,500 notable and significant journals, across 150 disciplines, from 1900 to the present. These are alternatively described as the world's leading journals of science and technology, because of a rigorous selection process.",
"An acknowledgement index (British English spelling) or acknowledgment index (American English spelling) is a method for indexing and analyzing acknowledgments in the scientific literature and, thus, quantifies the impact of acknowledgements. Typically, a scholarly article has a section in which the authors acknowledge entities such as funding, technical staff, colleagues, etc. that have contributed materials or knowledge or have influenced or inspired their work. Like a citation index, it measures influences on scientific work, but in a different sense; it measures institutional and economic influences as well as informal influences of individual people, ideas, and artifacts. Unlike the impact factor, it does not produce a single overall metric, but analyses the components separately. However, the total number of acknowledgements to an acknowledged entity can be measured and so can the number of citations to the papers in which the acknowledgement appears. The ratio of this total number of citations to the total number of papers in which the acknowledge entity appears can be construed as the impact of that acknowledged entity.",
"Critics have argued that over-reliance on scientometrics has created a system of perverse incentives, producing a publish or perish environment that leads to low quality research."
]
} |
Ritual | null | A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed in a sequestered place and according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, but not defined, by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, and performance. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
14941,
2565,
44,
49579,
289,
58,
122,
60877,
1295,
70,
42845,
44,
49579,
10836,
4,
58,
44,
86673,
3129,
117,
25500,
7,
47,
6,
18781,
44,
132,
49579,
7,
18939,
740,
360,
12610,
85094,
289,
136,
167821,
127689,
4,
44,
49579,
7,
58,
509,
70,
60449,
3917,
44,
132,
840,
16,
58,
111,
20594,
9844,
4,
707,
44,
32399,
15390,
23718,
4,
114122,
740,
581,
7311,
23755,
111,
44,
49579,
7,
58,
1543,
186,
62548,
47,
70,
1735,
7,
31434,
44,
84847,
4813,
58,
24073,
99017,
12989,
16,
58,
23,
8115,
1771,
42615,
4,
44,
2347,
27165,
7844,
136,
20324,
12989,
111,
70,
3638,
4,
136,
127298,
27798,
4,
6083,
136,
29568,
45646,
111,
9545,
21068,
4,
8999,
538,
4,
14135,
136,
68869,
47353,
740,
581,
2565,
44,
49579,
289,
58,
83,
5117,
17164,
297,
23,
14941,
23,
423,
5757,
4,
136,
21449,
3934,
4527,
23,
70,
48463,
7,
47,
29459,
44,
2347,
479,
34601,
71,
12989,
111,
51339,
214,
167821,
11374,
58,
707,
1286,
106480,
10,
12877,
111,
6097,
479,
59478,
7,
5,
8622,
621,
7941,
538,
2499,
17475,
7,
47,
70,
8562,
111,
61972,
450,
1543,
186,
49504,
3674,
3934,
10,
68869,
5,
581,
12296,
90,
111,
11015,
136,
13379,
38887,
68794,
765,
205794,
75412,
5361,
28995,
30891,
136,
34153,
4,
105955,
1363,
111,
188347,
7986,
7,
4,
23718,
111,
5361,
19612,
4,
52336,
707,
82393,
7,
4,
9433,
17514,
4,
45258,
1363,
111,
24233,
36746,
7,
4,
4527,
111,
5361,
40989,
90,
4,
18588,
254,
1363,
111,
5361,
15381,
4,
23417,
4,
707,
125694,
4,
136,
5045,
1286,
5,
129811,
33500,
187,
21325,
450,
68869,
7,
831,
186,
62816,
29367,
390,
23113,
8780,
4,
89160,
8780,
4,
23,
21690,
7154,
4,
79986,
9,
168080,
7154,
4,
61523,
141,
26582,
8780,
136,
23718,
5,
2975,
39181,
121876,
7,
10,
84046,
136,
128652,
538,
5808,
297,
5423,
111,
125195,
7,
3129,
142,
42294,
771,
106622,
7,
11782,
10,
44,
107,
144225,
297,
18151,
58,
15,
73,
177986,
47,
10,
1286,
9803,
44,
13,
26439,
3674,
18151,
51029,
204990,
54231,
206,
187,
21325,
450,
68869,
37911,
90,
56480,
47,
4527,
903,
23113,
707,
13300,
6827,
20623,
4,
3129,
83,
84046,
23,
23,
1507,
2320,
4,
6002,
86531,
4,
190219,
1294,
4,
459,
1674,
7432,
4,
136,
30022,
2481,
111,
12989,
5,
360,
30666,
214,
903,
20623,
4,
68869,
119893,
25,
116483,
24209,
7,
1286,
20623,
3501,
10941,
5,
88949,
903,
23113,
116483,
17475,
7,
2367,
831,
186,
2804,
4,
442,
135989,
90,
44,
135372,
3956,
4,
225932,
4,
707,
99,
19713,
100,
372,
11,
84459,
678,
28601,
47,
2499,
645,
18,
66801,
740,
54231,
206,
187,
21325,
450,
903,
3173,
111,
68869,
36398,
30482,
214267,
1830,
69201,
136,
98834,
70,
4734,
3820,
11,
55356,
30700,
5,
2975,
39181,
17660,
7,
47,
8060,
89160,
3173,
7,
111,
2265,
1791,
147,
7668,
136,
180210,
4,
136,
76104,
7,
70,
237259,
7,
98,
3129,
70,
180210,
83,
35509,
1295,
66801,
5,
2975,
39181,
7,
149528,
47,
40250,
136,
621,
137567,
136475,
47,
119140,
186768,
123132,
4,
167821,
6,
18781,
4,
1286,
7,
707,
405,
26973,
299,
152018,
538,
5,
97299,
10836,
39,
41110,
7,
1295,
23113,
8780,
23,
450,
70,
68869,
1543,
959,
186,
23113,
14373,
7464,
30482,
142,
149528,
47,
70,
186768,
12768,
5,
893,
27781,
83,
70,
15672,
229075,
94000,
4,
3129,
1543,
959,
186,
23113,
4,
14373,
83,
362,
41745,
38526,
35509,
98,
142,
19732,
1295,
70,
39395,
16915,
17840,
9615,
19929,
111,
21629,
5,
28107,
1779,
51838,
2291,
16145,
117863,
39,
136,
74910,
3956,
32515,
56,
765,
106926,
297,
450,
5941,
111,
6097,
621,
44,
132894,
297,
40250,
7,
830,
6044,
237,
70,
68869,
7,
111,
70,
56101,
185610,
53,
4,
3129,
23,
23253,
13,
44,
18,
13885,
43882,
6602,
9,
18345,
40250,
58,
1284,
124901,
8561,
3173,
62038,
67,
23,
70,
72399,
300,
26534,
33,
927,
142642,
4,
47,
3060,
192961,
15226,
6496,
110680,
3173,
7,
4,
23,
903,
7225,
92264,
4,
450,
1902,
2809,
2837,
133891,
297,
23,
70,
29459,
6032,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
70,
149528,
47,
32692,
83,
5526,
43257,
3501,
152018,
186768,
179965,
5,
129811,
33500,
117249,
450,
68869,
83,
2843,
23,
162591,
4,
21980,
538,
214,
517,
7844,
681,
107,
87168,
5,
3293,
83,
40715,
142,
149528,
47,
89160,
8780,
3501,
10,
22223,
6496,
100,
1733,
9393,
57346,
1363,
5,
581,
22799,
47,
23,
21690,
7154,
83,
4486,
20102,
80244,
4,
237,
23,
2667,
11,
28692,
177966,
136,
216569,
131148,
47,
105751,
50745,
7,
136,
52528,
7,
5,
3293,
4486,
20102,
80244,
83,
195409,
51339,
297,
23,
51,
40514,
4,
390,
94407,
5,
2975,
39181,
7,
17660,
47,
186,
23131,
297,
390,
91736,
4,
10,
60213,
208806,
1884,
23113,
8780,
5,
139118,
7,
6,
178451,
22599,
7,
98,
70,
156059,
111,
123166,
4,
40101,
13204,
449,
70,
1810,
56,
17475,
7,
111,
2367,
83,
213850,
707,
681,
46636,
41382,
214,
12638,
25813,
5,
154966,
7,
621,
34658,
47,
60013,
25958,
190238,
114122,
7,
450,
113536,
350,
10,
148436,
67,
60013,
289,
180210,
450,
831,
158,
2816,
73,
70,
7722,
184345,
7,
5,
165837,
25958,
4,
5550,
23,
2684,
38887,
68794,
1556,
2809,
6,
99091,
390,
103210,
68869,
29367,
158,
2816,
4288,
7,
450,
17475,
70,
148436,
67,
26950,
390,
3129,
1631,
509,
259,
17704,
5,
42902,
31075,
149528,
214,
47,
1601,
84832,
8035,
7,
621,
72546,
90698,
68869,
7,
4,
102971,
70,
149528,
1543,
186,
32233,
116361,
4,
36510,
214,
4734,
10,
4537,
29367,
144239,
23,
70,
6,
116311,
111,
70,
57,
89921,
35968,
214,
10,
14135,
57553,
5,
9907,
49938,
7,
4,
100,
27781,
4,
1543,
186,
90698,
1286,
3501,
24092,
7,
33636,
214,
10,
23295,
5,
581,
49938,
9157,
7,
100,
150679,
26582,
7,
6044,
237,
147452,
4,
53397,
15182,
2408,
4,
4092,
202681,
707,
15889,
14597,
2481,
5,
893,
42294,
771,
106622,
53257,
1294,
12426,
1679,
33022,
7,
450,
70,
49938,
14602,
959,
65524,
44961,
1830,
98,
70,
62775,
289,
91582,
54940,
6097,
25647,
4,
12488,
98,
70,
62775,
289,
212678,
111,
2856,
237,
1836,
621,
112730,
1810,
23,
2265,
8561,
2481,
4,
645,
1733,
136,
32692,
5,
2161,
70,
2304,
1294,
4,
70,
49938,
65524,
7,
10,
12096,
111,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
68869,
83,
10,
40,
944,
3956,
111,
69924,
23,
3784,
6496,
28995,
30891,
4,
34153,
4,
61972,
4,
707,
36746,
7,
4,
51339,
297,
23,
10,
40,
944,
1515,
297,
3687,
136,
59499,
47,
10,
5423,
40,
944,
3956,
5,
2975,
39181,
7,
1543,
186,
479,
34601,
71,
390,
70,
40250,
7,
111,
10,
26908,
4,
26719,
10,
167821,
26908,
5,
2975,
39181,
7,
621,
62816,
29367,
4,
1284,
959,
61924,
71,
4,
390,
23113,
8780,
4,
89160,
8780,
4,
23,
21690,
7154,
4,
79986,
9,
168080,
7154,
4,
61523,
141,
26582,
8780,
4,
136,
23718,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1807038 | en-train-1807038 | 1807038 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Characteristics.",
"Formalism.",
"Traditionalism.",
"Invariance.",
"Rule-governance.",
"Sacrifice.",
"Performance.",
"Genres.",
"Rites of passage.",
"Calendrical and commemorative rites.",
"Rites of exchange and communion.",
"Rites of affliction.",
"Rites of feasting, fasting and festivals.",
"Political rituals.",
"Anthropological theories.",
"Functionalism.",
"As social control.",
"Rebellion.",
"Structuralism.",
"Structure and anti-structure.",
"Anti-structure and communitas.",
"Social dramas.",
"Symbolic approaches to ritual.",
"As a form of communication.",
"As a disciplinary program.",
"As a form of social solidarity.",
"Ritualization.",
"Natural Scientific.",
"Religion.",
"Ritual as a methodological measure of religiosity.",
"See also."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The English word \"ritual\" derives from the Latin \"ritualis,\" \"that which pertains to rite \"(ritus\")\". In Roman juridical and religious usage, \"ritus\" was the proven way \"(mos)\" of doing something, or \"correct performance, custom\". The original concept of \"ritus\" may be related to the Sanskrit \"ṛtá\" (\"visible order)\" in Vedic religion, \"the lawful and regular order of the normal, and therefore proper, natural and true structure of cosmic, worldly, human and ritual events\". The word \"ritual\" is first recorded in English in 1570, and came into use in the 1600s to mean \"the prescribed order of performing religious services\" or more particularly a book of these prescriptions.",
"There are hardly any limits to the kind of actions that may be incorporated into a ritual. The rites of past and present societies have typically involved special gestures and words, recitation of fixed texts, performance of special music, songs or dances, processions, manipulation of certain objects, use of special dresses, consumption of special food, drink, or drugs, and much more. Catherine Bell argues that rituals can be characterized by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism and performance.",
"Ritual utilizes a limited and rigidly organized set of expressions which anthropologists call a \"restricted code\" (in opposition to a more open \"elaborated code\"). Maurice Bloch argues that ritual obliges participants to use this formal oratorical style, which is limited in intonation, syntax, vocabulary, loudness, and fixity of order. In adopting this style, ritual leaders' speech becomes more style than content. Because this formal speech limits what can be said, it induces \"acceptance, compliance, or at least forbearance with regard to any overt challenge\". Bloch argues that this form of ritual communication makes rebellion impossible and revolution the only feasible alternative. Ritual tends to support traditional forms of social hierarchy and authority, and maintains the assumptions on which the authority is based from challenge.",
"Rituals appeal to tradition and are generally continued to repeat historical precedent, religious rite, mores or ceremony accurately. Traditionalism varies from formalism in that the ritual may not be formal yet still makes an appeal to the historical trend. An example is the American Thanksgiving dinner, which may not be formal, yet is ostensibly based on an event from the early Puritan settlement of America. Historians Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger have argued that many of these are \"invented traditions\", such as the rituals of the British monarchy, which invoke \"thousand year-old tradition\" but whose actual form originate in the late nineteenth century, to some extent reviving earlier forms, in this case medieval, that had been discontinued in the meantime. Thus, the appeal to history is important rather than accurate historical transmission.",
"Catherine Bell states that ritual is also invariant, implying careful choreography. This is less an appeal to traditionalism than a striving for timeless repetition. The key to invariance is bodily discipline, as in monastic prayer and meditation meant to mold dispositions and moods. This bodily discipline is frequently performed in unison, by groups.",
"Rituals tend to be governed by rules, a feature somewhat like formalism. Rules impose norms on the chaos of behavior, either defining the outer limits of what is acceptable or choreographing each move. Individuals are held to communally approved customs that evoke a legitimate communal authority that can constrain the possible outcomes. Historically, War in most societies has been bound by highly ritualized constraints that limit the legitimate means by which war was waged.",
"Activities appealing to supernatural beings are easily considered rituals, although the appeal may be quite indirect, expressing only a generalized belief in the existence of the sacred demanding a human response. National flags, for example, may be considered more than signs representing a country. The flag stands for larger symbols such as freedom, democracy, free enterprise or national superiority. Anthropologist Sherry Ortner writes that the flag does not encourage reflection on the logical relations among these ideas, nor on the logical consequences of them as they are played out in social actuality, over time and history. On the contrary, the flag encourages a sort of all-or-nothing allegiance to the whole package, best summed [by] 'Our flag, love it or leave.' Particular objects become sacral symbols through a process of consecration which effectively creates the sacred by setting it apart from the profane. Boy Scouts and the armed forces in any country teach the official ways of folding, saluting and raising the flag, thus emphasizing that the flag should never be treated as just a piece of cloth.",
"The performance of ritual creates a theatrical-like frame around the activities, symbols and events that shape participant's experience and cognitive ordering of the world, simplifying the chaos of life and imposing a more or less coherent system of categories of meaning onto it. As Barbara Myerhoff put it, \"not only is seeing believing, doing is believing.\"",
"For simplicity's sake, the range of diverse rituals can be divided into categories with common characteristics. Rituals can fall in more than one genre.",
"A rite of passage is a ritual event that marks a person's transition from one status to another, including birth, coming-of-age, marriage, death as well as initiation into groups not tied to a formal stage of life such as a fraternity. Arnold van Gennep stated that rites of passage are marked by three stages: separation, transition and incorporation. In the first stage, the initiates are separated from their old identities through physical and symbolic means. In the transition phase, they are \"betwixt and between\". Victor Turner argued that this stage is marked by liminality, a condition of ambiguity or disorientation in which initiates have been stripped of their old identities, but have not yet acquired their new one. Turner states \"The attributes of liminality or of liminal \"personae\" (\"threshold people\") are necessarily ambiguous.\" In this stage of liminality or \"anti-structure\" (see below), the initiates' role ambiguity creates a sense of communitas or emotional bond of community between them. This stage may be marked by ritual ordeals or ritual training. In the final stage of incorporation, the initiates are symbolically confirmed in their new identity and community.",
"Calendrical and commemorative rites are ritual events marking particular times of year, or a fixed period since an important event. Calendrical rituals give social meaning to the passage of time, creating repetitive weekly, monthly or yearly cycles. Some rites are oriented towards seasonal changes, and may be fixed by the solar or lunar calendar. Those fixed by the solar calendar fall on the same day (of the Gregorian, Solar calendar) each year (such as New Year's Day on the first of January) while those calculated by the lunar calendar fall on different dates (of the Gregorian, Solar calendar) each year (such as Chinese lunar New Year). Calendrical rites impose a cultural order on nature. Mircea Eliade states that the calendrical rituals of many religious traditions recall and commemorate the basic beliefs of a community, and their yearly celebration establishes a link between past and present, as if the original events are happening over again: \"Thus the gods did; thus men do.\"",
"This genre of ritual encompasses forms of sacrifice and offering meant to praise, please or placate divine powers. According to early anthropologist Edward Tylor, such sacrifices are gifts given in hope of a return. Catherine Bell, however, points out that sacrifice covers a range of practices from those that are manipulative and \"magical\" to those of pure devotion. Hindu puja, for example, appear to have no other purpose than to please the deity. According to Marcel Mauss, sacrifice is distinguished from other forms of offering by being consecrated, and hence sanctified. As a consequence, the offering is usually destroyed in the ritual to transfer it to the deities.",
"Anthropologist Victor Turner defines rites of affliction actions that seek to mitigate spirits that inflict humans with misfortune. These rites may include forms of spirit divination (consulting oracles) to establish causes—and rituals that heal, purify, exorcise, and protect. The misfortune experienced may include individual health, but also broader climate-related issues such as drought or plagues of insects. Healing rites performed by shamans frequently identify social disorder as the cause, and make the restoration of social relationships the cure. Turner uses the example of the Isoma ritual among the Ndembu of northwestern Zambia to illustrate. The Isoma rite of affliction is used to cure a childless woman of infertility. Infertility is the result of a \"structural tension between matrilineal descent and virilocal marriage\" (i.e., the tension a woman feels between her mother's family, to whom she owes allegiance, and her husband's family among whom she must live). \"It is because the woman has come too closely in touch with the'man's side' in her marriage that her dead matrikin have impaired her fertility.\" To correct the balance of matrilinial descent and marriage, the Isoma ritual dramatically placates the deceased spirits by requiring the woman to reside with her mother's kin. Shamanic and other ritual may effect a psychotherapeutic cure, leading anthropologists such as Jane Atkinson to theorize how. Atkinson argues that the effectiveness of a shamanic ritual for an individual may depend upon a wider audiences acknowledging the shaman's power, which may lead to the shaman placing greater emphasis on engaging the audience than in the healing of the patient.",
"Rites of feasting and fasting are those through which a community publicly expresses an adherence to basic, shared religious values, rather than to the overt presence of deities as is found in rites of affliction where feasting or fasting may also take place. It encompasses a range of performances such as communal fasting during Ramadan by Muslims; the slaughter of pigs in New Guinea; Carnival festivities; or penitential processions in Catholicism. Victor Turner described this \"cultural performance\" of basic values a \"social drama\". Such dramas allow the social stresses that are inherent in a particular culture to be expressed and worked out symbolically in a ritual catharsis; as the social tensions continue to persist outside the ritual, pressure mounts for the ritual's cyclical performance. In Carnival, for example, the practice of masking allows people to be what they are not, and acts as a general social leveller, erasing otherwise tense social hierarchies in a festival that emphasizes play outside the bounds of normal social limits. Yet outside carnival, social tensions of race, class and gender persist, hence requiring the repeated periodic release found in the festival.",
"According to anthropologist Clifford Geertz, political rituals actually construct power; that is, in his analysis of the, he argued that rituals are not an ornament of political power, but that the power of political actors depends upon their ability to create rituals and the cosmic framework within which the social hierarchy headed by the king is perceived as natural and sacred. As a \"dramaturgy of power\" comprehensive ritual systems may create a cosmological order that sets a ruler apart as a divine being, as in \"the divine right\" of European kings, or the divine Japanese Emperor. Political rituals also emerge in the form of uncodified or codified conventions practiced by political officials that cement respect for the arrangements of an institution or role against the individual temporarily assuming it, as can be seen in the many rituals still observed within the procedure of parliamentary bodies. Ritual can be used as a form of resistance, as for example, in the various Cargo Cults that developed against colonial powers in the South Pacific. In such religio-political movements, Islanders would use ritual imitations of western practices (such as the building of landing strips) as a means of summoning cargo (manufactured goods) from the ancestors. Leaders of these groups characterized the present state (often imposed by colonial capitalist regimes) as a dismantling of the old social order, which they sought to restore.",
"",
"Nineteenth century \"armchair anthropologists\" were concerned with the basic question of how religion originated in human history. In the twentieth century their conjectural histories were replaced with new concerns around the question of what these beliefs and practices did for societies, regardless of their origin. In this view, religion was a universal, and while its content might vary enormously, it served certain basic functions such as the provision of prescribed solutions to basic human psychological and social problems, as well as expressing the central values of a society. Bronislaw Malinowski used the concept of function to address questions of individual psychological needs; A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, in contrast, looked for the function (purpose) of the institution or custom in preserving or maintaining society as a whole. They thus disagreed about the relationship of anxiety to ritual. Malinowski argued that ritual was a non-technical means of addressing anxiety about activities where dangerous elements were beyond technical control: \"magic is to be expected and generally to be found whenever man comes to an unbridgeable gap, a hiatus in his knowledge or in his powers of practical control, and yet has to continue in his pursuit.\". Radcliffe-Brown in contrast, saw ritual as an expression of common interest symbolically representing a community, and that anxiety was felt only if the ritual was not performed. George C. Homans sought to resolve these opposing theories by differentiating between \"primary anxieties\" felt by people who lack the techniques to secure results, and \"secondary (or displaced) anxiety\" felt by those who have not performed the rites meant to allay primary anxiety correctly. Homans argued that purification rituals may then be conducted to dispel secondary anxiety. A.R. Radcliffe-Brown argued that ritual should be distinguished from technical action, viewing it as a structured event: \"ritual acts differ from technical acts in having in all instances some expressive or symbolic element in them.\" Edmund Leach, in contrast, saw ritual and technical action less as separate structural types of activity and more as a spectrum: \"Actions fall into place on a continuous scale. At one extreme we have actions which are entirely profane, entirely functional, technique pure and simple; at the other we have actions which are entirely sacred, strictly aesthetic, technically non-functional. Between these two extremes we have the great majority of social actions which partake partly of the one sphere and partly of the other. From this point of view technique and ritual, profane and sacred, do not denote \"types\" of action but \"aspects\" of almost any kind of action.\"",
"The functionalist model viewed ritual as a homeostatic mechanism to regulate and stabilize social institutions by adjusting social interactions, maintaining a group ethos, and restoring harmony after disputes. Although the functionalist model was soon superseded, later \"neofunctional\" theorists adopted its approach by examining the ways that ritual regulated larger ecological systems. Roy Rappaport, for example, examined the way gift exchanges of pigs between tribal groups in Papua New Guinea maintained environmental balance between humans, available food (with pigs sharing the same foodstuffs as humans) and resource base. Rappaport concluded that ritual, \"...helps to maintain an undegraded environment, limits fighting to frequencies which do not endanger the existence of regional population, adjusts man-land ratios, facilitates trade, distributes local surpluses of pig throughout the regional population in the form of pork, and assures people of high quality protein when they are most in need of it\". Similarly, J. Stephen Lansing traced how the intricate calendar of Hindu Balinese rituals served to regulate the vast irrigation systems of Bali, ensuring the optimum distribution of water over the system while limiting disputes.",
"While most Functionalists sought to link ritual to the maintenance of social order, South African functionalist anthropologist Max Gluckman coined the phrase \"rituals of rebellion\" to describe a type of ritual in which the accepted social order was symbolically turned on its head. Gluckman argued that the ritual was an expression of underlying social tensions (an idea taken up by Victor Turner), and that it functioned as an institutional pressure valve, relieving those tensions through these cyclical performances. The rites ultimately functioned to reinforce social order, insofar as they allowed those tensions to be expressed without leading to actual rebellion. Carnival is viewed in the same light. He observed, for example, how the first-fruits festival (\"incwala\") of the South African Bantu kingdom of Swaziland symbolically inverted the normal social order, so that the king was publicly insulted, women asserted their domination over men, and the established authority of elders over the young was turned upside down.",
"Claude Lévi-Strauss, the French anthropologist, regarded all social and cultural organization as symbolic systems of communication shaped by the inherent structure of the human brain. He therefore argued that the symbol systems are not reflections of social structure as the Functionalists believed, but are imposed on social relations to organize them. Lévi-Strauss thus viewed myth and ritual as complementary symbol systems, one verbal, one non-verbal. Lévi-Strauss was not concerned to develop a theory of ritual (although he did produce a four-volume analysis of myth) but was influential to later scholars of ritual such as Mary Douglas and Edmund Leach.",
"Victor Turner combined Arnold van Gennep's model of the structure of initiation rites, and Gluckman's functionalist emphasis on the ritualization of social conflict to maintain social equilibrium, with a more structural model of symbols in ritual. Running counter to this emphasis on structured symbolic oppositions within a ritual was his exploration of the liminal phase of rites of passage, a phase in which \"anti-structure\" appears. In this phase, opposed states such as birth and death may be encompassed by a single act, object or phrase. The dynamic nature of symbols experienced in ritual provides a compelling personal experience; ritual is a \"mechanism that periodically converts the obligatory into the desirable\". Mary Douglas, a British Functionalist, extended Turner's theory of ritual structure and anti-structure with her own contrasting set of terms \"grid\" and \"group\" in the book \"Natural Symbols\". Drawing on Levi-Strauss' Structuralist approach, she saw ritual as symbolic communication that constrained social behaviour. Grid is a scale referring to the degree to which a symbolic system is a shared frame of reference. Group refers to the degree people are tied into a tightly knit community. When graphed on two intersecting axes, four quadrants are possible: strong group/strong grid, strong group/weak grid, weak group/weak grid, weak group/strong grid. Douglas argued that societies with strong group or strong grid were marked by more ritual activity than those weak in either group or grid (see also, section \"Ritual as a Methodological Measure of Religiosity\" below).",
"In his analysis of rites of passage, Victor Turner argued that the liminal phase - that period 'betwixt and between' - was marked by \"two models of human interrelatedness, juxtaposed and alternating\": structure and anti-structure (or \"communitas\"). While the ritual clearly articulated the cultural ideals of a society through ritual symbolism, the unrestrained festivities of the liminal period served to break down social barriers and to join the group into an undifferentiated unity with \"no status, property, insignia, secular clothing, rank, kinship position, nothing to demarcate themselves from their fellows\". These periods of symbolic inversion have been studied in a diverse range of rituals such as pilgrimages and Yom Kippur.",
"Beginning with Max Gluckman's concept of \"rituals of rebellion\", Victor Turner argued that many types of ritual also served as \"social dramas\" through which structural social tensions could be expressed, and temporarily resolved. Drawing on Van Gennep's model of initiation rites, Turner viewed these social dramas as a dynamic process through which the community renewed itself through the ritual creation of communitas during the \"liminal phase\". Turner analyzed the ritual events in 4 stages: breach in relations, crisis, redressive actions, and acts of reintegration. Like Gluckman, he argued these rituals maintain social order while facilitating disordered inversions, thereby moving people to a new status, just as in an initiation rite.",
"Clifford Geertz also expanded on the symbolic approach to ritual that began with Victor Turner. Geertz argued that religious symbol systems provided both a \"model of\" reality (showing how to interpret the world as is) as well as a \"model for\" reality (clarifying its ideal state). The role of ritual, according to Geertz, is to bring these two aspects – the \"model of\" and the \"model for\" – together: \"it is in ritual – that is consecrated behaviour – that this conviction that religious conceptions are veridical and that religious directives are sound is somehow generated.\" Symbolic anthropologists like Geertz analyzed rituals as language-like codes to be interpreted independently as cultural systems. Geertz rejected Functionalist arguments that ritual describes social order, arguing instead that ritual actively shapes that social order and imposes meaning on disordered experience. He also differed from Gluckman and Turner's emphasis on ritual action as a means of resolving social passion, arguing instead that it simply displayed them.",
"Whereas Victor Turner saw in ritual the potential to release people from the binding structures of their lives into a liberating anti-structure or communitas, Maurice Bloch argued that ritual produced conformity. Maurice Bloch argued that ritual communication is unusual in that it uses a special, restricted vocabulary, a small number of permissible illustrations, and a restrictive grammar. As a result, ritual utterances become very predictable, and the speaker is made anonymous in that they have little choice in what to say. The restrictive syntax reduces the ability of the speaker to make propositional arguments, and they are left, instead, with utterances that cannot be contradicted such as \"I do thee wed\" in a wedding. These kinds of utterances, known as performatives, prevent speakers from making political arguments through logical argument, and are typical of what Weber called traditional authority instead. Bloch's model of ritual language denies the possibility of creativity. Thomas Csordas, in contrast, analyzes how ritual language can be used to innovate. Csordas looks at groups of rituals that share performative elements (\"genres\" of ritual with a shared \"poetics\"). These rituals may fall along the spectrum of formality, with some less, others more formal and restrictive. Csordas argues that innovations may be introduced in less formalized rituals. As these innovations become more accepted and standardized, they are slowly adopted in more formal rituals. In this way, even the most formal of rituals are potential avenues for creative expression.",
"In his historical analysis of articles on ritual and rite in the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", Talal Asad notes that from 1771 to 1852, the brief articles on ritual define it as a \"book directing the order and manner to be observed in performing divine service\" (i.e., as a script). There are no articles on the subject thereafter until 1910, when a new, lengthy article appeared that redefines ritual as \"...a type of routine behaviour that symbolizes or expresses something\". As a symbolic activity, it is no longer confined to religion, but is distinguished from technical action. The shift in definitions from script to behavior, which is likened to a text, is matched by a semantic distinction between ritual as an \"outward sign\" (i.e., public symbol) and \"inward meaning\". The emphasis has changed to establishing the meaning of public symbols and abandoning concerns with inner emotional states since, as Evans-Pritchard wrote \"such emotional states, if present at all, must vary not only from individual to individual, but also in the same individual on different occasions and even at different points in the same rite.\" Asad, in contrast, emphasizes behavior and inner emotional states; rituals are to be performed, and mastering these performances is a skill requiring disciplined action. \"In other words, apt performance involves not symbols to be interpreted but abilities to be acquired according to rules that are sanctioned by those in authority: it presupposes no obscure meanings, but rather the formation of physical and linguistic skills.\" Drawing on the example of Medieval monastic life in Europe, he points out that ritual in this case refers to its original meaning of the \"...book directing the order and manner to be observed in performing divine service\". This book \"prescribed practices, whether they had to do with the proper ways of eating, sleeping, working, and praying or with proper moral dispositions and spiritual aptitudes, aimed at developing virtues that are put 'to the service of God.'\" Monks, in other words, were disciplined in the Foucauldian sense. The point of monastic discipline was to learn skills and appropriate emotions. Asad contrasts his approach by concluding \"Symbols call for interpretation, and even as interpretive criteria are extended so interpretations can be multiplied. Disciplinary practices, on the other hand, cannot be varied so easily, because learning to develop moral capabilities is not the same thing as learning to invent representations.\"",
"Ethnographic observation shows ritual can create social solidarity. Douglas Foley Went to \"North Town,\" Texas between 1973 and 1974 to study public high school culture. He used interviews, participant observation, and unstructured chatting to study racial tension and capitalist culture in his ethnography \"Learning Capitalist Culture\". Foley refers to football games and Friday Night Lights as a community ritual. This ritual united the school and created a sense of solidarity and community on a weekly basis involving pep rally's and the game itself. Foley observed judgement and segregation based on class, social status, wealth, and gender. He described Friday Night Lights as a ritual that overcomes those differences: “The other, gentler, more social side of football was, of course, the emphasis on camaraderie, loyalty, friendship between players, and pulling together”",
"Asad's work critiqued the notion that there were universal characteristics of ritual to be found in all cases. Catherine Bell has extended this idea by shifting attention from ritual as a category, to the processes of \"ritualization\" by which ritual is created as a cultural form in a society. Ritualization is \"a way of acting that is designed and orchestrated to distinguish and privilege what is being done in comparison to other, usually more quotidian, activities\".",
"Anthropologists have also analyzed ritual via insights from other behavioral sciences. The idea that cultural rituals share behavioral similarities with personal rituals of individuals was discussed early on by Freud. Dulaney and Fiske compared ethnographic descriptions of both rituals and non-ritual doings, such as work to behavioral descriptions from clinical descriptions of obsessive and compulsive disorder (OCD). They note that OCD behavior often consists of such behavior as constantly cleaning objects, concern or disgust with bodily waste or secretions, repetitive actions to prevent harm, heavy emphasis on number or order of actions etc. They then show that ethnographic descriptions of cultural rituals contain around 5 times more of such content than ethnographic descriptions of other activities such as \"work\". Fiske later repeated similar analysis with more descriptions from a larger collection of different cultures, also contrasting descriptions of cultural rituals to descriptions of other behavioral disorders (in addition to OCD), in order to show that only OCD-like behavior (not other illnesses) shares properties with rituals. The authors offer tentative explanations for these findings, for example that these behavioral traits are widely needed for survival, to control risk, and cultural rituals are often performed in the context of perceived collective risk. Other anthropologists have taken these insights further, and constructed more elaborate theories based on the brain functions and physiology. Liénard and Boyer suggest that commonalities between obsessive behavior in individuals and similar behavior in collective contexts possibly share similarities due to underlying mental processes they call hazard precaution. They suggest that individuals of societies seem to pay more attention to information relevant to avoiding hazards, which in turn can explain why collective rituals displaying actions of hazard precaution are so popular and prevail for long periods in cultural transmission.",
"In religion, a ritual can comprise the prescribed outward forms of performing the \"cultus\", or cult, of a particular observation within a religion or religious denomination. Although ritual is often used in context with worship performed in a church, the actual relationship between any religion's doctrine and its ritual(s) can vary considerably from organized religion to non-institutionalized spirituality, such as ayahuasca shamanism as practiced by the Urarina of the upper Amazon. Rituals often have a close connection with reverence, thus a ritual in many cases expresses reverence for a deity or idealized state of humanity.",
"According to the sociologist Mervin Verbit, ritual may be understood as one of the key components of religiosity. And ritual itself may be broken down into four dimensions; content, frequency, intensity and centrality. The content of a ritual may vary from ritual to ritual, as does the frequency of its practice, the intensity of the ritual (how much of an impact it has on the practitioner), and the centrality of the ritual (in that religious tradition). In this sense, ritual is similar to Charles Glock's \"practice\" dimension of religiosity (Glock, 1972: 39).",
"\"Ritual-related lists\""
]
} |
Derivative (finance) | null | In finance, a derivative is a contract that "derives" its value from the performance of an underlying entity. This underlying entity can be an asset, index, or interest rate, and is often simply called the "underlying". Derivatives can be used for a number of purposes, including insuring against price movements (hedging), increasing exposure to price movements for speculation or getting access to otherwise hard-to-trade assets or markets. Some of the more common derivatives include forwards, futures, options, swaps, and variations of these such as synthetic collateralized debt obligations and credit default swaps. Most derivatives are traded over-the-counter (off-exchange) or on an exchange such as the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, while most insurance contracts have developed into a separate industry. In the United States, after the financial crisis of 2007–2009, there has been increased pressure to move derivatives to trade on exchanges. Derivatives are one of the three main categories of financial instruments, the other two being stocks (i.e., equities or shares) and debt (i.e., bonds and mortgages). The oldest example of a derivative in history, attested to by Aristotle, is thought to be a contract transaction of olives, entered into by ancient Greek philosopher Thales, who made a profit in the exchange. Bucket shops, outlawed in 1936, are a more recent historical example. | null | [
250004,
250054,
1310,
3984,
42991,
621,
18264,
7,
17721,
6626,
68036,
450,
40140,
18929,
27289,
15,
157225,
538,
70,
112474,
4,
16750,
214,
142424,
136,
80934,
7,
111,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
77336,
7,
4,
70,
68036,
25,
223739,
17808,
5256,
4,
136,
70,
110,
43315,
41170,
16,
1379,
3129,
81997,
7,
621,
47,
186,
7228,
17721,
70,
68036,
5,
581,
181079,
26698,
123633,
2449,
4,
31837,
7,
4,
71052,
7,
4,
33946,
121297,
136,
9709,
107,
117538,
4,
1284,
1836,
831,
2843,
186,
3789,
30057,
42991,
4,
3129,
15190,
7,
15700,
135355,
111,
27140,
2481,
47,
27798,
55932,
2320,
5,
581,
82761,
7,
111,
10,
11037,
25,
7,
10323,
45646,
4,
28,
5,
177,
5,
4,
71052,
7,
136,
31837,
4,
831,
2843,
186,
90698,
30057,
42991,
4,
1286,
134995,
538,
50717,
4,
678,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
8035,
70,
11037,
25,
7,
181079,
4,
1284,
903,
83,
225073,
50782,
111,
121392,
43701,
7,
5,
28090,
70,
25313,
6275,
111,
21455,
4,
53477,
30057,
42991,
621,
49456,
86608,
7,
450,
621,
35431,
297,
3474,
1436,
271,
71407,
136,
124218,
297,
47,
13379,
34292,
5,
581,
16839,
10512,
235529,
23,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
6,
110896,
83,
220642,
47,
70,
53477,
30057,
4935,
8305,
223739,
106689,
7,
136,
8311,
329,
831,
186,
52350,
71,
84797,
538,
5,
581,
1379,
538,
214,
6,
110896,
14602,
959,
765,
47,
186,
163629,
71,
5,
1310,
3984,
42991,
127298,
63769,
70,
36356,
2037,
111,
101785,
16070,
136,
105226,
23,
70,
16839,
34292,
111,
142,
6,
110896,
5,
3293,
2843,
87344,
10,
150675,
41170,
111,
147452,
118861,
70,
18264,
4331,
5,
9925,
223739,
147452,
114864,
30057,
4935,
51517,
7,
47,
2811,
40383,
70,
105226,
23,
70,
23718,
111,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
6,
110896,
39555,
61799,
416,
538,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
70,
105226,
23,
70,
16839,
34292,
111,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
831,
186,
191984,
642,
11,
1728,
4,
37515,
56,
15,
27571,
4588,
21543,
247,
707,
29479,
297,
237,
23,
37676,
5,
572,
6620,
4,
183037,
70,
717,
8337,
142,
6528,
111,
70,
13267,
111,
70,
30057,
4935,
16839,
4,
44,
3957,
109401,
271,
58,
1556,
113771,
450,
237,
111,
18237,
34975,
70,
645,
9,
2347,
9,
71013,
56,
15,
23973,
441,
16,
30057,
42991,
16839,
41170,
297,
47,
189275,
3650,
15128,
4307,
96222,
4,
136,
70,
13267,
111,
70,
16839,
52350,
71,
98,
121122,
7,
3622,
297,
142,
78301,
3650,
17168,
4307,
96222,
5,
1326,
70,
22759,
927,
128274,
505,
70,
28811,
503,
20287,
2449,
30318,
210221,
25902,
3674,
70,
13267,
111,
28811,
30057,
42991,
16839,
99,
10,
13267,
111,
2505,
89709,
4307,
96222,
678,
15124,
19879,
216348,
18264,
7,
5,
33306,
4,
6097,
621,
44,
157,
43315,
58,
142424,
4,
136,
3060,
63197,
271,
7,
5154,
450,
6097,
6,
197564,
297,
142424,
6782,
538,
1119,
11,
21407,
2182,
70,
16839,
34292,
136,
70,
29568,
22299,
10512,
2577,
71,
390,
70,
68036,
75412,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
23,
36404,
12960,
1310,
3984,
42991,
621,
11814,
100,
70,
25632,
12,
80002,
38742,
621,
3790,
2264,
71407,
34292,
71,
99,
45234,
99,
70,
1733,
111,
71924,
1830,
136,
4911,
7,
54,
959,
205794,
64209,
142,
1257,
9,
20549,
121122,
17721,
70,
68036,
5,
44978,
71,
54799,
112664,
7,
23,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
6,
110896,
645,
1733,
4,
49903,
4,
70,
34292,
111,
70,
18264,
1221,
14838,
41039,
2182,
4,
136,
70,
30057,
4935,
1543,
186,
40101,
142,
6,
110896,
15,
14,
5,
13,
5,
4,
44,
73,
70,
17265,
18939,
707,
10,
400,
41159,
15,
14,
5,
13,
5,
4,
44,
6056,
111,
70,
17265,
18939,
99,
12921,
26847,
87420,
6863,
6897,
5,
162054,
538,
4,
40101,
19085,
83,
127298,
172554,
71,
47,
70,
22299,
31897,
111,
6863,
105416,
71983,
136,
83,
60892,
23,
59959,
214,
68034,
23,
142,
19732,
111,
114977,
5,
86769,
38742,
765,
168894,
34292,
99,
70,
1810,
3509,
6637,
1836,
22691,
58735,
297,
48431,
15,
73,
33310,
27744,
1310,
3984,
42991,
63769,
10512,
62548,
47,
70,
27167,
111,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
6,
110896,
47,
186,
12302,
2822,
1295,
1632,
19085,
47,
15700,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
10,
148,
156253,
171751,
136,
10,
8058,
42,
5809,
24092,
10,
22690,
7,
18264,
47,
121122,
10,
58735,
297,
41170,
111,
49456,
100,
10,
58735,
297,
41170,
111,
148,
156253,
23,
70,
22690,
5,
149766,
68036,
765,
34390,
71,
10,
22690,
10512,
12,
100,
70,
148,
156253,
171751,
4,
70,
51,
106290,
73,
939,
111,
70,
27167,
4,
136,
100,
70,
8058,
42,
4,
70,
185,
25820,
41159,
111,
148,
156253,
5,
33306,
4,
2685,
83,
7464,
70,
10512,
450,
110,
148,
156253,
1221,
186,
1310,
3984,
42991,
831,
186,
11814,
47,
163629,
10512,
4,
43257,
3501,
47,
80568,
429,
26548,
10512,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
3060,
79165,
136,
38016,
7,
1221,
30957,
3934,
10,
30057,
4935,
18264,
47,
149575,
67,
98,
70,
34292,
111,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
6,
110896,
4,
1600,
1916,
450,
70,
19085,
191618,
42169,
1221,
186,
44691,
1672,
70,
22690,
34292,
111,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
6,
110896,
5,
24990,
129073,
7,
6713,
47,
22113,
142,
6,
110896,
23,
70,
22690,
99,
10,
27226,
27167,
59499,
47,
10,
30057,
4935,
18264,
3229,
70,
22690,
16839,
27167,
83,
11192,
4,
707,
47,
581,
29568,
123875,
111,
30057,
42991,
18264,
7,
11814,
100,
80568,
9966,
60042,
7,
83,
51,
69723,
19,
4,
1284,
442,
135179,
47,
186,
35845,
538,
19336,
5,
22376,
4,
30057,
42991,
18264,
7,
360,
134744,
69407,
4,
2685,
621,
6626,
94407,
111,
30057,
4935,
18264,
7,
4,
3129,
621,
157167,
67175,
390,
70,
3917,
1836,
621,
52350,
71,
23,
70,
16839,
12,
9578,
9,
2347,
9,
71013,
56,
15,
23973,
441,
16,
30057,
42991,
621,
18264,
7,
450,
621,
52350,
71,
15,
2940,
14375,
538,
9807,
118,
27686,
16,
105237,
17721,
6626,
68036,
4,
15490,
7730,
8305,
142,
121122,
707,
3789,
81814,
6635,
5,
100815,
6044,
237,
202317,
7,
4,
40225,
34515,
106689,
7,
4,
188768,
50717,
46,
136,
3789,
188768,
30057,
42991,
46,
621,
39555,
11343,
52350,
71,
23,
903,
3917,
5,
581,
180,
20499,
30057,
4935,
16839,
83,
70,
142105,
16839,
100,
30057,
42991,
4,
136,
83,
21334,
538,
51,
144867,
3674,
678,
15072,
47,
2837,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
82466,
4,
10,
30057,
4935,
83,
10,
18264,
450,
44,
820,
60877,
58,
6863,
34292,
1295,
70,
23718,
111,
142,
1379,
538,
214,
77630,
939,
5,
3293,
1379,
538,
214,
77630,
939,
831,
186,
142,
6,
110896,
4,
63262,
4,
707,
33946,
34515,
4,
136,
83,
27983,
42856,
35839,
70,
44,
24658,
538,
214,
740,
1310,
3984,
42991,
831,
186,
11814,
100,
10,
14012,
111,
60042,
7,
4,
26719,
61379,
2852,
26548,
27167,
112664,
7,
15,
5252,
9966,
247,
118055,
197826,
47,
27167,
112664,
7,
100,
149575,
1363,
707,
20949,
17203,
47,
120262,
7941,
9,
188,
9,
1517,
112,
181079,
707,
16839,
7,
5,
31384,
111,
70,
1286,
39210,
30057,
42991,
26698,
40225,
7,
4,
22690,
7,
4,
50717,
4,
202317,
7,
4,
136,
143834,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1298467 | en-train-1298467 | 1298467 | {
"title": [
"Basics.",
"Size of market.",
"Usage.",
"Mechanics and valuation.",
"Hedging.",
"Speculation and arbitrage.",
"Proportion used for hedging and speculation.",
"Types.",
"Over-the-counter derivatives.",
"Exchange-traded derivatives.",
"Inverse ETFs and leveraged ETFs.",
"Common derivative contract.",
"Collateralized debt obligation.",
"Credit default swap.",
"Forwards.",
"Futures.",
"Mortgage-backed securities.",
"Options.",
"Swaps.",
"Economic function of the derivative market.",
"Valuation.",
"Market and arbitrage-free prices.",
"Determining the market price.",
"Determining the arbitrage-free price.",
"Criticisms.",
"Hidden tail risk.",
"Risks.",
"Counter party risk.",
"Large notional value.",
"Financial reform and government regulation.",
"Reporting."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Derivatives are contracts between two parties that specify conditions (especially the dates, resulting values and definitions of the underlying variables, the parties' contractual obligations, and the notional amount) under which payments are to be made between the parties. The assets include commodities, stocks, bonds, interest rates and currencies, but they can also be other derivatives, which adds another layer of complexity to proper valuation. The components of a firm's capital structure, e.g., bonds and stock, can also be considered derivatives, more precisely options, with the underlying being the firm's assets, but this is unusual outside of technical contexts. From the economic point of view, financial derivatives are cash flows that are conditioned stochastically and discounted to present value. The market risk inherent in the underlying asset is attached to the financial derivative through contractual agreements and hence can be traded separately. The underlying asset does not have to be acquired. Derivatives therefore allow the breakup of ownership and participation in the market value of an asset. This also provides a considerable amount of freedom regarding the contract design. That contractual freedom allows derivative designers to modify the participation in the performance of the underlying asset almost arbitrarily. Thus, the participation in the market value of the underlying can be effectively weaker, stronger (leverage effect), or implemented as inverse. Hence, specifically the",
"To give an idea of the size of the derivative market, \"The Economist\" has reported that as of June 2011, the over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives market amounted to approximately $700 trillion, and the size of the market traded on exchanges totaled an additional $83 trillion. For the fourth quarter 2017 the European Securities Market Authority estimated the size of European derivatives market at a size of €660 trillion with 74 million outstanding contracts. However, these are \"notional\" values, and some economists say that these aggregated values greatly exaggerate the market value and the true credit risk faced by the parties involved. For example, in 2010, while",
"Derivatives are used for the following:",
"Lock products are theoretically valued at zero at the time of execution and thus do not typically require an up-front exchange between the parties. Based upon movements in the underlying asset over time, however, the value of the contract will fluctuate, and the derivative may be either an asset (i.e., \"in the money\") or a liability (i.e., \"out of the money\") at different points throughout its life. Importantly, either party is therefore exposed to the credit quality of its counterparty and is interested in protecting itself in an event of default. Option products have immediate value at the outset because they provide specified protection (intrinsic",
"Derivatives allow risk related to the price of the underlying asset to be transferred from one party to another. For example, a wheat farmer and a miller could sign a futures contract to exchange a specified amount of cash for a specified amount of wheat in the future. Both parties have reduced a future risk: for the wheat farmer, the uncertainty of the price, and for the miller, the availability of wheat. However, there is still the risk that no wheat will be",
"Derivatives can be used to acquire risk, rather than to hedge against risk. Thus, some individuals and institutions will enter into a derivative contract to speculate on the value of the underlying asset, betting that the party seeking insurance will be wrong about the future value of the underlying asset. Speculators look to buy an asset in the future at a low price according to a derivative contract when the future market price is high, or to",
"The true proportion of derivatives contracts used for hedging purposes is unknown, but it appears to be relatively small. Also, derivatives contracts",
"In broad terms, there are two groups of derivative contracts, which are distinguished by the way they are traded in the market:",
"Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives are contracts that are traded (and privately negotiated) directly between two parties, without going through an exchange or other intermediary. Products such as swaps, forward rate agreements, exotic options – and other exotic derivatives – are almost always traded in this way. The OTC derivative market is the largest market for derivatives, and is largely unregulated with respect to disclosure of information between the parties, since the OTC market is made up of banks and other highly sophisticated parties, such as hedge funds. Reporting of OTC amounts is difficult because trades can occur in private, without activity being visible on any",
"Exchange-traded derivatives (ETD) are those derivatives instruments that are traded via specialized derivatives exchanges or other exchanges. A derivatives exchange is a market where individuals trade standardized contracts that have been defined by the exchange. A derivatives exchange acts as an intermediary to all related transactions, and takes initial margin from both sides of the trade to act as a guarantee. The world's largest derivatives exchanges",
"Inverse exchange-traded funds (IETFs) and leveraged exchange-traded funds (LETFs) are two special types of exchange traded funds (ETFs) that are available to common traders and investors on major",
"Some of the common variants of derivative contracts",
"A collateralized debt obligation (CDO) is a type of structured asset-backed security (ABS). An \"asset-backed security\" is used as an umbrella term for a type of security backed by a pool of assets—including collateralized debt obligations and mortgage-backed securities (MBS) (Example: \"The capital market in which asset-backed securities are issued and traded is composed of three main categories: ABS, MBS and CDOs\".)—and sometimes for a particular type of that security—one backed by consumer loans (example: \"As a rule of thumb, securitization issues backed by mortgages are called MBS, and securitization issues backed by debt obligations are called CDO, [and] Securitization issues backed by consumer-backed products—car loans, consumer loans and credit cards, among others—are called ABS.) Originally developed for the corporate debt markets, over time CDOs evolved to encompass the mortgage and mortgage-backed security (MBS) markets. Like other private-label securities backed by assets, a CDO can be thought of as a promise to pay investors in a prescribed sequence, based on the cash flow the CDO",
"A credit default swap (CDS) is a financial swap agreement that the seller of the CDS will compensate the buyer (the creditor of the reference loan) in the event of a loan default (by the debtor) or other credit event. The buyer of the CDS makes a series of payments (the CDS \"fee\" or \"spread\") to the seller and, in exchange, receives a payoff if the loan defaults. It was invented by Blythe Masters from JP Morgan in 1994. In the event of default the buyer of the CDS receives compensation (usually the face value of the loan), and the seller of the CDS takes possession of the defaulted loan. However, anyone with sufficient collateral to trade with a bank or hedge fund can purchase a CDS, even buyers who do not hold the loan instrument and who have no direct insurable interest in the loan (these are called \"naked\" CDSs). If there are more CDS contracts outstanding than bonds in existence, a protocol exists to hold a credit",
"In finance, a forward contract or simply a forward is a non-standardized contract between two parties to buy or to sell an asset at a specified future time at an amount agreed upon today, making it a type of derivative instrument. This is in contrast to a spot contract, which is an agreement to buy or sell an asset on its spot date, which may vary depending on the instrument, for example most of the FX contracts have Spot Date two business days from today. The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future assumes a long position, and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future assumes a short position. The price agreed upon is called the delivery price, which is equal to the forward price at the time the contract is entered into. The price of the underlying instrument, in whatever form, is paid before control of the instrument changes. This is one of the many forms of buy/sell orders where the time and date of trade is not the same as the value",
"In finance, a 'futures contract' (more colloquially, futures) is a standardized contract between two parties to buy or sell a specified asset of standardized quantity and quality for a price agreed upon today (the \"futures price\") with delivery and payment occurring at a specified future date, the \"delivery date\", making it a derivative product (i.e. a financial product that is derived from an underlying asset). The contracts are negotiated at a futures exchange, which acts as an intermediary between buyer and seller. The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future, the",
"A mortgage-backed security (MBS) is an asset-backed security that is secured by a mortgage, or more commonly a collection (\"pool\") of sometimes hundreds of mortgages. The mortgages are sold to a group of individuals (a government agency or investment bank) that \"securitizes\", or packages, the loans together into a security that can be sold to investors. The mortgages of an MBS may be residential or commercial, depending on whether it is an Agency MBS or a Non-Agency MBS; in the United States they may be issued by structures set up by government-sponsored enterprises like Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac, or they can be \"private-label\", issued by structures set up by investment banks. The structure of the MBS may be known as \"pass-through\", where the interest and principal payments from the borrower or homebuyer",
"In finance, an option is a contract which gives the \"buyer\" (the owner) the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset or instrument at a specified strike price on or before a specified date. The \"seller\" has the corresponding obligation to fulfill the transaction—that is to sell or buy—if the buyer (owner) \"exercises\" the option. The buyer pays a premium to the seller for this right. An option that conveys to the owner the right to buy something at a certain price is a \"call option\"; an option that conveys the right of the owner to sell something at a certain price is a \"put option\". Both",
"A swap is a derivative in which two counterparties exchange cash flows of one party's financial instrument for those of the other party's financial instrument. The benefits in question depend on the type of financial instruments involved. For example, in the case of a swap involving two bonds, the benefits in question can be the periodic interest (coupon) payments associated with such bonds. Specifically, two counterparties agree to the exchange one stream of cash flows against another stream. These streams are called the swap's \"legs\". The swap agreement defines the dates when the cash flows are to be paid and the way they are accrued and calculated. Usually at the time when the contract is initiated, at least",
"Some of the salient economic functions of the derivative market include: In a nutshell,",
"",
"Two common",
"For exchange-traded derivatives, market price is usually transparent (often published in real time by the exchange, based on all the current bids and offers placed on that particular",
"The arbitrage-free price for a derivatives contract can be complex, and there are many different variables to consider. Arbitrage-free pricing is a central topic of financial mathematics. For futures/forwards the arbitrage free price is relatively straightforward, involving the price of the underlying together with the cost of carry (income received less interest costs), although there can be complexities. However, for options and more complex derivatives, pricing involves developing a complex pricing model: understanding the stochastic process of the price of the underlying asset is often",
"Derivatives are often subject to the following criticisms:",
"According to Raghuram Rajan, a former chief economist of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), \"... it may well be that the managers of these firms [investment funds] have figured out the correlations between the various instruments they hold and believe they are hedged. Yet as Chan and others",
"The use of derivatives can result in large losses because of the use of leverage, or borrowing. Derivatives allow investors to earn large returns from",
"Some derivatives (especially swaps) expose investors to counterparty risk, or risk arising from the other party in a financial transaction. Different types of derivatives have different levels of counter party risk. For example, standardized stock options by law require the",
"Derivatives typically have a large notional value. As such, there is the danger that their use could result in losses for which the investor would be unable to compensate. The possibility that this could lead to a chain reaction ensuing in an economic crisis was pointed out by famed investor Warren Buffett in Berkshire",
"Under US law and the laws of most other developed countries, derivatives have special legal exemptions that make them a particularly attractive legal form to extend credit. The strong creditor protections afforded to derivatives counterparties, in combination with their complexity and lack of transparency however, can cause capital markets to underprice credit risk. This can contribute to credit booms, and increase systemic risks. Indeed, the use of derivatives to conceal credit risk from third parties while protecting derivative counterparties contributed to the financial crisis of 2008 in the United States. In the context of a 2010 examination of the ICE Trust, an industry self-regulatory body, Gary Gensler, the chairman of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission which regulates most derivatives, was quoted saying that the derivatives marketplace as it functions now \"adds up to higher costs to all Americans\". More oversight of the banks in this market is needed, he also said. Additionally, the report said, \"[t]he Department of Justice is looking into derivatives, too. The department's antitrust unit is actively investigating 'the possibility of anticompetitive practices in the credit derivatives clearing, trading and information services industries', according to a department spokeswoman.\" For legislators and committees responsible for financial reform related to derivatives in the United States and elsewhere, distinguishing between hedging and speculative derivatives activities has been a nontrivial challenge. The distinction is critical because regulation should help to isolate and curtail speculation with derivatives, especially for \"systemically significant\" institutions whose default could be large enough to threaten the entire financial system. At the same time, the legislation should allow for responsible parties to hedge risk without unduly tying up working capital as collateral that firms may better employ elsewhere in their operations and investment. In this regard, it is important to distinguish between financial (e.g. banks) and non-financial end-users of derivatives (e.g. real estate development companies) because these firms' derivatives usage is inherently different. More importantly, the reasonable collateral that secures these different counterparties can be very different. The distinction between these firms is not always straight forward (e.g. hedge funds or even some private equity firms do not neatly fit either category). Finally, even financial users must be differentiated, as 'large' banks may classified as \"systemically significant\" whose derivatives activities must be more tightly monitored and restricted than those of smaller, local and regional banks. Over-the-counter dealing will be less common as the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act comes into effect. The law mandated the clearing of certain swaps at registered exchanges and imposed various restrictions on derivatives. To implement Dodd-Frank, the CFTC developed new rules in at least 30 areas. The Commission determines which swaps are subject to mandatory clearing and whether a derivatives exchange is eligible to clear a certain type of swap contract. Nonetheless, the above and other challenges of the rule-making process have delayed full enactment of aspects of the legislation relating to derivatives. The challenges are further complicated by the necessity to orchestrate globalized financial reform among the nations that comprise the world's major financial markets, a primary responsibility of the Financial Stability Board whose progress is ongoing. In the U.S., by February 2012 the combined effort of the SEC and CFTC had produced over 70 proposed and final derivatives rules. However, both of them had delayed adoption of a number of derivatives regulations because of the burden of other rulemaking, litigation and opposition to the rules, and many core definitions (such as the terms \"swap\", \"security-based swap\", \"swap dealer\", \"security-based swap dealer\", \"major swap participant\" and \"major security-based swap participant\") had still not been adopted. SEC Chairman Mary Schapiro opined: \"At the end of the day, it probably does not make sense to harmonize everything [between the SEC and CFTC rules] because some of these products are quite different and certainly the market structures are quite different.\" On February 11, 2015, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) released two final rules toward establishing a reporting and public disclosure framework for security-based swap transaction data. The two rules are not completely harmonized with the requirements with CFTC requirements. In November 2012, the SEC and regulators from Australia, Brazil, the European Union, Hong Kong, Japan, Ontario, Quebec, Singapore, and Switzerland met to discuss reforming the OTC derivatives market, as had been agreed by leaders at the 2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summit in September 2009. In December 2012, they released a joint statement to the effect that they recognized that the market is a global one and \"firmly support the adoption and enforcement of robust and consistent standards in and across jurisdictions\", with the goals of mitigating risk, improving transparency, protecting against market abuse, preventing regulatory gaps, reducing the potential for arbitrage opportunities, and fostering a level playing field for market participants. They also agreed on the need to reduce regulatory uncertainty and provide market participants with sufficient clarity on laws and regulations by avoiding, to the extent possible, the application of conflicting rules to the same entities and transactions, and minimizing the application of inconsistent and duplicative rules. At the same time, they noted that \"complete harmonization – perfect alignment of rules across jurisdictions\" would be difficult, because of jurisdictions' differences in law, policy, markets, implementation timing, and legislative and regulatory processes. On December 20, 2013 the CFTC provided information on its swaps regulation \"comparability\" determinations. The release addressed the CFTC's cross-border compliance exceptions. Specifically it addressed which entity level and in some cases transaction-level requirements in six jurisdictions (Australia, Canada, the European Union, Hong Kong, Japan, and Switzerland) it found comparable to its own rules, thus permitting non-US swap dealers, major swap participants, and the foreign branches of US Swap Dealers and major swap participants in these jurisdictions to comply with local rules in lieu of Commission rules.",
"Mandatory reporting regulations are being finalized in a number of countries, such as Dodd Frank Act in the US, the European Market Infrastructure Regulations (EMIR) in Europe, as well as regulations in Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, Canada, and other countries. The OTC Derivatives Regulators Forum (ODRF), a group of over 40 worldwide regulators, provided trade repositories with a set of guidelines"
]
} |
Moped | null | A moped ( ) is a type of small motorcycle with bicycle pedals, generally having a less stringent licensing requirement than full motorcycles or automobiles. Mopeds typically travel only a bit faster than bicycles on public roads, and possess both a motorcycle engine and pedals for propulsion. Mopeds are distinguished from scooters in that the latter tend to be more powerful and subject to more regulation. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
2565,
44,
432,
20051,
58,
509,
43780,
297,
390,
70,
187951,
32485,
109808,
89485,
23,
50940,
4,
237,
10,
11469,
45660,
8918,
111,
70,
187951,
34153,
136,
5,
581,
63043,
297,
30057,
1363,
1295,
70,
13579,
44,
26541,
9,
100062,
115052,
112,
58,
83,
214552,
5,
129551,
47,
120469,
1950,
1264,
4,
70,
187951,
69407,
62038,
3674,
1295,
44,
132,
58,
1517,
2676,
130012,
128,
18939,
931,
132,
1290,
174,
18939,
50426,
132,
11,
603,
18939,
830,
3129,
26950,
44,
1081,
2465,
105823,
678,
87907,
136,
95212,
7,
58,
15,
2347,
67896,
150,
525,
11389,
7,
1902,
119591,
53,
95212,
7,
194,
18852,
3060,
111,
70,
67896,
150,
525,
6626,
160298,
297,
2926,
75457,
7,
4,
756,
931,
20051,
7,
3542,
24145,
46979,
20051,
678,
333,
75457,
95212,
7,
5,
581,
13579,
44,
432,
20051,
58,
1556,
5036,
2809,
190659,
390,
3060,
18150,
27759,
7,
47,
117001,
15490,
95212,
7,
6044,
237,
2926,
14753,
31,
23962,
4,
35509,
98,
55738,
11,
111,
173072,
297,
87907,
2837,
23935,
674,
4,
38352,
4,
136,
64,
748,
14537,
140992,
5,
3293,
83,
10,
1239,
1687,
56,
4,
237,
1836,
621,
110,
51713,
44,
432,
20051,
7,
58,
99,
756,
4,
136,
13648,
64457,
186,
35839,
10,
44,
157,
20051,
58,
2174,
1836,
108975,
47,
6713,
66161,
1884,
10,
222201,
931,
20051,
4,
1284,
110,
51713,
26698,
95212,
7,
5,
64511,
69407,
11814,
100,
27226,
9,
62783,
297,
105823,
7,
26698,
44,
26541,
60142,
830,
44,
26541,
964,
75457,
830,
44,
26541,
29367,
333,
75457,
830,
44,
26541,
9,
33926,
33,
105823,
830,
136,
44,
519,
20051,
58,
15,
26541,
29367,
23,
2256,
1581,
67,
24351,
678,
384,
9,
1299,
194,
581,
13579,
44,
432,
20051,
58,
5036,
4734,
4027,
25720,
47,
27226,
9,
62783,
15,
31,
60441,
1601,
9,
177566,
53,
16,
117001,
4,
1284,
95212,
7,
3542,
112031,
71,
47,
3060,
39395,
2926,
75457,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
49726,
71,
62977,
120469,
5,
92352,
2069,
16065,
1295,
29398,
6635,
509,
10,
6782,
136912,
645,
44,
16428,
136,
88203,
58,
136,
22729,
95212,
127557,
15,
37352,
284,
16,
509,
167224,
100,
194637,
214,
130473,
7,
5,
177154,
179965,
7,
678,
91257,
37457,
7,
4,
11522,
501,
14707,
17007,
136,
5045,
11522,
87907,
23718,
7228,
95212,
7,
228908,
13,
98,
2684,
2926,
75457,
7,
390,
24531,
1284,
70,
95212,
7,
98,
931,
20051,
7,
47143,
297,
167224,
100,
2363,
7311,
60042,
7,
237,
72399,
237,
70,
11704,
7,
5,
581,
67896,
150,
525,
931,
20051,
7,
3542,
333,
75457,
7,
678,
10,
4358,
56,
2926,
23,
67842,
31913,
7,
4,
100,
27781,
98,
2663,
111,
70,
12912,
160298,
74,
1836,
3542,
2843,
35839,
105823,
26541,
7,
5,
893,
27781,
111,
450,
10644,
83,
70,
36408,
365,
8912,
133,
1542,
8796,
4,
3129,
42856,
1556,
10,
120872,
132442,
70,
12912,
141475,
5,
62,
1286,
80343,
4331,
509,
51529,
23,
70,
17274,
237,
70,
6,
151612,
13,
47327,
5,
3293,
1902,
10,
28484,
14537,
297,
456,
147,
160298,
3129,
509,
42856,
161740,
297,
100,
70,
333,
75457,
456,
147,
160298,
4,
3129,
62038,
3674,
1295,
10,
4331,
390,
6626,
391,
109200,
185118,
7,
23,
102126,
5,
159,
20016,
538,
150679,
116491,
4,
39210,
538,
678,
10,
87907,
3542,
51529,
237,
1809,
75457,
7,
5,
2161,
70,
3789,
3535,
4,
3060,
931,
20051,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
103655,
9,
42424,
16035,
4,
3542,
16406,
4126,
1295,
2926,
75457,
7,
5,
62,
53333,
95487,
111,
27226,
9,
62783,
297,
6626,
9,
434,
144009,
1314,
32316,
7,
18925,
23,
3060,
100491,
18403,
5256,
100,
333,
75457,
7,
678,
4358,
56,
2926,
7,
46,
6097,
621,
27983,
61924,
71,
237,
14537,
9,
121415,
297,
333,
75457,
7,
707,
2926,
29367,
333,
75457,
7,
5,
64511,
100491,
18403,
5256,
1543,
149133,
731,
70,
5701,
116491,
237,
931,
20051,
7,
4,
105233,
10,
24233,
41170,
111,
169463,
5,
360,
5941,
76726,
17262,
9,
434,
144009,
1314,
136,
11948,
3284,
7,
621,
18507,
47314,
237,
931,
20051,
7,
707,
143834,
7,
2685,
4390,
5,
3293,
41361,
83,
959,
173072,
297,
47,
70,
50960,
8999,
74,
9942,
136,
199458,
18507,
40383,
11948,
3284,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
62,
4084,
302,
21373,
538,
707,
237,
44,
20016,
96137,
75457,
7,
740,
581,
178298,
138,
4,
10,
2926,
52021,
17262,
9,
434,
144009,
56,
83,
23831,
71,
237,
10,
931,
20051,
5,
360,
27193,
4,
70,
181103,
155358,
98,
17119,
180952,
16916,
7,
70,
931,
20051,
2499,
6626,
9,
434,
144009,
297,
707,
17262,
9,
434,
144009,
297,
80939,
3129,
83,
112031,
71,
678,
142,
70796,
375,
4223,
1363,
87907,
19441,
10,
19932,
104532,
177399,
959,
204839,
214,
836,
6,
10060,
5,
2501,
20051,
7,
831,
69307,
160692,
111503,
111,
645,
5,
581,
28,
54916,
111,
931,
20051,
7,
765,
2809,
70,
28368,
111,
48716,
96335,
5,
132268,
765,
14037,
450,
6626,
9,
6639,
350,
836,
6,
10060,
931,
20051,
7,
4,
678,
136,
15490,
60199,
538,
9523,
172127,
7,
4,
53225,
1492,
47,
6,
95037,
939,
20028,
70,
64707,
3284,
8345,
7,
136,
2878,
16735,
67,
28,
54916,
111,
70,
1810,
85,
3674,
3939,
138,
153532,
5570,
7,
5,
360,
70,
5701,
35187,
4,
22759,
9,
6639,
350,
931,
20051,
7,
4,
678,
136,
15490,
60199,
538,
9523,
172127,
7,
4,
53225,
3674,
17262,
47,
136659,
20028,
70,
64707,
3284,
8345,
7,
136,
2878,
16735,
67,
28,
54916,
111,
70,
3939,
138,
153532,
5570,
7,
5,
5787,
64101,
1352,
67,
366,
2481,
678,
153532,
7,
509,
69307,
71,
678,
9520,
425,
28,
54916,
23,
6097,
96335,
5,
241,
54916,
23718,
509,
3034,
297,
98,
10,
706,
64,
6401,
18231,
136,
509,
220,
16670,
89829,
390,
160692,
111503,
5,
114063,
538,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
4,
70,
6,
72565,
114864,
2926,
75457,
7,
4,
14753,
31,
23962,
4,
136,
931,
20051,
7,
678,
87907,
2837,
23935,
9035,
40715,
3501,
49686,
10060,
47,
53225,
1492,
20028,
70,
9520,
425,
136,
37195,
20028,
70,
8244,
237,
70,
2450,
19,
59646,
1995,
2394,
190,
153532,
209332,
5,
893,
78301,
1831,
31897,
2967,
831,
2843,
10,
58944,
1295,
70,
4527,
111,
931,
20051,
136,
14753,
31,
720,
6181,
2320,
645,
153532,
7,
4,
237,
10,
77546,
168,
7,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
931,
20051,
15,
1388,
83,
10,
10644,
111,
19336,
2926,
75457,
678,
333,
75457,
95212,
7,
4,
137567,
19441,
10,
40715,
79315,
2517,
400,
35481,
214,
64209,
674,
3501,
4393,
2926,
75457,
7,
707,
153532,
7,
5,
2501,
20051,
7,
205794,
26983,
4734,
10,
4785,
4271,
56,
3501,
333,
75457,
7,
98,
3835,
33816,
7,
4,
136,
158566,
15044,
10,
2926,
75457,
87907,
136,
95212,
7,
100,
502,
6645,
6889,
5,
2501,
20051,
7,
621,
157167,
67175,
1295,
14753,
31,
23962,
23,
450,
70,
21,
3055,
17660,
47,
186,
1286,
113138,
136,
28368,
47,
1286,
15913,
1363,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1365852 | en-train-1365852 | 1365852 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"History.",
"Emissions.",
"Safety.",
"Sports moped.",
"External links."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The word \"moped\" was coined by the Swedish journalist Harald Nielsen in 1952, as a portmanteau of the Swedish words and. The claimed derivation from the term \"motor-velocipede\" is incorrect. According to Douglas Harper, the Swedish terms originated from \"(\"trampcykel med\") mo(tor och\") ped(aler\")\", which means \"pedal cycle with engine and pedals\" (the earliest versions had auxiliary pedals). Like some of the earliest two wheeled motorcycles, all mopeds were once equipped with bicycle pedals. The term \"moped\" has now been applied by some regional governments to vehicles without pedals such as motor scooters, based on criteria of restricted engine displacement, speed, and/or power output. This is a misnomer, as they are no longer \"mopeds\" at all, and might instead be called a \"noped\" if they appear to look exactly like a typical moped, but no longer include pedals. Other terms used for low-powered cycles include \"motorbike\", \"motorbicycle\", \"motorized bicycle\", \"motor-driven cycle\", and \"goped\" (motorized inline skateboard with T-bar).",
"The term \"moped\" now only applies to low-power (often super-economy) vehicles, but pedals were fitted to some early motorcycles, such as the pictured 1912 Douglas. Pedaling away from stationary was a great improvement over \"run and jump\" and light pedal assistance (LPA) was valuable for climbing hills. Better transmissions with wider ranges, better clutches and much better engine performance made pedals obsolete on most motorcycles by 1918 but the pedals on mopeds remained valuable for their original purposes as late as the 1990s. The earliest mopeds were bicycles with a helper motor in various locations, for example on top of the front wheel; they were also called cyclemotors. An example of that type is the VéloSoleX brand, which simply has a roller driving the front tire. A more innovative design was known in the UK as the Cyclemaster. This had a complete powered rear wheel which was simply substituted for the bicycle rear wheel, which originated from a design by two DKW engineers in Germany. Slightly larger machines, commonly with a engine were known as autocycles. On the other hand, some mopeds, such as the Czech-made Jawa, were derived from motorcycles. A further category of low-powered two-wheelers exists today in some jurisdictions for bicycles with helper motors – these are often defined as power-assisted bicycles or motorized bicycles. Other jurisdictions may categorize the same machines as mopeds, creating a certain amount of confusion. In many countries three-wheelers and microcars are classified as mopeds or variations thereof. This practice is not restricted to the third world; France and Belgium classify microcars such as the Aixam similarly or as \"light quadricycles\". The Ariel 3, a motorised three-wheeler is classed as a moped. In 1977, the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic considers the moped any two-wheeled or three-wheeled vehicle which is fitted with an internal combustion engine having a cylinder capacity not exceeding 50 cc.",
"Mopeds can achieve fuel economy of over. The emissions of mopeds have been the subject of multiple studies. Studies have found that two-stroke 50 cc mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, emit ten to thirty times the hydrocarbons and particulate emissions of the outdated Euro 3 automobile standards. In the same study, four-stroke mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, emitted three to eight times the hydrocarbons and particulate emissions of the Euro 3 automobile standards. Approximate parity with automobiles was achieved with NOx emissions in these studies. Emissions performance was tested on a g/km basis and was unaffected by fuel economy. Currently in the United States, the EPA allows motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds with engine displacements less than 280cc to emit ten times the NOx and six times the CO as the median Tier II bin 5 automobile regulations. An additional air quality problem can also arise from the use of moped and scooter transportation over automobiles, as a higher density of motorized vehicles can be supported by existing transportation infrastructure.",
"Safely riding a moped mostly requires the same considerations as safely riding a motorcycle. However the lower speeds reduce some dangers and increase others. The biggest danger is that other traffic may not notice the presence of a moped; bright clothes and reflective fittings help. Drivers may even see the moped, recognize it as harmless to them and simply forget it is there, pulling out of side-turnings into its path. Similarly, a car approaching a moped from behind will approach it more quickly than the driver expects, and the driver's attention may be more attuned to other automobile traffic rather than the moped, increasing the likelihood of an accident. This is a particular problem for mopeds used on high-speed roads where they may not be intended to travel. Mopeds are often illegally tuned for higher speeds, powers or engine displacements than allowed. For this to be legal, such vehicles should be re-registered as motorcycles, and their driver's license requirements, taxes, insurance costs, and minimum driver age would be higher. A tuned vehicle, not designed for higher speeds, is not as safe as a purpose-designed motorcycle. A survey of Finnish high school students found that 80% and 70% of their mopeds were tuned, for vocational and gymnasium students, respectively. Only 10% of trade school students had a moped that conformed to legislation. The average maximum speed was 72 km/h, far higher than the legally allowable 45 km/h. Another study reported that of school-age moped owners, 50% of boys and 15% of girls have an illegally tuned moped.",
"In the United Kingdom during the 1970s, a high-performance derivation of the moped concept was developed, aimed at 16-year-olds. It was created in order to circumvent governmental legislation aimed at forcing young motorcycle riders off the road. These new laws, called the \"Sixteener Law\", were introduced by John Peyton, the then Conservative Party Minister for Transport in 1971. They forbade 16-year-olds from riding motorcycles of up to 250 cc capacity as they had done before, and limited them to 50 cc machines until they were 17. The law provoked motorcycle manufacturers to develop new class of motorcycle which were then called \"sports mopeds\" or, colloquially, \"sixteener specials\" and was subject to much criticism. The market for these was primarily young males. Sports mopeds were ostensibly 50 cc motorcycles, capable of doing more than 50 mph in some cases, with bicycle-style pedals added to them which the law required were capable of propelling the vehicle. Models were produced by Japanese manufacturers Honda, Yamaha and Suzuki, and European companies such as Puch, Fantic, Gilera, Gitane and Garelli from 1972 onwards, the most famous of which was the Yamaha FS1-E. They included roadsters, enduro and motorcrossers, cafe racers and choppers or scooters, and led to a boom interest in motorcycling similar to the early 1960 rocker period. The government responded again by bringing in even more restrictive legislation in 1977 which limited mopeds to a weight of 250 kg and a top speed to 30 mph. The move contributed to the demise of the UK motorcycle market. In Continental Europe no such restrictions existed and such vehicles could be ridden by 14-year-olds.",
""
]
} |
Algebraic geometry | null | Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying zeros of multivariate polynomials. Modern algebraic geometry is based on the use of abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, for solving geometrical problems about these sets of zeros. | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
54704,
289,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
700,
87739,
53,
4,
70,
5201,
36746,
7,
111,
33946,
621,
70,
131,
14,
54700,
5423,
7,
111,
42486,
7,
111,
35874,
1687,
15403,
7,
4,
91084,
70,
5423,
111,
756,
26847,
450,
134477,
13,
79850,
40407,
53,
1632,
707,
1286,
35874,
1687,
15403,
28,
13722,
5256,
5,
23972,
642,
4034,
678,
10,
44457,
44,
92,
740,
360,
54704,
289,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
700,
87739,
53,
4,
903,
44457,
509,
11343,
70,
27140,
101935,
313,
4,
1284,
5941,
111,
70,
5701,
50339,
621,
29568,
2174,
642,
41591,
4734,
450,
44,
92,
58,
83,
144,
429,
2844,
71407,
155738,
5,
1401,
16916,
70,
261,
64552,
32628,
111,
6,
91403,
44,
19,
58,
645,
44,
92,
830,
8,
157,
3674,
62,
132,
58,
92,
18939,
15,
748,
1286,
42856,
62,
4,
3229,
44,
92,
58,
83,
34735,
1295,
70,
43701,
194,
14847,
1632,
71403,
7,
10,
176866,
13,
5426,
4,
1632,
1543,
135812,
62,
132,
58,
92,
18939,
678,
44,
92,
740,
581,
60042,
111,
959,
20697,
678,
44,
92,
58,
83,
47,
352,
14612,
62539,
450,
1632,
44,
2472,
3794,
7,
58,
70,
173,
18770,
32628,
45646,
450,
44,
92,
58,
2258,
10484,
5,
62,
32354,
44,
420,
58,
152,
62,
2863,
62,
83,
2804,
9563,
237,
62005,
223,
32354,
7,
621,
70,
6083,
22288,
7,
98,
2663,
109622,
32628,
7,
136,
156100,
32354,
7,
621,
70,
6083,
22288,
7,
98,
99710,
2886,
17174,
42822,
7,
4,
2685,
83,
10,
6083,
18507,
111,
32354,
7,
98,
142,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
5423,
4,
35839,
44,
144867,
42,
32354,
7,
58,
707,
44,
135545,
1687,
15403,
32354,
7,
740,
62,
20324,
32354,
98,
142,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
5423,
44,
856,
58,
70541,
297,
23,
62,
83,
70,
185190,
47,
44,
856,
58,
111,
10,
20324,
32354,
98,
62,
5,
1326,
142,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
5423,
61924,
71,
98,
70,
44457,
111,
70,
27140,
101935,
4,
70,
20324,
32354,
7,
621,
156100,
136,
3853,
6,
140815,
5,
1650,
1543,
48903,
51,
84832,
538,
173072,
5844,
47,
64209,
450,
10,
20324,
345,
6953,
20324,
32354,
7,
1295,
142,
261,
64552,
96551,
47,
62,
4,
642,
831,
61924,
20324,
22288,
7,
1295,
1632,
261,
64552,
96551,
47,
15700,
5,
23972,
642,
1221,
61924,
10,
20324,
22288,
1295,
10,
96551,
3934,
261,
64552,
32628,
12,
10842,
44,
856,
58,
186,
10,
96551,
70541,
297,
23,
62,
5,
211525,
44,
39,
58,
20324,
32354,
7,
98,
44,
856,
830,
136,
11782,
2856,
44,
420,
830,
27,
4,
44,
420,
740,
1401,
61924,
10,
44,
144867,
42,
22288,
58,
44,
420,
58,
1295,
44,
856,
58,
47,
62,
390,
95,
19514,
5,
360,
3789,
34153,
4,
12638,
44,
420,
58,
83324,
7,
1632,
176866,
13,
111,
70,
37457,
111,
44,
420,
740,
4263,
44,
856,
58,
55673,
83,
10,
96551,
70541,
297,
23,
62,
4,
642,
5154,
450,
44,
420,
58,
83,
10,
44,
144867,
42,
22288,
58,
1295,
44,
856,
58,
47,
360,
69822,
47,
70,
107671,
214,
40059,
7,
4,
903,
40059,
50509,
7,
4734,
285,
68794,
136,
959,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
5423,
7,
5,
2161,
70,
3789,
3535,
4,
70,
80934,
7,
65042,
6083,
538,
47,
13452,
5844,
285,
68794,
15,
86,
29062,
40059,
247,
237,
142,
261,
64552,
96551,
136,
6863,
13452,
5844,
21721,
1830,
765,
70,
5701,
44457,
111,
32354,
7,
5,
4263,
44,
856,
58,
83,
142,
261,
64552,
96551,
4,
6863,
176866,
13,
15789,
83,
142,
28970,
77758,
136,
1556,
4911,
7,
10,
44457,
111,
6,
175921,
7,
3129,
83,
8,
157,
3674,
44,
92,
58,
132,
58,
856,
18939,
136,
35839,
70,
44,
28394,
111,
70,
168487,
32354,
7,
58,
98,
44,
856,
58,
707,
4,
16610,
538,
4,
70,
44,
137175,
44457,
58,
111,
44,
856,
740,
1650,
7,
80854,
621,
70,
185190,
7,
47,
44,
856,
58,
111,
70,
168487,
32354,
7,
645,
70,
261,
64552,
32628,
70541,
214,
44,
856,
740,
581,
77758,
111,
10,
168487,
32354,
44,
420,
58,
83,
959,
44,
856,
58,
1284,
70,
110633,
111,
70,
1614,
21690,
36743,
15,
11,
59058,
7102,
40404,
16,
7440,
70,
52240,
1290,
111,
44,
420,
58,
131,
4745,
90,
5,
9563,
237,
70,
26168,
7,
100,
70,
74855,
7,
111,
17932,
4,
50960,
4,
136,
22759,
927,
79385,
35874,
1687,
15403,
7,
42459,
65042,
214,
2773,
101935,
47,
70,
1286,
144,
429,
2844,
71407,
28484,
53550,
111,
70,
27140,
101935,
4,
5941,
183871,
111,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
285,
68794,
42459,
65042,
214,
261,
64552,
32628,
47,
10,
1286,
84183,
6827,
538,
28484,
13452,
5844,
32628,
5,
78662,
162,
70,
27140,
101935,
621,
113054,
297,
390,
154107,
70,
14012,
44,
14,
830,
10,
74855,
111,
70,
35874,
1687,
15403,
4,
13452,
5844,
32628,
83,
113054,
297,
390,
154107,
23,
95307,
26847,
44,
257,
54241,
53,
830,
26847,
7440,
95103,
124519,
1543,
23356,
5,
717,
1957,
3642,
903,
13648,
1380,
1672,
4,
16916,
70,
96551,
5,
4263,
642,
79442,
442,
4,
642,
2046,
10,
121,
21098,
5,
1301,
44,
425,
58,
60899,
47,
24491,
54241,
53,
4,
70,
91,
89059,
111,
70,
13315,
1295,
70,
59665,
47,
70,
6275,
24073,
425,
830,
44,
425,
18939,
2843,
60899,
47,
5120,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
700,
87739,
53,
83,
70,
35187,
111,
70,
2773,
26847,
111,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
285,
68794,
5,
581,
15824,
450,
70,
44457,
111,
70,
2773,
101935,
83,
142,
12989,
297,
44457,
53418,
186,
124962,
71,
23,
6044,
10,
35187,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
70,
9709,
272,
111,
28,
5490,
2320,
26168,
454,
1019,
83,
10,
42154,
133,
2174,
26168,
454,
1126,
4,
1284,
14602,
959,
765,
2499,
2773,
6275,
2174,
26168,
454,
963,
5,
1650,
28960,
7,
450,
2773,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
700,
87739,
53,
83,
959,
6561,
1543,
5622,
70,
59665,
111,
181135,
43315,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
700,
87739,
53,
47,
41714,
64352,
92614,
25,
22377,
15,
130196,
4843,
39,
67890,
316,
98,
131899,
1771,
136,
884,
429,
2844,
1771,
221169,
2320,
16,
34658,
99,
185918,
4,
9942,
23,
18237,
24849,
5,
1913,
903,
41714,
4,
66016,
7068,
4,
2684,
50339,
23,
903,
16128,
621,
62548,
47,
1632,
707,
40368,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
884,
429,
2844,
1771,
700,
87739,
53,
83,
10,
32845,
206,
111,
291,
140363,
41637,
4,
18507,
71407,
35187,
214,
45234,
7,
111,
6024,
124640,
67,
35874,
1687,
15403,
7,
5,
18799,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
700,
87739,
53,
83,
35509,
98,
70,
4527,
111,
164789,
144,
429,
2844,
1771,
53088,
4,
5201,
538,
1295,
375,
68754,
5844,
144,
429,
2844,
4,
100,
3115,
6496,
84183,
6827,
44402,
1672,
6097,
5423,
7,
111,
45234,
7,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1134170 | en-train-1134170 | 1134170 | {
"title": [
"Basic notions.",
"Zeros of simultaneous polynomials.",
"Affine varieties.",
"Regular functions.",
"Morphism of affine varieties.",
"Rational function and birational equivalence.",
"Projective variety.",
"Real algebraic geometry.",
"Computational algebraic geometry.",
"Gröbner basis.",
"Cylindrical algebraic decomposition (CAD).",
"Asymptotic complexity vs. practical efficiency.",
"Abstract modern viewpoint.",
"History.",
"Before the 16th century.",
"Renaissance.",
"19th and early 20th century.",
"20th century.",
"Analytic geometry.",
"Applications."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"In classical algebraic geometry, the main objects of interest are the vanishing sets of collections of polynomials, meaning the set of all points that simultaneously satisfy one or more polynomial equations.",
"First we start with a field \"k\". In classical algebraic geometry, this field was always the complex numbers C, but many of the same results are true if we assume only that \"k\" is algebraically closed. We consider the affine space of dimension \"n\" over \"k\", denoted A(\"k\") (or more simply A, when \"k\" is clear from the context). When one fixes a coordinate system, one may identify A(\"k\") with \"k\". The purpose of not working with \"k\" is to emphasize that one \"forgets\" the vector space structure that \"k\" carries. A function \"f\" : A → A is said",
"Just as continuous functions are the natural maps on topological spaces and smooth functions are the natural maps on differentiable manifolds, there is a natural class of functions on an algebraic set, called \"regular functions\" or \"polynomial functions\". A regular function on an algebraic set \"V\" contained in A is the restriction to \"V\" of a regular function on A. For an algebraic set defined on the field of the complex numbers, the regular functions are smooth and even analytic. It may seem unnaturally restrictive to require that a regular",
"Using regular functions from an affine variety to A, we can define regular maps from one affine variety to another. First we will define a regular map from a variety into affine space: Let \"V\" be a variety contained in A. Choose \"m\" regular functions on \"V\", and call them \"f\",..., \"f\". We define a \"regular map\" \"f\" from \"V\" to A by letting. In other words, each \"f\" determines one coordinate of the range of \"f\". If \"V\"′ is a variety contained in A, we say that \"f\" is a \"regular map\" from \"V\" to",
"In contrast to the preceding sections, this section concerns only varieties and not algebraic sets. On the other hand, the definitions extend naturally to projective varieties (next section), as an affine variety and its projective completion have the same field of functions. If \"V\" is an affine variety, its coordinate ring is an integral domain and has thus a field of fractions which is denoted \"k\"(\"V\") and called the \"field of the rational functions\" on \"V\" or, shortly, the \"function field\" of \"V\". Its elements are the restrictions to \"V\" of the rational functions over the affine space containing \"V\". The domain of a rational function \"f\" is not \"V\" but the complement of the subvariety (a hypersurface) where the denominator of \"f\" vanishes.",
"Just as the formulas for the roots of second, third, and fourth degree polynomials suggest extending real numbers to the more algebraically complete setting of the complex numbers, many properties of algebraic varieties suggest extending affine space to a more geometrically complete projective space. Whereas the complex numbers are obtained by adding the number \"i\", a root of the polynomial, projective space is obtained by adding in appropriate points \"at infinity\", points where parallel lines may meet. To see how this might come about, consider the variety. If we draw it, we get a parabola. As \"x\" goes to positive infinity, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (\"x\", \"x\") also goes to",
"Real algebraic geometry is the study of the real points of algebraic varieties. The fact that the field of the real numbers is an ordered field cannot be ignored in such a study. For example, the curve of equation formula_8 is a circle if formula_9, but does not have any real point if formula_10. It follows that real algebraic geometry is not",
"One may date the origin of computational algebraic geometry to meeting EUROSAM'79 (International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation) held at Marseille, France in June 1979. At this meeting, Since then, most results in this area are related to one or several of these items either by using or improving one of these algorithms, or by finding algorithms whose complexity is simply exponential in the number of the variables. A body of mathematical theory complementary to symbolic methods called numerical algebraic geometry has been developed over the last several decades. The main computational method is homotopy continuation. This supports, for example, a model of floating point computation for solving problems of algebraic geometry.",
"A Gröbner basis is a system of generators of a polynomial ideal whose computation allows the deduction of many properties of the affine algebraic variety defined by the ideal. Given an ideal \"I\" defining an algebraic set \"V\": Gröbner basis computations do not allow one to compute directly the primary decomposition of \"I\" nor the prime ideals defining the irreducible components of \"V\", but most algorithms for this involve Gröbner basis computation. The algorithms which are not based on Gröbner bases use regular chains",
"CAD is an algorithm which was introduced in 1973 by G. Collins to implement with an acceptable complexity the Tarski–Seidenberg theorem on quantifier elimination over the real numbers. This theorem concerns the formulas of the first-order logic whose atomic formulas are polynomial equalities or inequalities between polynomials with real coefficients. These formulas are thus the formulas which may be constructed from the atomic formulas by the logical operators \"and\" (∧), \"or\" (∨), \"not\" (¬), \"for all\" (∀) and \"exists\" (∃). Tarski's theorem asserts that, from such a formula, one may compute an equivalent formula without quantifier (∀, ∃). The complexity of CAD is doubly exponential in the",
"The basic general algorithms of computational geometry have a double exponential worst case complexity. More precisely, if \"d\" is the maximal degree of the input polynomials and \"n\" the number of variables, their complexity is at most formula_16 for some constant \"c\", and, for some inputs, the complexity is at least formula_17 for another constant \"c\"′. During the last 20 years of 20th century, various algorithms have been introduced to solve specific subproblems with a better complexity. Most of these algorithms have a complexity formula_18. Among these algorithms which solve a sub problem of the problems solved by Gröbner bases, one may cite \"testing if an affine variety is empty\" and \"solving nonhomogeneous polynomial systems which have a finite number",
"The modern approaches to algebraic geometry redefine and effectively extend the range of basic objects in various levels of generality to schemes, formal schemes, ind-schemes, algebraic spaces, algebraic stacks and so on. The need for this arises already from the useful ideas within theory of varieties, e.g. the formal functions of Zariski can be accommodated by introducing nilpotent elements in structure rings; considering spaces of loops and arcs, constructing quotients by group actions and developing formal grounds for natural intersection theory and deformation theory lead to some of the further extensions. Most remarkably, in late 1950s, algebraic varieties were subsumed into Alexander Grothendieck's concept of a scheme. Their local objects are affine schemes or prime spectra which are locally ringed spaces which form a category which is antiequivalent to the category of commutative unital rings, extending the duality between the category of affine algebraic varieties over a field \"k\", and the category of finitely generated reduced \"k\"-algebras. The gluing is along Zariski topology; one can glue within the category of locally ringed spaces, but also, using the Yoneda embedding, within the more abstract category of presheaves of sets over the category of affine schemes. The Zariski topology in the set theoretic sense is then replaced by a Grothendieck topology. Grothendieck introduced Grothendieck topologies having in mind more exotic but geometrically finer and more sensitive examples than the crude Zariski topology, namely the étale topology, and the two flat Grothendieck topologies: fppf and fpqc; nowadays some",
"",
"Some of the roots of algebraic geometry date back to the work of the Hellenistic Greeks from the 5th century BC. The Delian problem, for instance, was to construct a length \"x\" so that the cube of side \"x\" contained the same volume as the rectangular box \"a\"\"b\" for given sides \"a\" and \"b\". Menaechmus (circa 350 BC) considered the problem geometrically by intersecting the pair of plane conics \"ay\" = \"x\" and \"xy\" = \"ab\". The later",
"Such techniques of applying geometrical constructions to algebraic problems were also adopted by a number of Renaissance mathematicians such as Gerolamo Cardano and Niccolò Fontana \"Tartaglia\" on their studies of the cubic equation. The geometrical approach to construction problems, rather than the algebraic one, was favored by most 16th and 17th century mathematicians, notably Blaise Pascal who argued against the use of algebraic and analytical methods in geometry. The French mathematicians Franciscus Vieta and later René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat revolutionized the conventional way of thinking about construction problems through the introduction of coordinate geometry. They",
"It took the simultaneous 19th century developments of non-Euclidean geometry and Abelian integrals in order to bring the old algebraic ideas back into the geometrical fold. The first of these new developments was seized up by Edmond Laguerre and Arthur Cayley, who attempted to ascertain the generalized metric properties of projective space. Cayley introduced the idea of \"homogeneous polynomial forms\", and more specifically quadratic forms, on projective space. Subsequently, Felix Klein studied projective geometry (along with other types of geometry) from the viewpoint that the geometry on a space is encoded in a certain class of transformations on the space. By the end of the 19th century, projective geometers were studying more general kinds",
"B. L. van der Waerden, Oscar Zariski and André Weil developed a foundation for algebraic geometry based on contemporary commutative algebra, including valuation theory and the theory of ideals. One of the goals was to give a rigorous framework for proving the results of Italian school of algebraic geometry. In particular, this school used systematically the notion of generic point without any precise definition, which was first given by these authors during the 1930s. In the 1950s and 1960s, Jean-Pierre Serre and Alexander Grothendieck recast the foundations making use of sheaf theory. Later, from about 1960, and largely led by Grothendieck, the idea of schemes was worked out, in conjunction with a very refined apparatus of homological techniques. After",
"An analytic variety is defined locally as the set of common solutions of several equations involving analytic functions. It is analogous to the included concept of real or complex algebraic variety. Any complex manifold is an analytic variety. Since analytic varieties may have singular",
"Algebraic geometry now finds applications in statistics, control theory, robotics, error-correcting codes, phylogenetics and geometric modelling. There are also connections to string theory, game theory, graph matchings, solitons and integer programming."
]
} |
Parity bit | null | A parity bit, or check bit, is a bit added to a string of binary code. Parity bits are used as the simplest form of error detecting code. Parity bits are generally applied to the smallest units of a communication protocol, typically 8-bit octets (bytes), although they can also be applied separately to an entire message string of bits. | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
291,
140363,
41637,
4,
366,
2481,
15005,
7,
47,
70,
3853,
7432,
707,
70270,
7432,
111,
142,
892,
1505,
4,
3129,
100,
10,
2394,
6635,
14012,
83,
83324,
71,
4734,
390,
70,
19713,
88551,
4785,
5,
360,
5501,
222535,
7,
136,
242122,
4,
366,
2481,
15005,
7,
47,
70,
3853,
7432,
707,
70270,
7432,
111,
70,
14012,
111,
4785,
7,
678,
34292,
1632,
28032,
10,
34475,
5423,
111,
4785,
7,
4,
136,
83,
4911,
7,
83324,
71,
390,
70,
34292,
111,
756,
70,
4785,
7,
5,
1650,
831,
186,
74481,
3674,
1829,
10,
1193,
24638,
10554,
111,
70,
4785,
7,
4,
113,
11896,
6238,
757,
100,
3853,
366,
2481,
136,
106,
100,
70270,
366,
2481,
5,
3293,
57266,
111,
8035,
108750,
54799,
756,
70,
4785,
7,
136,
151134,
34292,
2174,
2499,
1632,
4785,
65572,
114864,
100,
6863,
4527,
23,
18499,
149,
58994,
150370,
7,
5,
4263,
142,
70270,
14012,
111,
4785,
7,
15,
216561,
70,
366,
2481,
4785,
16,
621,
71872,
3674,
214552,
538,
4,
70,
366,
2481,
4785,
1221,
186,
214552,
4,
4911,
7,
114141,
214,
450,
10,
366,
2481,
18499,
74918,
2822,
23,
70,
179965,
5,
581,
366,
2481,
4785,
83,
4734,
202319,
100,
96391,
214,
18499,
7,
74,
442,
53418,
26785,
2499,
18499,
7,
4,
237,
2685,
83,
110,
3917,
47,
83324,
3129,
17311,
4785,
83,
6,
66157,
297,
5,
581,
2053,
8110,
186,
17116,
5861,
297,
167969,
4,
136,
456,
9,
30145,
4007,
3674,
1295,
206597,
5,
2161,
10,
3560,
4861,
179965,
57646,
4,
65771,
179965,
831,
127298,
5646,
10,
4989,
1733,
4,
707,
3853,
8306,
74918,
5,
33306,
4,
366,
2481,
1556,
70,
92940,
450,
442,
4527,
7,
4734,
10,
11001,
4785,
136,
144570,
4734,
10,
14012,
111,
1193,
24638,
70836,
7,
47,
139392,
5,
6872,
1391,
58838,
18151,
100,
142,
27781,
111,
142,
18499,
9,
32399,
238,
1916,
18151,
5,
2392,
2481,
4785,
175199,
83,
11814,
46505,
25958,
100,
71872,
1916,
125429,
10001,
124850,
4,
3129,
765,
361,
4785,
7,
4,
137802,
70,
382,
927,
4785,
237,
10,
366,
2481,
4785,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
70,
366,
2481,
4785,
831,
186,
375,
7077,
297,
237,
28960,
7,
5,
62,
66596,
13,
66083,
136,
25027,
621,
6,
127219,
1916,
136,
66083,
86171,
47,
25379,
25027,
70,
8781,
7306,
3137,
26008,
805,
418,
5,
3293,
191619,
22,
19736,
70,
149,
58994,
111,
11001,
4785,
18499,
7,
4,
6637,
2174,
1632,
4785,
62163,
33977,
48398,
4743,
47,
13315,
110,
3075,
4,
2685,
1221,
186,
142,
214552,
14012,
111,
64333,
23,
70,
75204,
2053,
5,
360,
70,
6626,
27781,
7,
36917,
4,
25027,
25,
7,
74481,
3674,
366,
2481,
34292,
14858,
90,
70,
366,
2481,
4785,
23,
6863,
75204,
34292,
4,
114141,
214,
2685,
621,
110,
11001,
4785,
18499,
7,
5,
137399,
70,
25632,
27781,
678,
10,
179965,
18499,
23,
70,
17932,
4785,
17368,
1193,
24638,
12,
8622,
83,
10,
205969,
47,
366,
2481,
150370,
7,
5,
62,
366,
2481,
4785,
83,
4734,
142027,
71,
47,
96391,
142,
70270,
14012,
111,
4785,
18499,
7,
5,
4263,
142,
3853,
14012,
111,
4785,
7,
765,
18499,
7,
4,
70,
366,
2481,
4785,
115923,
70,
26785,
14012,
111,
64333,
4,
3853,
21208,
70,
2053,
83,
6,
66157,
5,
15,
81779,
2843,
18499,
149,
58994,
136,
26785,
1830,
5,
16,
137399,
70,
5701,
27781,
237,
8108,
678,
142,
3853,
14012,
111,
6,
66157,
297,
4785,
7,
12,
25027,
139999,
7,
3853,
366,
2481,
4,
237,
84751,
4,
2685,
1272,
35782,
214,
47,
105556,
70,
6626,
4785,
18499,
7,
5,
88949,
111,
6863,
134381,
939,
4,
366,
2481,
83,
11814,
23,
5941,
76407,
86685,
7440,
142,
41018,
831,
186,
119140,
297,
23,
7225,
111,
34844,
53,
4,
707,
7440,
42856,
96391,
214,
70,
18499,
83,
98893,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
70,
159,
170687,
136,
167752,
5324,
90,
4527,
366,
2481,
47,
96391,
179965,
18499,
7,
4,
136,
5941,
11948,
63923,
748,
6,
188336,
82365,
7,
26698,
366,
2481,
48431,
5,
88949,
70,
87,
9,
408,
1430,
2053,
83,
1660,
10,
43658,
111,
5201,
98323,
4,
442,
831,
186,
2837,
107,
42077,
297,
136,
456,
9,
29362,
74694,
2174,
442,
83,
14037,
47,
186,
6,
66157,
297,
5,
360,
35686,
2053,
179965,
4,
10,
39210,
9384,
83,
361,
2053,
4785,
7,
4,
142,
3853,
366,
2481,
4785,
4,
136,
1632,
707,
6626,
7279,
4785,
7,
5,
3293,
9384,
211196,
1636,
756,
70,
14104,
3137,
125429,
10001,
124850,
23,
142,
15045,
3137,
390,
67,
5,
64511,
9384,
7,
621,
7722,
74,
382,
4785,
7,
111,
2053,
1001,
10,
366,
2481,
4785,
831,
158,
67709,
756,
15045,
3137,
390,
67,
142424,
5,
360,
35686,
36398,
43701,
7,
4,
366,
2481,
83,
56104,
139392,
71,
136,
12765,
297,
390,
101758,
76407,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
4,
10,
345,
47136,
16,
136,
4,
98,
116816,
4,
70,
16750,
7228,
19882,
47,
10,
14543,
42,
6044,
237,
70,
86039,
15,
2940,
221,
5792,
4,
100,
110527,
4,
70,
172852,
5426,
16,
1829,
10,
10778,
4785,
23,
10,
76407,
68067,
23,
70,
101758,
76407,
5,
213188,
1295,
70,
18499,
83,
56104,
16940,
390,
456,
30145,
266,
19514,
70,
2053,
4,
70,
41653,
111,
3129,
621,
56104,
34831,
71,
390,
10975,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
4,
70,
172852,
5426,
87,
64,
670,
124374,
7,
194,
14847,
70,
3622,
14012,
111,
71872,
3674,
4785,
7,
4,
26719,
70,
366,
2481,
4785,
4,
83,
3853,
4,
70270,
366,
2481,
1556,
70,
92940,
450,
70,
756,
9,
80510,
7,
136,
756,
9,
25749,
103510,
7,
621,
15044,
96391,
297,
237,
18499,
7,
5,
4263,
70,
3622,
14012,
111,
4785,
7,
83,
70270,
4,
4734,
1632,
111,
70,
103510,
7,
83,
96391,
297,
237,
142,
18499,
4,
136,
70,
44126,
831,
186,
7228,
35509,
98,
3129,
83,
84751,
47,
186,
70,
1286,
39210,
18499,
5,
2392,
2481,
2053,
83,
11814,
390,
3060,
4842,
35405,
18,
10298,
53,
111,
41371,
28338,
7,
15,
103735,
397,
16,
90926,
47,
69307,
4842,
35405,
2408,
5,
4263,
10,
22648,
23,
70,
10298,
53,
35782,
7,
4,
47143,
214,
2053,
98,
70,
3789,
22648,
7,
831,
186,
70163,
71,
678,
70,
366,
2481,
2053,
15,
223,
214,
70,
73783,
34677,
1193,
24638,
32354,
16,
47,
44188,
36716,
70,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
366,
2481,
4785,
4,
707,
12765,
4785,
4,
83,
10,
4785,
49814,
47,
10,
79315,
111,
2394,
6635,
18151,
5,
2392,
2481,
4785,
7,
621,
11814,
237,
70,
30362,
18,
3173,
111,
18499,
96391,
214,
18151,
5,
2392,
2481,
4785,
7,
621,
137567,
190659,
47,
70,
19336,
525,
25072,
7,
111,
10,
36398,
91363,
4,
205794,
15045,
3137,
44043,
3263,
7,
15,
61028,
7,
247,
102971,
1836,
831,
2843,
186,
190659,
84797,
538,
47,
142,
64194,
26008,
79315,
111,
4785,
7,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1110197 | en-train-1110197 | 1110197 | {
"title": [
"Parity.",
"Error detection.",
"Usage.",
"Redundant array of independent disks.",
"History."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In mathematics, parity refers to the evenness or oddness of an integer, which for a binary number is determined only by the least significant bit. In telecommunications and computing, parity refers to the evenness or oddness of the number of bits with value one within a given set of bits, and is thus determined by the value of all the bits. It can be calculated via a XOR sum of the bits, yielding 0 for even parity and 1 for odd parity. This property of being dependent upon all the bits and changing value if any one bit changes allows for its use in error detection schemes.",
"If an odd number of bits (including the parity bit) are transmitted incorrectly, the parity bit will be incorrect, thus indicating that a parity error occurred in the transmission. The parity bit is only suitable for detecting errors; it cannot correct any errors, as there is no way to determine which particular bit is corrupted. The data must be discarded entirely, and re-transmitted from scratch. On a noisy transmission medium, successful transmission can therefore take a long time, or even never occur. However, parity has the advantage that it uses only a single bit and requires only a number of XOR gates to generate. See Hamming code for an example of an error-correcting code. Parity bit checking is used occasionally for transmitting ASCII characters, which have 7 bits, leaving the 8th bit as a parity bit. For example, the parity bit can be computed as follows. Assume Alice and Bob are communicating and Alice wants to send Bob the simple 4-bit message 1001. This mechanism enables the detection of single bit errors, because if one bit gets flipped due to line noise, there will be an incorrect number of ones in the received data. In the two examples above, Bob's calculated parity value matches the parity bit in its received value, indicating there are no single bit errors. Consider the following example with a transmission error in the second bit using XOR: There is a limitation to parity schemes. A parity bit is only guaranteed to detect an odd number of bit errors. If an even number of bits have errors, the parity bit records the correct number of ones, even though the data is corrupt. (See also error detection and correction.) Consider the same example as before with an even number of corrupted bits: Bob observes even parity, as expected, thereby failing to catch the two bit errors.",
"Because of its simplicity, parity is used in many hardware applications where an operation can be repeated in case of difficulty, or where simply detecting the error is helpful. For example, the SCSI and PCI buses use parity to detect transmission errors, and many microprocessor instruction caches include parity protection. Because the I-cache data is just a copy of main memory, it can be disregarded and re-fetched if it is found to be corrupted. In serial data transmission, a common format is 7 data bits, an even parity bit, and one or two stop bits. This format accommodates all the 7-bit ASCII characters in an 8-bit byte. Other formats are possible; 8 bits of data plus a parity bit can convey all 8-bit byte values. In serial communication contexts, parity is usually generated and checked by interface hardware (e.g., a UART) and, on reception, the result made available to a processor such as the CPU (and so too, for instance, the operating system) via a status bit in a hardware register in the interface hardware. Recovery from the error is usually done by retransmitting the data, the details of which are usually handled by software (e.g., the operating system I/O routines). When the total number of transmitted bits, including the parity bit, is even, odd parity has the advantage that the all-zeros and all-ones patterns are both detected as errors. If the total number of bits is odd, only one of the patterns is detected as an error, and the choice can be made based on which is expected to be the more common error.",
"Parity data is used by some redundant array of independent disks (RAID) levels to achieve redundancy. If a drive in the array fails, remaining data on the other drives can be combined with the parity data (using the Boolean XOR function) to reconstruct the missing data. For example, suppose two drives in a three-drive RAID 5 array contained the following data: Drive 1: 01101101Drive 2: 11010100 To calculate parity data for the two drives, an XOR is performed on their data: 01101101XOR 11010100 _____________ 10111001 The resulting parity data, 10111001, is then stored on Drive 3. Should any of the three drives fail, the contents of the failed drive can be reconstructed on a replacement drive by subjecting the data from the remaining drives to the same XOR operation. If Drive 2 were to fail, its data could be rebuilt using the XOR results of the contents of the two remaining drives, Drive 1 and Drive 3: Drive 1: 01101101Drive 3: 10111001 as follows: 10111001XOR 01101101 _____________ 11010100 The result of that XOR calculation yields Drive 2's contents. 11010100 is then stored on Drive 2, fully repairing the array. This same XOR concept applies similarly to larger arrays, using any number of disks. In the case of a RAID 3 array of 12 drives, 11 drives participate in the XOR calculation shown above and yield a value that is then stored on the dedicated parity drive. Extensions and variations on the parity bit mechanism \"double,\" \"dual,\" or \"diagonal\" parity, are used in RAID-DP.",
"A \"parity track\" was present on the first magnetic tape data storage in 1951. Parity in this form, applied across multiple parallel signals, is known as a transverse redundancy check. This can be combined with parity computed over multiple bits sent on a single signal, a longitudinal redundancy check. In a parallel bus, there is one longitudinal redundancy check bit per parallel signal. Parity was also used on at least some paper-tape (punched tape) data entry systems (which preceded magnetic tape systems). On the systems sold by British company ICL (formerly ICT) the paper tape had 8 hole positions running across it, with the 8th being for parity. 7 positions were used for the data, e.g., 7-bit ASCII. The 8th position had a hole punched in it depending on the number of data holes punched."
]
} |
Trade union | null | A trade union (or a labor union in the U.S.) is an association of workers forming a legal unit or legal personhood, usually called a "bargaining unit", which acts as bargaining agent and legal representative for a unit of employees in all matters of law or right arising from or in the administration of a collective agreement. Labour unions typically fund the formal organization, head office, and legal team functions of the labour union through regular fees or union dues. The delegate staff of the labour union representation in the workforce are made up of workplace volunteers who are appointed by members in democratic elections. | null | [
250004,
250054,
66016,
70,
104345,
111,
70,
44,
20861,
86385,
111,
64166,
32528,
8780,
58,
7435,
117942,
390,
35340,
10186,
136,
33424,
32512,
121234,
4,
70,
156531,
660,
186768,
21455,
83,
450,
10,
52350,
69941,
44,
164,
10,
62005,
223,
125413,
98,
259,
429,
85168,
1314,
100,
70,
60042,
111,
76104,
214,
707,
224588,
70,
27289,
111,
2363,
188513,
1242,
17038,
66128,
151552,
52350,
69941,
7,
4911,
7,
12,
44,
3957,
34292,
111,
150385,
9,
62783,
11764,
1636,
70,
6,
144729,
136,
143726,
137374,
111,
70,
52350,
69941,
7,
4,
124901,
131011,
100,
70,
1449,
20697,
18507,
831,
35006,
329,
538,
186,
645,
72992,
3674,
5,
581,
52350,
69941,
7,
10,
464,
99,
33720,
40715,
3501,
47,
56282,
70,
456,
77391,
111,
259,
4188,
35064,
70,
17366,
450,
83,
89160,
538,
76104,
297,
23,
70,
67842,
90356,
7,
111,
53099,
5,
9925,
83,
47,
5154,
4,
1836,
32599,
47,
56282,
70,
27167,
111,
150385,
9,
62783,
1295,
6817,
214,
35064,
6863,
34292,
58,
24073,
87926,
14,
1803,
58,
310,
418,
4,
171512,
4,
915,
5,
209,
84772,
5,
62,
5744,
80934,
390,
70,
133836,
581,
59665,
7,
111,
52350,
69941,
7,
831,
186,
144851,
71,
4420,
47,
543,
927,
142642,
130891,
4,
7440,
70,
25545,
14700,
66,
6889,
111,
25297,
100510,
7068,
35971,
3687,
169361,
24793,
4,
20020,
4,
28720,
133325,
136,
177705,
7,
3934,
70,
4488,
37772,
23,
21334,
101935,
136,
23,
3525,
31486,
7,
5,
10660,
190647,
297,
10,
21334,
192586,
2481,
23,
2363,
39395,
6,
116311,
1295,
143889,
7,
136,
27759,
94407,
74,
99,
70,
1733,
4,
69941,
7,
136,
69941,
64370,
3542,
186085,
117303,
1010,
3674,
1379,
67842,
456,
2816,
4288,
111,
52350,
136,
180255,
2408,
44830,
90,
5,
3293,
19361,
111,
2234,
91699,
71,
136,
36137,
9,
58675,
6259,
150385,
150189,
79850,
5808,
297,
23,
11177,
7,
136,
4034,
7,
87420,
6863,
86595,
7,
4,
136,
2806,
14432,
186,
142,
5526,
67675,
100,
70,
34754,
111,
52350,
69941,
7,
5,
64166,
69941,
7,
765,
68018,
2809,
51592,
237,
39457,
4295,
47,
70,
2497,
38472,
7,
111,
92264,
14713,
4,
21208,
70,
76755,
17721,
70,
6626,
83,
167956,
71,
4,
237,
70,
31347,
7,
111,
70,
2497,
38472,
7,
6,
212423,
133325,
15,
9007,
982,
24494,
7,
136,
120696,
1055,
16,
2750,
3542,
959,
107003,
47,
5808,
13,
5,
64166,
69941,
7,
136,
143849,
1909,
208,
14653,
3542,
1810,
143,
24243,
1295,
110,
14432,
3501,
70,
86991,
111,
70,
616,
927,
142642,
4,
3229,
70,
68149,
7154,
111,
239,
38648,
1314,
509,
22,
11,
89829,
23,
70,
117604,
111,
30715,
4,
1284,
2363,
3917,
111,
47644,
509,
70,
1632,
450,
28927,
297,
7565,
70,
202032,
90,
4,
16877,
214,
20749,
5256,
136,
129745,
7,
23,
47644,
3129,
155605,
26038,
133325,
2363,
63559,
38109,
5,
1301,
143849,
1909,
208,
14653,
136,
39395,
4488,
56,
69941,
7,
3514,
434,
678,
70,
1260,
126,
111,
70,
81207,
135555,
4,
70,
27759,
80723,
47,
501,
63611,
7565,
98,
2367,
442,
24124,
237,
70,
77064,
111,
5700,
51,
56644,
99,
70,
1733,
111,
70,
113157,
1771,
34210,
5,
360,
729,
5046,
4,
70,
106935,
19,
2320,
25515,
509,
115081,
4,
3129,
4599,
14534,
52350,
69941,
7,
136,
143849,
1909,
208,
14653,
390,
56101,
133325,
5,
106073,
70,
69941,
7,
3542,
28368,
47,
27983,
141591,
456,
48448,
24189,
543,
2357,
4,
1836,
3542,
21771,
38134,
21329,
712,
23,
162708,
6044,
237,
9020,
5,
27985,
23935,
34579,
66,
2408,
1902,
2843,
24874,
297,
68034,
237,
49513,
3827,
39,
136,
1902,
2809,
197097,
23,
151994,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
543,
1549,
24116,
214,
23,
176637,
4,
23,
3129,
6,
198077,
133325,
23409,
98,
10,
4537,
153350,
4,
3129,
509,
33662,
134616,
297,
5,
4843,
39,
192592,
100,
70,
915,
20016,
111,
70,
133325,
91048,
69495,
289,
111,
70,
27992,
7,
23,
543,
2357,
4,
102971,
70,
106935,
19,
2320,
25515,
543,
2588,
141591,
538,
173072,
297,
2363,
103488,
5,
3311,
70,
543,
963,
7,
4,
70,
5117,
150385,
53702,
7,
47,
19095,
25842,
133325,
111,
45,
814,
46825,
6,
167618,
7,
3542,
100,
4806,
5,
115861,
38526,
70,
5117,
6044,
69941,
509,
70,
9082,
32528,
111,
64166,
7,
4,
2843,
51529,
237,
70,
49612,
66,
42294,
18695,
67081,
4,
14037,
297,
23,
543,
1819,
23,
30749,
5,
581,
21,
3055,
9351,
509,
47,
1274,
112,
70,
53702,
25,
7,
2773,
60042,
23,
10,
1733,
3229,
52350,
69941,
7,
3542,
7464,
85325,
5,
581,
5117,
81887,
7,
99,
53550,
1257,
10,
15889,
4537,
69941,
3542,
7228,
23,
70,
543,
1549,
7,
136,
496,
7,
5,
581,
9907,
56187,
100,
70,
124550,
111,
239,
38648,
509,
170920,
23,
149635,
390,
4939,
984,
3334,
939,
4,
7103,
142,
198371,
51,
226534,
7,
7844,
81887,
47,
28282,
10,
21373,
15889,
169424,
678,
70,
9907,
32528,
111,
219784,
9,
70956,
43148,
5,
581,
56187,
69405,
22,
27722,
297,
189275,
3252,
69941,
7,
4,
58055,
214,
153161,
111,
67773,
13,
62548,
69941,
7,
4,
1284,
2843,
26719,
135969,
7,
4,
22556,
153144,
7,
4,
136,
67842,
27060,
5,
74057,
16070,
49175,
47,
17721,
84428,
136,
6,
91578,
79165,
93403,
36880,
70,
43606,
54529,
3387,
111,
239,
16336,
72567,
4,
5024,
72567,
4,
172539,
72567,
4,
438,
19514,
3915,
72567,
136,
196473,
72567,
28032,
10,
6602,
5,
717,
137633,
188926,
136,
148436,
2408,
4,
70,
69941,
26859,
70,
5895,
538,
44,
36635,
2980,
111,
70,
41021,
58,
104345,
4,
19441,
70,
159978,
71,
91177,
44,
188,
51,
1486,
70,
12996,
5844,
61112,
111,
70,
26908,
23,
1632,
39210,
71052,
111,
69941,
1242,
360,
543,
10289,
4,
70,
30982,
1495,
99866,
12452,
123610,
170920,
70,
12801,
9907,
1657,
97281,
27686,
64166,
7,
32528,
5,
581,
53702,
110281,
297,
10,
37457,
64166,
69941,
7,
3542,
77681,
8437,
29367,
23,
170612,
4,
7103,
10,
44,
12724,
16300,
63871,
98,
64166,
32528,
7,
58,
23,
171512,
176506,
450,
70,
137633,
674,
111,
70,
53702,
7,
509,
47,
70,
92940,
111,
15044,
143889,
7,
136,
93215,
5,
3293,
14922,
2843,
24124,
70,
75678,
111,
52350,
69941,
7,
23,
3789,
25297,
84382,
76726,
4,
41866,
70,
14098,
46684,
4,
102126,
136,
9942,
5,
360,
70,
14098,
46684,
4,
70,
5117,
60266,
64857,
113458,
150385,
53702,
509,
70,
114996,
7,
111,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
52350,
69941,
15,
748,
10,
18940,
69941,
23,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
16,
83,
142,
125413,
111,
133325,
3173,
214,
10,
8437,
25072,
707,
8437,
3445,
44462,
4,
56104,
35839,
10,
44,
1299,
208,
14653,
25072,
830,
3129,
27992,
7,
237,
1909,
208,
14653,
23882,
136,
8437,
99638,
13,
100,
10,
25072,
111,
93215,
23,
756,
26866,
7,
111,
27165,
707,
7108,
187,
72219,
1295,
707,
23,
70,
86052,
111,
10,
143849,
106689,
5,
239,
38648,
69941,
7,
205794,
9458,
70,
23113,
53702,
4,
10336,
23179,
4,
136,
8437,
7175,
32354,
7,
111,
70,
150385,
69941,
8305,
20324,
108112,
707,
69941,
42604,
5,
581,
102329,
13,
23082,
111,
70,
150385,
69941,
18811,
1363,
23,
70,
4488,
50930,
621,
7228,
1257,
111,
4488,
23935,
149849,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1491518 | en-train-1491518 | 1491518 | {
"title": [
"Definition.",
"History.",
"National general unions.",
"Legalization and expansion.",
"Prevalence worldwide.",
"Trade unions by country.",
"Australia.",
"Baltic states.",
"Belgium.",
"Canada.",
"Colombia.",
"Costa Rica.",
"Germany.",
"India.",
"Japan.",
"Mexico.",
"Nordic countries.",
"United Kingdom.",
"United States.",
"Vatican (Holy See).",
"Structure and politics.",
"Shop types.",
"Diversity of international unions.",
"International unionization.",
"Criticisms.",
"Union publications."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Since the publication of the \"History of Trade Unionism\" (1894) by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, the predominant historical view is that a trade union \"is a continuous association on wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment.\" Karl Marx described trade unions thus: \"The value of labour-power constitutes the conscious and explicit foundation of the trade unions, whose importance for the [...] working class can scarcely be overestimated. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is traditionally maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value\" (\"Capital\" V1, 1867, p. 1069). A modern definition by the Australian",
"The origins of trade unions can be traced back to 18th century Britain, where the rapid expansion of industrial society then taking place drew women, children, rural workers and immigrants into the work force in large numbers and in new roles. They encountered a large hostility in their early existence from employers and government groups; at the time, unions and unionists were regularly prosecuted under various restraint of trade and conspiracy statutes. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, and would later be an important arena for the development of trade unions. Trade unions have sometimes been seen as successors to the guilds of medieval Europe, though the relationship between the two is disputed, as the masters of the guilds employed workers (apprentices and journeymen) who were not allowed to organize. Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century, when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England, but their way of thinking was the one that endured down the centuries, inspiring evolutions and advances in thinking which eventually gave workers their necessary rights. As collective bargaining and early worker unions grew with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the government began to clamp down on what it saw as the danger of popular unrest at the time of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions and collective bargaining by British workers. Although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Workplace militancy had also manifested itself as Luddism and had been prominent in struggles such as the 1820 Rising in Scotland, in which 60,000 workers went on a general strike, which was soon crushed. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, although the Combination Act 1825 severely restricted their activity. By the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, founded in 1818 in Manchester. The latter name was to hide the organization's real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal.",
"The first attempts at setting up a national general union were made in the 1820s and 30s. The National Association for the Protection of Labour was established in 1830 by John Doherty, after an apparently unsuccessful attempt to create a similar national presence with the National Union of Cotton-spinners. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others. Membership rose to between 10,000 and 20,000 individuals spread across the five counties of Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire within a year. To establish awareness and legitimacy, the union started the weekly \"Voice of the People\" publication, having the declared intention \"to unite the productive classes of the community in one common bond of union.\" In 1834, the Welsh socialist Robert Owen established the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. The organization attracted a range",
"Trade unions were finally legalized in 1872, after a \"Royal Commission on Trade Unions\" in 1867 agreed that the establishment of the organizations was to the advantage of both employers and employees. This period also saw the growth of trade unions in other industrializing countries, especially the United States, Germany and France. In the United States, the first effective nationwide labour organization was the Knights of Labor, in 1869, which began to grow after",
"The prevalence of unions in various countries can be measured by the concept of \"union density\", which is expressed as",
"",
"Supporters of unions, such as the ACTU or Australian Labor Party (ALP), often credit trade unions with leading the labour movement in the early 20th century. This generally sought to end child labour practices, improve worker safety, increase wages for both union workers and non-union workers, raise the entire society's standard of living, reduce the hours in a work week, provide public education for children, and bring other benefits to working class families. Melbourne Trades Hall was opened in 1859 with Trades and Labour Councils and Trades Halls opening in all cities and most regional towns in the next forty years. During the 1880s Trade unions developed among shearers, miners, and stevedores (wharf workers), but soon spread to cover almost all blue-collar jobs. Shortages of labour led to high wages for a prosperous skilled working class, whose unions demanded and got an eight-hour day and other benefits unheard of in Europe. Australia gained a reputation as \"the working man's paradise.\" Some employers tried to undercut the unions by",
"In the Baltic states trade unions were the part of the Soviet Union trade union system and closely connected with the party in the state. Industrial actions were not a part of their activities. After 1990 trade unions in the Baltic states have experienced rapid loss of membership and economic power, while employers’ organisations increased both power and membership.",
"With 65% of the workers belonging to a union Belgium is a country with one of the highest percentages of labour union membership. Only the Scandinavian countries have a higher labour union density. The biggest union with around 1.7 million members is the Christian democrat Confederation of Christian Trade Unions (ACV-CSC) which was founded in 1904. The origins of the union can be traced back to the \"Anti-Socialist Cotton Workers Union\" that was founded in 1886. The second biggest union is the socialist General Federation of Belgian Labour (ABVV-FGTB) which has a membership of more than 1.5 million. The ABVV-FGTB traces its origins to 1857, when the first Belgian union was founded in Ghent by a group of weavers. This and other socialist",
"Canada's first trade union, the Labourers' Benevolent Association (now International Longshoremen's Association Local 273), formed in Saint John, New Brunswick in 1849. The union was formed when Saint John's longshoremen banded together to lobby for regular pay and a shorter workday. Canadian unionism had early ties with Britain and Ireland. Tradesmen who came from Britain brought traditions of the British trade union movement, and many British unions had branches in Canada. Canadian unionism ties with the United States eventually replaced those with Britain. Collective bargaining was first recognized in 1945, after the strike by the United Auto Workers at the General Motors' plant in Oshawa, Ontario. Justice Ivan Rand issued a landmark legal decision after the strike in Windsor, Ontario, involving 17,000 Ford workers. He granted the union the compulsory check-off of union dues. Rand ruled that all workers in a bargaining unit benefit from a union-negotiated contract. Therefore, he reasoned they must pay union dues, although they do",
"Until around 1990 Colombian trade unions were among the strongest in Latin America. However, the 1980s expansion of paramilitarism in Colombia saw trade union leaders and members increasingly targeted for assassination, and as a result Colombia has been the most dangerous country in the world for",
"In Costa Rica, trade unions first appeared in the late 1800s to support workers in a variety of urban and industrial jobs, such as railroad builders and craft tradesmen. After facing violent repression, such as during the 1934 United Fruit Strike,",
"Trade unions in Germany have a history reaching back to the German revolution in 1848, and still play an important role in the German economy and society. In 1875 the SPD, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which is one of the biggest political parties in Germany, supported the forming",
"In India, the Trade Union movement is generally divided on political lines. According to provisional statistics from the Ministry of Labour, trade unions had a combined membership of 24,601,589 in 2002. As of 2008, there are 11 Central Trade Union Organisations (CTUO) recognized by the Ministry of Labour. The forming of these unions was a big deal in India.",
"Labour unions emerged in Japan in the second half of the Meiji period as the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization. Until 1945, however, the labour movement remained weak, impeded by lack of legal rights, anti-union legislation, management-organised factory councils, and political divisions between “cooperative” and radical unionists. In the immediate aftermath of the Second",
"Before the 1990s, unions in Mexico had been historically part of a state institutional system. From 1940 until the 1980s, during the worldwide spread of neoliberalism through the Washington Consensus, the Mexican unions did not operate independently, but instead as part of a state institutional system, largely controlled by the ruling party. During these 40 years, the primary aim of the labour unions was not to benefit the workers, but to carry out the state's economic policy under their cosy relationship with the ruling party. This economic policy, which peaked in the 1950s and 60s with the so-called \"Mexican Miracle\", saw rising incomes and improved standards of living but the primary beneficiaries were the wealthy. In the 1980s, Mexico began adhering to Washington Consensus policies, selling off state industries such",
"Trade unions (Danish/Norwegian: \"Fagforeninger\", Swedish: \"Fackföreningar\") have a long tradition in Scandinavian and Nordic society. Beginning in the mid-19th century, they today have a large impact on the nature of employment and workers' rights in many of the Nordic countries. One of the largest trade unions in Sweden is the Swedish Confederation of Trade Unions, (LO, \"Landsorganisationen\"), incorporating unions such as the Swedish Metal Workers' Union (\"IF Metall\" = \"Industrifacket Metall\"), the Swedish Electricians' Union (Svenska Elektrikerförbundet) and the Swedish Municipality Workers' Union (\"Svenska Kommunalarbetareförbundet\", abbreviated \"Kommunal\"). One of the aims of IF Metall is to transform jobs into \"good jobs\", also called \"developing",
"Moderate New Model Unions dominated the union movement from the mid-19th century and where trade unionism was stronger than the political labour movement until the formation and growth of the Labour Party in the early years of the 20th century. Trade unionism in the United Kingdom was a major factor in some of the economic crises during the 1960s and the 1970s, culminating in the \"Winter of Discontent\" of late 1978 and early 1979, when a significant percentage of the nation's public sector workers went on strike. By this stage,",
"Labour unions are legally recognized as representatives of workers in many industries in the United States. In the United States, trade unions were formed based on power with the people, not over the people like the government at the time. Their activity today centres on collective bargaining over wages, benefits and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and supporting endorsed candidates at the state and federal level. Most unions in America are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL-CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL-CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL-CIO is especially concerned with global trade",
"The Association of Vatican Lay",
"Unions may organize a particular section of skilled workers (craft unionism, traditionally found in Australia, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US), a cross-section of workers from various trades (general unionism, traditionally found in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Netherlands, the UK and the US), or attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry (industrial unionism, found in Australia, Canada, Germany, Finland, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US). These unions are often divided into \"locals\", and united in national federations. These federations themselves will affiliate with Internationals, such as the International Trade Union Confederation. However, in Japan, union organization is slightly different due to the presence of enterprise unions, i.e. unions that are specific to a plant or company. These enterprise unions, however, join industry-wide federations which in turn are members of Rengo, the Japanese national trade union confederation. In Western Europe, professional associations often carry out the functions of a trade union. In these cases, they may be negotiating for white-collar or professional workers, such as physicians, engineers or teachers. Typically such trade unions refrain from politics or pursue a more liberal politics than their blue-collar counterparts. A union may acquire the status of a \"juristic person\" (an artificial legal entity), with a mandate to negotiate with employers for the workers it represents. In such cases, unions have certain legal rights, most importantly the right to engage in collective bargaining with the employer (or employers) over wages, working hours, and other terms and conditions of employment. The inability of the parties to reach an agreement may lead to industrial action, culminating in either strike action",
"Companies that employ workers with a union generally operate on one of several models: An EU case concerning Italy stated that, \"The principle of trade union freedom in the Italian system implies recognition of the right of the individual not to belong to any trade union (\"negative\" freedom of association/trade union freedom), and the unlawfulness of discrimination liable to cause harm to non-unionized employees.\" In Britain,",
"Union law varies from country to country, as does the function of unions. For example, German and Dutch unions have played a greater role in management decisions through participation in corporate boards and co-determination than have unions in the United States. Moreover, in the United States, collective bargaining is most commonly undertaken by unions directly with employers, whereas in Austria, Denmark, Germany or Sweden, unions most often negotiate with employers associations. Concerning labour market regulation in the EU, Gold (1993) and Hall (1994) have identified three distinct systems of labour market regulation, which also influence the role that unions play: The United States takes a more laissez-faire approach, setting some minimum standards but leaving most workers' wages and benefits to collective bargaining and market forces. Thus, it comes closest to the above Anglo-Saxon model. Also, the Eastern European countries that have recently entered into the EU come closest to the Anglo-Saxon model. In contrast, in Germany, the relation between individual employees and employers is considered to be asymmetrical. In consequence, many working conditions are not negotiable due to a strong legal protection of individuals. However, the German flavor or works legislation has as its main objective to create a balance of power between employees organized in unions and employers organized in employers associations. This allows much wider legal boundaries for collective bargaining, compared to the",
"The largest trade union federation in the world is the Brussels-based International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), which has approximately 309 affiliated organizations in 156 countries and territories, with a combined membership of 166 million. The ITUC is a federation of national trade union centres, such as the",
"In the United States, the outsourcing of labour to Asia, Latin America, and Africa has been partially driven by increasing costs of union partnership, which gives other countries a comparative advantage in labour, making it more profitable to purchase disorganized, low-wage labour from these regions. Milton Friedman, economist and advocate of laissez-faire capitalism, sought to show that unionization produces higher wages (for the union members) at the expense of fewer jobs, and that, if some industries are unionized while",
"Several sources of current news exist about the trade union movement in the world. These include LabourStart and the official website of the international trade union movement Global Unions. A source of international news about unions is RadioLabour which provides daily (Monday to Friday) news reports. \"Labor Notes\" is the largest circulation cross-union publication remaining in the United States. It reports news and analysis about union activity or problems facing the labour movement. Another source of union news is the \"Workers Independent News\", a news organization providing radio articles to independent and syndicated radio shows in the United States. Benjamin Brown, \"Trade Unions, Strikes, and the Renewal of Halakhic Labor Law: Ideologies in the Rulings of Rabbis Kook, Uziel, and Feinstein\""
]
} |
Pogrom | null | A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The Slavic-languages term originally entered the English language in order to describe 19th- and 20th-century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement). Similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known as pogroms. The word is now also sometimes used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish ethnic or religious groups. The characteristics of a pogrom vary widely, depending on the specific incidents, at times leading to, or culminating in, massacres. | null | [
250004,
250054,
23972,
17164,
297,
23,
156999,
4,
70,
102374,
2565,
15,
4,
1388,
83,
16406,
4126,
1295,
70,
39210,
183114,
15,
16,
136,
70,
42792,
15,
4,
1388,
91084,
44,
188,
163684,
4,
47,
148,
57572,
256,
38965,
4,
47,
53397,
15227,
48673,
538,
740,
581,
110,
309,
44,
771,
8407,
39,
830,
3129,
1556,
10,
35845,
538,
16610,
32692,
4,
83,
11814,
23,
14941,
136,
5941,
3789,
46876,
7,
237,
10,
111628,
47416,
4,
144681,
3017,
15555,
297,
1295,
6,
185820,
15,
136913,
70,
2565,
51776,
70,
3173,
6,
194,
1650,
7,
38134,
21329,
712,
191175,
23,
18925,
25,
7,
8999,
80723,
678,
70,
206610,
1771,
95319,
23,
70,
102374,
145359,
23,
151258,
132869,
17168,
5,
581,
5117,
17164,
297,
2874,
9,
11670,
114686,
1427,
30591,
34739,
3687,
23,
99737,
399,
23,
70,
6602,
4520,
18471,
4,
134629,
390,
70,
1286,
51529,
1427,
818,
111,
11251,
18471,
5,
64511,
135818,
47353,
34739,
3687,
23,
14713,
20271,
70,
102256,
62,
4188,
5,
845,
114686,
142080,
3542,
30388,
297,
23,
70,
10074,
96719,
845,
114686,
217382,
17514,
111,
702,
9285,
104279,
45160,
4,
23,
717,
202,
191,
23,
702,
9285,
4,
70,
96945,
7612,
111,
702,
12183,
23,
5755,
237,
5299,
237,
23,
3789,
168655,
162708,
4,
20271,
70,
1004,
11443,
18,
6627,
7612,
24462,
77814,
4,
70,
154347,
6627,
7612,
4,
6627,
7612,
7,
23,
62,
75334,
136,
23,
563,
101500,
7,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
70,
44,
42272,
33,
10325,
25,
7,
10013,
58,
172567,
160,
8407,
39,
111,
702,
12977,
5,
31384,
135532,
845,
114686,
142080,
3542,
163684,
297,
20271,
903,
14922,
4,
65042,
214,
53333,
47,
70,
80781,
7,
6627,
7612,
111,
702,
5757,
5,
2161,
152239,
72864,
111,
702,
18949,
4,
10,
160,
8407,
39,
80723,
23,
210721,
450,
12441,
47,
70,
6818,
592,
111,
70,
845,
114686,
128274,
4,
70,
200,
30319,
111,
5941,
845,
19725,
4,
136,
70,
193341,
111,
5941,
845,
19725,
87631,
297,
23,
70,
5201,
133600,
519,
6261,
74,
70,
14012,
111,
103494,
509,
25902,
3674,
99,
4082,
1104,
4283,
453,
4,
24793,
136,
20020,
5,
581,
50029,
162882,
7,
111,
845,
19725,
136,
82224,
7,
74918,
2822,
20271,
70,
16362,
7603,
12827,
4922,
345,
22876,
214,
111,
611,
9285,
104279,
210344,
23,
13379,
9,
5636,
82739,
5,
18799,
4816,
1779,
8337,
25902,
1636,
111,
70,
105994,
111,
70,
162882,
7,
390,
16362,
7603,
12827,
4922,
25,
7,
1311,
1192,
22824,
17163,
214,
17721,
6,
160012,
136,
805,
4,
9508,
453,
4,
24793,
136,
20020,
4,
707,
95134,
5941,
1286,
5,
581,
1810,
70751,
111,
95319,
26548,
845,
19725,
15,
13025,
254,
9,
13025,
254,
1427,
30591,
16,
74918,
2822,
99,
70,
86595,
111,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
237,
10,
132539,
47,
845,
114686,
210214,
2320,
23,
70,
30839,
102668,
820,
2320,
5,
581,
102374,
145359,
4,
3129,
198395,
1902,
4552,
10846,
845,
19725,
4,
163629,
71,
43396,
90,
23,
70,
102374,
9148,
1363,
450,
70541,
297,
10,
21334,
845,
114686,
43904,
7,
4,
20271,
70,
116338,
2878,
5256,
111,
164111,
23,
729,
12825,
4,
729,
11591,
136,
729,
8821,
5,
360,
158,
944,
2822,
43396,
90,
4,
10,
3525,
68894,
77630,
939,
35839,
70,
62814,
111,
115966,
19929,
509,
100,
4806,
23,
729,
12183,
390,
129811,
70,
32774,
5,
17006,
845,
19725,
1295,
70,
36770,
151301,
1177,
289,
927,
3542,
107003,
47,
157176,
4734,
28032,
70,
62814,
4,
26719,
87143,
14700,
2118,
71,
390,
121678,
8,
7612,
13,
1295,
2907,
5,
72673,
4,
124338,
136,
3789,
21334,
102374,
162708,
5,
581,
543,
3117,
2365,
6011,
160,
8407,
4432,
94419,
70,
86595,
111,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
160,
8407,
4432,
23,
115525,
1419,
49002,
74,
2685,
3542,
22759,
1286,
6044,
160,
8407,
4432,
23,
2365,
6011,
8108,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
142642,
5,
77168,
214,
70,
110938,
2320,
111,
42814,
1995,
23,
151258,
390,
46387,
76,
395,
5976,
395,
46,
9932,
4806,
98,
70,
845,
19725,
390,
70,
102374,
27759,
4,
2874,
9,
11670,
114686,
47353,
69347,
3934,
10,
259,
272,
111,
645,
1781,
160,
8407,
4432,
390,
2363,
5744,
80934,
4,
3129,
21,
14437,
100,
40368,
5369,
5,
845,
114686,
15970,
9,
168080,
214,
44,
15017,
127,
146839,
58,
3542,
10,
40285,
67175,
390,
115525,
171184,
87,
23,
543,
12465,
5,
581,
5117,
23,
387,
927,
9,
16797,
44616,
49002,
509,
70,
341,
12787,
21817,
160,
8407,
39,
111,
106355,
23,
3129,
7218,
845,
19725,
3542,
152388,
4,
75281,
7,
148,
167457,
4,
10044,
44556,
163684,
297,
136,
6331,
108880,
34777,
11,
17704,
5,
360,
70,
5701,
6602,
4,
160,
8407,
4432,
34739,
3687,
23,
2016,
7603,
15,
6766,
320,
223,
247,
159,
54950,
4,
4221,
25166,
10887,
136,
79694,
188,
5877,
15,
1062,
6070,
1212,
194,
96051,
13,
57203,
1505,
53,
509,
11417,
47314,
390,
842,
12364,
5256,
111,
70,
148,
167457,
5,
10660,
3542,
134629,
390,
70,
567,
979,
188,
4326,
160,
8407,
39,
15,
76228,
1702,
152388,
247,
136,
70,
149222,
160,
8407,
39,
111,
18374,
66007,
16750,
214,
23,
10,
6627,
7612,
111,
189275,
805,
845,
19725,
5,
360,
17262,
5369,
17721,
106355,
136,
96903,
4,
1672,
6,
89709,
160,
8407,
4432,
3542,
17164,
297,
23,
82739,
136,
873,
1192,
74883,
74,
23552,
10,
54,
3121,
1286,
23,
80034,
6563,
3478,
4,
175100,
1810,
678,
70,
102374,
27759,
25,
7,
181295,
939,
4,
1284,
110,
2874,
9,
11670,
114686,
160,
8407,
4432,
3542,
17164,
297,
23,
164111,
5,
1913,
1672,
450,
1733,
4,
70,
845,
114686,
54593,
125378,
80723,
5808,
214,
187,
4806,
15970,
9,
112,
6211,
184,
25072,
7,
43542,
47,
106443,
4420,
4,
136,
70,
160,
8407,
4432,
1614,
8752,
71,
100,
10,
14012,
111,
5369,
5,
129551,
47,
16030,
166132,
22507,
169,
4,
17721,
151258,
136,
23031,
2685,
3542,
46963,
4046,
160,
8407,
4432,
23,
82739,
24073,
21231,
12,
25134,
1177,
48850,
21028,
14,
63920,
111,
70,
62814,
18939,
3129,
34739,
70,
60742,
111,
6,
224191,
47,
116,
55577,
117907,
66,
845,
19725,
4,
137802,
23552,
10,
19879,
5368,
9393,
5,
181268,
9,
7,
57965,
160,
8407,
4432,
4,
3129,
80723,
23,
70,
102374,
145359,
40368,
8,
23662,
7,
110680,
4,
20753,
47314,
20271,
70,
14922,
111,
70,
102374,
18543,
5550,
23,
70,
7103,
125458,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
160,
8407,
39,
83,
10,
48673,
1427,
818,
1300,
4806,
99,
70,
6627,
7612,
707,
217382,
1830,
111,
142,
82,
127,
6402,
707,
167821,
21115,
4,
106480,
1632,
1300,
4806,
99,
845,
19725,
5,
581,
187414,
238,
9,
196651,
7,
13579,
7311,
538,
30957,
297,
70,
14941,
46876,
23,
12989,
47,
98363,
953,
927,
9,
136,
387,
927,
9,
16797,
44616,
52875,
7,
98,
845,
19725,
23,
70,
102374,
145359,
15,
840,
18,
538,
28032,
70,
62814,
111,
115966,
19929,
194,
209683,
52875,
7,
26548,
845,
19725,
99,
3789,
20028,
136,
44677,
2843,
100512,
24036,
16711,
4935,
538,
51529,
237,
160,
8407,
4432,
5,
581,
2565,
83,
5036,
2843,
68018,
11814,
47,
98363,
3835,
538,
167244,
297,
7398,
208,
4935,
52875,
7,
26548,
351,
9,
2
] | null | null | en-train-282213 | en-train-282213 | 282213 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Historical background.",
"Russian Empire.",
"Eastern Europe after World War I.",
"Rest of the world.",
"Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe.",
"After World War II.",
"Usage.",
"Selected list of events named pogroms."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"First recorded in 1882, the Russian word (, ) is derived from the common prefix () and the verb (, ) meaning \"to destroy, to wreak havoc, to demolish violently\". The noun \"pogrom\", which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed from Yiddish (where the word takes the form ). Its widespread circulation in today's world began with the antisemitic violence in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883.",
"The first recorded anti-Jewish riots took place in Alexandria in the year 38 CE, followed by the more known riot of 66 CE. Other notable events took place in Europe during the Middle Ages. Jewish communities were targeted in the Black Death Jewish persecutions of 1348–1350, in Toulon in 1348, the Massacre of 1391 in Barcelona as well as in other Catalan cities, during the Erfurt massacre (1349), the Basel massacre, massacres in Aragon and in Flanders, as well as the \"Valentine's Day\" Strasbourg pogrom of 1349. Some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed during this period, extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. On Holy Saturday of 1389, a pogrom began in Prague that led to the burning of the Jewish quarter, the killing of many Jews, and the suicide of many Jews trapped in the main synagogue; the number of dead was estimated at 400–500 men, women and children. The brutal murders of Jews and Poles occurred during the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine. Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytsky's Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children, or perhaps many more. The outbreak of violence against Jews (Hep-Hep riots) occurred at the beginning of the 19th century as a reaction to Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation.",
"The Russian Empire, which previously had very few Jews, acquired territories in the Russian Partition that contained a large Jewish populations, during the military partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795. In conquered territories, a new political entity called the Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jews from the former Commonwealth were allowed to reside only within the Pale, including families expelled by royal decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large Russian cities. The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia; there were four more such pogroms in Odessa before the end of the century. Following the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 by Narodnaya Volya – blamed on the Jews by the Russian government, anti-Jewish events turned into a wave of over 200 pogroms by their modern definition, which lasted for several years. Jewish self-governing \"Kehillah\" were abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844. The first in 20th-century Russia was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 49 Jews were killed, hundreds wounded, 700 homes destroyed and 600 businesses pillaged. In the same year, pogroms took place in Gomel (Belarus), Smela, Feodosiya and Melitopol (Ukraine). Extreme savagery was typified by mutilations of the wounded. They were followed by the Zhitomir pogrom (with 29 killed), and the Kiev pogrom of October 1905 resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews. In three years between 1903 and 1906, about 660 pogroms were recorded in Ukraine and Bessarabia; half a dozen more in Belorussia, carried out with the Russian government's complicity, but no anti-Jewish pogroms were recorded in Poland. At about that time, the Jewish Labor Bund began organizing armed self-defense units ready to shoot back, and the pogroms subsided for a number of years. According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920 there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine (\"see: Southwestern Krai parts of the Pale\") which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless.",
"Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War in the aftermath of World War I. Professor Zvi Gitelman (\"A Century of Ambivalence\") estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine, thus amounting to the greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in his book \"Two Hundred Years Together\" provided additional statistics from research conducted by Nahum Gergel (1887–1931). Gergel counted 1,236 incidents of anti-Jewish violence and estimated that 887 mass pogroms occurred, the remainder being classified as \"excesses\" not assuming mass proportions. The Kiev pogroms of 1919, according to Gitelman, were the first of a subsequent wave of pogroms in which between 30,000 and 70,000 Jews were massacred across Ukraine. Of all the pogroms accounted for in Gergel's research: Gergel's overall figures, which are generally considered conservative, are based on the testimony of witnesses and newspaper reports collected by the \"Mizrakh-Yidish Historiche Arkhiv\" which was first based in Kiev, then Berlin and later New York. The English version of Gergel's article was published in 1951 in the YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science titled \"The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918–1921.\" On 8 August 1919, during the Polish–Soviet War, Polish troops took over Minsk in Operation Minsk. They killed 31 Jews merely suspected of supporting the Bolshevist movement, beat and attacked many more, looted 377 Jewish-owned shops (aided by the local civilians) and ransacked many private homes. The \"Morgenthau's report of October 1919 stated that there is no question that some of the Jewish leaders exaggerated these evils.\" According to Elissa Bemporad, the \"violence endured by the Jewish population under the Poles encouraged popular support for the Red Army, as Jewish public opinion welcomed the establishment of the Belorussian SSR.\" After the First World War, during the localized armed conflicts of independence, 72 Jews were killed and 443 injured in the 1918 Lwów pogrom. The following year, pogroms were reported by the \"New York Tribune\" in several cities in the newly established Second Polish Republic.",
"In the early 20th century, pogroms broke out elsewhere in the world as well. In 1904 in Ireland, the Limerick boycott caused several Jewish families to leave the town. During the 1911 Tredegar riot in Wales, Jewish homes and businesses were looted and burned over the period of a week, before the British Army was called in by then-Home Secretary Winston Churchill, who described the riot as a \"pogrom\". In 1919 there was a pogrom in Argentina, during the Tragic Week. In the Mandatory Palestine under British administration, the Jews were targeted in the 1929 Hebron massacre and the 1929 Safed pogrom. In 1934 there were pogroms against Jews in Turkey and Algeria.",
"The first pogrom in Nazi Germany was the \"Kristallnacht\", often called \"Pogromnacht\", in which at least 91 Jews were killed, a further 30,000 arrested and incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps, over 1,000 synagogues burned, and over 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged. During World War II, Nazi German death squads encouraged local populations in German-occupied Europe to commit pogroms against Jews. Brand new battalions of \"Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz\" (trained by SD agents) were mobilized from among the German minorities. A large number of pogroms occurred during the Holocaust at the hands of non-Germans. Perhaps the deadliest of these Holocaust-era pogroms was the Iași pogrom in Romania, perpetrated by Ion Antonescu, in which as many as 13,266 Jews were killed by Romanian citizens, police and military officials. On 1–2 June 1941, in the two-day Farhud pogrom in Iraq, perpetrated by Rashid Ali, Yunis al-Sabawi, and the al-Futuwa youth, \"rioters murdered between 150 and 180 Jews, injured 600 others, and raped an undetermined number of women. They also looted some 1,500 stores and homes\". Also 300-400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence. In June–July 1941, encouraged by the \"Einsatzgruppen\" in the city of Lviv the Ukrainian People's Militia perpetrated two citywide pogroms in which around 6,000 Polish Jews were murdered, in retribution for alleged collaboration with the Soviet NKVD. In Lithuania, some local police led by Algirdas Klimaitis and Lithuanian partisans – consisting of LAF units reinforced by 3,600 deserters from the 29th Lithuanian Territorial Corps of the Red Army promulgated anti-Jewish pogroms in Kaunas along with occupying Nazis. On 25–26 June 1941, about 3,800 Jews were killed and synagogues and Jewish settlements burned. During the Jedwabne pogrom of July 1941, ethnic Poles burned at least 340 Jews in a barn (Institute of National Remembrance) in the presence of Nazi German \"Ordnungspolizei\". The role of the German \"Einsatzgruppe B\" remains the subject of debate.",
"After the end of World War II, a series of violent antisemitic incidents occurred against returning Jews throughout Europe, particularly in the Soviet-occupied East where Nazi propagandists had extensively promoted the notion of a Jewish-Communist conspiracy (see Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946 and Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946). Anti-Jewish riots also took place in Britain in 1947. In the Arab world, anti-Jewish rioters killed over 140 Jews in the 1945 Anti-Jewish Riots in Tripolitania. Following the start of the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, a number of anti-Jewish events occurred throughout the Arab world, some of which have been described as pogroms. In 1947, half of Aleppo's 10,000 Jews left the city in the wake of the Aleppo riots, while other anti-Jewish riots took place in British Aden and the French Moroccan cities of Oujda and Jerada. In 2020, a series of riots in North East Delhi in which Hindu nationalist mobs attacked Muslims and vandalized Muslim properties and mosques was widely described as a pogrom. During the riots, 53 people were killed and more than 350 were injured.",
"According to Encyclopædia Britannica, \"the term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, [and] the first extensive pogroms followed the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881\", and the \"Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789\" states that pogroms \"were antisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within the tsarist empire.\" However, the term is widely used to refer to many events which occurred prior to the Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. Historian of Russian Jewry John Klier writes in \"Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882\" that \"By the twentieth century, the word 'pogrom' had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews.\" Abramson wrote that \"in mainstream usage the word has come to imply an act of antisemitism\", since while \"Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon... historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence\". The term is also used in reference to attacks on non-Jewish ethnic minorities, and accordingly some scholars do not include antisemitism as the defining characteristic of \"pogroms\". Reviewing its uses in scholarly literature, historian Werner Bergmann proposes that pogroms should be \"defined as a \"unilateral, nongovernmental\" form of \"collective\" violence that is \"initiated by the majority population\" against a largely defenseless ethnic group, and he also states that pogroms occur when the \"majority\" expects the state to provide it with no assistance in overcoming a (perceived) threat from the minority,\" but he adds that in Western usage, the word's \"anti-Semitic overtones\" have been retained. Historian David Engel supports this, writing that \"there can be no logically or empirically compelling grounds for declaring that some particular episode does or does not merit the label [pogrom],\" but states that the majority of the incidents \"habitually\" described as pogroms took place in societies that were significantly divided by ethnicity and/or religion where the violence was committed by members of the higher-ranking group against members of a stereotyped lower-ranking group with which they expressed some complaint, and the members of the higher-ranking group justified their acts of violence by claiming that the law of the land would not be used to stop them. There is no universally accepted set of characteristics which define the term pogrom. Klier writes that \"when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that 'pogroms' were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features.\" Use of the term pogrom to refer to events in 1918–19 in Polish cities including Kielce pogrom, Pinsk massacre and Lwów pogrom, was specifically avoided in the 1919 Morgenthau Report and the word \"excesses\" was used instead because the authors argued that the use of the term \"pogrom\" required a situation to be antisemitic rather than political in nature, which meant that it was inapplicable to the conditions existing in a war zone, and media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991 Crown Heights riot caused public controversy. In 2008, two separate attacks in the West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were characterized as pogroms by then Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Olmert. Werner Bergmann suggests that all such incidents have a particularly unifying characteristic: \"[b]y the \"collective attribution\" of a threat, the pogrom differs from other forms of violence, such as lynchings, which are directed at individual members of a minority group, while the \"imbalance of power\" in favor of the rioters distinguishes pogroms from other forms of riots (food riots, race riots or 'communal riots' between evenly matched groups); and again, the \"low level of organization\" separates them from vigilantism, terrorism, massacre and genocide\".",
"This is a partial list of events for which one of the commonly accepted names includes the word \"pogrom\"."
]
} |
Dive bomber | null | A dive bomber is a bomber aircraft that dives directly at its targets in order to provide greater accuracy for the bomb it drops. Diving towards the target simplifies the bomb's trajectory and allows the pilot to keep visual contact throughout the bomb run. This allows attacks on point targets and ships, which were difficult to attack with conventional level bombers, even "en masse". | null | [
250004,
250054,
62,
45,
272,
62825,
42,
45,
3132,
99,
10,
2288,
4517,
55291,
4,
3638,
538,
17721,
2678,
136,
1496,
79385,
7,
707,
3853,
1257,
47,
10,
43573,
79259,
45,
272,
111,
2248,
79385,
7,
678,
70,
13328,
25306,
3314,
18825,
4,
136,
4911,
7,
144570,
142,
219817,
50065,
9,
2037,
7103,
36069,
10366,
6863,
54330,
7,
5,
3293,
3884,
7,
6782,
177488,
7,
98,
15044,
20279,
136,
1831,
56379,
5,
1650,
35968,
7,
142,
1831,
56379,
111,
37515,
50961,
4,
678,
3060,
26950,
47,
72803,
6863,
45,
272,
5,
3293,
84046,
70,
18507,
47,
22729,
62825,
42,
4331,
7,
678,
8597,
19,
7154,
72367,
7,
23,
70,
37457,
111,
102971,
2685,
3542,
150679,
27781,
7,
5,
581,
2684,
170277,
27781,
7,
621,
70,
13328,
25306,
3314,
18825,
44,
37455,
8654,
830,
3129,
509,
38134,
538,
11814,
20271,
70,
73432,
36541,
7,
111,
6661,
5550,
1995,
4,
70,
62,
88148,
391,
363,
284,
44,
58,
42272,
58,
58,
45,
272,
62825,
42,
4,
3129,
78018,
1286,
884,
71516,
1631,
16070,
7,
20271,
70,
1631,
3501,
2499,
3789,
62,
33102,
1831,
56379,
4,
136,
70,
120469,
159,
48969,
930,
9109,
9393,
4,
3129,
78018,
1286,
148926,
200513,
3501,
2499,
3789,
144,
71516,
1831,
56379,
10644,
5,
581,
159,
48969,
930,
9109,
9393,
104902,
19916,
70,
99381,
111,
23166,
7514,
4,
14847,
121447,
1295,
142,
1831,
56379,
4,
10,
54330,
2258,
10484,
678,
442,
70,
1831,
56379,
25,
7,
191060,
939,
5,
360,
70,
7225,
111,
10,
62825,
42,
12403,
214,
124001,
538,
4,
70,
54330,
1221,
61475,
538,
4734,
186,
26983,
2069,
40225,
5,
3293,
40225,
78112,
83,
233,
144429,
390,
70,
24911,
111,
70,
1831,
4,
221,
70,
40225,
78112,
227204,
7,
645,
1733,
5,
29117,
14,
43315,
538,
4,
64002,
939,
113660,
70,
54330,
47,
197108,
13,
7103,
442,
83,
36069,
20051,
5,
581,
162515,
111,
6097,
6626,
84616,
4,
24911,
136,
64002,
939,
4,
50339,
23,
10,
27140,
74189,
9,
6276,
837,
9120,
182418,
30675,
5,
581,
62488,
450,
70,
54330,
25813,
7,
40225,
12960,
442,
123867,
83,
51529,
237,
6863,
37457,
5,
4263,
70,
37457,
100,
10,
34475,
5423,
111,
27289,
83,
74481,
3674,
4,
8781,
171353,
64970,
15123,
831,
186,
11814,
47,
7413,
70,
55291,
17721,
70,
1831,
56379,
136,
70,
30388,
5,
3311,
53550,
70,
54330,
7,
22553,
47,
903,
44,
94250,
55291,
830,
70,
1831,
56379,
831,
1733,
70,
36069,
111,
6863,
54330,
7,
99,
70,
34648,
3229,
70,
30388,
83,
13315,
71,
1257,
23,
70,
143839,
5,
3293,
509,
4734,
60266,
100,
44,
3464,
54330,
214,
830,
893,
1831,
56379,
45,
6496,
79259,
538,
114982,
5908,
6863,
124001,
191060,
939,
82761,
5,
14847,
70,
54330,
83,
36069,
20051,
4,
70,
37772,
111,
64002,
939,
42856,
51312,
7,
6863,
38352,
33233,
6863,
110518,
79259,
182418,
30675,
5,
581,
54330,
26983,
7,
10,
20513,
538,
80560,
13315,
17721,
54452,
136,
24725,
4,
27169,
1916,
70,
3871,
100,
27140,
74481,
5256,
5,
581,
1831,
56379,
42856,
131264,
99,
70,
30388,
136,
54452,
7,
6863,
54330,
7,
5,
581,
158978,
31344,
111,
18499,
83,
70,
21543,
111,
32382,
98,
70,
54330,
25,
7,
113014,
60875,
7103,
54452,
5,
1301,
54330,
7,
621,
75973,
2256,
71,
136,
99162,
4,
32382,
1556,
4734,
10,
91,
20016,
21543,
98,
2856,
136,
70,
54330,
83,
47041,
1650,
83,
34844,
47,
137633,
3642,
45,
272,
54330,
214,
62038,
3674,
5,
133698,
6661,
5550,
87,
4,
70,
25674,
25066,
214,
89499,
7,
15,
54612,
441,
16,
14037,
6863,
333,
5868,
13,
6626,
9,
184,
257,
54330,
1314,
23,
129980,
538,
152018,
23,
41018,
7,
98,
70,
65925,
43643,
5,
123573,
1314,
104687,
71,
20279,
7,
47,
45,
272,
1295,
2363,
22684,
72219,
144,
35810,
47,
1379,
47,
765,
10,
11522,
18227,
111,
5962,
1916,
19336,
30388,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
17863,
352,
23935,
9035,
136,
7497,
17007,
5,
1301,
903,
172554,
71,
70,
1831,
56379,
136,
172040,
47,
8,
36716,
5844,
61585,
11476,
23,
2363,
51,
208202,
3674,
9803,
99070,
6295,
7,
4,
10846,
134629,
903,
12989,
5,
31384,
17164,
297,
144,
35810,
99,
70,
2663,
136,
103136,
111,
2363,
45,
272,
23,
12684,
42840,
136,
23,
91,
91526,
1900,
115923,
4,
1284,
959,
70,
2288,
4517,
7432,
111,
70,
45,
272,
5,
1650,
509,
68782,
959,
43573,
9,
814,
70760,
4,
237,
6097,
39395,
1831,
56379,
5809,
959,
678,
5165,
70,
11405,
90,
111,
10,
205027,
297,
79259,
45,
272,
5,
581,
25674,
353,
1405,
5345,
12349,
509,
54330,
214,
70,
3786,
36737,
73,
2412,
6468,
23,
102126,
136,
23,
95699,
34,
138518,
199458,
136,
14037,
442,
41965,
204610,
47,
45,
272,
98,
188,
6097,
2412,
6468,
47,
63284,
10,
5962,
4,
8,
61518,
70,
124735,
63044,
2449,
1295,
61585,
11476,
5,
110196,
4,
70,
55291,
111,
45,
272,
23,
6097,
52875,
7,
509,
959,
17164,
297,
5,
67053,
214,
581,
25674,
353,
1405,
5345,
12349,
126809,
45,
272,
54330,
214,
237,
10,
308,
49086,
26548,
3786,
36737,
73,
10756,
21816,
136,
100,
4806,
136,
25550,
297,
10,
91,
91526,
1900,
99,
30749,
100,
903,
66211,
5,
2161,
382,
18374,
41310,
4,
10,
65018,
76228,
22193,
365,
532,
678,
6626,
54330,
7,
52875,
297,
10,
777,
1970,
99,
118488,
7103,
10,
45,
272,
47,
5,
2161,
616,
7582,
41310,
4,
22759,
4908,
516,
836,
617,
7,
52875,
297,
70,
3786,
36737,
73,
31461,
53,
99,
93726,
2420,
6211,
98,
43157,
1657,
116071,
4,
45,
6496,
1295,
47,
47,
63284,
5962,
7,
5,
1301,
3786,
36737,
5425,
3542,
120,
9319,
297,
20903,
47,
4343,
7,
111,
64707,
1409,
4,
50339,
3542,
27983,
6,
42706,
25667,
5,
581,
5117,
4527,
111,
45,
272,
54330,
214,
390,
70,
627,
27529,
4,
3129,
1902,
2809,
2780,
9966,
6863,
20279,
7,
47,
36069,
54330,
7,
99,
155955,
7,
35064,
23,
12989,
47,
5962,
28032,
111,
70,
30388,
16792,
22482,
64911,
4,
509,
14432,
450,
6602,
5,
2161,
1438,
7582,
64911,
4,
29730,
34,
86216,
27859,
4398,
170726,
69527,
9,
92369,
86,
174920,
23,
1919,
25674,
5345,
56379,
144562,
335,
5,
647,
5,
304,
238,
645,
6,
68823,
7514,
10283,
29907,
214,
143915,
7,
43573,
65927,
23,
182688,
9942,
4,
47,
7413,
70,
30388,
21771,
131126,
297,
390,
3789,
54330,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
45,
272,
62825,
42,
83,
10,
62825,
42,
1831,
56379,
450,
45,
3132,
105237,
99,
6863,
30388,
7,
23,
12989,
47,
22691,
117396,
61689,
219,
2408,
100,
70,
54330,
442,
36069,
7,
5,
803,
6496,
98186,
70,
30388,
112892,
1029,
90,
70,
54330,
25,
7,
182418,
30675,
136,
114864,
70,
20279,
47,
13695,
21176,
5470,
87420,
70,
54330,
11675,
5,
3293,
114864,
52875,
7,
98,
6275,
30388,
7,
136,
109923,
7,
4,
3129,
3542,
34844,
47,
52875,
678,
101805,
289,
17366,
54330,
1314,
4,
3853,
44,
33,
23860,
740,
2
] | null | null | en-train-733938 | en-train-733938 | 733938 | {
"title": [
"Definition.",
"Bombing accuracy.",
"Horizontal bombing.",
"Dive bombing.",
"History.",
"Origins.",
"World War I.",
"Interwar era.",
"World War II.",
"European theatre.",
"Pacific theatre.",
"Decline."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2"
],
"content": [
"A dive bomber dives at a steep angle, normally between 45 and 60 degrees or even up to a near vertical dive of 80 degrees with the Junkers Ju 87, and thus requires an abrupt pull-up after dropping its bombs. This puts great strains on both pilot and aircraft. It demands an aircraft of strong construction, with some means to slow its dive. This limited the class to light bomber designs with ordnance loads in the range of although there were larger examples. The most famous examples are the Junkers Ju 87 \"Stuka\", which was widely used during the opening stages of World War II, the Aichi D3A \"\"Val\"\" dive bomber, which sank more Allied warships during the war than any other Axis aircraft, and the Douglas SBD Dauntless, which sank more Japanese shipping than any other allied aircraft type. The SBD Dauntless helped win the Battle of Midway,",
"",
"When released from an aircraft, a bomb carries with it the aircraft's velocity. In the case of a bomber flying horizontally, the bomb will initially only be travelling forward. This forward motion is opposed by the drag of the air, so the forward motion decreases over time. Additionally, gravity causes the bomb to accelerate after it is dropped. The combination of these two forces, drag and gravity, results in a complex pseudo-parabolic trajectory. The distance that the bomb moves forward while it falls is known as its range. If the range for a given set of conditions is calculated, simple trigonometry can be used to find the angle between the aircraft and the target. By setting the bombsight to this \"range angle\", the aircraft can time the drop of its bombs at the instant when the target is lined up in the sight. This was only effective for \"area bombing\",",
"An aircraft diving vertically minimises its horizontal velocity component. When the bomb is dropped, the force of gravity simply increases its speed along its nearly vertical trajectory. The bomb travels a virtually straight line between release and impact, eliminating the need for complex calculations. The aircraft simply aims at the target and releases its bombs. The primary source of error is the effect of wind on the bomb's flight path after release. As bombs are streamlined and heavy, wind has only a slight effect on them and the bomb is likely",
"",
"It is difficult to establish how dive bombing originated. During World War I, the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) found its biplane two-seat bombers insufficiently accurate in operations on the Western Front. Commanders urged pilots to dive from their cruising altitude to under to have a better chance of hitting small targets, such as gun emplacements and trenches. As this exposed the aircraft and crew to destructive ground fire in their unprotected open cockpits, few followed this order. Some recorded altitude at the top and bottom of their dive in log books and in squadron records, but not the steepness of the dive. It was certainly not near-vertical, as these early aircraft could not withstand the stresses of a sustained vertical dive. The Royal Naval Air Service was bombing the Zeppelin sheds in Germany and in occupied Belgium and found it worthwhile to dive onto these sheds to ensure a hit, despite the increased casualties from ground fire. Again, the angle of dive in these attacks was not recorded. Beginning",
"The Royal Naval Air Service developed dive bombing as a tactic against Zeppelin hangars and formed and trained a squadron at Manchester for this task. On 8 October 1914, a Sopwith Tabloid with two bombs attacked a hangar at Düsseldorf after a dive to. On 14 November 1914, four Avro 504s attacked the Zeppelin factory at Friedrichshafen on Lake Constance, diving from to to ensure hits. As Zeppelins were tethered close to stores of hydrogen, results were often spectacular. The first use of dive bombing by the RFC, which had been urging its pilots to drop bombs at heights below in order to hit within of the target since February 1915, was later that year. On 27 November 1915, Lieutenant Duncan Grinnell-Milne arrived in his Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c over railway marshalling yards near Lys in Northern France, to find the target already crowded by other bombers. He dived from to",
"The Royal Flying Corps was initially impressed with the potential of the dive bomber, but was aware of its suicidal nature. It ran a series of tests at the Armament Experimental station at Orfordness in Suffolk. Sopwith Camels and Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5as were used in early 1918 to dive bomb targets from various heights, with different bombs and with and without the use of the Aldis gunsight, which had been invented in 1916 to aid pilots to calculate the deflection required to hit a traversing enemy aircraft. In principle, it obviated the need for a vertical dive. The results showed that a vertical dive into the wind sighting along the top of rather than through the sight was best. But they were not considered good enough to justify the expected casualties. The Royal Air Force, which took over both army and naval aviation in April 1918, retired its Sopwith Salamander dive bombers at the end of the war. Colonel, later General, Billy Mitchell arrived in France with the first US Army and Air Force units soon after 6 April 1917 and began to organise the US Army Air Force flying French Salmson 2s, a spotter plane. The later Salmson 4 was to be a ground attack and dive bomber, but production was cancelled at the end of the war. Mitchell became a strong advocate of dive bombers after witnessing British and French aerial attacks. Mitchell by now assistant chief of the Air Service United States Army arranged tests with captured German and obsolete US ships in June and July 1921 and repeated over the next two years using Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5as as dive bombers",
"",
"On 10 April 1940, 16 British Royal Navy Blackburn Skuas flying at extreme range from the naval air station at Hatston in Orkney led by Lieutenant Commander William Lucy sank the German cruiser \"Königsberg\" in Bergen harbour, whilst trying to prevent the German invasion of Norway. On the German side Stukas augmented or replaced artillery support for the Wehrmacht's lightly-armed parachute and airborne troops. The invasion of Poland (September to October 1939) and the Battle of France (May to June 1940) saw the Stuka used to devastating effect. German \"blitzkrieg\" tactics used dive bombers in place of artillery to support highly mobile ground troops. The British Expeditionary Force had set up strong defensive positions on the west bank of the Oise River to block rapidly advancing German",
"The Vultee Vengeance was developed in the US as a private venture dive bomber for export. It first flew in March 1941. It had a zero incidence wing, which was perfect for vertical dives as there was no lift from wing or tailplane in a dive. But it had to fly in a nose up attitude to maintain level flight, which made landings difficult. Initial orders were 300 for France, but France fell before they could be delivered. The RAF, with the cancellation of the Hawker Henley and having noted the success of Stukas in Poland, took delivery instead. It was considered too vulnerable to German fighters for use in Europe or North Africa, but large numbers flew in Burma from March 1943. It flew close support for General William Slim's Burma campaign bombing Japanese supply routes, bridges and artillery. It operated in the Royal Australian Air Force and Indian Air Force as well as the RAF. Some were held back for the United States Army Air Forces after the attack on Pearl Harbor, but did not see combat. Both the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and the United States Navy invested considerable effort on dive bombers. Japan started the war with a very good design, the carrier-borne Aichi D3A (\"Val\"). As the war progressed, the design became outdated due to its limited speed, due in part to the limited horsepower of its power plant and to the greater drag of its fixed main landing gear (a shortcoming shared by the Stuka). The main American dive bomber, the Douglas SBD Dauntless, had similar performance to the D3A Val. From December 1942, the Dauntless was replaced with the faster, but more complex and trouble-prone Curtiss SB2C Helldiver. Both American aeroplanes were ubiquitous, with 6,000 Dauntlesses and over 7,000 Helldivers built. Both the SBD and D3A were used at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. The Japanese sent 54 D3A Vals carrying bombs to attack parked aircraft at Wheeler Field and Ford Island. A flight of 18 Dauntlesses from arrived over Pearl Harbor just as the Japanese attacked. Seven were shot down and many others destroyed on the ground at Marine Corps Air Station Ewa At the Battle of the Coral Sea, Dauntlesses",
"After World War II, the rise of precision-guided munitions and improved anti-aircraft defences – both fixed gunnery positions and fighter interception – led to a fundamental change in dive bombing. New weapons, such as rockets, allowed for better accuracy from smaller dive angles and from greater distances. They could be fitted to almost any aircraft including fighters, improving their effectiveness without the inherent vulnerabilities of dive bombers, which needed air superiority to operate effectively. When the RAF were attempting to stop the Panzers of Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps in early 1942, a lack of dive bombers proved to be an impediment. However, the British Government's Chief Scientist, Henry Tizard, formed a panel of experts, which recommended using rockets. A rocket has a much flatter trajectory than a bomb, allowing it to be launched with reasonable accuracy from a shallow dive, and could be fitted on existing aircraft. The RAF used them on Hurricanes in June 1942 against Rommel's tanks. The British Army had used rockets against low-flying bombers during the Battle of Britain by enlarging the tube from to and fitting high explosive warheads; it became an anti-tank weapon. The more powerful Hawker Typhoon, originally developed as a fighter, proved even more effective, carrying eight RP-3 rockets and producing a similar effect to a naval destroyer's broadside. On 23 May 1943, a Fairey Swordfish destroyed U-752 in the Atlantic, and five days later, a Lockheed Hudson of RAF Coastal Command sank U-755 in the Mediterranean. These rockets were fitted with iron spikes and fired at a shallow angle into the sea. Once under water, they curved upwards and punctured the pressure hull below the waterline, disabling or sinking the submarine. Caltech developed the High Velocity Aircraft Rocket (HVAR) with a warhead for the US Navy. It was rushed to Europe for use on D-Day and later used by Navy aircraft in the Pacific. By January 1943, American pilots who had been flying in RAF Eagle Squadrons before the US entered the war, converted from Supermarine Spitfires to Republic P-47 Thunderbolts to form the USAAF 4th Air Fighter Group. At over unladen, one of the biggest single engine fighter bombers of the war, it could carry ten HVARs. By late 1944, the RAF was able to hit stationary targets with greater accuracy from greater heights inflicting far more damage with less risk. On 12 November 1944, two Tallboy bombs were dropped by Avro Lancasters from and hit the German battleship \"Tirpitz\" at supersonic speeds, sinking it. The Tallboy was developed by Vickers designer Barnes Wallis who followed it up with the even larger Grand Slam earthquake bomb which was used to destroy railway viaducts and bridges, targets that could previously only be damaged in diving attacks. Wallis also designed a bomb that bounced across water to destroy the Eder and Moehne dams, which needed to be hit repeatedly at the same spot under water to be breached but had nets to protect against torpedoes. Pilots in the Pacific later developed a technique of skip bombing which required flying at low level and dropping a spherically-nosed conventional bomb onto the sea, at a shallow angle, which then bounced back into the air. Although new aircraft could still dive towards their targets, they were no longer optimised for steep diving attacks. Through the pioneering efforts by the Luftwaffe's Fritz X and the USAAF's Azon, controlled-trajectory bombs evolved into today's smart bombs. A bomb can be dropped far from a target's air defences using a guidance system to hit the target, ensuring greater accuracy and minimising risk to the crew. Jet engines allowed higher speeds which made \"toss bombing\" possible, a reverse dive bombing method where an aircraft snaps up from low altitude as a bomb is released, throwing it upwards like a shot put."
]
} |
Monte Carlo | null | Monte Carlo (, ;, or colloquially "Monte-Carl" ; ; ) is officially an administrative area of the Principality of Monaco, specifically the ward of Monte Carlo/Spélugues, where the Monte Carlo Casino is located. Informally, the name also refers to a larger district, the Monte Carlo Quarter (corresponding to the former municipality of Monte Carlo), which besides Monte Carlo/Spélugues also includes the wards of La Rousse/Saint Roman, Larvotto/Bas Moulins, and Saint Michel. The permanent population of the ward of Monte Carlo is about 3,500, while that of the quarter is about 15,000. Monaco has four traditional quarters. From west to east they are: Fontvieille (the newest), Monaco-Ville (the oldest), La Condamine, and Monte Carlo. | null | [
250004,
250054,
3311,
70,
127357,
7,
138550,
25,
7,
456,
872,
592,
14449,
509,
39555,
4620,
9167,
18,
74,
903,
509,
10,
16750,
111,
70,
86669,
111,
6626,
59444,
7,
4,
1111,
1507,
136,
184726,
11911,
86,
4,
3129,
1902,
62952,
2684,
111,
70,
7893,
2481,
25,
7,
146295,
7,
678,
2363,
107466,
4,
1482,
13,
136,
118409,
13081,
6423,
5,
1913,
70,
1733,
4,
10,
14012,
111,
19336,
59444,
7,
23,
14713,
3542,
105925,
78737,
10821,
1295,
70,
137633,
674,
111,
8174,
7,
4,
959,
78458,
23,
30839,
59444,
7,
6044,
237,
99510,
9,
8023,
555,
136,
27762,
13593,
5,
360,
543,
13683,
4,
28166,
4830,
111,
138550,
2855,
3674,
10,
121215,
47,
113157,
15786,
365,
164,
136,
24748,
5655,
16466,
4,
47,
137633,
10,
15520,
9,
402,
64113,
178290,
100,
70,
39734,
111,
67842,
70997,
7,
4,
136,
47,
45367,
10,
30839,
9,
40946,
8174,
5,
581,
61475,
8174,
142096,
23,
239,
1657,
85,
2962,
23,
195616,
4,
1284,
509,
51,
226534,
7,
7844,
5,
1650,
456,
116292,
297,
40368,
20028,
4,
8108,
58359,
214,
6863,
13379,
31913,
23,
70,
44,
68016,
159,
11870,
59901,
90,
58,
15,
3957,
2041,
3132,
16,
16128,
111,
17629,
83551,
5,
144053,
21449,
191975,
4,
21334,
538,
6637,
138550,
509,
23,
113041,
28236,
1295,
5045,
111,
14713,
5,
581,
6,
68823,
7514,
4,
20600,
297,
23,
166304,
4,
91048,
678,
442,
142,
26794,
425,
111,
3395,
4,
136,
17629,
83551,
3514,
434,
23,
180187,
5,
12190,
9,
84068,
1577,
84084,
98,
17629,
83551,
25,
7,
102736,
12190,
13,
9,
84068,
1577,
509,
140528,
23,
163055,
5,
1650,
509,
14359,
2822,
23,
6863,
106825,
53,
6602,
5,
581,
14834,
2481,
111,
17629,
83551,
509,
75935,
23,
80665,
4,
3229,
70,
163965,
101637,
71,
70,
7893,
2481,
111,
138550,
3934,
17262,
14834,
31075,
5,
17629,
83551,
22,
277,
13409,
297,
70,
144573,
205277,
7,
111,
239,
56709,
2619,
64,
166154,
12610,
4,
239,
33760,
17793,
64,
63473,
45709,
2397,
7,
4,
136,
12190,
44767,
5,
581,
14834,
31075,
42564,
71,
23,
38222,
4,
7103,
94309,
5256,
450,
70,
27759,
11814,
2856,
47,
44,
97368,
112,
136,
158,
27227,
740,
66016,
7068,
4,
1836,
621,
6,
19364,
7,
15,
167565,
33843,
194,
38396,
4,
138550,
83,
101637,
71,
3934,
209,
6,
19364,
7,
4,
678,
142,
103155,
927,
203251,
15,
8789,
82424,
1305,
5416,
297,
16,
47,
22,
277,
13409,
3551,
456,
164779,
297,
1295,
70,
15520,
15,
21231,
70,
44,
169057,
45023,
91853,
7,
58,
40059,
111,
138550,
100,
78301,
41653,
194,
581,
128274,
111,
17629,
83551,
509,
149976,
390,
44390,
102966,
1295,
33418,
47,
49795,
5,
1650,
3126,
297,
756,
63920,
111,
138550,
15,
21231,
6181,
2320,
23,
138550,
194,
360,
6052,
10,
3525,
149509,
109923,
61322,
509,
140528,
23,
70,
182,
38648,
99,
17629,
83551,
5,
17629,
83551,
1556,
10,
24814,
9,
149336,
170027,
66,
153552,
15,
153128,
9858,
153552,
40865,
1363,
12,
313,
433,
247,
3129,
83,
79507,
71,
390,
77904,
1771,
153552,
136,
165847,
1614,
29813,
21533,
153552,
5,
1301,
10,
16750,
4,
442,
1556,
24814,
4,
36898,
51065,
7,
136,
126561,
4,
102044,
53,
41710,
7,
5,
17629,
83551,
83,
27980,
47,
2684,
111,
70,
167190,
8,
138550,
4,
98,
3129,
70,
72791,
6561,
138550,
12801,
87696,
51776,
3687,
5,
1650,
2843,
27980,
7,
8999,
102995,
16070,
16530,
214,
63623,
7,
4,
70,
28811,
36450,
11330,
12801,
27188,
136,
70,
6661,
26828,
17705,
3796,
161912,
237,
5299,
237,
70,
138550,
8357,
4396,
17367,
15,
66857,
12,
39090,
8357,
8,
96,
25,
38115,
86831,
8,
138550,
247,
54543,
45831,
136,
3789,
47353,
5,
106073,
70,
17629,
83551,
18897,
7,
69686,
233547,
83,
170998,
237,
35971,
3687,
23,
70,
26908,
4,
6863,
8561,
31913,
83,
23,
70,
123594,
16797,
92265,
45556,
111,
184726,
11911,
86,
9,
87926,
9,
154983,
5,
581,
17629,
83551,
131224,
83,
1632,
111,
70,
4989,
525,
51042,
136,
2684,
15072,
297,
2258,
168499,
90,
74,
1295,
29733,
47,
2021,
136,
13438,
1295,
27997,
442,
16188,
7,
70,
4034,
111,
6661,
131224,
161912,
34003,
4,
19441,
2843,
149976,
237,
70,
84700,
73,
9,
12794,
56,
100,
70,
5337,
216118,
289,
131224,
73630,
17721,
1877,
136,
13999,
581,
143107,
4,
49903,
4,
51776,
3687,
50782,
70,
17629,
83551,
128274,
136,
83,
11675,
153161,
98,
92265,
33816,
7,
5,
17629,
83551,
1556,
2809,
36997,
71,
390,
121678,
939,
237,
5299,
237,
70,
3835,
136,
14277,
6057,
7,
100,
8,
23662,
7,
5,
17629,
83551,
83,
1632,
111,
14713,
25,
7,
105207,
135474,
70634,
7,
4,
102971,
5941,
111,
70,
22799,
135474,
78869,
7,
621,
23,
3789,
63920,
111,
138550,
4,
26719,
6044,
110281,
17514,
237,
138550,
234120,
4,
70,
113157,
25946,
4,
70,
55609,
31,
48461,
25946,
136,
50895,
16219,
4,
136,
70,
54041,
25,
7,
73416,
4,
756,
111,
3129,
621,
23,
138550,
9,
856,
2186,
5,
581,
2331,
53706,
8,
17629,
9,
21851,
365,
707,
137076,
6389,
50216,
509,
88303,
47,
4331,
7,
111,
70,
107653,
28166,
6389,
50216,
4,
2750,
2843,
82775,
70,
7270,
6264,
18276,
5036,
51529,
237,
70,
17743,
164,
6389,
50216,
5,
106073,
5045,
164917,
4,
70,
137076,
6389,
50216,
83,
4552,
21373,
23,
20623,
678,
65177,
5256,
23,
4842,
136,
86761,
4,
136,
89221,
90,
136,
152319,
30891,
756,
10932,
70,
90648,
316,
5,
1650,
509,
33428,
3674,
98,
714,
18982,
176447,
678,
10,
23718,
390,
44582,
208780,
18,
40989,
297,
237,
10,
6,
5264,
11727,
5,
581,
5117,
6264,
51339,
297,
2685,
509,
12452,
5586,
147268,
25,
7,
44,
5267,
5024,
7013,
56,
61057,
191,
58,
98,
382,
22482,
176447,
4,
136,
450,
509,
134629,
390,
17262,
1286,
23,
70,
5117,
34003,
5,
17106,
70,
79507,
111,
70,
5117,
14364,
4,
112876,
7,
168720,
15,
434,
497,
509,
150222,
23,
172915,
125016,
885,
9876,
118,
16,
136,
70,
50612,
67,
162515,
111,
72733,
202,
25706,
7,
168519,
4,
70,
3525,
14364,
1295,
163055,
4,
136,
108405,
66083,
4,
70,
6264,
9,
7182,
214,
4,
15672,
58386,
111,
24748,
87,
4,
70,
6264,
14380,
100512,
21640,
538,
51529,
5,
25706,
7,
168519,
47143,
297,
100,
37195,
939,
5369,
5,
3311,
70,
39395,
5369,
111,
70,
77488,
100736,
927,
142642,
4,
70,
137076,
6389,
50216,
24124,
6782,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
17629,
83551,
15,
4,
2819,
4,
707,
216810,
25958,
44,
146794,
13,
9,
21851,
141,
58,
2819,
2819,
1388,
83,
51521,
538,
142,
86757,
16128,
111,
70,
109411,
2481,
111,
138550,
4,
183037,
70,
6,
19364,
111,
17629,
83551,
64,
294,
11870,
59901,
90,
4,
7440,
70,
17629,
83551,
14218,
83,
105866,
5,
25915,
12097,
4,
70,
9351,
2843,
15005,
7,
47,
10,
150679,
103724,
4,
70,
17629,
83551,
48772,
56,
15,
32399,
18908,
6238,
47,
70,
36770,
14834,
2481,
111,
17629,
83551,
247,
3129,
30338,
988,
17629,
83551,
64,
294,
11870,
59901,
90,
2843,
96853,
70,
6,
19364,
7,
111,
239,
56709,
2619,
64,
166154,
12610,
4,
239,
33760,
17793,
64,
63473,
45709,
2397,
7,
4,
136,
12190,
44767,
5,
581,
28123,
43904,
111,
70,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1029745 | en-train-1029745 | 1029745 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Geography.",
"Climate.",
"Sport and leisure.",
"Salle Garnier.",
"Hôtel de Paris.",
"Cultural depictions.",
"Twin cities."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"By the 1850s Monaco's reigning family was almost bankrupt; this was a result of the loss of two towns, Menton and Roquebrune, which had provided most of the principality's revenues with their lemon, orange and olive crops. At the time, a number of small towns in Europe were growing prosperous from the establishment of casinos, notably in German towns such as Baden-Baden and Homburg. In 1856, Charles III of Monaco granted a concession to Napoleon Langlois and Albert Aubert, to establish a sea-bathing facility for the treatment of various diseases, and to build a German-style casino. The initial casino opened in La Condamine in 1862, but was unsuccessful. It relocated several times, before reaching its present location in the \"Les Spélugues\" (The Caves) area of Monte Carlo. Success came slowly, largely because Monaco was inaccessible from much of Europe. The railway, installed in 1868, brought with it an influx of people, and Monte Carlo grew in wealth. Saint-Charles Church on Monte Carlo's Avenue Sainte-Charles was completed in 1883. It was restored in its centenary year. The municipality of Monte Carlo was created in 1911, when the Constitution divided the principality of Monaco into three municipalities. Monte Carlo encompassed the existing neighborhoods of La Rousse/Saint Roman, Larvotto/Bas Moulins, and Saint Michel. The municipalities merged in 1917, after accusations that the government used them to \"divide and conquer\". Since then, they are wards (quartiers). Today, Monaco is divided into 10 wards, with an eleventh planned (but currently postponed) to encompass land reclaimed from the sea (see the \"Administrative divisions\" section of Monaco for additional details). The quarter of Monte Carlo was served by tramways from 1900 to 1953. It linked all parts of Monaco (see transportation in Monaco). In 2003 a new cruise ship pier was completed in the harbour at Monte Carlo.",
"",
"Monte Carlo has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa), which is influenced by oceanic climate and humid subtropical climate. As a result, it has warm, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.",
"Monte Carlo is host to most of the Circuit de Monaco, on which the Formula One Monaco Grand Prix takes place. It also hosts world championship boxing bouts, the European Poker Tour Grand Final and the World Backgammon Championship as well as the Monaco International Auto Show (Fr: Salon International de l'Automobile de Monaco), fashion shows and other events. Although the Monte Carlo Masters tennis tournament is billed as taking place in the community, its actual location is in the adjacent French commune of Roquebrune-Cap-Martin. The Monte Carlo Rally is one of the longest running and most respected car rallies; from 1973 to 2008 and again from 2012, it marks the start of World Rally Championship season, having also served as the curtain-raiser for the Intercontinental Rally Challenge between 2009 and 2011. The rally, however, takes place outside the Monte Carlo quarter and is run mostly on French roads. Monte Carlo has been visited by royalty as well as the public and movie stars for decades. Monte Carlo is one of Europe's leading tourist resorts, although many of the key tourist destinations are in other parts of Monaco, including such attractions as Monaco Cathedral, the Napoleon Museum, the Oceanographic Museum and aquarium, and the Prince's Palace, all of which are in Monaco-Ville.",
"The Opéra de Monte-Carlo or Salle Garnier was built to designs of the architect Charles Garnier, who also designed the Paris opera house now known as the Palais Garnier. Although much smaller, the Salle Garnier is very similar in style with decorations in red and gold, and frescoes and sculptures all around the auditorium. It was inaugurated on 25 January 1879 with a performance by Sarah Bernhardt dressed as a nymph. The first opera performed there was Robert Planquette's \"Le Chevalier Gaston\" on 8 February 1879, and that was followed by three more in the first season. With the influence of the first director, Jules Cohen (who was instrumental in bringing Adelina Patti) and the fortunate combination of Raoul Gunsbourg, the new director from 1883, and Princess Alice, the opera-loving, American wife of Albert I, the opera company became internationally known. Gunsbourg remained for sixty years. By the early years of the twentieth century, the Salle Garnier saw great performers, such as Nellie Melba and Enrico Caruso in \"La Bohème\" and \"Rigoletto\" (in 1902), and Feodor Chaliapin in the premiere of Jules Massenet's \"Don Quichotte\" (1910). This production formed part of a long association between the company and Massenet and his operas, two of which were presented there posthumously. Other famous twentieth-century singers to appear at Monte Carlo included Titta Ruffo, Geraldine Farrar, Mary Garden, Tito Schipa, Beniamino Gigli, Claudia Muzio, Georges Thill, and Lily Pons. Apart from Massenet, composers whose works had their first performances at Monte Carlo included: Saint-Saëns (\"Hélène\", 1904); Mascagni \"(Amica,\" 1905); and Puccini \"(La rondine\", 1917). Since its inauguration, the theatre has hosted 45 world premieres of operas. René Blum was retained to found the Ballet de l'Opéra. The \"Golden Age\" of the Salle Garnier is gone, as small companies with small houses are not able to mount productions that cost astronomical sums. Nonetheless, the present day company still presents a season containing five or six operas.",
"The Hôtel de Paris, established in 1864 by Charles III of Monaco, is located on the west side of the Place du Casino in the heart of Monte Carlo. It belongs to the Société des bains de mer de Monaco (SBM), and is part of the elite Palace Grand Hotels in Monaco with the Hotel Hermitage, the Monte-Carlo Beach Hotel on Monte-Carlo Bay Hotel & Resort, the Metropole Hotel and Fairmont hotel. The hotel has 106 rooms divided into four groups based on type of view, decoration and luxury. The Exclusive City View offers 20 rooms, the Superior Courtyard has 29 large rooms, the Exclusive Sea View 59 and the Exclusive Casino has six. Additionally, there are 74 suites and junior suites which are grouped similarly, offering more luxury than the rooms. There are single and double suites as well as courtyard junior suites and Sea/Casino Junior suites. There is also one Presidential suite. In October 2014, a renovation project began, to create a garden courtyard, add a new spa, fitness and pool area, exceptional suites, and a “rooftop villa” with a private garden and pool.",
"Monte Carlo has been the setting of many films, books, television shows, and video games.",
"Monte Carlo's twin cities are:"
]
} |
Amores perros | null | Amores perros is a 2000 Mexican crime drama thriller film directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu and written by Guillermo Arriaga. "Amores perros" is the first installment in González Iñárritu's "Trilogy of Death", succeeded by "21 Grams" and "Babel". It makes use of the multi-narrative hyperlink cinema style and features an ensemble cast. The film is constructed as a triptych: it contains three distinct stories connected by a car accident in Mexico City. The stories centre on a teenager in the slums who gets involved in dogfighting; a model who seriously injures her leg; and a mysterious hitman. The stories are linked in various ways, including the presence of dogs in each of them. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
1346,
83,
64549,
297,
1295,
17262,
117781,
43515,
3126,
297,
390,
10,
2258,
27998,
450,
19095,
7,
70,
124850,
59335,
538,
25842,
5,
33649,
11,
10023,
15,
17067,
583,
58623,
79191,
141,
16,
83,
23,
5161,
678,
1919,
82953,
25,
7,
58386,
67243,
11,
15,
90948,
6011,
159623,
13,
16,
136,
2837,
5062,
7,
70,
3917,
2412,
83,
128431,
71,
390,
1919,
82953,
8446,
8699,
15,
154598,
31,
98651,
194,
33649,
11,
10023,
1927,
90,
47,
117,
1159,
2873,
604,
47,
11675,
16065,
678,
4049,
5,
24172,
68180,
116196,
3089,
4,
17723,
7103,
6,
69986,
23,
10,
10269,
78431,
4,
2633,
7,
1919,
10269,
5078,
184,
98,
3060,
6363,
4778,
136,
83,
120332,
33,
297,
390,
10,
107628,
15212,
6,
87240,
6238,
10,
135511,
67,
5,
215100,
538,
4,
116196,
3089,
26536,
7,
1919,
10269,
98,
33649,
11,
10023,
25,
7,
6,
40337,
122135,
56,
4,
1311,
1029,
4,
1284,
1919,
10002,
10269,
83,
152388,
64457,
5,
64337,
107419,
111,
903,
390,
1919,
34391,
70954,
136,
3871,
214,
17265,
47,
4034,
1919,
3525,
6897,
678,
67243,
11,
4,
33649,
11,
10023,
28288,
7,
47,
24209,
75412,
23,
70,
10269,
420,
22553,
214,
28302,
5,
116196,
3089,
13695,
7,
22,
33558,
3525,
10269,
7,
3934,
70,
78431,
7,
4,
4734,
100,
1311,
1029,
47,
67153,
2856,
5,
33649,
11,
10023,
30482,
20174,
17265,
47,
18738,
13,
678,
67243,
11,
4,
136,
19859,
76264,
3521,
4,
70,
101785,
111,
70,
10269,
420,
22553,
214,
130731,
4,
47,
2046,
8446,
8699,
42659,
33,
1257,
5,
360,
52758,
429,
4,
8446,
8699,
2288,
16765,
70,
17265,
136,
31358,
7,
678,
67243,
11,
5,
63667,
9815,
2069,
53477,
538,
4,
33649,
11,
10023,
26946,
7,
10,
66801,
390,
116196,
3089,
47,
42938,
13,
23,
10,
14375,
10269,
420,
22553,
4,
678,
110,
50782,
1600,
7,
5,
1311,
1029,
83,
1672,
47,
19916,
4,
1284,
116196,
3089,
106443,
7,
4049,
5,
360,
52758,
429,
4,
33649,
11,
10023,
66604,
7,
116196,
3089,
23,
70,
201957,
5,
16915,
1159,
297,
390,
116196,
3089,
25,
7,
68180,
7,
4,
33649,
11,
10023,
7413,
7,
66570,
23,
10,
2258,
1608,
184,
678,
70954,
136,
70,
148,
167457,
1311,
1029,
5,
62,
61770,
6889,
28960,
7,
74,
70954,
14792,
136,
33649,
11,
10023,
83,
6494,
538,
23,
461,
2822,
5,
57832,
80299,
56,
11555,
15,
6589,
141,
31399,
173517,
516,
16,
31358,
7,
1919,
14449,
47,
6867,
678,
1919,
100306,
108929,
11,
15,
17903,
395,
199656,
247,
10,
195374,
1601,
51734,
5,
2161,
70,
5155,
1836,
25813,
23,
25842,
4,
108929,
11,
25,
7,
6049,
83,
141591,
538,
148431,
23,
70,
2258,
27998,
136,
2412,
83,
51,
2886,
47,
21342,
20697,
237,
10,
3299,
5,
6561,
5155,
4,
237,
108929,
11,
83,
53374,
1916,
23,
11555,
25,
7,
127451,
4,
604,
10269,
52774,
478,
213566,
7,
1379,
10,
148431,
74912,
24351,
136,
24765,
7,
2685,
100,
13312,
5,
581,
132283,
10269,
185553,
7,
85583,
63672,
100,
70,
24941,
4,
216806,
183851,
78431,
7,
3129,
37105,
47,
92814,
7,
1672,
2363,
76755,
98,
15044,
5609,
7,
5,
11555,
11782,
7,
1919,
437,
5445,
297,
58386,
47,
36802,
604,
54479,
4,
42459,
214,
450,
764,
84377,
7,
137802,
604,
100,
108929,
11,
5,
40858,
214,
47,
6,
114777,
13,
70,
10269,
4,
108929,
11,
19574,
461,
2109,
604,
6049,
74,
11555,
7413,
7,
604,
21974,
14432,
5,
108929,
11,
25,
7,
3525,
6049,
182260,
50339,
23,
141591,
183918,
6,
42294,
7567,
6023,
136,
155605,
4642,
43994,
5,
1840,
6049,
83,
10,
65970,
27686,
4,
86658,
108929,
11,
25,
7,
3299,
214,
80997,
100,
4127,
5,
51404,
2412,
83,
23,
70,
17986,
4,
11555,
6,
114777,
90,
52774,
478,
1295,
70,
74912,
24351,
7,
5,
33306,
4,
108929,
11,
92154,
7,
450,
604,
6897,
83,
73573,
297,
5,
4687,
92136,
538,
22648,
7,
604,
160298,
100983,
8305,
70,
64183,
9,
2037,
6,
45578,
525,
136,
33342,
1810,
111,
70,
76896,
41206,
214,
47,
1957,
10,
54727,
24351,
81148,
214,
604,
1884,
7432,
4,
4734,
47,
7413,
442,
1556,
2809,
184750,
5,
581,
107628,
15212,
46505,
25958,
51592,
23,
70,
96362,
33180,
7,
83,
122273,
297,
47,
186,
10,
23182,
5962,
669,
35839,
540,
5585,
965,
15,
34139,
46144,
241,
1430,
1961,
7239,
194,
89655,
4,
10,
6,
66157,
35206,
47749,
42,
4,
456,
71013,
7,
450,
540,
5585,
965,
83,
10,
36770,
14375,
10696,
117914,
2750,
509,
566,
22876,
191,
297,
7103,
375,
266,
19514,
42998,
27992,
7,
100,
50024,
70773,
112664,
7,
5,
14847,
764,
4163,
1810,
4,
89655,
26859,
20949,
4049,
74464,
237,
10,
5962,
669,
5,
540,
5585,
965,
1927,
90,
47,
3249,
5470,
678,
1919,
76849,
4,
1784,
34,
4,
136565,
764,
32997,
297,
3229,
764,
80723,
1919,
6,
32527,
70773,
83687,
674,
5,
77168,
214,
540,
5585,
965,
25,
7,
32599,
90,
4,
1784,
34,
25,
7,
42732,
30745,
604,
450,
604,
67373,
83,
103494,
5,
540,
5585,
965,
83,
1672,
47,
51339,
10,
5962,
98,
10,
8063,
669,
3229,
70,
2258,
150631,
206735,
7,
4049,
5,
133698,
70,
156059,
99,
70,
150631,
28302,
4,
540,
5585,
965,
2288,
16765,
33649,
11,
10023,
25,
7,
17265,
136,
51776,
70,
148,
167457,
1311,
1029,
47,
1919,
5368,
47,
160020,
442,
4420,
47,
16227,
5,
6561,
5155,
4,
12960,
540,
5585,
965,
83,
16065,
1295,
1919,
105816,
23923,
1274,
112,
6056,
4,
1311,
1029,
67153,
7,
70,
3789,
14896,
7962,
10269,
7,
540,
5585,
965,
83,
2258,
214,
100,
5,
262,
61518,
61475,
538,
58172,
214,
47,
67153,
1311,
1029,
4,
540,
5585,
965,
26366,
7,
450,
70,
10269,
14602,
959,
3714,
2499,
11522,
136,
450,
6863,
95319,
83,
10,
44961,
1830,
111,
1919,
10002,
6897,
237,
10,
5962,
669,
5,
1215,
66,
204610,
4,
8446,
8699,
83,
51876,
136,
152388,
390,
89655,
25,
7,
111719,
9,
63499,
2347,
7,
14361,
32116,
20271,
142,
81887,
297,
4620,
49586,
1297,
53,
5,
1913,
8446,
8699,
25,
7,
211088,
4,
10,
147115,
23,
461,
2822,
33649,
11,
10023,
40,
90,
67243,
11,
100,
70,
5117,
1733,
16792,
2412,
136,
8446,
8699,
18738,
71,
678,
1919,
17265,
5,
262,
61518,
19441,
2809,
44691,
297,
4,
33649,
11,
10023,
1927,
90,
13438,
47,
122991,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
54660,
90,
117,
3666,
83,
10,
3576,
181815,
46824,
23134,
133995,
1346,
8951,
297,
390,
180478,
85222,
87,
9461,
3973,
49579,
136,
59121,
390,
226280,
64986,
4729,
5,
44,
23135,
19058,
117,
3666,
58,
83,
70,
5117,
20600,
674,
23,
85222,
87,
9461,
3973,
49579,
25,
7,
44,
74257,
4867,
53,
111,
96719,
830,
214493,
297,
390,
44,
3117,
48078,
7,
58,
136,
44,
8023,
4063,
740,
1650,
30482,
4527,
111,
70,
6024,
9,
19,
19305,
4935,
59058,
10187,
27076,
20623,
136,
66139,
142,
63304,
37702,
5,
581,
1346,
83,
64549,
297,
237,
10,
24745,
40353,
12,
442,
70541,
7,
17262,
117781,
43515,
162711,
390,
10,
2258,
27998,
23,
82167,
6406,
5,
581,
43515,
11698,
98,
10,
166513,
23,
70,
13584,
4432,
2750,
62163,
75412,
23,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1176549 | en-train-1176549 | 1176549 | {
"title": [
"Plot.",
"\"Octavio y Susana\".",
"\"Daniel y Valeria\".",
"\"El Chivo y Maru\".",
"Themes.",
"Dogs and disloyalty.",
"Inequality.",
"Violence.",
"Production.",
"Reception and awards.",
"Film's role in Mexico's outlawing of dog fighting."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The film is constructed from three distinct stories linked by a car accident that brings the characters briefly together.",
"Octavio (Gael García Bernal) is in love with his brother's wife Susana (Vanessa Bauche) and dislikes the way she is abused by his brother Ramiro (Marco Pérez). Octavio tries to persuade her to run away with him. Local thug Jarocho, happy after winning in a dog fight, lets his dog loose on some strays and is threatened by a vagrant wielding a machete. Eventually, Jarocho sics his dog on Octavio's rottweiler, Cofi, but his own dog is killed instead. Made aware of this by his friend Jorge and needing money to start his new life with Susana, Octavio decides to become involved in the dogfighting scene. Jarocho keeps entering new dogs into the fights, only for Cofi to kill them. Octavio makes enough money to flee with Susana, and pays Mauricio, the owner of the dogfighting venue, to get Ramiro beaten up. In revenge, Ramiro steals the money and leaves with Susana. Struggling financially, Octavio accepts a challenge by Jarocho to participate in a private dogfight, with no outside bets. Cofi is about to win, but Jarocho shoots him. In revenge, Octavio stabs Jarocho in the stomach. Pursued by Jarocho's thugs, Octavio finds himself in a car chase with Jorge and the wounded Cofi. A collision follows; Jorge dies and Octavio is badly injured.",
"Magazine publisher Daniel (Álvaro Guerrero) leaves his family to live with his lover Valeria (Goya Toledo), a Spanish supermodel. On the day they move in together, Valeria's leg is severely broken in the car accident and she is unable to continue working as a model. One day, as Valeria is recuperating in Daniel's apartment, her dog Richie disappears under a broken floorboard and stays there for days. The missing dog triggers serious tension for the couple, causing numerous fights which lead to doubts about their relationship on both sides. Daniel calls his estranged wife to hear her voice, suggesting that he regrets leaving her for Valeria. Trying to rescue the dog, Valeria reinjures her leg; Daniel finds her hours later. Valeria's new leg injury results in severe arterial thrombosis and eventually gangrene. Her leg is amputated, ending Valeria's modeling career for good. While she is in the hospital, Daniel rescues Richie from the floorboards. However, Valeria realizes that her life is ruined. She quietly drives her wheelchair through the torn-up lovenest and looks out of the window expecting to see a billboard bearing her likeness, only to find it has been removed.",
"The vagrant occasionally seen in the previous segments is revealed to be a professional hitman called El Chivo (Emilio Echevarría). Leonardo, a corrupt police commander, recounts that El Chivo is a former private school teacher who was imprisoned after committing terrorist acts for guerilla movements. When he got out, Leonardo started getting him jobs as a hitman. El Chivo tries to make contact with his daughter, Maru, whom he abandoned when he began his guerrilla involvement. Following El Chivo's wishes, Maru's mother told her that her father is dead. El Chivo is about to perform a hit on a businessman when the car crash interrupts him. During the chaos at the crash scene, El Chivo steals Octavio's money and takes the wounded Cofi to his home to nurse it back to health. One day, while El Chivo is away from his warehouse hideout, Cofi kills the other mongrel dogs El Chivo is caring for. Despite initially preparing to kill Cofi, El Chivo figures that the dog does not know any better and that its violence is a reflection of his own life as a hitman. Meanwhile, Ramiro is shot and killed by Leonardo's plain-clothes bodyguard during an attempted bank robbery. At Ramiro's funeral, a seriously injured Octavio sees Susana for the first time since she and Ramiro fled with his money. Despite having been wronged, Octavio tries again to convince Susana to run away with him, but she becomes angry with the fact that Octavio is willing to run away with her after she has just lost a loved one. A few days later, Octavio is shown waiting at the bus station for Susana. She never shows, and Octavio does not get onto the bus. Still grieving for his other dogs, El Chivo learns that his client and his intended victim are half-brothers. He leaves both men alive and chained to separate walls with a pistol within reach between them, their fate left undetermined. El Chivo then breaks into his daughter's house and leaves her a large bundle of money along with a message on her answering machine explaining what happened to him and why the family was split. Just before El Chivo is to tell his daughter Maru that he loves her, the answering machine stops recording. He then goes to an autoshop, where he sells the client's SUV. The mechanic asks him the dog's name, and El Chivo calls him \"Negro\" (\"Black\"). After El Chivo receives the money for the car, he and Negro walk away, disappearing into the horizon.",
"",
"Each of the three tales is a reflection on the cruelty of humans towards both animals and other humans, showing how humans may live dark or even hideous lives. But the film's theme is loyalty, as symbolized by the dog, \"man's best friend\". Dogs are important to the main characters in each of the three stories, and in each story various forms of human loyalty or disloyalty are shown: disloyalty to a brother by trying to seduce the brother's wife, disloyalty to a wife by keeping a mistress with subsequent disloyalty to the mistress when she is injured and loses her beauty, loss of loyalty to youthful idealism and rediscovered loyalty to a daughter as a hit-man falls from and then attempts to regain grace. Dogfighting is banned in most Latin American countries and exists as an element of the underground economy in some working class societies. Although violent, dogfighting provides an opportunity for Octavio to make money. This is true to life in the sense that participating in the underground economy gives people in the lower class the ability to make money and experience mobility. González Iñárritu was heavily criticized for his inclusion of dogfighting in the film but has said himself that although it is horrible, dogfighting is one of the harsh realities of Mexico City.",
"The three overlapping stories all take place in Mexico City, but because of class division, there is severe segregation of economic classes with El Chivo squatting on the outskirts of town, Octavio living in a working-class neighborhood, and Valeria living in a luxury high-rise apartment. If not for the car accident, these three characters would never interact. The upper class is victimized in \"Amores perros\" even when they are the ones perpetuating crime. For instance, El Chivo is hired to kill a man's business partner and eventually decides to leave both men to fight it out themselves. Although Ramiro works at a grocery store, he also participates in the underground economy by committing robberies. Octavio and El Chivo participate in the underground Mexican economy as well, in order to secure untaxed income and bring stability to their lives.",
"\"Amores perros\" contains domestic violence, gun violence, and animal cruelty. The domestic violence is evident in the relationship between Ramiro and his wife, Susana, as well as in Valeria and Daniel's relationship as they both begin to become verbally and physically aggressive after Valeria becomes depressed. Gun violence is seen from the beginning of the film in a frantic car chase until the very end when El Chivo hands the gun to the two business partners, leaving them to fight their own battle. Lastly, animal cruelty is quite visible in the dog fights Octavio attends in order to make money off of his dog, Cofi. The dog owners show no empathy toward their dogs.",
"Produced by Zeta Film and AltaVista Films, production began on 12 April 1999. The DVD of \"Amores perros\" has a commentary track, by the director and the screenplay writer. A controversial aspect of the film is the dog fighting sequences. González Iñárritu explains that no dogs were harmed during the making of \"Amores perros\". In the scenes where dogs are apparently attacking each other, they were actually playing. Their muzzles were covered with fine fishing line, so that they were unable to bite another dog. In the shots where dogs are apparently dead or dying, they were sedated (under supervision of the Mexican SPCA). The grittiness of the scenes is amplified by quick cuts and sound effects. Another unusual aspect of the production of \"Amores perros\" was the danger to the cast and film crew while filming in the poor parts of Mexico City. The director and some of the crew were actually robbed by street gangs. The Director cut includes a cameo from the veteran Japanese singer Kazuyo Togawa singing A cappella, credited as \"Fat Lady\".",
"The film was critically acclaimed and received many nominations and awards. Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 92% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 116 reviews, with an average score of 7.75/10, making the film a \"Certified Fresh\" on the website's rating system. The consensus reads \"The brutality of \"Amores Perros\" may be difficult to watch at times, but this intense, gritty film packs a hard wallop\". On Metacritic, it has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".",
"\"Amores perros\" drew widespread attention to and condemnation of the cruel practice of dog fighting in Mexico. The film's leading actress, Vanessa Bauche, has supported animal advocates' anti-dogfighting campaign. Dog fighting was finally outlawed in Mexico on 24 June 2017."
]
} |
Kitay-gorod (Moscow Metro) | null | Kitay-gorod () is a Moscow Metro station complex in the Tverskoy District, Central Administrative Okrug, Moscow, Russia. It is on the Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya and Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya lines. Kitay-gorod is one of the four stations within the Moscow Metro network providing a cross-platform interchange (besides, and Kashirskaya). | null | [
250004,
250054,
34525,
538,
70,
29398,
509,
47,
9803,
33233,
70,
1940,
7,
58994,
111,
70,
6626,
124519,
3229,
2363,
37067,
214,
26847,
23,
70,
11698,
2806,
3126,
70,
567,
127,
549,
57884,
53,
136,
137708,
157,
9518,
86,
32673,
53,
4567,
14,
136,
70,
8059,
34,
8848,
1336,
53,
136,
52491,
127,
1336,
53,
4567,
14,
23,
4122,
9,
106438,
7,
5,
33306,
70,
645,
238,
15555,
6238,
111,
70,
15789,
13315,
4743,
47,
44828,
26255,
26983,
2069,
17721,
70,
6626,
124519,
442,
509,
68872,
47,
197108,
13,
43240,
98,
903,
12302,
6275,
170176,
21286,
5,
581,
5117,
25550,
7,
174920,
1295,
15044,
8059,
34,
8848,
7,
41918,
136,
567,
127,
549,
515,
7,
41918,
124519,
98,
496,
14487,
19340,
5,
88949,
48296,
99225,
438,
14985,
509,
10,
147914,
7,
100,
15044,
124519,
4,
25550,
7,
2806,
121011,
13,
99,
70,
8394,
48850,
23664,
136,
7068,
738,
5773,
3934,
70,
80208,
7,
4,
7440,
6244,
1507,
27022,
10763,
7,
3542,
20600,
297,
100,
15044,
124519,
4,
136,
7068,
1380,
4420,
98,
70,
171827,
23664,
5,
1326,
70,
12302,
60042,
7,
4,
442,
509,
7722,
100,
44828,
26255,
959,
47,
8,
17365,
70,
25550,
7,
3229,
1836,
41421,
297,
70,
13651,
98,
70,
8394,
48850,
23664,
5,
2161,
1936,
14487,
32158,
4,
70,
8059,
34,
8848,
7,
41918,
13315,
3126,
297,
1257,
678,
70,
52491,
127,
7,
41918,
47,
3173,
70,
8059,
34,
8848,
1579,
9,
23267,
8848,
7,
41918,
13315,
5,
137879,
7,
1295,
450,
13315,
80723,
172852,
23,
3638,
209183,
44937,
4,
21208,
442,
509,
7464,
7722,
47,
738,
98,
70,
567,
549,
515,
7,
41918,
13315,
390,
45443,
214,
98,
70,
8394,
48850,
13651,
5,
581,
12302,
6275,
30957,
297,
6863,
4393,
41018,
289,
63647,
4734,
23,
72399,
26527,
3229,
98,
70,
729,
14487,
4,
567,
549,
515,
7,
41918,
136,
137708,
157,
9518,
2415,
7,
41918,
124519,
162711,
47,
3173,
70,
567,
127,
549,
515,
1579,
9,
605,
2701,
157,
9518,
2415,
7,
41918,
16777,
5,
39215,
1419,
214,
111,
6626,
84797,
4,
95103,
29398,
23664,
7,
25072,
297,
1829,
10,
12302,
32324,
1846,
136,
6626,
70163,
71,
32804,
120957,
7,
4,
70,
29398,
509,
88303,
23,
142,
1615,
3229,
156347,
13,
6,
159958,
24145,
13438,
80723,
47,
74216,
136,
70,
70163,
71,
71834,
111,
70,
107653,
7,
24714,
141,
2810,
136,
19146,
232,
3220,
685,
237,
5299,
237,
156347,
13,
42179,
7,
45873,
19,
4,
239,
23024,
136,
80609,
93,
343,
4,
124901,
79825,
4,
54940,
271,
3789,
44677,
4,
621,
51592,
98,
70,
99665,
238,
4927,
18244,
7,
98,
70,
58982,
7,
111,
15044,
23664,
7,
5,
581,
171827,
23664,
4,
128911,
76,
4806,
44,
163728,
5584,
58,
15,
441,
1294,
24259,
16,
83,
122329,
297,
678,
6626,
6,
15555,
7,
111,
348,
35975,
164865,
5245,
2577,
71,
678,
22729,
4224,
53,
1108,
2661,
5,
181268,
12924,
8231,
93,
66695,
51042,
33233,
70,
3647,
111,
70,
405,
49725,
1274,
112,
70,
166116,
1363,
36389,
7,
5,
581,
58982,
7,
621,
2577,
71,
678,
124498,
1108,
2661,
136,
70,
74912,
678,
4224,
53,
134654,
13,
5,
581,
8394,
48850,
23664,
83,
128911,
76,
4806,
44,
82166,
432,
79243,
58,
15,
82166,
3796,
247,
6637,
111,
6863,
164865,
5245,
15,
40404,
71,
678,
205811,
4745,
1108,
2661,
16,
3129,
6713,
1884,
10,
115851,
297,
61047,
1830,
95103,
47,
70,
140909,
111,
70,
23664,
5,
581,
58982,
7,
621,
2577,
71,
678,
10,
3514,
77702,
1108,
2661,
136,
70,
74912,
678,
124498,
134654,
13,
5,
182999,
111,
70,
29398,
25,
7,
7311,
9351,
4,
48296,
1495,
1436,
71,
438,
14985,
4,
831,
7464,
186,
14037,
4122,
7514,
23,
70,
12302,
46692,
4,
7440,
10,
373,
271,
111,
40933,
438,
6820,
15,
76153,
254,
1290,
7525,
538,
2810,
16,
7464,
9157,
7,
5,
581,
29398,
21265,
7,
144477,
99091,
25550,
7,
10336,
214,
98186,
2888,
4126,
71899,
136,
5586,
4688,
395,
1380,
1829,
70,
8394,
48850,
13651,
136,
127067,
99091,
25550,
7,
10336,
214,
98186,
22695,
395,
184,
21817,
7,
41918,
136,
5030,
52568,
157,
38162,
1829,
70,
171827,
1632,
5,
1326,
44828,
26255,
32599,
214,
47,
26983,
23,
70,
198274,
48225,
4,
442,
83,
56065,
47,
4527,
10,
12302,
32324,
1846,
3126,
214,
70,
6626,
13651,
7,
5,
32964,
1379,
64330,
32804,
120957,
7,
63769,
12302,
47,
70,
71579,
5,
581,
127067,
9022,
32804,
120957,
83,
105866,
1379,
69125,
1643,
7,
41918,
68305,
136,
83,
1940,
10187,
297,
678,
48716,
1614,
102966,
5,
149766,
57826,
1290,
80208,
7,
28960,
105237,
47,
70,
32804,
120957,
5,
581,
144477,
9022,
1632,
83,
105866,
1379,
70,
4612,
5822,
68305,
678,
1614,
7514,
3126,
52467,
47,
70,
48529,
184,
2959,
48800,
33233,
678,
27060,
5,
581,
44828,
26255,
8110,
5117,
26983,
1257,
10,
113014,
111,
126946,
7,
1295,
70,
6626,
23664,
7,
8108,
174548,
25737,
136,
26983,
2069,
100,
10,
12960,
136,
7068,
738,
1257,
98,
10,
70163,
71,
57826,
1290,
5,
3293,
70767,
509,
60042,
9,
978,
24908,
100,
10,
12302,
47,
70,
22690,
48529,
184,
2959,
29398,
111,
70,
1172,
2848,
1579,
9,
7192,
61827,
7,
41918,
16777,
4,
124901,
80208,
7,
27875,
144477,
111,
70,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
29398,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
15,
16,
83,
10,
124338,
36159,
29398,
27140,
23,
70,
384,
814,
1579,
53,
59338,
4,
15881,
141598,
13,
9972,
20078,
4,
124338,
4,
49002,
5,
1650,
83,
98,
70,
8059,
34,
8848,
1579,
9,
23267,
8848,
7,
41918,
136,
4837,
66,
1579,
9,
605,
2701,
157,
9518,
2415,
7,
41918,
124519,
5,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
83,
1632,
111,
70,
22759,
29398,
7,
28032,
70,
124338,
36159,
33120,
101904,
10,
41421,
9,
172121,
1940,
152028,
15,
125441,
988,
4,
136,
4697,
10011,
7,
41918,
194,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1206941 | en-train-1206941 | 1206941 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Design.",
"Transfers.",
"Exits."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Originally the station was to open along the intersection of the two lines when their connecting points in the centre would link the Zhdanovskiy and Krasnopresnenskiy radii and the Kaluzhskiy and Rizhskiy radii in mid-1970s. However the overcrowding of the ring line due to passengers travelling between the two lines it was decided to accelerate works on this transfer point prematurely. The first trains arrived from both Kaluzhskaya and Zhdanovskaya lines on 30 December 1970. Because Ploshad Nogina was a terminus for both lines, trains would terminate at the eastern hall and then go off into the tunnels, where piston junctions were installed for both lines, and then come back on the western hall. For the transfer purposes, it was possible for passengers not to depart the trains when they crossed the platform on the eastern hall. On 31 December 1971, the Kaluzhskaya line linked up with the Rizhskaya to form the Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya line. Trains from that line began operating in normal thoroughfare, though it was still possible to go on the Zdanovskaya line by boarding on the eastern platform. The transfer point entered its full operational regime only in late 1975 when on the 17 December, Zdanovskaya and Krasnopresnenskaya lines connected to form the Zhdanovsko-Krasnopresnenskaya Line.",
"Consisting of two separate, parallel station halls united via a transfer corridor and two combined vestibules, the station was built in an era when decorative architecture once again began to emerge and the combined effort of the architects Strelkov and Moloshenok as well as decorative authors Rusin, Lapina and Bodniek, whose efforts, amongst other places, are seen on the metallic artworks on the walls of both halls. The western hall, nicknamed \"Kristall\" (Crystal) is decorated with two rows of angular pylons faced with light gray marble. Large metal cornicles running along the base of the ceiling hide the illumination lamps. The walls are faced with bright marble and the floor with gray granite. The eastern hall is nicknamed \"Garmoshka\" (Garmon), because of its pylons (faced with yellowish marble) which look like a stretched accordion parallel to the length of the hall. The walls are faced with a greyish marble and the floor with bright granite. Heritage of the station's original name, Ploshchad Nogina, can still be found midway in the transfer passage, where a bust of Viktor Nogin (sculptor Shlykov) still stands.",
"The station serves northbound trains heading towards Medvedkovo and Planernaya come via the eastern platform and southbound trains heading towards Novoyasenevskaya and Vykhino coming via the western one. For passengers wishing to travel in the opposite direction, it is required to use a transfer corridor linking the two platforms.",
"Two underground vestibules allow transfer to the surface. The southern vestibule is located under Slavyanskaya Square and is interlinked with multiple subways. Both escalator tunnels follow directly to the vestibule. The northern one is located under the Staraya Square with subway linkages to the Maroseika street along with others. The passengers must first travel up a flight of stairs from the two halls before turning left and travelling for a while and then go up on a combined escalator. This arrangement was purpose-built for a transfer to the future Maroseika station of the Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya Line, whose tunnels pass north of the Kitay-gorod station."
]
} |
Rudolf Formis | null | Karl Erich Rudolf Formis (25 December 1894 - 23 January 1935) was a German engineer and radio engineer at the Süddeutsche Rundfunk AG (SÜRAG) subsidiary of Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft. Formis was a pioneer of the German amateur radio movement. During the period of Nazi rule in Germany, he transmitted anti-Nazi radio broadcasts from Czechoslovakia for the Black Front organisation, using a self-built shortwave radio. Formis was murdered by the Sicherheitsdienst on the orders of Reinhard Heydrich. | null | [
250004,
250054,
15236,
164,
21449,
1295,
10,
86991,
9,
67413,
89890,
14449,
5,
18763,
9963,
1021,
9319,
4,
14949,
93726,
542,
636,
5425,
4,
509,
10,
5299,
9,
69723,
19,
107653,
4,
2750,
82775,
70,
13281,
12439,
23,
89890,
4,
54940,
27060,
5,
360,
6661,
5550,
87,
4,
15236,
164,
186,
10617,
297,
47,
70,
30839,
14237,
89499,
7,
136,
5775,
46526,
33233,
8752,
180,
139891,
145359,
3428,
68818,
23,
88172,
5,
24372,
70,
1631,
4,
15236,
164,
106804,
297,
1919,
175961,
130732,
31075,
23,
70,
44457,
111,
5977,
3025,
41382,
53,
3229,
764,
88303,
10,
16610,
9,
634,
272,
71872,
720,
87709,
111,
6,
127219,
1916,
678,
70,
14098,
46684,
5,
360,
70,
31576,
111,
61242,
4,
903,
225081,
15236,
164,
47,
21647,
188513,
99,
159,
86423,
23613,
4,
7440,
764,
88303,
70,
5117,
179965,
76519,
100,
70,
14380,
5,
1529,
79786,
99,
70,
14380,
100,
645,
209,
5369,
136,
157578,
70,
19069,
111,
121392,
14364,
100,
25134,
30839,
6436,
360,
60487,
15236,
164,
65508,
71,
70,
30839,
79775,
5977,
4331,
2320,
1514,
15,
8399,
2203,
30839,
217063,
29398,
194,
15236,
164,
66570,
1902,
70,
16188,
44,
8399,
757,
3559,
740,
18763,
11782,
24092,
237,
10,
226347,
79775,
509,
44,
605,
9,
1723,
617,
740,
360,
61786,
4,
99,
120304,
6678,
21753,
13,
43573,
89890,
4,
764,
88303,
10,
148814,
217063,
29398,
100,
159,
86423,
23613,
4,
3129,
120384,
297,
70,
179965,
111,
117729,
1295,
645,
184,
162,
5,
28090,
18982,
60775,
15236,
164,
509,
10336,
111,
70,
159,
86423,
23613,
121392,
130625,
5,
24372,
70,
83572,
7,
21449,
47,
14537,
4,
15236,
164,
100512,
10,
32786,
111,
70,
26085,
17668,
275,
66502,
98,
361,
11994,
55591,
4,
136,
237,
142,
5377,
32786,
34739,
2831,
23,
70,
6,
167618,
111,
70,
5,
1529,
26038,
10,
116483,
23,
8060,
111,
70,
9907,
7142,
64370,
15490,
198395,
8035,
3835,
538,
51529,
237,
10,
15889,
99866,
4,
136,
69347,
26548,
70,
96362,
14364,
2460,
176423,
5,
15236,
164,
14432,
21449,
3934,
79612,
678,
70,
83572,
7,
4,
237,
1919,
9963,
432,
9319,
4,
70,
58386,
111,
14949,
93726,
542,
636,
5425,
4,
509,
845,
114686,
5,
6561,
15426,
2843,
1059,
3674,
450,
764,
100512,
2837,
163085,
297,
20271,
70,
15411,
111,
70,
83572,
98834,
136,
450,
4,
237,
10,
155034,
18782,
4,
764,
59226,
70,
3551,
2256,
111,
70,
5977,
226347,
214,
1632,
111,
41555,
25,
7,
3835,
29823,
90,
221,
450,
70,
179965,
111,
1919,
17262,
9,
497,
474,
116483,
47,
43077,
111,
30839,
7,
178463,
99,
5368,
23409,
103494,
5,
1326,
903,
22631,
4,
764,
509,
34784,
297,
136,
42659,
33,
390,
70,
80646,
25395,
5,
24372,
1919,
845,
114686,
6,
7154,
38904,
509,
122273,
297,
4,
764,
509,
2843,
58580,
257,
74694,
47,
10,
202104,
11491,
5,
171855,
2809,
34784,
297,
23,
102126,
4,
15236,
164,
18738,
71,
136,
37842,
47,
25813,
47,
176672,
4,
1284,
509,
1940,
19462,
297,
23,
104315,
4743,
47,
19441,
214552,
209806,
136,
9325,
47,
210721,
5,
360,
210721,
4,
15236,
164,
33284,
297,
70,
10074,
43643,
4,
142,
177986,
21115,
11675,
390,
71047,
7832,
16865,
450,
1902,
65450,
1295,
70,
9907,
7142,
64370,
5,
15236,
164,
8951,
297,
70,
113068,
111,
7832,
16865,
25,
7,
73962,
4,
44,
17048,
35473,
135555,
58,
15,
3957,
30839,
135555,
16,
136,
88303,
142,
1379,
64330,
226347,
214,
29398,
23,
70,
36770,
2352,
17607,
497,
6195,
43573,
27262,
6493,
1932,
310,
8090,
24375,
23,
7582,
58020,
5,
581,
16610,
634,
272,
71872,
720,
1902,
2809,
88303,
390,
15236,
164,
136,
509,
91048,
1295,
1919,
89890,
42819,
47,
103655,
31,
89262,
15565,
390,
66570,
707,
1919,
23902,
5,
24372,
3034,
226347,
7,
72134,
23,
6088,
4,
20324,
21115,
226347,
7,
80723,
98,
116,
14487,
58020,
5,
15236,
164,
25,
7,
71872,
720,
509,
70,
5117,
30839,
193580,
13,
5977,
71872,
720,
47,
186,
96391,
297,
390,
70,
83572,
7,
5,
1529,
11814,
21373,
172852,
12478,
944,
117538,
47,
70,
89537,
7,
51438,
1515,
94465,
5977,
71872,
720,
136,
160404,
71,
23,
10,
144996,
450,
7228,
53299,
4295,
18822,
70,
26073,
509,
71872,
3674,
1295,
10271,
5,
133698,
903,
14922,
4,
15236,
164,
10,
89829,
237,
6,
55875,
3378,
4,
119578,
136,
42179,
5,
1529,
169361,
1919,
4677,
1295,
24234,
98352,
5256,
111,
70,
210721,
23179,
111,
70,
44,
97732,
43643,
58,
136,
1295,
15970,
9,
7,
4398,
14534,
226347,
7,
5,
581,
1528,
99201,
149528,
7,
26548,
70,
83572,
63647,
4,
156405,
90,
47,
83572,
51269,
136,
11782,
7,
100,
39746,
7154,
136,
88894,
16852,
5,
360,
66044,
4,
24365,
117729,
1295,
7832,
16865,
3542,
226347,
4,
23,
3129,
764,
2843,
37842,
47,
88165,
8782,
70,
83572,
31016,
5,
7832,
16865,
11814,
1919,
51359,
111,
105207,
83572,
7,
1295,
70,
1733,
111,
1919,
19085,
209274,
8108,
28730,
4,
10,
75723,
116071,
450,
5608,
765,
3884,
41555,
23,
10,
5361,
19069,
5,
581,
226347,
214,
41018,
509,
106480,
8668,
38543,
100,
70,
83572,
31016,
6637,
5977,
226347,
7,
3542,
99,
70,
1733,
70,
2684,
5744,
3173,
111,
51269,
4,
136,
3542,
4911,
7,
90698,
4552,
5526,
5,
15236,
164,
1902,
8230,
297,
70,
4030,
11089,
111,
70,
71872,
720,
221,
450,
442,
509,
28032,
10,
4567,
223,
111,
1672,
387,
140635,
7,
4,
221,
10,
44632,
56,
28032,
70,
4567,
223,
2806,
186,
51,
2886,
47,
36802,
442,
4,
4911,
7,
20662,
442,
34844,
47,
64040,
67,
70,
71872,
720,
5,
89726,
2347,
9393,
4,
70,
44,
24988,
34447,
33820,
58,
15,
2347,
30839,
8,
6211,
329,
16,
5809,
64040,
67,
70,
41018,
678,
70,
14537,
111,
1660,
10,
37682,
10686,
18,
71872,
720,
5,
360,
70,
19732,
4,
70,
210721,
1119,
1340,
21115,
111,
70,
10074,
43643,
509,
210751,
3674,
390,
80646,
25395,
97957,
4,
136,
70,
106157,
4677,
1672,
70,
31913,
111,
70,
71872,
720,
136,
70,
39933,
21449,
1295,
7832,
16865,
25,
7,
188183,
4,
17819,
13,
5,
581,
30839,
27759,
35839,
98,
70,
103655,
31,
89262,
92,
27759,
47,
5646,
22631,
26548,
70,
29398,
5,
360,
10,
31330,
181141,
390,
196212,
111,
22836,
208780,
96513,
542,
57891,
17336,
111,
427,
14487,
58020,
4,
70,
29398,
509,
18507,
47314,
237,
44,
90636,
169,
126104,
1935,
830,
3129,
5608,
186,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
17038,
1004,
5548,
126741,
15236,
164,
39695,
14487,
141692,
20,
1105,
18982,
61540,
16,
509,
10,
30839,
185118,
136,
5977,
185118,
99,
70,
56077,
185273,
54113,
54881,
24639,
15,
294,
86423,
23613,
16,
57527,
6635,
111,
74283,
7,
9,
1052,
7030,
54881,
9,
10429,
93991,
18917,
5,
15236,
164,
509,
10,
53918,
11226,
111,
70,
30839,
79775,
5977,
112664,
5,
133698,
70,
14922,
111,
83572,
79986,
23,
102126,
4,
764,
71872,
3674,
2874,
9,
4645,
708,
5977,
226347,
7,
1295,
103655,
31,
89262,
15565,
100,
70,
10074,
43643,
49894,
4,
17368,
10,
15970,
9,
978,
24908,
16610,
634,
272,
5977,
5,
15236,
164,
509,
162882,
297,
390,
70,
104495,
33820,
98,
70,
12989,
7,
111,
51661,
25612,
28240,
71,
26932,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-147790 | en-train-147790 | 147790 | {
"title": [
"Life.",
"Black Front.",
"Aftermath."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Formis came from a middle-class Stuttgart family. His grandfather, Christian Friedrich von Leins, was a well-known architect, who designed the Villa Berg in Stuttgart, among others. In World War I, Formis belonged to the German Asia Corps and fought alongside Ottoman Empire troops in Arabia. After the war, Formis demonstrated his advanced capabilities in the field of radiotelegraphy when he built a short-wave transmitter capable of communicating with the United States. In the spring of 1923, this enabled Formis to gain employment at SÜRAG, where he built the first transmission systems for the company. He worked at the company for over 10 years and reached the position of technical director for South German Radio In 1925 Formis introduced the German amateur radio designation DE (DE = German receiving station). Formis himself had the mark \"DE 0100\". His call sign as a broadcast amateur was \"K-Y4\". In 1928, at Castle Solitude near Stuttgart, he built a remote receiving station for SÜRAG, which supplied the transmission of reports from overseas. From January 1932 Formis was head of the SÜRAG technical department. After the Nazis came to power, Formis became a member of the Sturmabteilung on 7 March 1933, and as an SA member took part in the occupation of the. He gave a speech in support of the National Socialists without previously being publicly known as a national socialist, and turned against the previous director Bofinger. Formis later came into conflict with the Nazis, as his grandmother, the wife of Christian Friedrich von Leins, was Jewish. One account also cited that he became disillusioned during the course of the Nazi revolution and that, as a dramatic protest, he cut the landline of the radio broadcasting one of Hitler's public addresses so that the transmission of his three-hour speech to millions of Germans listening at home went dead. For this action, he was arrested and beaten by the Gestapo. After his Jewish ancestry was revealed, he was also dispatched to a concentration camp.",
"Having been arrested in Germany, Formis fled and tried to move to Turkey, but was intercepted in Bulgaria due to having incorrect documentation and sent to Prague. In Prague, Formis joined the Black Front, an opposition group run by Otto Strasser that had split from the National Socialists. Formis directed the distribution of Strasser's newspaper, \"Die Deutsche Revolution\" (The German Revolution) and built an underground broadcasting station in the former Hotel Záhoří near Slapy nad Vltavou in November 1934. The shortwave transmitter had been built by Formis and was brought from his Stuttgart workshop to Czechoslovakia by himself or his friends. After test broadcasts starting in September, regular group broadcasts began on 2 December 1934. Formis's transmitter was the first German clandestine radio transmitter to be detected by the Nazis. He used similar operating frequencies to the Königs Wusterhausen radio transmitter and operated in a manner that made receivers believe the signal was transmitted from Berlin. During this period, Formis acted as technician, speaker and author. He drew his information from press compilations of the Prague office of the \"Black Front\" and from self-scanned broadcasts. The program included appeals against the Nazi regime, replies to Nazi propaganda and calls for resistance and sabotage. In addition, management reports from Strasser were broadcast, in which he also tried to ridicule the Nazi Party. Strasser used his knowledge of leading Nazis from the time of his party membership before 1930, a circumstance that should have put Hitler in a special position. The broadcasting operation was particularly annoying for the Nazi Party because radio broadcasts were at the time the most modern form of propaganda, and were thus considered very important. Formis had tuned the antenna of the transmitter so that it was within a radius of about 20 kilometres, so a listener within the radius would be unable to hear it, thus making it difficult to locate the transmitter. Nevertheless, the \"Abhördienst\" (the German defence) could locate the operation with the power of just a 100-watt transmitter. In the event, the Prague exile group of the Black Front was infiltrated by Gestapo agents, and the crucial information about the location of the transmitter and the operator came from Strasser's employee, Franke. The German government called on the Czechoslovak government to take action against the station. In a letter signed by Secretary of State Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow of 12 December 1934, the station was classified as \"Hetzzentrale\", which should be banned by the authorities. Recordings of the broadcasts were played to Stuttgart radio staff, the Formis' \"snarling dignitaries Swabian\" recognized. In January 1935, SD boss Reinhard Heydrich gave SS squad leader Alfred Naujocks the order to destroy the underground transmitter. Naujocks, travelling under the name Hans Müller and camouflaged as a skier, drove to Czechoslovakia with Edith Kersbach, a gym teacher from Berlin, where they succeeded in gaining the Formis' confidence and making a waxprint of the key to the transmitter room. Naujocks briefly returned to Germany, had a duplicate made and drove again to Slapy nad Vltavou with Werner Göttsch. The plan was to gain access to the transmission room unnoticed, destroy the transmitter with acid, sedate Formis and kidnap him. On 23 January 1935, contrary to the plan, Formis stayed in the broadcasting room and fired at Naujocks when he entered. Formis was shot dead in the subsequent firefight, being killed by two pistol shots. Hitting a waiter prevented the SD agents from finding the transmitter, which was hidden in a mattress. The chaos created by the incident aggravated Heydrich, who feared incurring Himmler's wrath for the complications of what he considered to be a bungled operation. The public killing exposed the SD's activities in Czechoslovakia, using Sudetenland as the base of operations, including the surveillance and pursuit of German emigres in the country as well as the support for the \"Aufbruch\" circle, a group critical of Konrad Henlein's Sudeten German Heimatfront. Formis is buried in Slapy. His grave is still well tended to this day.",
"After the bungled shooting, the Black Front was broadcasting again within hours. Agents Naujocks and Göttsch both managed to escape back to Germany after the murder. Diplomatic protests by the Czechoslovak government to the German government went unanswered. Naujocks was interned after the war, and later interrogated by a British-Czech commission, but escaped internment in 1946. In 1961, the German authorities investigated Formis' death, but never charged Naujocks with Formis's death in April 1966. Göttsch was indicted in 1967 in Hamburg, but according to the indictment it was not possible to determine who fired the lethal shots. Numerous reports on the murder of Rudolf Formis appeared in exiled German newspapers. The German-language \"Parisian Tageblatt\" newspaper cited the Prague-based newspaper \"Venkov\", stating it was \"crimes of this kind which unmask the true soul of Hitler's Germany\". Writer Fritz Erpenbeck attacked the \"Sicherheitsdienst\" for the murder in his 1939 novel \"Emigranten\" and portrayed Formis under the name \"Dormler\". On 18 July 1941, the BBC broadcast a radio play about the murder. Formis is considered a hero within the community of amateur Czech radio operators. The radio station used by Rudolf Formis was preserved for posterity. In 2012 and 2013 it was on loan to the National Technical Museum in Prague."
]
} |
Construction waste | null | Construction waste (a. k. a. construction and demolition materials, or C&D materials) consists of unwanted material produced directly or incidentally by the construction or industries. This includes building materials such as insulation, nails, electrical wiring, shingle, and roofing as well as waste originating from site preparation such as dredging materials, tree stumps, and rubble. Construction waste may contain lead, asbestos, or other hazardous substances. | null | [
250004,
250054,
79616,
33976,
509,
67,
83,
7228,
1257,
111,
76319,
6044,
237,
14799,
22824,
4,
122776,
136,
109412,
82649,
71,
707,
51,
33740,
100,
67842,
89397,
20271,
50961,
5,
87652,
43315,
25188,
1556,
127887,
450,
903,
831,
186,
237,
11192,
237,
209,
47,
31140,
111,
70,
76319,
450,
738,
3934,
10,
33976,
4,
10,
5045,
77546,
169209,
3501,
70,
27804,
9,
13465,
56104,
41591,
71,
390,
102134,
939,
110297,
25251,
136,
70,
50961,
53099,
5,
66016,
150675,
141796,
2481,
32316,
7,
17721,
50961,
15271,
4,
2685,
83,
5045,
54591,
100,
6,
241866,
903,
509,
67,
5,
31384,
24233,
82761,
7,
111,
50961,
509,
67,
6044,
237,
14015,
56,
24351,
621,
141033,
10821,
24145,
3551,
116115,
297,
5,
150696,
56,
24351,
83,
148431,
7565,
23,
3551,
116115,
27289,
47130,
162,
214,
64707,
1409,
2906,
1029,
112,
4,
10,
6,
74735,
9060,
5,
1650,
83,
7722,
47,
456,
75457,
5941,
80854,
111,
50961,
509,
67,
5,
101153,
19,
21972,
9,
16713,
116419,
7,
621,
11814,
47,
6181,
70,
509,
67,
5,
65787,
2661,
831,
186,
134616,
297,
136,
456,
33740,
23,
50961,
77635,
5,
5282,
67,
109412,
831,
2843,
186,
192026,
297,
136,
456,
75457,
71,
5,
78662,
456,
166871,
83,
959,
142,
35829,
4,
70,
82566,
141,
111,
50961,
509,
67,
136,
141033,
10821,
76319,
8110,
186,
175100,
1810,
59499,
47,
27047,
1363,
111,
29191,
215394,
7,
136,
144314,
53,
337,
34204,
5,
581,
28054,
2449,
100,
60418,
1264,
82566,
141,
111,
50961,
509,
67,
136,
141033,
10821,
509,
67,
4,
26719,
237,
32168,
232,
4,
831,
58359,
3934,
70,
93396,
111,
137107,
111,
86258,
100,
108880,
136,
79165,
5,
360,
30715,
4,
756,
35768,
51339,
214,
45367,
1314,
707,
50961,
509,
67,
34735,
7154,
621,
56065,
390,
27165,
47,
186,
20697,
100,
10,
6,
152113,
189893,
8063,
5,
581,
89160,
82566,
141,
3917,
100,
50961,
509,
67,
83,
47,
25379,
442,
47,
3551,
116115,
15271,
5,
24044,
214,
70,
509,
67,
105237,
47,
10,
3551,
116115,
113660,
5941,
44402,
12,
195769,
509,
67,
83,
10,
31344,
111,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
28,
54916,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
195769,
509,
67,
15,
11,
5,
472,
5,
10,
5,
50961,
136,
8,
82925,
1363,
76319,
4,
707,
313,
1230,
397,
76319,
16,
58055,
7,
111,
51,
3206,
3674,
4912,
181653,
105237,
707,
45559,
25958,
390,
70,
50961,
707,
95845,
7,
5,
3293,
96853,
33976,
76319,
6044,
237,
125001,
1363,
4,
24,
7870,
4,
39108,
289,
1439,
214,
4,
6,
54700,
133,
4,
136,
133940,
214,
237,
5299,
237,
509,
67,
62038,
1916,
1295,
1764,
212485,
6044,
237,
104,
2822,
9966,
76319,
4,
53201,
18784,
2676,
7,
4,
136,
21922,
2661,
5,
195769,
509,
67,
1543,
70541,
37105,
4,
237,
32168,
232,
4,
707,
3789,
141033,
10821,
161451,
7,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1228171 | en-train-1228171 | 1228171 | {
"title": [
"Types of waste.",
"Recycling, disposal and environmental impact.",
"Landfilling.",
"Climate impact of construction waste."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Much building waste is made up of materials such as bricks, concrete and wood damaged or unused for various reasons during construction. Observational research has shown that this can be as high as 10 to 15% of the materials that go into a building, a much higher percentage than the 2.5-5% usually assumed by quantity surveyors and the construction industry. Since considerable variability exists between construction sites, there is much opportunity for reducing this waste.",
"Some certain components of construction waste such as plasterboard are hazardous once landfilled. Plasterboard is broken down in landfill conditions releasing hydrogen sulfide, a toxic gas. It is possible to recycle many elements of construction waste. Often roll-off containers are used to transport the waste. Rubble can be crushed and reused in construction projects. Waste wood can also be recovered and recycled. Where recycling is not an option, the disposal of construction waste and hazardous materials must be carried out according to legislation of relevant councils and regulatory bodies. The penalties for improper disposal of construction waste and hazardous waste, including asbestos, can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars for businesses and individuals. In England, all personnel performing builders or construction waste clearance are required by law to be working for a CIS registered business.",
"The traditional disposal way for construction waste is to send it to landfill sites. Sending the waste directly to a landfill causes many problems:",
"Construction waste is a source of carbon dioxide emissions."
]
} |
Polygonatum | null | Polygonatum, also known as King Solomon's-seal or Solomon's seal, is a genus of flowering plants. In the APG III classification system, it is placed in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Nolinoideae (formerly the family Ruscaceae). It has also been classified in the former family Convallariaceae and, like many lilioid monocots, was formerly classified in the lily family, Liliaceae. The genus is distributed throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Most of the approximately 63 species occur in Asia, with 20 endemic to China. | null | [
250004,
250054,
44,
7192,
538,
58108,
2555,
58,
32497,
1295,
70,
142,
45964,
160600,
100,
44,
669,
53,
472,
86,
90,
830,
15005,
2852,
47,
70,
48716,
124416,
297,
1690,
106211,
13450,
5,
6561,
187136,
100,
70,
30057,
1363,
111,
70,
39210,
9351,
44,
102588,
306,
191,
25,
7,
28704,
58,
83,
450,
70,
74855,
7,
81148,
105774,
7,
3129,
102337,
40099,
121678,
28704,
7,
5,
116267,
83,
450,
70,
59226,
74855,
7,
102337,
40099,
1529,
143006,
124850,
5,
581,
93151,
621,
4842,
707,
22556,
18497,
90,
5,
6,
4,
70,
6661,
38679,
6562,
111,
51620,
297,
75628,
24641,
7,
26946,
7,
15124,
114149,
136,
113490,
7,
12,
48752,
289,
114149,
621,
34292,
71,
237,
122360,
289,
18153,
7,
4,
26719,
12,
52455,
114149,
765,
4989,
2809,
11814,
237,
15381,
23,
9098,
5,
64819,
7,
4,
36418,
7,
4,
136,
1690,
106211,
306,
90,
621,
11814,
49649,
707,
110309,
297,
136,
149976,
237,
10,
5609,
45,
1495,
678,
163,
257,
136,
64827,
5,
581,
1690,
106211,
306,
90,
111,
6626,
4000,
114149,
621,
73203,
33,
678,
143896,
25,
7,
707,
53408,
25,
7,
74261,
20271,
8395,
7,
5,
581,
1690,
106211,
306,
90,
621,
11814,
47,
3249,
26156,
707,
221,
344,
297,
23,
108069,
707,
400,
30922,
42,
47,
196634,
70,
186,
814,
52467,
5,
10660,
621,
2843,
6,
84285,
678,
101087,
136,
80493,
47,
3249,
53673,
69881,
7,
5,
581,
6057,
7668,
1690,
106211,
306,
90,
831,
186,
19014,
71,
4,
61585,
4,
136,
49814,
47,
21917,
474,
47,
107506,
15381,
41147,
1577,
5,
581,
1690,
106211,
13450,
111,
44,
683,
5,
78,
5720,
52638,
58,
83,
5452,
20051,
4,
337,
14,
6259,
4,
177488,
297,
4,
136,
6117,
11960,
297,
678,
1909,
4293,
21917,
474,
47,
3249,
10,
53673,
41931,
34003,
214,
23882,
35839,
44,
14525,
5134,
740,
1913,
20028,
4,
3395,
23,
9098,
765,
28702,
297,
98,
44,
683,
5,
31534,
34053,
53071,
58,
237,
10,
1071,
2962,
15381,
5,
581,
106443,
7,
111,
3060,
44,
7192,
538,
58108,
2555,
58,
831,
186,
337,
14,
6259,
136,
11814,
1884,
237,
6276,
14336,
5,
44,
683,
5,
76542,
18108,
31,
52853,
58,
136,
44,
683,
5,
95378,
121226,
2555,
58,
621,
11814,
237,
95,
2407,
53,
231718,
23,
5596,
5,
581,
15672,
114149,
44,
683,
5,
333,
76352,
316,
58,
1556,
10,
6057,
7668,
74855,
450,
509,
73203,
33,
1884,
70,
160,
28647,
136,
11814,
237,
21917,
474,
100,
179967,
5,
44,
683,
5,
37282,
12056,
58,
83,
11814,
100,
10,
26156,
35839,
44,
42011,
49624,
58,
23,
26320,
5,
581,
89160,
4527,
111,
44,
7192,
538,
58108,
2555,
58,
23,
70,
39734,
111,
44019,
509,
5117,
139999,
71,
23,
28730,
390,
87193,
41044,
88986,
11050,
5,
24372,
28007,
7,
4,
2412,
103876,
71,
450,
442,
509,
60266,
23,
181952,
150017,
289,
59058,
110608,
329,
7605,
4,
21208,
959,
450,
143434,
390,
122255,
13,
54452,
4,
31895,
4743,
47,
6863,
157935,
875,
73,
10941,
5,
44,
683,
5,
95378,
121226,
2555,
58,
83,
11814,
23,
62,
44599,
69003,
237,
142,
1747,
48362,
95360,
2263,
5,
1650,
83,
2843,
11814,
47,
85689,
24503,
4,
3820,
814,
4,
6,
203932,
4,
10308,
3432,
4,
136,
642,
344,
7432,
5,
893,
63896,
65669,
1459,
35839,
44,
42,
106211,
8945,
35874,
58108,
118,
58,
83,
10,
17664,
111,
44,
7192,
538,
58108,
2555,
58,
114149,
11814,
23,
89160,
76438,
54411,
5,
1650,
83,
134598,
47,
90254,
33,
67842,
7484,
7,
136,
156856,
70,
44,
10084,
740,
63306,
58108,
2555,
83,
18822,
71,
47,
186,
14359,
219,
4935,
47,
13893,
30306,
2481,
4,
41866,
3229,
70,
7086,
1556,
2809,
645,
18244,
297,
4,
645,
95650,
297,
4,
707,
83,
23,
10,
11341,
111,
146353,
1830,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
63306,
58108,
2555,
4,
2843,
51529,
237,
18813,
199347,
25,
7,
9,
184,
289,
707,
199347,
25,
7,
28704,
4,
83,
10,
107396,
111,
86608,
4209,
18153,
7,
5,
360,
70,
62,
52873,
4830,
40865,
1363,
5426,
4,
442,
83,
158012,
23,
70,
14449,
1301,
6276,
177,
189956,
4,
1614,
212122,
438,
29870,
30610,
13,
15,
82772,
538,
70,
14449,
13832,
238,
189956,
194,
1650,
1556,
2843,
2809,
18507,
47314,
23,
70,
36770,
14449,
1657,
1405,
1703,
189956,
136,
4,
1884,
5941,
88209,
48899,
22460,
47924,
7,
4,
509,
36770,
538,
18507,
47314,
23,
70,
400,
538,
14449,
4,
95630,
189956,
5,
581,
107396,
83,
15917,
3674,
87420,
70,
79197,
2182,
182688,
14313,
14,
157695,
5,
17006,
111,
70,
189275,
12069,
114149,
74918,
23,
14237,
4,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1267598 | en-train-1267598 | 1267598 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Description.",
"Taxonomy.",
"Species.",
"Uses.",
"Gardening.",
"Food.",
"Traditional medicine."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"\"Polygonatum\" comes from the ancient Greek for \"many knees\", referring to the multiple jointed rhizome. One explanation for the derivation of the common name \"Solomon's seal\" is that the roots bear depressions which resemble royal seals. Another is that the cut roots resemble Hebrew characters.",
"The fruits are red or black berries.",
"",
", the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepts 74 species and hybrids:",
"",
"Several species are valued as ornamental plants, including:",
"Many species have long been used as food in China. Leaves, stems, and rhizomes are used raw or cooked and served as a side dish with meat and rice. The rhizomes of two local species are eaten with chicken's or pig's feet during festivals. The rhizomes are used to make tea or soaked in wine or liquor to flavor the beverages. They are also fried with sugar and honey to make sweet snacks. The starchy rhizomes can be dried, ground, and added to flour to supplement food staples. The rhizome of \"P. sibiricum\" is pulped, boiled, strained, and thickened with barley flour to make a sweet liquid seasoning agent called \"tangxi\". At times, people in China have relied on \"P. megaphyllum\" as a famine food. The shoots of some \"Polygonatum\" can be boiled and used like asparagus. \"P. cirrifolium\" and \"P. verticillatum\" are used as leafy vegetables in India. The American species \"P. biflorum\" has a starchy root that was eaten like the potato and used as flour for bread. \"P. sibirica\" is used for a tea called \"dungulle\" in Korea.",
"The traditional use of \"Polygonatum\" in the treatment of diabetes was first observed in 1930 by Hedwig Langecker. After experiments, she concluded that it was effective in fighting nutritional hyperglycemia, though not that caused by adrenaline release, probably due to its glucokinin content. \"P. verticillatum\" is used in Ayurveda as an aphrodisiac. It is also used to treat pain, fever, inflammation, allergy, and weakness. An herbal remedy called \"rhizoma polygonati\" is a mix of \"Polygonatum\" species used in traditional Chinese medicine. It is supposed to strengthen various organs and enhance the \"qi\". Polygonatum is believed to be restorative to mental vitality, especially when the mind has been overworked, overstressed, or is in a state of exhaustion."
]
} |
Occupational safety and health | null | Occupational safety and health (OSH), also commonly referred to as health and safety, occupational health and safety (OHS), occupational health, or occupational safety, is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people at work. These terms also refer to the goals of this field, so their use in the sense of this article was originally an abbreviation of "occupational safety and health program/department" etc. | null | [
250004,
250054,
1301,
61924,
71,
390,
70,
6661,
19102,
173101,
15,
207612,
16,
44,
167618,
289,
16227,
8,
16765,
678,
756,
128746,
111,
16227,
136,
81900,
23,
70,
4488,
23935,
136,
1556,
10,
37515,
32153,
98,
158978,
479,
57241,
111,
141033,
7,
1242,
19102,
1556,
2809,
61924,
71,
237,
44,
11,
11341,
111,
28484,
72761,
4,
13893,
136,
2265,
5299,
9,
372,
214,
136,
959,
2563,
538,
70,
6,
112199,
111,
70997,
707,
209066,
939,
1242,
180,
143414,
11,
43315,
16227,
83,
10,
235561,
1294,
44457,
111,
16227,
8804,
142837,
678,
22,
11,
79298,
142,
11651,
47,
1379,
78219,
2363,
6,
167618,
4,
23,
70,
3917,
450,
113660,
19713,
182,
39,
47,
2363,
16227,
5,
1650,
69822,
7,
4,
100,
27781,
4,
678,
70,
82641,
111,
16227,
136,
81900,
99,
4488,
4,
3129,
83,
142837,
678,
56282,
214,
182,
39,
1295,
2499,
45559,
289,
141033,
7,
4,
187,
72219,
23,
70,
4488,
23935,
5,
66016,
27631,
4,
70,
8357,
239,
38648,
173101,
15,
107078,
16,
136,
70,
6661,
19102,
173101,
15,
207612,
16,
765,
99764,
10,
39210,
80934,
111,
45519,
43315,
581,
25188,
136,
15913,
1363,
111,
45519,
43315,
81900,
136,
16227,
621,
10,
35845,
538,
17309,
6,
88322,
13450,
6431,
5,
1301,
18940,
112664,
7,
10,
75287,
23,
57553,
47,
4488,
56,
50509,
7,
23,
70,
9908,
111,
70,
25297,
98834,
4,
4488,
56,
25,
7,
16227,
30957,
297,
177229,
237,
10,
18940,
9,
174822,
31089,
5,
360,
70,
14098,
117604,
4,
70,
144562,
25515,
7,
111,
70,
39395,
300,
26534,
33,
927,
142642,
15,
161063,
8719,
304,
98,
19364,
7,
16,
10,
75287,
1810,
111,
50509,
7,
1672,
70,
70425,
16227,
111,
20020,
20697,
23,
235489,
48137,
7,
12,
70,
25515,
111,
543,
9185,
75935,
10,
171332,
23182,
144562,
360,
16711,
29619,
67,
5,
581,
61475,
134346,
111,
70,
360,
16711,
29619,
67,
509,
47,
35206,
185190,
7,
98,
70,
20697,
21974,
23,
70,
67773,
13,
53099,
111,
20020,
136,
27150,
3445,
7,
15,
143669,
106357,
71,
47,
56282,
184843,
645,
18244,
4,
207487,
237,
105207,
105237,
47,
99825,
9,
94005,
136,
8,
5037,
2320,
4,
136,
116361,
538,
47,
10,
106073,
4488,
87344,
5941,
25313,
136,
3789,
72382,
4,
10,
38134,
10298,
53,
111,
4488,
23935,
141033,
7,
15,
289,
991,
51529,
237,
51,
115840,
20697,
27289,
16,
2843,
13379,
10512,
7,
47,
70,
16227,
136,
81900,
111,
3395,
99,
4488,
5,
32255,
26698,
1284,
621,
959,
84046,
47,
4,
44,
34610,
21533,
7,
4,
333,
109622,
97957,
4,
72761,
120103,
4,
64406,
13,
96811,
238,
27289,
4,
10308,
20583,
4,
10,
27140,
33120,
111,
81900,
10512,
7,
4,
58,
136,
10,
134744,
37457,
111,
69982,
57801,
10512,
120103,
5,
17915,
59959,
5844,
98154,
831,
4358,
59959,
26548,
5941,
111,
6097,
141033,
7,
5,
165712,
289,
141033,
7,
52490,
5941,
3395,
23,
70,
4488,
23935,
5,
180,
143414,
11,
43315,
129271,
86669,
83,
70,
2684,
39210,
4488,
9,
174822,
182260,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
4,
678,
1039,
19879,
133325,
172554,
71,
47,
141033,
10821,
110,
3075,
90926,
99,
4488,
136,
142,
25902,
3674,
78790,
13023,
19879,
66933,
77253,
538,
98,
4488,
56,
25,
7,
56381,
1363,
100,
129271,
86669,
2837,
41159,
5,
69944,
621,
2843,
10,
39210,
22304,
111,
45519,
43315,
232796,
136,
85235,
31075,
4,
41866,
23,
50961,
4,
4173,
10763,
4,
6181,
2320,
4,
16227,
8804,
4,
136,
33976,
174033,
136,
121097,
5,
68311,
7,
765,
98567,
63920,
4,
189173,
121303,
7,
4,
8010,
71579,
7,
136,
3789,
141033,
7,
678,
70,
38516,
47,
134616,
4,
96865,
4,
59226,
4,
2412,
147,
4,
66604,
707,
120262,
153350,
707,
4323,
7030,
133325,
2174,
11814,
51,
115840,
538,
5,
1843,
109622,
141033,
7,
15,
8730,
51704,
99397,
16,
26698,
75622,
14,
10821,
11948,
43425,
8780,
7,
6044,
237,
14994,
90,
209052,
45519,
43315,
81900,
136,
16227,
10512,
120103,
285,
53,
8,
96819,
98,
70,
29458,
8916,
136,
53099,
5,
195769,
133325,
13648,
186,
106480,
99,
10512,
111,
123867,
4,
100,
110527,
4,
7440,
162,
67155,
56,
1055,
13648,
186,
106480,
99,
10512,
111,
6,
92831,
592,
5,
581,
14098,
46684,
86907,
111,
54593,
126124,
28021,
6,
42485,
90,
70,
67155,
214,
4,
85683,
1363,
4,
51494,
1297,
4,
12924,
174796,
4,
6,
177849,
4,
324,
592,
136,
6181,
2320,
95845,
7,
237,
54940,
3060,
111,
70,
1286,
169907,
100,
133325,
5,
209683,
538,
69982,
57801,
10512,
7,
6044,
237,
4488,
23935,
95319,
621,
1286,
97160,
309,
37534,
100,
24233,
45519,
43315,
94407,
6044,
237,
16227,
517,
93215,
4,
35206,
4,
26785,
110117,
93324,
7,
136,
148729,
5,
195769,
83,
1632,
111,
70,
2684,
169907,
6,
167618,
7,
23,
70,
8999,
4,
73106,
2852,
1286,
45519,
43315,
85235,
31075,
3501,
2499,
3789,
8916,
23,
15044,
70,
14098,
46684,
136,
23,
70,
28811,
32528,
5,
360,
37771,
70,
85235,
45519,
43315,
182260,
34515,
54940,
50961,
133325,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
509,
110518,
17262,
20028,
450,
100,
756,
133325,
5,
69944,
621,
1632,
111,
70,
2684,
39210,
113660,
111,
85235,
136,
351,
9,
1021,
1803,
232796,
54940,
50961,
133325,
5,
1250,
1264,
81900,
98154,
6044,
237,
182,
7432,
90,
136,
56050,
68823,
7,
136,
50491,
7,
6044,
237,
134149,
449,
21,
70764,
7,
136,
134071,
214,
9023,
2407,
42822,
214,
831,
84700,
379,
70,
10512,
111,
45519,
43315,
232796,
23,
70,
50961,
53099,
5,
786,
13,
47,
70,
15824,
450,
27998,
7,
1543,
765,
6392,
6639,
223,
212678,
100,
93215,
237,
5299,
237,
53702,
7,
4,
442,
83,
111,
486,
840,
18,
131011,
47,
63284,
16227,
136,
40612,
88528,
133325,
621,
27983,
99,
10512,
111,
4488,
9,
174822,
232796,
4,
32386,
70997,
4,
110,
3075,
9,
18442,
37534,
129271,
86669,
4,
21722,
70997,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
24233,
27968,
7,
62548,
47,
165045,
4527,
707,
85673,
297,
4262,
197826,
5,
2161,
25297,
29367,
40617,
7,
4,
232796,
195409,
83687,
70,
4527,
111,
120767,
141,
36279,
1294,
5,
581,
2684,
39210,
22304,
111,
85235,
120767,
141,
232796,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
83,
1152,
18770,
21972,
5465,
7,
4,
3129,
831,
186,
56282,
297,
390,
70,
4527,
111,
21972,
645,
48431,
45646,
7,
3129,
17475,
70,
10512,
111,
182260,
23,
7225,
10,
1152,
18770,
21972,
7,
645,
5,
1460,
129539,
988,
136,
3789,
165045,
7,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
180,
143414,
11,
43315,
81900,
136,
16227,
15,
7285,
841,
247,
2843,
39210,
538,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
16227,
136,
81900,
4,
45519,
43315,
16227,
136,
81900,
15,
56585,
294,
247,
45519,
43315,
16227,
4,
707,
45519,
43315,
81900,
4,
83,
10,
235561,
1294,
44457,
142837,
678,
70,
81900,
4,
16227,
4,
136,
2950,
44937,
111,
3395,
99,
4488,
5,
32255,
69407,
2843,
15005,
47,
70,
109458,
111,
903,
44457,
4,
221,
2363,
4527,
23,
70,
10422,
111,
903,
5582,
509,
7311,
538,
142,
1563,
105160,
14,
2320,
111,
44,
167618,
289,
81900,
136,
16227,
1528,
64,
112,
17365,
674,
58,
3021,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1351572 | en-train-1351572 | 1351572 | {
"title": [
"Definition.",
"History.",
"Workplace hazards.",
"By industry.",
"Construction.",
"Agriculture.",
"Service sector.",
"Mining and oil and gas extraction.",
"Healthcare and social assistance.",
"Workplace fatality and injury statistics.",
"United States.",
"European Union.",
"Russian Federation.",
"Management systems.",
"National.",
"International.",
"National legislation and public organizations.",
"Australia.",
"Canada.",
"European Union.",
"Denmark.",
"Ireland.",
"Spain.",
"Sweden.",
"India.",
"Indonesia.",
"Malaysia.",
"People's Republic of China.",
"Singapore.",
"South Africa.",
"Taiwan.",
"United Arab Emirates.",
"United Kingdom.",
"United States.",
"Professional roles and responsibilities.",
"Europe.",
"US.",
"Differences between countries and regions.",
"Identifying safety and health hazards.",
"Hazards, risks, outcomes.",
"Hazard identification.",
"Risk assessment.",
"Contemporary developments.",
"Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality and Artificial Intelligence.",
"Nanotechnology.",
"Coronavirus.",
"Occupational Health Disparities.",
"Education.",
"World Day for Safety and Health at Work."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) \"occupational health deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention of hazards.\" Health has been defined as \"a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.\" Occupational health is a multidisciplinary field of healthcare concerned with enabling an individual to undertake their occupation, in the way that causes least harm to their health. It contrasts, for example, with the promotion of health and safety at work, which is concerned with preventing harm from any incidental hazards, arising in the workplace. Since 1950, the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have shared a common definition of occupational",
"The research and regulation of occupational safety and health are a relatively recent phenomenon. As labor movements arose in response to worker concerns in the wake of the industrial revolution, worker's health entered consideration as a labor-related issue. In the United Kingdom, the Factory Acts of the early nineteenth century (from 1802 onwards) arose out of concerns about the poor health of children working in cotton mills: the Act of 1833 created a dedicated professional Factory Inspectorate. The initial remit of the Inspectorate was to police restrictions on the working hours in the textile industry of children and young persons (introduced to prevent chronic overwork, identified as leading directly to ill-health and deformation, and indirectly to a",
"Although work provides many economic and other benefits, a wide array of workplace hazards (also known as unsafe working conditions) also present risks to the health and safety of people at work. These include but are not limited to, \"chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse ergonomic conditions, allergens, a complex network of safety risks,\" and a broad range of psychosocial risk factors. Personal protective equipment can help protect against many of these hazards. Physical hazards affect many people in the workplace. Occupational hearing loss is the most common work-related injury in the United States, with 22 million workers exposed to hazardous noise levels at work and an estimated $242 million spent annually on worker's compensation for hearing loss disability. Falls are also a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and maintenance. Machines have moving parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards with the potential to crush, burn, cut, shear, stab or otherwise strike or wound workers if used unsafely. Biological hazards (biohazards) include infectious microorganisms such as viruses",
"Specific occupational safety and health risk factors vary depending on the specific sector and industry. Construction workers might be particularly at risk of falls, for instance, whereas fishermen might be particularly at risk of drowning. The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics identifies the fishing, aviation, lumber, metalworking, agriculture, mining and transportation industries as among some of the more dangerous for workers. Similarly psychosocial risks such as workplace violence are more pronounced for certain occupational groups such as health care employees, police, correctional officers and teachers.",
"Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European Union. In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among construction workers in the United States was nearly three times that for all workers. Falls are one of the most common causes of fatal and non-fatal injuries among construction workers. Proper safety equipment such as harnesses and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry. Due to the fact that accidents may have disastrous consequences for employees as well as organizations, it is of utmost importance to ensure health and",
"Agriculture workers are often at risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin disease, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use or prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms, injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery. The most common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in the United States is tractor rollovers, which can be prevented by the use of roll over protection structures which limit the risk of injury in case a tractor rolls over. Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed",
"As the number of service sector jobs has risen in developed countries, more and more jobs have become sedentary, presenting a different array of health problems than those associated with manufacturing and the primary sector. Contemporary problems such as the growing rate of obesity and issues relating to occupational stress, workplace bullying, and overwork in many countries have further complicated the interaction between work and health. According to",
"The mining industry still has one of the highest rates of fatalities of any industry. There are a range of hazards present in surface and underground mining operations. In surface mining, leading hazards include such issues as geological stability, contact with plant and equipment, blasting, thermal environments (heat and cold), respiratory health (Black Lung) In underground mining operations hazards include respiratory health, explosions and gas (particularly in coal mine operations), geological instability, electrical equipment, contact with plant and equipment, heat stress, inrush of bodies of water, falls",
"Healthcare workers are exposed to many hazards that can adversely affect their health and well-being. Long hours, changing shifts, physically demanding tasks, violence, and exposures to infectious diseases and harmful chemicals are examples of hazards that put these workers at risk",
"",
"The Occupational Safety and Health Statistics (OSHS) program in the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor compiles information about workplace fatalities and non-fatal injuries in the United States. The OSHS program produces three annual reports: In 1970, an estimated 14,000 workers were killed on the job – by 2010, the workforce had doubled, but workplace deaths were down to about 4,500. Between 1913 and 2013, workplace fatalities dropped by approximately 80%. The Bureau also compiles information about the most dangerous jobs. According to the census of occupational",
"In most countries males comprise the vast majority of workplace fatalities. In the EU as a whole, 94% of death were of males. In the UK the disparity was even greater",
"One of the decisions taken by Communists during the reign of Stalin was the reduction in the number of accidents and occupational diseases to zero. The tendency to decline remained in the RF in the early 21st century, and the same methods of falsification are used, so that the real occupational morbidity and the number of accidents are unknown. After the destruction of the USSR, the enterprises became owned by new owners who were not interested in preserving the life and health of workers. They did not spend money on equipment modernization, and the share of harmful workplaces increased. The state did not interfere in this, and sometimes it helped employers. At first, the process of growth was slow - due to the fact that in the 1990s this was compensated by mass de-industrialization (factories with foundries and other harmful types of production were closed). In the 2000s, this method of restraining the growth of the share of harmful workplaces was exhausted. Therefore, in the 2010s the Ministry of Labor adopted",
"",
"National management system standards for occupational health and safety include AS/NZS 4801-2001 for Australia and New Zealand, CAN/CSA-Z1000-14 for Canada and ANSI/ASSE Z10-2012 for the United States. Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR) in France also developed occupational safety and",
"ISO 45001 was published in March 2018. Previously, the International Labour Organization (ILO) published ILO-OSH 2001, also titled \"Guidelines on occupational safety and health management systems\" to assist organizations with introducing OSH management systems. These guidelines encourage continual improvement in employee health and safety, achieved via a constant process of policy, organization, planning & implementation, evaluation, and",
"Occupational safety and health practice vary among nations with different approaches to legislation, regulation, enforcement, and incentives for compliance. In the EU, for example, some member states promote OSH by providing public monies as subsidies, grants or financing, while others have created tax system incentives for OSH investments. A third group of EU member states has experimented with using workplace accident insurance premium discounts for companies or organisations with strong OSH records.",
"In Australia, the Commonwealth, four of the six states and both territories have enacted and administer harmonised Work Health and Safety Legislation in accordance with the \"Intergovernmental Agreement for Regulatory and Operational Reform in Occupational Health and Safety\". Each of these jurisdictions has enacted Work Health & Safety legislation and regulations based on the",
"In Canada, workers are covered by provincial or federal labour codes depending on the sector in which they work. Workers covered by federal legislation (including those in mining, transportation, and federal employment) are covered by the Canada Labour Code; all other workers are covered by the health and safety legislation of the province in",
"In the European Union, member states have enforcing authorities to ensure that the basic legal requirements relating to occupational health and safety are met. In many EU countries, there is strong cooperation between employer and worker organisations (e.g. unions) to ensure good OSH performance as it is recognized this has benefits for both the worker (through maintenance of health) and the enterprise (through improved productivity and quality). In 1996, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work was founded. Member states of the European Union have all transposed",
"In Denmark, occupational safety and health is regulated by the Danish Act on Working Environment and cooperation at the workplace. The Danish Working Environment Authority (\"Arbejdstilsynet\") carries out inspections of companies, draws up more detailed rules on health",
"The main health and safety law in Ireland is the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work",
"In Spain, occupational safety and health is regulated by the Spanish Act on Prevention of Labour Risks. The Ministry of",
"In Sweden, occupational safety and health is regulated by the Work Environment Act. The Swedish Work Environment Authority is the government agency responsible for issues relating to the working environment. The agency should work to disseminate information and furnish advice on OSH, has a mandate to carry out inspections, and a right to issue stipulations and injunctions to any non-compliant employer.",
"In India, the Labour Ministry formulates national policies on occupational safety and health in factories and docks with advice and assistance from Directorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI), and enforces its Policies through inspectorates of factories",
"In Indonesia, the Ministry of Manpower is responsible to ensure the safety, health and welfare of workers while working, in a factory, or even the area surrounding the factory where labourers work. There are a few",
"In Malaysia, the Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) under the Ministry of Human Resource is responsible to ensure that the safety, health and welfare of workers in both the public and private",
"In the People's Republic of China, the Ministry of Health is responsible for occupational disease prevention and the State Administration of Work Safety for safety issues at work. On the provincial and municipal level, there are Health Supervisions for occupational health",
"In Singapore, the Ministry of Manpower operates various checks and campaigns against unsafe work",
"In South Africa the Department of Employment and Labour is responsible for occupational health and safety inspection and enforcement in commerce and industry apart from mining and energy production, where the Department of Mineral",
"In Taiwan, the of the Ministry of Labor is in charge of occupational safety and health. The matter",
"OSHAD was introduced in February 2010 to regulate",
"Health and safety legislation in the UK is drawn up and enforced by the Health and Safety Executive and local authorities (the local council) under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (HASAWA). HASAWA introduced (section 2) a general duty on an employer to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare at work of all his employees; with the intention of giving a legal framework supporting 'codes of practice' not in themselves having legal force but establishing a strong presumption as to what was reasonably practicable (deviations from them could be justified by appropriate risk assessment). The previous reliance on detailed prescriptive rule-setting was seen as having failed to respond rapidly enough to technological change, leaving new technologies potentially un-regulated or inappropriately regulated. HSE has continued to make some regulations giving absolute duties (where something must be done with no'reasonable practicability' test) but in the UK the regulatory",
"In the United States, President Richard Nixon signed the Occupational Safety and Health Act into law on December 29, 1970. The act created the three agencies which administer OSH, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, and the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission. The act authorized the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to regulate private employers in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and territories. The Act establishing it includes a general",
"The roles and responsibilities of OSH professionals vary regionally, but may include evaluating working environments, developing, endorsing and encouraging measures that might prevent injuries and illnesses, providing OSH information to employers, employees, and the public, providing medical examinations, and assessing the success of worker health programs.",
"In Norway, the main required tasks of an occupational health and safety practitioner include the following: In the Netherlands, the required tasks for health and safety staff are only summarily defined and include the following: ‘The main influence of the Dutch law on the job of the safety professional is through the requirement on each employer",
"The main tasks undertaken by the OHS practitioner in the US include: Knowledge required by",
"Because different countries take different approaches to ensuring occupational safety and health, areas of OSH need and focus also vary between countries and regions. Similar to the findings of the ENHSPO survey conducted in Australia, the Institute of Occupational Medicine in the UK found that there is a need to put greater emphasis on",
"",
"The terminology used in OSH varies between countries, but generally speaking: “Hazard”, “risk”, and “outcome” are used in other fields to describe e.g. environmental damage, or damage to equipment. However, in the context of OSH, “harm” generally describes the direct or indirect degradation, temporary or permanent,",
"Hazard identification or assessment is an important step in the overall risk assessment and risk management process. It is where individual work hazards are identified, assessed and controlled/eliminated as close to source (location of the hazard) as reasonably as possible. As technology, resources, social expectation or regulatory requirements change, hazard analysis focuses controls more closely toward the source of the hazard. Thus hazard control is a dynamic program of prevention. Hazard based programs also have the advantage of not assigning or implying there are \"acceptable risks\" in the workplace. A hazard-based program may not be able to eliminate all risks, but neither does it accept \"satisfactory\" – but still risky – outcomes. And as those who calculate and manage",
"Modern occupational safety and health legislation usually demands that a risk assessment be carried out prior to making an intervention. It should be kept in mind that risk management requires risk to be managed to a level which is as low as is reasonably practical. This assessment should: The calculation of risk is based on the likelihood or probability of the harm being realized and the severity of the consequences. This can",
"On an international scale, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) have begun focusing on labour environments in developing nations with projects such as Healthy Cities. Many of these developing countries are stuck in a situation in which their relative lack of resources to invest in OSH leads to increased costs due to work-related illnesses and accidents. The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work states indicates that nations having less developed OSH systems spend a higher fraction of their gross national product on job-related injuries and illness – taking resources away from more productive activities. The ILO estimates that work-related illness and accidents cost up to 10% of GDP in Latin America, compared with just 2.6% to 3.8% in the EU.\" There is continued use of asbestos, a notorious hazard, in some developing countries. So asbestos-related disease is, sadly, expected to continue to be a significant problem well into the future.",
"The impact of technologies on health and safety is an emerging field of research and practice. The opportunities for improving health and safety through use of augmented reality (AR) are now endless. There are emerging technologies for which the range of",
"Nanotechnology is an example of a new, relatively unstudied technology. A Swiss survey of one hundred thirty eight companies using or producing nanoparticulate matter in 2006 resulted in forty completed questionnaires. Sixty five per cent of respondent companies stated they did not have a formal risk assessment process for dealing with nanoparticulate matter. Nanotechnology already presents new issues for OSH professionals that will only become more difficult as",
"Many countries' health and safety at work",
"Occupational health disparities refer to differences in occupational injuries",
"There are multiple levels of training applicable to the field of occupational safety and health (OSH). Programs range from individual non-credit certificates, focusing on specific areas of concern, to full doctoral programs. The University of Southern California was one of the first schools in the US to offer a Ph.D. program focusing on the field. Further, multiple master's degree programs exist, such as that of the Indiana State University who offer a master of science (MS) and a master of arts (MA) in OSH. Graduate programs are designed to train educators, as well as, high-level practitioners. Many OSH generalists focus on undergraduate studies; programs within schools, such as that of the University of North Carolina's online Bachelor of Science in Environmental Health and Safety, fill a large majority of hygienist needs. However, smaller companies often do not have full-time safety specialists on staff, thus, they appoint a current employee to the responsibility. Individuals finding themselves in positions such as these, or for those enhancing marketability in the job-search and promotion arena, may seek out a credit certificate program. For example, the University of Connecticut's online",
"On April 28 The International Labour Organization celebrates \"World Day for Safety and Health\" to raise awareness of safety in the workplace. Occurring annually since 2003, each year it focuses on a specific area and bases a campaign around the theme."
]
} |
Josiah Willard Gibbs | null | Josiah Willard Gibbs (February 11, 1839 – April 28, 1903) was an American scientist who made significant theoretical contributions to physics, chemistry, and mathematics. His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous inductive science. Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, he created statistical mechanics (a term that he coined), explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of ensembles of the possible states of a physical system composed of many particles. Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell's equations to problems in physical optics. As a mathematician, he invented modern vector calculus (independently of the British scientist Oliver Heaviside, who carried out similar work during the same period). | null | [
250004,
250054,
92260,
16145,
509,
103122,
23,
2356,
31901,
19,
4,
62448,
14,
19774,
5,
1529,
186,
10617,
297,
47,
142,
10332,
25970,
50453,
14449,
450,
1902,
181653,
157167,
67175,
15672,
501,
603,
94589,
33,
136,
108858,
7,
16792,
70,
729,
927,
142642,
5,
1529,
509,
70,
22759,
927,
111,
43606,
20020,
136,
70,
4734,
775,
111,
9265,
31655,
20255,
5861,
92260,
16145,
34843,
5,
4,
136,
1919,
58386,
23213,
7714,
4,
44,
40062,
58,
3000,
82366,
272,
5,
2161,
1919,
67373,
25,
7,
5609,
4,
764,
509,
60887,
297,
1295,
59176,
20255,
5861,
4,
2750,
149976,
237,
1030,
1916,
34202,
111,
107154,
29693,
1295,
729,
6746,
47,
729,
15620,
2161,
1919,
42732,
25,
7,
5609,
4,
1632,
111,
1919,
6,
60502,
22230,
509,
70,
80893,
5,
86452,
67468,
73,
1681,
4,
70,
20255,
5861,
92260,
16145,
509,
155629,
297,
99,
70,
230839,
19188,
136,
30957,
297,
2369,
133,
29693,
23,
543,
12338,
99,
70,
32070,
111,
6281,
1913,
2369,
133,
4,
92260,
16145,
75204,
494,
13105,
100,
6,
193591,
23,
291,
140363,
41637,
136,
42845,
4,
136,
764,
150180,
71,
23,
543,
10057,
4,
43573,
70,
2663,
111,
1919,
18507,
5,
1529,
47143,
297,
99,
2369,
133,
237,
10,
150180,
9836,
99,
70,
4687,
420,
28394,
210017,
19188,
5,
1913,
32070,
17846,
33662,
7103,
1919,
25975,
2320,
1295,
40466,
4,
92260,
16145,
509,
135989,
3674,
3934,
70,
62448,
14,
19774,
62903,
111,
64624,
136,
28745,
7,
4,
10,
191225,
538,
38016,
150350,
71,
102917,
538,
111,
43032,
111,
70,
2369,
133,
7808,
202,
939,
5,
231839,
21286,
10846,
60525,
1295,
70,
14922,
188545,
136,
442,
83,
34844,
47,
44188,
36716,
70,
41653,
111,
92260,
16145,
25,
7,
39395,
80997,
678,
22619,
1830,
5,
360,
70,
33153,
111,
3530,
41382,
1314,
4,
92260,
16145,
25,
7,
7893,
52114,
136,
102995,
4,
15044,
99,
2369,
133,
136,
23,
70,
62448,
14,
19774,
62903,
4,
509,
31895,
70,
124931,
56,
136,
48909,
13,
47148,
3378,
219892,
893,
1681,
145076,
4,
10,
24372,
25975,
2320,
4,
92260,
16145,
509,
6,
140545,
297,
237,
121314,
99,
70,
40466,
100,
10,
13579,
111,
17262,
5369,
5,
133698,
70,
5117,
6626,
5369,
4,
764,
189924,
42845,
136,
20271,
70,
50960,
6602,
4,
764,
189924,
44,
84832,
6,
119598,
53,
58,
15,
14,
5,
13,
5,
4,
6,
34053,
27744,
7,
194,
360,
176284,
4,
764,
33407,
297,
10,
4331,
100,
10,
6,
68823,
7514,
30316,
13,
136,
12301,
10,
15122,
8108,
70,
62448,
14,
19774,
62903,
4,
233234,
44,
3957,
1250,
1264,
5695,
6773,
9233,
111,
70,
46640,
7,
111,
77554,
927,
830,
23,
3129,
764,
26171,
71,
10,
150370,
100,
168487,
84382,
70,
5426,
111,
25072,
7,
111,
72350,
674,
11814,
23,
135969,
7,
5,
24372,
1919,
13579,
237,
121314,
134620,
4,
92260,
16145,
26983,
297,
47,
14713,
678,
1919,
114015,
7,
5,
10660,
66933,
70,
41710,
111,
176284,
1104,
18197,
23,
7270,
4,
7440,
92260,
16145,
29966,
297,
59619,
7,
99,
70,
13965,
145743,
136,
70,
88842,
111451,
8,
9942,
4,
34475,
390,
6044,
157167,
67175,
291,
140363,
70760,
172647,
7,
237,
33876,
1261,
796,
10745,
136,
44767,
4841,
7,
1577,
5,
171855,
1379,
1865,
33,
10,
1992,
14,
54700,
63647,
111,
35187,
4,
92260,
16145,
156892,
10,
85583,
91097,
136,
92260,
16145,
91376,
1919,
5117,
4488,
23,
172457,
5,
18763,
15122,
7,
98,
70,
84183,
238,
18811,
1363,
111,
182342,
242554,
102134,
2449,
118775,
23,
70,
44,
62624,
44713,
7,
111,
70,
62448,
14,
19774,
62903,
740,
32255,
15122,
7,
65508,
71,
70,
4527,
111,
12921,
10644,
93402,
117233,
7,
4,
3129,
3542,
1919,
40304,
36442,
7,
47,
70,
209521,
9433,
3229,
20594,
25188,
4,
43257,
3501,
70,
135969,
289,
115774,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
64333,
450,
9920,
19256,
11814,
23,
64549,
214,
1919,
77556,
155116,
1771,
154453,
4,
3129,
13648,
959,
64557,
33636,
2363,
42518,
214,
11521,
21004,
12470,
5,
106073,
70,
68828,
1902,
10846,
120709,
87709,
111,
100094,
92260,
16145,
25,
7,
4488,
4,
764,
99764,
456,
35662,
7,
678,
82122,
16037,
23,
14713,
136,
75204,
142,
22,
927,
86840,
9523,
57553,
1295,
14631,
82366,
7190,
9920,
19256,
99,
105109,
5,
9920,
19256,
3853,
7228,
4,
678,
1919,
10002,
44540,
4,
10,
26580,
53,
3299,
58755,
1916,
92260,
16145,
25,
7,
64549,
5,
1529,
7068,
181653,
6626,
14015,
56,
37702,
7,
111,
1919,
3299,
136,
6648,
297,
1632,
47,
92260,
16145,
5,
9925,
37702,
83,
98,
44116,
99,
70,
2369,
133,
6,
34053,
27744,
7,
130625,
5,
9920,
19256,
99201,
10,
139539,
98,
92260,
16145,
25,
7,
4488,
23,
70,
11737,
79737,
111,
1919,
44,
3957,
30675,
111,
1529,
257,
830,
91376,
23,
168707,
5,
1529,
189050,
70,
80234,
7432,
111,
92260,
16145,
25,
7,
6,
48461,
289,
150624,
23,
10,
59619,
47,
70,
83230,
6827,
67081,
111,
9020,
136,
3853,
15005,
2822,
47,
442,
23,
70,
5582,
98,
44,
72838,
25561,
7,
58,
450,
764,
28090,
109969,
47,
166555,
4,
92260,
16145,
79786,
98,
168698,
70,
28947,
144,
429,
2844,
111,
143695,
198386,
5761,
3934,
10,
173,
18770,
44805,
223,
5299,
9,
68879,
297,
47,
70,
27117,
111,
6,
34053,
27744,
64370,
5,
17106,
903,
36746,
23,
7086,
4,
92260,
16145,
157167,
67175,
17721,
70,
20633,
136,
41421,
38742,
111,
6626,
22834,
22230,
136,
65508,
71,
70,
23755,
111,
2160,
712,
28021,
5,
209683,
4488,
509,
175100,
1810,
41371,
538,
4,
136,
99,
10932,
70,
5701,
1733,
4,
390,
70,
56101,
291,
140363,
70760,
6,
34053,
27744,
1419,
136,
185118,
70189,
1529,
14677,
8752,
5,
92260,
16145,
221,
46526,
47,
122991,
3789,
6,
34053,
27744,
64370,
111,
70,
50080,
6620,
111,
70,
22834,
77275,
51515,
645,
70,
2799,
720,
5305,
6402,
44805,
223,
111,
25031,
96190,
66,
94674,
4,
3129,
509,
92260,
16145,
8306,
139505,
4,
38043,
756,
1919,
6897,
23,
1919,
29041,
44462,
5368,
678,
1919,
114015,
60592,
136,
604,
71390,
165490,
191,
3000,
15757,
4,
2750,
509,
70,
2369,
133,
35773,
9893,
5,
218288,
100,
1919,
114122,
6635,
51065,
166021,
7,
23,
70,
62,
936,
55540,
22824,
15,
257,
1345,
1151,
70237,
4,
2356,
5753,
16,
136,
14432,
99,
70,
22392,
71175,
7,
15,
73,
5337,
30539,
4,
2356,
10699,
254,
72567,
247,
1919,
221,
100201,
19,
23,
14713,
23,
176284,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
9265,
31655,
20255,
5861,
92260,
16145,
15,
30154,
11911,
6635,
534,
4,
543,
9323,
46,
7071,
29835,
106355,
16,
509,
142,
15672,
172647,
2750,
7228,
88551,
70,
4524,
70760,
127752,
7,
47,
6,
34053,
27744,
7,
4,
290,
6133,
1294,
4,
136,
291,
140363,
41637,
5,
18763,
4488,
98,
70,
86685,
111,
182342,
242554,
7,
509,
150222,
23,
27198,
214,
72761,
290,
6133,
1294,
3934,
10,
75992,
10821,
135989,
4935,
41664,
5,
717,
429,
9319,
678,
14631,
82366,
7190,
9920,
19256,
136,
122960,
12981,
9136,
5761,
4,
764,
75935,
80835,
289,
135969,
7,
15,
11,
13579,
450,
764,
43780,
297,
247,
73342,
214,
70,
131703,
111,
182342,
242554,
7,
237,
212678,
111,
70,
80835,
289,
183871,
111,
63304,
7,
111,
70,
7722,
117249,
111,
10,
72761,
2
] | null | null | en-train-588334 | en-train-588334 | 588334 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Family background.",
"Education.",
"Career, 1863–73.",
"Career, 1873–80.",
"Career, 1880–1903.",
"Personal life and character.",
"Major scientific contributions.",
"Chemical and electrochemical thermodynamics.",
"Statistical mechanics.",
"Vector analysis.",
"Physical optics.",
"Scientific recognition.",
"Influence.",
"Commemoration.",
"In literature.",
"Gibbs stamp (2005).",
"References.",
"Primary."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"Gibbs was born in New Haven, Connecticut. He belonged to an old Yankee family that had produced distinguished American clergymen and academics since the 17th century. He was the fourth of five children and the only son of Josiah Willard Gibbs Sr., and his wife Mary Anna, \"née\" Van Cleve. On his father's side, he was descended from Samuel Willard, who served as acting President of Harvard College from 1701 to 1707. On his mother's side, one of his ancestors was the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson, the",
"Willard Gibbs was educated at the Hopkins School and entered Yale College in 1854 at the age of 15. At Yale, Gibbs received prizes for excellence in mathematics and Latin, and he graduated in 1858, near the top of his class. He remained at Yale as a graduate student at the Sheffield Scientific School. At age 19, soon after his graduation from college, Gibbs was inducted into the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, a scholarly institution composed primarily of members of the Yale faculty. Relatively few documents from the period survive and it is difficult to reconstruct the details of Gibbs's early career with precision. In the opinion of biographers, Gibbs's principal mentor and champion, both at Yale and in the Connecticut Academy, was probably the astronomer and mathematician Hubert Anson Newton, a",
"After graduation, Gibbs was appointed as tutor at the college for a term of three years. During the first two years, he taught Latin and during the third year, he taught \"natural philosophy\" (i.e., physics). In 1866, he patented a design for a railway brake and read a paper before the Connecticut Academy, entitled \"The Proper Magnitude of the Units of Length\", in which he proposed a scheme for rationalizing the system of units of measurement used in mechanics. After his term as tutor ended, Gibbs traveled to Europe with his sisters. They spent the winter of 1866–67 in Paris, where Gibbs attended lectures at the Sorbonne and the Collège de France, given by such distinguished mathematical scientists as Joseph Liouville and Michel Chasles. Having undertaken a punishing regime of study, Gibbs caught a serious cold and",
"Gibbs published his first work in 1873. His papers on the geometric representation of thermodynamic quantities appeared in the \"Transactions of the Connecticut Academy\". These papers introduced the use of different type phase diagrams, which were his favorite aids to the imagination process when doing research, rather than the mechanical models, such as the ones that Maxwell used in constructing his electromagnetic theory, which might not completely represent their corresponding phenomena. Although the journal had few readers capable of understanding Gibbs's work, he shared reprints with correspondents in Europe and received an enthusiastic response from James Clerk Maxwell at Cambridge. Maxwell even made, with his own hands, a clay model illustrating Gibbs's construct. He then produced two plaster casts of his model and mailed one to Gibbs. That cast is on display at the Yale physics department. Maxwell included a chapter on Gibbs's work in the next edition of his \"Theory of Heat\", published in 1875. He explained the usefulness of Gibbs's graphical methods in a lecture to the Chemical Society of London and even referred to it in the article on \"Diagrams\" that he",
"From 1880 to 1884, Gibbs worked on developing the exterior algebra of Hermann Grassmann into a vector calculus well-suited to the needs of physicists. With this object in mind, Gibbs distinguished between the dot and cross products of two vectors and introduced the concept of dyadics. Similar work was carried out independently, and at around the same time, by the British mathematical physicist and engineer Oliver Heaviside. Gibbs sought to convince other physicists of the convenience of the vectorial approach over the quaternionic calculus of William Rowan Hamilton, which was",
"Gibbs never married, living all his life in his childhood home with his sister Julia and her husband Addison Van Name, who was the Yale librarian. Except for his customary summer vacations in the Adirondacks (at Keene Valley, New York) and later at the White Mountains (in Intervale, New Hampshire), his sojourn in Europe in 1866–69 was almost the only time that Gibbs spent outside New Haven. He joined Yale's College Church (a Congregational church) at the end of his freshman year and remained a regular attendant for the rest of his life. Gibbs generally voted for the Republican candidate in presidential elections but, like other \"Mugwumps\", his concern over the growing corruption associated with machine politics led him to support Grover Cleveland, a conservative Democrat, in the election of 1884. Little else is known of",
"",
"Gibbs's papers from the 1870s introduced the idea of expressing the internal energy \"U\" of a system in terms of the entropy \"S\", in addition to the usual state-variables of volume \"V\", pressure \"p\", and temperature \"T\". He also introduced the concept of the chemical potential formula_1 of a given chemical species, defined to be the rate of the increase in \"U\" associated with the increase in the number \"N\" of molecules of that species (at constant entropy and volume). Thus, it was Gibbs who first combined the first and second laws of thermodynamics by expressing the infinitesimal change in the internal energy, d\"U\", of a closed system in the form: formula_2 where \"T\" is the absolute temperature, \"p\" is the pressure, d\"S\" is an infinitesimal change in entropy and d\"V\" is an infinitesimal change of volume. The last term is the sum, over all the chemical species in a chemical reaction, of the chemical potential, \"μ\", of the \"i\" species,",
"Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, Gibbs founded \"statistical mechanics\", a term that he coined to identify the branch of theoretical physics that accounts for the observed thermodynamic properties of systems in terms of the statistics of ensembles, a collection of many possible states of a system, each assigned a certain probability. He introduced the concept of \"phase of a mechanical system\". He used the concept to define the microcanonical, canonical, and grand canonical ensembles; all related to the Gibbs measure, thus obtaining a more general formulation of the statistical properties of many-particle systems than Maxwell and Boltzmann had achieved before him. According to Henri Poincaré, writing in 1904, even though Maxwell and Boltzmann had previously explained the irreversibility of macroscopic physical",
"British scientists, including Maxwell, had relied on Hamilton's quaternions in order to express the dynamics of physical quantities, like the electric and magnetic fields, having both a magnitude and a direction in three-dimensional space. Following W. K. Clifford in his Elements of Dynamic (1888), Gibbs noted that the product of quaternions could be separated into two parts: a one-dimensional (scalar) quantity and a three-dimensional vector, so that the use of quaternions involved mathematical complications and redundancies that could be avoided in the interest of simplicity and to facilitate teaching. In his Yale classroom notes he defined distinct dot and cross products for pairs of vectors and introduced the now common notation for them. Through the 1901 textbook Vector Analysis prepared by E. B. Wilson from Gibbs notes, he was",
"Though Gibbs's research on physical optics is less well known today than his other work, it made a significant contribution to classical electromagnetism by applying Maxwell's equations to the theory of optical processes such as birefringence, dispersion, and optical activity. In that work, Gibbs showed that those processes could be accounted for by Maxwell's equations without any special assumptions about the microscopic structure of matter or about the nature of",
"Gibbs worked at a time when there was little tradition of rigorous theoretical science in the United States. His research was not easily understandable to his students or his colleagues, and he made no effort to popularize his ideas or to simplify their exposition to make them more accessible. His seminal work on thermodynamics was published mostly in the \"Transactions of the Connecticut Academy\", a journal edited by his librarian brother-in-law, which was little read in the US and even less so in Europe. When Gibbs submitted his long paper on the equilibrium of heterogeneous substances to the academy, both Elias Loomis and H. A. Newton protested that they did not understand Gibbs's work at all, but they helped to raise the money needed to pay for the typesetting of the many mathematical symbols in the paper. Several Yale faculty members, as well as business and professional men in New Haven, contributed funds for that purpose. Even though it had been immediately embraced by Maxwell, Gibbs's graphical formulation of the laws of thermodynamics only came into widespread use in the mid 20th century, with the work of László Tisza and Herbert Callen. According to James Gerald Crowther, On the other hand, Gibbs did receive the major honors then possible",
"Gibbs's most immediate and obvious influence was on physical chemistry and statistical mechanics, two disciplines which he greatly helped to found. During Gibbs's lifetime, his phase rule was experimentally validated by Dutch chemist H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom, who showed how to apply it in a variety of situations, thereby assuring it of widespread use. In industrial chemistry, Gibbs's thermodynamics found many applications during the early 20th century, from electrochemistry to the development of the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia. When Dutch physicist J. D. van der Waals received the 1910 Nobel Prize \"for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids\" he acknowledged the great influence of Gibbs's work on that subject. Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize for his work on quantum mechanics, particularly his 1900 paper on Planck's law for quantized black-body radiation. That work was based largely on the thermodynamics of Kirchhoff, Boltzmann, and Gibbs. Planck declared that Gibbs's name \"not only in America but in the whole world will ever be reckoned among the most renowned theoretical physicists of all times.\" The first half of the 20th century saw the publication of two influential textbooks that soon came to be regarded as founding documents of chemical thermodynamics, both of which used and extended Gibbs's work in that field: these were \"Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Processes\" (1923), by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall, and \"Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs\" (1933), by Edward A. Guggenheim. Gibbs's work on statistical ensembles, as presented in his 1902 textbook, has had a great impact in both theoretical physics and in pure mathematics. According to mathematical physicist Arthur Wightman, Initially unaware of Gibbs's contributions in that field, Albert Einstein wrote three papers on statistical mechanics, published between 1902 and 1904. After reading Gibbs's textbook (which was translated into German by Ernst",
"When the German physical chemist Walther Nernst visited Yale in 1906 to give the Silliman lecture, he was surprised to find no tangible memorial for Gibbs. Nernst donated his $500 lecture fee to the university to help pay for a suitable monument. This was finally unveiled in 1912, in the form of a bronze bas-relief by sculptor Lee Lawrie, installed in the Sloane Physics Laboratory. In 1910, the American Chemical Society established the Willard Gibbs Award for eminent work in pure or applied chemistry. In 1923, the American Mathematical Society endowed the Josiah Willard Gibbs Lectureship, \"to show the public some idea of the aspects of mathematics and its applications\". In 1945, Yale University created the J. Willard Gibbs Professorship in Theoretical Chemistry, held until 1973 by Lars Onsager. Onsager, who much like Gibbs, focused on applying new mathematical ideas to problems in physical chemistry, won the 1968 Nobel Prize in chemistry. In addition to establishing the Josiah Willard Gibbs Laboratories and the J. Willard Gibbs Assistant Professorship in Mathematics, Yale has also hosted two symposia dedicated to Gibbs's life and work, one in 1989 and another on the centenary of his death, in 2003. Rutgers University endowed a J. Willard Gibbs Professorship of Thermomechanics, held as of 2014 by Bernard Coleman. Gibbs was elected in 1950 to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans. The oceanographic research ship USNS \"Josiah Willard Gibbs\" (T-AGOR-1) was in service with the United States Navy from 1958 to 1971. Gibbs crater, near the eastern limb of the Moon, was named in the scientist's honor in 1964. Edward Guggenheim introduced the symbol \"G\" for the Gibbs free energy in 1933, and this was used also by Dirk ter Haar in 1966. This notation is now universal and is recommended by the IUPAC. In 1960, William Giauque and others suggested the name \"gibbs\" (abbreviated gbs.) for the unit of entropy calorie per kelvin, but this usage did not become common, and the corresponding SI unit joule per kelvin carries no special name. In 1954, a year before his death, Albert Einstein was asked by an interviewer who were the greatest thinkers that he had known. Einstein replied: \"Lorentz\", adding \"I never met Willard Gibbs; perhaps, had I done so, I might have placed him beside Lorentz.\"",
"In 1909, the American historian and novelist Henry Adams finished an essay entitled \"The Rule of Phase Applied to History\", in which he sought to apply Gibbs's phase rule and other thermodynamic concepts to a general theory of human history. William James, Henry Bumstead, and others criticized both Adams's tenuous grasp of the scientific concepts that he invoked, as well as the arbitrariness of his application of those concepts as metaphors for the evolution of human thought and society. The essay remained unpublished until it appeared posthumously in 1919, in \"The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma\", edited by Henry Adams's younger brother Brooks. In the 1930s, feminist poet Muriel Rukeyser became fascinated by Willard Gibbs and wrote a long poem about his life and work (\"Gibbs\", included in the collection \"A Turning Wind\", published in 1939), as well as a book-length biography (\"Willard Gibbs\", 1942). According to Rukeyser: In 1946, \"Fortune\" magazine illustrated a cover story on \"Fundamental",
"In 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the \"American Scientists\" commemorative postage stamp series designed by artist Victor Stabin, depicting Gibbs, John von Neumann, Barbara McClintock, and Richard Feynman. The first day of issue ceremony for the series was held on May 4 at Yale University's Luce Hall and was attended by John Marburger, scientific advisor to the president of the United States, Rick Levin, president of Yale, and family",
"",
"Gibbs's other"
]
} |
Eduard Buchner | null | Eduard Buchner (20 May 1860 – 13 August 1917) was a German chemist and zymologist, awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on fermentation. | null | [
250004,
250054,
18363,
1679,
509,
103122,
23,
186806,
47,
10,
219600,
136,
52625,
31501,
43297,
1294,
111,
1326,
33,
27744,
119210,
5,
18763,
114210,
82953,
509,
15745,
108890,
8055,
18363,
1679,
5,
360,
166555,
4,
764,
80723,
96335,
111,
290,
6133,
1294,
678,
101910,
542,
1853,
13,
8889,
136,
111,
337,
43013,
678,
25075,
15254,
83331,
4,
99,
70,
226129,
43975,
23,
186806,
5,
24372,
10,
14922,
20697,
678,
143695,
55598,
136290,
23,
1004,
84768,
4,
18363,
1679,
509,
70318,
297,
10,
22072,
2182,
1295,
70,
12535,
111,
186806,
23,
142399,
1379,
140819,
17065,
26766,
5,
1529,
68,
71,
23,
70,
99381,
111,
276,
60443,
9511,
36714,
136,
83,
373,
46572,
23,
70,
405,
29089,
53,
111,
30839,
79063,
1314,
1295,
147903,
87038,
93,
4,
16554,
5,
581,
28007,
100,
3129,
18363,
1679,
23742,
70,
34676,
2319,
731,
35060,
71,
111,
27024,
214,
10,
38750,
9,
32087,
125663,
111,
2422,
4438,
38750,
7,
136,
141377,
450,
903,
44,
11856,
130090,
58,
5809,
88487,
101087,
5,
3293,
8,
7010,
14373,
15700,
102310,
47,
30306,
8780,
390,
141377,
450,
70,
169424,
111,
38043,
2422,
4438,
38750,
7,
509,
959,
44841,
100,
88487,
2320,
5,
581,
38750,
9,
32087,
125663,
509,
181653,
390,
375,
964,
592,
36898,
2422,
4438,
38750,
7,
4,
70801,
169,
136,
16544,
583,
1234,
4097,
136,
7068,
136106,
84382,
70,
2422,
4438,
38750,
7,
678,
10,
64428,
133,
136,
17904,
147,
5,
3293,
17664,
6644,
2806,
7068,
24209,
13411,
18,
237,
70,
2422,
4438,
38750,
7,
25,
10941,
7,
2806,
1380,
1810,
111,
70,
38750,
7,
5,
76556,
903,
29954,
509,
16940,
4,
70,
13411,
18,
17664,
6644,
2806,
186,
3884,
8305,
10,
24234,
136,
70,
16750,
214,
44,
11856,
130090,
58,
1902,
157935,
184,
4,
94260,
8364,
4,
707,
960,
1952,
13,
49814,
136,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
509,
51592,
47,
216479,
4,
68018,
100,
13312,
5,
37992,
12064,
18695,
145456,
122273,
297,
110,
38043,
2422,
4438,
38750,
7,
23,
70,
125663,
5,
18363,
1679,
170933,
7,
29367,
450,
2422,
4438,
38750,
7,
23410,
13,
21308,
7,
3934,
2363,
65998,
23,
12989,
47,
88487,
101087,
7,
4,
1284,
442,
509,
14432,
14037,
450,
88487,
2320,
74918,
7,
46132,
70,
2422,
4438,
38750,
7,
5,
5379,
16456,
2619,
885,
63043,
297,
47,
765,
134053,
4092,
9,
34680,
88487,
2320,
10,
58093,
110680,
3501,
18363,
1679,
5,
145733,
442,
83,
18822,
71,
390,
3060,
450,
70,
57891,
206,
1679,
56055,
92,
136,
70,
57891,
206,
1679,
7477,
8876,
621,
24,
4806,
100,
4049,
4,
1836,
621,
20653,
24,
4806,
100,
70,
25297,
290,
6133,
108890,
57891,
206,
1679,
5,
18363,
1679,
75204,
70,
34676,
2319,
731,
23,
83230,
38904,
23,
91234,
5,
18363,
1679,
139505,
184099,
216971,
23,
33418,
5,
1913,
70,
1810,
70751,
111,
70,
23972,
6661,
5550,
764,
149849,
297,
136,
49175,
47,
70,
30648,
111,
49953,
75101,
214,
10,
51072,
1363,
9,
72903,
25072,
98,
70,
171827,
136,
7068,
8394,
48850,
12912,
5,
360,
11994,
64104,
764,
176377,
70,
12535,
111,
51438,
14335,
13593,
5,
360,
7071,
38222,
764,
149849,
297,
13438,
5,
2161,
534,
8055,
38222,
4,
12960,
29398,
297,
99,
147903,
87038,
93,
4,
16554,
4,
764,
509,
5962,
390,
10,
6,
128019,
38551,
136,
68,
71,
6626,
13312,
14432,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
148623,
18363,
1679,
28583,
4347,
128136,
46,
702,
8055,
38222,
16,
509,
10,
30839,
290,
6133,
136,
97,
35801,
106622,
4,
70318,
297,
70,
91234,
34676,
2319,
731,
23,
83230,
38904,
100,
1919,
4488,
98,
88487,
2320,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-705786 | en-train-705786 | 705786 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Early years.",
"Research.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"Buchner was born in Munich to a physician and Doctor Extraordinary of Forensic Medicine. His older brother was Hans Ernst August Buchner. In 1884, he began studies of chemistry with Adolf von Baeyer and of botany with Carl Nägeli, at the Botanic Institute in Munich. After a period working with Hermann Emil Fischer in Erlangen, Buchner was awarded a doctorate from the University of Munich in 1888 under Theodor Curtius. He died in the Battle of Mărășești and is buried in the cemetery of German soldiers from Focșani, Romania.",
"The experiment for which Buchner won the Nobel Prize consisted of producing a cell-free extract of yeast cells and showing that this \"press juice\" could ferment sugar. This dealt yet another blow to vitalism by showing that the presence of living yeast cells was not needed for fermentation. The cell-free extract was produced by combining dry yeast cells, quartz and kieselguhr and then pulverizing the yeast cells with a pestle and mortar. This mixture would then become moist as the yeast cells' contents would come out of the cells. Once this step was done, the moist mixture would be put through a press and the resulting \"press juice\" had glucose, fructose, or maltose added and carbon dioxide was seen to evolve, sometimes for days. Microscopic investigation revealed no living yeast cells in the extract. Buchner hypothesized that yeast cells secrete proteins into their environment in order to ferment sugars, but it was later found that fermentation occurs inside the yeast cells. Maria Manasseina claimed to have discovered free-cell fermentation a generation earlier than Buchner. Though it is believed by some that the Büchner flask and the Büchner funnel are named for him, they are actually named for the industrial chemist Ernst Büchner. Buchner received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1907.",
"Buchner married Lotte Stahl in 1900. At the outbreak of the First World War he volunteered and rose to the rank of Major commanding a munition-transport unit on the western and then eastern front. In March 1916 he returned the University of Wurzburg. In April 1917 he volunteered again. On 11 August 1917, while stationed at Focșani, Romania, he was hit by a shell fragment and died two days later."
]
} |
Kitay-gorod | null | Kitay-gorod (), also referred to as the Great Possad () in the 16th–17th centuries, is a cultural and historical area within the central part of Moscow in Russia, defined by the remnants of now almost entirely razed fortifications, narrow streets and very densely built cityscape. It is separated from the Moscow Kremlin by Red Square. Kitay-gorod does not constitute a district ("raion"), as there are no resident voters, thus, municipal elections are not possible. Rather, the territory has been part of Tverskoy District, and the Central Administrative Okrug authorities have managed the area directly since 2003. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
59665,
7,
111,
70,
9351,
44,
69956,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
58,
621,
51,
119488,
5,
44,
17903,
5914,
58,
83,
70,
102374,
2565,
100,
44,
60089,
830,
16406,
4126,
1295,
70,
142,
45964,
44,
6504,
71,
740,
44,
69956,
58,
15,
2424,
5,
44,
301,
939,
18939,
83,
10,
208806,
228908,
13,
2565,
100,
44,
7290,
217,
58,
707,
44,
66,
35735,
7228,
390,
1620,
86675,
740,
62,
729,
927,
9,
16797,
44616,
102374,
31344,
117249,
44,
58,
3159,
97815,
2297,
18760,
23033,
227,
8679,
546,
16552,
1584,
58,
58,
24073,
58,
1062,
9638,
24468,
151,
2344,
6635,
66993,
200,
939,
58,
74054,
91084,
44,
3957,
3342,
3031,
10484,
1902,
1620,
30185,
10756,
214,
1295,
2363,
3540,
7,
740,
61804,
12452,
23706,
8509,
237,
33657,
7,
23,
1919,
28980,
12877,
44,
1052,
3075,
111,
49002,
58,
70,
13579,
13648,
29459,
10,
166904,
9,
145204,
19,
144419,
13,
11876,
4205,
92,
7228,
1295,
4323,
1353,
6,
44726,
56,
149241,
7,
152382,
678,
109270,
707,
13950,
46,
136,
4911,
7,
44,
69956,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
58,
26950,
44,
63473,
3473,
26349,
740,
44,
69956,
53,
58,
5809,
2843,
186,
16406,
4126,
1295,
142,
10332,
2565,
100,
70,
109412,
33,
145054,
7,
11814,
23,
50961,
111,
70,
128274,
25,
7,
58982,
7,
5,
581,
58982,
7,
3542,
3657,
89829,
1295,
423,
8659,
47,
423,
9323,
390,
142,
89176,
107653,
51529,
1379,
70,
51211,
47314,
9351,
34410,
92,
3658,
53,
136,
7311,
538,
60213,
71,
702,
47,
42844,
136,
37195,
70836,
7,
5,
10660,
3542,
237,
6117,
2594,
237,
1836,
3542,
11192,
4,
70,
83080,
8035,
37195,
11903,
7,
23,
15044,
158208,
5,
581,
4568,
111,
70,
47,
42844,
3542,
8,
82925,
67175,
23,
70,
28730,
7,
4,
1284,
19336,
126826,
7,
111,
70,
58982,
7464,
9157,
5,
6561,
111,
6626,
47143,
214,
63920,
111,
70,
58982,
83,
105866,
23,
65821,
73601,
1033,
136,
70,
3789,
43573,
70,
82230,
1295,
70,
9972,
21620,
299,
12563,
712,
29398,
111,
124338,
36159,
50155,
70,
2352,
117366,
5,
169549,
538,
70,
15333,
111,
124338,
171530,
38627,
100,
10,
4393,
9,
7,
57965,
14359,
30494,
111,
70,
58982,
5,
6406,
51521,
7,
2843,
1774,
47,
20903,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
47,
153532,
83629,
5,
66016,
11857,
70,
58982,
1556,
2809,
1119,
41745,
272,
538,
456,
978,
24908,
4,
136,
10,
3525,
47,
6488,
1556,
2809,
49814,
5,
187040,
70,
47,
6488,
621,
10,
24941,
111,
74812,
136,
1909,
7,
5,
78293,
1295,
6096,
68305,
4,
70,
128274,
83,
132988,
297,
390,
70,
121293,
111,
15881,
68305,
7,
111,
124338,
4,
959,
78458,
146613,
68305,
15,
73,
12912,
111,
12981,
11412,
14,
146613,
247,
70193,
1643,
161,
68305,
15,
73,
12912,
111,
70,
341,
8359,
10336,
167565,
1314,
247,
136,
69125,
1643,
7,
41918,
68305,
5,
100561,
184,
68305,
98,
87,
538,
22241,
15130,
83,
39501,
297,
167969,
28032,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
5,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
4,
168698,
237,
10,
71702,
16128,
4,
509,
51529,
237,
70,
2684,
107374,
223,
8063,
16128,
111,
124338,
5,
1650,
7,
17262,
5201,
48800,
7,
292,
3323,
1961,
161,
4,
87,
538,
22241,
4,
136,
86273,
7,
41918,
292,
621,
13315,
71,
678,
4620,
7,
4,
19927,
7,
4,
136,
4343,
23923,
7,
1884,
70,
105719,
48242,
33652,
45210,
527,
11893,
3129,
17438,
1444,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
98186,
6096,
68305,
5,
6561,
111,
70,
2684,
34923,
106820,
90,
23,
124338,
4,
2907,
5,
171184,
84084,
98,
70,
87,
538,
22241,
23175,
4836,
1104,
122705,
4,
152701,
538,
51529,
237,
70,
32774,
47832,
4,
509,
10,
3551,
10015,
23,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
1284,
509,
163684,
297,
23,
55591,
5,
3293,
103724,
2843,
66139,
70,
84084,
111,
50939,
1510,
136,
220758,
136,
70,
40067,
2481,
84084,
111,
17348,
217,
10926,
4,
3129,
18925,
83,
91280,
6259,
54940,
26349,
33976,
7,
5,
1650,
509,
88303,
23,
70,
611,
1197,
7,
98,
70,
3551,
111,
124338,
1143,
62956,
4,
179468,
53,
17348,
217,
25606,
5,
86273,
7,
41918,
15130,
83,
170277,
100,
8035,
70,
1764,
111,
124338,
25,
7,
5117,
152363,
4,
70,
187414,
238,
160600,
42845,
62903,
4,
18276,
71,
23,
1119,
18211,
825,
5696,
2245,
13409,
1002,
6,
124722,
53,
23175,
4598,
7,
194,
116267,
6,
124722,
53,
7515,
5252,
7263,
4,
70,
5201,
106820,
111,
56273,
68743,
53,
60331,
1515,
53,
23175,
5039,
7,
247,
9157,
7,
23,
70,
86991,
111,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
23,
70,
28,
5416,
35801,
223,
23780,
32135,
334,
1977,
4922,
239,
86,
5,
581,
543,
927,
142642,
188545,
7,
23,
70,
28947,
58982,
7,
111,
70,
120262,
456,
978,
24908,
2016,
1084,
299,
391,
3104,
15,
22769,
525,
6035,
62956,
25,
7,
52341,
16,
390,
31631,
52621,
10022,
1744,
18651,
5,
360,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
4,
6096,
68305,
509,
13315,
71,
390,
10,
16169,
67413,
21533,
54,
4806,
45646,
111,
26655,
56,
64166,
96190,
7,
390,
33876,
2460,
272,
5,
33306,
4,
23,
70,
100439,
7,
442,
509,
64183,
7565,
136,
91995,
71,
678,
70,
3525,
4,
28,
11030,
49086,
26655,
56,
125362,
96190,
7,
15,
1272,
42814,
50548,
77750,
114888,
136,
36061,
13684,
92,
28585,
16,
136,
70,
21373,
102256,
125362,
96190,
7,
15,
1272,
12610,
27572,
194,
581,
10588,
111,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
509,
168,
1428,
53,
152382,
678,
23179,
7,
4,
105816,
23923,
7,
136,
86943,
4,
47,
70,
6275,
7440,
2773,
97761,
106001,
7,
1902,
47,
45367,
48800,
7,
4,
959,
33976,
7,
46,
1884,
70,
4804,
83447,
2810,
4922,
1250,
1033,
14724,
13452,
390,
63053,
4804,
83447,
2810,
136,
42814,
8322,
19,
4922,
5,
22376,
23,
70,
100439,
7,
4,
106001,
7,
51371,
3674,
21334,
3551,
71358,
98,
70,
117,
14,
29089,
111,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
5,
52250,
330,
911,
15477,
515,
83184,
297,
142,
95686,
10821,
211656,
27585,
4,
88303,
10932,
142,
6264,
23664,
4,
3129,
509,
140528,
237,
70,
117366,
2352,
23,
91234,
4,
70,
142105,
39395,
4713,
232437,
33976,
23,
124338,
4,
70541,
214,
4927,
18244,
390,
1208,
11395,
379,
310,
882,
4063,
4,
42814,
24429,
515,
73,
136,
50118,
14,
22456,
4854,
5,
581,
8394,
48850,
33180,
15,
44072,
5822,
68305,
16,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
15,
247,
2843,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
70,
32774,
13498,
17457,
15,
16,
23,
70,
611,
927,
1104,
2489,
927,
202032,
90,
4,
83,
10,
15380,
136,
186768,
16128,
28032,
70,
9879,
2831,
111,
124338,
23,
49002,
4,
61924,
71,
390,
70,
14194,
30125,
7,
111,
5036,
39555,
167969,
1954,
297,
10204,
41274,
7,
4,
653,
118201,
48800,
7,
136,
4552,
168,
1428,
53,
88303,
26349,
98224,
5,
1650,
83,
84797,
71,
1295,
70,
124338,
110956,
73,
390,
6096,
68305,
5,
12992,
53,
9,
519,
5914,
14602,
959,
11764,
67,
10,
103724,
24073,
219,
1830,
74054,
237,
2685,
621,
110,
45606,
18,
169454,
7,
4,
4911,
7,
4,
14834,
81843,
7,
621,
959,
7722,
5,
152201,
56,
4,
70,
181991,
53,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1672091 | en-train-1672091 | 1672091 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Walls.",
"Squares.",
"Architecture.",
"Zaryadye."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The origins of the name \"Kitay-gorod\" are unclear. \"Gorod\" is the Russian word for \"city\", derived from the ancient \"gord\". \"Kita\" (pl. \"kity\") is a somewhat obsolete word for \"plait\" or \"an item made by braiding\". A 17th-century Russian source states \"\"У шапок янычары имели киты\"\" (\"\"U shapok yanychary imeli kity\"\"), meaning \"The Janissaries had braids hanging from their caps\". Author Robert Wallace asserts in his 1967 book \"Rise of Russia\" the term might mean a rough-hewn defensive bulwark made from woven wicker baskets filled with earth or rock – and thus \"Kitay-gorod\" means \"Basket city\". \"Kitay\" could also be derived from an old word for the wooden stakes used in construction of the quarter's walls.",
"The walls were erected from 1536 to 1539 by an Italian architect known under the Russified name Petrok Maly and originally featured 13 towers and six gates. They were as thick as they were high, the average being six meters in both dimensions. The last of the towers were demolished in the 1930s, but small portions of the wall still stand. One of two remaining parts of the wall is located in Zaryadye and the other near the exit from the Okhotny Ryad station of Moscow Metro behind the Hotel Metropol. Recently the mayor of Moscow announced plans for a full-scale restoration of the wall. City officials also plan to close Kitay-gorod to automobile traffic. Since 1995 the wall has been extensively rebuilt, and a new tower has been added. Inside the tower are a couple of restaurants and bars.",
"Apart from Red Square, the quarter is bordered by the chain of Central Squares of Moscow, notably Theatre Square (in front of Bolshoi Theatre), Lubyanka Square (in front of the KGB headquarters), and Slavyanskaya Square. Bourse Square on Ilyinka Street is situated entirely within Kitay-gorod.",
"Kitay-gorod, developing as a trading area, was known as the most prestigious business area of Moscow. Its three main streets — Varvarka, Ilyinka, and Nikolskaya — are lined with banks, shops, and storehouses like the historicistic shopping mall GUM which confines Kitay-gorod towards Red Square. One of the most beautiful churches in Moscow, St. Nicholas Church on the Ilyinka (1680–89), informally known as the Great Cross, was a landmark in Kitay-gorod but was destroyed in 1933. This district also features the Church of Cosmas and Damian and the Trinity Church of Nikitniki, which today is nestled among city buildings. It was built in the 1630s on the land of Moscow merchant, Grigory Nikitnikov. Nikolskaya Street is famous for being the site of Moscow's first university, the Slavic Greek Latin Academy, housed in extant Zaikonospassky monastery (1660s). Another monastery cathedral, the main church of Epiphany Monastery (1690s), stands in the middle of Kitay-gorod in the eponymous Bogoyavlensky Lane. The 18th century survives in the exterior walls of the otherwise rebuilt Gostiny Dvor (Guest Merchant's Court) by Giacomo Quarenghi. In the 19th century, Red Square was lined by a neoclassical domed structure of Upper Trade Rows by Joseph Bove. However, in the 1890s it was torn down and replaced with the new, eclectic Upper Trading Rows (by Alexander Pomerantsev and Vladimir Shukhov) and the similar Middle Trading Rows (by Roman Klein). The rest of Kitay-gorod was densely filled with offices, warehouses and hotels, to the point where real estate developers had to build streets, not buildings – like the Tretyakovsky Proyezd project by Pavel Tretyakov and Alexander Kaminsky. Also in the 1890s, developers consolidated large land lots on the perimeter of Kitay-gorod. Savva Mamontov launched an ambitious civic center, built around an opera hall, which was completed as the Metropol Hotel in 1907, the largest early Art Nouveau building in Moscow, containing artwork by Mikhail Vrubel, Alexander Golovin and Nikolai Andreev. The eastern segment (Staraya Square) was rebuilt by the Moscow Merchant Society, with the late Art Nouveau \"Boyarsky Dvor\" offices (by Fyodor Schechtel) and the neoclassical 4, Staraya Square (by Vladimir Sherwood, Jr., 1912–1914) which later housed the Central Committee of the Communist Party. The present-day offices and clock tower of Constitutional Court of Russia were financed by the Northern Insurance Society (1910–1912) and built by Ivan Rerberg, Marian Peretiatkovich and Vyacheslav Oltarzhevsky; this project is also notable as the first professional employer of young Ilya Golosov. Since the early 1990s, many historical buildings have been torn down or rebuilt by facadist methods, tearing down everything beyond the street facade. Apart from the Gostiny Dvor, recent losses include the Tyoplye Trade Rows (Теплые ряды, demolished 1996–1997) and the recently reopened block at 10, Nikolskaya Street. The degree of destruction cannot be assessed in full, since many properties are operated by the federal government and closed to the general public.",
"A whole quarter of Kitay-gorod adjacent to the Moskva River and known as Zaryadye was demolished in three rounds (1930s, late 1940s, 1960s), sparing only those structures that were classified as historic monuments. These include the Cathedral of the Sign (1679–84), the Church of All Saints (1680s), St. George's Church on Pskov Hill (1657), St. Maksim's Church (1698), St. Anna's Church at the Corner (1510s), St. Barbara's Church (1796–1804), the Old English Embassy (1550s), and the 16th century Romanov boyar residence. There is no other such cluster of old edifices left anywhere else in Moscow. The district's main structure, Rossiya Hotel (1967), was demolished in 2007 to make space for the new Zaryadye Park which was opened in 2017."
]
} |
Phowa | null | Phowa (, ) is a Vajrayana Buddhist meditation practice. It may be described as "the practice of conscious dying", "transference of consciousness at the time of death", "mindstream transference", or “enlightenment without meditation” (). "This controversial esoteric technique (Skt.utkrānti), by which a tantric practitioner is able to sever his connection to the physical body, goes by the Indian reference to 'yogic' or spiritual suicide. It is attested in many Saiva scriptures, in one Vaisnava Samhita, and a handful of Sākta Tantras. It appears to be of non-Buddhist origin." | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
55300,
831,
186,
190659,
99,
70,
3095,
111,
47219,
47,
4,
59499,
47,
87592,
7092,
53609,
131007,
49063,
144239,
4,
12302,
1632,
25,
7,
6,
144729,
7432,
8305,
70,
2663,
111,
70,
10336,
105237,
3934,
10,
132564,
9,
28394,
111,
1632,
25,
7,
44126,
5,
3311,
221,
20594,
4,
1632,
390,
13409,
90,
3060,
111,
70,
222201,
134858,
450,
621,
2804,
47,
74918,
7103,
47219,
5,
89536,
8705,
78869,
7,
621,
183689,
110312,
24655,
4,
164216,
17131,
4,
156013,
3033,
6355,
528,
4,
62,
61191,
344,
110312,
24655,
4,
101057,
663,
18839,
4,
70,
1311,
8079,
9,
10625,
1484,
297,
71175,
15,
247,
136,
1371,
37267,
913,
74,
70,
2684,
5700,
23,
76438,
4,
148926,
136,
138485,
66,
131007,
31047,
39,
83,
183689,
11,
10771,
5,
44,
45689,
4625,
58,
83,
2843,
51339,
297,
390,
17496,
7,
15,
16,
98,
70,
232045,
111,
70,
8,
45710,
5281,
4,
237,
10,
1305,
9,
4514,
2982,
68869,
5,
360,
70,
43701,
111,
65925,
131007,
31047,
39,
4,
70,
41361,
111,
66084,
634,
1556,
24209,
5299,
51529,
23,
6626,
94407,
38134,
21329,
712,
23,
14713,
136,
70,
21629,
7,
5,
360,
129956,
763,
4,
3129,
509,
14037,
297,
390,
1061,
3432,
289,
39668,
771,
1430,
23,
24849,
5,
69124,
42261,
131007,
31047,
39,
509,
14037,
297,
23,
29172,
390,
69727,
31031,
2949,
132612,
136,
151900,
2949,
132612,
4,
64600,
40894,
13,
132073,
1295,
10,
2949,
449,
192,
179965,
4,
23,
3129,
70,
1810,
56,
24092,
7,
621,
69307,
71,
5,
1657,
37676,
538,
4,
66084,
634,
237,
10,
23755,
509,
1059,
3674,
390,
17779,
265,
39441,
11416,
237,
10,
1660,
41274,
100,
162882,
23,
22059,
5,
3293,
15824,
509,
14432,
91048,
1257,
26548,
4049,
20271,
1919,
11857,
110324,
5,
581,
16188,
111,
10,
65771,
53073,
634,
41361,
83,
10,
19336,
36069,
111,
59714,
105237,
1295,
70,
27585,
111,
70,
493,
24371,
5,
717,
106804,
13,
10,
65771,
41361,
89160,
538,
10,
77225,
11,
9,
5739,
7,
7,
509,
25944,
297,
3934,
70,
19336,
73432,
75935,
23,
70,
12401,
66,
583,
5,
581,
5201,
42592,
429,
111,
44,
22014,
634,
58,
83,
1632,
111,
70,
84247,
48173,
7,
111,
353,
61434,
4,
102971,
3789,
179965,
7,
2843,
32316,
5,
581,
3863,
21166,
1614,
11832,
90,
28032,
6863,
531,
170926,
7,
128746,
111,
53073,
634,
57,
129663,
5,
581,
1136,
3432,
34,
44,
22014,
634,
58,
42592,
429,
83,
1295,
70,
84247,
48173,
7,
111,
353,
61434,
5,
541,
1292,
61434,
75204,
442,
1295,
70,
42878,
7356,
4123,
532,
5236,
5064,
31401,
136,
14432,
115081,
442,
47,
1919,
138485,
66,
17116,
14,
8705,
1784,
763,
5,
541,
1292,
61434,
25,
7,
128169,
7,
98363,
10,
17932,
55300,
111,
44,
26,
22014,
9,
402,
58,
450,
22,
46741,
7,
70,
12302,
6620,
111,
1632,
26,
7,
6,
144729,
7432,
47,
15700,
14361,
15,
194,
43906,
107,
763,
25,
7,
41,
1294,
118861,
6097,
128169,
7,
168861,
1784,
763,
47,
33938,
100,
14700,
14845,
31667,
85689,
62093,
98,
70,
28368,
54940,
1919,
42878,
29053,
32032,
7,
4,
136,
4,
19441,
14037,
351,
13,
4,
47,
30646,
47,
5596,
47,
113054,
1286,
26499,
30891,
5,
581,
1773,
14,
49314,
1136,
3432,
34,
10696,
111,
138485,
66,
131007,
31047,
39,
83,
51529,
100,
2363,
53073,
634,
128169,
7,
5,
62,
13036,
8111,
3964,
37926,
136,
15380,
204657,
83,
51529,
23,
70,
138485,
66,
8999,
237,
70,
44,
91127,
257,
1773,
14,
49314,
66084,
634,
58,
15,
194,
3293,
8395,
509,
89160,
538,
34658,
24145,
23,
11907,
77488,
76456,
9,
46799,
42366,
29887,
6827,
105823,
4,
136,
6863,
4568,
22046,
3956,
34739,
3687,
23,
8055,
12839,
23,
706,
35484,
9,
7,
8407,
39,
4,
15881,
138485,
4,
7103,
10,
1274,
19481,
111,
4039,
5369,
4743,
47,
10,
4599,
22,
50930,
71,
390,
70,
76438,
207048,
5,
4960,
13,
236,
62,
7502,
39668,
771,
1430,
1295,
24453,
9022,
138485,
186,
10617,
7,
47,
70,
1773,
14,
49314,
10696,
136,
83,
142,
180210,
98,
131007,
49063,
7103,
24804,
68869,
7,
74,
764,
76199,
128169,
7,
136,
173969,
17514,
47,
70,
41361,
111,
44,
22014,
634,
58,
77253,
538,
23,
80609,
127,
82980,
4,
5596,
5,
31384,
42592,
4188,
111,
44,
22014,
634,
58,
26698,
10,
6,
18781,
111,
30041,
6889,
4,
707,
73432,
111,
70,
54523,
7,
3701,
11,
99,
70,
501,
26372,
289,
4752,
8962,
4,
47,
30793,
678,
12302,
7263,
5,
13684,
177,
90965,
4,
44,
126,
144,
5,
830,
23,
142,
97733,
66278,
7,
111,
70,
567,
979,
2955,
4,
45252,
53073,
634,
23,
109590,
1663,
4834,
12,
66084,
634,
1556,
5941,
12921,
91084,
7,
74,
23,
138485,
66,
442,
26950,
44,
141325,
2852,
6,
144729,
7432,
1242,
581,
167375,
3173,
83,
51529,
237,
70,
53073,
634,
111,
70,
9074,
17668,
41918,
3129,
83,
216569,
98,
70,
6782,
157799,
5,
14847,
398,
54,
109590,
1663,
4834,
216569,
4,
2685,
25,
7,
110,
3871,
47,
12302,
23937,
4,
6637,
2685,
25,
7,
33720,
47,
12302,
4,
110,
3687,
47,
12302,
442,
4,
12488,
35672,
47,
54,
442,
5,
9925,
25,
7,
70,
167375,
4,
136,
158036,
53073,
634,
41361,
5,
581,
1735,
7,
31434,
7837,
12259,
7986,
44,
594,
15590,
28058,
40634,
53,
20514,
148370,
1517,
58,
111,
70,
72399,
5117,
212010,
316,
18471,
96853,
10,
139539,
98,
117451,
1771,
193341,
5,
581,
117451,
1771,
41361,
1543,
186,
237,
10332,
99,
70,
44,
683,
13781,
18558,
145,
73779,
208,
3124,
1292,
2816,
58,
111,
9876,
18558,
24052,
6896,
2588,
11565,
2588,
18471,
247,
7440,
442,
135179,
47,
186,
119056,
23,
58458,
1517,
1031,
9323,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
66084,
634,
15,
4,
1388,
83,
10,
87592,
32197,
76,
131007,
49063,
216569,
41361,
5,
1650,
1543,
186,
151552,
237,
44,
2347,
41361,
111,
6,
144729,
2160,
214,
830,
44,
141325,
6620,
111,
6,
144729,
7432,
99,
70,
1733,
111,
47219,
830,
44,
36904,
86429,
12302,
6620,
830,
707,
52,
33,
20016,
33,
674,
15490,
216569,
63,
15,
194,
44,
73243,
189353,
141,
11007,
67,
12259,
61353,
15,
294,
4164,
5,
1003,
92,
16197,
3598,
247,
390,
3129,
10,
7837,
12259,
17823,
118,
23850,
83,
19048,
47,
27708,
1919,
94878,
47,
70,
72761,
14361,
4,
60899,
390,
70,
42878,
91067,
47,
242,
65371,
1771,
25,
707,
41205,
193341,
5,
1650,
83,
243,
525,
297,
23,
5941,
947,
3984,
26499,
30891,
4,
23,
1632,
9079,
7,
60674,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1441746 | en-train-1441746 | 1441746 | {
"title": [
"Application of Phowa.",
"Mark of Phowa practice.",
"Lineages.",
"In Dzogchen.",
"In early Indian Yoga and Tantra."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The method can be applied at the moment of death to, according to Vajrayāna Buddhist belief, transfer one's consciousness through the top of the head directly into a Buddha-field of one's choice. By so doing, one bypasses some of the typical experiences that are said to occur after death. Example destinations are Sukhāvatī, Abhirati, Ghanavyūha, Aṭakāvatī, Mount Potala, the Copper-Colored Mountain (), and Tuṣita; the most popular in Chinese, Japanese and Tibetan Buddhism is Sukhavati. \"Phowa\" is also performed by specialists () on the behalf of the deceased, as a post-mortem ritual. In the context of Western Buddhism, the practice of Phowa has become well known in two groups widespread in Europe and the Americas. In Rigpa, which was founded by Sogyal Rinpoche in 1979. Diamond Way Buddhism was founded in 1972 by Lama Ole Nydahl and Hannah Nydahl, offers intensive courses from a Nyngma transmission, in which the outer signs are achieved. Conversely, Phowa as a concept was cited by Shoko Asahara as a justification for murder in 1987. This fact was later brought up against him during his 1995 trial.",
"The mark of a successful phowa practice is a small drop of blood directly from the center of the vertex. To demonstrate a successful practice traditionally a Kusha-grass was pushed into the small opening created in the fontanel.",
"The main lineage of \"phowa\" is one of the Six yogas of Naropa, although other transmissions also exist. The chöd subsumes within its auspices aspects of phowa sadhana. The Kagyu \"phowa\" lineage is from the Six yogas of Naropa. Nāropa received it from the Indian mahāsiddha Tilopa and later passed it to his Tibetan disciple Marpa. Nāropa's teachings describe a second method of \"’pho-ba\" that entails the transference of one’s consciousness to another body (). Milarepa's query regarding these teachings forced Marpa to search for explanatory treatises on the subject among his Indian manuscripts, and, having found none, to return to India to obtain more scriptures. The Drikung Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism is known for their phowa teachings. A major pilgrimage and cultural celebration is known in the Tibetan world as the \"Great Drikung Phowa\" (). This festival was traditionally held once in every twelve-year calendrical cycle, and its last observance took place in August 1992 in gTer-sgrom, Central Tibet, after a hiatus of 36 years due to a ban enforced by the Chinese authorities. Choeje Ayang Rinpoche from Eastern Tibet belongs to the Drikung school and is an authority on Buddhist afterlife rituals; he gives teachings and initiations to the practice of \"phowa\" annually in Bodh Gaya, India. Some lineages of \"phowa\" include a rite of incision, or opening of the sahasrara at the cranial zenith, to assist with transferral.",
"Shugchang, \"et al.\", in an exegesis of the Zhitro, discuss phowa in Dzogchen: Phowa has many different meanings; in Tibetan it means \"transferring consciousness.\" The highest form is known as the phowa of the dharmakaya which is meditation on the great perfection. When you do Dzogchen meditation, there's no need to transfer anything, because there's nothing to transfer, no place to transfer it, nor anyone to do it. That's the highest, and greatest phowa practice.",
"The Sanskrit tantric text \"Mālinīvijayottaratantra\" of the late first millennium CE includes a chapter on yogic suicide. The yogic practice may be as old at the \"Pātañjalayogaśāstra\" of Patañjali (325-425 CE), where it appears to be mentioned in sūtra 3.39."
]
} |
Prosody (linguistics) | null | In linguistics, prosody is concerned with those elements of speech that are not individual phonetic segments (vowels and consonants) but are properties of syllables and larger units of speech, including linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. Such elements are known as suprasegmentals. | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
70,
35187,
111,
502,
991,
18403,
128746,
111,
116483,
4,
442,
83,
115723,
47,
157167,
1495,
17721,
133604,
53,
72350,
7,
15,
22144,
170,
100034,
49128,
7,
181653,
23,
70,
7086,
111,
70,
44632,
56,
16,
136,
10,
12600,
28692,
72350,
7,
15,
34053,
7,
21533,
183871,
111,
70,
45730,
259,
272,
450,
1543,
186,
72350,
71,
151814,
538,
194,
148656,
53,
136,
10,
12600,
28692,
72350,
7,
111,
38280,
43943,
54,
959,
42518,
23,
10,
192617,
3917,
5,
17006,
96335,
111,
38280,
43943,
765,
2809,
35509,
98,
133604,
53,
114137,
17368,
133604,
53,
105994,
7,
5,
8622,
83,
110,
176506,
14012,
111,
502,
991,
18403,
77336,
7,
5,
360,
133604,
53,
69407,
4,
70,
13036,
77336,
7,
621,
12,
360,
10,
12600,
28692,
69407,
4,
6097,
42518,
31635,
78458,
20903,
538,
47,
12,
242520,
162515,
7,
111,
6097,
77336,
7,
621,
162471,
297,
23,
70,
147158,
9523,
32354,
7,
111,
23,
1507,
2320,
136,
11405,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
3789,
502,
991,
18403,
66139,
6044,
237,
6,
239530,
136,
2167,
5,
29117,
14,
43315,
502,
991,
18403,
77336,
7,
765,
2809,
22282,
71,
4,
26719,
54479,
31897,
136,
112314,
214,
5,
581,
123166,
111,
70,
502,
991,
18403,
77336,
7,
831,
186,
22282,
71,
40101,
237,
27107,
12824,
36880,
70,
502,
991,
18403,
25072,
707,
390,
70,
123166,
111,
337,
6990,
10484,
5,
1250,
991,
18403,
66139,
621,
2804,
47,
186,
18888,
25398,
52796,
4,
16792,
1836,
621,
183871,
111,
25072,
7,
111,
116483,
150679,
3501,
70,
11651,
33180,
15,
197271,
210650,
538,
442,
1543,
53383,
450,
10,
11001,
33180,
1543,
11764,
67,
10,
954,
1165,
2661,
4,
136,
4911,
7,
3853,
10,
28271,
75,
3055,
7154,
4,
28,
5,
177,
5,
44,
56787,
3890,
194,
1650,
83,
63559,
47,
157167,
1495,
17721,
70,
3357,
4,
76615,
62816,
48242,
7,
450,
186,
10617,
47,
142,
11651,
25,
7,
54479,
15,
2472,
27781,
4,
2363,
43402,
163451,
37457,
16,
136,
70,
41371,
538,
77336,
502,
991,
18403,
66139,
450,
621,
11814,
69822,
5844,
538,
47,
6,
127219,
67,
91084,
15,
2472,
27781,
4,
70,
4527,
111,
65572,
23,
163451,
47,
117414,
70,
60212,
17721,
63805,
7,
136,
17582,
194,
17915,
62816,
48242,
7,
621,
959,
147158,
18,
71407,
88551,
5,
1650,
83,
959,
7722,
47,
5154,
678,
2499,
61689,
219,
2408,
3129,
128746,
111,
38280,
43943,
621,
14037,
23,
756,
46876,
7,
136,
3129,
621,
29458,
47,
10,
17311,
46876,
707,
220734,
5,
31384,
6,
70035,
7,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
180,
25,
11935,
13665,
136,
126756,
16,
765,
151552,
23,
1507,
2320,
167969,
23,
69407,
111,
163451,
4,
12960,
27060,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
122968,
16,
26171,
450,
2367,
83,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
23,
1507,
2320,
83,
23,
15824,
142,
32471,
39,
111,
40368,
502,
991,
18403,
77336,
7,
5,
581,
3173,
111,
14941,
23,
1507,
2320,
83,
27983,
2804,
47,
186,
35509,
98,
17262,
128746,
12,
32255,
621,
68018,
51529,
237,
44,
1507,
134393,
830,
44,
27706,
60089,
58,
136,
44,
40491,
58,
15,
2940,
143849,
538,
237,
44,
2347,
17262,
384,
25,
7,
51029,
893,
78301,
163451,
9,
174822,
143834,
83,
44,
6295,
206,
37457,
58,
12,
119578,
7,
621,
87709,
111,
142146,
678,
10,
38134,
37457,
111,
163451,
15,
100231,
83,
56104,
137272,
678,
240268,
247,
99,
3789,
20028,
678,
10,
653,
118201,
37457,
5,
14941,
1556,
2809,
2804,
47,
3249,
4527,
111,
65572,
23,
44,
19770,
58,
12,
122925,
214,
1632,
25,
7,
23,
1507,
2320,
3934,
70,
77546,
707,
92319,
2831,
111,
1632,
25,
7,
163451,
37457,
83,
18822,
71,
47,
186,
91084,
7844,
23,
24233,
43701,
7,
5,
28090,
70,
34564,
39181,
6275,
111,
21455,
4,
11405,
32354,
7,
237,
70,
26950,
111,
20662,
10,
954,
1165,
2661,
197097,
74,
11405,
1543,
186,
22282,
71,
23,
41911,
47,
11651,
34153,
15,
76,
4806,
44,
47416,
11405,
58,
707,
75675,
21533,
11405,
16,
707,
23,
41911,
47,
150679,
25072,
7,
111,
116483,
15,
209990,
25958,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
44,
12832,
6620,
11405,
58,
1284,
1286,
95307,
538,
24,
4806,
44,
88718,
31,
18403,
11405,
51029,
85207,
297,
954,
1165,
13566,
621,
7228,
197097,
390,
40368,
77336,
7,
4,
390,
61261,
707,
23,
162515,
5,
85207,
83,
205794,
137272,
678,
70,
25632,
12,
32255,
314,
90,
47,
11405,
621,
959,
105950,
538,
113138,
5,
41649,
12216,
555,
4,
100,
27781,
4,
33022,
7,
44,
15277,
19462,
20605,
28007,
7,
765,
123019,
127887,
450,
4,
23,
14941,
99,
2499,
34515,
4,
70,
17262,
66139,
15,
6295,
206,
4,
140909,
136,
459,
1674,
7432,
16,
3173,
10,
105994,
111,
131011,
23,
172915,
954,
1165,
13566,
3934,
502,
7732,
329,
4,
163451,
8035,
70,
2684,
199265,
10821,
4,
136,
459,
1674,
7432,
70,
19713,
221,
740,
14847,
163451,
502,
7732,
329,
83,
70,
13036,
31461,
4,
70,
16750,
214,
502,
7732,
329,
83,
27983,
35839,
44,
2263,
16797,
58,
43257,
3501,
11405,
5,
8622,
83,
150675,
143834,
1295,
46876,
47,
46876,
50509,
214,
70,
31486,
111,
11405,
23,
135812,
214,
34153,
707,
23,
29481,
214,
122092,
147,
136,
6002,
86531,
5,
106073,
6,
239530,
83,
959,
10,
502,
991,
18403,
77336,
23,
70,
3917,
450,
163451,
707,
459,
1674,
7432,
621,
4,
442,
83,
115723,
47,
85689,
10,
46876,
25,
7,
62816,
48242,
6,
239530,
237,
10,
2831,
111,
6863,
502,
991,
18403,
6,
75189,
25443,
5,
1650,
1556,
27983,
2809,
10,
16865,
3674,
450,
46876,
7,
80788,
18,
20324,
2481,
23,
70,
5527,
214,
111,
208479,
25072,
7,
111,
116483,
4,
10,
20324,
2481,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
13882,
101966,
53,
4,
136,
450,
11907,
46876,
1543,
186,
95486,
297,
1632,
111,
17262,
6,
239530,
21533,
52895,
12,
11405,
9,
6032,
71,
15,
136913,
70,
21025,
5256,
111,
70,
51514,
7,
17721,
11405,
297,
954,
1165,
13566,
83,
35845,
538,
53697,
247,
954,
1165,
2661,
9,
6032,
71,
15,
136913,
70,
21025,
5256,
111,
208479,
954,
1165,
13566,
621,
35845,
538,
53697,
16,
136,
7516,
9,
6032,
71,
15,
136913,
70,
21025,
5256,
111,
208479,
7516,
13,
621,
35845,
538,
53697,
194,
1301,
189050,
23,
70,
13882,
101966,
53,
5582,
4,
903,
63043,
1556,
959,
2809,
8060,
297,
390,
57456,
77950,
5,
67949,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
147158,
41637,
4,
38280,
43943,
83,
142837,
678,
8382,
80854,
111,
116483,
450,
621,
959,
11651,
24089,
9523,
33180,
7,
15,
965,
8420,
7,
136,
158,
1681,
10840,
16,
1284,
621,
183871,
111,
954,
1165,
13566,
136,
150679,
25072,
7,
111,
116483,
4,
26719,
147158,
9523,
32354,
7,
6044,
237,
23,
1507,
2320,
4,
70334,
4,
11405,
4,
136,
6,
239530,
5,
62771,
80854,
621,
51529,
237,
18888,
25398,
52796,
7,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-901547 | en-train-901547 | 901547 | {
"title": [
"Attributes of prosody.",
"Phonology.",
"Intonation.",
"Stress.",
"Rhythm.",
"Pause.",
"Chunking.",
"Cognitive aspects.",
"Grammar.",
"Focus.",
"Discourse.",
"Emotion.",
"Child language.",
"Aprosodia.",
"Brain regions involved."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"In the study of prosodic aspects of speech, it is usual to distinguish between auditory measures (subjective impressions produced in the mind of the listener) and acoustic measures (physical properties of the sound wave that may be measured objectively). Auditory and acoustic measures of prosody do not correspond in a linear way. Most studies of prosody have been based on auditory analysis using auditory scales. There is no agreed number of prosodic variables. In auditory terms, the major variables are: In acoustic terms, these correspond reasonably closely to: Different combinations of these variables are exploited in the linguistic functions of intonation and stress, as well as other prosodic features such as rhythm and tempo. Additional prosodic variables have been studied, including voice quality and pausing. The behavior of the prosodic variables can be studied either as contours across the prosodic unit or by the behavior of boundaries.",
"Prosodic features are said to be suprasegmental, since they are properties of units of speech larger than the individual segment (though exceptionally it may happen that a single segment may constitute a syllable, and thus even a whole utterance, e.g. \"Ah!\"). It is necessary to distinguish between the personal, background characteristics that belong to an individual's voice (for example, their habitual pitch range) and the independently variable prosodic features that are used contrastively to communicate meaning (for example, the use of changes in pitch to indicate the difference between statements and questions). Personal characteristics are not linguistically significant. It is not possible to say with any accuracy which aspects of prosody are found in all languages and which are specific to a particular language or dialect.",
"Some writers (e.g. O'Connor and Arnold) have described intonation entirely in terms of pitch, while others (e.g. Crystal) propose that what is referred to as intonation is in fact an amalgam of several prosodic variables. The form of English intonation is often said to be based on three aspects: These are sometimes known as \"tonality\", \"tonicity\" and \"tone\" (and collectively as \"the three T's\"). An additional pitch-related variation is \"pitch range\": speakers are capable of speaking with a wide range of pitch (this is usually associated with excitement), at other times with a narrow range. English has been said to make use of changes in \"key\": shifting one's intonation into the higher or lower part of one's pitch range is believed to be meaningful in certain contexts.",
"From the perceptual point of view, stress functions as the means of making a syllable prominent; stress may be studied in relation to individual words (named \"word stress\" or lexical stress) or in relation to larger units of speech (traditionally referred to as \"sentence stress\" but more appropriately named \"prosodic stress\"). Stressed syllables are made prominent by several variables, by themselves or in combination. Stress is typically associated with the following: These cues to stress are not equally powerful. Cruttenden, for example, writes \"Perceptual experiments have clearly shown that, in English at any rate, the three features (pitch, length and loudness) form a scale of importance in bringing syllables into prominence, pitch being the most efficacious, and loudness the least so\". When pitch prominence is the major factor, the resulting prominence is often called \"accent\" rather than stress. There is considerable variation from language to language concerning the role of stress in identifying words or in interpreting grammar and syntax.",
"Although rhythm is not a prosodic variable in the way that pitch or loudness are, it is usual to treat a language's characteristic rhythm as a part of its prosodic phonology. It has often been asserted that languages exhibit regularity in the timing of successive units of speech, a regularity referred to as isochrony, and that every language may be assigned one of three rhythmical types: stress-timed (where the durations of the intervals between stressed syllables is relatively constant), syllable-timed (where the durations of successive syllables are relatively constant) and mora-timed (where the durations of successive morae are relatively constant). As explained in the isochrony article, this claim has not been supported by scientific evidence.",
"Voiced or unvoiced, the pause is a form of interruption to articulatory continuity such as an open or terminal juncture. Conversation analysis commonly notes pause length. Distinguishing auditory hesitation from silent pauses is one challenge. Contrasting junctures within and without word chunks can aid in identifying pauses. There are a variety of \"filled\" pause types. Formulaic language pause fillers include \"Like\", \"Er\" and \"Uhm\", and paralinguistic expressive respiratory pauses include the sigh and gasp. Although related to breathing, pauses may contain contrastive linguistic content, as in the periods between individual words in English advertising voice-over copy sometimes placed to denote high information content, e.g. \"Quality. Service. Value.\"",
"Pausing or its lack contributes to the perception of word groups, or chunks. Examples include the phrase, phraseme, constituent or interjection. Chunks commonly highlight lexical items or fixed expression idioms. Chunking prosody is present on any complete utterance and may correspond to a syntactic category, but not necessarily. The well-known English chunk \"Know what I mean?\" sounds like a single word (\"No-whuta-meen?\") due to blurring or rushing the articulation of adjacent word syllables, thereby changing the potential open junctures between words into closed junctures.",
"Intonation is said to have a number of perceptually significant functions in English and other languages, contributing to the recognition and comprehension of speech.",
"It is believed that prosody assists listeners in parsing continuous speech and in the recognition of words, providing cues to syntactic structure, grammatical boundaries and sentence type. Boundaries between intonation units are often associated with grammatical or syntactic boundaries; these are marked by such prosodic features as pauses and slowing of tempo, as well as \"pitch reset\" where the speaker's pitch level returns to the level typical of the onset of a new intonation unit. In this way potential ambiguities may be resolved. For example, the sentence “They invited Bob and Bill and Al got rejected” is ambiguous when written, although addition of a written comma after either \"Bob\" or \"Bill\" will remove the sentence's ambiguity. But when the sentence is read aloud, prosodic cues like pauses (dividing the sentence into chunks) and changes in intonation will reduce or remove the ambiguity. Moving the intonational boundary in cases such as the above example will tend to change the interpretation of the sentence. This result has been found in studies performed in both English and Bulgarian. Research in English word recognition has demonstrated an important role for prosody.",
"Intonation and stress work together to highlight important words or syllables for contrast and focus. This is sometimes referred to as the \"accentual function\" of prosody. A well-known example is the ambiguous sentence \"I never said she stole my money\", where there are seven meaning changes depending on which of the seven words is vocally highlighted.",
"Prosody plays a role in the regulation of conversational interaction and in signaling discourse structure. David Brazil and his associates studied how intonation can indicate whether information is new or already established; whether a speaker is dominant or not in a conversation; and when a speaker is inviting the listener to make a contribution to the conversation.",
"Prosody is also important in signalling emotions and attitudes. When this is involuntary (as when the voice is affected by anxiety or fear), the prosodic information is not linguistically significant. However, when the speaker varies her speech intentionally, for example to indicate sarcasm, this usually involves the use of prosodic features. The most useful prosodic feature in detecting sarcasm is a reduction in the mean fundamental frequency relative to other speech for humor, neutrality, or sincerity. While prosodic cues are important in indicating sarcasm, context clues and shared knowledge are also important. Emotional prosody was considered by Charles Darwin in \"The Descent of Man\" to predate the evolution of human language: \"Even monkeys express strong feelings in different tones – anger and impatience by low, – fear and pain by high notes.\" Native speakers listening to actors reading emotionally neutral text while projecting emotions correctly recognized happiness 62% of the time, anger 95%, surprise 91%, sadness 81%, and neutral tone 76%. When a database of this speech was processed by computer, segmental features allowed better than 90% recognition of happiness and anger, while suprasegmental prosodic features allowed only 44%–49% recognition. The reverse was true for surprise, which was recognized only 69% of the time by segmental features and 96% of the time by suprasegmental prosody. In typical conversation (no actor voice involved), the recognition of emotion may be quite low, of the order of 50%, hampering the complex interrelationship function of speech advocated by some authors. However, even if emotional expression through prosody cannot always be consciously recognized, tone of voice may continue to have subconscious effects in conversation. This sort of expression stems not from linguistic or semantic effects, and can thus be isolated from traditional linguistic content. Aptitude of the average person to decode conversational implicature of emotional prosody has been found to be slightly less accurate than traditional facial expression discrimination ability; however, specific ability to decode varies by emotion. These emotional have been determined to be ubiquitous across cultures, as they are utilized and understood across cultures. Various emotions, and their general experimental identification rates, are as follows: The prosody of an utterance is used by listeners to guide decisions about the emotional of the situation. Whether a person decodes the prosody as positive, negative, or neutral plays a role in the way a person decodes a facial expression accompanying an utterance. As the facial expression becomes closer to neutral, the prosodic interpretation influences the interpretation of the facial expression. A study by Marc D. Pell revealed that 600 ms of prosodic information is necessary for listeners to be able to identify the tone of the utterance. At lengths below this, there was not enough information for listeners to process the emotional context of the utterance.",
"Unique prosodic features have been noted in infant-directed speech (IDS) - also known as baby talk, child-directed speech (CDS), or \"motherese\". Adults, especially caregivers, speaking to young children tend to imitate childlike speech by using higher and more variable pitch, as well as an exaggerated stress. These prosodic characteristics are thought to assist children in acquiring phonemes, segmenting words, and recognizing phrasal boundaries. And though there is no evidence to indicate that infant-directed speech is necessary for language acquisition, these specific prosodic features have been observed in many different languages.",
"An aprosodia is an acquired or developmental impairment in comprehending or generating the emotion conveyed in spoken language. Aprosody is often accompanied by the inability to properly utilize variations in speech, particularly with deficits in ability to accurately modulate pitch, loudness, intonation, and rhythm of word formation. This is seen sometimes in persons with Asperger syndrome.",
"\"Producing\" these nonverbal elements requires intact motor areas of the face, mouth, tongue, and throat. This area is associated with Brodmann areas 44 and 45 (Broca's area) of the left frontal lobe. Damage to areas 44/45, specifically on the right hemisphere, produces motor aprosodia, with the nonverbal elements of speech being disturbed (facial expression, tone, rhythm of voice). \"Understanding\" these nonverbal elements requires an intact and properly functioning right-hemisphere perisylvian area, particularly Brodmann area 22 (not to be confused with the corresponding area in the \"left\" hemisphere, which contains Wernicke's area). Damage to the right inferior frontal gyrus causes a diminished ability to convey emotion or emphasis by voice or gesture, and damage to right superior temporal gyrus causes problems comprehending emotion or emphasis in the voice or gestures of others. The right Brodmann area 22 aids in the interpretation of prosody, and damage causes sensory aprosodia, with the patient unable to comprehend changes in voice and body language."
]
} |
Kate (text editor) | null | The KDE Advanced Text Editor, or Kate, is a text editor developed by the KDE free software community. It has been a part of KDE Software Compilation since version 2.2, which was first released in 2001. Intended for software developers, it features syntax highlighting, code folding, customizable layouts, regular expression support, and extensibility. | null | [
250004,
250054,
37958,
1556,
2809,
2831,
111,
70,
341,
8399,
23752,
15612,
14,
57860,
16792,
54452,
41187,
23,
55197,
88949,
111,
72737,
67987,
55556,
4,
442,
83,
7722,
47,
352,
13482,
37958,
237,
142,
27211,
214,
82761,
23,
3789,
341,
8399,
86685,
5,
49953,
341,
8399,
86685,
3129,
4527,
37958,
237,
142,
27211,
214,
82761,
26698,
70,
78779,
297,
34754,
65998,
341,
4657,
2601,
2146,
4,
70,
1467,
34754,
65998,
75344,
11,
8183,
4,
136,
70,
239,
10476,
1542,
12912,
9,
3611,
1519,
133,
5,
37958,
1556,
23742,
70,
175961,
7986,
30391,
225490,
23,
44,
150040,
67949,
58,
41260,
5,
6,
4,
34754,
1902,
26859,
47,
11469,
37958,
4,
33233,
678,
20384,
19379,
19,
4,
186942,
13,
4,
341,
8399,
10142,
192592,
4,
136,
2369,
319,
28088,
4,
47,
341,
8399,
202220,
7,
1892,
37958,
83,
10,
77848,
25,
7,
7986,
30391,
450,
66139,
6002,
86531,
127308,
214,
100,
645,
2668,
11435,
9384,
7,
678,
18151,
18344,
6238,
91736,
5,
581,
6002,
86531,
127308,
214,
83,
1119,
510,
55356,
1829,
92537,
102158,
5,
1650,
8060,
7,
345,
30992,
17376,
4,
345,
30992,
13528,
4,
17408,
9,
187800,
179219,
136,
125429,
10001,
22,
587,
6238,
150370,
7,
136,
831,
96391,
10,
11435,
25,
7,
62816,
22,
587,
6238,
191082,
5,
37958,
831,
186,
11814,
237,
10,
28020,
7986,
30391,
8305,
6863,
44,
686,
58,
107730,
13736,
5,
37958,
66139,
48716,
12937,
101758,
4,
76896,
65450,
1916,
4,
13452,
27211,
214,
136,
104227,
47,
33493,
67,
27211,
214,
48716,
60525,
5,
345,
6953,
44,
169234,
7,
830,
1632,
831,
178036,
13,
37958,
100,
12921,
77635,
390,
57,
6496,
70,
5303,
111,
9803,
102158,
4,
70,
5303,
111,
225081,
76329,
9,
5425,
136,
70,
76896,
180346,
5,
873,
214,
10,
341,
8399,
38415,
4,
37958,
70267,
538,
9803,
7,
136,
30098,
7,
102158,
645,
756,
91363,
7,
8060,
297,
390,
341,
17780,
35773,
10484,
5,
3293,
96853,
135913,
4,
162379,
4,
159,
12927,
4,
159,
12689,
136,
4002,
164130,
4,
54940,
27060,
5,
37958,
83,
88303,
17368,
70,
72737,
67987,
170846,
74,
442,
83,
10,
6,
48461,
289,
6,
128019,
10932,
70,
30391,
82761,
4,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
44,
37670,
17365,
740,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
341,
8399,
127596,
24129,
69340,
4,
707,
37958,
4,
83,
10,
7986,
30391,
126809,
390,
70,
341,
8399,
4092,
10975,
26908,
5,
1650,
1556,
2809,
10,
2831,
111,
341,
8399,
23752,
15612,
14,
57860,
16792,
11389,
41187,
4,
3129,
509,
5117,
121447,
23,
55197,
360,
35548,
71,
100,
10975,
106001,
7,
4,
442,
66139,
6002,
86531,
127308,
214,
4,
18151,
18344,
6238,
4,
178036,
2886,
108802,
7,
4,
20324,
125195,
8060,
4,
136,
1119,
41745,
83259,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1062071 | en-train-1062071 | 1062071 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Features.",
"KDE integration."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Kate has been part of the KDE Software Compilation since release 2.2 in 2001. Because of KParts technology, it is possible to embed Kate as an editing component in other KDE applications. Major KDE applications which use Kate as an editing component include the integrated development environment KDevelop, the web development environment Quanta Plus, and the LaTeX front-end Kile. Kate has won the advanced text editor comparison in \"Linux Voice\" magazine. , development had started to port Kate, along with Dolphin, Konsole, KDE Telepathy, and Yakuake, to KDE Frameworks 5.",
"Kate is a programmer's text editor that features syntax highlighting for over 300 file formats with code folding rules. The syntax highlighting is extensible via XML files. It supports UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 and ASCII encoding schemes and can detect a file's character encoding automatically. Kate can be used as a modal text editor through its \"vi\" input mode. Kate features multiple document interface, window splitting, project editing and sessions to facilitate editing multiple documents. Using \"sessions\", one can customize Kate for different projects by saving the list of open files, the list of enabled plug-ins and the window configuration.",
"Being a KDE application, Kate transparently opens and saves files over all protocols supported by KIO libraries. This includes HTTP, FTP, SSH, SMB and WebDAV, among others. Kate is built using the KParts framework; it is a graphical shell around the editor component, referred to as \"katepart\"."
]
} |
Igor Cavalera | null | Igor Graziano Cavalera (born September 4, 1970) is a Brazilian musician. He is best known as the former drummer for Brazilian heavy metal band Sepultura, which he co-founded with his brother Max in 1984. Max left the band in 1996, and Cavalera himself would depart ten years later, making him the last original member of Sepultura to leave the band. The brothers have since reunited in the band Cavalera Conspiracy. | null | [
250004,
250054,
64471,
40455,
26859,
75169,
47617,
7,
10932,
361,
5369,
10332,
5,
1529,
509,
3934,
6,
95347,
19612,
237,
10,
29041,
1284,
4,
7103,
100244,
44109,
6867,
23,
26771,
33233,
678,
1919,
82953,
9920,
4,
764,
26859,
178463,
47,
13950,
19612,
5,
14847,
503,
6645,
3595,
509,
100,
4806,
4,
64471,
40455,
509,
70,
27150,
525,
32786,
99,
70,
32070,
111,
17480,
1919,
82953,
9920,
509,
616,
99,
70,
1733,
5,
503,
6645,
3595,
509,
10,
6957,
36272,
136,
26038,
64471,
40455,
142,
39395,
4034,
5,
2161,
7071,
21416,
20986,
4,
64471,
40455,
112730,
4,
100,
70,
5117,
1733,
4,
98,
10,
2773,
47617,
24448,
4,
3129,
509,
3017,
15555,
297,
1295,
10440,
34758,
111,
70,
8753,
9578,
1140,
13,
4,
450,
2843,
112730,
450,
17431,
5,
24372,
70,
8753,
65450,
678,
1919,
82953,
9920,
15,
133,
712,
108171,
7,
64,
239530,
101275,
16,
23,
11891,
4,
2363,
76755,
1379,
74797,
10,
52028,
5,
360,
17309,
20028,
2363,
76755,
1556,
52295,
71,
4,
678,
9920,
13254,
214,
23,
142,
33683,
450,
10,
41186,
191,
678,
503,
6645,
3595,
509,
7722,
5,
64471,
40455,
33284,
297,
9920,
25,
7,
43581,
8753,
99837,
35121,
98,
36541,
99,
70,
3295,
1492,
927,
77253,
391,
9,
15363,
434,
139040,
17367,
4,
47,
11301,
70,
503,
6645,
3595,
52336,
44,
12724,
30591,
105591,
53,
150948,
7,
58,
136,
44,
28848,
35810,
740,
1650,
509,
70,
5117,
1733,
70,
82953,
7,
1902,
112730,
25842,
23,
1492,
5369,
5,
360,
65942,
678,
70,
54452,
111,
44,
397,
2733,
32151,
830,
764,
80723,
10010,
2069,
1919,
9351,
44,
568,
177,
6504,
4,
58,
12601,
2852,
70,
3917,
442,
33342,
5,
2161,
18982,
17480,
65942,
442,
509,
171530,
450,
764,
509,
35971,
10,
36356,
1295,
70,
8753,
4743,
47,
70,
127319,
111,
1919,
22759,
927,
29041,
4,
61475,
538,
137802,
503,
6645,
3595,
142458,
20102,
5,
1529,
14432,
171530,
450,
764,
509,
569,
19514,
503,
6645,
3595,
4743,
47,
44,
3960,
48242,
240456,
2481,
1242,
503,
6645,
3595,
91995,
71,
4049,
678,
16162,
984,
143,
86946,
5,
64471,
40455,
509,
80889,
71,
47,
57119,
67,
678,
1379,
64330,
26177,
72720,
22104,
799,
15322,
4,
98,
10,
13452,
151552,
390,
799,
15322,
237,
23,
70,
20623,
111,
44,
18345,
9,
48738,
242,
4836,
7,
5675,
41535,
64,
112,
10519,
12924,
1242,
33306,
4,
799,
15322,
119056,
14432,
450,
70,
13452,
1221,
959,
738,
99255,
5,
360,
2021,
764,
121447,
70,
7156,
44,
4153,
420,
597,
3674,
58,
25842,
678,
1919,
82953,
9920,
23,
10,
13452,
24,
4806,
64471,
40455,
1657,
54547,
2408,
5,
1529,
83,
22299,
297,
237,
19441,
7228,
10,
121399,
170894,
98,
10257,
51704,
5861,
25,
7,
6789,
54452,
44,
14256,
236271,
2320,
58,
98,
70,
28560,
44,
17903,
86,
740,
360,
27997,
64471,
40455,
51339,
297,
47617,
7,
100,
70,
64194,
73425,
2242,
7156,
52334,
7432,
62,
853,
5720,
927,
4,
121447,
1829,
305,
115468,
89916,
5,
360,
505,
4,
64471,
40455,
51339,
297,
47617,
7,
100,
99837,
634,
425,
98,
2363,
7156,
44,
168407,
262,
13,
1177,
13,
58,
136,
23,
2363,
6867,
9742,
4,
33233,
678,
6626,
3789,
6867,
47617,
31648,
5,
360,
267,
4,
64471,
40455,
100,
4806,
70,
438,
3075,
19612,
34965,
82914,
23856,
116154,
678,
162375,
111558,
111,
14195,
64338,
136,
96719,
92352,
8080,
64471,
40455,
43799,
7,
47,
4778,
136,
101740,
6,
112107,
136,
1556,
5941,
739,
22155,
90,
4,
26719,
30089,
3378,
890,
34,
9,
658,
17750,
4,
183011,
214,
4,
40836,
214,
4,
188304,
136,
8060,
214,
30089,
3378,
101740,
11938,
39287,
28610,
5,
1529,
73275,
90,
1919,
67373,
125363,
27173,
64471,
40455,
237,
1919,
31486,
3299,
5,
1529,
1556,
22759,
20020,
12,
14949,
96742,
64471,
40455,
15,
275,
5,
7582,
361,
4,
11891,
247,
9202,
433,
96742,
64471,
40455,
15,
275,
5,
7071,
29620,
3576,
247,
87,
11210,
516,
96742,
64471,
40455,
15,
275,
5,
7582,
24645,
5726,
247,
23643,
47243,
1507,
64471,
40455,
15,
275,
5,
18982,
423,
4,
3295,
16,
15,
2347,
5117,
678,
1919,
43581,
58386,
239,
1352,
47243,
1507,
16,
136,
10,
98441,
191,
29465,
47243,
1507,
158014,
5,
360,
11891,
764,
26859,
70,
54543,
67967,
44,
20370,
1405,
1704,
740,
1529,
60742,
23,
9020,
16792,
10520,
64471,
40455,
113721,
7,
47617,
31648,
1884,
48861,
63569,
4,
19893,
5550,
71,
4,
103383,
213050,
31,
4,
171618,
83664,
13,
1760,
136,
41576,
48606,
73,
54940,
1919,
13036,
79507,
7,
5,
360,
70,
39395,
503,
6645,
3595,
7156,
7,
1919,
47617,
14578,
509,
459,
1674,
136,
4271,
4,
25632,
70,
5675,
41535,
12924,
20623,
111,
70,
2248,
7,
5,
1529,
31347,
297,
903,
20623,
390,
22059,
1104,
76550,
15,
76228,
44,
25452,
1418,
2146,
4097,
2787,
830,
44,
45901,
13,
10519,
70,
853,
24931,
7,
58,
136,
44,
284,
58944,
51029,
18763,
80343,
20623,
23,
70,
7156,
44,
62467,
232,
62,
5,
397,
1242,
91048,
1927,
3571,
80854,
3934,
70,
52336,
5,
6561,
27781,
111,
1919,
127752,
83,
70,
39864,
1363,
111,
70,
11531,
44,
35484,
416,
31667,
58,
15,
76545,
4,
44,
62467,
232,
62,
5,
397,
5,
51029,
1529,
53333,
126809,
903,
20623,
23,
70,
11891,
44,
12724,
30591,
58,
7156,
4,
154107,
1286,
1927,
3571,
80854,
47,
503,
6645,
3595,
25,
7,
19612,
5,
194397,
6056,
1919,
80997,
4,
64471,
40455,
1556,
2809,
38134,
538,
125296,
71,
237,
10,
7941,
9,
979,
19514,
47617,
1991,
15,
2263,
69723,
181606,
71,
390,
108558,
50695,
135956,
7,
20271,
70,
182304,
111,
44,
45901,
13,
10519,
70,
853,
24931,
7,
51029,
360,
14432,
5369,
4,
64471,
40455,
30666,
297,
10,
47617,
3509,
19911,
2320,
678,
1257,
54969,
3627,
7,
136,
10846,
56,
19932,
100497,
7,
4,
237,
51592,
23,
44,
70567,
23,
11182,
14281,
740,
360,
91067,
47,
1919,
4488,
98,
70,
503,
6645,
3595,
7156,
44,
839,
2320,
830,
3164,
94922,
54397,
44,
397,
1605,
1991,
81068,
64471,
40455,
25,
7,
5527,
214,
136,
2167,
69427,
25,
18,
186,
1286,
15787,
237,
70,
122255,
13,
155955,
1755,
24189,
70,
7156,
25,
7,
20753,
2481,
96865,
7,
7108,
8305,
70,
119578,
7,
1242,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
81068,
125363,
27173,
64471,
40455,
15,
57332,
6088,
201,
4,
19340,
16,
83,
10,
30089,
3378,
19612,
3378,
5,
1529,
83,
2965,
51529,
237,
70,
36770,
47617,
1991,
100,
30089,
3378,
99162,
12924,
8753,
503,
6645,
3595,
4,
3129,
764,
552,
9,
151645,
297,
678,
1919,
82953,
9920,
23,
20986,
5,
9920,
25737,
70,
8753,
23,
11891,
4,
136,
64471,
40455,
66570,
2806,
8,
17365,
1492,
5369,
14432,
4,
20662,
4049,
70,
4568,
7311,
32786,
111,
503,
6645,
3595,
47,
31358,
70,
8753,
5,
581,
82953,
7,
765,
16792,
41186,
3674,
23,
70,
8753,
64471,
40455,
1657,
54547,
2408,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2010625 | en-train-2010625 | 2010625 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Personal life.",
"Playing style."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Cavalera started playing drums around 7 years old. He was into samba music as a child but, after watching Queen live in 1981 along with his brother Max, he started listening to rock music. When Sepultura was formed, Cavalera was the youngest member at the age of 13, his brother Max was 14 at the time. Sepultura was a big success and gave Cavalera an early start. On April 21, 1984, Cavalera played, for the first time, on a real drum kit, which was borrowed from Helinho of the band Overdose, that also played that night. After the band split with his brother Max (lead vocals/rhythm guitar) in 1996, their relationship underwent a crisis. In recent times their relationship has improved, with Max stating in an interview that a reunion with Sepultura was possible. Cavalera joined Max's current band Soulfly on stage at the 2006 tenth annual D-Low Memorial Show, to play the Sepultura songs \"Roots Bloody Roots\" and \"Attitude\". It was the first time the brothers had played together in ten years. In 2006, with the release of \"Dante XXI\", he began spelling his name \"Iggor,\" preferring the way it looks. On January 13, 2006, it was announced that he was taking a break from the band due to the birth of his fourth child, initially leaving Sepultura temporarily. He later announced that he was quitting Sepultura due to \"artistic incompatibility.\" Sepultura replaced him with Jean Dolabella. Cavalera was scheduled to collaborate with underground hip hop artist Necro, on a project described by Necro as in the style of \"old-school '80s thrash/death metal.\" However, Necro mentioned later that the project will not go ahead. In 2008 he released the album \"Inflikted\" together with his brother Max in a project named Cavalera Conspiracy. He is credited as having made a guest appearance on Biohazard's 2001 release \"Uncivilization\" on the track \"Gone\". In 2012, Cavalera performed drums for the entire Strife album Witness A Rebirth, released via 6131 Records. In 2017, Cavalera performed drums for Soulwax on their album \"From Deewee\" and in their live tour, along with two other live drummers. In 2018, Cavalera formed the Noise music duo PET BRICK with Wayne Adams of Big Lad and Death Pedals",
"Cavalera collects toys and football shirts and has many hobbies, including Brazilian jiu-jitsu, snowboarding, surfing, drawing and supporting Brazilian football club Palmeiras. He admires his father Graziano Cavalera as his role model. He has four children: Christian Bass Cavalera (b. November 7, 1996), Raissa Bass Cavalera (b. April 26, 2000), Iccaro Bass Cavalera (b. November 23, 2002), Antonio Leyton Cavalera (b. January 15, 2006) (the first with his current wife Laima Leyton) and a stepson Pedro Leyton Pereira. In 1996 he started the fashion label \"Cavalera\". He lives in London since 2013.",
"Cavalera cites drummers like Roger Taylor, Bill Ward, Dave Lombardo, Stewart Copeland and Mike Bordin among his major influences. In the early Sepultura albums his drumming was loud and fast, following the thrash metal style of the 80s. He mastered this style by 1987–1991 (with \"Schizophrenia\", \"Beneath the Remains\" and \"Arise\"). His innovative style in the album \"Chaos A.D.\" brought tribal elements into the songs. One example of his contribution is the introduction of the song \"Territory\" (1993, \"Chaos A.D.\"). He further developed this style in the 1996 \"Roots\" album, adding more tribal elements to Sepultura's music. Throughout his career, Cavalera has been widely recognized as a hard-hitting drummer (acknowledged by producer Scott Burns during the recording of \"Beneath the Remains\"). In later years, Cavalera adopted a drumset conformation with upright toms and fewer cymbals, as seen in \"Live in São Paulo\". In reference to his work on the Sepultura album \"Nation\", Allmusic wrote \"Drummer Igor Cavalera's timing and tempo couldn't be more perfect as the adrenaline heightens until the album's intensity burns right through the speakers.\""
]
} |
Česká zbrojovka Strakonice | null | Česká zbrojovka (ČZ a.s.) is a Czech company producing forklifts Desta and components for the automobile industry, it is former firearms manufacturer, also known for making ČZ motorcycles. ČZ was established as a branch of the Škoda Works Armament in Strakonice, Czechoslovakia in September 1919. In the tradition of scooter production now continues Čezeta Motors company, which owns the rights to the brand. | null | [
250004,
250054,
27985,
26859,
98,
70,
50961,
111,
70,
5117,
117528,
111,
70,
121641,
31461,
53,
7311,
538,
35839,
3291,
497,
2643,
5872,
97,
35724,
77222,
24073,
218128,
211462,
19,
45200,
674,
27985,
7,
51029,
581,
14380,
42564,
71,
678,
142,
121641,
218343,
18153,
23,
134118,
10287,
939,
136,
678,
10,
31461,
53,
23,
210721,
23,
63445,
5,
3293,
26038,
6,
58944,
47,
70,
27643,
111,
10,
31837,
14380,
124901,
9351,
3900,
19309,
7,
237,
44,
441,
731,
206,
45200,
674,
27985,
7,
23,
210721,
111,
70,
204914,
238,
109561,
75628,
23,
7832,
265,
3466,
740,
1650,
181653,
75354,
7,
4,
1831,
17863,
7,
4,
136,
101038,
17863,
7,
3129,
756,
100512,
65771,
38742,
5,
360,
54566,
70,
75678,
111,
70,
103655,
45200,
674,
27985,
7,
157578,
10,
174548,
6275,
5,
17106,
70,
7565,
987,
19,
23,
142172,
7,
40575,
7103,
6661,
5550,
87,
4,
70,
14380,
163629,
71,
10,
333,
75457,
63920,
218343,
18153,
23,
82722,
2037,
53,
1932,
310,
8090,
24375,
98,
70,
310,
141,
12521,
32547,
5,
1843,
75457,
31255,
7,
73872,
297,
100,
40368,
76726,
23,
14713,
4,
14237,
4,
36941,
136,
25134,
21629,
26859,
47,
71062,
5,
118479,
111,
2926,
9,
33926,
33,
333,
75457,
7,
26859,
23,
60775,
5,
129335,
5369,
14432,
70,
5117,
2926,
75457,
7,
7228,
23,
7832,
265,
3466,
30957,
297,
70,
16839,
5,
3293,
94419,
70,
86595,
111,
142,
1615,
111,
6782,
36272,
100,
70,
10052,
1511,
8796,
5,
360,
10,
16610,
1733,
70,
14380,
100512,
70,
129058,
142901,
42,
111,
2926,
75457,
7,
23,
103655,
31,
89262,
15565,
5,
1657,
184,
26513,
18,
538,
4,
8063,
36272,
16750,
297,
23,
10,
53333,
111938,
111,
36049,
69924,
390,
39864,
214,
121293,
136,
36279,
55516,
36049,
5,
133698,
70,
77648,
6661,
5550,
70,
31461,
53,
21449,
1379,
30839,
6,
167618,
136,
509,
117176,
71,
47,
70,
142901,
111,
1631,
76319,
5,
18852,
2684,
21334,
25297,
202681,
7,
903,
31837,
14380,
509,
15889,
29367,
23,
41906,
5,
786,
13,
47,
70,
1305,
9,
4205,
68894,
16648,
4,
11476,
56859,
7,
36049,
23,
70,
7832,
265,
3466,
18153,
509,
134620,
5,
581,
14380,
98816,
7103,
70,
2926,
75457,
8796,
23409,
1810,
111,
36049,
23,
70,
11704,
7,
136,
26859,
32153,
214,
98,
218343,
2258,
82761,
7,
4,
1884,
94779,
9254,
26255,
4,
30338,
988,
6863,
89160,
36049,
111,
121293,
7,
4,
72977,
4,
48643,
80430,
4,
176050,
7,
136,
36279,
72977,
5,
66016,
8272,
4,
111874,
100,
92,
104501,
7,
765,
2809,
142901,
71,
23,
10052,
1511,
7832,
265,
3466,
5,
15366,
75457,
34754,
136,
36049,
237,
5299,
237,
130412,
91375,
3387,
23,
27631,
7,
136,
23936,
7,
225081,
70,
10052,
1511,
8796,
47,
186,
54940,
70,
8999,
26,
7,
2684,
65771,
6,
114014,
111,
130412,
136,
48800,
2926,
75457,
7,
5,
24372,
6661,
5550,
1995,
4,
10052,
1511,
509,
70,
17932,
142105,
2926,
75457,
142901,
42,
23,
14713,
5,
1650,
509,
20271,
903,
14922,
450,
70,
14380,
122446,
6863,
158036,
28779,
214,
36272,
90,
5,
1650,
80723,
28813,
449,
23,
70,
5316,
6,
10060,
136,
14877,
6,
10060,
61112,
111,
12801,
87696,
2926,
75457,
33816,
28779,
214,
5,
32255,
15528,
7,
4,
102971,
121392,
538,
18831,
73,
297,
4,
3542,
41207,
538,
4552,
168296,
678,
15528,
7,
1295,
70,
113138,
89176,
31461,
3387,
6044,
237,
66160,
27991,
102,
4,
28378,
1704,
136,
68583,
5,
581,
10052,
1511,
836,
418,
5404,
731,
102,
5173,
68518,
14753,
31,
720,
4331,
1556,
24209,
47989,
1771,
87420,
24453,
9022,
14713,
4,
49002,
4,
39272,
136,
39485,
5,
5404,
731,
102,
4911,
7,
100512,
38720,
763,
111,
6097,
47806,
7,
5,
360,
70,
31060,
10052,
1511,
181653,
70,
121392,
538,
175961,
44,
196707,
17376,
4598,
58,
54709,
3299,
678,
10,
14877,
6,
10060,
310,
617,
87907,
4,
126809,
390,
70,
185118,
25408,
1814,
343,
3561,
11468,
5,
3293,
175961,
15528,
4,
678,
41929,
645,
31251,
7384,
7,
44645,
4,
611,
3502,
3132,
4,
15045,
175870,
72397,
11728,
4,
8759,
72689,
100,
1224,
136,
82735,
25,
19060,
188,
6,
98529,
111758,
3408,
22230,
4,
181653,
99,
106,
102525,
6,
10681,
39,
678,
10,
38132,
38352,
111,
30183,
1785,
64,
127,
5,
581,
310,
11565,
69307,
71,
40368,
4127,
50339,
12,
70,
2965,
8035,
23,
32158,
4,
99,
70,
103655,
31,
89262,
301,
66,
12801,
87696,
3229,
122505,
12397,
6512,
433,
122799,
17932,
50155,
24277,
157,
57181,
2217,
98,
1919,
14877,
6,
10060,
99705,
5,
360,
29172,
4,
70,
15528,
39555,
23742,
70,
66724,
19,
12801,
87696,
5,
17106,
1660,
10846,
57904,
47,
738,
23,
70,
45712,
70,
10052,
1511,
509,
105207,
31631,
52621,
152424,
93,
25,
7,
66160,
27991,
102,
3229,
442,
1902,
47,
90223,
678,
135969,
289,
44402,
5,
360,
29172,
10052,
1511,
32997,
297,
12801,
87696,
33816,
28779,
214,
130412,
7,
23,
12989,
47,
142156,
13,
6863,
79825,
98,
17498,
95665,
4,
10,
40715,
135587,
3173,
111,
130412,
5,
10052,
1511,
77443,
47,
186,
5045,
1286,
65771,
678,
17498,
95665,
136,
100512,
5299,
51529,
100,
6863,
113138,
6626,
9,
6639,
350,
5773,
9,
52562,
2926,
75457,
7,
5,
10660,
3542,
70,
5117,
14380,
47,
4527,
14700,
66,
6889,
1608,
26278,
7,
23,
2363,
146353,
137158,
7,
5,
133698,
70,
23936,
7,
4,
1836,
2806,
24209,
70,
73944,
37772,
23,
5773,
9,
52562,
130412,
4,
6,
69986,
59671,
12801,
87696,
33100,
95665,
6661,
161912,
7,
136,
35462,
1916,
70,
8357,
84247,
10013,
4699,
289,
5,
3311,
70,
19340,
7,
4,
678,
70,
68451,
111,
23,
83613,
33,
29888,
136,
121392,
538,
175961,
148926,
2926,
75457,
7,
4,
10052,
1511,
72856,
142,
118055,
12008,
111,
70,
2926,
75457,
16839,
5,
70599,
71407,
4,
5941,
111,
70,
76106,
7,
65771,
538,
53918,
11226,
297,
390,
10052,
1511,
4,
3542,
71200,
71,
390,
70,
148926,
31461,
3387,
5,
360,
13867,
70,
2926,
75457,
32845,
206,
111,
10052,
1511,
509,
123997,
390,
70,
89176,
2926,
75457,
142901,
42,
2041,
735,
330,
4,
2750,
179140,
47,
4527,
70,
103655,
31461,
3387,
47,
45367,
2363,
10002,
8796,
111,
2926,
75457,
7,
237,
5299,
237,
3525,
10052,
1511,
136,
16035,
115774,
5,
581,
200569,
165523,
23,
10586,
4743,
47,
2041,
735,
330,
25,
7,
53477,
34844,
3387,
136,
70,
10052,
1511,
2926,
75457,
8796,
23409,
1810,
111,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
77971,
97,
35724,
77222,
15,
8487,
1511,
10,
5,
7,
5,
16,
83,
10,
103655,
14380,
27024,
214,
100,
92,
104501,
7,
111874,
136,
82761,
7,
100,
70,
153532,
53099,
4,
442,
83,
36770,
11476,
56859,
7,
142901,
42,
4,
2843,
51529,
100,
20662,
10052,
1511,
2926,
75457,
7,
5,
10052,
1511,
509,
170920,
237,
10,
32845,
206,
111,
70,
139457,
27985,
7,
45200,
674,
23,
7832,
265,
3466,
4,
103655,
31,
89262,
15565,
23,
6088,
45913,
5,
360,
70,
40250,
111,
14753,
31,
720,
36049,
5036,
136622,
5404,
731,
102,
15366,
7,
14380,
4,
3129,
10002,
7,
70,
38109,
47,
70,
8796,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1706688 | en-train-1706688 | 1706688 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Motorcycle Development."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Work started on the construction of the first workshops of the arms factory originally called Jihočeská zbrojovka (\"South Bohemian Armament Works\"). The company merged with an arms manufacturing plant in Vejprty and with a factory in Prague in 1922. This gave rise to the formation of a stock company whose name translates as \"Czech Armament Works in Prague of the Manufacturing Plant in Strakonice\". It produced pistols, air guns, and automatic guns which all became successful products. In 1929 the growth of the Czech Armament Works reached a turning point. With the downturn in weapons sales after World War I, the company acquired a bicycle parts manufacturing plant in Kralupy nad Vltavou on the Vltava River. Bicycle exports destined for several countries in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America started to expand. Production of motor-driven bicycles started in 1932. Three years later the first motorcycles made in Strakonice entered the market. This marked the beginning of an era of great success for the ČZ brand. In a short time the company became the biggest manufacturer of motorcycles in Czechoslovakia. Consequently, business success resulted in a further extension of production activities by introducing chain and machine tool production. During the Second World War the factory came under German occupation and was converted to the manufacture of war materials. Like most large industrial enterprises this stock company was nationalized in 1946. Due to the post-war political situation, firearms production in the Strakonice plant was ended. The company changed after the motorcycle brand went out of production in the 1990s and started focusing on manufacturing car components, like turbochargers, besides its traditional production of chains, tools, moulds, castings and machine tools. Since 1999, Desta forklifts have been manufactured in ČZ Strakonice.",
"Motorcycle development and production as well as competition victories in 1950s and 1960s enabled the ČZ brand to be among the world’s most successful makers of competition and street motorcycles. After World War II, ČZ was the second largest motorcycle manufacturer in Europe. It was during this period that the company experienced its greatest racing successes. It began competing in the 250 cc and 350 cc classes of Grand Prix motorcycle road racing. These bikes, although technically refined, were rarely very competitive with bikes from the powerful Italian factories such as MV Agusta, Gilera and Mondial. The ČZ 501 Čezeta (1957) scooter design has become iconic throughout Eastern Europe, Russia, Vietnam and Cuba. Čezeta thus became Vespa of these Republics. In the 1969 ČZ produced the technically advanced \"Type-860\" GP model with a 350 cc V4 engine, developed by the engineer Frantisek Pudil. This advanced bike, with double overhead camshaft, 16 valves, 8-speed gearbox, Ceriani forks and Dell'Orto SSI carburetors, produced at 16,000 rpm with a maximum speed of 240 km/h. The V-4 achieved several good results: the best being in 1971, at the Czechoslovakian Grand Prix when Bohumil Stasa finished second behind Jarno Saarinen on his 350 cc Yamaha. In 1972, the bike almost won the Austrian Grand Prix. With just few laps to go in the race the ČZ was leading Giacomo Agostini's MV Agusta when it had to retire with mechanical problems. In 1972 ČZ abandoned Grand Prix road racing competitions in order to concentrate its efforts on motocross, a less expensive form of competition. ČZ proved to be much more successful with motocross and became well known for its powerful two-stroke off-road motorcycles. They were the first company to use expansion chambers in their exhaust pipes. During the 1960s, they would become the dominant force in off-road competition, winning seven Grand Prix Motocross World Championships and dominating the International Six Day Trial. By the 1970s, with the advent of inexpensive and technically advanced Japanese motorcycles, ČZ lost an increasing share of the motorcycle market. Ironically, many of the innovations successfully pioneered by ČZ, were copied by the Japanese factories. In 1993 the motorcycle branch of ČZ was bought by the Italian motorcycle manufacturer Cagiva, who intended to use the Czech factories to build their own brand of motorcycles as well as new ČZ and Jawa models. The venture failed in 1997 due to Cagiva's financial difficulties and the ČZ motorcycle brand went out of production. Since 2018, the company Čezeta Motors is producing electric scooters Čezeta 506."
]
} |
Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie | null | Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie d'Arrast (3 January 1810 – 19 March 1897) was an Irish-born French explorer, geographer, ethnologist, linguist and astronomer notable for his travels in Ethiopia during the first half of the 19th century. He was the older brother of Arnaud Michel d'Abbadie, with whom he travelled. | null | [
250004,
250054,
104,
25,
7614,
28220,
509,
103122,
10,
56101,
28368,
4,
23,
96869,
4,
122963,
4,
1295,
10,
2878,
25958,
12506,
944,
110,
2661,
14449,
111,
70,
92265,
140280,
111,
99837,
13,
5,
18763,
67373,
4,
44767,
115880,
7814,
4,
509,
103122,
23,
69253,
271,
9,
866,
32055,
9014,
34,
136,
1919,
42732,
509,
120552,
5,
18763,
9963,
1021,
9319,
16162,
9,
196243,
509,
10,
21,
53,
1563,
9190,
136,
10,
86661,
53,
23,
99837,
13,
5,
581,
14449,
109133,
47,
9942,
23,
543,
1819,
7440,
70,
82953,
7,
75204,
10,
517,
7844,
57456,
53019,
5,
360,
543,
3768,
4,
180611,
75204,
10,
192360,
25,
7,
79385,
23,
219167,
5,
13794,
214,
23,
543,
4235,
4,
764,
80723,
1919,
53019,
23,
7270,
4,
7440,
764,
22282,
71,
27165,
5,
1529,
139505,
89253,
478,
89811,
8,
12190,
9,
116858,
1179,
98,
952,
22482,
192888,
4,
136,
9615,
6259,
23,
115730,
27041,
7440,
764,
59038,
71,
5316,
528,
47,
45367,
10,
37702,
133,
4,
136,
100512,
70,
15333,
111,
70,
26349,
1295,
159983,
47,
168707,
5,
115880,
7814,
509,
10,
472,
54350,
111,
70,
206010,
111,
13015,
34639,
4,
3129,
764,
75204,
98,
1438,
6088,
127357,
4,
136,
10,
32786,
111,
70,
92265,
62903,
111,
28745,
7,
5,
1529,
68,
71,
23,
117430,
4,
136,
186,
944,
257,
5252,
70,
115880,
428,
77758,
136,
37702,
133,
23,
115730,
27041,
4,
113,
11896,
6238,
6,
160012,
37863,
7,
10,
6602,
4,
47,
70,
62903,
111,
28745,
7,
4,
98,
35431,
1836,
27489,
10,
221636,
111,
23552,
10,
19879,
6057,
7,
28032,
809,
2480,
53,
5369,
5,
360,
543,
5843,
70,
92265,
62903,
9325,
180611,
98,
10,
57456,
29752,
47,
30089,
4,
70,
50339,
8035,
91376,
99,
10,
14432,
5622,
7435,
13574,
16,
1379,
70,
44759,
111,
44,
46471,
65756,
5256,
35845,
7,
253,
21,
85701,
115,
32363,
13,
89983,
531,
335,
38385,
379,
82,
22,
3050,
4450,
31,
5066,
740,
360,
543,
10945,
4,
70,
6626,
82953,
7,
26859,
100,
57811,
4,
132260,
99,
96945,
634,
23,
22482,
543,
10991,
5,
10660,
120696,
297,
87420,
57811,
4,
26983,
2069,
237,
2060,
127067,
237,
70,
117604,
111,
1136,
17123,
4,
68018,
25842,
136,
68018,
84797,
538,
5,
360,
66044,
47,
1919,
96335,
23,
70,
41664,
7,
4,
764,
146,
4126,
3934,
70,
68894,
588,
53,
1119,
56,
1916,
79507,
23,
1238,
141775,
111,
9942,
136,
70,
129574,
29752,
11,
10484,
5,
581,
6626,
82953,
7,
176377,
47,
9942,
23,
129706,
678,
73048,
98,
70,
700,
87168,
4,
700,
25443,
4,
6,
227780,
25443,
4,
136,
6083,
32692,
111,
70,
10776,
5,
180611,
100512,
75412,
23,
67842,
17340,
39799,
90,
33444,
214,
15044,
47,
1919,
20787,
48461,
289,
50339,
136,
1919,
68894,
6,
241522,
7,
5,
1529,
509,
41866,
52875,
297,
390,
28166,
5064,
34165,
873,
350,
4,
2750,
21980,
9387,
14534,
1919,
6864,
60089,
4,
41866,
678,
91067,
47,
70,
120696,
47,
59510,
5,
4966,
1733,
136,
70,
145456,
7,
111,
221419,
88898,
4295,
765,
127887,
450,
115880,
7814,
509,
32233,
63207,
93017,
53,
237,
47,
1919,
15824,
7,
4,
21208,
44691,
23,
1919,
10,
16865,
1363,
292,
8010,
538,
62757,
297,
390,
873,
350,
292,
450,
70,
22928,
1520,
133,
509,
70,
5201,
75973,
5,
581,
105352,
48461,
289,
50339,
111,
1919,
64222,
5256,
3542,
91376,
23,
7270,
17721,
128136,
136,
172457,
23,
44,
724,
446,
31,
41375,
478,
104,
25,
6642,
4450,
31,
5066,
830,
4393,
111,
70,
2684,
167224,
4677,
136,
58755,
3674,
390,
1492,
22288,
7,
5,
6619,
70,
44,
724,
446,
118392,
8,
96,
25,
6642,
4450,
31,
5066,
58,
15,
28636,
164,
4,
100439,
16,
4734,
1632,
21950,
509,
91376,
5,
360,
44,
14256,
150917,
13388,
44359,
733,
8,
236221,
7,
393,
4450,
2146,
37998,
58,
15,
28636,
164,
4,
192888,
16,
83,
10,
76811,
111,
131210,
125921,
29053,
32032,
7,
43799,
297,
390,
180611,
5,
1529,
2843,
375,
5974,
297,
67842,
190219,
10484,
4,
26719,
10,
44,
14055,
10763,
76070,
8,
21,
79897,
24647,
49976,
5708,
58,
15,
28636,
164,
4,
151258,
247,
136,
133888,
142,
79737,
111,
70,
44,
72859,
94266,
71,
111,
1840,
1510,
830,
678,
70,
42845,
11389,
4,
23,
128136,
5,
1529,
91376,
183851,
15122,
7,
184017,
678,
70,
700,
87168,
111,
57811,
4,
125921,
43780,
7,
136,
142,
45964,
6,
101287,
7,
5,
9626,
70,
44759,
111,
44,
4332,
2271,
30080,
7,
60502,
1697,
733,
36806,
58,
764,
91376,
23,
100439,
142,
15426,
111,
70,
214706,
150556,
7,
7228,
390,
4049,
23,
70,
15411,
111,
40368,
120696,
7,
47,
70,
6096,
27414,
136,
70,
636,
30624,
5,
581,
4537,
15426,
111,
70,
26983,
7,
111,
70,
6626,
82953,
7,
509,
91376,
390,
106094,
1674,
23,
166304,
1379,
70,
44759,
111,
44,
8331,
18299,
7210,
807,
21,
42522,
13,
231385,
5066,
740,
180611,
509,
102778,
100,
75973,
150,
592,
53088,
23,
20787,
988,
53,
4,
33233,
678,
26868,
214,
10,
3525,
3790,
246,
27287,
100,
163,
162,
53089,
55291,
7,
5,
12506,
944,
8305,
1919,
67373,
4,
115880,
7814,
126809,
10,
17311,
33946,
23,
70,
12506,
944,
83658,
7103,
41714,
54041,
37405,
51181,
33,
80469,
30738,
23,
9020,
5,
1529,
26859,
1919,
108858,
4488,
98,
12506,
944,
23,
48179,
5442,
62,
119578,
111,
15044,
99837,
35268,
136,
239,
4717,
27201,
4,
10,
45606,
18,
111,
239,
4717,
428,
4,
115880,
7814,
90698,
66570,
10,
12506,
944,
1295,
99837,
13,
5,
581,
5700,
2481,
111,
70,
146631,
44,
16737,
169,
1434,
344,
21947,
58,
83,
150380,
297,
47,
115880,
7814,
4,
43780,
297,
23,
70,
170846,
111,
70,
44,
15363,
107,
2177,
20791,
58,
12506,
944,
8395,
7,
450,
764,
1738,
56,
297,
5,
115880,
7814,
26038,
1919,
37702,
133,
5368,
70,
9351,
44,
24988,
68923,
11,
830,
3129,
83,
70,
9351,
7464,
11814,
23,
12506,
944,
5,
33306,
4,
23,
92265,
442,
83,
56104,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
44,
171126,
8918,
104,
25,
24988,
68923,
13,
58,
707,
44,
106098,
16182,
104,
25,
24988,
68923,
11,
830,
136,
4000,
538,
442,
83,
959,
225073,
100,
442,
47,
186,
35839,
44,
133,
18032,
8918,
104,
25,
7251,
188,
1212,
104,
25,
24988,
68923,
13,
740,
581,
212282,
509,
88303,
17721,
159992,
136,
176447,
98,
10,
6,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
180611,
112074,
1681,
104,
25,
24988,
68923,
13,
104,
25,
7614,
28220,
6896,
18982,
543,
963,
46,
953,
11994,
117430,
16,
509,
142,
120552,
9,
57332,
92265,
88898,
42,
4,
20787,
41382,
56,
4,
82,
127,
157,
106622,
4,
147158,
18,
136,
124931,
56,
135818,
100,
1919,
26983,
7,
23,
57811,
20271,
70,
5117,
23552,
111,
70,
953,
927,
142642,
5,
1529,
509,
70,
114210,
82953,
111,
106094,
1674,
44767,
104,
25,
24988,
68923,
13,
4,
678,
136565,
764,
26983,
6259,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-251618 | en-train-251618 | 251618 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Science and explorations.",
"Basque and bascophile.",
"Abbadia Castle.",
"Publications.",
"Awards and memberships."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"d'Arrast was born a British subject, in Dublin, Ireland, from a partially Basque noble family of the French province of Soule. His father, Michel Abbadie, was born in Arrast-Larrebieu and his mother was Irish. His grandfather Jean-Pierre was a lay abbot and a notary in Soule. The family moved to France in 1818 where the brothers received a careful scientific education. In 1827, Antoine received a bachelor's degree in Toulouse. Starting in 1829, he began his education in Paris, where he studied law. He married Virginie Vincent de Saint-Bonnet on 21 February 1859, and settled in Hendaye where he purchased 250ha to build a castle, and became the mayor of the city from 1871 to 1875. Abbadie was a knight of the Legion of Honour, which he received on 27 September 1850, and a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He died in 1897, and bequeathed the Abbadi domain and castle in Hendaye, yielding 40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition they produce a catalogue of half a million stars within fifty years.",
"In 1835 the French Academy sent Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results being published at a later date (1873) under the title of \"Observations relatives à la physique du globe faites au Brésil et en Éthiopie\". In 1837, the two brothers started for Ethiopia, landing at Massawa in February 1838. They journeyed throughout Ethiopia, travelling as far south as the Kingdom of Kaffa, sometimes together and sometimes separately. In addition to his studies in the sciences, he delved into the political fray exerting influence in favour of France and the Catholic missionaries. The two brothers returned to France in 1848 with notes on the geography, geology, archaeology, and natural history of the region. Antoine became involved in various controversies relating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues. He was especially attacked by Charles Tilstone Beke, who impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kana. But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong in his assertion — hotly contested by Beke — that the Blue Nile was the main stream. The topographical results of his explorations were published in Paris between 1860 and 1873 in \"Géodésie d'Éthiopie\", full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps. Of the \"Géographie de l'Éthiopie\" (Paris, 1890) only one volume was published. In \"Un Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits éthiopiens\" (Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, including a \"Dictionnaire de la langue amariñña\" (Paris, 1881), and prepared an edition of the \"Shepherd of Hermas\", with the Latin version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the geography of Ethiopia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. Under the title of \"Reconnaissances magnétiques\" he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant. The general account of the travels of the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of \"Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie\". Antoine was responsible for streamlining techniques in geodesy, along with inventing a new theodolite for measuring angles.",
"Basque through his father, Abbadie developed a particular interest in the Basque Language after meeting Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte in London. He started his academic work on Basque in 1852. A speaker of both Souletin and Lapurdian, a resident of Lapurdi, Abbadie considered himself a Basque from Soule. The popularity of the motto \"Zazpiak Bat\" is attributed to Abbadie, coined in the framework of the \"Lore Jokoak\" Basque festivals that he fostered.",
"Abbadie gave his castle home the name \"Abbadia\", which is the name still used in Basque. However, in French it is usually referred to as \"Chateau d'Abbadie\" or \"Domaine d'Abbadia\", and locally it is not unusual for it to be called \"le Chateau d'Antoine d'Abbadie\". The château was built between 1864 and 1879 on a cliff by the Atlantic Ocean, and was designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc in the Neo Gothic style. It is considered one of the most important examples of French Gothic Revival Architecture. It is divided in three parts: the observatory and library, the chapel, and the living quarters. The château still belongs to the Academy of Science to which it was bequeathed in 1895 on condition of its producing a catalogue of half-a-million stars within fifty years' time, with the work to be carried out by members of religious orders. The château was classified as a protected historical monument by France in 1984. Most of the château property now belongs to the Coastal Protection Agency, and is managed by the city of Hendaye.",
"",
"Antoine received the French Legion of Honor on 27 September 1850 with the order of chevalier or knight. He was a member of the Bureau des Longitudes and also the French Academy of Sciences. Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 1850."
]
} |
Random sequence | null | The concept of a random sequence is essential in probability theory and statistics. The concept generally relies on the notion of a sequence of random variables and many statistical discussions begin with the words "let "X"...,"X" be independent random variables...". Yet as D. H. Lehmer stated in 1951: "A random sequence is a vague notion... in which each term is unpredictable to the uninitiated and whose digits pass a certain number of tests traditional with statisticians". | null | [
250004,
250054,
7422,
19,
23,
13965,
982,
188,
4,
6653,
13722,
188,
509,
70,
775,
111,
163764,
9598,
991,
4,
10,
110,
2661,
669,
111,
12439,
6144,
136,
142,
28,
18695,
136,
16500,
12259,
30260,
111,
150675,
65536,
23,
1919,
5155,
4,
136,
1919,
58386,
1818,
5320,
8,
122835,
4,
10,
110,
2661,
3613,
669,
103122,
23,
353,
99726,
111,
1371,
7,
4398,
59665,
7,
5,
18763,
67373,
1902,
100,
5941,
5369,
2809,
104463,
53,
23,
70,
4516,
111,
87778,
1479,
1735,
115044,
4043,
4,
54041,
111,
33965,
37599,
4,
136,
1919,
42732,
509,
20903,
538,
162711,
678,
70,
2684,
223847,
10821,
799,
11,
74132,
66,
87143,
5,
14847,
4,
20271,
70,
25299,
25,
7,
29041,
44462,
4,
70,
54631,
111,
33965,
37599,
21449,
3934,
61770,
6889,
678,
70,
195374,
27759,
111,
353,
99726,
4,
8035,
221419,
538,
1810,
143,
24243,
136,
8,
5293,
4126,
111,
1919,
200729,
1294,
5618,
17447,
4,
9598,
991,
25,
7,
67373,
99764,
1919,
32926,
25,
7,
87714,
5,
1529,
509,
502,
164779,
297,
10,
77142,
47,
70,
11341,
4,
33233,
678,
1919,
775,
6653,
13722,
188,
4,
136,
1919,
31526,
432,
299,
509,
40,
944,
1515,
297,
5,
360,
423,
12744,
6653,
13722,
188,
509,
38043,
678,
1919,
42732,
136,
1919,
4734,
114015,
74352,
399,
99,
353,
99726,
4,
7398,
1159,
214,
1919,
53019,
1379,
70,
49659,
14481,
4,
2750,
1902,
78684,
142096,
10,
10696,
2685,
5,
581,
118562,
60089,
111,
62449,
8996,
18,
136,
70,
167821,
1592,
965,
474,
111,
70,
25299,
110281,
297,
4537,
61113,
1363,
5,
1913,
70,
32070,
111,
136659,
764,
509,
21771,
170277,
5,
1061,
191,
7103,
903,
5622,
764,
509,
107003,
47,
33284,
1919,
67373,
4,
2750,
7068,
158930,
23,
6782,
234694,
136,
51,
109308,
53,
674,
23,
1119,
1340,
23,
51651,
5,
1833,
157578,
2856,
23,
423,
13683,
450,
1818,
5320,
9598,
991,
1902,
68,
71,
186683,
136,
759,
1515,
14,
79850,
99,
353,
99726,
5,
1840,
71390,
509,
11037,
538,
122991,
71,
450,
2412,
1902,
2809,
5737,
191,
297,
390,
604,
82953,
678,
70,
36746,
111,
20949,
6226,
645,
604,
57266,
5,
1301,
442,
221419,
538,
73659,
4,
1818,
5320,
25,
7,
97761,
8306,
60887,
297,
47,
604,
775,
74,
136,
70,
76849,
74352,
399,
139505,
35064,
604,
127319,
4,
99,
70,
23,
25774,
2320,
111,
604,
57988,
289,
35845,
7,
5,
9598,
991,
25,
7,
67373,
509,
10,
30260,
390,
1653,
1340,
10763,
136,
10,
23182,
29685,
6815,
5,
228072,
4,
3229,
142,
73432,
99,
70,
29685,
111,
4143,
63885,
509,
122399,
23,
423,
12243,
4,
163764,
9598,
991,
9525,
538,
68186,
71,
442,
5,
581,
27150,
6653,
13722,
188,
4,
10,
3535,
43452,
136,
230451,
21,
71,
4,
100512,
70,
226792,
23,
29681,
136,
96335,
111,
108520,
5379,
832,
107059,
13,
4,
6,
150621,
47,
70,
5080,
111,
4143,
63885,
5,
1913,
4143,
63885,
10,
100510,
111,
98174,
3674,
453,
237360,
71,
70,
10,
13,
237398,
136,
82575,
53,
96335,
3129,
3542,
7068,
23,
2244,
6261,
5,
163764,
9598,
991,
12301,
31186,
7,
111,
1919,
85745,
44,
866,
25,
284,
192,
114783,
58,
47,
70,
115,
17007,
7,
136,
604,
21,
34204,
4,
707,
45252,
297,
70,
75688,
7,
111,
2005,
42,
136,
10421,
8726,
4,
4699,
63300,
31,
136,
37814,
43363,
4,
678,
70,
5080,
25,
7,
35773,
9893,
7,
136,
104463,
3387,
5,
6653,
13722,
188,
3514,
434,
1257,
23,
142,
225748,
111,
18831,
73,
297,
44752,
44616,
136,
208806,
50426,
109109,
35778,
8780,
4,
15044,
111,
3129,
26038,
10,
28123,
70334,
47,
1919,
62816,
5,
1913,
2609,
3466,
4,
7440,
1919,
67373,
23409,
47,
1601,
29272,
71,
70,
2448,
1916,
111,
1919,
10002,
28,
18695,
4,
44,
284,
192,
114783,
58,
20808,
88586,
4,
6097,
79507,
7,
136475,
5,
1529,
14037,
66570,
70,
8093,
136,
143082,
3432,
111,
10,
157167,
67175,
82575,
53,
42154,
133,
1284,
163764,
1902,
134729,
297,
23,
1919,
10002,
80997,
221,
147115,
1295,
6,
215131,
98,
1919,
32562,
7,
136,
70,
110,
83259,
4,
450,
764,
5036,
83324,
71,
98,
10,
116172,
4935,
40124,
100,
1919,
775,
5,
6653,
13722,
188,
509,
9325,
47,
35187,
27165,
99,
169502,
11,
5,
175399,
111,
59911,
214,
66570,
47,
27165,
4,
70,
27150,
332,
2965,
2600,
71,
756,
1919,
35743,
54799,
6,
119598,
53,
136,
30260,
1294,
5,
117371,
70,
3564,
111,
423,
10837,
4,
764,
1902,
181653,
10,
77488,
76456,
9,
4398,
188,
28,
18695,
85745,
35839,
44,
23267,
6236,
246,
830,
3129,
509,
131148,
47,
70163,
70,
20324,
2481,
111,
70,
10421,
47755,
66,
678,
70,
110281,
17514,
111,
70,
79880,
28,
18695,
5,
360,
70,
99,
25500,
674,
111,
903,
36746,
4,
136,
23,
756,
70,
43967,
14768,
2449,
111,
20623,
136,
45064,
4,
44,
23267,
6236,
246,
58,
168360,
94419,
7311,
2481,
4,
102971,
3789,
63920,
48903,
51,
48310,
67175,
136,
139647,
53,
70,
1556,
67,
23,
3129,
70,
85745,
509,
150350,
71,
5,
89726,
2347,
9393,
4,
6863,
42179,
509,
125296,
71,
237,
70,
2684,
64004,
214,
27150,
30260,
111,
1919,
1733,
5,
581,
49878,
720,
297,
67373,
107003,
70,
4488,
47,
186,
28412,
297,
74,
136,
4,
7103,
10,
16610,
14922,
111,
35187,
99,
111930,
4,
764,
78205,
71,
47,
1919,
775,
25,
7,
22,
33558,
70,
4516,
111,
181021,
183964,
104,
25,
96988,
5,
31267,
8108,
450,
5622,
4,
70,
27150,
9598,
991,
1902,
2809,
10,
103351,
9105,
1290,
99,
70,
3224,
29685,
23,
87778,
219,
4,
7440,
23,
423,
11540,
764,
1902,
190647,
297,
128270,
13,
5320,
3419,
428,
5670,
4,
1632,
111,
12701,
66,
4341,
104,
25,
96988,
25,
7,
21,
34204,
9,
73,
9,
634,
14,
1916,
4,
136,
91148,
23,
5161,
678,
604,
5,
4687,
100512,
70,
29823,
7039,
111,
1919,
5117,
36549,
111,
5161,
775,
1179,
7,
4,
47,
186,
134629,
23,
423,
15748,
390,
41193,
1460,
1264,
2514,
4,
70,
11737,
36746,
111,
9598,
991,
25,
7,
52490,
17514,
5,
15,
12647,
927,
128270,
13,
5320,
136,
41193,
1902,
23,
70,
29459,
6032,
24209,
5299,
51529,
5367,
1314,
4,
136,
100,
10,
12960,
9598,
991,
37202,
47,
765,
29685,
297,
2856,
15044,
5,
16,
28090,
423,
12424,
4,
9598,
991,
25,
7,
6897,
509,
27585,
297,
98,
70,
37702,
133,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
23755,
111,
10,
96759,
40,
944,
3956,
83,
85590,
23,
37242,
2481,
154453,
136,
80835,
7,
5,
581,
23755,
137567,
28702,
90,
98,
70,
110,
1363,
111,
10,
40,
944,
3956,
111,
96759,
77336,
7,
136,
5941,
80835,
289,
35107,
7,
9842,
678,
70,
34153,
44,
1974,
44,
1542,
42940,
4,
58,
1542,
58,
186,
41371,
96759,
77336,
7,
7673,
5,
63519,
237,
391,
5,
572,
5,
51300,
1991,
11341,
71,
23,
59782,
12,
44,
284,
96759,
40,
944,
3956,
83,
10,
307,
6261,
110,
1363,
27,
23,
3129,
12638,
13579,
83,
51,
19714,
1771,
22819,
47,
70,
51,
943,
118,
27686,
136,
124901,
153939,
7,
27875,
10,
24233,
14012,
111,
109921,
89160,
678,
80835,
72004,
740,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2305565 | en-train-2305565 | 2305565 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Early life.",
"France and Ferrara.",
"The \"Gerusalemme Liberata\".",
"Difficult relationships in the Court of Ferrara.",
"In the madhouse of St. Anna.",
"Late years.",
"Other works.",
"Mental illness.",
"English translations.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Born in Sorrento, Torquato was the son of Bernardo Tasso, a nobleman of Bergamo and an epic and lyric poet of considerable fame in his day, and his wife Porzia de Rossi, a noblewoman born in Naples of Tuscan origins. His father had for many years been secretary in the service of Ferrante Sanseverino, Prince of Salerno, and his mother was closely connected with the most illustrious Neapolitan families. When, during the boy's childhood, the prince of Salerno came into collision with the Spanish government of Naples, being subsequently outlawed and deprived of his hereditary fiefs, Tasso's father shared his patron's fate. He was proclaimed a rebel to the state, along with his son Torquato, and his patrimony was sequestered. In 1552 Torquato was living with his mother and his only sister Cornelia at Naples, pursuing his education under the Jesuits, who had recently opened a school there. The precocity of intellect and the religious fervour of the boy attracted general admiration. At the age of eight he was already famous. Soon after this date he was allowed to join his father, who then lived in great poverty and unemployment in exile in Rome. News reached them in 1556 that Porzia Tasso had died suddenly and mysteriously at Naples. Her husband was firmly convinced that she had been poisoned by her brother with the object of getting control over her property. As it subsequently happened, Porzia's estate never descended to her son; and the daughter Cornelia married below her birth, at the instigation of her maternal relatives. Tasso's father was a poet by predilection and a professional courtier. Therefore, when an opening at the court of Urbino was offered in 1557, Bernardo Tasso gladly accepted it. The young Torquato, a handsome and brilliant lad, became the companion in sports and studies of Francesco Maria della Rovere, heir to the duke of Urbino. At Urbino a society of cultivated men pursued the aesthetic and literary studies which were then in vogue. Bernardo Tasso read cantos of his poem \"L'Amadigi\" to the duchess and her ladies, or discussed the merits of Homer and Virgil, Trissino and Ariosto, with the duke's librarians and secretaries. Torquato grew up in an atmosphere of refined luxury and somewhat pedantic criticism, both of which gave a permanent tone to his character. At Venice, where his father went to superintend the printing of his own epic, \"Amadigi\" (1560), these influences continued. He found himself the pet and prodigy of a distinguished literary circle but Bernardo had suffered in his own career so seriously from dependence on his writings and the nobility, that he now determined on a lucrative profession for his son. Torquato was sent to study law at Padua. Instead of applying himself to law, the young man bestowed all his attention upon philosophy and poetry. Before the end of 1562, he had produced a twelve-canto epic poem called \"Rinaldo\", which was meant to combine the regularity of the Virgilian with the attractions of the romantic epic. In the attainment of this object, and in all the minor qualities of style and handling, \"Rinaldo\" showed marked originality, although other parts seem unfinished and betray the haste in which the poem was composed. Nevertheless, its author was recognized as the most promising young poet of his time. The flattered father allowed the work to be printed; and, after a short period of study at Bologna, he consented to his son's entering the service of Cardinal Luigi d'Este. Even before that date, the young Tasso had been a frequent visitor at the Este court in Ferrara, where in 1561 he had encountered Lucrezia Bendidio, one of Eleanora d'Este's ladies-in-waiting, and fallen in love with her. She became the addressee of his first series of love sonnets, to be followed in 1563 by Laura Peperara, the next object of Tasso's affections. (Both Lucrezia and Laura had in the meantime become well known singers, and for a while Tasso seems to have courted them both.)",
"From 1565, Tasso's life was centered on the castle at Ferrara, the scene of many later glories and cruel sufferings. After the publication of \"Rinaldo\" he had expressed his views upon the epic in some \"Discourses on the Art of Poetry\", which committed him to a distinct theory and gained for him the additional celebrity of a philosophical critic. The next five years seem to have been the happiest of Tasso's life, although his father's death in 1569 caused his affectionate nature profound pain. Young, handsome, accomplished in all the exercises of a well-bred gentleman, accustomed to the society of the great and learned, illustrious by his published works in verse and prose, he became the idol of the most brilliant court in Italy. The first two books of his five-hundred-odd love poems were addressed to Lucrezia Bendidio and Laura Peverara. The princesses Lucrezia and Eleonora d'Este, both unmarried, both his seniors by about ten years, took him under their protection. He was admitted to their familiarity. He owed much to the constant kindness of both sisters. In 1570 he traveled to Paris with the cardinal. Frankness of speech and a certain habitual want of tact caused a disagreement with his worldly patron. He left France next year, and took service under Duke Alfonso II of Ferrara, the Cardinal's brother. The most important events in Tasso's biography during the following four years are the completion of \"Aminta\" in 1573 and \"Gerusalemme Liberata\" in 1574. \"Aminta\" is a pastoral drama of very simple plot, but of exquisite lyrical charm. It appeared at the moment when music, under the influence of composers like Palestrina, Monteverdi, Marenzio and others, was becoming the dominant art of Italy. The honeyed melodies and sensuous melancholy of \"Aminta\" exactly suited and interpreted the spirit of its age. Its influence, in opera and cantata, was felt through two successive centuries. \"Aminta\", played by courtiers in an island of Po river where the duke had his \"Giardino di delizie\", was first printed by Aldo Manuzio in Venice in January 1581. A Croatian translation of \"Aminta\" by the poet Dominko Zlatarić, \"Ljubmir, pripovijest pastijerska\", was printed one year before the original, also in Venice.",
"The \"Gerusalemme Liberata\" or \"Jerusalem Delivered\" occupies a larger space in the history of European literature, and is a more considerable work. Yet the commanding qualities of this epic poem, those which revealed Tasso's individuality, and which made it immediately pass into the rank of classics, beloved by the people no less than by persons of culture, are akin to the lyrical graces of \"Aminta\". In the \"Gerusalemme Liberata\", as in the \"Rinaldo\", Tasso aimed at ennobling the Italian epic style by preserving strict unity of plot and heightening poetic diction. He chose Virgil for his model, took the first crusade for subject, infused the fervor of religion into his conception of the hero, Godfrey. But his natural bent was for romance. As he had done in \"Rinaldo,\" Tasso adorned \"Gerusalemme Liberata\" with a number of romantic episodes, which have proved more popular and influential than the grand sweep of the main theme. Thus, while the nominal hero of \"Gerusalemme Liberata\" is Godfrey of Bouillon (\"Goffredo\"), the leader of the First Crusade and the climax of the epic is the capture of the holy city. But Tasso's Goffredo, who is a mixture of Virgil's pious Aeneas and Tridentine Catholicism, is not the real hero of the epic. Instead, the reader is attracted to the stories of Ruggiero, fiery and passionate Rinaldo, melancholy and impulsive Tancredi, and also by the chivalrous Saracens with whom they clash in love and war. The action of the epic turns on three stories of interaction between noble beautiful pagan women and these Crusaders. \"Armida\", a beautiful witch, is sent forth by the infernal senate to sow discord in the Christian camp. Instead, she is converted to the true faith by her adoration for a crusading knight, and quits the scene with a phrase of the Virgin Mary on her lips. Clorinda, a brave female warrior, dons armor like Ariosto's Marfisa, fights a duel with her devoted lover, and receives baptism at his hands as she lies dying. Finally, Erminia, hopelessly in love with Tancredi, seeks refuge in the shepherds' hut. These stories rivet the reader's attention, while the battles, religious ceremonies, conclaves and stratagems of the campaign are less engaging. Tasso's great invention as an artist was the poetry of sentiment. Sentiment, not sentimentality, gives value to what is immortal in the \"Gerusalemme\". It was a new thing in the 16th century, something concordant with a growing feeling for woman and with the ascendant art of music. This sentiment, refined, noble, natural, steeped in melancholy, exquisitely graceful, pathetically touching, breathes throughout the episodes of the \"Gerusalemme\", finds metrical expression in the languishing cadence of its mellifluous verse, and sustains the ideal life of those seductive heroines whose names were familiar as household words to all Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. The epic was finished in Tasso's thirty-first year; when the manuscripts lay before him the best part of his life was over, his best work had been already accomplished. Troubles immediately began to gather round him. Instead of having the courage to obey his own instinct, and to publish the \"Gerusalemme\" as he had conceived it, he yielded to the excessive scrupulosity which formed a feature of his paranoid character. The poem was sent in manuscript to a large committee of eminent literary men, Tasso expressing his willingness to hear their strictures and to adopt their suggestions unless he could convert them to his own views. The result was that each of these candid friends, while expressing in general high admiration for the epic, took some exception to its plot, its title, its moral tone, its episodes or its diction, in detail. One wished it to be more regularly classical; another wanted more romance. One hinted that the Inquisition would not tolerate its supernatural machinery; another demanded the excision of its most charming passages, the loves of \"Armida\", \"Clorinda\" and \"Erminia\". Tasso had to defend himself against all these ineptitudes and pedantries, and to accommodate his practice to the theories he had rashly expressed. Tasso's self-chosen critics were not men to admit what the public has since accepted as incontrovertible. They vaguely felt that a great and beautiful romantic poem was imbedded in a dull and not very correct epic. In their uneasiness they suggested every course but the right one, which was to publish the \"Gerusalemme\" without further dispute. Tasso, already overworked by his precocious studies, by exciting court-life and exhausting literary industry, now grew almost mad with worry. His health began to fail him. He complained of headache, suffered from malarious fevers, and wished to leave Ferrara. The \"Gerusalemme\" was laid in manuscript upon a shelf. He opened negotiations with the court of Florence for an exchange of service. This irritated the duke of Ferrara. Alfonso hated nothing more than to see courtiers (especially famous ones) leave him for a rival duchy. Moreover, Alfonso was married to a French Calvinist princess and thus justly worried about antagonizing the more orthodox powers in Italy, concentrated in Florence and Rome.",
"Alfonso thought, moreover, that, if Tasso were allowed to go, the Medici would get the coveted dedication of that already famous epic. Therefore, he bore with the poet's humors, and so contrived that the latter should have no excuse for quitting Ferrara. Meanwhile, through the years 1575, 1576 and 1577, Tasso's health grew worse. Jealousy inspired the courtiers to malign and insult him. His irritable and suspicious temper, vain and sensitive to slights, rendered him only too easy a prey to their malevolence. In the course of the 1570s Tasso developed a persecution mania which led to legends about the restless, half-mad, and misunderstood author. He became consumed by thoughts that his servants betrayed his confidence, fancied he had been denounced to the Inquisition, and expected daily to be poisoned. Literary and political events surrounding him contributed to upsets and the mental state, with troubles, stress and social troubles escalating. In the autumn of 1576 Tasso quarrelled with a Ferrarese gentleman, Maddalo, who had talked too freely about some same-sex love affair; the same year he wrote a letter to his homosexual friend Luca Scalabrino dealing with his own love for a 21-year-old young man Orazio Ariosto; in the summer of 1577 he drew his knife upon a servant in the presence of Lucrezia d'Este, duchess of Urbino. For this excess he was arrested; but the duke released him, and took him for a change of air to his country seat of Villa Belriguardo. What happened there is not known. Some biographers have surmised that a compromising liaison with Leonora d'Este came to light, and that Tasso agreed to feign madness in order to cover her honor, but of this there is no proof. It is only certain that from Belriguardo he returned to a Franciscan convent at Ferrara, for the express purpose of attending to his health. There the dread of being murdered by the duke took firm hold on his mind. He escaped at the end of July, disguised himself as a peasant, and went on foot to his sister at Sorrento. The conclusions were that Tasso, after the beginning of 1575, became the victim of a mental malady, which, without amounting to actual insanity, rendered him fantastical and insupportable, a cause of anxiety to his patrons. There is no evidence whatsoever for the later romantic myth that this state of things was due to an overwhelming passion for Leonora. The duke, contrary to his image as a tyrant, showed considerable forbearance. Though a rigid and unsympathetic man, as egotistical as any princeling of his era, to Tasso he was never cruel; unintelligent perhaps, but far from being that monster of ferocity as which was later portrayed. The subsequent history of his connection with the poet corroborates this view. While with his sister at Sorrento, Tasso yearned for Ferrara. The court-made man could not breathe freely outside its charmed circle. He wrote humbly requesting to be taken back. Alfonso consented, provided Tasso would agree to undergo a medical course of treatment for his melancholy. When he returned, which he did with alacrity under those conditions, he was well received by the ducal family. All might have gone well if his old maladies had not revived. Scene followed scene of irritability, moodiness, suspicion, wounded vanity and violent outbursts.",
"In the summer of 1578 he ran away again; traveled through Mantua, Padua, Venice, Urbino, Lombardy. In September he reached the gates of Turin on foot, and was courteously entertained by Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy. Wherever he went, wandering like the world's rejected guest, he met with the honor due to his illustrious name. Great folk opened their houses to him gladly, partly in compassion, partly in admiration of his genius. But he soon wearied of their society, and wore their kindness thin by his querulous peevishness. It seemed, moreover, that life was intolerable to him outside Ferrara. Accordingly, he once more opened negotiations with the duke; and in February 1579 he again set foot in the castle. Alfonso was about to contract his third marriage, this time with a princess of the house of Mantua. He had no children, and unless he got an heir, there was a probability that his state would fall, as in fact it eventually did, to the Holy See. The nuptial festivals, on the eve of which Tasso arrived, were not therefore an occasion of great rejoicing for the elderly bridegroom. As a forlorn hope he had to wed a third wife; but his heart was not engaged and his expectations were far from sanguine. Tasso, preoccupied as always with his own sorrows and his own sense of dignity, made no allowance for the troubles of his master. Rooms below his rank, he thought, had been assigned him; the Duke was engaged. Without exercising common patience, or giving his old friends the benefit of a doubt, he broke into terms of open abuse, behaved like a lunatic, and was sent off without ceremony to the madhouse of St. Anna. This happened in March 1579; and there he remained until July 1586. Duke Alfonso's long-sufferance at last had given way. He firmly believed that Tasso was insane, and he felt that if he were so St. Anna was the safest place for him. After the first few months of his incarceration he obtained spacious apartments, received the visits of friends, went abroad attended by responsible persons of his acquaintance, and was allowed to correspond freely with others. The letters written from St. Anna to the princes and cities of Italy, to warm well-wishers, and to men of the highest reputation in the world of art and learning, form the most valuable source of information, not only on his then condition, but also on his temperament at large. It is singular that he spoke always respectfully, even affectionately, of the Duke. Some critics have attempted to make it appear that he was hypocritically kissing the hand which had chastised him, with the view of being released from prison, but no one who has impartially considered the whole tone and tenor of his epistles will adopt this opinion. What emerges clearly from them is that he labored under a serious mental disease, and that he was conscious of it. Meanwhile, he occupied his uneasy leisure with copious compositions. The mass of his prose dialogues on philosophical and ethical themes, which is very considerable, belong to the years of imprisonment in St. Anna. Except for occasional odes or sonnets—some written at request, others inspired by his keen sense of suffering and therefore poignant—he neglected poetry. In the year 1580, he heard that part of the \"Gerusalemme\" was being published without his permission and without his corrections. The following year, the whole poem was given to the world, and in the following six months seven editions issued from the press. The prisoner of St. Anna had no control over his editors; and from the masterpiece which placed him on the level of Petrarch and Ariosto he never derived one penny of pecuniary profit. A rival poet at the court of Ferrara undertook to revise and edit his lyrics in 1582. This was Battista Guarini; and Tasso, in his cell, had to allow odes and sonnets, poems of personal feeling, occasional pieces of compliment, to be collected and emended, without lifting a voice in the matter. A few years later, in 1585, two Florentine pedants of the Crusca Academy declared war against the \"Gerusalemme\". They loaded it with insults, which seem to those who read their pamphlets now mere parodies of criticism. Yet Tasso felt bound to reply; and he did so with a moderation and urbanity which prove him to have been not only in full possession of his reasoning faculties, but a gentleman of noble manners also. The man, like Hamlet, was distraught through ill-accommodation to his circumstances and his age; brain-sick he was undoubtedly; and this is the Duke of Ferrara's justification for the treatment he endured. In the prison he bore himself pathetically, peevishly, but never ignobly. What remained over, untouched by the malady, unoppressed by his consciousness thereof, displayed a sweet and gravely-toned humanity. The oddest thing about his life in prison is that he was always trying to place his two nephews, the sons of his sister Cornelia, in court-service. One of them he attached to Guglielmo I, Duke of Mantua, the other to Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma.",
"In 1586 Tasso left St. Anna at the solicitation of Vincenzo Gonzaga, Prince of Mantua. He followed his young deliverer to the city by the Mincio, basked awhile in liberty and courtly pleasures, enjoyed a splendid reception from his paternal town of Bergamo, and reworked his 1573 tragedy \"Galealto Re di Norvegia\" into a classical drama entitled \"Torrismondo\". But only a few months had passed when he grew discontented. Vincenzo Gonzaga, succeeding to his father's dukedom of Mantua, had scanty leisure to bestow upon the poet. Tasso felt neglected. In the autumn of 1587 he journeyed through Bologna and Loreto to Rome, and taking up his quarters there with an old friend, Scipione Gonzaga, now Patriarch of Jerusalem. Next year he wandered off to Naples, where he wrote several religious poems, including Monte Oliveto. In 1589 he returned to Rome, and took up his quarters again with the patriarch of Jerusalem. The servants found him insufferable, and turned him out of doors. He fell ill, and went to a hospital. The patriarch in 1590 again received him. But Tasso's restless spirit drove him forth to Florence. The Florentines said, \"Actum est de eo.\" Rome once more, then Mantua, then Florence, then Rome, then Naples, then Rome, then Naples—such is the weary record of the years 1590–94. He endured a veritable Odyssey of malady, indigence and misfortune. To Tasso everything came amiss. He had the palaces of princes, cardinals, patriarchs, nay popes, always open to him. Yet he could rest in none. His health grew ever feebler and his genius dimmer. In 1592, he published a revised version of the \"Gerusalemme\", \"Gerusalemme Conquistata\". All that made the poem of his early manhood charming he rigidly erased. The versification became more pedantic; the romantic and magical episodes were excised; the heavier elements of the plot underwent a dull rhetorical development. During the same year a blank-verse retelling of \"Genesis\", called \"Le Sette Giornate\", saw the light. When mental disorder, physical weakness, and decay of inspiration seemed dooming Tasso to oblivion, his last years were cheered with hope. Pope Clement VIII ascended the papal chair in 1592. He and his nephew, Cardinal Aldobrandini of San Giorgio, determined to befriend the poet. In 1594, they invited him to Rome. There he was to receive the crown of laurels, as Petrarch had been crowned, on the Capitol. Worn out with illness, Tasso reached Rome in November. The ceremony of his coronation was deferred because Cardinal Aldobrandini had fallen ill, but the pope assigned him a pension; and, under the pressure of pontifical remonstrance, Prince Avellino, who held Tasso's maternal estate, agreed to discharge a portion of his claims by payment of a yearly rent-charge. At no time since Tasso left St. Anna had the heavens apparently so smiled upon him. Capitolian honors and money were now at his disposal. Yet fortune came too late. Before he wore the crown of poet laureate, or received his pensions, he ascended to the convent of Sant'Onofrio, on a stormy 1 April 1595. Seeing a cardinal's coach toil up the steep Trasteverine Hill, the monks came to the door to greet it. From the carriage stepped Tasso and told the prior he had come to die with him. Tasso died in Sant'Onofrio in April 1595 aged 51. The last twenty years of his existence had been practically and artistically unsatisfying.",
"\"Rime\" (Rhymes), nearly two thousand lyrics in nine books, were written between 1567 and 1593, influenced by Petrarch's \"Canzoniere\" (\"Songbook\"). \"Galealto re di Norvegia\" (1573–4) is an unfinished tragedy, which was later finished under a new title: \"Re Torrismondo\" (1587). It is influenced by the tragedies of Sophocles and Seneca, and tells the story of princess Alvida of Norway, who is forcibly married off to the Goth king Torrismondo, when she is devoted to her childhood friend, king Germondo of Sweden. \"Dialoghi\" (\"Dialogues\"), written between 1578 and 1594. These 28 texts deal with issues from morality (love, virtue, nobility) to the mundane (masks, play, courtly style, beauty). Sometimes Tasso touches major themes of his time, such as religion vs. intellectual freedom; Christianity vs. Islam at Lepanto. \"Discorsi del poema eroico\", published in 1594, is the main text for Tasso's poetics. It was probably written in the years while he was working on \"Gerusalemme Liberata\".",
"The disease Tasso began to suffer from is now believed to be bipolarity. Legends describe him wandering the streets of Rome half mad, convinced that he was being persecuted. After his lengthy imprisonment in Ferrara's Santa Anna lunatic asylum, he was able to resume his writing, although he never fully recovered.",
"During the Renaissance, the first (incomplete) translation of \"Jerusalem Delivered\" was brought out by Richard Carew (1594). A complete version by Edward Fairfax appeared under the title \"Godfrey of Bouillon\" in 1600. John Hoole's version in heroic couplets followed in 1772, and Jeremiah Holmes Wiffen's (in Spenserian stanzas) in 1821. There were several 20th- and 21st-century versions, including by Anthony Esolen (2000) and by Max Wickert, published as \"The Liberation of Jerusalem\" by Oxford University Press (2009). \"Aminta\", also his early love poems, as \"Love Poems for Lucrezia Bendidio\", ed. and trans. by Max Wickert. New York: Italica Press, 2011, and as \"Rhymes of Love\", ed. M.H. and S. Acocella, trans. by Maria Pastore Passaro (Ottawa: Legas, 2011). Several of the \"Dialogues\", \"Torrismondo,\" and some of the late religious works have also been issued in English.",
"Tasso is commemorated by monuments in Bergamo and Sorrento. There are streets named after him in virtually every major Italian city, most notably in Bergamo, Posillipo (Naples), Rome, Turin, Palermo and Catania, as well as in Palo Alto, California."
]
} |
Old Town Hall (Prague) | null | The Old Town Hall in Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, is one of the city's most visited monuments. It is located in Old Town Square. | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
702,
10991,
70,
215394,
1484,
7,
111,
70,
25074,
52649,
123997,
10,
21334,
31526,
69438,
18276,
1295,
70,
5976,
36361,
19,
14449,
136,
39908,
297,
442,
100,
2363,
60042,
7,
5,
9578,
70,
25632,
202032,
90,
70,
7311,
52649,
19449,
33976,
21334,
538,
213566,
297,
237,
10,
16750,
111,
40964,
5256,
136,
14700,
66,
6889,
111,
70,
33976,
74,
1632,
173591,
14194,
30125,
111,
70,
7311,
45646,
7464,
75693,
18925,
83,
70,
159960,
1771,
6,
34165,
11914,
678,
931,
52366,
5180,
98,
70,
171827,
5609,
111,
70,
33976,
5,
581,
71119,
3334,
7,
111,
70,
25074,
52649,
65042,
297,
70,
7311,
52649,
19449,
98186,
70,
65272,
390,
129004,
70,
606,
513,
14653,
18276,
4,
136,
50961,
80723,
111,
10,
6,
34165,
47,
6488,
98,
10,
6,
108047,
1774,
5,
581,
47,
6488,
4,
3129,
509,
70,
167375,
23,
70,
26349,
23,
70,
102256,
62,
4188,
4,
509,
140528,
23,
702,
13307,
4,
136,
1556,
2809,
21334,
538,
51,
152028,
71,
16792,
7068,
5,
581,
52649,
19449,
83,
107653,
474,
25958,
225073,
4,
6637,
442,
83,
64549,
297,
1295,
5941,
12921,
164917,
18276,
7,
5,
581,
14700,
66,
6889,
136475,
23,
616,
10057,
3229,
41576,
794,
18276,
509,
49814,
47,
70,
65272,
5609,
5,
581,
70615,
177467,
23,
70,
28,
4438,
6,
14775,
509,
307,
202,
3674,
678,
10,
2043,
307,
7136,
4,
8060,
297,
390,
6626,
34777,
21816,
4,
99,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
423,
927,
142642,
5,
581,
159960,
1771,
44,
10625,
2594,
58,
18276,
509,
123997,
23,
543,
5843,
136,
70,
44,
169929,
67,
58,
18276,
509,
54324,
47,
70,
59444,
215394,
100,
70,
111938,
111,
70,
52649,
19449,
23,
121049,
5,
41576,
794,
18276,
509,
456,
978,
24908,
23,
70,
54311,
9,
4332,
76,
3031,
3956,
20623,
23,
176447,
132869,
4836,
4,
59499,
47,
4331,
7,
390,
33263,
4933,
142104,
5,
3293,
6,
14775,
509,
163684,
297,
23,
4568,
13312,
111,
6661,
5550,
1995,
20271,
70,
210721,
75,
22876,
214,
5,
52455,
107653,
82451,
130412,
7,
3542,
34658,
20271,
70,
387,
927,
142642,
4,
678,
70,
91177,
111,
90791,
70,
7108,
168887,
6402,
4331,
100,
70,
14700,
66,
6889,
136,
456,
238478,
111,
70,
25074,
52649,
19449,
4,
1284,
756,
111,
70,
130412,
7,
40101,
165523,
47,
27489,
10,
159690,
4,
707,
70,
6,
69986,
77635,
3542,
959,
88303,
5,
581,
107653,
82451,
34754,
111,
70,
25074,
52649,
19449,
23,
70,
102256,
62,
4188,
509,
2060,
1295,
140528,
7103,
70,
21721,
1830,
111,
70,
47,
6488,
5,
195769,
509,
206735,
297,
4743,
47,
70,
20387,
11090,
112664,
26205,
2947,
104279,
152697,
194,
360,
616,
10057,
15700,
18276,
509,
123997,
98,
70,
65272,
5609,
4,
22,
11,
79298,
1119,
41745,
272,
129344,
7,
47,
70,
14566,
111,
70,
33976,
5,
2356,
23664,
7,
3542,
170920,
23,
70,
127067,
6,
14775,
4,
1284,
4734,
70,
215394,
17155,
98,
70,
1407,
56,
74912,
509,
9498,
56,
4126,
23,
6863,
7311,
170894,
5,
106745,
141,
129344,
7,
44961,
297,
23,
70,
173591,
456,
238478,
4488,
831,
7464,
186,
51592,
98,
70,
127067,
49304,
112,
5,
581,
456,
238478,
111,
70,
14018,
3956,
23664,
98,
70,
61585,
74912,
111,
5976,
36361,
19,
18276,
121011,
297,
23,
70,
50961,
111,
10,
3525,
11914,
23,
70,
239,
67,
159960,
1771,
20623,
4,
70,
156531,
660,
20623,
111,
27081,
6,
159958,
23,
70,
103655,
40530,
100,
645,
805,
5369,
5,
581,
159960,
1771,
187,
206,
111,
70,
11914,
1556,
43878,
30526,
7,
98870,
23,
6,
34165,
122360,
7,
5,
186132,
3674,
1620,
27853,
7,
8060,
70,
1810,
56,
187,
206,
3129,
83,
10,
222201,
72399,
9,
17903,
4450,
238,
60,
7039,
187,
206,
8374,
157272,
390,
142,
35439,
6953,
35108,
289,
5,
581,
1620,
27853,
7,
98,
40101,
5609,
111,
70,
11914,
121011,
13,
23,
91,
163089,
120964,
66695,
5,
581,
5201,
45646,
112474,
1295,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
423,
927,
142642,
4,
1284,
70,
109412,
33,
41929,
1911,
68034,
112474,
1295,
51497,
5442,
581,
76896,
98,
70,
25737,
111,
70,
11914,
509,
140528,
10,
10846,
5369,
14432,
136,
10267,
122009,
70,
107653,
82451,
20623,
5,
581,
45367,
56,
28,
7560,
24243,
70,
89160,
159960,
1771,
187,
206,
23,
1238,
141775,
111,
10,
148734,
10393,
320,
76896,
4,
69979,
592,
70,
6117,
2594,
7432,
111,
70,
58982,
7,
678,
16138,
6259,
76698,
37499,
5,
62,
931,
202,
48141,
6,
34165,
41421,
101637,
7,
70,
76896,
3934,
22759,
22729,
7,
4,
70,
1407,
56,
6626,
111,
3129,
621,
122329,
297,
678,
70,
187,
432,
51626,
81148,
214,
111,
70,
25074,
52649,
111,
210721,
136,
70,
103655,
6,
45486,
5,
6300,
1177,
33,
136,
161549,
36917,
2856,
621,
70,
26582,
44,
1456,
830,
33636,
214,
70,
121678,
61475,
111,
70,
211462,
19,
60097,
158895,
7,
26253,
1995,
111,
175055,
26205,
13683,
1104,
1837,
60978,
111,
70,
2377,
478,
47551,
68728,
8946,
5,
52774,
6,
34165,
55670,
2661,
65177,
5256,
69979,
19,
70,
2663,
111,
70,
76896,
5,
581,
76896,
23,
70,
127067,
49304,
112,
112474,
1295,
70,
423,
1549,
7,
4,
136,
81148,
7,
144851,
7,
111,
142,
39395,
231119,
20623,
5,
581,
9879,
76896,
68034,
83,
70,
4734,
7311,
2831,
4,
237,
70,
6626,
164917,
148,
5180,
3542,
49814,
23,
729,
5016,
5,
1650,
1556,
10,
11192,
931,
202,
48141,
8231,
3466,
678,
32204,
122360,
2320,
5,
6163,
27853,
7,
8060,
16138,
6259,
76698,
37499,
121011,
214,
23,
10323,
7,
98,
3129,
10588,
7,
70,
63666,
1517,
272,
678,
70,
6,
101287,
44,
50344,
208,
139790,
33281,
14,
58,
15,
50344,
6261,
4,
70,
10323,
111,
70,
60097,
3815,
194,
581,
76896,
83,
613,
121147,
297,
390,
10,
36137,
44778,
25667,
2463,
3180,
316,
678,
70,
187,
432,
51626,
81148,
5180,
111,
70,
25074,
52649,
111,
210721,
5,
9082,
538,
142146,
70,
80707,
54825,
621,
93544,
23,
70,
5701,
20623,
237,
70,
7311,
231119,
5201,
76896,
4,
1284,
70,
831,
31,
97247,
36917,
70,
76698,
1515,
4,
23,
70,
159960,
1771,
20623,
4,
621,
142,
131527,
5,
581,
231119,
20623,
83,
2843,
173676,
23,
15700,
76896,
39501,
297,
1660,
36917,
70,
159960,
1771,
11914,
111,
70,
5976,
36361,
19,
18276,
1295,
70,
611,
927,
142642,
5,
581,
1119,
41745,
272,
456,
238478,
111,
70,
25074,
52649,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
25074,
52649,
19449,
23,
210721,
4,
70,
10323,
111,
70,
103655,
47806,
4,
83,
1632,
111,
70,
26349,
25,
7,
2684,
36997,
71,
42762,
7,
5,
1650,
83,
105866,
23,
25074,
52649,
68305,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1354298 | en-train-1354298 | 1354298 | {
"title": [
"History and architecture.",
"Foundation of the Old Town Hall.",
"Expansion of the Old Town Hall.",
"The Council Chamber.",
"Reconstructions.",
"The destruction by fire of the East and the North Wing.",
"The Cock.",
"The Minute House.",
"Interior of the Old Town Hall.",
"The two entrance halls.",
"The first floor.",
"The third floor.",
"The Session Chamber.",
"The Council Chamber.",
"The Town Hall Chapel.",
"The Hall of Architects.",
"The Horologe.",
"The statues of the Horologe."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"In 1338 the councillors of the Old Town bought a large patrician house from the Volflin family and adapted it for their purposes. Over the following centuries the original Town Hall building largely disappeared as a result of renovations and expansion of the building; one external remnant of the original structure still visible today is the Gothic stone portal with mouldings on the western side of the building. The burghers of the Old Town extended the original Town Hall towards the west by buying the adjoining house, and construction began of a stone tower on a square plan. The tower, which was the highest in the city in the Middle Ages, was completed in 1364, and has been largely unchanged since then. The Town Hall is architecturally unusual, because it is constructed from many different smaller houses. The expansion continued in 1458 when Mikeš house was added to the west side. The Council Chamber in the east wing was vaulted with a net vault, supported by two pillars, at the end of the 15th century. The Gothic \"Cock\" house was bought in 1835 and the \"Minute\" house was sold to the town council for the extension of the Town Hall in 1896. Mikeš house was rebuilt in the Neo-Renaissance style in 1879–1880, according to designs by Antonín Baum. This wing was destroyed in last days of World War II during the Prague uprising. Many architectural competitions were held during the 20th century, with the intention of finding the right architectonic design for the expansion and reconstruction of the Old Town Hall, but all of the competitions either failed to produce a winner, or the winning projects were not built.",
"The architectural development of the Old Town Hall in the Middle Ages was far from completed after the completion of the tower. Construction was interrupted due to the Hussite movement (1419–1434). In 1458 another house was bought on the west side, enabling extensive modifications to the interior of the building. New halls were established in the south wing, but only the council room on the upper floor was preserved in its original appearance. Internal modifications reflected in the external reconstruction work can still be seen on the south facade. The reconstruction of the entrance hall on the ground floor of Volflin house terminated in the construction of a new portal in the Late Gothic style, the predominant style of urban architecture in the Czech Lands for over 100 years. The Gothic arch of the portal has archivolts rich in stone ornaments. Decorated brackets support the outer arch which is a typical late-Gothic ogee arch crowned by an imposing finial. The brackets on either side of the portal terminate in slender pinnacles. The main structure dates from the end of the 15th century, but the wooden double door itself dates from 1652. The window on the left of the portal was completed a few years later and retained the architectural style. The builder eschewed the traditional Gothic arch in favour of a rectangular window, adorning the thickness of the walls with panelled pilasters. A moulded stone cross divides the window into four lights, the upper two of which are decorated with the armorial bearing of the Old Town of Prague and the Czech lion. Between and slightly above them are the symbol \"W\", representing the royal initial of the Bohemian king Vladislaus II of Hungary (1456–1516) of the Jagiellon dynasty. Rich stone vegetable decorations adorn the top of the window. The window in the south facade dates from the 1520s, and bears traces of an early Renaissance style. The central window itself is the only original part, as the two smaller wings were added in 1731. It has a high moulded cornice with plastic ornamentation. Brackets support panelled pilasters terminating in capitals on which rests the architrave with the inscription \"Praga caput regni\" (Prague, the capital of the kingdom). The window is surmounted by a semicircular tympanum with the armorial bearings of the Old Town of Prague. Generally speaking the lateral windows are kept in the same style as the original Renaissance main window, but the canopies above the pilaster, in the Gothic style, are an exception. The Renaissance style is also apparent in another window situated just above the Gothic portal of the Volflin house from the 16th century.",
"The extensive reconstruction of the Old Town Hall at the turn of the 15th and 16th century included the erection of the east wing adjoining the north wall of the tower. A monumental building was constructed during the Late Gothic period. There was a council chamber with a net vault that gave the room an atmosphere of spaciousness.",
"The original structure was badly damaged by modifications at the end of the 18th century, and finally disappeared completely, when during the 1840s a new wing was built in a Neo-Gothic style. The original Gothic appearance of the east wing has only been preserved in old engravings. The reconstruction also affected the historical core of the entire Town Hall complex. The interior of all three houses forming the south wing was reconstructed and Mikeš house, the third in the row, was renovated from the outside as well. Two Neo-Gothic gables and oriel were added to the facade and the architect Gruber adjusted the entrance by adding two semi-circular arches. Further renovations in 1879 gave the facade a Neo-Renaissance appearance and two high windows were added on the second floor, one of them bearing the inscription \"Dignitatis memores—ad optima intenti\" (Bearing in mind your dignity—do your best) on the architrave.",
"The east wing and the addition of a further north wing was carried out during the reconstruction in the 19th century. Both these wings were destroyed by fire during the Prague uprising in May 1945 and only the surviving torso adjoining the tower gives an indication of how this part of the Old Town hall looked.",
"In 1835 the south wing was further extended by the addition of a fourth house, \"the Cock house\", bought by the Town Council that year. In this very old building the Romanesque hall from the beginning of the 13th century has been preserved, and on the first and second floor are Late-Gothic halls with Renaissance ceilings. The facade was renovated in the first half of the 19th century in Empire style.",
"At the end of the 19th century other buildings were added to the Town Hall block, including the \"Minute\" house, an originally Gothic house dating from the beginning of the 15th century, and decorated at the beginning of the 17th century by a series of sgraffito designs representing classical and biblical themes. Most of the later modifications affected only the interior of the house, and respected the historical exterior of the south wing.",
"The arrangement of the rooms is in keeping with the building's imposing exterior appearance.",
"The spacious entrance hall was established during reconstruction at the end of the 15th century. The Late Gothic vault adds to the impression of spaciousness of the entrance hall. There are two large mosaics on the lateral walls, created by Czech architect Vojtěch Ignác Ullmann according to designs by Mikoláš Aleš (1936–1939). The mosaic on the western wall uses themes taken from national mythology, showing Princess Libuše foretelling the glory of Prague. On the opposite wall is an allegory entitled \"Slavdom's Homage to Prague\". The ornaments of the vault contain coats-of-arms and symbolic depictions of great events from the nation's history. Modern renovations of the second entrance hall have modified the old architecture. There is a bronze statue by the Czech sculptor Josef Václav Myslbek, completed in 1885, depicting the legendary bard Lumír accompanied by the allegorical figure of Song.",
"The staircase leading to the first floor was designed by architect Jan Bělský (1853–1854). Here the rooms have been adapted to host wedding ceremonies. The interior is in the Late-Gothic style from the first half of the 16th century. The facade is dominated by a wide Renaissance window. The vaults are decorated with paintings by Cyril Bouda, a Czech painter and illustrator.",
"The Renaissance portal on the third floor with an intersia door is from 1619. It is framed by red polished marble from the end of the 16th century. Two smooth columns with shaft-rings support an entablature with a gabled cornice containing a relief bust of the king and a cartouche with the inscription \"Senatus\". The portal is crowned by the armorial bearings of the Old Town flanked by allegorical figures representing Truth and Justice. The counterpart to the old portal is formed by a white marble entrance from 1945 bearing the inscription \"Presidium\". Through the portal is the vestibule, decorated with lunette-shaped pictures by Václav Brožík from the second half of the 19th century.",
"All vestiges of the original architecture in the adjoining session chamber were erased during renovations in 1879–1910. The chamber is dominated by two large canvases, the work of painter Václav Brožík. One represents Jan Hus's defence before the Council of Constance in 1415, and the second one the election of Jiří of Podebrady in 1458. The adjoining Jiřík hall is decorated in the late-Gothic style with remnants of wall paintings dating from the end of the 15th century. Much of the historical decoration of this room was restored by architect Pavel Janák between 1936 and 1938.",
"The old council chamber flanking the session chamber on the other side is considered one of the most beautiful rooms in the Town Hall. Though renovated many times it has preserved its original late-Gothic character dating from about 1470. The wooden coffered ceiling, polychromed in the second half of the 16th century, rests on moulded beams strengthened in 1638 by the addition of strong gilded chains. The walls are adorned by Gothic wooden panelling, a number of emblems, and the armorial bearings of the Old Town. Both entrance portals are in a late-Gothic style. The most valuable feature in the interior, however, is a wooden sculpture from the beginning of the 15th century, of Christ Suffering. It is situated on a bracket decorated with the bust of an angel and the inscription \"Juste iudicate filii hominis\" (Judge justly, O Sons of Man), as a warning to the councillors sitting there. The statue is in the Czech Gothic style which was at its climax at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. The other sculptures in the old council chamber are more recent; the Madonna is from the 16th century, St. Wenceslas and St Ludmila from the 17th century and the statue of John the Baptist from the 18th century. The Baroque stove with a gilded grille and the statue of Justice date from 1736.",
"The former public hall and the Town Hall Chapel are accessed through a metal-fitted door. The public hall, once intended for Town Council assembly sessions, was probably built in the second half of the 15th century along with the council chamber, but was completely destroyed during the fire in May 1945. The Town Hall chapel in the tower, consecrated in 1381, suffered a similar fate. Only the magnificent portal, one of the oldest preserved monuments, has survived. The semi-circular wall arch with rich mouldings is supported on slim columns terminating in Gothic pinnacles. There are emblems, often repeated, on the columns, which date from the reign of Wenceslas IV. The emblems consists of a kingfisher and the letter \"E\", surrounded by torse. Both the style and the personal emblems of Wenceslas indicate that the portal was built by the royal stonemasons' lodge.",
"The Institute for Planning and Development of the City of Prague organized and prepared exhibitions in the Hall of Architects at the Old Town Hall and co-organized informational events in the field of architecture, urban planning and spatial planning. The exhibition hall is located on the fifth floor in the attic of the Town Hall. This space is newly refurbished and equipped with modern technology for the events. Seminars, conferences and various exhibitions are held here. The Permanent exhibition is a Model of the City of Prague from the end of the 20th century at a scale of 1:1000.",
"The horologe is the most famous feature of the Town Hall, first built in the 1400s. The first version was completed in 1410 by the clockmaker Mikuláš of Kadaň and the astronomer Jan Šindel. Later reconstructions changed the first design completely, but written records confirm that it already possessed all the basic features. The first extensive reconstruction was possibly carried out in 1490 by the clockmaster Jan Růže (also called Hanuš), an old town locksmith, who produced a timepiece based on the pendulum system, though the historical accuracy of Růže's contributions is disputed. The architectural decoration is also from this time, and consists of a system of slender late-Gothic columns framing the clock and rich plastic decorations of both figural and floral motifs. Jan Táborský of Klokotská Hora repaired and perfected the clock in the years 1552–1572. Though some changes have been made since to the external appearance of the clock, its fundamental features have remained unchanged. The most recent repairs were carried out after the Second World War when the badly damaged original figures were replaced by statues by Vojtěch Sucharda.",
"The horologe consists of three independent units: the moving figures, the astronomical dial and the calendar dial. The figures are set in motion on the stroke of every hour by a complex mechanism."
]
} |
Anaximenes of Miletus | null | Anaximenes of Miletus (; ; ) was an Ancient Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher active in the latter half of the 6th century BC. The details of his life are obscure because none of his work has been preserved. Anaximenes' ideas and philosophies are only known today because of comments made by Aristotle and other writers on the history of Greek philosophy. | null | [
250004,
250054,
51404,
1919,
1653,
13,
26531,
25251,
5971,
1577,
136,
5710,
53950,
37412,
26171,
71,
450,
70,
44,
59438,
508,
58,
15,
6953,
35975,
12,
44,
147,
1430,
830,
91084,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
4912,
111,
70,
8999,
16,
3542,
7401,
136,
70,
920,
12282,
10821,
161451,
44,
2631,
11126,
19,
830,
107013,
538,
4,
5710,
5134,
130498,
10,
16865,
3674,
450,
44,
11,
56,
58,
33077,
6133,
633,
52,
330,
4680,
633,
52,
7341,
30093,
509,
903,
158978,
161451,
111,
3129,
756,
6083,
8966,
621,
7228,
5,
3311,
456,
75161,
214,
1919,
117914,
25,
7,
154453,
35509,
98,
70,
23755,
111,
2837,
133891,
2481,
4,
5710,
5134,
130498,
34739,
10,
1286,
156002,
6827,
51515,
47,
100094,
70,
1379,
538,
214,
9433,
90,
111,
22293,
6023,
136,
15549,
98,
6626,
237259,
7,
12,
798,
62038,
1363,
112033,
5425,
183871,
111,
70,
44,
2631,
11126,
19,
830,
1284,
442,
1556,
142,
20653,
25269,
28236,
11341,
111,
6,
116311,
237,
1831,
450,
831,
216479,
3789,
161451,
7,
4,
136,
1737,
22293,
6023,
136,
15549,
56566,
98,
10,
552,
1106,
29888,
4,
74842,
48242,
9433,
51529,
237,
188171,
1363,
136,
41207,
1021,
10763,
5,
5710,
5134,
130498,
18822,
71,
450,
1831,
509,
54241,
13,
136,
82370,
13,
5,
1529,
509,
70,
5117,
47,
4527,
70,
2565,
44,
75031,
4665,
58,
33077,
4134,
10519,
111,
6897,
30093,
237,
10,
164661,
100,
1831,
5,
6561,
111,
70,
4734,
613,
686,
6496,
66747,
7,
390,
5710,
5134,
130498,
12301,
7,
12,
52,
127794,
237,
2446,
57289,
27,
372,
214,
1831,
16401,
7,
1821,
25842,
4,
221,
44,
75031,
4665,
58,
136,
1831,
22,
277,
13409,
378,
2940,
56050,
268,
70,
28271,
8999,
974,
581,
60223,
53,
154186,
99,
840,
94266,
1771,
1831,
237,
70,
82370,
13,
136,
14135,
1831,
237,
57289,
7,
450,
10127,
67,
3395,
5,
3293,
41911,
111,
70,
111789,
12064,
18695,
136,
11948,
12064,
18695,
42459,
297,
5710,
5134,
130498,
18822,
71,
2685,
509,
142,
645,
147,
59207,
24702,
133,
450,
15913,
3674,
756,
6897,
136,
123166,
5,
179769,
538,
4,
764,
17569,
1831,
509,
70,
158978,
161451,
450,
34658,
70,
14997,
13,
25842,
5,
66348,
1916,
538,
4,
70,
25074,
65295,
66139,
10,
21373,
60223,
53,
47,
70,
14037,
214,
111,
70,
8999,
136,
166635,
111,
332,
4,
1284,
5710,
5134,
130498,
6777,
959,
125296,
10,
179505,
111,
70,
14997,
13,
136,
6777,
959,
5351,
111,
70,
44,
75031,
4665,
58,
237,
10,
179505,
47,
17997,
332,
5,
581,
44126,
111,
1831,
1543,
48903,
61799,
1294,
4,
1284,
5710,
5134,
130498,
35509,
1919,
93192,
98,
6083,
538,
22046,
2661,
11521,
21004,
12470,
23,
70,
9433,
90,
111,
41207,
1021,
10763,
136,
188171,
1363,
5,
581,
158978,
60212,
23,
70,
3173,
7,
111,
1831,
237,
26866,
509,
70,
79385,
111,
188171,
1363,
136,
168,
7,
2481,
5,
14847,
1831,
158,
118435,
7,
442,
24209,
7,
75693,
4,
136,
59499,
47,
5710,
5134,
130498,
4,
70,
93403,
9,
6056,
4,
23,
99017,
4,
54241,
13,
1831,
509,
158,
555,
5281,
47,
32382,
4,
7068,
100,
4806,
3934,
76746,
7,
4,
3129,
158,
555,
5281,
53333,
47,
27489,
6,
6133,
4,
102044,
4,
136,
3789,
3173,
7,
111,
127841,
2320,
5,
1301,
70,
158,
555,
5281,
1831,
21185,
297,
4,
5710,
5134,
130498,
134598,
450,
64883,
68034,
509,
142,
39395,
188171,
67,
111,
1831,
2451,
2347,
9433,
136475,
24189,
70,
1831,
509,
158,
555,
5281,
20174,
47,
3173,
18652,
7,
1884,
70,
64883,
136,
20654,
37838,
3474,
1444,
5,
3311,
69822,
4,
5710,
5134,
130498,
509,
19048,
47,
21176,
538,
1957,
3642,
7401,
70890,
33069,
1636,
3934,
1831,
136,
35509,
1919,
23755,
111,
41207,
1021,
10763,
98,
903,
150556,
5,
129551,
47,
4049,
4,
2499,
36746,
450,
34658,
22729,
509,
7228,
111,
11476,
4,
136,
11476,
509,
7228,
1295,
70,
41207,
1021,
10763,
111,
1831,
5,
51404,
3789,
6,
119598,
1314,
2843,
125296,
71,
6044,
149307,
7,
23,
117249,
111,
26866,
4,
5710,
5134,
130498,
509,
70,
5117,
47,
30699,
67,
70,
150234,
13,
15549,
23,
8010,
64,
48855,
136,
91097,
64,
33601,
80836,
5180,
678,
70,
168,
7,
2481,
111,
10,
11001,
4912,
4,
191984,
154107,
10,
88779,
5844,
6,
91403,
47,
70,
52999,
39209,
2667,
48242,
5426,
5,
1529,
150380,
297,
188171,
1363,
47,
91097,
64,
33601,
1831,
136,
41207,
1021,
10763,
47,
70,
182809,
111,
8010,
64,
48855,
1831,
5,
3293,
23755,
509,
70,
137374,
100,
100094,
70,
6,
116311,
111,
12921,
161451,
7,
4,
76319,
4,
136,
80854,
4743,
47,
2363,
70767,
111,
34627,
7,
136,
14012,
111,
1614,
2832,
21068,
2878,
66695,
5,
66016,
46876,
136,
36398,
3542,
4552,
84046,
23,
1919,
1733,
4,
5710,
5134,
130498,
25,
7,
165419,
90,
3542,
22799,
23,
73342,
214,
70,
51,
106290,
73,
8305,
70,
24233,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
764,
55950,
100,
24233,
450,
102310,
214,
1831,
98,
1919,
3535,
678,
1919,
113008,
38134,
9803,
181653,
8010,
1831,
4,
12960,
102310,
214,
98,
1919,
3535,
678,
23552,
9,
155648,
71,
66265,
181653,
91097,
1831,
5,
32255,
150556,
7,
3542,
22799,
23,
1919,
49489,
2182,
450,
70,
8010,
1831,
509,
4743,
47,
41207,
1021,
10763,
136,
14700,
66,
6889,
4,
7440,
162,
70,
91097,
1831,
509,
4743,
47,
188171,
1363,
136,
375,
48448,
5,
106073,
23,
5744,
20028,
442,
83,
51529,
450,
903,
83,
20653,
70,
198274,
4,
5710,
5134,
130498,
509,
22799,
23,
24387,
6496,
99,
903,
93192,
5,
18763,
165419,
90,
27983,
162711,
95103,
7,
17721,
332,
136,
70,
191725,
7,
4,
23,
7,
4266,
26518,
450,
70,
5701,
6083,
131703,
22046,
2661,
98,
109270,
190659,
47,
70,
199320,
7,
5,
9578,
3576,
5369,
14432,
4,
114636,
145076,
77443,
903,
47,
186,
29568,
5,
194397,
6056,
32692,
4,
5710,
5134,
130498,
25,
7,
150556,
7,
77443,
98893,
47,
51,
63127,
113138,
3790,
10484,
4,
6044,
237,
110436,
6,
34053,
27744,
7,
136,
165045,
183871,
5,
3311,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
52999,
39209,
6,
119598,
53,
1615,
4,
2685,
3542,
5941,
17582,
25737,
220,
1779,
6488,
297,
74,
903,
131999,
297,
70,
28029,
2320,
111,
1914,
9,
991,
15182,
9523,
17569,
47,
21342,
8305,
5941,
3789,
135818,
6,
119598,
1314,
6044,
237,
27512,
3238,
76312,
7,
4,
2392,
17307,
988,
4,
1840,
2263,
150,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
5710,
5134,
130498,
111,
52999,
2143,
15,
74,
2819,
1388,
509,
142,
893,
45964,
160600,
1914,
9,
8912,
15182,
9523,
6,
119598,
56,
36457,
23,
70,
21,
3055,
23552,
111,
70,
305,
927,
142642,
77269,
5,
581,
41653,
111,
1919,
6897,
621,
160608,
13,
6637,
351,
13,
111,
1919,
4488,
1556,
2809,
9498,
56,
4126,
5,
5710,
5134,
130498,
25,
25647,
136,
99644,
90,
621,
4734,
51529,
18925,
6637,
111,
24626,
7228,
390,
126562,
17991,
136,
3789,
6,
70035,
7,
98,
70,
32692,
111,
160600,
6,
119598,
53,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1374106 | en-train-1374106 | 1374106 | {
"title": [
"Anaximenes and the Arche.",
"Influence on philosophy.",
"Anaximenes, Aristotle, and Plato.",
"The origin of the Cosmos.",
"Other phenomena.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"While his predecessors Thales and Anaximander proposed that the \"archai\" (singular: \"arche\", meaning the underlying material of the world) were water and the ambiguous substance \"apeiron\", respectively, Anaximenes asserted that \"aer\" (“mist”, “vapor”, “air”) was this primary substance of which all natural things are made. By rejecting his teacher's theory based on the concept of discontinuity, Anaximenes took a more empirical approach to understanding the underlying processes of genesis and change on two assumptions: (1) origination retains properties of the \"apeiron\", but it has an actually tangible state of existence as air that can evolve other substances, and (2) genesis and change depend on a cohesive, mechanistic process known as condensation and rarefaction. Anaximenes believed that air was infinite and divine. He was the first to use the word \"pneuma\" (“breath of life”) as a synonym for air. One of the only surviving quotes by Anaximenes reads: “Just as our soul...being air holds us together, so \"pneuma\" and air encompass [and guard] the whole world.” The analogy compared atmospheric air as the divine and human air as souls that animate people. This relation of the macroscopic and microscopic suggested Anaximenes believed there was an overarching principle that regulated all life and behavior. Essentially, he thought air was the primary substance that held the universe together. Interestingly, the Old Testament features a similar analogy to the founding of the world and creation of man, but Anaximenes did not recognize a creator of the universe and did not think of the \"pneuma\" as a creator to guide man. The choice of air may seem arbitrary, but Anaximenes based his conclusion on naturally observable phenomena in the processes of rarefaction and condensation. The primary difference in the forms of air as matter was the degree of condensation and density. When air condenses it becomes visible, and according to Anaximenes, the spread-out, invisible, infinite air was condensed to wind, then formed into clouds, which condensed further to produce mist, rain, and other forms of precipitation. As the condensed air cooled, Anaximenes supposed that Earth itself was an early condensate of air—the process continued until the air was condensed enough to form solids like the Earth and ultimately stones. By contrast, Anaximenes was able to visually see how water evaporates into air and based his concept of rarefaction on this observation. According to him, any object that held light was made of fire, and fire was made from the rarefaction of air. While other philosophers also recognized such transitions in states of matter, Anaximenes was the first to associate the qualitative change in hot/dry and cold/wet pairings with the density of a single material, effectively adding a quantitative dimension to the Milesian monistic system. He attributed condensation to cold/wet air and rarefaction to the interaction of hot/dry air. This concept was the foundation for understanding the existence of different substances, materials, and elements due to their arrangement of atoms and number of subatomic particles.",
"Since language and communication were very limited in his time, Anaximenes's analogies were key in explaining the uncertain through the certain. For example, he knew for certain that blowing air on his hand with his mouth wide open produced hot air, while blowing on his hand with half-closed lips produced cold air. These observations were key in his postulate that the hot air was due to rarefaction and expansion, whereas the cold air was due to condensation and compression. Although in modern times it is known that this is actually the opposite, Anaximenes was key in arriving at this conclusion. His analogies often connected parallels between man and the cosmos, insinuating that the same natural laws observable on earth applied to the heavens. Over 2000 years later, Isaac Newton proved this to be true. Throughout history, Anaximenes's observations proved helpful to uncover powerful theories, such as quantum physics and chemical properties. By the end of the Milesian philosophy era, there were many questions left unanswered; this sparked the stimulation of Pre-socratic thought to continue through many other notable philosophers such as Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Democritus. Anaximenes greatest influence is not from his theories of matter, but instead it is from how he thought about these ideas. For instance, his theory of air being the underlying substance was disproved, but when looking at his idea from a fundamental aspect, in which a substance is capable of changing forms, his theory was the first of its kind. This concept of changing of forms is fundamental to scientific thought and shows how his ideas, although not correct, were helpful in the development of modern views. In the time of Anaximenes, phenomena were usually explained with reference to religion and mythology. Anaximenes explained events like rainbows with concrete ideas instead of saying they were the work of a goddess. The explanation Anaximenes gave helped in the transition of attributing the cause of phenomena to scientific events, rather than mythology.",
"Many similarities to Anaximenes's theories are apparent in Plato’s theory. So much so, that some scholars have said Plato has based his theory of matter on Anaximenes's theory. In Aristotle’s view on Anaximenes, he interprets the theory as the one substance being air, and all other states of matter are different condensations of air. In Plato's interpretation of Anaximenes's theory, he considers the seven states of matter: fire, air, wind, clouds, earth and stone as different densities. Acknowledging that these seven states of matter are different densities shows how the intrinsic properties of the matter have changed, and they are actually different substances. Anaximenes supports this conclusion by his explanation using the concept of felting. Felting is a technological model used to explain condensation, in which wool turns into felt and has new properties. Just as how wind is compressed into clouds in Anaximenes's theory. Without recognizing Anaximenes's influence on Plato, and simply focusing on Anaximenes's influence on Aristotle, Anaximenes's contributions to scientific thought are not fully recognized. Aristotle interpreted Anaximenes's theory as all substance being different manifestations of air. It was Plato's interpretation of Anaximenes's theory that recognized the fundamental changes of air into other substances. And even though Anaximenes's theory was not correct, his influence is apparent in shaping Plato's theory, and it helped to shift the mindset of other thinkers into realizing that fundamental change of substances is possible. Because Plato's theory does not recognize Anaximenes's by name, some scholars have doubted that Plato's theory was actually influenced by Anaximenes. The proponents of the influence have written that the uniqueness of Anaximenes's theory and obvious similarities to Plato's theory prove the connection. The opposing viewpoint attributes the similarities to mere coincidence. Because none of Anaximenes's work exists today, there is controversy over the amount of influence Anaximenes's had on Plato.",
"Having concluded that everything in the world is composed of air, Anaximenes used his theory to devise a scheme that explains the origins and nature of the earth and the surrounding celestial bodies. Air felted to create the flat disk of the earth, which he said was table-like and behaved like a leaf floating on air. Anaximenes did not think that stars were floating leaf-like bodies similar to the earth and sun; instead, he thought of stars being similar to nails that are stuck in a transparent shell. In keeping with the prevailing view of celestial bodies as balls of fire in the sky, Anaximenes proposed that the earth let out an exhalation of air that rarefied, ignited and became the stars. While the sun is similarly described as being aflame, it is not composed of rarefied air like the stars, but rather of earth like the moon; its burning comes not from its composition but rather from its rapid motion. Similarly, he considered the moon and sun to be flat and floating on streams of air. In his theory, when the sun sets it does not pass under the earth, but is merely obscured by higher parts of the earth as it circles around and becomes more distant. Anaximenes likens the motion of the sun and the other celestial bodies around the earth to the way that a cap may be turned around the head. Anaximenes believed that the sky was a dome, and day and night are caused by celestial bodies being carried North until they are no longer seen. There is evidence that suggests Anaximenes may have been the first person to distinguish between planets and fixed stars.",
"Anaximenes used his observations and reasoning to provide causes for other natural phenomena on the earth as well. Earthquakes, he asserted, were the result either of lack of moisture, which causes the earth to break apart because of how parched it is, or of superabundance of water, which also causes cracks in the earth. In either case the earth becomes weakened by its cracks, so that hills collapse and cause earthquakes. Lightning is similarly caused by the violent separation of clouds by the wind, creating a bright, fire-like flash. Rainbows, on the other hand, are formed when densely compressed air is touched by the rays of the sun. These examples show how Anaximenes, like the other Milesian philosophers, looked for the broader picture in nature. They sought unifying causes for diversely occurring events, rather than treating each one on a case-by-case basis, or attributing them to gods or to a personified nature.",
"The Anaximenes crater on the Moon is named in his honor."
]
} |
Jaz Coleman | null | Jeremy "Jaz" Coleman (born 26 February 1960) is an English musician, composer, singer-songwriter and record producer. He came to prominence in the early 1980s as the lead vocalist and occasional keyboardist of post-punk group Killing Joke. | null | [
250004,
250054,
70742,
669,
509,
103122,
23,
5024,
1277,
33,
3915,
47,
142,
14941,
67373,
136,
142,
2393,
365,
9,
90278,
19,
42732,
111,
23552,
9,
45901,
27685,
224,
16797,
4,
15044,
111,
136565,
3542,
10696,
148729,
5,
1529,
22282,
71,
16569,
136,
44755,
73,
1379,
51838,
70742,
91854,
4,
10336,
111,
19612,
100,
5024,
1277,
33,
3915,
29693,
4,
24189,
70,
32070,
111,
21567,
136,
509,
10,
32786,
111,
40368,
7515,
5252,
7263,
681,
481,
7,
23,
30715,
5,
1529,
14432,
109133,
47,
136,
100512,
10,
130367,
111,
2356,
138059,
5,
70742,
669,
22282,
71,
23,
108089,
104621,
23,
25695,
136,
149109,
31,
78771,
59843,
23,
24849,
4,
21721,
214,
142,
1119,
41745,
272,
35187,
111,
197212,
128274,
1507,
90,
99,
70,
21,
3055,
38016,
5,
129551,
47,
1919,
10002,
15426,
4,
70742,
669,
2843,
22282,
71,
21640,
4620,
214,
100,
17262,
5369,
23,
236386,
136,
83,
142,
186094,
297,
494,
525,
678,
10,
106820,
23,
2356,
138059,
5,
360,
25695,
70742,
669,
14037,
297,
104431,
214,
2177,
350,
678,
47617,
1991,
10208,
194824,
23,
438,
19514,
37639,
4,
14098,
117604,
5,
581,
80836,
7068,
172310,
297,
101275,
1419,
30152,
11179,
13,
140691,
136,
164938,
271,
6470,
46173,
814,
15,
9227,
116233,
194,
581,
21115,
121447,
2363,
5117,
11001,
23,
18374,
24849,
136,
2363,
5117,
28,
5416,
35801,
223,
7156,
509,
121447,
23,
15643,
5,
70742,
669,
162466,
71,
37105,
108171,
7,
136,
149186,
7,
47,
70,
8753,
25,
7,
52336,
4,
3129,
621,
149133,
5281,
237,
1305,
9,
115755,
4,
136,
70,
19612,
14432,
191722,
70,
25297,
13950,
136,
12924,
30773,
7,
5,
70742,
669,
24145,
569,
18,
104431,
214,
2177,
350,
142458,
20102,
25632,
10,
158020,
23,
24427,
2451,
2347,
5155,
7103,
4,
764,
26983,
6259,
47,
114749,
136,
171530,
1919,
91177,
47,
24209,
10,
54704,
289,
150350,
42,
5,
5531,
5369,
111,
35187,
214,
136,
221560,
104431,
214,
2177,
350,
83687,
674,
14432,
4,
764,
71064,
71,
55080,
214,
136,
79786,
678,
3060,
111,
70,
8999,
25,
7,
105207,
178992,
162,
5,
1657,
693,
18770,
44317,
5531,
19,
140793,
151552,
4049,
237,
10,
44,
54936,
12576,
603,
740,
360,
11704,
4,
23,
133258,
678,
14245,
786,
71,
4293,
4,
70742,
669,
121447,
1919,
5117,
34166,
538,
150222,
7156,
233234,
44,
294,
4021,
7,
1295,
70,
36216,
14,
10821,
6406,
830,
3129,
83,
23113,
538,
18507,
47314,
237,
44,
70646,
13703,
4,
58,
1284,
83,
102917,
538,
150350,
71,
111,
10,
17664,
6644,
111,
86991,
8394,
48850,
7262,
2856,
90,
17664,
297,
678,
171827,
7426,
9,
49133,
297,
2856,
90,
5,
360,
11857,
70742,
669,
121447,
1919,
5117,
111,
17262,
7156,
7,
111,
954,
39,
75189,
1771,
13950,
19612,
12,
44,
830,
3129,
16320,
12225,
99,
14012,
1632,
23,
70,
211441,
57832,
4792,
51062,
289,
47832,
5465,
37340,
7,
116287,
4,
136,
44,
58,
3542,
15044,
59121,
136,
181653,
390,
70742,
669,
678,
7948,
126093,
90,
55080,
214,
70,
9020,
49612,
88975,
238,
198624,
5,
2161,
382,
18237,
56434,
70742,
669,
57119,
3674,
678,
645,
3252,
156206,
19612,
72004,
23,
70,
1657,
99736,
6635,
116233,
198624,
4,
35509,
23,
198193,
4,
157997,
4,
4602,
47,
51339,
70,
64194,
939,
111,
44,
605,
19346,
4326,
12,
4843,
39,
75189,
1771,
45470,
3786,
36737,
73,
58,
33233,
678,
78301,
178992,
21094,
111,
45470,
3786,
36737,
73,
25,
7,
19612,
5,
360,
8272,
764,
181653,
136,
137356,
71,
142,
7156,
111,
20769,
7,
4912,
100,
178992,
11,
4,
51339,
297,
390,
54704,
289,
19612,
72004,
26719,
1520,
2679,
118963,
136,
70,
210721,
4843,
39,
75189,
53,
198624,
4,
35839,
44,
23267,
14202,
98,
70,
115885,
12,
581,
20769,
7,
98027,
31,
58,
15,
16069,
121447,
23,
3576,
194,
1529,
1556,
79786,
678,
70,
2356,
138059,
4843,
39,
75189,
53,
198624,
4,
2750,
765,
31089,
71,
10,
7915,
111,
1919,
44,
294,
4650,
75189,
53,
438,
5,
106,
44,
568,
85,
48992,
58,
58,
678,
70,
235257,
49612,
88975,
11,
198624,
4,
136,
237,
150350,
42,
23,
45606,
329,
47,
70,
210721,
4843,
39,
75189,
53,
198624,
5,
360,
11891,
764,
54452,
7,
44,
8335,
318,
22346,
12,
182014,
159,
3473,
17007,
830,
17164,
297,
678,
70,
2356,
138059,
23351,
214,
48772,
126,
5,
360,
8272,
68467,
70742,
669,
136,
911,
3929,
5367,
56,
19895,
13,
1177,
979,
61148,
14,
100,
4806,
55609,
399,
15,
76228,
154954,
93,
143757,
136,
5941,
27060,
16,
3129,
17164,
297,
70,
7156,
44,
670,
329,
7925,
740,
581,
17164,
23409,
41929,
133782,
316,
23,
2356,
138059,
5,
581,
11531,
44,
27559,
161,
13,
11,
58,
118775,
23,
70,
1346,
44,
69085,
147,
111,
70,
130679,
58,
128829,
5,
44,
670,
329,
7925,
1995,
58,
118775,
23,
55021,
360,
6789,
70742,
669,
509,
62458,
297,
390,
70,
25674,
16556,
13038,
23,
1311,
16274,
38666,
9020,
100,
1919,
5117,
21334,
105994,
6264,
233234,
44,
3957,
1784,
1651,
429,
99,
101147,
740,
22376,
62458,
297,
390,
70,
25674,
16556,
13038,
509,
70742,
669,
25,
7,
44,
14256,
3206,
3674,
830,
10,
75544,
55215,
31,
100,
44755,
73,
4,
54567,
136,
79315,
178992,
11,
124901,
73986,
11469,
7092,
7,
70,
915,
20016,
111,
70,
12610,
53,
3395,
111,
9879,
14713,
5,
3293,
4488,
509,
23,
133258,
678,
103655,
81828,
56,
30382,
5454,
42296,
3748,
4,
124901,
196,
87929,
7,
111,
70,
8321,
39958,
28032,
604,
10002,
23295,
109133,
70,
150350,
42,
678,
2363,
53894,
375,
126365,
136,
80267,
53,
5,
2161,
1039,
11994,
88847,
70742,
669,
509,
62458,
297,
390,
70,
43975,
100,
113197,
91903,
5844,
39162,
56,
15,
30941,
594,
16,
47,
150350,
10,
17262,
9,
17365,
75544,
44,
158257,
111,
70,
75344,
316,
830,
36510,
214,
70,
25647,
111,
70,
110436,
136,
74216,
3956,
23,
24668,
3173,
4,
3129,
764,
552,
9,
102446,
297,
678,
1919,
88,
820,
82953,
4,
47231,
7,
70742,
669,
15,
57332,
702,
22482,
42610,
247,
2750,
83,
10,
158,
555,
5281,
26866,
6,
34053,
27744,
1419,
99,
90538,
26255,
12535,
5,
2161,
1039,
11994,
4,
10868,
94239,
329,
90968,
1679,
25,
7,
12877,
44,
237051,
7,
111,
70,
3731,
18,
63248,
830,
3129,
58309,
7030,
7,
98,
2874,
9,
52152,
2481,
136,
479,
979,
86385,
4,
509,
91376,
5,
70742,
669,
136,
90968,
1679,
3835,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
169707,
44,
6979,
169,
58,
70742,
669,
15,
57332,
1381,
22482,
23936,
16,
83,
142,
14941,
19612,
3378,
4,
150350,
42,
4,
5367,
56,
9,
35821,
70035,
136,
17164,
108558,
5,
1529,
21449,
47,
502,
7732,
329,
23,
70,
39395,
15643,
7,
237,
70,
37105,
108171,
1419,
136,
46505,
289,
149186,
1419,
111,
1305,
9,
115755,
21115,
104431,
214,
2177,
350,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1938214 | en-train-1938214 | 1938214 | {
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Music.",
"Killing Joke.",
"Solo composition and recordings.",
"Films and soundtracks.",
"Production.",
"Books.",
"Awards and accolades.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Coleman was born in Cheltenham to an English father and an Anglo-Indian mother of half-Bengali descent, both of whom were school teachers. He studied piano and violin under Eric Coleridge, head of music for Cheltenham College, until the age of 17, and was a member of several cathedral choirs in England. He later moved to and became a citizen of New Zealand. Coleman studied in Leipzig DDR in 1978 and Cairo Conservatoire in 1979, completing an extensive study of Arabic quartertones at the latter institution. According to his own account, Coleman also studied international banking for three years in Switzerland and is an ordained priest with a church in New Zealand.",
"",
"In 1978 Coleman founded Killing Joke with drummer Paul Ferguson in Notting Hill, United Kingdom. The pair then recruited guitarist Geordie Walker and bassist Martin Glover (aka Youth). The group released their first single in October 1979 and their first eponymous album was released in 1980. Coleman contributed lead vocals and keyboards to the band's songs, which are categorised as post-punk, and the music later inspired the industrial rock and metal genres.",
"Coleman once quit Killing Joke temporarily following a gig in 1982—the day after, he travelled to Iceland and announced his intention to become a classical composer. Ten years of studying and ongoing Killing Joke involvement later, he commenced conducting and worked with some of the world's leading orchestras. Conductor Klaus Tennstedt described him as a \"new Mahler\". In 1990, in collaboration with Anne Dudley, Coleman released his first purely instrumental album entitled \"Songs from the Victorious City\", which is formally classified as \"World Music,\" but is primarily composed of a mixture of middle eastern folk themes mixed with western pop-oriented themes. In 1995 Coleman released his first of three albums of symphonic rock music: \"\", which peaked at number one in the Billboard Magazine Top Classical Crossover Albums chart, and \"\" were both written and produced by Coleman with Peter Scholes conducting the London Philharmonic Orchestra. On 8 June 2007, Coleman collaborated with over 150 youth musicians in the Contemporary Youth Orchestra, based in Cleveland, Ohio, USA to perform the entirety of \"Kashmir: Symphonic Led Zeppelin\" along with additional orchestrations of Led Zeppelin's music. In 1999 he produced and arranged an album of Doors material for orchestra, performed by classical musicians including Nigel Kennedy and the Prague Symphony Orchestra, called \"Riders on the Storm: The Doors Concerto\" (CD released in 2000). He has worked with the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, who have issued a CD of his \"Symphony No. 1 \"Idavoll\"\" with the Auckland Philharmonia Orchestra, and as composer in residence to the Prague Symphony Orchestra. In 1996 he releases \"Pacifica: Ambient Sketches\", recorded with the New Zealand String Quartet. In 1999 Jaz Coleman and Maori singer Hinewehi Mohi formed Oceania (with Hirini Melbourne and many others) which recorded the album \"Oceania\". The record went double platinum in New Zealand. The song \"Pukaea\" appeared in the film \"Year of the Devil\" (2002). \"Oceania II\" appeared in 2002. In 2001 Coleman was commissioned by the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden London for his first large scale opera entitled \"The Marriage at Cana\". Also commissioned by the Royal Opera House was Coleman's \"Unwanted\", a concerto grosso for violin, viola and string orchestra whose theme portrays the plight of the Romany people of central Europe. This work was in collaboration with Czech photographer Jana Tržilová, whose portraits of the Roma taken within her own country moved the composer with their deep compassion and humanity. On 22 March 2003, Coleman was commissioned by the Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter (ICAM) to compose a three-part concerto \"Music of the Quantum\", expressing the ideas of the quantum and emergence in musical form, which he co-produced with his elder brother, Piers Coleman (born 13 February 1958), who is a condensed matter physicist at Rutgers University. On 22 March, Sir Laurence Gardner's book \"Secrets of the Lost Ark\", which expounds on anti-gravity and prehistory, was published. Coleman and Gardner publicly exchanged their work (book and scores) at the Occulture Lectures in Brighton on 20 July 2003, a gesture appropriate to Coleman's interest in themes of renaissance, collaboration, and working in parallels. Also in 2003, Coleman completed a second work with Nigel Kennedy and the Kroke Trio in the role of friend and producer of their album, \"East Meets East\", released through EMI Classics. In 2004 and 2005, Coleman arranged the Sarah Brightman album \"Harem\" and wrote a further 12 Arias to be recorded with her. He also continues with his work as composer in residence of the Prague Symphony Orchestra. In early 2006 Joseph McManners performed Coleman's \"Daughter of England\" at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic to standing ovation. In 2009, Coleman recorded the \"Nirvana Suite\" with the Czech National Symphony Orchestra, and played summer festivals across Europe with Killing Joke. Coleman travelled from Japan to South India with former bandmate Paul Raven's ashes and participated in Pradakshina. In December, Coleman's \"Us and Them: Symphonic Pink Floyd\" was performed at the Berlin Konzerthaus for the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Wall. In 2010 Coleman completed his \"Magna Suscitatio\" for solo violin, chorus and full orchestra, which illustrates the process of transformation and illumination of the human condition \"from our current barbaric state\". Coleman also began work with the Prague Chamber Orchestra and was in discussion about a series of concerts. Coleman's second symphony, recorded by the Auckland Philharmonic Orchestra, was due for release with the \"Nirvana Suite\". In 2014, Coleman began the year by conducting the NSO Symphony Orchestra (UAE) for the opening ceremony of the Dubai World Cup, which was broadcast to 160 countries. Later that year, Coleman recorded with the Moscow State Film Orchestra and performed his Zep Symphony some 30 kilometres outside St Petersburg at Gatchina Palace for the White Night gala with the Minsk Philharmonic. One month later, Coleman recorded \"The Nirvana Dialogues\" with the St Petersburg State Symphony Orchestra for Universal records. Due to the success of this recording, Coleman has entered into a two-year contract as composer-in-residence with the St Petersburg State Symphony Orchestra. Also in 2014, \"Us and Them: Symphonic Pink Floyd\" was performed by the Melbourne Ballet Orchestra on 22 October and 1 November. 2015 saw the release of Tambours du Bronx's album \"Corros\", featuring a collaboration with Jaz on the track \"Human Smile\". On 28 February 2016, Jaz Coleman gave a spoken word performance in Auckland, entitled \"'Going Over to the Dark Side', A light hearted look at the state of world affairs by the Dark Lord\". Later in the year, his \"Doors Concerto\" was performed at the White Nights Festival in Saint Petersburg. 2016 also saw the release of the Levee Walkers, a collaboration between Jaz, Duff McKagan and Pearl Jam guitarist Mike McCready. Duff McKagan stipulated who and what a Levee Walker is: \"To become a Levee Walker you must have at least 25 years of musical experience, survived battles with the forces of darkness, and perhaps even kissed death on the cheek. More importantly, there must exist a deep reverence for the music of your comrades, and the commitment they made to this hardest of paths.\" In September 2016, Jaz Coleman was invited by the Etrange festival in Paris for a \"carte blanche\" programme of six films and a spoken word performance.",
"In 2002 Coleman starred (as himself) in a Czech film by Petr Zelenka \"Rok ďábla\" (\"Year of the Devil\"). The film was awarded the Crystal Globe at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. He also co-directed a documentary-style music film with Filmmaker [Shaun Pettigrew] called \"The Death And Resurrection Show\", named after a song on Killing Joke's 2003 album. The film was premiered at the British Film Institute on 19 February 2015.",
"Together with Martin Williams & Malcolm Welsford, Coleman founded the York Street Studio in NZ. The studio was closed after Coleman produced the ninth album of NZ band Shihad, \"FVEY\", which was released in the second half of 2014. Coleman produced Shihad's debut album, \"Churn\"—also recorded at York Street—but a disagreement with the band occurred after the release of the album. Following a 15-year period in which Coleman and Shihad did not communicate, Coleman made amends with the band members at a London, UK awards ceremony. Shihad's lead singer and guitarist Jon Toogood explained in June 2014: We'd had a falling out, I just didn't have time for him [Coleman]... I was like, \"Fuck that guy\". But he was softer—he doesn't drink alcohol anymore. He's still gnarly and idealistic and brutal but minus the alcohol that makes him this focused machine. It was just the perfect meeting of what we wanted to do and having the right guy to do it with. Prior to the recording of \"FVEY\", Coleman informed the band, \"I'm going to work you until you've made a great record\" and, after the completion of a two-month recording period, Toogood referred to the band's time with Coleman as a \"bootcamp\"; however, Toogood further explained that the band \"needed someone to crack the whip\" and he felt \"purged\" afterward.",
"In 2006 Coleman was writing a book about permaculture, free energy, freedom and freedom-loving individuals. The book, titled \"Letters from Cythera\", was released in early 2014 and was described by Coleman as an overview of \"how the occult sciences have shaped my philosophical outlook expounding on my preferred system for a personalized renaissance (the supersynthesis)\"—Coleman stated that the book was written between 2007 and 2008. When asked to expound upon his \"supersynthesis\" concept, Coleman explained: It's [supersynthesis] the idea that we can stretch ourselves in 12 different directions all at once, and I put myself out as a guinea-pig and put myself through the paces and I’m in the process of sharing my results with people, to show how far I got. The thing about the super-synthesis is you choose one opus magnum, a huge work to do, then you chose 12 other non related projects that you’re meant to take to mastery and so I’ve finished pretty much everything and now is the execution of all of these – some of which I’ve done... In the wake of the book's publishing, Coleman did a spoken word at London's St Pancras Old Church on 17 June 2015",
"In 2001, Coleman recorded the multi-platinum album Proměny with Czech band Čechomor, which won three Anděl (Angel) awards. Coleman was made Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres by the French Minister of Culture for his contribution to contemporary music, and was decorated by the French government on 27 September 2010, while Killing Joke were in concert at the Bataclan in Paris.",
"Coleman is a supporter of the concept of environmental sustainability and has invested in the creation of two ecovillages in the South Pacific and in Chile. He has been married twice and has three daughters. The eldest lives in Switzerland and the two younger ones live in New Zealand. When asked about his perspective on the United States in a May 2013 interview, Coleman explained: It's different from 30 years ago. There's no rebellion left. Everyone is just a passive zombie. Food supply has something to do with it – it's dumbed down everyone to obese, lethargic corpses... People are worn down... It's a fragmented society. People have access now to amazing amounts of information, but their attention spans are getting shorter, their focus is gone. Instant gratification. Instant knowledge orgasm! I think that a lot of the great thinkers couldn't achieve what they did through a computer."
]
} |
Industry Standard Architecture | null | Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) is the 16-bit internal bus of IBM PC/AT and similar computers based on the Intel 80286 and its immediate successors during the 1980s. The bus was (largely) backward compatible with the 8-bit bus of the 8088-based IBM PC, including the IBM PC/XT as well as IBM PC compatibles. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
6,
36256,
5324,
509,
126809,
390,
10,
7175,
12441,
390,
7880,
262,
66,
99,
90540,
237,
2831,
111,
70,
90540,
6107,
13452,
23,
26771,
15612,
11631,
75935,
70,
13579,
44,
4153,
693,
38904,
20744,
136422,
3408,
58,
15,
36256,
16,
47,
91995,
44,
12233,
146731,
740,
6,
36256,
62038,
3674,
237,
142,
15045,
3137,
5426,
5,
62,
22958,
3137,
11389,
4,
70,
90540,
17672,
5324,
4,
509,
65508,
71,
678,
70,
54452,
111,
70,
90540,
6107,
64,
14609,
23,
20986,
5,
360,
18592,
4,
70,
2789,
9,
3137,
5443,
35548,
71,
164254,
20744,
136422,
3408,
15,
647,
36256,
16,
5570,
509,
26171,
71,
390,
70,
44,
724,
1463,
111,
1520,
86,
58,
21115,
111,
6107,
9,
277,
10974,
2661,
142901,
4295,
450,
99201,
15612,
11631,
5,
360,
70,
9433,
4,
1836,
24036,
71232,
538,
120514,
4806,
70,
17672,
5324,
47,
44,
36256,
58,
47,
71864,
23,
7151,
81551,
90540,
25,
7,
52350,
10015,
98,
6863,
6107,
64,
14609,
13909,
5,
90540,
82775,
70,
15045,
3137,
11389,
237,
10,
373,
18234,
297,
101758,
47,
70,
42732,
24351,
5324,
90,
111,
70,
24018,
2248,
12772,
23175,
23538,
4785,
16,
86039,
23,
70,
90540,
6107,
136,
6107,
64,
70981,
5,
581,
22958,
3137,
11389,
509,
142,
116086,
100,
70,
42732,
24351,
5324,
90,
111,
70,
24018,
2248,
3882,
910,
86039,
11814,
23,
70,
90540,
17672,
5,
581,
6,
36256,
5324,
509,
127298,
200470,
10821,
678,
70,
86039,
501,
21135,
4,
24189,
221,
11727,
71412,
3674,
6,
123759,
4209,
150624,
3542,
29479,
297,
390,
110537,
7831,
47,
101758,
6,
36256,
47,
5045,
4271,
56,
86039,
7,
5,
6,
36256,
509,
82775,
47,
37067,
117,
14,
94266,
289,
126381,
47,
70,
42732,
24351,
136,
114864,
100,
5324,
31347,
214,
5,
87293,
70,
5117,
611,
12918,
111,
5201,
98323,
83,
29823,
2886,
5,
581,
7311,
15045,
3137,
5324,
13028,
1295,
70,
1398,
14546,
129890,
501,
21135,
111,
70,
2248,
12772,
86039,
23,
70,
90540,
6107,
136,
6107,
64,
70981,
5,
581,
7311,
22958,
3137,
5324,
13028,
1295,
70,
86039,
501,
21135,
111,
70,
2248,
3882,
910,
23,
90540,
6107,
64,
14609,
13909,
7,
4,
3129,
509,
305,
129890,
23,
70,
5117,
115774,
136,
382,
129890,
23,
14432,
115774,
5,
581,
90540,
27389,
6107,
2843,
11814,
70,
22958,
3137,
5324,
5,
6,
36256,
509,
2843,
11814,
23,
3060,
351,
9,
29877,
594,
146731,
116491,
6044,
237,
167961,
12045,
92,
9,
77007,
107184,
15,
91092,
73419,
136,
2022,
1758,
17287,
15,
91092,
62946,
4488,
41311,
7,
4,
70,
16610,
9,
150,
4126,
17672,
1230,
618,
2291,
22155,
18,
136,
70,
14432,
17170,
12233,
9,
77007,
873,
72295,
5,
15612,
7833,
7,
1884,
82735,
52295,
71,
70,
17672,
5324,
25,
7,
23718,
1284,
23,
22059,
4,
90540,
91995,
71,
70,
17672,
5324,
678,
6863,
180639,
53,
37992,
55969,
136422,
3408,
15,
155900,
194,
6,
155900,
645,
408,
282,
5941,
111,
70,
205969,
7,
7068,
173676,
23,
6,
36256,
1284,
509,
2843,
142,
71834,
390,
90540,
47,
6835,
21845,
6226,
111,
70,
6107,
6,
159958,
136,
70,
6107,
16839,
5,
6,
155900,
509,
2060,
1286,
175961,
3501,
6,
36256,
136,
1902,
5941,
66139,
450,
2806,
14432,
108975,
23,
167752,
5,
33306,
4,
6,
155900,
509,
2843,
10,
155738,
5570,
7440,
162,
90540,
1902,
121447,
4393,
71679,
5256,
136,
61404,
61903,
41637,
100,
6,
36256,
5,
40139,
142901,
4295,
45739,
71,
47,
6,
155900,
390,
168698,
70,
5443,
35548,
71,
164254,
20744,
136422,
3408,
15,
647,
36256,
16,
136,
70,
14432,
310,
54761,
24172,
25852,
15,
856,
48097,
194,
310,
48097,
11814,
3060,
65133,
63920,
7311,
538,
179140,
100,
6,
155900,
6637,
82761,
142901,
4295,
21771,
3542,
46979,
20051,
47,
142901,
2856,
5,
149766,
241,
36256,
136,
310,
48097,
3542,
4420,
19364,
7,
9,
277,
10974,
2661,
14700,
66,
63239,
111,
70,
17672,
15,
36256,
16,
5324,
5,
53400,
7,
111,
6,
36256,
9,
77007,
116491,
1902,
47,
3714,
5361,
4677,
1672,
70,
76407,
1836,
3542,
154107,
47,
70,
5426,
5,
51404,
10,
3535,
7844,
111,
128779,
3542,
85590,
538,
44,
145301,
9,
19,
9,
20706,
830,
903,
509,
41207,
5,
53400,
7,
195409,
1902,
47,
222495,
171859,
7,
3229,
154107,
10,
3525,
75186,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
32863,
2737,
13315,
4,
87,
64,
670,
29823,
4,
707,
391,
8218,
86723,
5,
6,
155900,
1902,
16940,
16065,
678,
903,
51455,
1363,
136,
167752,
20653,
49504,
3674,
5941,
111,
70,
25647,
5117,
88898,
71,
678,
6,
155900,
4,
21208,
442,
509,
1286,
105237,
60887,
297,
1295,
241,
36256,
5,
3293,
63134,
678,
180346,
155605,
12441,
47,
70,
166635,
111,
6,
36256,
436,
19,
683,
4,
10,
76329,
9,
19,
9,
20706,
5426,
450,
11814,
10,
162515,
111,
129344,
7,
47,
76407,
4,
70,
5426,
190743,
4,
136,
172852,
5426,
10975,
47,
191082,
111240,
177953,
144,
87632,
7,
5,
360,
50081,
4,
6,
36256,
436,
19,
683,
5809,
186,
63134,
43452,
136,
6777,
959,
24209,
5299,
9,
105363,
297,
24189,
70,
6,
159958,
509,
23,
6863,
2704,
13312,
5,
167752,
121892,
3542,
70,
5117,
72761,
538,
9,
73,
277,
10974,
2661,
14700,
66,
6889,
11469,
7,
47,
105237,
6,
30590,
6659,
6,
36256,
5773,
70,
42732,
24351,
5,
1913,
5117,
4,
42732,
24351,
7,
3542,
21334,
538,
6,
36256,
4,
26719,
10,
10846,
167752,
121892,
5,
3311,
70,
4122,
9,
70779,
7,
4,
70,
6626,
24897,
52895,
3542,
166904,
538,
40197,
71,
4,
136,
6,
36256,
121892,
33662,
3542,
23,
70,
66320,
939,
111,
107222,
76519,
5,
7244,
25,
7,
6107,
10078,
29458,
2320,
170198,
450,
6,
36256,
121892,
186,
184750,
167969,
4,
21208,
70,
5426,
6,
159958,
7464,
56065,
6,
36256,
47,
186,
13379,
23,
3060,
117909,
15403,
3917,
70796,
538,
47,
34831,
70,
21917,
66433,
22648,
4,
35686,
11469,
7,
4,
3021,
5,
4,
3129,
509,
15400,
70,
10975,
146731,
339,
12233,
5324,
509,
75935,
5,
6,
36256,
121892,
47143,
297,
100,
10,
10846,
1286,
5369,
4,
136,
98186,
70,
15504,
111,
70,
142642,
442,
509,
39210,
47,
1957,
76519,
678,
142,
9852,
123079,
27686,
189682,
7,
13791,
15,
284,
32566,
16,
129842,
43573,
70,
9879,
9433,
214,
25072,
4,
142,
10298,
53,
111,
167752,
121892,
4,
136,
1632,
707,
6626,
6,
36256,
121892,
43573,
70,
3564,
5,
360,
72399,
43304,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
164254,
20744,
136422,
3408,
15,
36256,
16,
83,
70,
22958,
3137,
70796,
5324,
111,
90540,
6107,
64,
14609,
136,
21373,
13909,
7,
35509,
98,
70,
24018,
2248,
3882,
910,
136,
6863,
168894,
39457,
4295,
20271,
70,
15643,
7,
5,
581,
5324,
509,
15,
320,
2679,
53,
16,
4420,
19364,
146731,
678,
70,
15045,
3137,
5324,
111,
70,
2248,
12772,
9,
77007,
90540,
6107,
4,
26719,
70,
90540,
6107,
64,
70981,
237,
5299,
237,
90540,
6107,
146731,
7,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2265152 | en-train-2265152 | 2265152 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"ISA bus architecture.",
"Number of devices.",
"Varying bus speeds.",
"8/16-bit incompatibilities.",
"Past and current use.",
"ATA.",
"XT-IDE.",
"PCMCIA.",
"Emulation by embedded chips.",
"Standardization.",
"Modern ISA cards."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The ISA bus was developed by a team led by Mark Dean at IBM as part of the IBM PC project in 1981 Compaq created the term \"Industry Standard Architecture\" (ISA) to replace \"PC compatible\". ISA originated as an 8-bit system. A 16-bit version, the IBM AT bus, was introduced with the release of the IBM PC/AT in 1984. In 1988, the 32-bit Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) standard was proposed by the \"Gang of Nine\" group of PC-compatible manufacturers that included Compaq. In the process, they retroactively renamed the AT bus to \"ISA\" to avoid infringing IBM's trademark on its PC/AT computer. IBM designed the 8-bit version as a buffered interface to the motherboard buses of the Intel 8088 (16/8 bit) CPU in the IBM PC and PC/XT. The 16-bit version was an upgrade for the motherboard buses of the Intel 80286 CPU used in the IBM AT. The ISA bus was therefore synchronous with the CPU clock, until sophisticated buffering methods were implemented by chipsets to interface ISA to much faster CPUs. ISA was designed to connect peripheral cards to the motherboard and allows for bus mastering. Only the first 16 MB of main memory is addressable. The original 8-bit bus ran from the 4.77 MHz clock of the 8088 CPU in the IBM PC and PC/XT. The original 16-bit bus ran from the CPU clock of the 80286 in IBM PC/AT computers, which was 6 MHz in the first models and 8 MHz in later models. The IBM RT PC also used the 16-bit bus. ISA was also used in some non-IBM compatible machines such as Motorola 68k-based Apollo (68020) and Amiga 3000 (68030) workstations, the short-lived AT&T Hobbit and the later PowerPC-based BeBox. Companies like Dell improved the AT bus's performance but in 1987, IBM replaced the AT bus with its proprietary Micro Channel Architecture (MCA). MCA overcame many of the limitations then apparent in ISA but was also an effort by IBM to regain control of the PC architecture and the PC market. MCA was far more advanced than ISA and had many features that would later appear in PCI. However, MCA was also a closed standard whereas IBM had released full specifications and circuit schematics for ISA. Computer manufacturers responded to MCA by developing the Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) and the later VESA Local Bus (VLB). VLB used some electronic parts originally intended for MCA because component manufacturers already were equipped to manufacture them. Both EISA and VLB were backwards-compatible expansions of the AT (ISA) bus. Users of ISA-based machines had to know special information about the hardware they were adding to the system. While a handful of devices were essentially \"plug-n-play\", this was rare. Users frequently had to configure parameters when adding a new device, such as the IRQ line, I/O address, or DMA channel. MCA had done away with this complication and PCI actually incorporated many of the ideas first explored with MCA, though it was more directly descended from EISA. This trouble with configuration eventually led to the creation of ISA PnP, a plug-n-play system that used a combination of modifications to hardware, the system BIOS, and operating system software to automatically manage resource allocations. In reality, ISA PnP could be troublesome and did not become well-supported until the architecture was in its final days. PCI slots were the first physically-incompatible expansion ports to directly squeeze ISA off the motherboard. At first, motherboards were largely ISA, including a few PCI slots. By the mid-1990s, the two slot types were roughly balanced, and ISA slots soon were in the minority of consumer systems. Microsoft's PC 99 specification recommended that ISA slots be removed entirely, though the system architecture still required ISA to be present in some vestigial way internally to handle the floppy drive, serial ports, etc., which was why the software compatible LPC bus was created. ISA slots remained for a few more years, and towards the turn of the century it was common to see systems with an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) sitting near the central processing unit, an array of PCI slots, and one or two ISA slots near the end. In late 2008, even floppy disk drives and serial ports were disappearing, and the extinction of vestigial ISA (by then the LPC bus) from chipsets was on the horizon. PCI slots are \"rotated\" compared to their ISA counterparts—PCI cards were essentially inserted \"upside-down,\" allowing ISA and PCI connectors to squeeze together on the motherboard. Only one of the two connectors can be used in each slot at a time, but this allowed for greater flexibility. The AT Attachment (ATA) hard disk interface is directly descended from the 16-bit ISA of the PC/AT. ATA has its origins in hardcards that integrated a hard disk drive (HDD) and a hard disk controller (HDC) onto one card. This was at best awkward and at worst damaging to the motherboard, as ISA slots were not designed to support such heavy devices as HDDs. The next generation of Integrated Drive Electronics drives moved both the drive and controller to a drive bay and used a ribbon cable and a very simple interface board to connect it to an ISA slot. ATA is basically a standardization of this arrangement plus a uniform command structure for software to interface with the HDC within the drive. ATA has since been separated from the ISA bus and connected directly to the local bus, usually by integration into the chipset, for much higher clock rates and data throughput than ISA could support. ATA has clear characteristics of 16-bit ISA, such as a 16-bit transfer size, signal timing in the PIO modes and the interrupt and DMA mechanisms.",
"The PC/XT-bus is an eight-bit ISA bus used by Intel 8086 and Intel 8088 systems in the IBM PC and IBM PC XT in the 1980s. Among its 62 pins were demultiplexed and electrically buffered versions of the 8 data and 20 address lines of the 8088 processor, along with power lines, clocks, read/write strobes, interrupt lines, etc. Power lines included −5 V and ±12 V in order to directly support pMOS and enhancement mode nMOS circuits such as dynamic RAMs among other things. The XT bus architecture uses a single Intel 8259 PIC, giving eight vectorized and prioritized interrupt lines. It has four DMA channels originally provided by the Intel 8237, 3 of the DMA channels are brought out to the XT bus expansion slots; of these, 2 are normally already allocated to machine functions (diskette drive and hard disk controller): The PC/AT-bus, a 16-bit (or 80286-) version of the PC/XT bus, was introduced with the IBM PC/AT. This bus was officially termed \"I/O Channel\" by IBM. It extends the XT-bus by adding a second shorter edge connector in-line with the eight-bit XT-bus connector, which is unchanged, retaining compatibility with most 8-bit cards. The second connector adds four additional address lines for a total of 24, and 8 additional data lines for a total of 16. It also adds new interrupt lines connected to a second 8259 PIC (connected to one of the lines of the first) and 4 × 16-bit DMA channels, as well as control lines to select 8- or 16-bit transfers. The 16-bit AT bus slot originally used two standard edge connector sockets in early IBM PC/AT machines. However, with the popularity of the AT-architecture and the 16-bit ISA bus, manufacturers introduced specialized 98-pin connectors that integrated the two sockets into one unit. These can be found in almost every AT-class PC manufactured after the mid-1980s. The ISA slot connector is typically black (distinguishing it from the brown EISA connectors and white PCI connectors).",
"Motherboard devices have dedicated IRQs (not present in the slots). 16-bit devices can use either PC-bus or PC/AT-bus IRQs. It is therefore possible to connect up to 6 devices that use one 8-bit IRQ each, or up to 5 devices that use one 16-bit IRQ each. At the same time, up to 4 devices may use one 8-bit DMA channel each, while up to 3 devices can use one 16-bit DMA channel each.",
"Originally, the bus clock was synchronous with the CPU clock, resulting in varying bus clock frequencies among the many different IBM \"clones\" on the market (sometimes as high as 16 or 20 MHz), leading to software or electrical timing problems for certain ISA cards at bus speeds they were not designed for. Later motherboards or integrated chipsets used a separate clock generator, or a clock divider which either fixed the ISA bus frequency at 4, 6, or 8 MHz or allowed the user to adjust the frequency via the BIOS setup. When used at a higher bus frequency, some ISA cards (certain Hercules-compatible video cards, for instance), could show significant performance improvements.",
"Memory address decoding for the selection of 8 or 16-bit transfer mode was limited to 128 KiB sections, leading to problems when mixing 8- and 16-bit cards as they could not co-exist in the same 128 KiB area. This is because the MEMCS16 line is required to be set based on the value of LA17-23 only.",
"ISA is still used today for specialized industrial purposes. In 2008 IEI Technologies released a modern motherboard for Intel Core 2 Duo processors which, in addition to other special I/O features, is equipped with two ISA slots. It is marketed to industrial and military users who have invested in expensive specialized ISA bus adaptors, which are not available in PCI bus versions. Similarly, ADEK Industrial Computers is releasing a motherboard in early 2013 for Intel Core i3/i5/i7 processors, which contains one (non-DMA) ISA slot. The PC/104 bus, used in industrial and embedded applications, is a derivative of the ISA bus, utilizing the same signal lines with different connectors. The LPC bus has replaced the ISA bus as the connection to the legacy I/O devices on recent motherboards; while physically quite different, LPC looks just like ISA to software, so that the peculiarities of ISA such as the 16 MiB DMA limit (which corresponds to the full address space of the Intel 80286 CPU used in the original IBM AT) are likely to stick around for a while.",
"As explained in the \"History\" section, ISA was the basis for development of the ATA interface, used for ATA (a.k.a. IDE) and more recently Serial ATA (SATA) hard disks. Physically, ATA is essentially a simple subset of ISA, with 16 data bits, support for exactly one IRQ and one DMA channel, and 3 address bits. To this ISA subset, ATA adds two IDE address select (\"chip select\") lines and a few unique signal lines specific to ATA/IDE hard disks (such as the Cable Select/Spindle Sync. line.) In addition to the physical interface channel, ATA goes beyond and far outside the scope of ISA by also specifying a set of physical device registers to be implemented on every ATA (IDE) drive and a full set of protocols and device commands for controlling fixed disk drives using these registers. The ATA device registers are accessed using the address bits and address select signals in the ATA physical interface channel, and all operations of ATA hard disks are performed using the ATA-specified protocols through the ATA command set. The earliest versions of the ATA standard featured a few simple protocols and a basic command set comparable to the command sets of MFM and RLL controllers (which preceded ATA controllers), but the latest ATA standards have much more complex protocols and instruction sets that include optional commands and protocols providing such advanced optional-use features as sizable hidden system storage areas, password security locking, and programmable geometry translation. A further deviation between ISA and ATA is that while the ISA bus remained locked into a single standard clock rate (for backward hardware compatibility), the ATA interface offered many different speed modes, could select among them to match the maximum speed supported by the attached drives, and kept adding faster speeds with later versions of the ATA standard (up to 133 MB/s for ATA-6, the latest.) In most forms, ATA ran much faster than ISA, provided it was connected directly to a local bus faster than the ISA bus.",
"Before the 16-bit ATA/IDE interface, there was an 8-bit XT-IDE (also known as XTA) interface for hard disks. It was not nearly as popular as ATA has become, and XT-IDE hardware is now fairly hard to find. Some XT-IDE adapters were available as 8-bit ISA cards, and XTA sockets were also present on the motherboards of Amstrad's later XT clones as well as a short-lived line of Philips units. The XTA pinout was very similar to ATA, but only eight data lines and two address lines were used, and the physical device registers had completely different meanings. A few hard drives (such as the Seagate ST351A/X) could support either type of interface, selected with a jumper. Many later AT (and AT successor) motherboards had no integrated hard drive interface but relied on a separate hard drive interface plugged into an ISA/EISA/VLB slot. There were even a few 80486 based units shipped with MFM/RLL interfaces and drives instead of the increasingly common AT-IDE. Commodore built the XT-IDE based peripheral hard drive / memory expansion unit A590 for their Amiga 500 and 500+ computers that also supported a SCSI drive. Later models – the A600, A1200, and the Amiga 4000 series – use AT-IDE drives.",
"The PCMCIA specification can be seen as a superset of ATA. The standard for PCMCIA hard disk interfaces, which included PCMCIA flash drives, allows for the mutual configuration of the port and the drive in an ATA mode. As a de facto extension, most PCMCIA flash drives additionally allow for a simple ATA mode that is enabled by pulling a single pin low, so that PCMCIA hardware and firmware are unnecessary to use them as an ATA drive connected to an ATA port. PCMCIA flash drive to ATA adapters are thus simple and inexpensive, but are not guaranteed to work with any and every standard PCMCIA flash drive. Further, such adapters cannot be used as generic PCMCIA ports, as the PCMCIA interface is much more complex than ATA.",
"Although most modern computers do not have physical ISA buses, all IBM compatible computers — x86, and x86-64 (most non-mainframe, non-embedded) — have ISA buses allocated in physical address space. Embedded controller chips (southbridge) and CPUs themselves provide services such as temperature monitoring and voltage readings through these buses as ISA devices.",
"IEEE started a standardization of the ISA bus in 1985, called the P996 specification. However, despite there even having been books published on the P996 specification, it never officially progressed past draft status.",
"There still is an existing user base with old computers, so some ISA cards are still manufactured, e.g. with USB ports or complete single board computers based on modern processors, USB 3.0, and SATA."
]
} |
Flowchart | null | A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents a workflow or process. A flowchart can also be defined as a diagrammatic representation of an algorithm, a step-by-step approach to solving a task. | null | [
250004,
250054,
38699,
9336,
67987,
621,
11814,
23,
4331,
214,
136,
12937,
214,
8781,
9433,
90,
707,
103391,
5,
18852,
3789,
52895,
111,
117233,
7,
4,
1836,
4358,
21176,
20650,
2367,
83,
7730,
98,
136,
2685,
1272,
4358,
28219,
10,
9433,
4,
136,
95134,
2843,
7413,
40715,
9,
3522,
10023,
223,
66139,
28032,
70,
9433,
4,
1884,
1238,
19729,
7,
136,
144521,
86,
22824,
5,
8622,
621,
12921,
52895,
111,
86608,
9254,
933,
12,
12638,
10644,
1556,
6863,
10002,
5423,
111,
16530,
90,
136,
959,
21094,
5,
581,
6626,
2684,
39210,
52895,
111,
16530,
90,
23,
10,
86608,
9254,
18,
621,
12,
62,
86608,
9254,
18,
83,
151552,
237,
44,
95665,
9,
137175,
289,
58,
3229,
70,
116287,
83,
101637,
71,
3934,
12921,
79259,
707,
124001,
63920,
4,
47,
98363,
70,
6226,
111,
12921,
53702,
289,
25072,
7,
5,
62,
26582,
108975,
214,
23,
10,
17311,
2831,
83,
28032,
70,
6226,
111,
450,
53702,
289,
25072,
5,
62,
41421,
9,
137175,
289,
86608,
9254,
18,
114864,
70,
42179,
47,
26785,
538,
64040,
67,
70,
153579,
100,
51339,
214,
142,
22631,
707,
20662,
10,
51957,
4,
136,
47,
7639,
70,
153579,
111,
12638,
53702,
289,
25072,
100,
12921,
63920,
111,
10,
11001,
9433,
5,
38699,
9336,
67987,
8,
18695,
18,
24233,
128746,
111,
9433,
90,
136,
621,
56104,
110633,
297,
390,
3789,
52895,
111,
117233,
5,
1326,
110527,
4,
1136,
30442,
87,
110162,
634,
61924,
71,
70,
86608,
9254,
18,
237,
1632,
111,
70,
59671,
62822,
72977,
111,
31897,
6226,
4,
11737,
47,
70,
1919,
18,
83814,
4,
52668,
188,
116287,
4,
12765,
155434,
4,
6226,
116287,
4,
22304,
9,
2940,
9,
171760,
117233,
4,
136,
70,
6,
16275,
3055,
117233,
5,
209683,
538,
4,
23,
345,
39456,
4,
10,
5570,
23755,
9,
51734,
214,
110,
22062,
11814,
23,
10975,
34754,
4,
70,
103488,
117233,
4,
3129,
83,
10,
10644,
111,
86608,
9254,
18,
4,
83,
1660,
1632,
111,
5941,
12921,
117233,
52895,
5,
19215,
172,
9,
40888,
86,
62160,
669,
117233,
7,
136,
18186,
1716,
9,
9254,
933,
621,
142,
30700,
110,
22062,
100,
9433,
86608,
5,
151301,
30700,
123055,
26698,
12,
86608,
116287,
4,
9433,
86608,
9254,
18,
4,
123309,
86608,
9254,
18,
4,
9433,
22288,
4,
9433,
116287,
4,
123309,
9433,
116287,
4,
8063,
9433,
3299,
4,
9433,
3299,
4,
9433,
86608,
117233,
4,
4488,
86608,
117233,
4,
8063,
86608,
117233,
5,
581,
69407,
44,
118664,
9254,
18,
58,
136,
44,
118664,
116287,
58,
621,
11814,
1940,
152028,
78458,
5,
581,
1379,
538,
214,
6,
41382,
45646,
111,
10,
86608,
9254,
18,
83,
10,
86608,
6,
41382,
4,
3129,
164789,
7,
16065,
110,
112,
52895,
4,
2363,
10941,
7,
136,
3789,
142,
121226,
1294,
4677,
5,
581,
5117,
45646,
71,
55300,
100,
12937,
214,
9433,
86608,
4,
70,
44,
118664,
9433,
116287,
830,
509,
65508,
71,
390,
17819,
136,
339,
162076,
28378,
4134,
927,
23,
70,
92252,
44,
10752,
26531,
110373,
7,
12,
23972,
50478,
7,
23,
26040,
214,
70,
6561,
11345,
42261,
47,
54,
27985,
830,
47,
43032,
111,
70,
15672,
67081,
111,
230166,
289,
90125,
1314,
15,
9713,
10611,
16,
23,
56694,
5,
581,
28378,
4134,
927,
7,
25,
72977,
69405,
14037,
2363,
3917,
3934,
25297,
177907,
314,
12713,
16735,
5,
360,
70,
39395,
28730,
7,
4,
142,
25297,
185118,
4,
139814,
572,
5,
50598,
33,
1015,
80723,
47,
25550,
8063,
3395,
23,
70,
4527,
111,
3060,
111,
70,
72977,
111,
25297,
177907,
99,
1919,
27985,
55331,
141,
41274,
114732,
7,
23,
43157,
153782,
532,
4,
2356,
5753,
5,
4713,
58383,
64289,
4,
10,
26748,
150180,
111,
50598,
33,
1015,
25,
7,
18507,
4,
34739,
70,
72977,
4420,
47,
84607,
720,
136,
21413,
2661,
7440,
764,
126809,
2363,
262,
39873,
2182,
74644,
7,
87377,
7663,
5,
3419,
159,
5,
147756,
4,
15700,
26748,
150180,
4,
31068,
111,
15236,
56379,
123470,
99,
20744,
131423,
81207,
4,
190659,
70,
86608,
9433,
116287,
47,
4677,
9433,
214,
678,
1919,
34754,
111,
70,
6024,
9,
118664,
9433,
116287,
4,
47,
13379,
48716,
60525,
136,
2363,
151618,
5,
360,
40191,
4,
6483,
10611,
30666,
297,
10,
26582,
5423,
16406,
4126,
1295,
28378,
4134,
927,
25,
7,
7311,
4488,
237,
70,
44,
9713,
10611,
20744,
12,
102203,
136,
563,
17336,
123996,
110373,
7,
1242,
120469,
1950,
62600,
23,
45604,
189050,
450,
69700,
18217,
7,
10325,
136,
4939,
542,
11059,
5761,
1902,
126809,
10,
86608,
9254,
18,
15,
124524,
538,
4,
117233,
16,
47,
1774,
13909,
103391,
5,
18763,
158,
99736,
6635,
15426,
509,
22,
31004,
297,
390,
90540,
185118,
7,
136,
390,
18217,
7,
10325,
25,
7,
3357,
106547,
10763,
7,
5,
581,
7311,
56037,
449,
86608,
9254,
933,
111,
18217,
7,
10325,
136,
542,
11059,
5761,
831,
186,
14037,
23,
2363,
51,
179193,
297,
13416,
4,
44,
78680,
592,
136,
552,
6238,
111,
44402,
100,
142,
65133,
242122,
13984,
4,
16995,
1995,
4,
98872,
106,
58,
5173,
74329,
4,
3129,
83,
42238,
297,
23,
542,
11059,
5761,
25,
7,
43799,
297,
43240,
5,
581,
86608,
9254,
18,
100512,
10,
5700,
55516,
100,
28852,
23709,
13909,
234873,
7,
4,
1284,
6863,
5700,
2481,
227204,
71,
23,
70,
19340,
7,
4,
3229,
212398,
13909,
33949,
7,
136,
50960,
9,
48281,
1363,
56037,
449,
46876,
7,
100512,
39210,
72977,
100,
13909,
56037,
449,
4,
16792,
234873,
7,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
1286,
158,
10794,
21286,
237,
31344,
18151,
23,
6044,
46876,
7,
5,
101153,
19,
74189,
9,
40899,
83,
11814,
4,
3129,
4527,
7,
70,
39210,
13373,
28016,
111,
6044,
46876,
7,
15490,
81113,
538,
6,
5667,
4209,
47,
70,
41653,
111,
10,
17311,
1632,
5,
14240,
1090,
4778,
86608,
9254,
933,
621,
7464,
11814,
100,
28852,
23709,
13909,
234873,
7,
5,
18799,
53088,
6044,
237,
345,
39456,
103488,
117233,
7,
136,
18186,
1716,
9,
9254,
933,
831,
186,
90698,
47,
186,
111938,
7,
111,
70,
86608,
9254,
18,
5,
179130,
11050,
18,
119845,
42459,
297,
450,
86608,
9254,
933,
831,
186,
3299,
297,
1295,
70,
80280,
111,
12921,
38937,
94407,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
31095,
7,
4,
5426,
60822,
933,
136,
501,
603,
1224,
247,
136,
450,
2685,
621,
22759,
4537,
52895,
12,
438,
24494,
450,
11907,
10644,
111,
86608,
9254,
18,
32153,
90,
98,
3060,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
86608,
9254,
18,
83,
10,
10644,
111,
117233,
450,
33636,
7,
10,
4488,
118664,
707,
9433,
5,
62,
86608,
9254,
18,
831,
2843,
186,
61924,
71,
237,
10,
117233,
47148,
18811,
1363,
111,
142,
234873,
4,
10,
29954,
9,
1272,
9,
95528,
51515,
47,
3115,
6496,
10,
66211,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1964331 | en-train-1964331 | 1964331 | {
"title": [
"Overview.",
"History.",
"Types.",
"Building blocks.",
"Common symbols.",
"Other symbols.",
"Parallel processing.",
"Software.",
"Diagramming."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Flowcharts are used in designing and documenting simple processes or programs. Like other types of diagrams, they help visualize what is going on and thereby help understand a process, and perhaps also find less-obvious features within the process, like flaws and bottlenecks. There are different types of flowcharts: each type has its own set of boxes and notations. The two most common types of boxes in a flowchart are: A flowchart is described as \"cross-functional\" when the chart is divided into different vertical or horizontal parts, to describe the control of different organizational units. A symbol appearing in a particular part is within the control of that organizational unit. A cross-functional flowchart allows the author to correctly locate the responsibility for performing an action or making a decision, and to show the responsibility of each organizational unit for different parts of a single process. Flowcharts depict certain aspects of processes and are usually complemented by other types of diagram. For instance, Kaoru Ishikawa defined the flowchart as one of the seven basic tools of quality control, next to the histogram, Pareto chart, check sheet, control chart, cause-and-effect diagram, and the scatter diagram. Similarly, in UML, a standard concept-modeling notation used in software development, the activity diagram, which is a type of flowchart, is just one of many different diagram types. Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams and Drakon-charts are an alternative notation for process flow. Common alternative names include: flow chart, process flowchart, functional flowchart, process map, process chart, functional process chart, business process model, process model, process flow diagram, work flow diagram, business flow diagram. The terms \"flowchart\" and \"flow chart\" are used interchangeably. The underlying graph structure of a flowchart is a flow graph, which abstracts away node types, their contents and other ancillary information.",
"The first structured method for documenting process flow, the \"flow process chart\", was introduced by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth in the presentation \"Process Charts: First Steps in Finding the One Best Way to do Work\", to members of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in 1921. The Gilbreths' tools quickly found their way into industrial engineering curricula. In the early 1930s, an industrial engineer, Allan H. Mogensen began to train business people in the use of some of the tools of industrial engineering at his Work Simplification Conferences in Lake Placid, New York. Art Spinanger, a 1944 graduate of Mogensen's class, took the tools back to Procter and Gamble where he developed their Deliberate Methods Change Program. Ben S. Graham, another 1944 graduate, Director of Formcraft Engineering at Standard Register Industrial, applied the flow process chart to information processing with his development of the multi-flow process chart, to present multiple documents and their relationships. In 1947, ASME adopted a symbol set derived from Gilbreth's original work as the \"ASME Standard: Operation and Flow Process Charts.\" Douglas Hartree in 1949 explained that Herman Goldstine and John von Neumann had developed a flowchart (originally, diagram) to plan computer programs. His contemporary account was endorsed by IBM engineers and by Goldstine's personal recollections. The original programming flowcharts of Goldstine and von Neumann can be found in their unpublished report, \"Planning and coding of problems for an electronic computing instrument, Part II, Volume 1\" (1947), which is reproduced in von Neumann's collected works. The flowchart became a popular tool for describing computer algorithms, but its popularity decreased in the 1970s, when interactive computer terminals and third-generation programming languages became common tools for computer programming, since algorithms can be expressed more concisely as source code in such languages. Often pseudo-code is used, which uses the common idioms of such languages without strictly adhering to the details of a particular one. Nowadays flowcharts are still used for describing computer algorithms. Modern techniques such as UML activity diagrams and Drakon-charts can be considered to be extensions of the flowchart.",
"Sterneckert (2003) suggested that flowcharts can be modeled from the perspective of different user groups (such as managers, system analysts and clerks), and that there are four general types: Notice that every type of flowchart focuses on some kind of control, rather than on the particular flow itself. However, there are some different classifications. For example, Andrew Veronis (1978) named three basic types of flowcharts: the \"system flowchart\", the \"general flowchart\", and the \"detailed flowchart\". That same year Marilyn Bohl (1978) stated \"in practice, two kinds of flowcharts are used in solution planning: \"system flowcharts\" and \"program flowcharts\"...\". More recently, Mark A. Fryman (2001) identified more differences: \"Decision flowcharts, logic flowcharts, systems flowcharts, product flowcharts, and process flowcharts are just a few of the different types of flowcharts that are used in business and government\". In addition, many diagram techniques are similar to flowcharts but carry a different name, such as UML activity diagrams.",
"",
"The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) set standards for flowcharts and their symbols in the 1960s. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) adopted the ANSI symbols in 1970. The current standard, ISO 5807, was revised in 1985. Generally, flowcharts flow from top to bottom and left to right.",
"The ANSI/ISO standards include symbols beyond the basic shapes. Some are:",
"For parallel and concurrent processing the \"Parallel Mode\" horizontal lines or a horizontal bar indicate the start or end of a section of processes that can be done independently:",
"",
"Any drawing program can be used to create flowchart diagrams, but these will have no underlying data model to share data with databases or other programs such as project management systems or spreadsheet. Many software packages exist that can create flowcharts automatically, either directly from a programming language source code, or from a flowchart description language. There are several applications and visual programming languages that use flowcharts to represent and execute programs. Generally these are used as teaching tools for beginner students. Examples include Flowgorithm, Raptor. LARP, Visual Logic, Fischertechnik ROBO Pro, and VisiRule."
]
} |
Ordinary (heraldry) | null | In heraldry, an ordinary (or honourable ordinary) is a simple geometrical figure, bounded by straight lines and running from side to side or top to bottom of the shield. There are also some geometric charges known as subordinaries, which have been given lesser status by some heraldic writers, though most have been in use as long as the traditional ordinaries. Diminutives of ordinaries and some subordinaries are charges of the same shape, though thinner. Most of the ordinaries are theoretically said to occupy one-third of the shield; but this is rarely observed in practice, except when the ordinary is the only charge (as in the coat of arms of Austria). | null | [
250004,
250054,
204526,
90,
15,
43452,
70141,
35839,
44,
9482,
34639,
2886,
23335,
10484,
18939,
102337,
40099,
2878,
5256,
44,
4390,
58,
70,
44457,
4,
1284,
621,
23113,
538,
90698,
36746,
7,
44,
191,
58,
70,
44457,
5,
145733,
2685,
83,
3060,
29865,
237,
47,
66161,
3129,
84183,
6827,
124666,
2451,
76228,
80560,
121303,
7,
136,
51042,
1295,
121303,
47,
121303,
111,
70,
6,
221292,
2451,
2271,
13480,
67,
23335,
10484,
4,
24233,
64333,
621,
176506,
98,
390,
30309,
5,
218288,
100,
70,
185256,
1836,
621,
9879,
47,
70,
6,
221292,
5,
581,
25632,
621,
68018,
23831,
71,
237,
23335,
10484,
4,
68018,
237,
44,
22144,
43297,
10484,
58,
15,
21231,
35064,
2077,
204526,
90,
3871,
959,
186,
876,
167457,
390,
80560,
124519,
5,
31384,
84183,
238,
26366,
7,
621,
959,
90698,
47,
186,
44,
9482,
34639,
2886,
23335,
10484,
58,
136,
621,
35839,
44,
22144,
43297,
10484,
740,
99342,
5078,
1428,
53,
4,
1836,
621,
84183,
238,
707,
101805,
289,
124666,
450,
4,
51,
5062,
23335,
10484,
4,
54,
959,
115851,
1295,
121303,
47,
121303,
111,
70,
6,
221292,
5,
8622,
83,
110,
44836,
13,
5303,
707,
80934,
4,
1284,
1836,
137567,
26698,
12,
96746,
297,
163888,
11,
10484,
621,
8382,
450,
765,
10,
17311,
3687,
47,
738,
98,
10,
6,
221292,
2451,
748,
99,
19713,
10,
4552,
84046,
37457,
111,
44677,
5,
64511,
163888,
11,
10484,
831,
186,
158012,
151107,
98,
70,
44457,
5,
14847,
10,
5798,
18,
111,
121641,
70541,
7,
6626,
707,
1286,
111,
142,
23335,
1294,
4,
1836,
621,
110518,
11343,
9932,
18979,
71,
15,
73,
14941,
16,
237,
44,
428,
34731,
42991,
58,
111,
70,
23335,
1294,
4,
237,
28960,
7,
5,
581,
44,
587,
3771,
184,
58,
15,
2347,
10010,
2069,
41110,
7,
2451,
43452,
70141,
4734,
1632,
44,
18,
58,
136,
68018,
44,
238,
58,
64457,
111,
70,
44,
7,
18939,
62038,
3674,
237,
142,
30700,
9351,
47,
44,
587,
271,
58,
15,
21231,
36917,
16,
136,
221,
237,
10,
45,
34731,
4935,
111,
70,
1585,
71,
4,
2684,
39210,
538,
14037,
23,
80836,
7,
98,
40101,
5609,
111,
10,
1585,
71,
4,
678,
70,
1585,
71,
8035,
9932,
18979,
71,
40101,
237,
44,
4626,
1177,
33,
6626,
552,
3771,
5908,
58,
707,
237,
44,
587,
3771,
5281,
740,
14240,
1090,
4778,
552,
3771,
6953,
83,
11814,
959,
1660,
100,
1585,
6468,
1284,
100,
138155,
538,
756,
70,
23335,
10484,
15,
2940,
46505,
25958,
42486,
7,
111,
124666,
247,
136,
58055,
7,
23,
22466,
214,
70,
23335,
1294,
17721,
6626,
45,
34731,
4935,
11389,
7,
111,
68034,
15,
2940,
46505,
25958,
3789,
8966,
194,
62,
25153,
221,
191607,
83,
56104,
9932,
18979,
71,
44,
33,
31004,
297,
58,
136,
10,
290,
334,
1900,
4552,
46505,
25958,
44,
12600,
8705,
155738,
58,
707,
17721,
6626,
24941,
20903,
7,
5,
62,
185256,
4,
49903,
4,
53418,
186,
552,
3771,
5281,
5,
581,
23335,
1294,
136,
6863,
552,
3771,
5170,
3871,
959,
765,
70,
5701,
91249,
6644,
707,
70,
5701,
13315,
122360,
2320,
5,
204526,
90,
4552,
46505,
25958,
2046,
552,
3771,
5281,
390,
8966,
115700,
71,
32233,
12921,
538,
1295,
2363,
45,
34731,
42991,
2451,
5062,
41000,
291,
8705,
31358,
7,
5,
180,
11210,
30283,
538,
10,
42486,
111,
124666,
90795,
14534,
237,
2174,
98,
142,
23335,
1294,
2451,
58,
73,
1585,
71,
830,
3021,
5,
2451,
164,
1030,
277,
46648,
297,
390,
552,
3771,
21896,
5,
28541,
10644,
111,
25534,
4,
1284,
31895,
2684,
27983,
70,
23335,
10484,
136,
163888,
11,
10484,
4,
831,
186,
44,
26789,
48141,
56128,
15490,
53333,
76811,
4,
903,
26950,
450,
10,
108564,
23,
70,
115700,
111,
70,
25534,
122273,
7,
70,
44457,
50155,
442,
5,
180,
11210,
30283,
538,
70,
108564,
83,
111,
12921,
91249,
6644,
707,
115700,
15,
143321,
8110,
7068,
186,
58735,
297,
247,
221,
450,
70,
25534,
135179,
47,
186,
613,
69674,
71,
678,
10,
164917,
25534,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
604,
289,
48855,
4,
142,
23335,
1294,
15,
748,
3486,
34639,
2886,
23335,
1294,
16,
83,
10,
8781,
84183,
6827,
26366,
4,
876,
167457,
390,
80560,
124519,
136,
51042,
1295,
5609,
47,
5609,
707,
2663,
47,
103136,
111,
70,
6,
221292,
5,
8622,
621,
2843,
3060,
84183,
238,
124666,
51529,
237,
163888,
11,
10484,
4,
3129,
765,
2809,
34475,
199,
2189,
10778,
390,
3060,
604,
289,
18403,
6,
70035,
7,
4,
21208,
2684,
765,
2809,
23,
4527,
237,
4989,
237,
70,
89160,
23335,
10484,
5,
803,
34731,
42991,
111,
23335,
10484,
136,
3060,
163888,
11,
10484,
621,
124666,
111,
70,
5701,
115700,
4,
21208,
6117,
13857,
5,
17006,
111,
70,
23335,
10484,
621,
3790,
2264,
71407,
2804,
47,
36,
143414,
53,
1632,
9,
95037,
71,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1112215 | en-train-1112215 | 1112215 | {
"title": [
"Ordinaries.",
"Lines of variation.",
"Subordinaries.",
"Fixed subordinaries.",
"Mobile subordinaries.",
"Diminutives.",
"Cottise and cottising.",
"Voiding, surmounting with another, and fimbriation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Ordinaries (sometimes called \"honourable ordinaries\") resemble partitions \"of\" the field, but are formally considered objects \"on\" the field. Though there is some debate as to exactly which geometrical charges—with straight edges and running from edge to edge of the shield—constitute ordinaries, certain ones are agreed on by everyone. Except for the chief they are central to the shield. The following are sometimes classed as ordinaries, sometimes as \"subordinaries\" (see below):",
"Ordinaries need not be bounded by straight lines.",
"Some geometric figures are not considered to be \"honourable ordinaries\" and are called \"subordinaries\". Very loosely, they are geometric or conventional charges that, unlike ordinaries, do not stretch from edge to edge of the shield. There is no definitive list or definition, but they generally include:",
"Fixed subordinaries are those that have a particular place to go on a shield—or at least a very limited range of places.",
"Other subordinaries can be placed anywhere on the field.",
"When a coat of arms contains two or more of an ordinary, they are nearly always blazoned (in English) as \"diminutives\" of the ordinary, as follows.",
"The \"cottise\" (the spelling varies—sometimes only one \"t\" and sometimes \"c\" instead of the \"s\") originated as an alternative name to \"cost\" (see above) and so as a diminutive of the bend, most commonly found in pairs on either side of a bend, with the bend being blazoned either as \"between two cottises\" or as \"cottised\". Nowadays cottising is used not just for bends but for practically all the ordinaries (and occasionally collections of charges), and consists in placing the ordinary between two diminutive versions of itself (and occasionally other things). A pale so treated is usually blazoned \"endorsed\" and a chevron very occasionally \"couple closed\" or between two couple closes. A chief, however, cannot be cottised. The ordinary and its cottices need not have the same tincture or the same line ornamentation. Ordinaries very occasionally get cottised by things shaped quite differently from their diminutives—like demi maple leaves. Occasionally a collection of charges aligned as if on an ordinary—\"in bend\", etc.—is accompanied by cotticing.",
"Any type of charge, but probably most often the ordinaries and subordinaries, can be \"voided\"; without further description, this means that a hole in the shape of the charge reveals the field behind it. Occasionally the hole is of different tincture or shape (which must then be specified), so that the charge appears to be surcharged with a smaller charge."
]
} |
Swedish Armed Forces | null | The Swedish Armed Forces (, literally “the Defense Force”) is the government agency that forms the military forces of Sweden, and which is tasked with defense of the country, as well as promoting Sweden's wider interests, supporting international peacekeeping efforts, and providing humanitarian aid. It consists of the Swedish Army, the Swedish Air Force and the Swedish Navy, as well as a military reserve force, the Home Guard. Since 1994, all Swedish military branches are organized within a single unified government agency, headed by the Supreme Commander, even though the individual services maintain their distinct identities. King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden is traditionally considered Honorary General and Admiral "à la suite". | null | [
250004,
250054,
24372,
10,
14922,
111,
156856,
71,
12301,
12741,
7,
20271,
6661,
5550,
87,
4,
70,
187951,
1172,
4806,
59591,
7,
3542,
28368,
47,
141591,
7565,
7,
84382,
20271,
70,
1940,
4205,
5369,
5,
14847,
6661,
5550,
1995,
26859,
4,
10,
21334,
456,
25271,
674,
1528,
509,
83184,
297,
47,
24145,
13438,
56050,
187951,
62276,
2481,
4,
456,
538,
214,
98,
46889,
158,
59478,
47,
26292,
70,
30648,
7,
5,
24372,
6661,
5550,
1995,
4,
71006,
90698,
33976,
72249,
142172,
7,
47,
8,
720,
10,
134349,
116000,
191,
5,
28090,
18608,
47,
29172,
70,
187951,
27759,
13028,
10,
193580,
13,
72249,
142172,
7,
1528,
1379,
70,
2497,
3075,
111,
117907,
66,
165815,
25188,
99,
70,
187951,
9907,
85535,
6620,
42477,
43975,
5,
3311,
70,
72399,
27631,
7,
70,
4488,
1902,
157578,
70,
6275,
7440,
1379,
64330,
134234,
509,
3820,
11,
55356,
5,
33306,
4,
99,
903,
1733,
70,
118893,
6063,
63323,
3674,
25188,
136,
34754,
111,
72249,
142172,
7,
4,
6221,
71,
9966,
450,
25188,
5608,
186,
16940,
4734,
100,
70,
60042,
111,
165815,
26548,
72249,
52875,
5,
10660,
70488,
70,
7108,
47,
21342,
34754,
111,
72249,
142172,
7,
23,
70,
22690,
5,
581,
35829,
47,
21342,
34754,
111,
142172,
7,
509,
32997,
297,
23,
36236,
4,
136,
71006,
25,
7,
221419,
1144,
592,
111,
70,
3775,
9,
10752,
24804,
30494,
4804,
67530,
23,
28015,
80723,
70,
32382,
9,
34695,
111,
70,
1528,
4,
3129,
77681,
103876,
71,
23,
29172,
5,
133698,
70,
146185,
5550,
4,
70,
1631,
6032,
46889,
158,
59478,
5426,
509,
93544,
23,
3687,
47,
27992,
237,
10,
8,
720,
15724,
47,
70,
134349,
32528,
4,
51592,
237,
70,
158036,
116338,
120332,
47,
71006,
5,
581,
3564,
111,
70,
146185,
5550,
136,
70,
3365,
127966,
111,
70,
134349,
32528,
131148,
450,
70,
21778,
1399,
4126,
120332,
199,
1015,
297,
136,
70,
187,
4806,
84616,
3542,
7565,
7,
29367,
4,
678,
158,
59478,
35971,
23,
40715,
136,
40715,
172310,
7,
24189,
442,
509,
8,
111438,
3674,
23,
1532,
15,
2940,
7068,
456,
111438,
3674,
23,
81225,
5,
24372,
214075,
5369,
111,
57476,
1363,
678,
16232,
4,
72134,
678,
70,
16424,
16070,
100,
126609,
4420,
23,
13211,
4,
71006,
509,
1632,
111,
43606,
89543,
2855,
3674,
156856,
71,
107893,
100,
144483,
136,
57476,
1363,
99,
70,
82588,
144136,
23,
8432,
581,
10778,
111,
357,
1121,
37534,
2331,
109306,
93,
2449,
16424,
62952,
10,
13651,
100,
168698,
10,
1286,
110677,
136,
11651,
29367,
76755,
4,
23,
66044,
47,
3789,
4755,
9384,
7,
5,
1650,
60754,
297,
678,
49002,
25,
7,
85325,
3398,
3355,
2320,
111,
112924,
11,
136,
116338,
113449,
23,
24453,
9022,
82739,
4,
136,
2843,
678,
16232,
165815,
54727,
100,
780,
68089,
5,
149766,
70,
3871,
47,
8347,
16232,
25,
7,
10002,
165815,
44930,
136,
70,
155034,
26073,
450,
10,
28811,
23295,
509,
133888,
47,
54567,
67,
70,
144573,
48031,
12989,
17368,
116338,
13648,
4,
26038,
3095,
316,
47,
70,
3525,
4755,
13651,
5,
1657,
59478,
509,
19574,
2955,
106357,
71,
23,
505,
47,
107506,
70,
23,
129980,
14012,
111,
149849,
7,
1144,
592,
1257,
100,
4516,
5,
581,
187951,
1172,
4806,
59591,
7,
765,
22759,
5201,
66211,
7,
12,
71006,
131264,
47,
765,
70,
35829,
111,
47143,
214,
62276,
23,
7225,
111,
235511,
67,
1631,
5,
33306,
4,
71006,
57476,
1636,
115054,
538,
678,
10,
14012,
111,
110613,
76726,
5,
1301,
10,
32786,
111,
70,
28811,
32528,
4,
71006,
83,
1030,
1916,
237,
70,
37105,
64857,
100,
3747,
99381,
51588,
7,
136,
2843,
1556,
10,
20903,
57476,
1363,
4,
26719,
124416,
81979,
7,
4,
678,
16232,
8305,
6863,
209274,
23,
16424,
16070,
100,
126609,
136,
3939,
9,
178741,
1771,
16424,
16070,
70615,
5,
360,
2021,
10,
165410,
509,
173969,
297,
17721,
70,
98340,
76726,
47,
4,
54940,
3789,
8966,
4,
51312,
70,
3540,
41159,
111,
124416,
22631,
4,
136,
903,
12441,
47,
70,
166635,
111,
59939,
202001,
9688,
5,
1301,
10,
57553,
47,
70,
71062,
297,
116338,
57476,
1363,
70,
8,
6211,
329,
89261,
111,
1877,
11341,
71,
450,
71006,
1221,
959,
47143,
101766,
13,
2174,
10,
98340,
23295,
707,
10,
32786,
111,
70,
28811,
32528,
3542,
52875,
297,
5,
169549,
68894,
115299,
765,
37515,
538,
20244,
10557,
29367,
70,
3540,
41159,
47,
42938,
13,
23,
21640,
41018,
7,
4,
47,
70,
6275,
7440,
903,
1556,
24209,
70,
5201,
16610,
9,
32166,
69236,
111,
23189,
136,
98154,
6,
172482,
5,
33306,
4,
7103,
70,
2021,
25134,
2027,
184,
4526,
1631,
53732,
165815,
509,
24145,
13438,
20244,
10557,
29367,
5,
992,
3675,
7068,
2684,
25072,
7,
5809,
959,
186,
3268,
29367,
28032,
1632,
6602,
5,
360,
1877,
70,
33744,
100,
85535,
6620,
11341,
71,
450,
23,
70,
22690,
756,
111,
70,
187,
4806,
84616,
8110,
87709,
111,
89554,
3268,
84382,
28032,
1632,
5895,
5,
360,
24159,
7103,
102374,
1831,
81979,
7,
23,
20903,
241846,
939,
47,
70,
187951,
132988,
3542,
38134,
538,
113771,
4,
4734,
37195,
33297,
111,
74412,
988,
36510,
297,
159454,
23,
70,
81273,
111,
70,
64857,
47,
65922,
68034,
5,
581,
174620,
123573,
56,
15,
16,
83,
10,
22759,
9,
5613,
4537,
707,
49938,
93324,
450,
83,
70,
122921,
10336,
111,
70,
187951,
1172,
4806,
59591,
7,
4,
136,
83,
70,
167375,
77918,
23182,
93324,
98,
36457,
115,
939,
5,
581,
174620,
123573,
56,
23,
15504,
117729,
4,
3638,
538,
8305,
70,
33744,
100,
85535,
6620,
4,
105237,
47,
70,
92416,
111,
71006,
4,
3129,
23,
15504,
35166,
7,
47,
70,
118893,
6063,
5,
581,
18813,
111,
71006,
509,
4,
8108,
70,
22,
47013,
674,
111,
70,
27898,
73750,
111,
92416,
4,
70,
8,
1129,
107,
47749,
42,
23,
185256,
15,
247,
1284,
82424,
4734,
1556,
10,
81113,
538,
52446,
289,
136,
99638,
13,
31486,
678,
15072,
47,
70,
1172,
4806,
59591,
7,
5,
581,
187951,
1172,
4806,
59591,
7,
58055,
7,
111,
17262,
4516,
90356,
7,
74,
70,
126140,
4,
70,
5345,
59591,
136,
70,
19295,
53,
4,
678,
66044,
111,
70,
116338,
76875,
37772,
2005,
135440,
5,
66016,
13211,
4,
70,
5117,
17262,
4516,
90356,
7,
621,
5808,
297,
28032,
10,
11001,
51,
47314,
27759,
122921,
4,
10336,
297,
390,
70,
174620,
123573,
56,
4,
12960,
70,
2005,
135440,
117729,
105237,
47,
70,
174620,
123573,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
187951,
1172,
4806,
59591,
7,
15,
4,
218500,
52,
2347,
207068,
59591,
30093,
83,
70,
27759,
122921,
450,
3173,
7,
70,
116338,
84616,
111,
71006,
4,
136,
3129,
83,
66211,
297,
678,
165815,
111,
70,
23295,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
8891,
1916,
71006,
25,
7,
91257,
33946,
7,
4,
8060,
214,
21640,
88669,
50453,
10366,
79825,
4,
136,
101904,
75757,
3378,
36442,
5,
1650,
58055,
7,
111,
70,
187951,
126140,
4,
70,
187951,
5345,
59591,
136,
70,
187951,
19295,
53,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
10,
116338,
76875,
37772,
4,
70,
2005,
135440,
5,
66016,
13211,
4,
756,
187951,
116338,
90356,
7,
621,
5808,
297,
28032,
10,
11001,
51,
47314,
27759,
122921,
4,
10336,
297,
390,
70,
174620,
123573,
56,
4,
3853,
21208,
70,
11651,
11374,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2088145 | en-train-2088145 | 2088145 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Doctrine.",
"Organisation.",
"Armed Forces Headquarters.",
"Schools.",
"Centres.",
"Nordic Battle Group.",
"International deployments.",
"Past deployments.",
"Personnel.",
"From national service to an all-volunteer force.",
"Re-implementing conscription.",
"Personnel structure.",
"Planned size of the Swedish Armed Forces 2011–2020.",
"Criticism and research.",
"Ranks.",
"References."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"After a period of enhanced readiness during World War I, the Swedish Armed Forces were subject to severe downsizing during the interwar years. When World War II started, a large rearmament program was launched to once again guard Swedish neutrality, relying on mass conscription to fill the ranks. After World War II, Sweden considered building nuclear weapons to deter a Soviet invasion. From 1945 to 1972 the Swedish government ran a clandestine nuclear weapons program under the guise of civilian defense research at the Swedish National Defence Research Institute. By the late 1950s the work had reached the point where underground testing was feasible. However, at this time the Riksdag prohibited research and development of nuclear weapons, pledging that research should be done only for the purpose of defense against nuclear attack. They reserved the right to continue development of nuclear weapons in the future. The option to continue development of weapons was abandoned in 1966, and Sweden's subsequent signing of the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968 began the wind-down of the program, which finally concluded in 1972. During the Cold War, the wartime mass conscription system was kept in place to act as a deterrent to the Soviet Union, seen as the greatest military threat to Sweden. The end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union meant that the perceived threat lessened and the armed forces were downsized, with conscription taking in less and less recruits until it was deactivated in 2010 (and then reactivated in 2017). After twenty years of cooperation with NATO, starting with the Partnership for Peace back in 1994, Sweden was one of five partners granted enhanced opportunities for dialogue and cooperation at the Wales Summit in 2014. The status of Enhanced Opportunities Partner provided a platform for developing a more flexible and individualized relationship, in addition to other partner formats. It coincided with Russia's illegal annexation of Crimea and military intervention in Eastern Ukraine, and also with NATO defense bill for 2016-2020. Both the need to review NATO's own defense policy and the dramatic signal that a European country was prepared to violate the existing security order using military might, gave momentum to the new partner platform. Conscription was reintroduced in 2017 to supplement the insufficient number of volunteers signing up for service.",
"The Swedish Armed Forces have four main tasks: Sweden aims to have the option of remaining neutral in case of proximate war. However, Sweden cooperates militarily with a number of foreign countries. As a member of the European Union, Sweden is acting as the lead nation for EU Battlegroups and also has a close cooperation, including joint exercises, with NATO through its membership in Partnership for Peace and Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. In 2008 a partnership was initiated between the Nordic countries to, among other things, increase the capability of joint action, and this led to the creation of NORDEFCO. As a response to the expanded military cooperation the defence proposition of 2009 stated that Sweden will not remain passive if a Nordic country or a member of the European Union were attacked. Recent political decisions have strongly emphasized the capability to participate in international operations, to the point where this has become the main short-term goal of training and equipment acquisition. However, after the 2008 South Ossetia war territorial defense was once again emphasized. Until then most units could not be mobilized within one year. In 2009 the Minister for Defence stated that in the future all of the armed forces must capable of fully mobilizing within one week. In 2013, after Russian air exercises in close proximity to the Swedish border were widely reported, only six percent of Swedes expressed confidence in the ability of the nation to defend itself.",
"The Supreme Commander () is a four-star general or flag officer that is the agency head of the Swedish Armed Forces, and is the highest ranking professional officer on active duty. The Supreme Commander in turn reports, normally through the Minister for Defence, directly to the Government of Sweden, which in turn answers to the Riksdag. The King of Sweden was, before the enactment of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the de jure commander in chief (), but currently only has a strictly ceremonial and representative role with respect to the Armed Forces. The Swedish Armed Forces consists of three service branches; the Army, the Air Force and the Navy, with addition of the military reserve force Home Guard. Since 1994, the first three service branches are organized within a single unified government agency, headed by the Supreme Commander, while the Home Guard reports directly to the Supreme Commander. However, the services maintain their separate identities through the use of different uniforms, ranks, and other service specific traditions.",
"The Armed Forces Headquarters is the highest level of command in the Swedish Armed Forces. It is led by the Supreme Commander with a civilian Director General as his deputy, with functional directorates having different responsibilities (e.g. the Military Intelligence and Security Service). Overall, the Armed Forces Headquarters have about 1000 employees, including civilian personnel.",
"Some of the schools listed below answer to other units, listed under the various branches of the Armed Forces:",
"",
"The Nordic Battle Group is a cooperative formation of the Swedish Armed Forces alongside mainly the other Nordic countries but also some of the Baltic countries as well as Ireland, tasked as one of the EU Battle Groups. The headquarter garrison for this group is currently situated in Enköping Sweden.",
"Currently, Sweden has military forces deployed in Afghanistan with the NATO-led Resolute Support Mission. Swedish forces were part of the previous International Security Assistance Force (2002–2014) in Afghanistan. Sweden is also part of the multinational Kosovo Force and has a naval force deployed to the gulf of Aden as a part of Operation Atalanta. Military observers from Sweden have been sent to a large number of countries, including Georgia, Lebanon, Israel and Sri Lanka and Sweden also participates with staff officers to missions in Sudan and Chad. Sweden has been one of the Peacekeeping nations of the Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission that is tasked with overseeing the truce in the Korean Demilitarized Zone since the Korean war ended in 1953.",
"A battalion and other units were deployed with the NATO-led peacekeeping SFOR in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996–2000), following the Bosnian War. Swedish air and ground forces saw combat during the Congo Crisis, as part of the United Nations Operation in the Congo force. 9 army battalions were sent in all, and their mission lasted 1960–1964.",
"",
"In mid-1995, with the national service system based on universal military training, the Swedish Army consisted of 15 maneuver brigades and, in addition, 100 battalions of various sorts (artillery, engineers, rangers, air defense, amphibious, security, surveillance etc.) with a mobilization-time of between one and two days. When national service was replaced by a selective service system, fewer and fewer young men were drafted due to the reduction in size of the armed forces. By 2010 the Swedish Army had two battalions that could be mobilized within 90 days. When the volunteer system has been fully implemented by 2019, the army will consist of 7 maneuver battalions and 14 battalions of various sorts with a readiness of one week. The Home Guard will be reduced in size to 22,000 soldiers. In 2019 the Swedish armed forces, now with a restared national service system combained with volunteer forces, aimed to reach 3 brigades as maneuver units by 2025.",
"After having ended the universal male conscription system in 2010, as well as deactivating conscription in peacetime, the conscription system was re-activated in 2017. Since 2018 both women and men are conscripted on equal terms. The motivation behind reactivating conscription was the need for personnel, as volunteer numbers proved to be insufficient to maintain the armed forces.",
"Military personnel of the Swedish Armed Forces consists of: K = Continuously T = Part-time P = Conscript, for personnel drafted under the Swedish law of comprehensive defense duty",
"Annual recruitment of GSS is assumed to be about 4,000 persons. Source:",
"In 2008, professor Mats Alvesson of the University of Lund and Karl Ydén of the University of Göteborg claimed in an op-ed, based on Ydén's doctoral dissertation, that a large part of the officer corps of the Swedish Armed Forces was preoccupied with administrative tasks instead of training soldiers or partaking in international operations. They claimed that Swedish officers were mainly focused on climbing the ranks and thereby increasing their wages and that the main way of doing this is to take more training courses, which decreases the number of officers that are specialized in their field. Therefore, the authors claimed, the Swedish Armed Forces was poorly prepared for its mission. Major changes have been made to the officer system since then. The transformation of the old invasion defence-oriented armed forces to the new smaller and more mobile force has also been criticized. According to the Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces the present defence budget will not be enough to implement the new defence structure by 2019. And that even when finished the armed forces will only be able to fight for a week at most. During 2013 several Russian Air Force exercises over the Baltic Sea aimed at Swedish Military targets have made the future of the Swedish Armed Forces a hot topic and several political parties now want to increase defense funding. In August 2019, the government announced a bank tax to fund the military spending.",
"When an army based on national service (conscription) was introduced in 1901 all commissioned officers had ranks that were senior of the warrant officers (\"underofficerare\") and non-commissioned officers (\"underbefäl\"). In a reform 1926 the relative rank of the then senior warrant officer, fanjunkare, was increased to be equal with the junior officer rank \"underlöjtnant\" and above the most junior officer rank \"fänrik\". In 1960 the relative rank of the warrant officers were elevated further so that In 1972 the personnel structure changed, reflecting increased responsibilities of warrant and non-commissioned officers, renaming the \"underofficerare\" as \"kompaniofficerare\", giving them the same ranks as company grade officers (\"fänrik\", \"löjtnant\", \"kapten\"). \"Underbefäl\" was renamed \"plutonsofficerare\" and given the rank titles of sergeant and \"fanjunkare\", although their relative rank were now placed below \"fänrik\". The commissioned officers were renamed \"regementsofficerare\", beginning with \"löjtnant\". The three-track career system was maintained, as well as three separate messes. A major change in the personnel structure in 1983 (NBO 1983), merged the three professional corps of platoon officers, company officers, and regimental officers into a one-track career system within a single corps called professional officers (\"yrkesofficerare\"). The three messes were also merged to one. In 2008 the Riksdag decided to create a two-track career system with a category called \"specialistofficerare\". When implementing the parliamentary resolution the Supreme Commander decided that some ranks in this category should, like the old \"underofficerare\" ranks in 1960–1972, have a relative rank higher than the most junior officers.",
"Manpower-numbers are taken from CIA – The World Factbook"
]
} |
Chef's uniform | null | The traditional chef's uniform (or chef's whites) includes a "toque blanche" ("white hat"), white double-breasted jacket, pants in a black-and-white houndstooth pattern, and apron. It is a common occupational uniform in the Western world. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
91282,
83,
10,
21861,
25,
7,
1256,
450,
112474,
4420,
47,
70,
611,
927,
142642,
5,
242520,
155955,
7,
1543,
117414,
30648,
28032,
10,
98483,
4,
136,
1836,
621,
82775,
47,
56282,
24887,
1295,
6817,
214,
3934,
70,
15381,
3229,
179065,
5,
581,
805,
6,
42822,
7,
111,
70,
21861,
7,
26,
91282,
621,
2804,
47,
33636,
70,
5941,
12921,
48322,
10,
21861,
93002,
47,
110309,
56125,
7,
59499,
47,
70,
4165,
853,
52081,
18211,
225386,
5,
360,
1286,
89160,
74812,
4,
41866,
89160,
92265,
74812,
4,
70,
35011,
21861,
26,
7,
5798,
18,
83,
5570,
136,
90698,
2831,
111,
10,
89160,
61514,
136,
237,
10,
138155,
21861,
25,
7,
3671,
674,
5,
17006,
85583,
21861,
7,
95549,
35011,
552,
9821,
47,
24092,
40383,
70,
131011,
136,
11192,
28601,
111,
2363,
40124,
5,
581,
6117,
2594,
235489,
20450,
927,
59959,
7,
1295,
70,
80097,
111,
3474,
3132,
136,
56190,
7,
136,
59959,
7,
1295,
91,
9189,
33558,
111,
337,
49725,
41931,
7,
5,
581,
41929,
57262,
297,
79,
27853,
83,
11814,
47,
15190,
48431,
47,
70,
95549,
56,
25,
7,
290,
271,
136,
201957,
16128,
1295,
96865,
7,
1295,
91,
182785,
214,
41931,
7,
5,
3293,
831,
2843,
186,
39531,
5281,
47,
1274,
112,
1924,
5425,
5,
70344,
18,
3674,
20450,
927,
77679,
7,
3542,
11814,
47,
188545,
103351,
259,
54700,
136,
5470,
678,
8010,
55769,
5,
22392,
83,
179140,
47,
24092,
40383,
46622,
59801,
7,
237,
5299,
237,
69495,
30319,
80097,
1295,
70,
98483,
136,
83,
137567,
6,
23432,
19,
390,
103210,
75693,
10336,
21861,
7,
5,
8942,
1283,
6953,
538,
4,
3789,
134855,
7,
6044,
237,
22556,
621,
141753,
5700,
237,
5299,
5,
581,
4989,
4,
38134,
21861,
25,
7,
10,
101322,
87344,
5941,
92940,
7,
5,
1650,
83,
102917,
538,
6,
23432,
19,
100,
81900,
60042,
7,
5,
581,
10,
101322,
1221,
5646,
70,
5201,
24725,
4,
5608,
8010,
41931,
20230,
645,
10,
1540,
237,
70,
53976,
83,
85358,
214,
442,
4,
136,
831,
186,
69405,
184750,
47,
2046,
442,
16065,
1295,
70,
1379,
1970,
9035,
136,
6049,
7,
5,
581,
10,
101322,
83,
6,
23432,
19,
4989,
47,
1660,
35064,
70,
472,
86,
13,
47,
59959,
70,
1407,
56,
2831,
111,
70,
6049,
7,
5,
97299,
25958,
4,
70,
60042,
111,
70,
10,
101322,
509,
2843,
47,
59959,
70,
95549,
56,
25,
7,
3671,
9035,
1295,
15381,
1924,
5425,
136,
118482,
7,
5,
1650,
2843,
11814,
47,
22691,
10,
142267,
20450,
927,
678,
3129,
47,
148,
48672,
163,
46048,
44540,
707,
47,
36898,
509,
5252,
44540,
4,
102971,
903,
2806,
186,
90698,
51,
3038,
16857,
6402,
5036,
5,
160193,
4,
142,
10,
101322,
1221,
70541,
151002,
7,
4,
22,
11,
79298,
10,
21861,
47,
72546,
85358,
70,
72977,
111,
2363,
52350,
5,
32255,
352,
4063,
15227,
9035,
111,
61514,
2843,
21265,
237,
142,
172075,
17721,
70,
6,
99091,
7,
111,
4559,
46572,
4,
136,
63044,
707,
2831,
9,
6032,
23082,
5,
53976,
7,
25,
203538,
47143,
7,
10,
5570,
23,
70,
15381,
53099,
5,
581,
40250,
111,
179493,
903,
10644,
111,
203538,
112474,
4420,
47,
70,
4122,
8363,
927,
142642,
5,
24479,
9,
7251,
188,
1212,
3980,
13033,
13,
4,
10,
5700,
92265,
21861,
4,
83,
22299,
297,
678,
168698,
70,
43581,
21861,
26,
7,
61514,
5,
581,
47,
7162,
3542,
21771,
11814,
4,
1284,
764,
221,
46526,
10,
61514,
47,
3486,
34639,
70,
21861,
5,
22392,
509,
19667,
19,
100,
70,
21861,
25,
7,
5798,
18,
47,
24092,
40383,
46622,
59801,
7,
5,
147466,
4,
70,
92265,
31347,
21861,
4,
14787,
7,
8055,
13,
141086,
24500,
56,
4,
91048,
70,
89160,
21861,
25,
7,
5798,
18,
47,
9020,
4,
332,
66398,
70,
74812,
99,
70,
73829,
53,
2352,
136,
7068,
99,
70,
25075,
1507,
2352,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
89160,
21861,
25,
7,
61514,
15,
748,
21861,
25,
7,
35011,
7,
16,
96853,
10,
44,
188,
944,
180994,
58,
24073,
148477,
1256,
74054,
35011,
41929,
9,
4134,
11,
14437,
79,
27853,
4,
2652,
933,
23,
10,
22556,
9,
2940,
9,
148477,
739,
7030,
2785,
29827,
103510,
4,
136,
10,
101322,
5,
1650,
83,
10,
39210,
45519,
43315,
61514,
23,
70,
65925,
8999,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-487570 | en-train-487570 | 487570 | {
"title": [
"Description."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"The toque is a chef's hat that dates back to the 16th century. Different heights may indicate rank within a kitchen, and they are designed to prevent hair from falling into the food when cooking. The 100 folds of the chefs’ toque are said to represent the many different ways a chef knows to cook eggs according to the website Reluctant Gourmet. In more traditional restaurants, especially traditional French restaurants, the white chef’s coat is standard and considered part of a traditional uniform and as a practical chef's garment. Most serious chefs wear white coats to signify the importance and high regard of their profession. The thick cotton cloth protects from the heat of stoves and ovens and protects from splattering of boiling liquids. The double breasted jacket is used to add protection to the wearer's chest and stomach area from burns from splashing liquids. This can also be reversed to hide stains. Knotted cloth buttons were used to survive frequent washing and contact with hot items. White is intended to signify cleanliness as well as repelling heat from the kitchen and is generally worn by highly visible head chefs. Increasingly, other colours such as black are becoming popular as well. The long, wide chef's apron provides many advantages. It is primarily worn for safety purposes. The apron will take the main impact, should hot liquid spill over a pot as the Chef is carrying it, and can be quickly removed to get it away from the undergarments and legs. The apron is worn long to just below the knee to protect the upper part of the legs. Traditionally, the purpose of the apron was also to protect the wearer's garments from food stains and smells. It also used to provide a convenient cloth with which to wipe messy hands or to dry washed hands, although this would be considered unhygienic now. Sometimes, an apron will contain pockets, enabling a chef to easily carry the tools of their trade. These embellishments of uniform also serve as an indicator between the bounds of salaried, and casual or part-time staff. Chefs' clothing remains a standard in the food industry. The tradition of wearing this type of clothing dates back to the mid-19th century. Marie-Antoine Carême, a popular French chef, is credited with developing the current chef’s uniform. The toques were already used, but he sought a uniform to honour the chef. White was chosen for the chef's coat to signify cleanliness. Later, the French master chef, Georges Auguste Escoffier, brought the traditional chef's coat to London, managing the restaurants at the Savoy Hotel and then at the Carlton Hotel."
]
} |
British Airways | null | British Airways (BA) is the flag carrier airline of the United Kingdom, headquartered in London, England, near its main hub at Heathrow Airport. It is the second largest airline in the United Kingdom, based on fleet size and passengers carried, behind easyJet. In January 2011 BA merged with Iberia, creating the International Airlines Group (IAG), a holding company registered in Madrid, Spain. IAG is the world's third-largest airline group in terms of annual revenue and the second-largest in Europe. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and in the FTSE 100 Index. British Airways is the first passenger airline to have generated more than $1 billion on a single air route in a year (from 1 April 2017, to 31 March 2018, on the New York-JFK - London-Heathrow route). | null | [
250004,
250054,
43796,
232,
16765,
47,
137633,
10,
124416,
56101,
1831,
2256,
4,
375,
964,
592,
70,
181079,
111,
70,
56101,
9578,
184,
162,
163622,
84829,
15,
17398,
15012,
16,
136,
56101,
28811,
163622,
15,
20090,
284,
16,
3542,
5117,
165249,
23,
49795,
237,
10,
16750,
111,
34844,
3387,
23,
81887,
7,
390,
14216,
15012,
136,
9622,
284,
47,
9807,
118,
2182,
1831,
38109,
8305,
70,
56101,
46512,
53,
111,
27939,
26992,
7,
5,
8942,
1283,
6953,
538,
14216,
15012,
509,
18782,
214,
450,
9622,
284,
509,
17368,
6863,
57527,
6635,
27939,
26992,
7,
163622,
47,
75723,
16274,
142,
106689,
450,
9622,
284,
2806,
959,
12403,
36439,
7,
53333,
28,
4438,
3501,
27939,
26992,
7,
4,
106480,
47,
70,
118055,
538,
5526,
29700,
10776,
7,
23,
70,
102256,
24453,
5,
581,
80923,
669,
111,
14216,
15012,
4,
52999,
7,
14978,
4,
509,
23,
1238,
141775,
111,
10,
42564,
42,
237,
10,
38516,
29806,
47,
903,
217573,
674,
136,
1902,
4420,
214,
100,
70,
6528,
1295,
70,
76710,
141,
1484,
111,
70,
5443,
1430,
27227,
99,
70,
1733,
4,
62171,
4966,
603,
5,
33306,
4,
177986,
1295,
70,
4804,
162,
44616,
46389,
297,
70,
152132,
5,
1657,
184,
26513,
18,
538,
4,
442,
509,
4734,
25632,
70,
209236,
111,
70,
31060,
38157,
7,
34798,
450,
10,
3525,
56101,
163622,
62554,
4,
332,
66398,
15044,
9622,
284,
136,
14216,
15012,
4,
136,
70,
6626,
18150,
56101,
1831,
59801,
10071,
7928,
66,
163622,
35509,
99,
3980,
152462,
4,
136,
23924,
13,
4438,
75353,
35509,
99,
188831,
54799,
8064,
86,
4,
509,
11764,
3674,
98,
106,
7071,
29172,
5,
106073,
12638,
1831,
2256,
25,
7,
8796,
214,
509,
76104,
297,
61475,
538,
4,
6626,
5369,
14432,
70,
56101,
163622,
62554,
51,
47314,
6863,
8796,
214,
4,
191984,
137633,
214,
56101,
163622,
237,
142,
1831,
2256,
98,
1936,
11994,
27898,
5,
77168,
214,
6626,
5369,
111,
38781,
329,
130412,
678,
56101,
127164,
80352,
66,
4,
70,
17932,
9,
320,
177,
525,
1831,
2256,
23,
70,
14098,
117604,
99,
70,
1733,
4,
70,
92416,
98816,
6863,
85683,
1363,
44930,
23,
28506,
221,
450,
70,
6626,
2258,
25388,
7,
2806,
110,
51713,
98438,
98,
4989,
9,
528,
202,
36439,
7,
5,
56101,
163622,
136,
5345,
9942,
160404,
71,
70,
1601,
1681,
1771,
1831,
79852,
55061,
7,
73433,
133,
9,
8031,
441,
140932,
13,
4,
136,
70,
8999,
25,
7,
5117,
1601,
1681,
1771,
44828,
1505,
4516,
18738,
434,
23,
18982,
28506,
1295,
1529,
10519,
15555,
48938,
47,
235474,
8357,
48938,
5,
40583,
47,
70,
7082,
80723,
98,
744,
4347,
28506,
678,
10,
113014,
47,
17955,
786,
14388,
146619,
4,
136,
113014,
7,
47,
2356,
5753,
821,
86371,
146619,
134629,
98,
1039,
6088,
27193,
5,
12349,
47,
58888,
509,
170920,
23,
552,
9,
21473,
1363,
678,
58888,
75353,
237,
10,
9454,
1363,
111,
70,
113014,
47,
235474,
5,
77168,
214,
70,
5345,
9942,
140932,
13,
150631,
23,
7270,
136,
10,
91,
122077,
23,
1831,
26983,
25632,
70,
534,
6088,
52875,
7,
23,
2356,
5753,
23,
103844,
442,
509,
68872,
47,
8360,
184,
140932,
13,
41018,
7,
23,
6052,
7103,
1438,
5369,
111,
4516,
5,
581,
2704,
60091,
140932,
13,
113014,
509,
8678,
97259,
1295,
2356,
5753,
9,
1375,
86371,
47,
9020,
9,
13025,
10519,
15555,
98,
744,
18374,
46730,
360,
26771,
70,
1831,
2256,
509,
20819,
89829,
47,
114606,
100,
8629,
15032,
390,
70,
78771,
4935,
9925,
5372,
27759,
5,
10868,
4939,
18813,
4,
14432,
47443,
18813,
4,
509,
6,
140545,
297,
80923,
669,
4,
25534,
71,
678,
172915,
70,
1831,
2256,
4420,
3934,
18348,
41159,
5,
51404,
5941,
3789,
21334,
1831,
59801,
151994,
71,
4,
18813,
509,
22299,
297,
678,
27198,
214,
56101,
163622,
3934,
1632,
111,
70,
2684,
18348,
2886,
1831,
2258,
25388,
7,
23,
70,
8999,
5,
581,
49938,
2258,
25388,
509,
8629,
52021,
136,
509,
21917,
27686,
98,
70,
9020,
68804,
104758,
23,
22482,
22059,
5,
56101,
163622,
21543,
297,
70,
5646,
5465,
111,
70,
17274,
25,
7,
44,
191633,
58,
1831,
2256,
4,
56101,
127164,
80352,
66,
4,
23,
20414,
111,
450,
5701,
6602,
5,
581,
27643,
111,
22758,
21110,
1681,
25,
7,
89253,
142740,
23,
20986,
75935,
10,
28813,
1290,
100,
8678,
5,
581,
108938,
43876,
1294,
17721,
56101,
163622,
136,
89253,
142740,
167575,
3674,
23,
70,
36770,
8035,
166,
297,
100,
400,
4063,
23,
13867,
4,
187,
72219,
1295,
140526,
136,
105416,
164779,
7,
645,
10,
44,
936,
939,
88308,
7,
58,
80399,
26548,
89253,
5,
3293,
80399,
99201,
747,
125682,
7,
111,
160,
934,
214,
89253,
142740,
59463,
4,
1481,
1264,
214,
678,
14375,
102158,
66165,
81551,
47,
89253,
136,
1379,
266,
592,
89253,
25,
7,
216473,
23,
70,
26349,
5,
1301,
10,
16750,
111,
70,
7225,
8678,
24365,
1747,
12524,
5281,
44,
309,
2109,
56,
4126,
538,
830,
136,
70,
14380,
176506,
47,
8783,
11762,
418,
166628,
82649,
7,
47,
89253,
4,
11762,
183191,
47,
21110,
1681,
165197,
136,
11762,
363,
19879,
8437,
84458,
5,
47443,
18813,
2288,
48398,
7565,
237,
80923,
669,
23,
13867,
136,
509,
91995,
71,
390,
1919,
8,
7077,
53,
4,
166132,
157530,
4,
12960,
25027,
6631,
2069,
34739,
645,
237,
45733,
5,
89253,
11435,
71,
10,
84797,
22631,
23,
70,
7082,
450,
5701,
6602,
118861,
8678,
25,
7,
54,
91407,
111,
70,
3900,
9,
178741,
1771,
36439,
7,
4,
1284,
442,
509,
104250,
19,
1810,
23,
55482,
360,
12839,
56101,
163622,
71062,
297,
8305,
70,
6,
172482,
111,
70,
53477,
538,
63134,
71,
2290,
9,
60044,
4,
68772,
8678,
10,
5045,
150679,
169424,
99,
79785,
44726,
146619,
5,
56101,
14237,
163622,
4,
10,
57527,
6635,
35509,
23,
85766,
4,
509,
100,
4806,
23,
11994,
13867,
47,
160404,
17721,
9020,
136,
24742,
1399,
5,
9925,
5701,
31150,
8678,
59038,
71,
10,
28602,
145054,
23,
70,
133836,
1831,
2256,
141979,
1073,
136,
4,
678,
70,
6,
172482,
111,
53008,
3796,
163622,
23,
4347,
4,
100,
4806,
56101,
163622,
44156,
136091,
15,
94068,
8678,
62448,
194,
360,
6088,
9571,
4,
56101,
163622,
4,
33233,
678,
15672,
75353,
4,
18826,
12862,
109727,
4,
141979,
1073,
4,
136,
180972,
75353,
4,
100,
4806,
70,
6561,
32554,
1831,
2256,
144,
87587,
5,
6561,
32554,
80723,
41018,
7,
98,
106,
22482,
8272,
4,
136,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
56101,
163622,
15,
8031,
16,
83,
70,
49938,
2258,
25388,
1831,
2256,
111,
70,
14098,
117604,
4,
10336,
167565,
56,
297,
23,
9020,
4,
30715,
4,
43573,
6863,
5201,
26708,
99,
1529,
10519,
15555,
48938,
5,
1650,
83,
70,
17932,
142105,
1831,
2256,
23,
70,
14098,
117604,
4,
35509,
98,
18738,
126,
13267,
136,
44828,
26255,
175100,
4,
50155,
23468,
1375,
126,
5,
360,
18982,
1392,
8678,
42564,
71,
678,
87,
21547,
11,
4,
105233,
70,
8357,
75353,
10760,
15,
17481,
724,
247,
10,
104064,
14380,
189893,
23,
8884,
4,
84740,
5,
87,
23613,
83,
70,
8999,
25,
7,
50960,
9,
320,
177,
525,
1831,
2256,
21115,
23,
69407,
111,
77253,
146295,
136,
70,
17932,
9,
320,
177,
525,
23,
14713,
5,
1650,
83,
145870,
98,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1950094 | en-train-1950094 | 1950094 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Corporate affairs.",
"Operations.",
"Subsidiaries and shareholdings.",
"Business trends.",
"Industrial relations.",
"Destinations.",
"Alliances.",
"Codeshare agreements.",
"Fleet.",
"British Airways Engineering.",
"Marketing.",
"Branding.",
"Safety video.",
"Liveries, logos, and tail fins.",
"Loyalty programmes.",
"Inflight magazines.",
"Cabins and services.",
"Short haul.",
"Economy class.",
"Business class.",
"Mid-haul and long haul.",
"First class.",
"Club World.",
"World Traveller Plus.",
"World Traveller.",
"Incidents and accidents."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Proposals to establish a joint British airline, combining the assets of the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and British European Airways (BEA) were first raised in 1953 as a result of difficulties in attempts by BOAC and BEA to negotiate air rights through the British colony of Cyprus. Increasingly BOAC was protesting that BEA was using its subsidiary Cyprus Airways to circumvent an agreement that BEA would not fly routes further east than Cyprus, particularly to the increasingly important oil regions in the Middle East. The chairman of BOAC, Miles Thomas, was in favour of a merger as a potential solution to this disagreement and had backing for the idea from the Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time, Rab Butler. However, opposition from the Treasury blocked the proposal. Consequently, it was only following the recommendations of the 1969 Edwards Report that a new British Airways Board, managing both BEA and BOAC, and the two regional British airlines Cambrian Airways based at Cardiff, and Northeast Airlines based at Newcastle upon Tyne, was constituted on 1 April 1972. Although each airline's branding was maintained initially, two years later the British Airways Board unified its branding, effectively establishing British Airways as an airline on 31 March 1974. Following two years of fierce competition with British Caledonian, the second-largest airline in the United Kingdom at the time, the Government changed its aviation policy in 1976 so that the two carriers would no longer compete on long-haul routes. British Airways and Air France operated the supersonic airliner Aerospatiale-BAC Concorde, and the world's first supersonic passenger service flew in January 1976 from Heathrow Airport to Bahrain International Airport. Services to the US began on 24 May 1976 with a flight to Washington Dulles airport, and flights to New York JFK airport followed on 22 September 1977. Service to Singapore was established in co-operation with Singapore Airlines as a continuation of the flight to Bahrain. Following the Air France Concorde crash in Paris and a slump in air travel following the 11 September attacks in New York in 2001, it was decided to cease Concorde operations in 2003 after 27 years of service. The final commercial Concorde flight was BA002 from New York-JFK to London-Heathrow on 24 October 2003. In 1981 the airline was instructed to prepare for privatisation by the Conservative Thatcher government. Sir John King, later Lord King, was appointed chairman, charged with bringing the airline back into profitability. While many other large airlines struggled, King was credited with transforming British Airways into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world. The flag carrier was privatised and was floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1987. British Airways effected the takeover of the UK's \"second\" airline, British Caledonian, in July of that same year. The formation of Richard Branson's Virgin Atlantic in 1984 created a competitor for BA. The intense rivalry between British Airways and Virgin Atlantic culminated in the former being sued for libel in 1993, arising from claims and counterclaims over a \"dirty tricks\" campaign against Virgin. This campaign included allegations of poaching Virgin Atlantic customers, tampering with private files belonging to Virgin and undermining Virgin's reputation in the city. As a result of the case BA management apologised \"unreservedly\", and the company agreed to pay £110,000 damages to Virgin, £500,000 to Branson personally and £3 million legal costs. Lord King stepped down as chairman in 1993 and was replaced by his deputy, Colin Marshall, while Bob Ayling took over as CEO. Virgin filed a separate action in the US that same year regarding BA's domination of the trans-Atlantic routes, but it was thrown out in 1999. In 1992 British Airways expanded through the acquisition of the financially troubled Dan-Air, giving BA a much larger presence at Gatwick airport. British Asia Airways, a subsidiary based in Taiwan, was formed in March 1993 to operate between London and Taipei. That same month BA purchased a 25% stake in the Australian airline Qantas and, with the acquisition of Brymon Airways in May, formed British Airways Citiexpress (later BA Connect). In September 1998, British Airways, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and Canadian Airlines, formed the Oneworld airline alliance. Oneworld began operations on 1 February 1999, and is the third-largest airline alliance in the world, behind SkyTeam and Star Alliance. Bob Ayling's leadership led to a cost savings of £750m and the establishment of a budget airline, Go, in 1998. The next year, however, British Airways reported an 84% drop in profits in its first quarter alone, its worst in seven years. In March 2000, Ayling was removed from his position and British Airways announced Rod Eddington as his successor. That year, British Airways and KLM conducted talks on a potential merger, reaching a decision in July to file an official merger plan with the European Commission. The plan fell through in September 2000. British Asia Airways ceased operations in 2001 after BA suspended flights to Taipei. Go was sold to its management and the private equity firm 3i in June 2001. Eddington would make further workforce cuts due to reduced demand following 11 September attacks in 2001, and BA sold its stake in Qantas in September 2004. In 2005 Willie Walsh, managing director of Aer Lingus and a former pilot, became the chief executive officer of British Airways. BA unveiled its new subsidiary OpenSkies in January 2008, taking advantage of the liberalisation of transatlantic traffic rights between Europe and the United States. OpenSkies flies non-stop from Paris to New York's JFK and Newark airports. In July 2008, British Airways announced a merger plan with Iberia, another flag carrier airline in the Oneworld alliance, wherein each airline would retain its original brand. The agreement was confirmed in April 2010, and in July the European Commission and US Department of Transport permitted the merger and began to co-ordinate transatlantic routes with American Airlines. On 6 October 2010 the alliance between British Airways, American Airlines and Iberia formally began operations. The alliance generates an estimated £230 million in annual cost-saving for BA, in addition to the £330 million which would be saved by the merger with Iberia. This merger was finalised on 21 January 2011, resulting in the International Airlines Group (IAG), the world's third-largest airline in terms of annual revenue and the second-largest airline group in Europe. Prior to merging, British Airways owned a 13.5% stake in Iberia, and thus received ownership of 55% of the combined International Airlines Group; Iberia's other shareholders received the remaining 45%. As a part of the merger, British Airways ceased trading independently on the London Stock Exchange after 23 years as a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. In September 2010 Willie Walsh, now CEO of IAG, announced that the group was considering acquiring other airlines and had drawn up a shortlist of twelve possible acquisitions. In November 2011 IAG announced an agreement in principle to purchase British Midland International from Lufthansa. A contract to purchase the airline was agreed the next month, and the sale was completed for £172.5 million on 30 March 2012. The airline established a new subsidiary based at London City Airport operating Airbus A318s. British Airways was the official airline partner of the London 2012 Olympic Games. On 18 May 2012 it flew the Olympic flame from Athens International Airport to RNAS Culdrose while carrying various dignitaries, including Lord Sebastian Coe, Princess Anne, the Olympics minister Hugh Robertson and the London Mayor Boris Johnson, along with the footballer David Beckham. On 27 May 2017, British Airways suffered a computer power failure. All flights were cancelled and thousands of passengers were affected. By the following day, the company had not succeeded in reestablishing the normal function of their computer systems. When asked by reporters for more information on the ongoing problems, British Airways stated \"The root cause was a power supply issue which our affected our IT systems - we continue to investigate this\" and declined to comment further. Willie Walsh later attributed the crash to an electrical engineer disconnecting the UPS and said there would be an independent investigation. Amidst the decline in the value of Iranian currency due to the reintroduction of US sanctions on Iran, BA announced that the Iranian route is \"not commercially viable\". As a result, BA decided to stop their services in Iran, effective 22 September 2018. In 2019, as part of the celebrations of a centenary of airline operations in the United Kingdom, British Airways announced that four aircraft would receive retro liveries. The first of these is Boeing 747-400 G-BYGC which was repainted into a British Overseas Airways Corporation livery, which it will retain until retirement in 2023. Two more Boeing 747-400s are to be repainted with former British Airways liveries. One will wear the \"Landor\" livery, the other will wear the original \"Union Jack\" livery. An Airbus A319 is to be repainted into British European Airways livery. On 28 April 2020 the company set out plans to make up to 12,000 staff redundant because of the global collapse of air traffic due to the COVID-19 pandemic and that it may not reopen its operations at Gatwick airport..",
"",
"British Airways is the largest airline based in the United Kingdom in terms of fleet size, international flights, and international destinations and was, until 2008, the largest airline by passenger numbers. The airline carried 34.6 million passengers in 2008, but, rival carrier easyJet transported 44.5 million passengers that year, passing British Airways for the first time. British Airways holds a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence, it is permitted to carry passengers, cargo, and mail on aircraft with 20 or more seats. The airlines' head office, Waterside, stands in Harmondsworth, a village that is near Heathrow Airport. Waterside was completed in June 1998 to replace British Airways' previous head office, Speedbird House, which was located on the grounds of Heathrow. British Airways' main base is at Heathrow Airport, but it also has a major presence at Gatwick Airport. It also has a base at London City Airport, where its subsidiary BA Cityflyer is the largest operator. BA had previously operated a significant hub at Manchester Airport. Manchester to New York (JFK) services were withdrawn; later all international services outside London ceased when the subsidiary BA Connect was sold. Passengers wishing to travel internationally with BA either to or from regional UK destinations must now transfer in London. Heathrow Airport is dominated by British Airways, which owns 40% of the slots available at the airport. The majority of BA services operate from Terminal 5, with the exception of some flights at Terminal 3 owing to insufficient capacity at Terminal 5. In August 2014, Willie Walsh advised the airline would continue to use flight paths over Iraq despite the hostilities there. A few days earlier Qantas announced it would avoid Iraqi airspace, while other airlines did likewise. The issue arose following the downing of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 over Ukraine, and a temporary suspension of flights to and from Ben Gurion Airport during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict.",
"BA CityFlyer, a wholly owned subsidiary, offers flights from its base at London City Airport to 23 destinations throughout Europe. It flies 17 Embraer E-170/E-190 aircraft and two leased Saab 2000. The airline focuses on serving the financial market, though it has recently expanded into the leisure market, offering routes to Ibiza, Palma and Venice. In March 2015, Qatar Airways purchased a 10% stake in International Airlines Group, the parent of British Airways and Iberia, for €1.2 billion (US$1.26 billion). BEA Helicopters was renamed British Airways Helicopters in 1974 and operated passenger and offshore oil support services until it was sold in 1986. Other former subsidiaries include the German airline Deutsche BA from 1997 until 2003 and the French airline Air Liberté from 1997 to 2001. British Airways also owned Airways Aero Association, the operator of the British Airways flying club based at Wycombe Air Park in High Wycombe, until it was sold to Surinder Arora in 2007. South Africa's Comair and Denmark's Sun Air of Scandinavia have been franchisees of British Airways since 1996. British Airways obtained a 15% stake in UK regional airline Flybe from the sale of BA Connect in March 2007. It sold the stake in 2014. BA also owned a 10% stake in InterCapital and Regional Rail (ICRR), the company that managed the operations of Eurostar (UK) Ltd from 1998 to 2010, when the management of Eurostar was restructured. With the creation of an Open Skies agreement between Europe and the United States in March 2008, British Airways started a new subsidiary airline called OpenSkies (previously known as \"Project Lauren\"). The airline started operations in June 2008, and flew directly from Paris—Orly to Newark. However it ceased operations on 2 September 2018 when it was replaced with Level flights on that route. British Airways Limited was established in 2012 to take over the operation of the premium service between London City Airport and New York-JFK. BA began the service in September 2009, using two Airbus A318s fitted with 32 lie-flat beds in an all business class cabin. Flights operate under the numbers previously reserved for Concorde: BA001 – BA004. The flights returned to be directly operated by British Airways plc in 2015. British Airways provides cargo services under the British Airways World Cargo brand. The division has been part of IAG Cargo since 2012 and is the world's twelfth-largest cargo airline based on total freight tonne-kilometres flown. BA World Cargo operates using the main BA fleet. Until the end of March 2014 they also operated three Boeing 747-8 freighter aircraft providing dedicated long-haul services under a wet lease arrangement from Global Supply Systems. The division operates an automated cargo centre at Heathrow Airport and handles freight at Gatwick and Stansted airports.",
"The key trends for the British Airways Plc Group are shown below. On the merger with Iberia, the accounting reference date was changed from 31 March to 31 December; figures below are therefore for the years to 31 March up to 2010, for the nine months to 31 December 2010, and for the years to 31 December thereafter: In 2020, due to the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, British Airways had to reduce its 42,000-strong workforce to 12,000 jobs. According to the estimate by IAG, a parent company, it will take the air travel industry several years to return to previous performance and profitability levels.",
"Staff working for British Airways are represented by a number of trade unions, pilots are represented by British Air Line Pilots' Association, cabin crew by British Airlines Stewards and Stewardesses Association (a branch of Unite the Union), while other branches of Unite the Union and the GMB Union represent other employees. Bob Ayling's management faced strike action by cabin crew over a £1 billion cost-cutting drive to return BA to profitability in 1997; this was the last time BA cabin crew would strike until 2009, although staff morale has reportedly been unstable since that incident. In an effort to increase interaction between management, employees, and the unions, various conferences and workshops have taken place, often with thousands in attendance. In 2005, wildcat action was taken by union members over a decision by Gate Gourmet not to renew the contracts of 670 workers and replace them with agency staff; it is estimated that the strike cost British Airways £30 million and caused disruption to 100,000 passengers. In October 2006, BA became involved in a civil rights dispute when a Christian employee was forbidden to wear a necklace bearing the cross, a religious symbol. BA's practice of forbidding such symbols has been publicly questioned by British politicians such as the former Home Secretary John Reid and the former Foreign Secretary Jack Straw. Relations have been turbulent between BA and Unite. In 2007, cabin crew threatened strike action over salary changes to be imposed by BA management. The strike was called off at the last minute, British Airways losing £80 million. In December 2009, a ballot for strike action over Christmas received a high level of support, action was blocked by a court injunction that deemed the ballot illegal. Negotiations failed to stop strike action in March, BA withdrew perks for strike participants. Allegations were made by the \"Guardian\" newspaper that BA had consulted outside firms methods to undermine the unions, the story was later withdrawn. A strike was announced for May 2010, British Airways again sought an injunction. Members of the Socialist Workers Party disrupted negotiations between BA management and Unite to prevent industrial action. Further disruption struck when Derek Simpson, a Unite co-leader, was discovered to have leaked details of confidential negotiations online via Twitter. Industrial action re-emerged in 2017, this time by BA's Mixed Fleet flight attendants, whom were employed on much less favorable pay and terms and conditions compared to previous cabin staff who joined prior to 2010. A ballot for industrial action was distributed to Mixed Fleet crew in November 2016 and resulted in an overwhelming yes majority for industrial action. Unite described Mixed Fleet crew as on \"poverty pay\", with many Mixed Fleet flight attendants sleeping in their cars in between shifts because they cannot afford the fuel to drive home, or operating while sick as they cannot afford to call in sick and lose their pay for the shift. Unite also blasted BA of removing staff travel concessions, bonus payments and other benefits to all cabin crew who undertook industrial action, as well as strike-breaking tactics such as wet-leasing aircraft from other airlines and offering financial incentives for cabin crew not to strike. The first dates of strikes during Christmas 2016 were cancelled due to pay negotiations. Industrial action by Mixed Fleet commenced in January 2017 after rejecting a pay offer. Strike action continued throughout 2017 in numerous discontinuous periods, resulting in one of the longest running disputes in aviation history. On 31 October 2017, after 85 days of discontinuous industrial action, Mixed Fleet accepted a new pay deal from BA which ended the dispute.",
"British Airways serves over 160 destinations, including eight domestic and 26 in the United States.",
"British Airways is a member and one of the founders of Oneworld, an airline alliance.",
"British Airways codeshares with the following airlines:",
"Except the Boeing 707 and early Boeing 747 variants from BOAC, British Airways inherited a mainly UK-built fleet of aircraft when it was formed in 1974. The airline introduced the Boeing 737 and Boeing 757 into the fleet in the 1980s, followed by the Boeing 747-400, Boeing 767 and Boeing 777 in the 1990s. BA was the largest operator of Boeing 747-400s, with 57 in its fleet. Prior to the introduction of the 787, when Boeing built an aircraft for British Airways, it was allocated the customer code \"36\", which appeared in their aircraft designation as a suffix, such as 737–436.",
"The airline has its own engineering branch to maintain its aircraft fleet, this includes line maintenance at over 70 airports around the world. As well as hangar facilities at Heathrow and Gatwick airport it has two major maintenance centres at Glasgow and Cardiff Airports.",
"",
"The musical theme predominantly used on British Airways advertising is \"\"The Flower Duet\"\" by Léo Delibes. This, and the slogan \"The World's Favourite Airline\" were introduced in 1989 with the launch of the iconic \"Face\" advertisement. The slogan was dropped in 2001 after Lufthansa overtook BA in terms of passenger numbers. \"Flower Duet\" is still used by the airline, and has been through several different arrangements since 1989. The most recent version of this melody was shown in 2007 with a new slogan: \"Upgrade to British Airways\". Other advertising slogans have included \"The World's Best Airline\", \"We'll Take More Care of You\", and \"Fly the Flag\". BA had an account for 23 years with Saatchi & Saatchi, an agency that created many of their most famous advertisements, including the influential \"Face\" campaign. Saatchi & Saatchi later imitated this advert for Silverjet, a rival of BA, after BA discontinued their business activities. Since 2007, BA has used Bartle Bogle Hegarty as its advertising agency. British Airways purchased the internet domain ba.com in 2002 from previous owner Bell Atlantic, 'BA' being the company's acronym and its IATA Airline code. British Airways is the official airline of the Wimbledon Championship tennis tournament, and was the official airline and tier one partner of the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics. British Airways was also the official airline of England's bid to host the 2018 Football World Cup. \"High Life\", founded in 1973, is the official in-flight magazine of the airline.",
"The airline used a cartoon safety video from circa 2005 until 2017. Beginning on 1 September 2017 the airline introduced the new Comic Relief live action safety video hosted by Chabuddy G, with appearances by British celebrities Gillian Anderson, Rowan Atkinson, Jim Broadbent, Rob Brydon, Warwick Davis, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Ian McKellen, Thandie Newton, and Gordon Ramsay. A \"sequel\" video, also hosted by Chabuddy G, was released in 2018, with Michael Caine, Olivia Colman, Jourdan Dunn, Naomie Harris, Joanna Lumley, and David Walliams. The two videos are part of Comic Relief's charity programme.",
"The aeroplanes that British Airways inherited from the four-way merger between BOAC, BEA, Cambrian, and Northeast were temporarily given the text logo \"British airways\" but retained the original airline's livery. With its formation in 1974, British Airways' aeroplanes were given a new white, blue, and red colour scheme with a stylized Union Jack painted on their tail fins, designed by Negus & Negus. In 1984, a new livery designed by Landor Associates updated the airline's look as it prepared for privatization. For celebrating centenary, BA announced four retro liveries...three on Boeing 747-400 aircraft (one in each of BOAC, Negus & Negus, and Landor Associates liveries), and one A319 in BEA livery. In 1997, there was a controversial change to a new Project Utopia livery; all aircraft used the corporate colours consistently on the fuselage, but tailfins bore one of multiple designs. Several people spoke out against the change, including the former prime minister Margaret Thatcher, who famously covered the tail of a model 747 at an event with a handkerchief, to show her displeasure. BA's traditional rival, Virgin Atlantic, took advantage of the negative press coverage by applying the Union flag to the winglets of their aircraft along with the slogan \"Britain's national flagcarrier\". In 1999, the CEO of British Airways, Bob Ayling, announced that all BA planes would adopt the tailfin design \"Chatham Dockyard Union Flag\" originally intended to be used only on the Concorde, based on the Union Flag. All BA aircraft have since borne the \"Chatham Dockyard Union flag\" variant of the Project Utopia livery, except for the four retro aircraft.",
"British Airways' tiered loyalty programme, called the Executive Club, includes access to special lounges and dedicated \"fast\" queues. BA also invites its top corporate accounts to join a \"Premier\" incentive programme. British Airways operates airside lounges for passengers travelling in premium cabins, and these are available to certain tiers of Executive Club members. First class passengers, as well as Gold Executive Club members, are entitled to use First Class Lounges. Business class passengers (called Club World or Club Europe in BA terms) as well as Silver Executive Club members may use Business lounges. At airports in which BA does not operate a departure lounge, a third party lounge is often provided for premium or status passengers. In 2011, due to the merger with Iberia, British Airways announced changes to the Executive Club to maximise integration between the airlines. This included the combination and rebranding of Air Miles, BA Miles and Iberia Plus points as the IAG operated loyalty programme Avios.",
"high life Magazine is British Airways' complimentary inflight magazine. It is available to all customers across all cabins and aircraft types. high life shop Magazine is British Airways' inflight shopping magazine. It is available to all customers on all aircraft where the inflight shopping range can be carried. First life is a complimentary magazine offered to all customers travelling in the First cabin. It has a range of articles including fashion, trends and technology with an upmarket target audience. Business life is a complimentary magazine targeted at business travellers and frequent flyers. The magazine can be found in all short haul aircraft seat pockets, in the magazine selection for Club World customers and in lounges operated by British Airways.",
"",
"",
"\"Euro Traveller\" is British Airways' economy class cabin on all short-haul flights within Europe, including domestic flights within the UK. Heathrow and Gatwick based flights are operated by Airbus A320 series aircraft. Standard seat pitch varies from 29\" to 34\" depending on aircraft type and location of seat. All flights from Heathrow and Gatwick have a buy on board system with a range of food provided by Marks and Spencer. Purchases can only be made by using credit and debit card or by using Frequent Flyer Avios points. British Airways are rolling out Wi-Fi across its fleet of aircraft with 90% expected to be Wi-Fi enabled by 2020. Scheduled services operated by BA Cityflyer currently offer complimentary onboard catering. The service will switch to buy on board in the future.",
"\"Club Europe\" is the short-haul business class on all short-haul flights. This class allows for access to business lounges at most airports. Club Europe provides seats in a 2–2 configuration on narrowbody aircraft, with the middle seat not used. Instead, a table folds up from under the middle seat on refurbished aircraft. Pillows and blankets are available on longer flights. In-flight entertainment is offered on selected longer flights operated by some A320 aircraft. Complimentary headphones are provided to all customers on services where IFE is available.",
"",
"\"First\" is offered on British Airways' Airbus A380s, Boeing 747-400s, Boeing 777-300ERs, Boeing 787-9s and on some of their Boeing 777-200s. There are fourteen (eight on 787-9) private cabins on most of these aircraft, each with a bed, a wide entertainment screen, and in-seat power. Dedicated British Airways 'Galleries First' lounges are available at some airports. The exclusive 'Concorde Room' lounges at Heathrow Terminal 5 and New York JFK airports offer pre-flight dining with waiter service and more intimate space. Business lounges are used where these are not available. They are also testing VR entertainment on select first class flights, whose catalog features 2D, 3D and 360-degree content.",
"\"Club World\" is the mid-haul and long-haul business class cabin. It is offered on all Boeing 777, Boeing 787, Boeing 747–400, Airbus A318, Airbus A380, and selected Airbus A321 aircraft. The cabin features fully convertible flat bed seats. In 2006, British Airways launched \"Next Generation New Club World\", featuring larger seats. The Club World cabins are all configured in a similar design on widebody aircraft with aisle seats facing forwards, while middle seats and window seats face backwards (British Airways is one of only five carriers with backwards-facing business-class seats; American Airlines, Etihad Airways, United Airlines and Qatar Airways are the others). In March 2019, BA unveiled its new business-class seats on the new A350 aircraft, which feature a suite with a door.",
"\"World Traveller Plus\" is the premium economy class cabin provided on all A380, B747, B777, and B787 aircraft. This cabin offers wider seats, extended leg-room, additional seat comforts such as larger IFE screen (on most aircraft) a foot rest and power sockets. A complimentary 'World Traveller' bar is offered along with an upgraded main meal course.",
"\"World Traveller\" is the mid-haul and long-haul economy class cabin. It offers seat-back entertainment, complimentary food and drink, pillows, and blankets. AVOD personal TV screens are available on all A321s, A380s, B747s, B777s, and B787s. AC power outlets and USB plug-in points are offered in every seat row on the Airbus A380, Boeing 787, Boeing 777-300ER and on refurbished 777-200 aircraft. The outlets accept both UK and US plugs.",
"British Airways is known to have a strong reputation for safety and has been consistently ranked within the top 20 safest airlines globally according to \"Business Insider\" and \"AirlineRatings.com.\" Since BA's inception in 1974, it has been involved in three hull-loss incidents (British Airways Flight 149 was destroyed on the ground at Kuwait International Airport as a result of military action during the First Gulf War with no one on board) and two hijacking attempts. To date, the only fatal accident experienced by a BA aircraft occurred in 1976 with British Airways Flight 476 which was involved in a midair collision later attributed to an error made by air traffic control."
]
} |
Finnish Defence Forces | null | The Finnish Defence Forces (, ) are responsible for the defence of Finland. A universal male conscription is in place, under which all men above 18 years of age serve for 165, 255, or 347 days. Alternative non-military service for all men, and volunteer service for all women are possible. | null | [
250004,
250054,
24372,
29774,
25,
7,
21635,
1363,
111,
23,
215131,
98,
305,
14487,
38222,
4,
70,
167320,
135440,
7,
3542,
502,
164779,
297,
70,
3428,
68818,
111,
70,
27759,
98,
714,
18982,
24531,
136,
313,
5,
724,
5,
647,
14912,
56,
9491,
509,
6,
140545,
297,
237,
123573,
56,
9,
73,
9,
51379,
4240,
111,
6097,
84616,
70,
11737,
5155,
5,
106313,
214,
17721,
70,
22392,
135440,
7,
15,
162,
70,
167320,
135440,
7,
3542,
39210,
538,
51529,
16,
136,
70,
6096,
135440,
7,
1902,
21771,
148431,
1810,
1672,
10,
5895,
8108,
10932,
582,
14,
51166,
4,
23,
2367,
100512,
51529,
237,
70,
21079,
4745,
18543,
5550,
5,
360,
70,
1631,
4,
70,
22392,
7,
3542,
91375,
14,
10821,
23,
21334,
2831,
45458,
47,
70,
133465,
111,
14912,
56,
9491,
136,
70,
37105,
390,
27781,
162333,
13,
7086,
297,
7432,
111,
106,
4,
10253,
30839,
9,
4448,
122009,
21079,
4745,
25357,
26255,
4,
2750,
91048,
678,
2856,
30839,
36322,
70760,
51584,
3996,
86,
136,
116338,
29394,
5,
581,
1305,
9,
4205,
5369,
3542,
62816,
29367,
390,
70,
5976,
309,
67,
56,
16010,
11,
872,
1779,
450,
21449,
47,
142,
3564,
23,
23031,
678,
70,
1144,
592,
111,
70,
4804,
67530,
111,
26593,
4,
3129,
134620,
70,
11341,
111,
1631,
17721,
29774,
136,
134349,
49002,
136,
61924,
71,
70,
21640,
538,
125296,
71,
132988,
7,
111,
29774,
5,
24372,
6,
69986,
70,
18543,
5550,
4,
70,
21079,
4745,
88669,
6032,
187,
1176,
509,
5808,
297,
237,
17262,
91853,
7,
136,
10,
126535,
13,
390,
23182,
30839,
93324,
7,
5,
1650,
100512,
70,
62822,
45646,
100,
70,
11737,
387,
5369,
5,
581,
184085,
509,
56050,
297,
390,
36770,
73384,
1419,
184085,
289,
10204,
41274,
7,
136,
109923,
7,
39958,
237,
494,
13105,
111,
1631,
5,
581,
5345,
59591,
1902,
21771,
2809,
100,
4806,
23,
11994,
24531,
4,
1284,
47143,
297,
10,
2831,
111,
70,
126140,
136,
6777,
959,
24209,
10,
89554,
41371,
181952,
37772,
24189,
61786,
5,
581,
3525,
27759,
32872,
297,
158,
59478,
7103,
70,
18543,
5550,
136,
2843,
65508,
71,
10,
3268,
47691,
5426,
136,
375,
69035,
30675,
210651,
56,
132073,
100,
74336,
64370,
5,
893,
10,
23662,
1176,
101904,
62822,
93324,
23189,
24073,
133876,
15615,
48552,
18939,
509,
170920,
23,
45913,
4,
70,
14037,
214,
111,
10,
9082,
112006,
29693,
24073,
8912,
8813,
14897,
11,
48552,
18939,
134629,
23,
58410,
4,
136,
23,
70970,
10,
36322,
70760,
23189,
10696,
24073,
106340,
52802,
48552,
18939,
100,
14380,
9,
44286,
136,
48807,
93324,
7,
136,
541,
9688,
7,
509,
5423,
1257,
5,
581,
64209,
674,
111,
1632,
6602,
111,
375,
69035,
30675,
4516,
509,
117396,
3501,
450,
566,
144429,
390,
2499,
3789,
192286,
3378,
23295,
23,
70,
23031,
7,
136,
70,
28730,
7,
4,
1284,
68894,
177986,
47,
165815,
140533,
25737,
70,
116338,
6494,
538,
46979,
20051,
47,
39746,
142,
52875,
390,
70,
134349,
32528,
4,
70,
4734,
48031,
120332,
23,
21079,
4745,
46223,
5,
14847,
70,
134349,
7,
205491,
71,
23,
7582,
34578,
4,
70,
107721,
8,
88981,
297,
70,
6096,
126140,
98,
183851,
46505,
7,
4,
26719,
99,
70,
106157,
99381,
111,
79391,
2647,
7,
99024,
5,
32255,
36272,
90,
3542,
23,
21334,
2831,
45458,
47,
70,
38415,
111,
2080,
118,
36322,
41637,
5,
51404,
70,
107721,
20654,
37838,
72856,
70,
1631,
136,
3542,
168861,
47,
53520,
47,
70,
124338,
126609,
4804,
67530,
4,
70,
134349,
151814,
111,
158,
944,
2852,
29774,
165523,
4,
23,
2831,
4743,
47,
70,
120332,
111,
884,
71516,
113449,
5,
133698,
70,
1631,
70,
107721,
72856,
714,
4,
5039,
617,
453,
4,
12960,
134349,
388,
5908,
3542,
611,
166590,
11835,
103494,
5,
29774,
5775,
46526,
23,
70,
50343,
1363,
5550,
33233,
8752,
102126,
1295,
24644,
47,
26748,
5,
22362,
47,
83572,
9,
191697,
36442,
4,
70,
187,
1176,
509,
5036,
5045,
11522,
46979,
20051,
4,
136,
70,
14922,
111,
158,
59478,
1902,
2809,
124735,
47,
6626,
5369,
4,
20662,
7722,
70,
27643,
111,
37195,
8927,
87880,
1294,
91853,
7,
5,
171855,
61475,
538,
8,
13158,
53,
297,
98,
70,
144419,
13,
4,
70,
107721,
34739,
92940,
111,
70,
642,
28088,
592,
111,
70,
134349,
19069,
7,
237,
10,
179804,
6620,
111,
102203,
196393,
17817,
4,
91,
2452,
2480,
538,
192026,
214,
2363,
72856,
43396,
90,
136,
23,
2113,
214,
134349,
181991,
53,
23,
115184,
399,
4,
155605,
9615,
2069,
3934,
144419,
13,
19069,
7,
1295,
14487,
24644,
98,
19364,
7,
5,
581,
134349,
162333,
13,
111,
18237,
26748,
165,
532,
6097,
21079,
4745,
21647,
7,
136,
4,
12960,
35782,
214,
23,
6863,
151814,
111,
163684,
214,
70,
21079,
4745,
187,
1176,
136,
100,
21896,
29774,
25,
7,
51,
126940,
289,
613,
18280,
42,
4,
168861,
29774,
1810,
111,
70,
1631,
5,
581,
21079,
4745,
3542,
19048,
47,
479,
86687,
2363,
23,
215131,
678,
22799,
144419,
13,
91375,
3387,
645,
70,
6096,
126140,
5,
581,
99381,
111,
74353,
9,
568,
1121,
18839,
8035,
4552,
88551,
5,
32255,
79612,
7,
23,
3784,
6496,
29774,
1556,
1902,
10,
88551,
24725,
98,
70,
21079,
4745,
165815,
37772,
111,
18925,
4,
12960,
3789,
28811,
115054,
90,
1556,
59226,
9,
34695,
98,
2363,
84616,
4,
29774,
1556,
7464,
76104,
297,
10,
21334,
158,
32032,
9,
77007,
76875,
187,
1176,
5,
1301,
11341,
71,
23,
10,
187951,
13416,
74,
44,
3957,
31635,
15400,
70,
563,
38997,
19667,
47,
76104,
903,
3299,
12960,
6863,
98340,
108,
6958,
38648,
7,
88203,
297,
98,
70,
55812,
1363,
6635,
8753,
634,
6126,
83,
959,
7941,
47,
1957,
5,
26520,
214,
10,
702,
2839,
6401,
132988,
678,
49002,
4,
70,
3871,
100,
21334,
61585,
84616,
83,
15970,
9,
83613,
14845,
31667,
5,
27766,
9319,
17678,
4,
122378,
7,
111,
6661,
5550,
1995,
46,
23,
3129,
645,
116,
117,
21126,
111,
70,
43904,
117,
164,
5252,
23,
6626,
50029,
1631,
7,
678,
70,
134349,
32528,
46,
621,
4552,
5045,
923,
272,
23,
29774,
740,
581,
8,
31721,
47691,
136,
456,
51588,
214,
111,
70,
21079,
4745,
85535,
6620,
59591,
7,
3542,
175100,
1810,
23,
72399,
26748,
1379,
70,
1601,
25826,
111,
70,
134349,
9,
68131,
27686,
884,
71516,
27131,
63871,
5,
77168,
214,
70,
4804,
67530,
111,
7270,
23,
40191,
4,
3129,
566,
144429,
185190,
7,
98,
70,
13267,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
21079,
4745,
85535,
6620,
59591,
7,
15,
4,
1388,
621,
102778,
100,
70,
8,
6211,
329,
111,
29774,
5,
62,
32813,
11280,
158,
59478,
83,
23,
3687,
4,
1379,
3129,
756,
453,
36917,
543,
5369,
111,
32070,
21265,
100,
51497,
4,
86565,
4,
707,
6,
125450,
13312,
5,
103905,
351,
9,
120430,
6635,
4516,
100,
756,
453,
4,
136,
149849,
4516,
100,
756,
24793,
621,
7722,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1168981 | en-train-1168981 | 1168981 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Civil War.",
"Interwar years.",
"World War II.",
"Cold War.",
"Recent history.",
"Future.",
"Organization.",
"Military service.",
"Military ranks.",
"Equipment.",
"Peacekeeping operations.",
"Total defence.",
"Key wartime units."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"After Finland's declaration of independence on 6 December 1917, the Civic Guards were proclaimed the troops of the government on 25 January 1918 and C.G.E Mannerheim was appointed as Commander-in-Chief of these forces the next day. Fighting between the White Guards (as the Civic Guards were commonly known) and the Red Guards had already broken out about a week before around Viipuri, in what became known as the Finnish Civil War. In the war, the Whites were victorious in large part thanks to the leadership of Mannerheim and the lead by example offensive mindedness of 1,800 German-trained Finnish Jägers, who brought with them German tactical doctrine and military culture. The post-war years were characterized by the Volunteer Campaigns that came to an end in 1920 with the signing of the Treaty of Tartu, which ended the state of war between Finland and Soviet Russia and defined the internationally recognized borders of Finland.",
"After winning the Civil War, the Finnish peacetime army was organized as three divisions and a brigade by professional German officers. It became the basic structure for the next 20 years. The coast was guarded by former czarist coastal fortifications and ships taken as prizes of war. The Air Force had already been formed in March 1918, but remained a part of the Army and did not become a fully independent fighting force until 1928. The new government instituted conscription after the Civil War and also introduced a mobilization system and compulsory refresher courses for reservists. An academy providing basic officer training (\"Kadettikoulu\") was established in 1919, the founding of a General Staff College (\"Sotakorkeakoulu\") followed in 1924, and in 1927 a tactical training school (\"Taistelukoulu\") for company-grade and junior officers and NCOs was set up. The requirement of one year of compulsory service was greater than that imposed by any other Scandinavian country in the 1920s and the 1930s, but political opposition to defense spending left the military badly equipped to resist an attack by the Soviet Union, the only security threat in Finnish eyes.",
"When the Soviets invaded in November 1939, the Finns defeated the Red Army on numerous occasions, including at the crucial Battle of Suomussalmi. These successes were in large part thanks to the application of motti tactics. While the Finns ultimately lost the war and were forced to agree to the Moscow Peace Treaty, the Soviet objective of conquering Finland failed, in part due to the threat of Allied intervention. During the war the Finns lost 25,904 men, while Soviet losses were 167,976 dead. Finland fought in the Continuation War alongside Germany from 1941 to 1944. Thanks to Nazi-German aid, the army was now much better equipped, and the period of conscription had been increased to two years, making possible the formation of sixteen infantry divisions. Having initially deployed on the defensive, the Finns took advantage of the weakening of the Soviet positions as a consequence of Operation Barbarossa, swiftly recovering their lost territories and invading Soviet territory in Karelia, eventually settling into defensive positions from December 1941 onwards. The Soviet offensive of June 1944 undid these Finnish gains and, while failing in its objective of destroying the Finnish army and forcing Finland's unconditional surrender, forced Finland out of the war. The Finnish were able to preserve their independence with key defensive victories over the Red Army. The Battle of Tali-Ihantala being very significant. These conflicts involving Finland has had a significant impact on the Finnish defense force of today, while other European militaries has cut-down on their forces, Finland has still maintained a large conscript-based reserve army. As stated in a Swedish report; \"The reason why the FDF chose to maintain this model while its Nordic neighbours jumped on the expeditionary bandwagon is not hard to see. Sharing a 1340km border with Russia, the need for large ground forces is self-explanatory. Furthermore, memories of World War II – in which over 2 per cent of the population perished in two brutal wars with the Soviet Union – are very much alive in Finland\".",
"The demobilization and regrouping of the Finnish Defence Forces were carried out in late 1944 under the supervision of the Soviet-dominated Allied Control Commission. Following the Treaty of Paris in 1947, which imposed restrictions on the size and equipment of the armed forces and required disbandment of the Civic Guard, Finland reorganized its defense forces. The fact that the conditions of the peace treaty did not include prohibitions on reserves or mobilization made it possible to contemplate an adequate defense establishment within the prescribed limits. The reorganization resulted in the adoption of the brigade -in place of the division- as the standard formation. For the first two decades after the Second World War, the Finnish Defence Forces relied largely on obsolete wartime material. Defence spending remained minimal until the early 1960s. During the peak of the Cold War, the Finnish government made a conscious effort to increase defence capability. This resulted in the commissioning of several new weapons systems and the strengthening of the defence of Finnish Lapland by the establishment of new garrisons in the area. From 1968 onwards, the Finnish government adopted the doctrine of territorial defence, which requires the use of large land areas to delay and wear out a potential aggressor. The doctrine was complemented by the concept of total defence which calls for the use of all resources of society for national defence in case of a crisis. From the mid-1960s onwards the Finnish Defence Forces also began to specifically prepare to defeat a strategic strike, the kind which the Soviet Union employed successfully to topple the government of Czechoslovakia in 1968. In an all-out confrontation between the two major blocs, Finnish objective would have been to prevent any military incursions to Finnish territory and thereby keep Finland outside the war.",
"The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 did not eliminate the military threat perceived by the government, but the nature of the threat has changed. While the concept of total, territorial defence was not dropped, the military planning has moved towards the capability to prevent and frustrate a strategic attack toward the vital regions of the country. The end of the Cold War has also allowed new opportunities which would have previously been seen as breaking Finland's stance of neutrality. This has meant for example participation in the War in Afghanistan and the Nordic Battlegroup.",
"The defence forces are currently undergoing key procurement programmes for all the three branches. The Navy is scheduled to get its largest vessels since the Väinämöinen class with the new 100m+ Pohjanmaa-class corvette. The Air Force is in the process of acquiring a replacement for the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet fighter for 10€ billion. Meanwhile, the Army is planning to replace the Patria Pasi armoured vehicles with the also domestic Protolab Misu. The standard issue assault rifle RK 62 is also being upgraded to a new variant.",
"The Finnish Defence Forces are under the command of the Chief of Defence, who is directly subordinate to the President of the Republic in matters related to the military command. Decisions concerning military orders are made by the President of the Republic in consultation with the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. Apart from the Defence Command (, ), the military branches are the Finnish Army (, ), the Finnish Navy (, ) and the Finnish Air Force (, ). The Border Guard (, ) (including the coast guard) is under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior, but can be incorporated fully or in part into the defence forces when required by defence readiness. All logistical duties of the Defence Forces are carried out by the Defence Forces Logistics Command (), which has three Logistics Regiment for each military province. The Army is divided into eight brigade-level units (). Under the brigades, there were 12 military districts (), which were responsible for carrying out the draft, training and crisis-time activation of reservists and for planning and executing territorial defence of their areas. The military districts were disbanded in 2014, as a part of the 800 million euro savings the Finnish Defence Forces had to carry out. The Navy consists of headquarters and four brigade-level units: Coastal Fleet (), Coastal Brigade (), Nyland Brigade (, ), and Naval Academy (). The Coastal Fleet includes all the surface combatants of the Navy, while Coastal Brigade and Nyland Brigade train coastal troops. The Air Force consists of headquarters and four brigade-level units: Satakunta, Lapland and Karelian Air Commands () and Air Force Academy (). They are responsible for securing the integrity of the Finnish airspace during peace and for conducting aerial warfare independently during a crisis. The military training of the reservists is primarily the duty of the Defence Forces, but it is assisted by the National Defence Training Association of Finland (). This association provides reservists with personal, squad, platoon and company level military training. Most of the 2,000 instructors of the association are volunteers certified by the Defence Forces, but when Defence Forces materiel is used, the training always takes place under the supervision of career military personnel. Annually, the Defence Forces requests the Association to run specialized exercises for some 8,500 personnel placed in reserve units, and an additional 16,500 reservists participate in military courses where the participants are not directly selected by the Defence Forces. The legislation concerning the association will require that the chairman and the majority of the members of its board are chosen by the Finnish Government. The other board members are chosen by NGOs active in the national defence.",
"The Finnish defence forces is based on universal male conscription. All men above 18 years of age are liable to serve either 6, 9 or 12 months. Some 27,000 conscripts are trained annually. 80% of Finnish men complete their service. The conscripts at first receive basic training, after which they are assigned to various units for special training. Privates who are trained for tasks not requiring special skills serve for 6 months. In technically demanding tasks the time of service is 9, or in some cases 12 months. Those selected for NCO (non-commissioned officer) or officer training serve 12 months. At the completion of the service, the conscripts receive a reserve military rank of private, lance corporal, corporal, sergeant or second lieutenant, depending on their training and accomplishments. After their military service, the conscripts are placed in reserve until the end of their 50th or 60th living year, depending on their military rank. During their time in reserve, the reservists are liable to participate in military refresher exercises for a total of 40, 75 or 100 days, depending on their military rank. In addition, all reservists are liable for activation in a situation where the military threat against Finland has seriously increased, in full or partial mobilization or in a large-scale disaster or a virulent epidemic. The males who do not belong to the reserve may only be activated in case of full mobilization, and those rank-and-file personnel who have fulfilled 50 years of age only with a specific parliamentary decision. Military service can be started after turning 18. The service can be delayed due to studies, work or other personal reasons until the 28th birthday, but these reasons do not result in exemptions. In addition to lodging, food, clothes and health care the conscripts receive between 5 and 11.70 euros per day, depending on the time they have served. The state also pays for any rental and electricity bills the conscripts incur during their service. If the conscripts have families, they are entitled to benefits as well. It is illegal to fire an employee due to military service or due to a refresher exercise or activation. Voluntary females in military service receive a small additional benefit, because they are expected to provide their own underwear and other personal items. The military service consists of lessons, practical training, various cleaning and maintenance duties and field exercises. Most weekends conscripts can leave the barracks on Friday and are expected to return by midnight on Sunday. A small force of conscripts are kept in readiness on weekends to aid civil agencies in various types of emergency situations, to guard the premises and to maintain defence in case of a sudden military emergency. Field exercises can go on regardless of the time of day or week. The training of conscripts is based on \"joukkotuotanto\"-principle (lit. English \"troop production\"). In this system, 80% of the conscripts are trained to fulfill a specific role in a specific wartime military unit. Each brigade-level unit is responsible for producing specified reserve units from the conscripts it has been allocated. As the reservists are discharged, they receive a specific wartime placement in the unit with which they have trained during their conscription. As the conscripts age, their unit is given new, different tasks and materiel. Typically, reservists are placed for the first five years in first-line units, then moved to military formations with less demanding tasks, while the reservists unable to serve in the unit are substituted with reservists from the reserve without specific placement. In refresher exercises, the unit is then given new training for these duties, if the defence funding permits this. The inhabitants of the demilitarized Åland islands are exempt from military service. By the Conscription act of 1950, they are however required to serve a time at a local institution, like the coast guard instead. However, until such service has been arranged, they are freed from service obligation. The non-military service of Åland islands has not been arranged since the introduction of the act, and there are no plans to institute it. The inhabitants of Åland islands can also volunteer for military service on the mainland. Jehovah's Witnesses were exempt until February 2019. It is also possible to serve either weapon-free military service of 270 or 362 days or undergo a 12-month-long non-military service. Finnish law requires that men who do not want to serve the defense of the country in any capacity (so-called total objectors) be sentenced to a prison term of 197 days. As of 1995, women were permitted to serve on a voluntary basis and pursue careers as officers. In conscription, women have consideration time of six weeks, during which they have the choice to halt their service without any other specific reason. After the said six weeks, all the same laws and jurisdictions apply to them as to men. Unlike in many other countries women are allowed to serve in all combat arms including front-line infantry and special forces.",
"The Finnish military ranks follow the Western usage in the officer ranks. As a Finnish peculiarity, the rank of lieutenant has three grades: 2nd lieutenant, lieutenant and senior lieutenant. The 2nd lieutenant is a reserve officer rank, active commissioned officers beginning their service as lieutenants. The basic structure of the NCO ranks is a variant of the German rank structure, but the rank system has some peculiarities due to different personnel groups. The duties carried out by NCOs in most Western armed forces are carried out by In a case of war, most of the NCO duties would be carried out by reserve NCOs who have received their training during conscription. The rank and file of the Finnish Defence Forces is composed of conscripts serving in the ranks of private, lance corporal and NCO student.",
"Finland does not have attack helicopters, submarines, long-range ballistic missiles (Finland has however updated its M270 MLRSs capable to shoot ATACMS tactical ballistic missiles). Legislation forbids nuclear weapons entirely.",
"Finland has taken part in peacekeeping operations since 1956 (the number of Finnish peacekeepers who have served since 1956 amounts to 43,000). In 2003 over a thousand Finnish peacekeepers were involved in peacekeeping operations, including UN and NATO led missions. According to the Finnish law the maximum simultaneous strength of the peacekeeping forces is limited to 2,000 soldiers. Since 1956, 39 Finnish soldiers have died while serving in peacekeeping operations Since 1996 the Pori Brigade has trained parts of the Finnish Rapid Deployment Force (FRDF), which can take part in international crisis management/peacekeeping operations at short notice. The Nyland/Uusimaa Brigade has started training the Amphibious Task Unit (ATU) in recent years, a joint Swedish-Finnish international task unit. Since 2006, Finland has participated in the formation of European Union Battlegroups. Finland will be participating to two European Union Battlegroups in 2011. International operations Finland is participating in by deploying military units (personnel strength in parenthesis): Other international operations Finland is participating in with staff personnel, military observers and similar (personnel strength in parenthesis):",
"The Finnish military doctrine is based on the concept of total defence. The term total means that all sectors of the government and economy are involved in the defence planning. In principle, each ministry has the responsibility for planning its operations during a crisis. There are no special emergency authorities, such as the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) or Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations. Instead, each authority regularly trains for crises and has been allocated a combination of normal and emergency powers it needs to keep functioning in any conceivable situation. In a war, all resources of society may be diverted to ensure the survival of the nation. The legal basis for such measures is found in the Readiness Act and in the State of Defence Act, which would come into force through a presidential decision verified by parliament in the case of a crisis. The main objective of the doctrine is to establish and maintain a military force capable of deterring any potential aggressor from using Finnish territory or applying military pressure against Finland. To accomplish this, the defence is organised on the doctrine of territorial defence. The stated main principles of the territorial defence doctrine are The defence planning is organised to counteract three threat situations: In all cases, the national objective is to keep the vital areas, especially the capital area in Finnish possession. In other areas, the size of the country is used to delay and wear down the invader, until the enemy may be defeated in an area of Finnish choosing. The Army carries most of the responsibility for this task. The key wartime army units in 2015 are: The total number of territorial and regional units is undisclosed. The army units are mostly composed of reservists, the career soldiers manning the command and specialty positions. The role of the Navy is to repel all attacks carried out against Finnish coasts and to safeguard the territorial integrity during peacetime and the \"gray\" phase of the conflict. The maritime defence relies on combined use of coastal artillery, missile systems and naval mines to wear down the attacker. The Air Force is used to deny the invader the air superiority and to protect most important troops and objects of national importance in conjunction with the ground-based air defence. As the readiness of the Air Force and the Navy is high even during the peacetime, the career personnel have a much more visible role in the wartime duties of these defence branches. The Border Guard has the responsibility for border security in all situations. During a war, it will contribute to the national defence partially integrated into the army, its total mobilized strength being some 11,600 troops. One of the projected uses for the Border Guard is guerrilla warfare in areas temporarily occupied by enemy.",
"The army is organised into operative forces which consist of approximately 61 000 men and territorial forces which consist of 176 000 men. The following list is the wartime organisation of the Finnish army from 1.1.2008 Territorial forces:"
]
} |
Ishim (river) | null | The Ishim (; ) is a river running through Kazakhstan and Russia. It is long, and has a drainage basin of. Its average discharge is. It is a left tributary of the Irtysh. The Ishim is partly navigable in its lower reaches. The upper course of the Ishim passes through Nur-Sultan, the capital of Kazakhstan. In Russia, the river travels through a vast marshland for its course, and has countless meanders and oxbow lakes. The river freezes from late November until March. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
142105,
68762,
11,
10484,
111,
70,
50389,
464,
621,
4,
1295,
31344,
47,
113008,
12,
129551,
47,
70,
34202,
111,
62084,
10684,
4384,
4,
10772,
75876,
19,
62699,
402,
18117,
4,
10772,
9,
294,
202,
1076,
15,
82772,
538,
39923,
76,
16,
509,
19667,
19,
237,
70,
10323,
23,
2831,
4743,
47,
70,
169424,
111,
70,
96113,
5,
581,
26349,
83,
2843,
101637,
71,
3934,
6626,
40059,
7,
4,
70,
90911,
15,
13665,
9319,
19,
16,
4932,
111,
70,
50389,
464,
707,
70,
10332,
59444,
4,
136,
70,
636,
2480,
15,
49760,
9319,
19,
16,
4932,
4,
7440,
70,
3525,
27759,
33976,
7,
6044,
237,
70,
2471,
3347,
85,
4,
70,
13038,
111,
70,
92416,
4,
136,
70,
174620,
52341,
621,
105866,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
5941,
107374,
223,
127451,
136,
38043,
99115,
7,
5,
66016,
9571,
4,
70,
50389,
464,
23,
10772,
9,
294,
202,
1076,
1556,
2809,
36457,
538,
145755,
4,
100,
199349,
24365,
136,
76104,
214,
7401,
17366,
4,
23,
12989,
47,
22691,
100,
89011,
43315,
4527,
136,
63284,
70,
7639,
152667,
170894,
5,
1650,
83,
22539,
4806,
7565,
86429,
111,
9879,
10772,
9,
294,
202,
1076,
4,
120260,
6863,
17366,
77546,
3501,
442,
120262,
2806,
186,
2684,
111,
70,
1733,
4,
12960,
70,
96113,
103136,
1556,
2809,
7228,
53894,
56,
4,
23,
12989,
47,
2633,
199349,
7401,
7,
8305,
4271,
56,
5,
360,
9879,
10772,
9,
294,
202,
1076,
4,
43573,
70,
26349,
9201,
4,
2685,
83,
5036,
10,
3835,
46520,
136,
95212,
31,
139098,
129264,
74,
29459,
204610,
4,
2174,
70,
96113,
1902,
959,
2809,
22539,
4806,
4,
44,
12645,
50334,
7,
2806,
765,
2809,
19048,
47,
35691,
36880,
442,
740,
116267,
22539,
1221,
186,
64549,
297,
1257,
86429,
111,
70,
26349,
4,
100,
11522,
199349,
6226,
5,
581,
26349,
207048,
2843,
765,
38627,
100,
53333,
8,
64000,
592,
70,
96113,
4,
3129,
1221,
155605,
63769,
19336,
44828,
1505,
139098,
7,
47,
160404,
98,
10,
40059,
111,
70,
96113,
8305,
70,
64857,
25,
7,
10323,
5,
717,
76104,
70,
104851,
71,
17366,
111,
7401,
86608,
4,
7401,
83,
42874,
297,
47,
70,
50389,
464,
1295,
70,
6921,
939,
1495,
4,
645,
70,
6921,
939,
1495,
1104,
161397,
38269,
73908,
136,
10,
137158,
2256,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
50389,
464,
15,
74,
1388,
83,
10,
96113,
51042,
8305,
62084,
10684,
4384,
136,
49002,
5,
1650,
83,
4989,
4,
136,
1556,
10,
8167,
885,
429,
4950,
73,
111,
5,
1650,
7,
83080,
2837,
69674,
83,
5,
1650,
83,
10,
25737,
68762,
6635,
111,
70,
6921,
939,
1495,
5,
581,
50389,
464,
83,
2831,
538,
46011,
2886,
23,
6863,
92319,
58359,
90,
5,
581,
1407,
56,
15411,
111,
70,
50389,
464,
10922,
7,
8305,
10772,
9,
294,
202,
1076,
4,
70,
10323,
111,
62084,
10684,
4384,
5,
360,
49002,
4,
70,
96113,
26983,
7,
8305,
10,
18410,
10283,
127,
1760,
100,
6863,
15411,
4,
136,
1556,
54529,
9393,
29459,
14202,
136,
36,
425,
84201,
21,
9248,
5,
581,
96113,
4092,
13105,
1295,
72399,
7582,
24189,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1284111 | en-train-1284111 | 1284111 | {
"title": [
"Main tributaries.",
"In Nur-Sultan."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The largest tributaries of the Ishim are, from source to mouth:",
"According to the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, Nur-Sultan (formerly Astana) was chosen as the capital in part due to the presence of the river. The city is also divided into two sections, the Right (northern) Bank of the Ishim or the old town, and the Left (southern) Bank, where the new government buildings such as the Ak Orda, the House of the Government, and the Supreme Court are located, as well as many prestigious apartment and living complexes. Since 1998, the Ishim in Nur-Sultan has been actively managed, for flood management and maintaining water level, in order to provide for recreational use and ensure the showpiece appearance. It is dammed downstream of central Nur-Sultan, keeping its level higher than it otherwise would be most of the time, while the river bottom has been made deeper, in order to let flood waters through faster. In central Nur-Sultan, near the city park, there is now a public beach and pedalo boat rental; meanwhile, if the river had not been dammed, \"citizens would have been able to walk across it\". Another dam will be constructed upstream of the city, for better flood control. The city authorities also have plans for further deepening the river, which will eventually allow small passenger boats to operate on a section of the river through the nation's capital. To maintain the desired level of water flow, water is pumped to the Ishim from the Irtysh, over the Irtysh–Karaganda Canal and a pipeline."
]
} |
Mordvins | null | The Mordvins, also "Mordva", "Mordvinians", "Mordovians" (/"erzät", /"mokšet", /mordva), are a people who speak the Mordvinic languages of the Uralic language family and live mainly in the Republic of Mordovia and other parts of the middle Volga River region of Russia. | null | [
250004,
250054,
51404,
12452,
527,
5,
239,
55101,
1902,
207487,
44,
101398,
68802,
58,
237,
10,
15970,
9,
34198,
2320,
4,
135812,
214,
442,
237,
10,
20117,
111,
70,
9351,
44,
63344,
830,
94960,
7460,
68161,
127,
2227,
515,
23,
70,
39395,
387,
927,
142642,
959,
297,
450,
44,
101398,
68802,
58,
509,
959,
11814,
237,
10,
15970,
9,
34198,
2320,
390,
70,
6626,
5919,
71,
2082,
1771,
109120,
90,
111,
70,
241,
7912,
11,
136,
44298,
2420,
5,
50118,
14,
44298,
16532,
13438,
117249,
450,
70,
13579,
1556,
2809,
11814,
390,
70,
3395,
237,
142,
70796,
15970,
9,
49919,
449,
13579,
47,
11764,
67,
2363,
39210,
59665,
5,
581,
147158,
18,
1379,
59801,
450,
70,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
54,
959,
4527,
70,
9351,
242,
594,
6651,
2082,
7,
25,
237,
10,
15970,
9,
34198,
2320,
5,
4221,
685,
118,
34942,
54397,
44,
8912,
9,
85763,
297,
72163,
223,
43110,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
621,
241,
7912,
10133,
2750,
70424,
378,
2347,
268,
241,
7912,
66,
220734,
678,
44298,
33806,
218250,
316,
136,
23,
15824,
1836,
621,
378,
66,
82,
127,
6402,
268,
21115,
111,
241,
7912,
10133,
56104,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
17779,
1224,
10557,
5,
378,
23389,
268,
509,
378,
2347,
268,
241,
7912,
10133,
2750,
186768,
538,
378,
6488,
13,
268,
15005,
2822,
47,
237,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
4,
136,
44298,
2420,
7,
56104,
3542,
119056,
84797,
538,
237,
44,
9083,
1224,
10557,
740,
8622,
83,
110,
77950,
44298,
2420,
7,
136,
241,
7912,
162,
3542,
142,
82,
127,
6402,
51,
2481,
23,
479,
979,
86385,
740,
55496,
133,
384,
5,
1345,
7250,
603,
33022,
7,
12,
37878,
693,
25958,
13036,
60212,
7,
126809,
23,
114122,
7,
4,
46876,
136,
3853,
72761,
170894,
15,
309,
3675,
2363,
142477,
47,
14949,
2481,
70,
1004,
5320,
136,
44298,
2420,
6777,
959,
1940,
1727,
1294,
136,
3853,
18925,
1940,
1727,
1651,
429,
83,
41207,
5,
16,
581,
6626,
1614,
428,
25826,
7,
111,
5919,
71,
2082,
72004,
12008,
110,
7262,
40814,
90,
23,
39210,
46,
2363,
10332,
7262,
35821,
7,
5367,
4734,
111,
4000,
40814,
90,
5,
30097,
9319,
46876,
1556,
10,
39210,
13579,
47,
4331,
2182,
40101,
61261,
707,
2363,
46876,
5,
14847,
10,
119578,
32599,
90,
47,
15005,
47,
5919,
71,
2082,
72004,
237,
10,
28271,
4,
764,
8110,
4527,
70,
13579,
44,
18468,
5320,
136,
44298,
2420,
58,
581,
82,
127,
157,
5264,
44,
101398,
68802,
58,
83,
144681,
243,
525,
297,
23,
44532,
90,
25,
44,
10429,
7636,
58,
23,
70,
3173,
111,
44,
101398,
34609,
58,
2750,
4,
764,
140526,
4,
3542,
54940,
70,
28368,
7,
111,
70,
159960,
1771,
60097,
1004,
4707,
12259,
5,
62,
3551,
35839,
44,
101398,
3390,
58,
99,
10,
62488,
111,
1492,
13312,
120696,
1295,
70,
26516,
4834,
2507,
7,
83,
119056,
23,
73138,
13,
25714,
25,
7,
44,
4657,
11500,
557,
156295,
740,
360,
92264,
28811,
97264,
4,
70,
123055,
44,
30248,
1124,
4,
6035,
26050,
7,
4,
6035,
28483,
4,
5919,
55661,
4,
5919,
27232,
4,
5919,
693,
41331,
58,
765,
118775,
5,
360,
70,
102374,
19012,
1294,
70103,
6402,
133,
4,
70,
82,
127,
157,
5264,
7,
44,
101398,
68802,
58,
136,
44,
85862,
686,
1861,
58,
5117,
108975,
23,
70,
534,
927,
142642,
5,
24372,
70,
198373,
116000,
191,
111,
13832,
25,
4,
70,
9351,
5919,
71,
2082,
41207,
538,
62163,
119056,
23,
102374,
3398,
16765,
4,
136,
83,
4734,
66747,
71,
7103,
70,
19012,
1294,
70103,
6402,
133,
1257,
24189,
70,
423,
927,
1104,
2489,
927,
202032,
90,
5,
581,
9351,
44,
101398,
68802,
58,
83,
17569,
47,
62038,
67,
1295,
142,
18721,
3378,
15,
294,
2408,
4450,
66,
16,
2565,
4,
44,
1727,
71,
830,
91084,
44,
669,
740,
581,
5919,
71,
2082,
2565,
44,
4326,
112,
58,
8,
157,
1916,
10,
71390,
707,
5732,
4032,
83,
144851,
71,
47,
70,
5701,
59665,
5,
3293,
2565,
83,
2843,
31895,
62548,
47,
70,
2704,
954,
1165,
2661,
111,
44,
1062,
71,
5130,
18,
830,
136,
2843,
23,
136,
95134,
3853,
23,
5,
581,
5117,
59121,
41392,
111,
44,
647,
7912,
11,
58,
83,
90698,
47,
186,
23,
10,
31330,
607,
297,
47,
483,
16028,
19831,
4,
390,
33876,
4,
70,
13714,
6383,
19631,
1972,
4,
23,
70,
3173,
111,
44,
37206,
11,
830,
136,
68018,
17569,
47,
108975,
23,
70,
43240,
111,
7832,
837,
136,
436,
188,
133,
1176,
237,
44,
284,
25251,
53,
58,
136,
44,
7614,
172,
2481,
830,
107013,
538,
5,
5685,
92,
32298,
4,
1295,
70,
209,
927,
142642,
4,
1556,
17164,
297,
54940,
70,
17262,
94407,
111,
70,
13832,
3395,
70,
44,
289,
9,
55686,
34862,
830,
124901,
60097,
158930,
23,
70,
59444,
111,
44,
7614,
433,
740,
581,
3395,
765,
68018,
2809,
207487,
390,
191225,
7,
237,
241,
7912,
11,
4,
68018,
237,
70,
44,
72494,
58,
3395,
4,
136,
2843,
237,
10445,
5130,
933,
5,
1650,
1556,
2809,
42459,
297,
390,
4816,
1779,
450,
70,
59444,
44,
7614,
433,
58,
1543,
15005,
47,
40101,
70,
5744,
12563,
11,
5935,
707,
1172,
1042,
360,
70,
616,
927,
142642,
4,
70,
9351,
241,
7912,
11,
83,
90698,
47,
765,
2809,
119056,
23,
70,
3173,
111,
44,
5861,
169,
31029,
58,
390,
137088,
9,
289,
9,
111678,
1391,
36618,
14,
4,
136,
237,
44,
14335,
2864,
58,
390,
3314,
77745,
4,
70,
438,
74271,
70144,
360,
102374,
97264,
4,
70,
82,
127,
157,
5264,
1004,
596,
5117,
135179,
23,
70,
543,
927,
142642,
5,
581,
67896,
150,
525,
59121,
41392,
111,
44298,
2420,
4,
23,
70,
3173,
111,
2501,
52851,
4,
83,
90698,
47,
186,
23,
70,
43240,
111,
10,
702,
927,
9,
16797,
44616,
22964,
78192,
26983,
56,
4,
25031,
111,
65787,
882,
2594,
4,
136,
23,
70,
57309,
66,
184843,
133,
111,
137088,
9,
289,
9,
111678,
4,
2750,
113771,
70,
43114,
7974,
112,
47,
186,
99,
1631,
678,
70,
44298,
2420,
136,
70,
43794,
169,
1121,
7,
15,
18468,
5320,
194,
360,
102374,
97264,
4,
242,
594,
685,
2420,
25,
135179,
1295,
70,
729,
927,
142642,
5,
581,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
621,
101637,
71,
3934,
6626,
82,
127,
6402,
1614,
51588,
7,
136,
17262,
53333,
1614,
51588,
7,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
4,
2843,
44,
101398,
68802,
830,
44,
594,
6651,
2082,
72004,
830,
44,
101398,
22705,
72004,
58,
15,
64,
58,
56,
169,
16853,
830,
248,
58,
31676,
28954,
830,
248,
85862,
330,
247,
621,
10,
3395,
2750,
70424,
70,
5919,
71,
2082,
1771,
46876,
7,
111,
70,
4143,
11,
9120,
46876,
14449,
136,
6867,
5201,
538,
23,
70,
47806,
111,
5919,
246,
3459,
136,
3789,
63920,
111,
70,
86991,
5976,
208,
32547,
10776,
111,
49002,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-694955 | en-train-694955 | 694955 | {
"title": [
"Names.",
"Early references.",
"Etymologies.",
"Ethnic structure.",
"Religion.",
"Appearance.",
"Cultures, folklores and mythologies.",
"History.",
"Prehistory.",
"Early history.",
"Modern history.",
"National representative bodies.",
"Languages.",
"Demographics.",
"External links."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"While Robert G. Latham had identified \"Mordva\" as a self-designation, identifying it as a variant of the name \"Mari\", Aleksey Shakhmatov in the early 20th century noted that \"Mordva\" was not used as a self-designation by the two Mordvinic tribes of the Erzya and Moksha. Nikolai Mokshin again states that the term has been used by the people as an internal self-defining term to constitute their common origin. The linguist underlines that the Mordvins do not use the name 'Mordvins' as a self-designation. Feoktistov wrote \"So-called Tengushev Mordvins are Erzyans who speak [the] Erzyan dialect with Mokshan substratum and in fact they are [an ethnic] group of Erzyans usually referred to as Shokshas. [It] was [the] Erzyans who historically [were] referred to as Mordvins, and Mokshas usually were mentioned separately as \"Mokshas\". There is no evidence Mokshas and Erzyas were an ethnic unity in prehistory\". Isabelle T. Keindler writes:Gradually major differences developed in customs, language and even physical appearance (until their conversion to Christianity the Erzia and Moksha did not intermarry and even today intermarriage is rare.) The two subdivisions of Mordvinians share no folk heroes in common – their old folksongs sing only of local heroes. Neither language has a common term to designate either themselves or their language. When a speaker wishes to refer to Mordvinians as a whole, he must use the term \"Erzia and Moksha\"",
"The ethnonym \"Mordva\" is possibly attested in Jordanes' \"Getica\" in the form of \"Mordens\" who, he claims, were among the subjects of the Gothic king Ermanaric. A land called \"Mordia\" at a distance of ten days journey from the Petchenegs is mentioned in Constantine VII's \"De administrando imperio\". In medieval European sources, the names \"Merdas, Merdinis, Merdium, Mordani, Mordua, Morduinos\" have appeared. In the Russian Primary Chronicle, the ethnonyms \"Mordva\" and \"mordvichi\" first appear in the 11th century. After the Mongol invasion of Rus', the name Mordvin rarely gets mentioned in Russian annals, and is only quoted after the Primary Chronicle up until the 15th–17th centuries.",
"The name \"Mordva\" is thought to originate from an Iranian (Scythian) word, \"mard\", meaning \"man\". The Mordvin word \"mirde\" denoting a husband or spouse is traced to the same origin. This word is also probably related to the final syllable of \"Udmurt\", and also in and perhaps even in. The first written mention of \"Erzya\" is considered to be in a letter dated to 968 AD, by Joseph, the Khazar khagan, in the form of \"arisa\", and sometimes thought to appear in the works of Strabo and Ptolemy as \"Aorsy\" and \"Arsiity\", respectively. Estakhri, from the 10th century, has recorded among the three groups of the Rus people the \"al-arsanija\", whose king lived in the town of \"Arsa\". The people have sometimes been identified by scholars as Erzya, sometimes as the \"aru\" people, and also as Udmurts. It has been suggested by historians that the town \"Arsa\" may refer to either the modern Ryazan or Arsk In the 14th century, the name Erzya is considered to have been mentioned in the form of \"ardzhani\" by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, and as \"rzjan\" by Jusuf, the Nogaj khan In Russian sources, the ethnonym Erza first appears in the 18th century. The earliest written mention of Moksha, in the form of Moxel, is considered to be in the works of a 13th-century Flemish traveler, William of Rubruck, and in the Persian chronicle of Rashid-al-Din, who reported the Golden Horde to be at war with the Moksha and the Ardzhans (Erzia). In Russian sources, 'Moksha' appears from the 17th century.",
"The Mordvins are divided into two ethnic subgroups and three further subgroups: Mokshin concludes that the above grouping does not represent subdivisions of equal ethnotaxonomic order, and discounts Shoksha, Karatai and Teryukhan as ethnonyms, identifying two Mordvin sub-ethnicities, the Erzya and the Moksha, and two \"ethnographic groups\", the Shoksha and the Karatai. Two further formerly Mordvinic groups have assimilated to (Slavic and Turkic) superstrate influence:",
"Erzya practices Christianity (Eastern Orthodox and Lutheranism brought by Finnish missionaries in the 1990s) and ineshkipaza, a monotheistic religion with some elements of pantheism. Almost all national-oriented intellectuals practice ineshkipazia or Lutheranism, in fact, eastern orthodoxy is strongly associated with the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC, РПЦ in Russian) and concomitant policy of forced Russification. Mariz’ Kemal, well-known Erzyan poetess, is also an organizer of traditional Erzyan religion communities. This phenomenon appeared after formation of Mordovian diocese of ROC in 1990. In those days Erzyan intellectuals were hoping to introduce of Erzyan language into worship ceremonies as well as to revive of Erzyan religious and cultural identity, even within ROC structure. Failure of these hopes made many Erzyan believers more radical and stimulated national-oriented intellectuals to renew their ethnic Ineshkipaza religion.",
"The 1911 \"Britannica\" noted that the Mordvins, although they had largely abandoned their language, had \"maintained a good deal of their old national dress, especially the women, whose profusely embroidered skirts, original hair-dress large ear-rings which sometimes are merely hare-tails, and numerous necklaces covering all the chest and consisting of all possible ornaments, easily distinguish them from Russian women.\" \"Britannica\" described the Mordvins as having mostly dark hair and blue eyes, with a rather small and narrow build. The Moksha were described as having a darker skin and darker eyes than the Erzya, while the Qaratays were described as \"mixed with Tatars\". Latham described the Mordvins as taller than the Mari, with thin beards, flat faces and brown or red hair, red hair being more frequent among the Ersad than the Mokshad. James Bryce described \"the peculiar Finnish physiognomy\" of the Mordvin diaspora in Armenia, \"transplanted hither from the Middle Volga at their own wish\", as characterised by \"broad and smooth faces, long eyes, a rather flattish nose\".",
"According to Tatiana Deviatkina, although sharing some similarities, no common Mordvin mythology has emerged, and therefore the Erza and Moksha mythologies are defined separately. In the Erza mythology, the superior deities were hatched from an egg. The mother of gods is called \"Ange Patiai\", followed by the Sun God, \"Chipaz\", who gave birth to \"Nishkepaz\"; to the earth god, \"Mastoron kirdi\"; and to the wind god, \"Varmanpaz\". From the union of \"Chipaz\" and the Harvest Mother, \"Norovava\", was born the god of the underworld, \"Mastorpaz\". The thunder god, \"Pur’ginepaz\", was born from \"Niskende Teitert\", (the daughter of the mother of gods, \"Ange Patiai\"). The creation of the Earth is followed by the creation of the Sun, the Moon, humankind, and the Erza. Humans were created by \"Chipaz\", the sun god, who, in one version, molded humankind from clay, while in another version, from soil. In Moksha mythology, the Supreme God is called \"Viarde Skai\". According to the legends, the creation of the world went through several stages: first the Devil moistened the building material in his mouth and spat it out. The piece that was spat out grew into a plain, which was modeled unevenly, creating the chasms and the mountains. The first humans created by \"Viarde Skai\" could live for 700–800 years and were giants of 99 \"archinnes\". The underworld in Mokshan mythology was ruled by \"Mastoratia\". Latham reported strong pagan elements surviving Christianization. The 1911 \"Britannica\" noted how the Mordvins:",
"",
"The Mordvins emerged from the common Volgaic group around the 1st century AD. Proof that the Mordvins have long been settled in the vicinity of the Volga is also found in the fact that they still call the river \"Rav\", reflecting the name \"Rha\" recorded by Ptolemy (c. AD 100 – c. 170). The Gorodets culture dating back to around 500 BC has been associated with these people. The north-western neighbours were the Muromians and Merians who spoke related Finno-Ugric languages. To the north of the Mordvins lived the Maris, to the south the Khazars. The Mordvins' eastern neighbors, possibly remnants of the Huns, became the Bolgars around 700 AD. Researchers have distinguished the ancestors of the Erzya and the Moksha from the mid-1st century AD by the different orientations of their burials and by elements of their costumes and the variety of bronze jewellery found by archaeologists in their ancient cemeteries. The Erzya graves from this era were oriented north-south, while the Moksha graves were found to be oriented south-north. The Mordvin language began to diverge into Moksha and Erzya over the course of the 1st millennium AD. Erzyans lived in the northern parts of the territory, close to present-day Nizhny Novgorod. The Mokshans lived further south and west of present-day Mordovia, closer to the neighbouring Iranian, Bolgar and Turkic tribes, and fell under their cultural influence. The social organization of Moksha and Erzya depended on patriarchy; the tribes were headed by elders \"kuda-ti\" who selected a \"tekshtai\", senior elders responsible for coordinating wider regions.",
"Around 800 AD two major empires emerged in the neighborhood: Kievan Rus in present-day Ukraine and Russia adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity, the Bolgar kingdom located at the confluence of Kama and Volga rivers adopted Islam, and some Moksha areas became tributaries to the latter until the 12th century. Following the foundation of Nizhny Novgorod by Kievan Rus in 1221, the Mordvin territory increasingly fell under Russian domination, pushing the Mordvin populations southwards and eastwards beyond the Urals, and reducing their cohesion. The Russian advance was halted by the Mongol Empire, and the Mordvins became subjects to Golden Horde until the beginning of 16th century. Christianization of the Mordvin peoples took place during the 16th to 18th centuries, and most Mordvins today adhere to the Russian Orthodox Church all carrying Russian Orthodox names. In the 19th century Latham reported strong pagan elements surviving Christianization, the chief gods of the Erzyans and the Mokshas being called \"Paas\" and \"Shkai\", respectively.",
"In the Russian Empire, the Mordvins were known as capable carpenters, and Ivan the Terrible used them to build bridges and clear forests during his advance on Kazan. Although the Mordvins were given an autonomous territory as a titular nation within the Soviet Union in 1928, Russification intensified during the 1930s, and knowledge of the Mordvin languages by the 1950s was in rapid decline. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the Mordvins, like other indigenous peoples of Russia, experienced a rise in national consciousness. The Erzya national epic is called \"Mastorava\", which stands for \"Mother Earth\". It was compiled by A. M. Sharonov and first published in 1994 in the Erzya language (it has since been translated into Moksha and Russian). \"Mastorava\" is also the name of a movement of ethnic separatism founded by D. Nadkin of the Mordovian State University, active in the early 1990s. Finno-Ugric peoples, whose territories were included in the former USSR as well as many others, had a very brief period of national revival in 1989-1991. Finno-Ugric peoples of Idel-Ural were able to conduct their own national conventions: Udmurts (November 1991), Erzya and Moksha (March 1992), Mari (October 1992), the united convention of Finno-Ugric folks of Russia in Izhevsk (May 1992). All these conventions accepted similar resolutions with appeals to democratize political and public life in their respective republics and to support the national revival of Finno-Ugric peoples. Estonia had strong influence on moods and opinions that dominated these conventions, (especially among national-oriented intellectuals) because many students at the University of Tartu were from Finno-Ugric republics of Russia. At the time of the Soviet Union’s disintegration, Erzya and Moksha accounted for only 32,5% in total structure of population in Мордовії. The return of many Erzyans and Mokshans to their national identities was strongly challenged by Russification, urbanization and demographic crisis. In addition, part of Mokshanш national elites (and Erzyan to a lesser extent) came forward with an idea, that Erzyans and Mokshans are just sub-ethnic groups within the united Mordovian nation. This concept was readily supported by Russian authorities, but most representatives of the Erzyan national movement reacted very negatively. National activists perceived the idea of “united Mordovian nation” as another tool for hard Russification. In 1989 Veĺmema community center emerges in Mordovia. Very soon it becomes popular attracting both Erzyans and Mokshans. In some time only cultural activity becomes quite a narrow scope for part of radical activists, and Veĺmema experiences a major split. Moderate members create Vajģeĺ organization focused on revival and popularization of national traditions, and a more radical group founded Mastorava, Erzan-Mokshan civic movement, that aims not only a cultural revival of both nations but also wants the presentation of their interests in government bodies.",
"Erzya has its own system of national representative bodies. Every time before Raskeń ozks that takes place every three years, Aťań Eźem (erz. Council of elders) is convened. Aťań Eźem is a collective body that discusses the major problems of Erzyan people. Aťań Eźem elects chief elder, Inyazor, by a secret ballot. Inyazor represents all Erzyan people till next Raskeń Ozks. During the period from 1999 through 2019 position of Inyazor was held by Kshumantsian’Pirguzh, who was awarded Order of the Cross of St. Mary’s Land (est. Maarjamaa Risti teenetemärk) by President of Estonia in 2014. In 2019 during regular Raskeń Ozks Syres’ Boliayen’, chairman of Erźań Val Society, co-founder of Free Idel-Ural civic movement was elected as new Inyazor. His candidature was supported by 12 from 18 elders. Russian authorities do not recognize the legitimacy of the national representative bodies of Erzyan people. Syres’ Boliayen’ is now in exile in Ukraine and representatives of Aťań eźem, as well as first Inyazor Kshumantsian’Pirguzh, repeatedly reported about political pressure from Russian authorities. According to Russian laws, the activity of national political parties (Erzya, Mari, Tatars, Chuvashs or any other) is forbidden. Consequently, the national representative agency of Erzya people is the only possible instrument to express the political aspirations of Erzya. Due to the activity of Veĺmema, Vajģeĺ and Mastorava situation with human rights for Erzyans and Mokshans in Mordovia has changed significantly. Mordovian National theatre and faculty of national culture were founded in the republic, Language Law was adopted, productive relationships and contacts with foreign diaspores were established. Aforementioned organizations became a “talent foundry” for new associations of Erzya and Moksha, namely Od Vij, Erźava, Ĺitova, and Jurhtava; as well as for Mastorava and Erźań Mastor newspapers. Exactly due to the activity of all mentioned organizations and societies Erzyan and Mokshan national movements become able to progress from the ethnographic stage of their struggle to a political one. At the end of the 1980s Pirguzh Kshumantsian’, human rights defender, and Mariz’ Kemal, poetess, became leaders of Erzyan national movement. They revived the tradition of Raskeń Ozks (erz. Family Prayer). 5 days before the very first Raskeń Ozks Kshumantsian’, as main organizer of the event, was arrested by Russian authorities. Police forced him to abandon the realization of Prayer, however, he refused to comply with the demands. In 1999 Pirguzh Kshumantsian’ was elected as the first Inyazor (chief elder) in the newest history of Erzyan people. He held this position up to 2019. Mariz’ Kemal adhered to the principle of \"Kavto keĺť - kavto raśkeť\" (erz. \"Two languages - two nations\"), that denied the existence of the single Mordovian nation as the combination of sub-ethnic groups, namely Erzya and Moksha. National life in the Republic of Mordovia began to draw down with the installation of Vladimir Putin’s rule. The new president of Russia considered national republics and native peoples as “enemies inside”. May 1, 2020 Atyan’ Ezem (erz. Elders’ Council) approved new system of national representative bodies. Statute on creation and functioning of national representative bodies of Erzya people consists of six chapters, describing aims and tasks of Erzya national movement, its governing bodies, their plenary powers and structure. According to the document, national movement directed by Promks – convention of delegates from Erzya political parties and public organizations. Convention forms Atyan’ Ezem, that is operative between Promks sessions and elects Inyazor (Chief Elder), who presents Erzya people and speaks on behalf of all the nation. In the event that there are any legal limitations for creation and operation of national parties (such prohibition exists in Russian Federation nowadays), then plenary powers of Promks are carried by Atyan’ Ezem. The main objective of Promks, Atyan’ Ezem and Inyazor, is to provide and defend national, political, economic and cultural rights of Erzya, including right to national self-determination within national Erzya territories.",
"The Mordvinic languages, a subgroup of the Uralic family, are Erzya and Moksha, with about 500,000 native speakers each. Both are official languages of Mordovia alongside Russian. The medieval Meshcherian language may have been Mordvinic, or close to Mordvinic. Erzya is spoken in the northern and eastern and north-western parts of Mordovia and adjacent regions of Nizhniy Novgorod, Chuvashia, Penza, Samara, Saratov, Orenburg, Ulyanovsk, Tatarstan and Bashkortostan. Moksha is the majority language in the western part of Mordovia. Due to differences in phonology, lexicon, and grammar, Erzya and Moksha are not mutually intelligible, to the extent that Russian language is often used for intergroup communications. The two Mordvinic languages also have separate literary forms. The Erzya literary language was created in 1922 and the Mokshan in 1923. Both are currently written using the standard Russian alphabet.",
"Latham (1854) quoted a total population of 480,000. Mastyugina (1996) quotes 1.15 million. The 2002 Russian census reports 0.84 million. According to estimates by Tartu University made in the late 1970s, less than one third of Mordvins lived in the autonomous republic of Mordovia, in the basin of the Volga River. Others are scattered (2002) over the Russian oblasts of Samara (116,475), Penza (86,370), Orenburg (68,880) and Nizhni Novgorod (36,705), Ulyanovsk (61,100), Saratov (23,380), Moscow (22,850), Tatarstan (28,860), Chuvashia (18,686), Bashkortostan (31,932), Siberia (65,650), Russian Far East (29,265). Populations in parts of the former Soviet Union not now part of Russia are: Kyrgyz Republic 5,390, Turkmenistan 3,490, Uzbekistan 14,175, Kazakhstan, (34,370), Azerbaijan (1,150), Estonia (985), Armenia (920).",
"Mordovia news Mordvin toponymy (in Mordovia and throughout the Middle Volga region):"
]
} |
Lány (Kladno District) | null | Lány is a village in the Czech Republic, west of Prague, in Central Bohemian Region, outside the main road towards Karlovy Vary. It has 2196 inhabitants. Its major landmark is a castle, serving as a summer residence of Czechoslovak and later Czech Presidents. There is also a sports car museum and Museum of T. G. Masaryk, the first President of Czechoslovakia. Both President Masaryk and his wife are buried in the local cemetery. | null | [
250004,
250054,
992,
3675,
24531,
4,
70,
54427,
509,
2831,
111,
70,
66724,
19,
185610,
53,
15,
116580,
399,
5609,
7103,
70,
134454,
13,
111,
171512,
247,
23,
70,
124503,
66,
15,
294,
143,
1554,
16,
103724,
4,
1632,
111,
70,
16064,
44,
6766,
26679,
1224,
129977,
5761,
128770,
58,
15,
428,
144225,
23179,
16,
23,
211462,
5,
62,
1305,
9,
65024,
509,
142096,
23,
184007,
5,
581,
37702,
133,
111,
22833,
299,
509,
5117,
119056,
23,
58166,
5442,
1650,
98816,
144044,
5941,
20028,
136,
1379,
74797,
10,
13036,
456,
238478,
23,
115275,
74668,
38775,
360,
56694,
4,
442,
509,
59038,
71,
390,
70,
103655,
31,
89262,
92,
11341,
136,
4331,
27686,
237,
142,
51521,
51065,
79169,
289,
45606,
329,
5,
35061,
13,
107653,
2177,
1948,
19434,
96240,
509,
62458,
297,
47,
3249,
136912,
7,
15044,
47,
70,
37702,
133,
136,
70,
123594,
16797,
9201,
5,
384,
5,
527,
5,
19629,
50281,
4,
70,
5117,
34202,
4,
1884,
71,
70,
37702,
133,
136,
509,
107003,
47,
24765,
2685,
7103,
1919,
149856,
120639,
23,
61540,
24189,
1919,
47219,
23,
43357,
5,
28090,
56694,
149976,
237,
1919,
1238,
141775,
2886,
51065,
45606,
329,
5,
133698,
6661,
5550,
1995,
4,
70,
37702,
133,
509,
10,
45606,
329,
111,
55598,
29099,
1436,
4,
142,
118055,
538,
99825,
136,
23,
76009,
102,
3674,
34202,
111,
6,
127942,
4341,
67,
211462,
136,
80981,
399,
5,
581,
37702,
133,
509,
11814,
4734,
41207,
538,
20271,
70,
84158,
271,
1615,
5,
52455,
167224,
10234,
114700,
7,
4,
41866,
8382,
82775,
390,
2177,
1948,
19434,
96240,
4,
3542,
17116,
5861,
297,
20271,
70,
1492,
3408,
111,
119093,
54808,
20387,
4217,
5,
87293,
7103,
70,
183910,
135555,
6777,
70,
3525,
34202,
145574,
1391,
2601,
4034,
47,
1380,
47,
70,
37702,
133,
186085,
5,
66016,
7068,
4,
442,
1556,
2809,
10,
3687,
111,
5941,
51521,
104227,
17721,
70,
34202,
136,
3789,
2663,
39624,
10133,
5,
581,
37702,
133,
68034,
83,
155738,
47,
70,
3835,
5,
581,
9201,
83,
68018,
81522,
4,
41866,
98,
3835,
65006,
7,
5,
581,
20903,
271,
25550,
29398,
83,
18343,
59555,
15,
82772,
538,
22833,
299,
16,
1672,
16065,
4,
7464,
9498,
56,
6496,
19629,
50281,
25,
7,
15563,
11814,
390,
70,
34202,
8108,
45443,
214,
10,
25550,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
22833,
299,
83,
10,
54427,
23,
70,
103655,
47806,
4,
65272,
111,
210721,
4,
23,
15881,
211462,
19,
16843,
4,
50782,
70,
5201,
33816,
98186,
85869,
53,
3323,
53,
5,
1650,
1556,
952,
11648,
23,
109261,
16037,
5,
1650,
7,
13036,
3551,
10015,
83,
10,
37702,
133,
4,
520,
6496,
237,
10,
51065,
45606,
329,
111,
103655,
31,
89262,
92,
136,
14432,
103655,
34202,
7,
5,
8622,
83,
2843,
10,
29681,
2258,
59052,
136,
25946,
111,
384,
5,
527,
5,
19629,
50281,
4,
70,
5117,
34202,
111,
103655,
31,
89262,
15565,
5,
149766,
34202,
19629,
50281,
136,
1919,
58386,
621,
373,
46572,
23,
70,
4000,
405,
29089,
53,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1573188 | en-train-1573188 | 1573188 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Lány Castle."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Until 1918, the village was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), in the Schlan (Slaný) district, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" (district office) in Bohemia. A post-office was opened in 1869.",
"The castle of Lány was first mentioned in 1392. It changed owners many times and underwent a major reconstruction in 1902–1903. In 1921, it was purchased by the Czechoslovak state and designated as an official summer presidential residence. Slovene architect Jože Plečnik was commissioned to make improvements both to the castle and the adjacent park. T. G. Masaryk, the first President, liked the castle and was allowed to stay there after his abdication in 1935 until his death in 1937. From 1921 served as his favourable summer residence. During World War II, the castle was a residence of Emil Hácha, an increasingly ill and incapacitated President of Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia. The castle was used only rarely during the Communist era. Many valuable artefacts, especially those designed by Jože Plečnik, were discarded during the tenure of Gustáv Husák. Only after the Velvet Revolution did the new President Václav Havel start to come to the castle regularly. Since then, it has been a place of many official sessions between the President and other top politicians. The castle itself is closed to the public. The park is sometimes accessible, especially on public holidays. The closest train station is Stochov (formerly Lány) about away, still preserving Masaryk's salon used by the President before boarding a train."
]
} |
Ján Kubiš | null | Ján Kubiš (born 12 November 1952) is a Slovak diplomat and former Minister of Foreign Affairs who has been serving as United Nations Special Coordinator for Lebanon since 2019. He was appointed to this position by the United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres. | null | [
250004,
250054,
28090,
918,
24189,
267,
4,
195028,
794,
149976,
237,
70,
25132,
130877,
4935,
136,
44816,
111,
70,
14098,
145704,
54360,
7154,
77905,
23,
69496,
15,
52014,
10101,
3142,
764,
509,
6,
140545,
297,
47,
903,
19069,
390,
70,
14098,
145704,
196212,
9,
159342,
5458,
1519,
9,
59533,
98,
190,
22482,
7891,
22376,
4,
764,
509,
70,
25132,
130877,
4935,
136,
44816,
111,
70,
14098,
145704,
54360,
7154,
77905,
23,
61408,
15,
14006,
23955,
194,
6422,
538,
4,
764,
149976,
237,
70,
130922,
196212,
111,
70,
14098,
145704,
79048,
63871,
100,
14713,
4,
136,
509,
70,
33744,
111,
184293,
184593,
111,
192049,
1295,
20414,
3295,
24189,
18982,
20938,
195028,
794,
509,
36770,
538,
173101,
100,
48748,
136,
1311,
9,
21473,
1363,
23,
14713,
15,
7285,
10854,
16,
196212,
9082,
5,
360,
20414,
73584,
70,
28811,
32528,
6,
140545,
297,
195028,
794,
47,
186,
70,
3747,
25,
7,
5361,
22,
68153,
47,
15881,
14237,
5,
195028,
794,
1902,
198395,
149976,
237,
70,
14098,
145704,
5361,
22,
68153,
47,
44061,
14,
151867,
20271,
70,
149307,
289,
14922,
25632,
70,
9782,
1631,
24189,
70,
23295,
34658,
6863,
5117,
1305,
4205,
81843,
7,
5,
135967,
47,
35971,
98,
70,
1305,
237,
11787,
10854,
196212,
9082,
4,
195028,
794,
509,
31068,
111,
70,
1657,
134225,
1914,
57241,
18222,
23,
70,
142487,
18,
111,
70,
11787,
10854,
4,
10,
19069,
764,
34658,
1295,
103709,
28090,
13867,
47,
13211,
4,
195028,
794,
509,
10250,
11124,
1846,
136,
161227,
130877,
4935,
111,
70,
154350,
47806,
47,
70,
8274,
12133,
23,
46980,
330,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
47,
70,
9082,
186670,
98,
52394,
17447,
136,
64166,
136,
3789,
21640,
53702,
7,
5,
360,
13211,
4,
195028,
794,
509,
25132,
116059,
289,
357,
68153,
136,
154350,
127873,
799,
519,
118,
4597,
98,
70,
49085,
18,
100,
2907,
41159,
23,
14713,
5,
360,
12839,
4,
764,
149976,
237,
4841,
481,
669,
9,
73,
9,
94833,
111,
70,
148855,
111,
49952,
90512,
7,
111,
70,
148855,
98,
48748,
136,
59797,
2320,
23,
14713,
15,
19283,
10854,
16,
1379,
70,
103655,
31,
89262,
92,
25841,
10854,
80923,
669,
16070,
5,
28090,
12898,
47,
12839,
4,
195028,
794,
509,
31068,
9,
159342,
111,
70,
3939,
9,
178741,
1771,
140978,
23,
70,
185236,
111,
184293,
184593,
23,
210721,
5,
28090,
13501,
4,
764,
149976,
23,
70,
103655,
31,
89262,
92,
2775,
402,
46048,
23,
124338,
4,
136,
237,
76677,
53,
44816,
111,
70,
2775,
402,
46048,
1295,
11704,
24189,
1919,
8,
2500,
6644,
23,
84771,
6300,
1177,
33,
20231,
136,
18592,
4,
764,
10336,
297,
70,
40059,
184017,
678,
48031,
136,
121641,
6226,
23,
70,
103655,
31,
89262,
92,
184293,
185236,
5,
28090,
15643,
47,
20231,
4,
764,
149976,
23,
70,
103655,
31,
89262,
92,
2775,
402,
46048,
23,
165490,
62,
21369,
4,
57811,
5,
7422,
19,
23,
50940,
4,
195028,
794,
83,
139505,
136,
1556,
1632,
76849,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
10444,
19,
195028,
794,
15,
57332,
427,
7582,
50940,
16,
83,
10,
154350,
61634,
136,
36770,
33744,
111,
184293,
184593,
2750,
1556,
2809,
520,
6496,
237,
14098,
145704,
25132,
1311,
43297,
1290,
100,
241439,
16792,
41640,
1529,
509,
6,
140545,
297,
47,
903,
19069,
390,
70,
14098,
145704,
196212,
9,
159342,
128880,
846,
37410,
56,
2109,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-163615 | en-train-163615 | 163615 | {
"title": [
"Career.",
"Career with the United Nations.",
"Career with the OSCE.",
"Career in the Slovak diplomatic service.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"From 2015 until 2018, Kubiš served as the Special Representative and Head of the United Nations Assistance Mission in Iraq (UNAMI); he was appointed to this position by the United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon on 5 February 2015. Also, he was the Special Representative and Head of the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA). Previously, he served as the Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, and was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Slovakia from July 2006 until January 2009.",
"Kubiš was formerly Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Secretary General. In July 2005, the European Union appointed Kubiš to be the EU's special envoy to Central Asia. Kubiš had previously served as the United Nations special envoy to Tajikistan during the transitional period following the civil war until the country held its first postwar elections. Prior to taking on the post as OSCE Secretary General, Kubiš was Director of the Conflict Prevention Centre in the secretariat of the OSCE, a position he held from 1994.",
"From 1993 to 1994, Kubiš was Ambassador and Permanent Representative of the Slovak Republic to the UN Office in Geneva, as well as to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and other international organizations. In 1994, Kubiš was Special Ministerial Envoy and Slovak Chief Negotiator on the Pact for Stability in Europe. In 1992, he served as Chairman-in-Office of the Committee of Senior Officials of the Committee on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) under the Czechoslovak CSCE chairmanship. From 1991 to 1992, Kubiš was Director-General of the Euro-Atlantic Section in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Prague. From 1989, he served in the Czechoslovak Embassy in Moscow, and as Deputy Head of the Embassy from 1990 until his departure in 1991. Between 1985 and 1988, he headed the section dealing with security and arms control in the Czechoslovak Foreign Ministry. From 1980 to 1985, he served in the Czechoslovak Embassy in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.",
"Born in 1952, Kubiš is married and has one daughter."
]
} |
Mordovia | null | The Republic of Mordovia (; Moksha/Erzya: Мордовия Республикась, "Mordovija Respublikaś") is a federal subject of Russia (a republic). Its capital is the city of Saransk. As of the 2010 Census, the population of the republic was 834,755. Ethnic Russians (53.4%) and Mordvins (40.0%) account for the majority of the population. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
456,
57964,
83,
105866,
23,
70,
8394,
48850,
2831,
111,
70,
24453,
28811,
8950,
73,
111,
49002,
5,
581,
171827,
2831,
111,
70,
456,
57964,
83,
39501,
297,
23,
70,
180,
161,
9,
60728,
8950,
73,
74,
6863,
8394,
48850,
136,
9879,
63920,
621,
105866,
23,
70,
5976,
208,
10091,
1760,
5,
8622,
621,
44909,
96113,
7,
23,
70,
456,
57964,
5,
49953,
96113,
7,
26698,
12,
8622,
621,
189275,
43606,
75281,
21,
9248,
23,
70,
456,
57964,
5,
24955,
65514,
26698,
280,
257,
4,
23911,
7401,
7,
4,
136,
27060,
5,
581,
153552,
83,
71644,
21286,
72852,
289,
5,
581,
67896,
150,
525,
6,
227780,
109622,
24092,
7,
111,
14135,
8035,
7,
23,
70,
16128,
111,
5919,
246,
3459,
621,
1295,
70,
54311,
4353,
75708,
1615,
5,
21079,
31,
9,
1062,
177,
12259,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
621,
119056,
23,
59121,
97264,
1295,
70,
305,
927,
142642,
5,
147466,
4,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
3542,
1379,
70,
79507,
111,
15044,
5976,
208,
104315,
136,
70,
149222,
66,
13832,
5,
5919,
71,
2082,
54631,
7,
68018,
79904,
297,
10934,
8945,
136,
5976,
208,
104315,
136,
27983,
8,
11955,
14,
6259,
12638,
3789,
25,
7,
104064,
7,
5,
581,
198373,
7,
158,
944,
2822,
18410,
58555,
111,
24453,
9022,
14713,
23,
70,
702,
927,
142642,
5,
10660,
170920,
70,
7712,
2182,
111,
70,
43114,
7974,
112,
23,
427,
8894,
4,
1614,
461,
208,
1916,
70,
16128,
111,
5919,
246,
3459,
5,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
5775,
46526,
26548,
198373,
7,
136,
14432,
33233,
8752,
102374,
7,
5,
5919,
71,
2082,
33532,
53732,
538,
186,
10617,
297,
47,
95137,
2420,
83002,
7,
5,
581,
43114,
7974,
112,
2837,
100743,
3674,
23,
70,
616,
1197,
7,
4,
3129,
16750,
297,
23,
3060,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
141753,
28368,
7,
111,
70,
7712,
2182,
111,
133262,
4,
7440,
162,
27060,
3542,
49504,
3674,
3934,
19314,
13562,
53,
5,
14847,
23698,
7610,
111,
49002,
3398,
3355,
297,
70,
7712,
2182,
111,
133262,
23,
423,
12744,
4,
70,
5919,
71,
2082,
33532,
3542,
1614,
461,
208,
3674,
47,
70,
102374,
6,
89929,
7,
5,
581,
5919,
71,
2082,
100307,
25545,
538,
30666,
297,
102374,
46876,
136,
114122,
7,
4,
7440,
162,
543,
3117,
24124,
70,
104345,
111,
70,
2356,
65295,
23,
241,
7912,
11,
47,
29823,
70,
351,
9,
13,
27287,
43904,
5,
360,
28720,
58555,
4,
70,
5919,
71,
2082,
29394,
509,
9498,
56,
4126,
5,
102374,
7,
26859,
47,
96760,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
47,
12426,
7352,
17574,
14949,
2481,
23,
70,
4122,
9444,
927,
142642,
5,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
26038,
1257,
2363,
10002,
80358,
66,
1419,
42615,
4734,
191975,
4,
49903,
4,
136,
5941,
111,
80358,
66,
1419,
66139,
3542,
9498,
56,
4126,
237,
63920,
111,
4000,
29394,
4,
21208,
70,
43904,
100512,
109650,
538,
14949,
5,
194927,
7,
111,
163136,
47,
5919,
71,
2082,
46876,
7,
3542,
153161,
167821,
42840,
5,
360,
70,
543,
927,
142642,
4,
70,
42845,
6,
229231,
509,
11814,
23,
32562,
5919,
71,
2082,
4,
1284,
1295,
70,
4122,
8363,
927,
142642,
4,
107790,
379,
9120,
509,
11814,
5,
133698,
70,
102374,
98834,
136,
9782,
1631,
4,
5919,
246,
3459,
509,
34658,
390,
12981,
7816,
5342,
7,
1295,
70,
86595,
111,
70,
1631,
5,
14847,
70,
12981,
7816,
5342,
7,
479,
12344,
6259,
23,
70,
1631,
4,
5919,
246,
3459,
100512,
10,
2831,
111,
70,
102374,
59215,
38891,
5,
360,
60487,
4,
70,
134349,
27759,
14037,
297,
58963,
10821,
103724,
7,
136,
54427,
215394,
7,
23,
70,
16128,
111,
70,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
5,
133698,
70,
134349,
1615,
4,
6626,
59121,
46876,
7,
3542,
126809,
4,
1632,
35509,
98,
70,
241,
7912,
11,
220734,
23,
63445,
136,
1632,
98,
70,
44298,
2420,
220734,
23,
61242,
4,
15044,
17368,
107790,
379,
9120,
26499,
5,
581,
509,
14037,
297,
98,
20414,
611,
4,
61786,
4,
136,
442,
509,
57849,
3674,
47,
70,
10778,
111,
142,
58963,
10821,
81761,
141753,
70,
98,
18982,
209,
4,
28730,
5,
581,
58963,
10821,
81761,
509,
27198,
297,
3934,
70,
5919,
22705,
3378,
4396,
1687,
10821,
134349,
7142,
1419,
47806,
98,
14487,
387,
4,
58020,
5,
48752,
289,
168861,
18940,
6955,
3668,
7,
3542,
170920,
1379,
70,
12981,
7816,
5342,
7,
6044,
237,
21217,
3668,
5,
14847,
70,
134349,
32528,
2837,
100743,
3674,
4,
70,
5919,
22705,
3378,
62,
108371,
502,
164779,
297,
68034,
70,
47806,
111,
5919,
246,
3459,
23,
11704,
136,
47143,
297,
10,
2831,
111,
70,
102374,
200602,
5,
581,
47806,
111,
5919,
246,
3459,
23,
6863,
13379,
3173,
1556,
13835,
71,
16792,
18982,
714,
4,
103709,
581,
111780,
13,
27165,
83,
70,
5,
133698,
70,
1720,
112,
111,
1061,
814,
38529,
2449,
54940,
3789,
36770,
102374,
58963,
10821,
456,
57964,
7,
4,
5919,
246,
3459,
170920,
10,
79390,
2408,
23,
84771,
360,
450,
5701,
6602,
4,
4,
10,
6,
34053,
27744,
1419,
390,
23189,
4,
509,
3163,
89829,
23,
70,
4537,
81843,
5,
119093,
538,
66,
25606,
1902,
198395,
2809,
10,
22962,
25188,
56,
99,
70,
43975,
111,
17170,
87673,
7,
136,
509,
70,
57724,
111,
70,
122530,
19,
32845,
206,
111,
70,
182017,
49002,
68894,
112664,
5,
360,
13867,
4,
70,
174620,
70615,
111,
5919,
246,
3459,
10,
40285,
67175,
70,
1305,
111,
13918,
4,
98,
70,
18231,
111,
3129,
119093,
538,
66,
25606,
509,
184750,
1295,
1919,
1305,
5,
119093,
538,
66,
25606,
149528,
297,
70,
22631,
111,
70,
111780,
13,
62289,
13,
14361,
111,
70,
456,
57964,
23,
70,
102374,
163965,
289,
52341,
4,
1284,
70,
163965,
289,
52341,
159978,
71,
6863,
19911,
2481,
678,
70,
163965,
111,
49002,
5,
581,
10336,
111,
70,
27759,
23,
70,
47806,
111,
5919,
246,
3459,
83,
70,
44816,
111,
70,
47806,
5,
581,
23179,
83,
82424,
34658,
390,
70,
4989,
9,
6032,
56195,
33744,
4,
36061,
5976,
2810,
4,
2750,
509,
91,
23432,
19,
23,
98,
4347,
616,
4,
12453,
18763,
1653,
13,
26531,
748,
509,
50118,
53,
6035,
55762,
875,
2750,
34658,
70,
23179,
1295,
11857,
47,
12453,
581,
22836,
151169,
53,
83,
70,
27047,
6644,
111,
70,
456,
57964,
5,
581,
2684,
126809,
95845,
7,
621,
36279,
50961,
4,
165045,
7,
4,
109412,
174796,
4,
136,
15381,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
47806,
111,
5919,
246,
3459,
15,
74,
44298,
2420,
64,
647,
7912,
11,
12,
56422,
18126,
1114,
108428,
4401,
4,
44,
101398,
246,
40634,
78282,
3124,
18939,
83,
10,
30361,
28368,
111,
49002,
15,
11,
456,
57964,
194,
1650,
7,
10323,
83,
70,
26349,
111,
13156,
19,
1042,
5,
1301,
111,
70,
1532,
51292,
7921,
4,
70,
43904,
111,
70,
456,
57964,
509,
6,
187716,
4,
159353,
5,
241,
927,
6402,
102374,
7,
11516,
172508,
26244,
136,
5919,
71,
2082,
7,
114354,
5,
65321,
16,
15426,
100,
70,
144732,
111,
70,
43904,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-712162 | en-train-712162 | 712162 | {
"title": [
"Geography.",
"Rivers.",
"Lakes.",
"Natural resources.",
"Climate.",
"History.",
"Early history.",
"Mongol rule.",
"Part of the Russian Empire.",
"Part of the Soviet Union.",
"Part of the Russian Federation.",
"Politics.",
"Economy.",
"Demographics.",
"Ethnic groups.",
"Religion.",
"Culture.",
"Education and sport.",
"Language."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The republic is located in the eastern part of the East European Plain of Russia. The western part of the republic is situated in the Oka-Don Plain; its eastern and central parts are located in the Volga Upland.",
"There are 114 rivers in the republic. Major rivers include:",
"There are approximately five hundred lakes in the republic.",
"Natural resources include peat, mineral waters, and others.",
"The climate is moderately continental.",
"",
"The earliest archaeological signs of human beings in the area of Mordovia are from the Neolithic era. Finno-Ugric Mordvins are mentioned in written sources from the 6th century. Later, Mordvins were under the influence of both Volga Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus. Mordvin princes sometimes raided Muroma and Volga Bulgaria and often despoiled each other's holdings.",
"The Mongols conquered vast areas of Eastern Europe in the 13th century. They established the Khanate of the Golden Horde in 1241, subjugating the area of Mordovia. Mordvins fought against Mongols and later alongside Russians. Mordvin lands territorially belonged to Mukhsha Ulus. The Golden Horde disintegrated in the 1430s, which resulted in some Mordvins becoming subjects of the Khanate of Kazan, whereas others were incorporated into Muscovy.",
"When Ivan IV of Russia annexed the Khanate of Kazan in 1552, the Mordvin lands were subjugated to the Russian tsars. The Mordvin elite rapidly adopted Russian language and customs, whereas 1821 saw the publication of the New Testament in Erzya to address the non-elite population. In rural areas, the Mordvin culture was preserved. Russians started to convert Mordvins to Orthodox Christianity in the mid-18th century. Mordvins gave up their own shamanist religion only slowly, however, and many of shamanist features were preserved as parts of local culture, though the population became nominally Christian. Translations of literature to Mordvin languages were mostly religious books. In the 18th century, the Latin alphabet was used in writing Mordvin, but from the mid-19th century, Cyrillic was used.",
"During the Russian revolution and civil war, Mordovia was held by Bolsheviks from the beginning of the war. When the Bolsheviks prevailed in the war, Mordovia became a part of the Russian SFSR. In 1925, the Soviet government founded autonomous districts and village councils in the area of the Mordvins. During the Soviet era, two written languages were developed, one based on the Erzya dialect in 1922 and one on the Moksha dialect in 1923, both using Cyrillic script. The was founded on July 16, 1928, and it was elevated to the status of an autonomous oblast becoming the on January 10, 1930. The autonomous oblast was transformed into the Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on December 20, 1934. Several forced labor Gulags were established under the Bolsheviks such as Temlag.",
"When the Soviet Union disintegrated, the Mordovian ASSR proclaimed itself the Republic of Mordovia in 1990 and remained a part of the Russian Federation. The Republic of Mordovia in its present form has existed since January 25, 1994.",
"The supreme law is the. During the Parade of Sovereignties among other former Russian autonomous republics, Mordovia established a presidency in 1991. In that same year,, a physicist by training, was elected in the general election. Guslyannikov had previously been a senior researcher at the Institute of Power Electronics and was the leader of the republican branch of the Democratic Russia political movement. In 1993, the Supreme Council of Mordovia abolished the post of president, on the basis of which Guslyannikov was removed from his post. Guslyannikov appealed the action of the supreme legislative body of the republic in the Russian Constitutional Court, but the Constitutional Court declared its conformity with the Constitution of Russia. The head of the government in the Republic of Mordovia is the Head of the Republic. The office is currently held by the long-time Prime Minister, Vladimir Volkov, who was sworn in on May 14, 2012. His predecessor was Nikolay Merkushkin who held the office from 1995 to 2012. The State Assembly is the legislature of the republic.",
"The most developed industries are machine construction, chemicals, woodworking, and food industries. Most of the industrial enterprises are located in the capital Saransk, as well as in the towns of Kovylkino and Ruzayevka, and in the urban-type settlements of Chamzinka and Komsomolsky. The largest companies in the region include Unimilk (branch of Danone Russia), Ruzayevsky Chemical Machine-Building Plant, Mordovcement, Saranskkabel.",
"The population of Mordovia is.",
"The Mordvin people are a Volga Finnic group speaking two related languages, Moksha and Erzya. The Mordvins identify themselves as separate ethnic groups: the Erzya and Moksha. Only one-third of all Mordvinic languages speakers live in the Republic of Mordovia. During the Soviet period, school textbooks were published in each language. According to the 2010 Census, Russians make up 53.4% of the republic's population, while ethnic Erzya and Moksha are only 40%. Other groups include Tatars (5.2%), Ukrainians (0.5%), and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population.",
"According to a 2012 survey, 68.6% of the population of Mordovia adhere to the Russian Orthodox Church (there are many churches and monasteries, for example, Monastery of John the Evangelist in Makarovka), 5% are unaffiliated Christians, 2% are Muslims, 1% are Old Believers. In addition, 10% of the population declares to be \"spiritual but not religious\", 7% is atheist, and 6.4% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question. Some Mordvins adhere to the Mordvin native religion.",
"There are many museums in the republic. The largest ones include the \"Mordovian Republican United Museum of Regional Studies\" and the \"Museum of Mordvinian Culture\" in Saransk. The \"National Library of the Republic of Mordovia\" is the largest library in the republic. The \"State Puppet Theater\" of the Republic of Mordovia, located in Saransk, is well known in Russia. Most of the plays played in this theater are Russian fairy-tales. Erzya literature experienced a renaissance in the 1920s and 1930s. The House and Museum of F. Sychkov was opened on March 11, 1970, at Kochelaevo, Kovylkinsky District after a reconstruction. Mordovian cuisine is widespread in the country.",
"The most important facilities of higher education include Mordovian State University and Mordovian State Pedagogical Institute in Saransk. Mordovia, along with neighbour Chuvashia and Penza Oblast, has given some of the best modern racewalking athletes, both women (Olga Kaniskina, Anisya Kirdyapkina, Elena Lashmanova, Olena Shumkina, Irina Stankina) or men (Sergey Bakulin, Valeriy Borchin, Stanislav Emelyanov, Vladimir Kanaykin, Sergey Kirdyapkin, Sergey Morozov, Denis Nizhegorodov, Roman Rasskazov), apart from Alexei Nemov (see more in the article History of Mordovian sport).",
"The Mordvinic languages, alternatively Mordvin languages, or Mordvinian languages, (, \"Mordovskiye yazyki\", the official Russian term for the language pair) are a subgroup of the Uralic languages, comprising the closely related Erzya language and Moksha language. Previously considered a single \"Mordvin language\", it is now treated as a small language grouping consisting of just two languages. Due to differences in phonology, lexicon, and grammar, Erzya and Moksha are not mutually intelligible, so the Russian language is often used for intergroup communications. The two Mordvinic languages also have separate literary forms. The Erzya literary language was created in 1922 and the Mokshan in 1923. The two Mordvinic languages are official languages of Mordovia alongside Russian."
]
} |
Burlak | null | A burlak () was a person who hauled barges and other vessels upstream from the 17th to 20th centuries in the Russian Empire. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
2565,
44,
5992,
4478,
58,
62038,
3674,
1295,
1218,
867,
2565,
44,
978,
170,
22367,
830,
242,
29552,
9393,
25,
5,
129551,
47,
15700,
11389,
70,
2565,
62038,
3674,
1295,
10332,
86991,
9,
191697,
44,
27675,
42,
25054,
58,
15,
174796,
7175,
678,
188347,
91736,
4,
187,
1708,
194,
7362,
4478,
7,
118775,
23,
49002,
99,
70,
3564,
111,
611,
927,
142642,
136,
86595,
111,
70,
729,
927,
142642,
5,
17106,
70,
14700,
66,
6889,
111,
12478,
22553,
9,
19567,
2069,
4,
70,
14012,
111,
6818,
4478,
7,
124735,
5,
581,
185256,
111,
10,
6818,
4478,
4642,
509,
35839,
44,
36635,
246,
9617,
58,
15,
247,
11737,
23,
13315,
509,
70,
44,
397,
73601,
395,
58,
15,
4,
84495,
73,
247,
134629,
390,
70,
44,
78567,
79243,
58,
15,
4,
5117,
23,
70,
13315,
111,
8299,
603,
7,
247,
12960,
70,
4568,
23,
13315,
509,
35839,
44,
12110,
7,
299,
58,
15,
4,
4568,
23,
70,
13315,
111,
8299,
603,
7,
194,
8622,
3542,
44,
184,
162,
52057,
58,
6818,
4478,
7,
4,
2750,
79786,
1295,
31576,
47,
10,
89583,
19,
4,
136,
44,
99736,
6635,
58,
6818,
4478,
7,
4,
2750,
79786,
46505,
25958,
5,
7362,
4478,
7,
6777,
959,
4488,
23,
41710,
4,
3229,
2684,
102374,
96113,
7,
3542,
1238,
70463,
645,
5,
581,
5201,
58555,
111,
70,
6818,
4478,
7,
25,
52350,
23,
70,
102374,
145359,
3542,
70,
5976,
208,
96113,
4,
1295,
124338,
47,
112481,
124880,
4,
70,
22392,
27414,
36439,
24073,
80172,
31,
4514,
26,
13,
74054,
1295,
124338,
47,
63248,
1121,
2679,
1042,
4,
136,
70,
391,
701,
1264,
96113,
4,
23,
82739,
5,
17006,
6818,
4478,
7,
3542,
3551,
9393,
707,
70425,
280,
162,
10840,
1295,
13207,
5720,
1042,
4,
13156,
15743,
4,
121283,
11,
4,
47935,
103073,
141,
4,
60496,
50840,
4,
36061,
4,
12563,
11,
5935,
4,
8801,
70655,
136,
4267,
596,
58555,
5,
7362,
4478,
7,
33284,
297,
1257,
23,
142,
44,
147,
1708,
58,
15,
46280,
71407,
1295,
22759,
47,
37195,
4,
68018,
1492,
47,
100,
939,
4,
136,
46505,
25958,
1257,
3252,
3395,
16,
5201,
538,
23,
41710,
4,
8,
61518,
450,
99,
903,
1733,
19802,
72090,
70,
459,
25617,
27167,
4,
6637,
23,
41710,
6818,
4478,
7,
3542,
27983,
120262,
51,
212423,
5,
581,
2704,
81997,
7,
3542,
23,
10,
89583,
19,
4,
7103,
67229,
214,
4488,
5,
17106,
70,
38162,
111,
70,
81207,
98834,
4,
70,
14012,
111,
6818,
4478,
7,
206398,
71,
12,
23,
70,
86595,
111,
70,
300,
26534,
33,
927,
142642,
1672,
6331,
4,
9508,
6818,
4478,
7,
79786,
98,
70,
5976,
208,
136,
180,
161,
96113,
7,
74,
23,
70,
86991,
111,
300,
26534,
33,
927,
142642,
4,
106,
55577,
4,
136,
390,
70,
86595,
111,
70,
77488,
100736,
927,
6818,
4478,
7,
1902,
756,
1284,
213566,
297,
5,
581,
6818,
4478,
509,
10,
28368,
111,
102374,
52336,
15,
4,
170277,
538,
51339,
297,
390,
4221,
31,
1846,
56645,
399,
5128,
4,
44,
3957,
5976,
208,
2460,
257,
1055,
25,
7,
5986,
58,
3021,
5,
247,
136,
4927,
18244,
24073,
87336,
4478,
7,
98,
70,
5976,
208,
58,
390,
891,
395,
11246,
1029,
39,
145739,
33742,
73,
194,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
6818,
4478,
15,
16,
509,
10,
3445,
2750,
8299,
6259,
1909,
4188,
136,
3789,
53678,
41204,
1257,
86429,
1295,
70,
729,
927,
47,
387,
927,
202032,
90,
23,
70,
102374,
145359,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-356840 | en-train-356840 | 356840 | {
"title": [
"Overview."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"The word \"burlak\" originated from Tatar word \"bujdak\", 'homeless'. According to another version the word originated from old middle-German \"bûrlach\" (working team with fixed rules, artel). Burlaks appeared in Russia at the end of 16th century and beginning of the 17th century. With the expansion of freight-hauling, the number of burlaks increased. The chief of a burlak gang was called \"Vodoliv\" (), next in line was the \"Dyadya\" (, captain), followed by the \"Shishka\" (, first in the line of haulers), while the last in line was called \"Kosny\" (, last in the line of haulers). There were \"seasonal\" burlaks, who worked from spring to autumn, and \"temporary\" burlaks, who worked occasionally. Burlaks did not work in winter, when most Russian rivers were frozen over. The main areas of the burlaks' trade in the Russian Empire were the Volga river, from Moscow to Astrakhan, the White Sea route (\"Belomor’e\"), from Moscow to Arkhangelsk, and the Dnieper river, in Ukraine. Most burlaks were landless or poor peasants from Simbirsk, Saratov, Samara, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vladimir, Ryazan, Tambov and Penza areas. Burlaks joined up in an \"artel\" (typically from four to six, sometimes ten to forty, and occasionally up 150 people) mainly in winter, despite that at this time clients paid the lowest price, because in winter burlaks were often otherwise unemployed. The final payments were in autumn, after finishing work. With the coming of the Industrial revolution, the number of burlaks declined: in the beginning of the nineteenth century about 600,000 burlaks worked on the Volga and Oka rivers; in the middle of nineteenth century, 150,000, and by the beginning of the twentieth burlaks had all but disappeared. The burlak was a subject of Russian songs (, famously performed by Feodor Chaliapin, \"The Volga Boatmen's Song\" etc.), and artwork (\"Burlaks on the Volga\" by Ilya Yefimovich Repin)."
]
} |
German war crimes | null | The governments of the German Empire and Nazi Germany ordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes, first in the Herero and Namaqua genocide and then in World War I and World War II. The most notable of these is the Holocaust in which millions of Jews and Romani were systematically murdered. Millions of civilians and prisoners of war also died as a result of German abuse, mistreatment, and deliberate starvation policies in those two conflicts. Much of the evidence was deliberately destroyed by the perpetrators, such as in Sonderaktion 1005, in an attempt to conceal the crimes. | null | [
250004,
250054,
137399,
297,
47,
765,
2809,
70,
5117,
159372,
13,
111,
70,
387,
927,
142642,
4,
70,
11853,
516,
136,
28300,
13722,
129885,
104024,
509,
117,
5408,
2175,
297,
390,
70,
30839,
145359,
17721,
96929,
136,
91234,
23,
30839,
25134,
10542,
36941,
15,
49748,
5155,
2096,
14,
9166,
247,
20271,
70,
91,
15182,
40099,
100,
36941,
5,
2161,
18982,
427,
4,
96929,
4,
70,
11853,
516,
3395,
4,
12441,
390,
59176,
15571,
107,
516,
4,
214267,
297,
26548,
30839,
190070,
8780,
5,
360,
8055,
4,
9082,
2091,
36228,
542,
8302,
3238,
111,
70,
163628,
30839,
126140,
8,
88981,
297,
70,
11853,
516,
23,
70,
99381,
111,
27646,
4969,
136,
16810,
272,
2856,
3934,
70,
64879,
111,
180,
12230,
6614,
4,
7440,
2684,
111,
2856,
68,
71,
111,
6117,
30541,
5,
360,
18374,
4,
70,
28300,
3395,
2843,
214267,
297,
26548,
70,
30839,
7,
4734,
47,
134729,
10,
21373,
87714,
5,
360,
3622,
4,
1295,
116,
92498,
1257,
47,
805,
4,
9508,
11853,
516,
136,
84428,
28300,
68,
71,
5,
581,
159372,
13,
509,
62816,
29367,
390,
38134,
21329,
712,
47219,
390,
6057,
330,
1363,
136,
6117,
30541,
6637,
70,
11853,
516,
2750,
18738,
71,
70,
95319,
3542,
56282,
297,
1295,
30646,
214,
1295,
70,
2096,
2566,
195075,
5,
31384,
97264,
2843,
63043,
450,
70,
30839,
190070,
187,
1176,
242161,
25958,
5737,
191,
297,
64879,
5299,
7,
5,
43101,
2320,
118861,
30839,
1631,
138379,
23,
6661,
5550,
87,
509,
40,
29367,
136,
163684,
297,
390,
83572,
102126,
20271,
6661,
5550,
1995,
4,
7103,
36,
143414,
38543,
9942,
4,
33233,
678,
42762,
7,
159202,
1916,
2363,
91519,
7,
5,
64249,
191,
9060,
509,
5117,
65508,
71,
237,
10,
142172,
390,
163628,
102126,
4,
136,
221419,
538,
11814,
390,
756,
13036,
34213,
1505,
35066,
4,
23,
200265,
111,
70,
122815,
1391,
6261,
98501,
1363,
77590,
42,
592,
1301,
34053,
30633,
1916,
27967,
90,
136,
70,
91234,
1391,
6261,
155358,
98,
6557,
5550,
44937,
4,
3129,
143726,
538,
100,
402,
112,
70,
4527,
111,
44,
120178,
191,
707,
5737,
191,
297,
142172,
7,
58,
23,
1631,
44937,
5,
360,
8055,
41310,
4,
237,
2831,
111,
70,
124503,
478,
26042,
5586,
4,
70,
30839,
126140,
205491,
71,
136,
95699,
34,
138518,
70,
62276,
64857,
111,
199458,
15490,
143726,
1631,
592,
4,
3129,
54567,
3674,
10,
85689,
53,
111,
543,
9323,
450,
70,
30839,
18227,
141,
1484,
2837,
45188,
297,
237,
10,
44,
10382,
13631,
111,
15122,
58,
136,
70,
91234,
1391,
6261,
155358,
98,
13527,
214,
111,
100932,
2104,
2449,
5,
17106,
73,
70,
5117,
6626,
21775,
111,
70,
1631,
4,
70,
30839,
36,
143414,
33843,
20870,
29367,
70,
142794,
1779,
4,
200,
30319,
137107,
111,
9782,
72004,
136,
5078,
1916,
136,
6818,
592,
47763,
7,
111,
59444,
7,
4,
26719,
636,
34,
1353,
4,
3129,
18276,
71,
70,
23295,
25,
7,
479,
13,
7732,
18,
152363,
4,
5201,
538,
23,
456,
22189,
2320,
100,
41267,
66,
6,
32527,
70773,
1631,
44937,
4,
15,
21231,
44,
95022,
7,
9,
2826,
17706,
51029,
3293,
22631,
509,
23,
200265,
111,
70,
91234,
1391,
6261,
155358,
98,
6557,
5550,
44937,
125034,
7,
450,
63323,
3674,
143849,
1992,
4745,
674,
111,
9782,
72004,
136,
5078,
1916,
136,
219776,
111,
117907,
66,
57266,
23,
95699,
34,
138518,
43396,
90,
5,
581,
79904,
98,
76639,
184721,
4,
49307,
133,
20740,
136,
127325,
1272,
4,
3129,
34739,
3687,
98,
14487,
611,
4,
41310,
4,
509,
142,
52875,
390,
70,
163628,
30839,
19295,
53,
98,
70,
56101,
15520,
6982,
59444,
7,
111,
76639,
184721,
4,
49307,
133,
20740,
4,
10542,
49307,
133,
20740,
4,
136,
127325,
1272,
5,
581,
52875,
16750,
297,
23,
65049,
85235,
31075,
136,
6,
192616,
63044,
2449,
5,
581,
79904,
509,
23,
200265,
111,
70,
14610,
927,
40059,
111,
70,
91234,
1391,
6261,
155358,
3129,
63323,
3674,
24,
1405,
73946,
9035,
111,
9232,
6211,
48141,
59444,
7,
15490,
1631,
592,
4,
6637,
4734,
49307,
133,
20740,
509,
30312,
390,
6,
134369,
103683,
7,
5,
102126,
509,
10,
176867,
30675,
111,
70,
91234,
1391,
6261,
155358,
5,
116267,
52875,
134629,
98,
1381,
7071,
64104,
98,
70,
184085,
289,
59444,
7,
111,
47935,
111443,
136,
61187,
32296,
2480,
1284,
15044,
3542,
5526,
24,
1405,
51039,
136,
123823,
71,
390,
6,
134369,
103683,
7,
5,
992,
107,
144225,
297,
215114,
13,
1631,
44937,
509,
32872,
297,
23,
64911,
23,
57553,
47,
70,
56101,
46389,
2873,
111,
102126,
136,
47,
70,
56101,
92416,
25,
7,
125142,
289,
47,
29685,
9,
60337,
15403,
70,
117,
5408,
219,
22230,
111,
70,
22411,
10617,
45559,
7,
5,
2319,
731,
91736,
4,
3129,
3542,
27044,
47314,
1379,
70,
91234,
1391,
6261,
155358,
2451,
7,
12665,
237,
8382,
450,
56065,
97879,
79904,
1314,
47,
1631,
19,
2363,
30388,
7,
136,
63769,
1733,
100,
70,
172040,
47,
45443,
6897,
837,
9821,
2451,
6488,
13,
2837,
107,
42077,
297,
136,
60091,
53678,
41204,
3542,
91,
3678,
211460,
111,
15889,
2481,
4,
33362,
4,
707,
78869,
5,
77168,
214,
70,
880,
6048,
111,
70,
98,
361,
4347,
64911,
136,
221419,
3835,
1810,
238,
1294,
23,
67842,
62276,
76726,
4,
26719,
70,
14098,
46684,
4,
70,
41361,
509,
205850,
19,
5,
33306,
4,
102126,
138755,
71,
70,
41361,
98,
106,
22482,
38222,
136,
159978,
71,
450,
756,
1143,
62956,
109923,
7,
211460,
111,
15889,
31075,
2806,
186,
91,
3678,
15490,
1631,
592,
5,
3293,
14986,
17704,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
3835,
4,
105876,
214,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
47,
36356,
105739,
238,
91582,
678,
102126,
6626,
13312,
14432,
4,
136,
4,
33233,
678,
70,
42702,
5761,
86026,
4,
12441,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
42805,
3934,
70,
1631,
6626,
21775,
14432,
98,
70,
5609,
111,
70,
884,
71516,
17170,
7,
5,
70103,
19,
109622,
538,
4,
70,
5117,
30839,
6661,
5550,
1995,
46824,
4,
136,
2843,
70,
4552,
5117,
27992,
111,
70,
1631,
4,
509,
70,
54330,
214,
111,
4887,
822,
6419,
4,
10,
59444,
7440,
110,
30388,
7,
111,
116338,
34292,
3542,
13379,
5,
5455,
207583,
4,
581,
212184,
111,
70,
845,
19725,
136,
82224,
7,
4,
70,
57945,
384,
617,
200,
30319,
111,
70,
238335,
136,
70,
1818,
1122,
840,
111,
70,
11998,
15759,
90,
621,
70,
2684,
135818,
1631,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
27759,
7,
111,
70,
30839,
145359,
136,
83572,
102126,
12989,
297,
4,
5808,
297,
136,
158,
4445,
297,
10,
193984,
14012,
111,
1631,
138379,
4,
5117,
23,
70,
11853,
516,
136,
28300,
13722,
159372,
13,
136,
7068,
23,
6661,
5550,
87,
136,
6661,
5550,
1995,
5,
581,
2684,
135818,
111,
6097,
83,
70,
212184,
23,
3129,
43077,
111,
845,
19725,
136,
91145,
3542,
242161,
25958,
162882,
297,
5,
121204,
7,
111,
9782,
72004,
136,
101085,
1314,
111,
1631,
2843,
68,
71,
237,
10,
16750,
111,
30839,
128431,
4,
324,
5967,
257,
674,
4,
136,
91755,
67,
6057,
330,
1363,
102880,
23,
8382,
6626,
79612,
7,
5,
79616,
111,
70,
77950,
509,
91755,
37838,
163684,
297,
390,
70,
117,
5408,
219,
22230,
4,
6044,
237,
23,
2
] | null | null | en-train-201215 | en-train-201215 | 201215 | {
"title": [
"Pre-World War I.",
"World War I.",
"Chemical weapons in warfare.",
"Belgium.",
"Bombardment of English coastal towns.",
"Unrestricted submarine warfare.",
"World War II.",
"Massacres and war crimes of World War II by location.",
"Greece."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Considered to have been the first genocide of the 20th century, the Herero and Namaqua Genocide was perpetrated by the German Empire between 1904 and 1907 in German South West Africa (modern day Namibia), during the scramble for Africa. On January 12, 1904, the Herero people, led by Samuel Maharero, rebelled against German colonialism. In August, General Lothar von Trotha of the Imperial German Army defeated the Herero in the Battle of Waterberg and drove them into the desert of Omaheke, where most of them died of thirst. In October, the Nama people also rebelled against the Germans only to suffer a similar fate. In total, from 24,000 up to 100,000 Herero and 10,000 Nama died. The genocide was characterized by widespread death by starvation and thirst because the Herero who fled the violence were prevented from returning from the Namib Desert. Some sources also claim that the German colonial army systematically poisoned desert wells.",
"Documentation regarding German war crimes in World War I was seized and destroyed by Nazi Germany during World War II, after occupying France, along with monuments commemorating their victims.",
"Poison gas was first introduced as a weapon by Imperial Germany, and subsequently used by all major belligerents, in violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which explicitly forbade the use of \"poison or poisoned weapons\" in warfare.",
"In August 1914, as part of the Schlieffen Plan, the German Army invaded and occupied the neutral nation of Belgium without explicit warning, which violated a treaty of 1839 that the German chancellor dismissed as a \"scrap of paper\" and the 1907 Hague Convention on Opening of Hostilities. Within the first two months of the war, the German occupiers terrorized the Belgians, killing thousands of civilians and looting and burning scores of towns, including Leuven, which housed the country's preeminent university, mainly in retaliation for Belgian guerrilla warfare, (see \"francs-tireurs\"). This action was in violation of the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare provisions that prohibited collective punishment of civilians and looting and destruction of civilian property in occupied territories.",
"The raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, which took place on December 16, 1914, was an attack by the Imperial German Navy on the British seaport towns of Scarborough, Hartlepool, West Hartlepool, and Whitby. The attack resulted in 137 fatalities and 592 casualties. The raid was in violation of the ninth section of the 1907 Hague Convention which prohibited naval bombardments of undefended towns without warning, because only Hartlepool was protected by shore batteries. Germany was a signatory of the 1907 Hague Convention. Another attack followed on 26 April 1916 on the coastal towns of Yarmouth and Lowestoft but both were important naval bases and defended by shore batteries.",
"Unrestricted submarine warfare was instituted in 1915 in response to the British blockade of Germany and to the British Government's refusal to court-martial the perpetrators of the Baralong incidents. Prize rules, which were codified under the 1907 Hague Convention—such as those that required commerce raiders to warn their targets and allow time for the crew to board lifeboats—were disregarded and commercial vessels were sunk regardless of nationality, cargo, or destination. Following the sinking of the on 7 May 1915 and subsequent public outcry in various neutral countries, including the United States, the practice was withdrawn. However, Germany resumed the practice on 1 February 1917 and declared that all merchant ships regardless of nationalities would be sunk without warning. This outraged the U.S. public, prompting the U.S. to break diplomatic relations with Germany two days later, and, along with the Zimmermann Telegram, led the U.S. entry into the war two months later on the side of the Allied Powers.",
"Chronologically, the first German World War II crime, and also the very first act of the war, was the bombing of Wieluń, a town where no targets of military value were present. More significantly, The Holocaust of the Jews and Poles, the Action T4 killing of the disabled and the Porajmos of the Gypsies are the most notable war crimes committed by Nazi Germany during World War II. Not all of the crimes committed during the Holocaust and similar mass atrocities were war crimes. Telford Taylor (The U.S. prosecutor in the German High Command case at the Nuremberg Trials and Chief Counsel for the twelve trials before the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunals) explained in 1982:",
"",
"In addition, more than 90 villages and towns are recorded from the Hellenic network of martyr cities. During the triple German, Italian and Bulgarian, occupation about 800,000 people lost their lives in Greece (see World War II casualties)."
]
} |
Lamborghini | null | Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. () is an Italian brand and manufacturer of luxury sports cars and SUVs based in Sant'Agata Bolognese. The company is owned by the Volkswagen Group through its subsidiary Audi. | null | [
250004,
250054,
204914,
238,
109561,
9521,
67,
89176,
8002,
882,
28984,
208683,
14037,
297,
70,
14380,
23,
36102,
678,
70,
151814,
111,
27024,
214,
10,
18831,
73,
297,
9963,
9742,
214,
2258,
47,
98438,
678,
126416,
7,
1295,
170920,
128645,
6044,
237,
62769,
5,
581,
14380,
25,
7,
5117,
115774,
4,
6044,
237,
70,
14877,
43448,
4,
3542,
121447,
23,
70,
4122,
23936,
7,
5,
208683,
509,
959,
297,
100,
70,
36236,
1208,
3168,
29681,
14974,
446,
4,
3129,
11814,
10,
456,
147,
4122,
9,
128897,
4,
456,
147,
160298,
22648,
108802,
5,
208683,
3514,
434,
25545,
538,
20271,
6863,
5117,
1492,
5369,
4,
1284,
40575,
77736,
23,
70,
9908,
111,
70,
29733,
214574,
53477,
7565,
987,
19,
136,
70,
29700,
52028,
5,
8002,
882,
28984,
208683,
54324,
70,
14380,
47,
14787,
7,
9,
841,
33,
416,
53434,
15615,
136,
157370,
9335,
1991,
136,
90223,
71,
23,
27898,
5,
581,
14380,
23409,
4620,
9167,
18,
23,
25695,
4,
136,
509,
158012,
23,
70,
53299,
42,
16070,
111,
82953,
7,
16162,
9,
101956,
136,
61201,
1208,
39,
1603,
23,
15643,
5,
581,
1208,
39,
1603,
7,
59038,
71,
70,
14380,
1810,
111,
53299,
42,
16070,
390,
20986,
136,
14145,
297,
17305,
5115,
53,
23,
6863,
14700,
66,
6889,
5,
9626,
70,
1208,
39,
1603,
7,
25,
24365,
4,
208683,
25,
7,
3299,
13315,
509,
71062,
297,
1295,
70,
6,
108210,
934,
47,
26698,
70,
71676,
763,
29681,
2258,
136,
70,
6,
37150,
97259,
11192,
23718,
5773,
9,
52562,
80939,
5,
581,
1208,
39,
1603,
7,
54324,
208683,
47,
70,
237562,
84829,
23,
22059,
5,
24372,
456,
133266,
214,
70,
6,
108210,
934,
678,
70,
4512,
12986,
136,
2837,
133891,
214,
70,
71676,
763,
136,
70,
6,
37150,
97259,
4,
237562,
54324,
208683,
47,
3605,
19,
77021,
21115,
2646,
277,
19943,
71,
587,
136,
3799,
19,
21115,
310,
25,
105022,
84829,
23,
103709,
360,
9571,
4,
2646,
277,
19943,
71,
587,
136,
310,
25,
105022,
54324,
208683,
47,
70,
51669,
10760,
7440,
442,
509,
158012,
1379,
70,
6226,
111,
70,
21115,
25,
7,
21679,
91853,
5,
2356,
38742,
136,
3299,
124519,
3542,
65508,
71,
47,
70,
8796,
25,
7,
137251,
136,
91048,
47,
70,
16839,
136,
24124,
142,
124735,
12996,
54613,
53,
100,
70,
8796,
208683,
5,
360,
70,
72399,
3576,
7,
4,
20271,
70,
214574,
53477,
52028,
136,
70,
221419,
25313,
52028,
4,
208683,
25,
7,
40575,
24124,
10,
36069,
111,
110518,
836,
33297,
5,
1301,
111,
70,
267,
3299,
6602,
4,
208683,
25,
7,
153532,
12996,
37457,
58055,
7,
111,
17262,
3299,
124519,
4,
6626,
111,
3129,
621,
4122,
9,
128897,
6626,
9,
184,
257,
29681,
2258,
7,
12960,
70,
50960,
1632,
83,
10,
12912,
87907,
71,
4,
756,
9,
434,
144009,
22648,
71666,
5,
581,
310,
1530,
9,
62783,
297,
62,
75225,
1846,
13315,
58055,
7,
111,
70,
82080,
6,
117525,
1104,
617,
62,
75225,
1846,
159,
14974,
446,
136,
33816,
1515,
5,
581,
310,
963,
9,
62783,
297,
11872,
11,
62443,
13315,
82424,
96853,
70,
756,
9,
434,
144009,
9,
88400,
82080,
305,
963,
11565,
14974,
446,
136,
57491,
820,
4,
70,
27226,
11034,
456,
147,
9,
434,
144009,
9,
88400,
82080,
190,
4836,
5428,
14974,
446,
136,
57491,
820,
136,
70,
2684,
113138,
4,
28560,
23509,
297,
82080,
112311,
11565,
169033,
66,
2312,
14974,
446,
136,
57491,
820,
5,
17106,
70,
91177,
111,
54,
34,
79298,
6863,
40575,
21950,
390,
3640,
4,
208683,
2843,
49814,
142,
71666,
24,
4806,
4143,
223,
23,
6863,
13315,
9,
2037,
3129,
83,
14537,
297,
390,
10,
138241,
9,
987,
837,
310,
1019,
87907,
136,
6,
95601,
7,
10,
12912,
87907,
4,
756,
9,
434,
144009,
22648,
108802,
5,
15366,
14,
7798,
93,
208683,
27489,
7,
10,
21334,
310,
1530,
122084,
87907,
46389,
100,
4527,
23,
6661,
9791,
134369,
64876,
35014,
106,
14537,
837,
9821,
5,
62,
208683,
8796,
297,
122084,
87907,
2837,
23935,
7,
189275,
136,
140992,
7,
189275,
5,
360,
70,
4122,
9,
97057,
7,
4,
208683,
181653,
10,
84046,
9,
57877,
1830,
11675,
111,
10,
75534,
6,
10060,
29681,
2926,
75457,
5,
17274,
5895,
538,
73962,
44,
197261,
6,
151612,
13,
1833,
58,
113771,
23,
13211,
46,
3229,
241599,
142,
27781,
19882,
8305,
142,
36369,
425,
2926,
75457,
101597,
56,
46,
450,
744,
27781,
7,
3542,
181653,
678,
10,
208683,
24286,
53,
123789,
19441,
126596,
2886,
2288,
4209,
10336,
55291,
4,
234224,
54709,
169,
14105,
1052,
1542,
87907,
64,
30145,
21150,
25072,
4,
8759,
72689,
12912,
100,
1224,
136,
1784,
21605,
160298,
7,
5,
581,
14361,
18244,
509,
32204,
136,
89554,
78779,
297,
678,
12912,
44075,
214,
42564,
71,
3934,
160692,
32216,
136,
40,
257,
29256,
86658,
23,
10,
456,
147,
6,
46741,
9,
93771,
214,
5,
581,
2926,
75457,
7,
3542,
82775,
390,
208683,
182352,
7,
136,
181653,
390,
92265,
8063,
27271,
56,
97258,
7,
5,
208683,
86872,
7,
6863,
8796,
47,
142901,
4295,
450,
27489,
10,
96551,
111,
208683,
9,
43264,
297,
107222,
4127,
7,
26719,
105994,
115774,
4,
203538,
4,
90729,
90,
4,
97920,
4,
65133,
7,
136,
26367,
13909,
7,
5,
360,
69822,
47,
1919,
43876,
357,
1158,
62769,
4,
8002,
882,
28984,
208683,
1902,
68872,
39395,
98,
450,
2685,
2806,
186,
110,
31461,
53,
9,
105363,
297,
28779,
214,
111,
208683,
7,
4,
21455,
214,
2926,
10033,
237,
5792,
135587,
136,
5792,
8167,
14653,
98,
14380,
65514,
5,
3293,
509,
225073,
100,
70,
1733,
4,
237,
5941,
29681,
2258,
142901,
4295,
221,
46526,
47,
106804,
13,
70,
38352,
4,
28702,
41159,
4,
136,
121392,
14597,
2481,
8305,
2926,
10033,
105226,
5,
357,
1158,
62769,
23,
17311,
509,
51529,
100,
179635,
1919,
33816,
2258,
8063,
153161,
10,
31344,
111,
163157,
100,
1919,
105226,
23,
2926,
28779,
214,
5,
8002,
882,
28984,
25,
7,
44930,
12441,
47,
63672,
7,
17721,
4049,
136,
1919,
185118,
7,
4,
5941,
111,
136565,
3542,
28779,
214,
22,
927,
86840,
933,
74,
3060,
1902,
198395,
79786,
99,
62769,
5,
14847,
10017,
3945,
4,
19356,
44910,
4,
136,
23706,
8509,
80723,
64832,
214,
2363,
69463,
1733,
47,
70,
34754,
111,
70,
436,
10700,
160469,
13,
4,
1836,
82775,
442,
47,
186,
10,
33816,
2258,
678,
28779,
214,
38516,
4,
1632,
450,
5809,
19916,
98,
70,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
80726,
14,
208683,
159,
5,
254,
5,
284,
5,
15,
16,
83,
142,
89176,
8796,
136,
142901,
42,
111,
44752,
44616,
29681,
2258,
7,
136,
71666,
7,
35509,
23,
5906,
25,
284,
30084,
335,
14071,
24366,
5,
581,
14380,
83,
6,
157272,
390,
70,
51669,
10760,
8305,
6863,
57527,
6635,
21679,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-515680 | en-train-515680 | 515680 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Products.",
"Automobiles.",
"Marine engines.",
"Lamborghini motorcycle.",
"Branded merchandise.",
"Motorsport.",
"Complete Formula One results.",
"Marketing.",
"Brand identity.",
"Vehicle nomenclature.",
"Concept vehicles.",
"Corporate affairs.",
"Structure.",
"Sales results.",
"Licensing.",
"Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica.",
"Museo Lamborghini.",
"Museo Ferruccio Lamborghini."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Manufacturing magnate Italian Ferruccio Lamborghini founded the company in 1963 with the objective of producing a refined grand touring car to compete with offerings from established marques such as Ferrari. The company's first models, such as the 350 GT, were released in the mid 1960s. Lamborghini was noted for the 1966 Miura sports coupé, which used a rear mid-engine, rear wheel drive layout. Lamborghini grew rapidly during its first ten years, but sales fell in the wake of the 1973 worldwide financial downturn and the oil crisis. Ferruccio Lamborghini sold the company to Georges-Henri Rossetti and René Leimer and retired in 1974. The company went bankrupt in 1978, and was placed in the receivership of brothers Jean-Claude and Patrick Mimran in 1980. The Mimrans purchased the company out of receivership by 1984 and invested heavily in its expansion. Under the Mimrans' management, Lamborghini's model line was expanded from the Countach to include the Jalpa sports car and the LM002 high performance off-road vehicle. The Mimrans sold Lamborghini to the Chrysler Corporation in 1987. After replacing the Countach with the Diablo and discontinuing the Jalpa and the LM002, Chrysler sold Lamborghini to Malaysian investment group Mycom Setdco and Indonesian group V'Power Corporation in 1994. In 1998, Mycom Setdco and V'Power sold Lamborghini to the Volkswagen Group where it was placed under the control of the group's Audi division. New products and model lines were introduced to the brand's portfolio and brought to the market and saw an increased productivity for the brand Lamborghini. In the late 2000s, during the worldwide financial crisis and the subsequent economic crisis, Lamborghini's sales saw a drop of nearly 50 percent.",
"",
"As of the 2018 model year, Lamborghini's automobile product range consists of three model lines, two of which are mid-engine two-seat sports cars while the third one is a front engined, all-wheel drive SUV. The V12-powered Aventador line consists of the LP 740–4 Aventador S coupé and roadster. The V10-powered Huracán line currently includes the all-wheel-drive LP 610-4 coupé and spyder, the low cost rear-wheel-drive LP 580-2 coupé and spyder and the most powerful, track oriented LP 640-4 Performanté coupé and spyder. With the intention of doubling its sales volume by 2019, Lamborghini also added an SUV named Urus in its line-up which is powered by a twin-turbo V8 engine and utilises a front engine, all-wheel drive layout.",
"Motori Marini Lamborghini produces a large V12 marine engine block for use in World Offshore Series Class 1 powerboats. A Lamborghini branded marine engine displaces approximately and outputs approximately.",
"In the mid-1980s, Lamborghini produced a limited-production run of a 1,000 cc sports motorcycle. UK weekly newspaper \"Motor Cycle News\" reported in 1994 – when featuring an example available through an Essex motorcycle retailer – that 24 examples were produced with a Lamborghini alloy frame having adjustable steering head angle, Kawasaki GPz1000RX engine/transmission unit, Ceriani front forks and Marvic wheels. The bodywork was plastic and fully integrated with front fairing merged into fuel tank and seat cover ending in a rear tail-fairing. The motorcycles were designed by Lamborghini stylists and produced by French business Boxer Bikes.",
"Lamborghini licenses its brand to manufacturers that produce a variety of Lamborghini-branded consumer goods including scale models, clothing, accessories, bags, electronics and laptop computers.",
"In contrast to his rival Enzo Ferrari, Ferruccio Lamborghini had decided early on that there would be no factory-supported racing of Lamborghinis, viewing motorsport as too expensive and too draining on company resources. This was unusual for the time, as many sports car manufacturers sought to demonstrate the speed, reliability, and technical superiority through motorsport participation. Enzo Ferrari in particular was known for considering his road car business mostly a source of funding for his participation in motor racing. Ferruccio's policy led to tensions between him and his engineers, many of whom were racing enthusiasts; some had previously worked at Ferrari. When Dallara, Stanzani, and Wallace began dedicating their spare time to the development of the P400 prototype, they designed it to be a road car with racing potential, one that could win on the track and also be driven on the road by enthusiasts. When Ferruccio discovered the project, he allowed them to go ahead, seeing it as a potential marketing device for the company, while insisting that it would not be raced. The P400 went on to become the Miura. The closest the company came to building a true race car under Lamborghini's supervision were a few highly modified prototypes, including those built by factory test driver Bob Wallace, such as the Miura SV-based \"Jota\" and the Jarama S-based \"Bob Wallace Special\". In the mid-1970s, while Lamborghini was under the management of Georges-Henri Rossetti, Lamborghini entered into an agreement with BMW to develop, then manufacture 400 cars for BMW in order to meet Group 4 homologation requirements. BMW lacked experience developing a mid-engined vehicle and believed that Lamborghini's experience in that area would make Lamborghini an ideal choice of partner. Due to Lamborghini's shaky finances, Lamborghini fell behind schedule developing the car's structure and running gear. When Lamborghini failed to deliver working prototypes on time, BMW took the program in house, finishing development without Lamborghini. BMW contracted with Baur to produce the car, which BMW named the M1, delivering the first vehicle in October 1978. In 1985, Lamborghini's British importer developed the Countach QVX, in conjunction with Spice Engineering, for the 1986 Group C championship season. One car was built, but lack of sponsorship caused it to miss the season. The QVX competed in only one race, the non-championship 1986 Southern Suns 500 km race at Kyalami in South Africa, driven by Tiff Needell. Despite the car finishing better than it started, sponsorship could once again not be found and the programme was cancelled. Lamborghini was an engine supplier in Formula One for the 1989 through 1993 Formula One seasons. It supplied engines to Larrousse (1989–1990,1992–1993), Lotus (1990), Ligier (1991), Minardi (1992), and to the Modena team in 1991. While the latter is commonly referred to as a factory team, the company saw themselves as a supplier, not a backer. The 1992 Larrousse–Lamborghini was largely uncompetitive but noteworthy in its tendency to spew oil from its exhaust system. Cars following closely behind the Larrousse were commonly coloured yellowish-brown by the end of the race. Lamborghini's best result was achieved with Larrousse at the 1990 Japanese Grand Prix, when Aguri Suzuki finished third on home soil. In late 1991, a Lamborghini Formula One motor was used in the Konrad KM-011 Group C sports car, but the car only lasted a few races before the project was canceled. The same engine, re-badged a Chrysler, Lamborghini's then-parent company, was tested by McLaren towards the end of the 1993 season, with the intent of using it during the 1994 season. Although driver Ayrton Senna was reportedly impressed with the engine's performance, McLaren pulled out of negotiations, choosing a Peugeot engine instead, and Chrysler ended the project. Two racing versions of the Diablo were built for the Diablo Supertrophy, a single-model racing series held annually from 1996 to 1999. In the first year, the model used in the series was the Diablo SVR, while the Diablo 6.0 GTR was used for the remaining three years. Lamborghini developed the Murciélago R-GT as a production racing car to compete in the FIA GT Championship, the Super GT Championship and the American Le Mans Series in 2004. The car's highest placing in any race that year was the opening round of the FIA GT Championship at Valencia, where the car entered by Reiter Engineering finished third from a fifth-place start. In 2006, during the opening round of the Super GT championship at Suzuka, a car run by the Japan Lamborghini Owners Club garnered the first victory (in class) by an R-GT. A GT3 version of the Gallardo has been developed by Reiter Engineering. A Murciélago R-GT entered by All-Inkl.com racing, driven by Christophe Bouchut and Stefan Mücke, won the opening round of the FIA GT Championship held at Zhuhai International Circuit, achieving the first major international race victory for Lamborghini.",
"() (results in bold indicate pole position)",
"",
"The world of bullfighting is a key part of Lamborghini's identity. In 1962, Ferruccio Lamborghini visited the Seville ranch of Don Eduardo Miura, a renowned breeder of Spanish fighting bulls. Lamborghini, a Taurus himself, was so impressed by the majestic Miura animals that he decided to adopt a raging bull as the emblem for the automaker he would open shortly.",
"After producing two cars with alphanumeric designations, Lamborghini once again turned to the bull breeder for inspiration. Don Eduardo was filled with pride when he learned that Ferruccio had named a car for his family and their line of bulls; the fourth Miura to be produced was unveiled to him at his ranch in Seville. The automaker would continue to draw upon the bullfighting connection in future years. The Islero was named for the Miura bull that killed the famed bullfighter Manolete in 1947. \"Espada\" is the Spanish word for sword, sometimes used to refer to the bullfighter himself. The Jarama's name carried a special double meaning; though it was intended to refer only to the historic bullfighting region in Spain, Ferruccio was concerned about confusion with the also historic Jarama motor racing track. After christening the Urraco after a bull breed, in 1974, Lamborghini broke from tradition, naming the not for a bull, but for (), a Piedmontese expletive. Legend has it that stylist Nuccio Bertone uttered the word in surprise when he first saw the Countach prototype, \"Project 112\". The LM002 (LM for Lamborghini Militaire) sport utility vehicle and the Silhouette (named after the popular racing category of the time) were other exceptions to the tradition. The Jalpa of 1982 was named for a bull breed; Diablo, for the Duke of Veragua's ferocious bull famous for fighting an epic battle against El Chicorro in Madrid in 1869; Murciélago, the legendary bull whose life was spared by El Lagartijo for his performance in 1879; Gallardo, named for one of the five ancestral castes of the Spanish fighting bull breed; and Reventón, the bull that defeated young Mexican \"torero\" Félix Guzmán in 1943. The Estoque concept of 2008 was named for the estoc, the sword traditionally used by matadors during bullfights.",
"Throughout its history, Lamborghini has envisioned and presented a variety of concept cars, beginning in 1963 with the very first Lamborghini prototype, the 350GTV. Other famous models include Bertone's 1967 Marzal, 1974 Bravo, and 1980 Athon, Chrysler's 1987 Portofino, the Italdesign-styled Cala from 1995, the Zagato-built Raptor from 1996. A retro-styled Lamborghini Miura concept car, the first creation of chief designer Walter de'Silva, was presented in 2006. President and CEO Stephan Winkelmann denied that the concept would be put into production, saying that the Miura concept was \"a celebration of our history, but Lamborghini is about the future. Retro design is not what we are here for. So we won’t do the [new] Miura.” At the 2008 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini revealed the Estoque, a four-door sedan concept. Although there had been much speculation regarding the Estoque's eventual production, Lamborghini management has not made a decision regarding production of what might be the first four-door car to roll out of the Sant'Agata factory. At the 2010 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Sesto Elemento. The concept car is made almost entirely of carbon fibre making it extremely light, with a weight of. The Sesto Elemento shares the same V10 engine found in the Lamborghini Gallardo. Lamborghini hopes to signal a shift in the company's direction from making super cars focused on top speed to producing more agile, track focused cars with the Sesto Elemento. The concept car can reach 0–62 mph (100 km/h) in 2.5 seconds and can reach a top speed of over 180 mph. At the 2012 Geneva Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Aventador J – a roofless, windowless version of the Lamborghini Aventador. The Aventador J uses the same 700 hp engine and seven-speed transmission as the standard Aventador. At the 2012 Beijing Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Urus SUV. This is the first SUV built by Lamborghini since the LM002. As part of the celebration of 50 years of Lamborghini, the company created the Egoista. Egoista is for one person's driving and only one Egoista is to be made. At the 2014 Paris Motor Show, Lamborghini unveiled the Asterion LPI910-4 hybrid concept car. Named after the half-man, half-bull hybrid (Minotaur) of Greek legend, it is the first hybrid Lamborghini in the history of the company. Utilizing the Huracán's 5.2 litre V10 producing, along with one electric motor mounted on the transaxle and an additional two on the front axle, developing an additional. This puts the power at a combined figure of. The 0–100 km/h (62 mph) time is claimed to be just above 3 seconds, with a claimed top speed of.",
"",
"As of 2011, Lamborghini is structured as a wholly owned subsidiary of AUDI AG named Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. controls five principal subsidiaries: Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A., a manufacturer of motorcycles; Italdesign Giugiaro S.p.A., a 90.1%-owned design and prototyping firm that provides services to the entire Volkswagen Group; MML S.p.A. (Motori Marini Lamborghini), a manufacturer of marine engine blocks; and Volkswagen Group Italia S.p.A. (formerly Autogerma S.p.A.), which sells Audi and other Volkswagen Group vehicles in Italy. The Lamborghini headquarters and main production site is located in Sant'Agata Bolognese, Italy. With the launch of its Urus SUV, the production site expanded from 80,000 to 160,000 square meters.",
"By sales, the most important markets in 2004 for Lamborghini's sports cars were the U.S. (41%), Germany (13%), Great Britain (9%) and Japan (8%). Prior to the launch of the Gallardo in 2003, Lamborghini produced approximately 400 vehicles per year; in 2011 Lamborghini produced 1,711 vehicles.",
"",
"Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica S.A. de C.V. (Lamborghini Automobiles of Latin America Public Limited Company) is an authorized distributor and manufacturer of Lamborghini-branded vehicles and merchandise in Latin America and South America. In 1995, Indonesian corporation MegaTech, Lamborghini's owner at the time, entered into distribution and license agreements with Mexican businessman Jorge Antonio Fernandez Garcia. The agreements give Automóviles Lamborghini Latinoamérica S.A. de C.V. the exclusive distributorship of Lamborghini vehicles and branded merchandise in Latin America and South America. Under the agreements, Automóviles Lamborghini is also allowed to manufacture Lamborghini vehicles and market them worldwide under the Lamborghini brand. Automóviles Lamborghini has produced two rebodied versions of the Diablo called the Eros and the Coatl. In 2015, Automóviles Lamborghini transferred the IP-rights to the Coatl foundation (chamber of commerce no. 63393700) in The Netherlands in order to secure these rights and to make them more marketable. The company has announced the production of a speedboat called the Lamborghini Glamour.",
"This two-storey museum is attached to the headquarters, and covers the history of Lamborghini cars and sport utility vehicles, showcasing a variety of modern and vintage models. The museum uses displays of cars, engines and photos to provide a history and review important milestones of Lamborghini.",
"A 9,000 square-foot museum about Ferruccio Lamborghini houses several cars, industrial prototypes, sketches, personal objects and family photos from Ferruccio's early life."
]
} |
The Good Soldier Švejk | null | The Good Soldier Švejk (, also spelled "Schweik", "Shveyk" or "Schwejk") is the abbreviated title of an unfinished satirical dark comedy novel by Jaroslav Hašek. The original Czech title of the work is "Osudy dobrého vojáka Švejka za světové války", literally "The Fateful Adventures of the Good Soldier Švejk During the World War". | null | [
250004,
250054,
1391,
55328,
7311,
538,
179140,
44,
6200,
12909,
92,
58,
47,
29256,
10,
3622,
111,
37195,
21950,
7,
4,
1284,
1902,
140528,
4734,
17262,
15,
2940,
26859,
98,
70,
22759,
927,
16,
54799,
1919,
47219,
1295,
26498,
137578,
98,
18982,
138,
4,
61242,
5,
581,
21261,
237,
10,
28271,
509,
7311,
538,
58755,
3674,
15,
11,
46327,
1391,
55328,
25,
7,
47219,
16,
390,
57995,
239,
85,
136,
1286,
78684,
390,
103655,
17,
217319,
35007,
34469,
5,
581,
21950,
7,
621,
12,
77168,
214,
1391,
55328,
25,
7,
47219,
4,
32485,
115184,
3000,
56478,
509,
37170,
390,
70,
80299,
56,
101910,
19010,
343,
47,
28484,
70,
51,
48310,
67175,
21261,
5,
3000,
56478,
122799,
70,
22759,
927,
12877,
23,
61242,
136,
23,
70,
5701,
6602,
2843,
121447,
70,
809,
2480,
127,
136,
70,
37195,
927,
21950,
7,
4,
44759,
71,
44,
6200,
12909,
92,
23,
14304,
19805,
939,
58,
24073,
6200,
12909,
92,
81,
80,
236,
5233,
18939,
136,
44,
6200,
12909,
92,
23,
135555,
58,
24073,
6200,
12909,
92,
81,
109252,
51029,
119037,
7,
3542,
91376,
24189,
45604,
5,
360,
12898,
21950,
7,
190,
136,
305,
3542,
13438,
121447,
237,
44,
6200,
12909,
92,
23,
102374,
14304,
19805,
939,
136,
135555,
58,
24073,
6200,
12909,
92,
81,
4518,
59098,
80,
236,
5233,
10,
81,
109252,
74054,
23,
6626,
21950,
7,
707,
70163,
71,
5,
581,
21261,
83,
5423,
20271,
6661,
5550,
87,
23,
66724,
9,
841,
1619,
6635,
4,
10,
6024,
9,
12421,
6402,
352,
95972,
4393,
111,
4989,
9,
144057,
82,
127,
6402,
63672,
7,
5,
3698,
18266,
33,
19879,
3395,
68,
71,
23,
70,
1631,
4,
1632,
19879,
111,
2856,
5489,
2955,
9,
841,
28391,
9893,
79063,
1314,
26719,
10932,
106,
160012,
2750,
3542,
103655,
7,
5,
156830,
1391,
55328,
42938,
297,
23,
903,
79612,
136,
160477,
71,
442,
23,
44,
3957,
18621,
6678,
63052,
37268,
1334,
92,
740,
52455,
111,
70,
113949,
136,
124850,
48903,
47,
765,
2809,
191722,
4,
99,
19713,
23,
2831,
4,
390,
1391,
55328,
25,
7,
4516,
23,
70,
20031,
271,
360,
57463,
1294,
31951,
674,
111,
70,
5489,
2955,
9,
841,
28391,
9893,
126140,
5,
581,
21261,
2843,
8,
16765,
678,
134744,
56,
2874,
9,
4205,
2856,
90,
12,
85590,
538,
10,
36549,
111,
48152,
538,
131259,
50094,
7,
4,
442,
88898,
7,
70,
6275,
9393,
7432,
136,
17624,
103133,
111,
79612,
23,
4537,
136,
111,
116338,
80244,
4,
66724,
19,
116338,
80244,
23,
17311,
5,
52455,
111,
6863,
124850,
4,
41866,
70,
103655,
7,
4,
621,
42938,
214,
23,
10,
79612,
1836,
54,
959,
28219,
98,
232045,
111,
142,
352,
95972,
47,
3129,
1836,
765,
110,
160624,
939,
5,
581,
62816,
111,
57995,
37268,
1334,
92,
83,
10,
34754,
111,
903,
73986,
5,
194397,
15,
7522,
172,
38526,
3820,
40255,
71,
16,
6,
57840,
2408,
707,
82940,
126,
6620,
764,
119140,
297,
538,
111240,
7,
47,
57357,
67,
116338,
180210,
136,
172554,
6863,
110833,
2481,
23,
10,
3173,
111,
101766,
13,
39746,
7154,
12,
70,
155255,
83,
25737,
51,
119488,
4,
49903,
4,
237,
47,
36766,
37268,
1334,
92,
83,
111937,
21286,
23,
122103,
4,
707,
1030,
1916,
32233,
91755,
37838,
678,
115,
6492,
23,
8748,
6620,
5,
32255,
48152,
47353,
58359,
10,
48018,
425,
3229,
37268,
1334,
92,
4,
179493,
10,
102374,
61514,
4,
83,
121742,
19,
538,
39958,
101085,
56,
390,
1919,
10002,
5609,
5,
360,
66044,
47,
57,
2826,
72219,
235477,
180210,
4,
1391,
55328,
119140,
297,
538,
5423,
7,
1810,
6,
66157,
1830,
136,
75690,
58532,
53,
150380,
297,
47,
494,
525,
7,
111,
70,
129574,
84084,
5,
581,
13765,
9842,
7,
23,
210721,
678,
7123,
111,
70,
110938,
2320,
23,
69833,
450,
127841,
63614,
6661,
5550,
87,
5,
37268,
1334,
92,
44116,
7,
6044,
22,
927,
86840,
39,
1672,
109208,
126351,
520,
6496,
70,
66724,
19,
31678,
56,
748,
23,
133868,
450,
110,
1632,
831,
28288,
36766,
764,
83,
2563,
538,
142,
566,
372,
83797,
707,
83,
131346,
20102,
1379,
266,
592,
70,
1631,
71834,
5,
1529,
83,
34784,
297,
390,
10,
32786,
111,
70,
11341,
35206,
4,
6499,
66489,
86,
62160,
4,
7103,
20662,
3060,
68894,
538,
23,
176302,
13,
456,
88832,
4,
136,
83,
9325,
47,
101085,
5,
24372,
8035,
35649,
47314,
8371,
13,
764,
83,
12302,
2822,
47,
10,
17946,
23923,
4,
8108,
8035,
28,
236,
89829,
5,
37268,
1334,
92,
62163,
1919,
21441,
3613,
669,
47,
160298,
4049,
15,
1106,
140526,
47,
186,
178707,
1295,
60971,
4665,
1814,
39,
16,
47,
70,
172310,
674,
23179,
7,
23,
210721,
4,
7440,
1919,
173676,
932,
289,
113660,
10,
43967,
129357,
5,
1529,
83,
12302,
2822,
47,
10,
17986,
100,
960,
21228,
1314,
6637,
111,
1919,
60971,
4665,
1814,
39,
5,
1529,
77681,
33284,
7,
70,
187,
1176,
237,
1777,
669,
47,
187,
1176,
107076,
16442,
71047,
7291,
169,
74,
7291,
169,
388,
90,
4049,
99,
126381,
47,
49952,
29730,
34,
86216,
224068,
4,
124901,
1777,
669,
764,
7068,
24209,
7,
5,
224068,
83,
44183,
678,
1919,
95685,
1777,
1803,
1830,
47,
56197,
22824,
23,
45998,
161159,
13,
4,
23,
174715,
211462,
4,
30923,
30675,
47,
8035,
9325,
47,
70,
12912,
5,
24372,
132283,
756,
70,
25550,
7,
47,
161159,
13,
4,
37268,
1334,
92,
352,
1299,
1224,
98,
10,
4989,
3877,
125960,
98,
57616,
10932,
174715,
211462,
23,
10,
6811,
81887,
47,
7413,
161159,
13,
4,
8108,
8035,
34784,
297,
237,
10,
7722,
57491,
136,
64879,
56,
15,
11,
25534,
764,
8082,
539,
79850,
8,
70142,
16,
136,
8453,
297,
47,
1919,
25703,
674,
5,
581,
25703,
674,
83,
33662,
12302,
2822,
47,
19528,
2594,
142,
122,
66914,
528,
4,
10,
59444,
98,
70,
132988,
17721,
66724,
136,
175055,
5,
11853,
4,
7440,
91582,
17721,
70,
6626,
15889,
31075,
621,
208806,
191125,
4,
37268,
1334,
92,
83,
13438,
34784,
297,
4,
903,
1733,
100,
216806,
142,
39109,
7092,
23,
3784,
6496,
10,
15072,
2886,
112465,
66,
130367,
136,
44173,
9966,
23,
10,
48800,
78431,
5,
1529,
83,
2843,
125568,
71,
47,
14380,
12989,
538,
5,
581,
25072,
352,
1299,
1224,
98,
10,
4989,
25550,
120696,
98186,
5932,
136,
70,
24453,
9022,
43643,
5,
153335,
47,
70,
12912,
13315,
4,
37268,
1334,
92,
83,
39958,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
18621,
6678,
63052,
37268,
1334,
92,
15,
4,
2843,
160093,
297,
44,
25452,
1177,
783,
830,
44,
40888,
272,
19006,
58,
707,
44,
25452,
95012,
92,
18939,
83,
70,
1563,
105160,
14,
27686,
44759,
111,
142,
51,
48310,
67175,
57,
2826,
21533,
43334,
180327,
21261,
390,
156830,
1391,
55328,
5,
581,
7311,
103655,
44759,
111,
70,
4488,
83,
44,
670,
1159,
1459,
37229,
497,
2244,
8682,
11,
37268,
1334,
161,
80,
203412,
26114,
1002,
830,
218500,
44,
3957,
3036,
67,
7844,
121635,
7,
111,
70,
18621,
6678,
63052,
37268,
1334,
92,
133698,
70,
6661,
5550,
740,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1981010 | en-train-1981010 | 1981010 | {
"title": [
"Publication.",
"Themes.",
"Plot summary.",
"Selected characters.",
"Literary significance and criticism.",
"Broader cultural influence.",
"Adaptations and sequels.",
"Translations."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Hašek originally intended \"Švejk\" to cover a total of six volumes, but had completed only three (and started on the fourth) upon his death from heart failure on January 3, 1923. The novel as a whole was originally illustrated (after Hašek's death) by Josef Lada and more recently by Czech illustrator Petr Urban. The volumes are: Following Hašek's death, journalist Karel Vaněk was asked by the publisher Adolf Synek to complete the unfinished novel. Vaněk finished the fourth book in 1923 and in the same year also released the fifth and the sixth volumes, titled \"Švejk in Captivity\" (\"Švejk v zajetí\") and \"Švejk in Revolution\" (\"Švejk v revoluci\"). Novels were published until 1949. In 1991 volumes 5 and 6 were again released as \"Švejk in Russian Captivity and Revolution\" (\"Švejk v Ruském zajetí a v revoluci\"), in two volumes or combined.",
"The novel is set during World War I in Austria-Hungary, a multi-ethnic empire full of long-standing ethnic tensions. Fifteen million people died in the war, one million of them Austro-Hungarian soldiers including around 140,000 who were Czechs. Jaroslav Hašek participated in this conflict and examined it in \"The Good Soldier Švejk\". Many of the situations and characters seem to have been inspired, at least in part, by Hašek's service in the 91st Infantry Regiment of the Austro-Hungarian Army. The novel also deals with broader anti-war themes: essentially a series of absurdly comic episodes, it explores the pointlessness and futility of conflict in general and of military discipline, Austrian military discipline in particular. Many of its characters, especially the Czechs, are participating in a conflict they do not understand on behalf of an empire to which they have no loyalty. The character of Josef Švejk is a development of this theme. Through (possibly feigned) idiocy or incompetence he repeatedly manages to frustrate military authority and expose its stupidity in a form of passive resistance: the reader is left unclear, however, as to whether Švejk is genuinely incompetent, or acting quite deliberately with dumb insolence. These absurd events reach a climax when Švejk, wearing a Russian uniform, is mistakenly taken prisoner by his own side. In addition to satirising Habsburg authority, Hašek repeatedly sets out corruption and hypocrisy attributed to priests of the Catholic Church.",
"The story begins in Prague with news of the assassination in Sarajevo that precipitates World War I. Švejk displays such enthusiasm about faithfully serving the Austrian Emperor in battle that no one can decide whether he is merely an imbecile or is craftily undermining the war effort. He is arrested by a member of the state police, Bretschneider, after making some politically insensitive remarks, and is sent to prison. After being certified insane he is transferred to a madhouse, before being ejected. Švejk gets his charwoman to wheel him (he claims to be suffering from rheumatism) to the recruitment offices in Prague, where his apparent zeal causes a minor sensation. He is transferred to a hospital for malingerers because of his rheumatism. He finally joins the army as batman to army chaplain Otto Katz; Katz loses him at cards to Senior Lieutenant Lukáš, whose batman he then becomes. Lukáš is posted with his march battalion to barracks in České Budějovice, in Southern Bohemia, preparatory to being sent to the front. After missing all the trains to Budějovice, Švejk embarks on a long anabasis on foot around Southern Bohemia in a vain attempt to find Budějovice, before being arrested as a possible spy and deserter (a charge he strenuously denies) and escorted to his regiment. The regiment is soon transferred to Bruck an der Leitha, a town on the border between Austria and Hungary. Here, where relations between the two nationalities are somewhat sensitive, Švejk is again arrested, this time for causing an affray involving a respectable Hungarian citizen and engaging in a street fight. He is also promoted to company orderly. The unit embarks on a long train journey towards Galicia and the Eastern Front. Close to the front line, Švejk is taken prisoner by his own side as a suspected Russian deserter, after arriving at a lake and trying on an abandoned Russian uniform. Narrowly avoiding execution, he manages to rejoin his unit. The unfinished novel breaks off abruptly before Švejk has a chance to be involved in any combat or enter the trenches, though it appears Hašek may have conceived that the characters would have continued the war in a POW camp, much as he himself had done. The book includes numerous anecdotes told by Švejk (often either to deflect the attentions of an authority figure, or to insult them in a concealed manner) which are not directly related to the plot.",
"The characters of \"The Good Soldier Švejk\" are generally either used as the butt of Hašek's absurdist humour or represent fairly broad social and ethnic stereotypes found in the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the time. People are often distinguished by the dialect and register of Czech or German they speak, a quality that does not translate easily. Many German- and Polish-speaking characters, for example, are shown as speaking comedically broken or heavily accented Czech, while many Czechs speak broken German; much use is also made of slang expressions. Some characters are to varying degrees based on real people who served with the Imperial and Royal 91st Infantry Regiment, in which Hašek served as a one-year volunteer. (Much research has been conducted into this issue and the results are part of the catalog of all 585 people, both real and fictitious, that appear in the novel.)",
"A number of literary critics consider \"The Good Soldier Švejk\" to be one of the first anti-war novels, predating Erich Maria Remarque's \"All Quiet on the Western Front\". Joseph Heller said that if he had not read \"The Good Soldier Švejk\", he would never have written his novel \"Catch-22\". Sue Arnold, writing in \"The Guardian\", stated \"Every harassed negotiator, every beleaguered political wife and anyone given to ever-increasing moments of melancholy at the way things are should keep a copy of Hasek's classic 'don't let the bastards get you down' novel to hand. It's anti-war, anti-establishment, anti-religion and - praise indeed - even funnier than Catch-22.\"",
"The idiocy and subversion of Švejk has entered the Czech language in the form of words such as \"švejkovina\" (\"švejking\"), \"švejkovat\" (\"to švejk\"), \"švejkárna\" (military absurdity), etc. The name has also entered the English dictionary, in the form of \"Schweik\", \"A person likened to the character of Schweik, pictured as an unlucky and simple-minded but resourceful little man oppressed by higher authorities,\" and the derivative forms \"to Schweik\", \"Schweikism\", and \"Schweikist\". In the British television documentary \"Hollywood\" (1979), a history of American silent films, director Frank Capra claimed the screen character of comedian Harry Langdon, which Capra helped to formulate, was partially inspired by \"The Good Soldier Švejk\". At Prague's NATO summit in 2002, a man dressed as the Good Soldier and using Svejk's typical crutches to support himself, appeared at an anti-alliance protest, shouting at the top of his voice: \"To Baghdad, Mrs Muller, to Baghdad...\", showing just how deep the character is etched on the Czech psyche.",
"Švejk is the subject of films, plays, an opera, a musical, comic books, and statues, even the theme of restaurants in a number of European countries. The novel is also the subject of an unpublished operetta by Peter Gammond. Švejk has statues and monuments for example in Humenné in Slovakia, Przemyśl and Sanok in Poland, in Russia Saint Petersburg, Omsk and Bugulma and in Ukraine Kiev, Lviv and Donetsk; in Cracow there is a plaque on a building where the author was imprisoned for 7 days for vagrancy by the Austrian authorities. There has been speculation that Hašek got the idea for Švejk at that time, based on one of his fellow prisoners in the jail. The first statue of Švejk in the Czech Republic was unveiled in August 2014, in the village of Putim in South Bohemia.",
"It is the most translated novel of Czech literature (58 languages in 2013). Excerpts of \"Der Brave Soldat Schwejk\" Chapter 1, translated into German by Max Brod, were published two days after Hašek's death in the Prague German language paper, \"Prager Tagblatt\", January 5, 1923. Following Max Brod's first steps toward a German translation, he introduced the book to Grete Reiner, Executive Editor of the anti-fascist magazine \"Deutsche Volkszeitung\". Her translation of Švejk into German in 1926 was largely responsible for the speedy dissemination of Švejk's fame across Europe. It was one of the books burned by the National Socialists in 1933. Her translation was said to be one of Bertolt Brecht's favourite books. Grete Reiner-Straschnow was murdered in Auschwitz on 9 March 1944. After the war, many other translations followed and Švejk became the most famous Czech book abroad. Three English-language translations of \"Švejk\" have been published: The first translation by Paul Selver was heavily abridged, reducing the novel to about two thirds of its original length. Selver's translation also bowdlerized the original text, omitting paragraphs and occasionally pages that may have seemed offensive: despite this he has been praised for preserving some of the tension in the work between Literary and Common Czech. Cecil Parrott's translation was the first unabridged translation of the work. Parrott, a former British ambassador to Czechoslovakia, produced a work that has been considered definitive, but has also been criticised for overly literal translation and an awkward approach both to slang and Haŝek's humour. The recent translation by Sadloň (and Book One collaborator Joyce) is an updated translation with modern American-influenced colloquialisms. According to one reviewer, the translators' intent appears to have been \"to make the novel more accessible to a domestic [American] readership through a simplification of style and through additional explanatory information inserted in the text\", though finding this approach to \"conflict with the spirit of the novel\". The translator has disputed this assessment at length."
]
} |
Wenceslaus II, Duke of Opava | null | Duke Wenceslaus II of Opava (also known as "Wenceslaus of Głubczyce"; ; – between 1445 and 1447) was a member of the Opavian branch of the Přemyslid dynasty. He was Duke of Opava from 1433 until his death. From 1435 until his death, he was also Duke of Głubczyce and Lord of Fulnek. | null | [
250004,
250054,
18763,
27863,
3542,
51978,
15718,
39,
265,
87,
111,
2331,
5528,
136,
1919,
5117,
58386,
4,
7714,
111,
70819,
169,
15,
71,
5,
616,
117930,
5,
62,
67688,
616,
1549,
4,
601,
69098,
26253,
1995,
139505,
47,
110115,
111,
144013,
11,
6741,
5,
24372,
1919,
67373,
25,
7,
47219,
23,
616,
9185,
4,
601,
69098,
26253,
1995,
34739,
1257,
70,
158031,
19,
16070,
111,
1919,
27150,
56,
23552,
9,
6369,
9319,
7,
25031,
4,
101985,
136,
15718,
39,
265,
1995,
4,
12960,
1919,
27150,
56,
82953,
171184,
7610,
20623,
71,
66570,
47443,
111,
567,
143,
2312,
7974,
53,
5,
106073,
2363,
67373,
1902,
197551,
3674,
23,
1919,
1221,
450,
1836,
5608,
79986,
70,
115,
5204,
124416,
538,
4,
70,
82953,
7,
101637,
71,
2363,
23,
3334,
217,
7154,
10932,
616,
5843,
5,
25031,
136,
101985,
75204,
12008,
7,
111,
2331,
5528,
74,
70,
786,
7668,
111,
527,
12527,
275,
4563,
329,
509,
65450,
5773,
100,
601,
69098,
2512,
136,
10,
5381,
329,
99,
28166,
68305,
23,
210721,
5,
581,
27150,
525,
82953,
4,
15718,
39,
265,
1995,
4,
509,
73872,
297,
100,
142,
230907,
141,
80997,
136,
6777,
959,
53299,
10,
12008,
111,
70,
115,
7668,
5,
14847,
171184,
7610,
68,
71,
23,
616,
10945,
4,
64676,
18347,
223,
1995,
23,
86151,
3674,
567,
143,
2312,
7974,
53,
5,
360,
72399,
22482,
616,
3882,
4,
20271,
70,
20387,
11090,
34210,
4,
601,
69098,
26253,
1995,
145755,
47,
123792,
5773,
70,
28484,
219776,
111,
527,
12527,
275,
4563,
329,
390,
22339,
6238,
10,
85689,
53,
678,
70,
20387,
100758,
5,
2161,
1438,
14487,
616,
3882,
4,
764,
42938,
297,
23,
70,
99381,
111,
4612,
53,
4887,
150,
54028,
4,
23,
3129,
4939,
87,
4,
70,
4568,
19604,
271,
5080,
111,
210126,
4969,
4,
68,
71,
5,
360,
616,
8659,
4,
51978,
171184,
310,
111,
8815,
6516,
95699,
34,
138518,
527,
12527,
275,
4563,
329,
15490,
68772,
2499,
1660,
41274,
5,
601,
6620,
18347,
223,
1995,
7068,
95699,
34,
138518,
70,
26349,
111,
45399,
30675,
23,
30646,
5,
360,
616,
10945,
4,
10,
134454,
13,
509,
157578,
5,
786,
13,
47,
53477,
34844,
3387,
4,
64676,
18347,
223,
1902,
47,
238336,
567,
143,
2312,
7974,
53,
136,
131175,
10667,
8541,
120304,
47,
51978,
12981,
265,
310,
111,
180,
37035,
23,
616,
2839,
5,
601,
69098,
26253,
1995,
68,
71,
17721,
616,
4633,
136,
616,
13330,
5,
18763,
139355,
7,
3542,
23,
86151,
3674,
390,
1919,
775,
7,
4939,
87,
136,
4939,
1995,
5,
4939,
87,
68,
71,
23,
616,
12338,
136,
4939,
1995,
23,
86151,
3674,
1919,
12008,
5,
4939,
1995,
54324,
1919,
12008,
111,
2331,
5528,
23,
616,
13307,
47,
14787,
111,
663,
13581,
2844,
1459,
4,
2750,
1902,
21771,
59038,
71,
70,
3789,
12008,
7,
23,
616,
12338,
1295,
601,
69098,
26253,
25,
7,
23552,
9,
6369,
9319,
101985,
5,
601,
69098,
26253,
1995,
139505,
110115,
111,
144013,
11,
6741,
10932,
616,
1549,
5,
10660,
1902,
17262,
20020,
12,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
51978,
601,
69098,
26253,
1995,
111,
2331,
5528,
15,
289,
991,
51529,
237,
44,
1456,
69098,
26253,
111,
527,
12527,
275,
4563,
329,
56128,
2819,
46,
17721,
616,
4633,
136,
616,
74329,
509,
10,
32786,
111,
70,
2331,
14677,
66,
32845,
206,
111,
70,
33954,
42418,
532,
68728,
8946,
5,
1529,
509,
51978,
111,
2331,
5528,
1295,
616,
9185,
24189,
1919,
47219,
5,
28090,
616,
5843,
24189,
1919,
47219,
4,
764,
509,
2843,
51978,
111,
527,
12527,
275,
4563,
329,
136,
47443,
111,
88437,
1303,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2127466 | en-train-2127466 | 2127466 | {
"title": [
"Life.",
"Marriage and issue."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"His parents were Duke Przemko I of Opava and his first wife, Anna of Lutz (d. 1405). Around 1420, Wenceslaus II married to Elisabeth of Kravař. After his father's death in 1433, Wenceslaus II took up the guardianship of his younger half-brothers William, Ernest and Przemko II, while his younger brother Nicholas IV styled himself Lord of Zlaté Hory. Although their father had stipulated in his will that they should rule the ducht jointly, the brothers divided their inheritance around 1435. William and Ernest received shares of Opava; the Duchy of Głubczyce was split off for Wenceslas and a palace at Charles Square in Prague. The youngest brother, Przemko II, was destined for an ecclesiastical career and did not receive a share of the duchy. When Nicholas IV died in 1437, Wenclaus II inherited Zlaté Hory. In late February 1428, during the Hussite Wars, Wenceslaus II managed to stave off the complete destruction of Głubczyce by concluding a treaty with the Hussites. On 27 December 1428, he participated in the Battle of Stary Wielisław, in which John I, the last Piast duke of Münsterberg, died. In 1436, Duke Nicholas V of Krnov occupied Głubczyce without giving any justification. Wenceclaus II then occupied the city of Żory in return. In 1437, a compromise was reached. Due to financial difficulties, Wenclaus had to mortgage Zlaté Hory and Edelštejn Castle to Duke Bolko V of Opole in 1440. Wenceslaus II died between 1445 and 1447. His possessions were inherited by his sons John I and John II. John I died in 1454 and John II inherited his share. John II sold his share of Opava in 1464 to George of Poděbrady, who had already purchased the other shares in 1454 from Wenceslaus's half-brother Ernest.",
"Wenceslaus II married Elisabeth of Kravař around 1420. They had three children:"
]
} |
It's a Long Way to Tipperary | null | "It's a Long Way to Tipperary" is a music hall song written by Henry James "Harry" Williams and co-credited to Jack Judge. Originally it was credited as written by Jack Judge and co-credited to Henry James "Harry" Williams. It was allegedly written for a 5-shilling bet in Stalybridge on 30 January 1912 and performed the next night at the local music hall. Now commonly called "It's a Long Way to Tipperary", the original printed music calls it "It's a Long, Long Way to Tipperary". It became popular among soldiers in the First World War and is remembered as a song of that war. | null | [
250004,
250054,
133698,
70,
23972,
6661,
5550,
4,
44,
212128,
25919,
58,
82122,
660,
14787,
17065,
157,
2594,
24124,
70,
120552,
25703,
674,
70,
1657,
76,
46526,
193764,
5367,
214,
903,
11531,
237,
1836,
52787,
71,
8305,
31649,
4867,
86,
98,
702,
8055,
41310,
136,
113771,
442,
98,
543,
8055,
41310,
5,
581,
11531,
509,
69405,
171739,
1257,
390,
3789,
25072,
7,
111,
70,
56101,
126140,
5,
360,
7582,
41310,
4,
442,
509,
17164,
297,
390,
120552,
1492,
748,
4939,
85283,
748,
192,
2594,
4,
3129,
104902,
6863,
214574,
5700,
2481,
5,
64511,
5700,
11389,
7,
23,
70,
4602,
23,
64911,
3542,
390,
70,
15672,
48772,
126,
4,
54041,
25,
7,
198624,
136,
390,
24748,
7325,
42,
42562,
5,
6561,
111,
70,
2684,
5700,
5962,
7,
111,
70,
1733,
4,
70,
11531,
83,
10,
46280,
21533,
23,
450,
442,
83,
959,
10,
1631,
5062,
11531,
450,
30041,
1636,
70,
79063,
1314,
47,
92910,
10821,
8,
297,
7,
5,
37197,
52336,
23,
96362,
1631,
7,
15,
7,
12665,
237,
70,
99858,
34210,
16,
195409,
6777,
903,
5,
360,
70,
23972,
6661,
5550,
4,
49903,
4,
70,
2684,
5700,
52336,
4,
1884,
903,
1632,
136,
44,
15017,
4517,
70,
2005,
31143,
7,
7362,
592,
830,
142156,
297,
98,
70,
4989,
214,
100,
5368,
5,
3293,
11531,
83,
959,
47,
186,
55681,
5281,
678,
10,
5700,
11531,
1295,
91234,
42856,
44759,
71,
44,
16734,
8079,
6635,
740,
149766,
3542,
44028,
99,
12921,
20028,
390,
39395,
182304,
6057,
134376,
172014,
5,
172014,
4,
678,
70,
15672,
48772,
126,
4,
6079,
44,
23389,
25,
7,
62,
14407,
42261,
717,
92349,
56,
6635,
58,
237,
10,
80560,
2472,
19364,
95685,
4,
28484,
678,
70910,
7,
4,
47617,
7,
136,
19932,
100497,
7,
4,
678,
10,
63773,
1909,
111,
44,
26951,
133,
4,
21689,
66,
1174,
3890,
104250,
19,
3934,
70,
150222,
1940,
822,
112,
17721,
70,
5117,
136,
17932,
51389,
9,
72988,
223,
162515,
5,
21763,
59337,
429,
25,
7,
27863,
3542,
120552,
4,
136,
1919,
9963,
99547,
7,
21449,
1295,
92349,
56,
6635,
5,
59337,
429,
136,
20904,
40478,
435,
23,
25074,
87180,
4,
145062,
329,
1515,
72567,
99,
70,
3658,
18,
17779,
2601,
3835,
18276,
4,
7440,
40478,
25,
7,
82953,
3419,
509,
70,
86872,
13,
5,
59337,
429,
136,
40478,
80723,
10,
4989,
9,
32166,
32562,
165410,
450,
16750,
297,
23,
2789,
19612,
23664,
52336,
91376,
390,
81099,
47126,
5,
40478,
509,
141591,
538,
62523,
20051,
4,
19441,
91148,
7565,
2927,
320,
98441,
237,
10,
29041,
5,
18763,
27863,
3542,
21057,
1779,
15,
36290,
5056,
22230,
111,
64792,
7,
16,
136,
5941,
111,
70,
52336,
3542,
18822,
71,
47,
765,
2809,
150350,
71,
678,
59337,
429,
99,
2363,
5368,
4,
581,
29016,
72089,
11151,
15,
35613,
581,
92349,
56,
6635,
11151,
247,
23,
7345,
7,
5584,
151301,
5,
24372,
20904,
40478,
25,
47219,
23,
58410,
21763,
59337,
429,
63043,
297,
31247,
22299,
100,
70,
11531,
4,
747,
17704,
538,
32562,
442,
100,
10,
8967,
3767,
30319,
1600,
23,
6512,
538,
80728,
98,
496,
18982,
62977,
136,
51339,
214,
442,
70,
11737,
17431,
99,
70,
4000,
19612,
23664,
5,
33306,
4,
70,
56312,
136,
2684,
111,
70,
68944,
47,
70,
11531,
21771,
13835,
71,
23,
70,
3173,
111,
10,
29053,
32032,
4,
44,
23389,
25,
7,
62,
14407,
42261,
47,
1657,
86,
17771,
830,
552,
9,
5429,
75639,
390,
40478,
136,
59337,
429,
4420,
23,
95007,
4,
136,
59337,
429,
11814,
903,
4,
1660,
151134,
70,
34153,
5,
581,
32562,
89543,
65450,
70,
121678,
2449,
100,
44,
23389,
25,
7,
10,
14407,
4,
14407,
4,
42261,
47,
92349,
56,
6635,
58,
24189,
21763,
59337,
429,
54324,
1919,
121678,
2449,
47,
20904,
40478,
23,
64911,
5,
360,
38222,
4,
66083,
159,
1176,
927,
7362,
1507,
49191,
166,
297,
11531,
80299,
1314,
85853,
117515,
619,
1311,
5,
100,
169020,
4,
9508,
4,
747,
9966,
2412,
54397,
70,
56312,
23,
81139,
100,
10,
11531,
112730,
99,
70,
168064,
1104,
95950,
1716,
1104,
683,
2263,
14486,
5443,
40322,
8891,
1916,
70,
17955,
108787,
53099,
5,
581,
681,
6563,
80723,
44,
568,
25,
39,
98,
759,
3917,
47,
79581,
1352,
740,
581,
29685,
6,
140545,
297,
36216,
177592,
47,
27992,
237,
26808,
606,
51858,
136,
2837,
45188,
297,
70,
60813,
23,
23031,
4,
16792,
70,
42179,
7,
111,
44,
16734,
8079,
6635,
58,
1902,
8306,
2809,
47,
149493,
136,
36216,
177592,
3034,
47314,
70,
6626,
52336,
3542,
959,
21373,
20174,
47,
42459,
58650,
40122,
8780,
5,
40478,
25,
14449,
4163,
25842,
23,
1324,
47,
765,
20904,
40478,
51521,
538,
456,
9,
45639,
297,
678,
70,
11531,
5,
10660,
99764,
2363,
43878,
90,
678,
70,
163628,
5550,
25946,
7,
5,
581,
14449,
97761,
7464,
53299,
7,
121678,
2449,
1295,
70,
11531,
5,
23972,
44028,
98,
70,
56101,
19612,
23664,
36541,
23,
62977,
390,
21763,
59337,
429,
99,
70,
12801,
146613,
23,
6512,
538,
80728,
136,
14432,
5700,
52021,
390,
70,
19612,
23664,
6057,
49506,
5056,
1326,
112,
4,
442,
509,
60213,
71,
237,
1632,
111,
70,
52336,
23,
70,
59782,
1346,
44,
20320,
55583,
20016,
9631,
830,
70,
23936,
7,
36541,
24668,
136,
1346,
44,
56886,
38,
4865,
10,
11954,
538,
5550,
58,
136,
70,
19340,
24668,
44,
62051,
2069,
95630,
830,
44028,
390,
64672,
60701,
7,
5,
1650,
509,
2843,
44028,
390,
70,
101085,
1314,
111,
1631,
23,
16162,
15790,
17990,
25,
7,
1346,
44,
2729,
22634,
891,
822,
6889,
58,
5173,
118628,
136,
237,
76615,
19612,
23,
44,
3957,
102374,
7,
15901,
3288,
214,
4,
70,
102374,
7,
15901,
3288,
214,
58,
5173,
84308,
5,
1650,
83,
2843,
70,
17932,
2831,
15,
2347,
3789,
6626,
8035,
44,
6495,
81551,
98,
70,
25074,
3253,
13482,
3336,
13,
58,
136,
44,
4613,
80750,
35788,
1295,
1172,
674,
109634,
18939,
111,
70,
25703,
52796,
95685,
111,
108405,
154928,
25,
7,
180972,
30948,
360,
57463,
1294,
5,
44,
31852,
1515,
53,
28745,
76115,
17287,
58,
11814,
442,
186351,
4,
44028,
390,
135451,
384,
5,
66349,
23,
44,
58,
188078,
4,
7068,
44028,
13438,
100,
70,
2704,
113976,
50094,
5,
1650,
83,
2843,
44028,
390,
56101,
79063,
1314,
23,
70,
1346,
44,
3957,
30720,
2069,
60560,
7,
58,
5173,
93815,
8951,
297,
390,
19635,
26902,
36400,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
44,
23389,
25,
7,
10,
14407,
42261,
47,
92349,
56,
6635,
58,
83,
10,
19612,
23664,
11531,
59121,
390,
45233,
14631,
44,
30404,
1294,
58,
40478,
136,
552,
9,
45639,
297,
47,
21763,
59337,
429,
5,
34525,
538,
442,
509,
22299,
297,
237,
59121,
390,
21763,
59337,
429,
136,
552,
9,
45639,
297,
47,
45233,
14631,
44,
30404,
1294,
58,
40478,
5,
1650,
509,
747,
17704,
538,
59121,
100,
10,
8967,
3767,
30319,
1600,
23,
6512,
538,
80728,
98,
496,
18982,
62977,
136,
51339,
297,
70,
11737,
17431,
99,
70,
4000,
19612,
23664,
5,
14240,
39210,
538,
35839,
44,
23389,
25,
7,
10,
14407,
42261,
47,
92349,
56,
6635,
830,
70,
7311,
28412,
297,
19612,
11782,
7,
442,
44,
23389,
25,
7,
10,
14407,
4,
14407,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1151374 | en-train-1151374 | 1151374 | {
"title": [
"Initial popularity.",
"Content.",
"Writing partnership.",
"Controversy over authorship.",
"Royalties.",
"Performance.",
"Lyrics."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"During the First World War, \"Daily Mail\" correspondent George Curnock saw the Irish regiment the Connaught Rangers singing this song as they marched through Boulogne on 13 August 1914 and reported it on 18 August 1914. The song was quickly picked up by other units of the British Army. In November 1914, it was recorded by Irish tenor John McCormack, which helped its worldwide popularity. Other popular versions in the USA in 1915 were by the American Quartet, Prince's Orchestra and by Albert Farrington.",
"One of the most popular hits of the time, the song is atypical in that it is not a warlike song that incites the soldiers to glorious deeds. Popular songs in previous wars (such as the Boer Wars) frequently did this. In the First World War, however, the most popular songs, like this one and \"Keep the Home Fires Burning\", concentrated on the longing for home. This song is not to be confused with a popular song from 1907 simply titled \"Tipperary\". Both were sung at different times by early recording star Billy Murray. Murray, with the American Quartet, sang \"It's A Long Way To Tipperary\" as a straightforward march, complete with brass, drums and cymbals, with a quick bar of \"Rule, Britannia!\" thrown into the instrumental interlude between the first and second verse-chorus combination.",
"Jack Judge's parents were Irish, and his grandparents came from Tipperary. Judge and Harry Williams met in Oldbury, Worcestershire at the Malt Shovel public house, where Williams's brother Ben was the licensee. Judge and Williams began a long-term writing partnership that resulted in 32 music hall songs published by Feldmans. Williams was severely handicapped, having fallen down cellar steps as a child. His parents were publicans (proprietors of pubs) and many of the songs were believed to have been composed with Judge at their home, The Plough Inn (now The Tipperary Inn), in Balsall Common.",
"After Harry Williams' death in 1924 Jack Judge claimed sole credit for the song, allegedly writing it for a 5-shilling bet in Stalybridge on 30 January 1912 and performing it the next night at the local music hall. However, the tune and most of the lyrics to the song already existed in the form of a manuscript, \"It's A Long Way to Connemara\", co-written by Williams and Judge back in 1909, and Judge used this, just changing the words. The writing partners split the royalties for \"It's a Long, Long, Way to Tipperary\" until Jack Judge sold his royalties to Harry Williams in 1915. In 1917, Alice Smyth Burton Jay sued song publishers Chappell & Co. for $100,000, alleging she wrote the tune in 1908 for a song played at the Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition promoting the Washington apple industry. The chorus began \"I'm on my way to Yakima\". The court appointed Victor Herbert to act as expert advisor and dismissed the suit in 1920, since the authors of \"Tipperary\" had never been to Seattle and Victor Herbert testified the two songs were not similar enough to suggest plagiarism.",
"Williams' family got together in 2012 to have Harry Williams officially re-credited with the song. They shared their archives with the Imperial War Museums. The family estate still receives royalties from the song.",
"First sung on the British music hall stage in 1912 by Jack Judge at the Grand Theatre in Stalybridge and later popularised by the music hall star Florrie Forde, it was featured as one of the songs in the 1951 film \"On Moonlight Bay\", the 1960s stage musical and film \"Oh! What a Lovely War\" and the 1970 musical \"Darling Lili\", sung by Julie Andrews. It was also sung by the prisoners of war in Jean Renoir's film \"La Grande Illusion\" (1937) and as background music in \"The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming\" (1966). It is also the second part (the other two being \"Hanging on the Old Barbed Wire\" and \"Mademoiselle from Armentières\") of the regimental march of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry. \"Mystery Science Theater 3000\" used it twice, sung by Crow T. Robot in \"\" (1996), then sung again for the final television episode. It is also sung by British soldiers in the film \"The Travelling Players\" (1975) directed by Theo Angelopoulos, and by Czechoslovak soldiers in the movie \"Černí baroni\" (1992). The song is often cited when documentary footage of the First World War is presented. One example of its use is in the annual television special \"It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown\" (1966). Snoopy—who fancies himself as a First World War flying ace—dances to a medley of First World War-era songs played by Schroeder. This song is included, and at that point Snoopy falls into a left-right-left marching pace. Schroeder also played this song in \"Snoopy, Come Home\" (1972) at Snoopy's send-off party. Also, Snoopy was seen singing the song out loud in a series of strips about his going to the 1968 Winter Olympics. In another strip, Snoopy is walking so long a distance to Tipperary that he lies down exhausted and notes, \"They're right, it is a long way to Tipperary.\" On a different occasion, Snoopy walks along and begins to sing the song, only to meet a sign that reads, \"Tipperary: One Block.\" In a Sunday strip wherein Snoopy, in his World War I fantasy state, walks into Marcie's home, thinking it a French café, and falls asleep after drinking all her root beer, she rousts him awake by loudly singing the song. It is also featured in \"For Me and My Gal\" (1942) starring Judy Garland and Gene Kelly and \"Gallipoli\" (1981) starring Mel Gibson. The cast of \"The Mary Tyler Moore Show\" march off screen singing the song at the conclusion of the series’ final episode. It was sung by the crew of in Wolfgang Petersen's 1981 film \"Das Boot\" (that particular arrangement was performed by the Red Army Choir). Morale is boosted in the submarine when the German crew sings the song as they begin patrolling in the North Atlantic Ocean. The crew sings it a second time as they cruise toward home port after near disaster. When the hellship SS \"Lisbon Maru\" was sinking, the Royal Artillery POWS trapped in the vessel are reported to have sung this song. Survivors of the sinking of HMS \"Tipperary\" in the Battle of Jutland (1916) were identified by their rescuers on HMS \"Sparrowhawk\" because they were singing \"It's a Long Way to Tipperary\" in their lifeboat.",
"<poem> </poem> An alternative bawdy concluding chorus: <poem> </poem"
]
} |
Dave Brubeck | null | David Warren Brubeck (; December 6, 1920 – December 5, 2012) was an American jazz pianist and composer, considered one of the foremost exponents of cool jazz. Many of his compositions have become jazz standards including "In Your Own Sweet Way" and "The Duke". Brubeck's style ranged from refined to bombastic, reflecting both his mother's classical training and his own improvisational skills. His music is known for employing unusual time signatures as well as superimposing contrasting rhythms, meters, and tonalities. | null | [
250004,
250054,
103383,
19528,
92712,
509,
103122,
23,
70,
1735,
22600,
9631,
79200,
26349,
111,
140932,
4,
39897,
4,
136,
3514,
434,
1257,
23,
10,
26349,
105866,
23,
70,
115217,
2091,
112,
35839,
87,
3630,
4,
39897,
5,
18763,
67373,
4,
7948,
131211,
44,
18144,
67,
58,
19528,
92712,
4,
509,
10,
377,
46401,
13028,
5372,
4,
136,
1919,
42732,
4,
72542,
15,
40062,
87,
67709,
247,
2750,
1902,
22282,
71,
16569,
23,
30715,
1379,
2646,
219,
1529,
7,
7,
136,
179140,
47,
24209,
10,
20428,
139356,
4,
189924,
16569,
100,
4173,
17265,
5,
18763,
67373,
1902,
140434,
6,
7154,
38904,
15,
2347,
14449,
613,
11627,
509,
7311,
538,
77135,
92712,
16,
136,
144681,
353,
4935,
15672,
2501,
29713,
42592,
429,
4,
12960,
1919,
57988,
289,
9963,
99547,
7,
3542,
14941,
136,
30839,
5,
19528,
92712,
7311,
538,
6777,
959,
150661,
47,
24209,
10,
19612,
3378,
15,
31047,
6626,
114210,
82953,
7,
4,
45233,
136,
131211,
4,
3542,
21771,
98,
450,
28560,
247,
1284,
34739,
182417,
1295,
1919,
42732,
5,
1529,
5809,
959,
12301,
19612,
20271,
6097,
39395,
182417,
4,
150380,
214,
903,
34844,
53,
47,
70425,
46223,
22553,
4,
1284,
44,
38146,
297,
58,
1919,
3917,
8305,
5299,
20174,
450,
903,
8,
11044,
33,
2408,
23409,
153161,
51,
157,
24494,
71,
5,
30131,
33770,
47,
4488,
678,
1919,
67373,
98,
2363,
13028,
206,
4,
19528,
92712,
30957,
297,
70,
29693,
111,
70,
109727,
23,
68804,
1507,
4,
39897,
15,
35613,
70,
12535,
111,
70,
109727,
247,
35187,
214,
89096,
53,
41664,
5,
1529,
98816,
47,
19612,
98,
70,
2780,
9966,
111,
70,
10336,
111,
1602,
25443,
4,
1773,
5,
126756,
4,
2750,
30745,
4049,
44,
132010,
92712,
4,
935,
7086,
25,
7,
959,
3688,
5,
1650,
25,
7,
36880,
70,
21,
7710,
23,
70,
17467,
31667,
5,
30607,
738,
2685,
5,
42284,
509,
1916,
759,
1733,
136,
935,
7,
1242,
147466,
4,
19528,
92712,
509,
110518,
14700,
2118,
71,
3229,
1632,
111,
1919,
16030,
7,
134053,
450,
764,
5809,
959,
12301,
19612,
98,
143839,
5,
48752,
289,
111,
1919,
16030,
7,
21449,
40225,
4,
106926,
214,
450,
1919,
81273,
47,
33022,
105416,
38496,
136,
182,
432,
299,
1286,
3501,
56381,
3674,
4,
136,
106804,
297,
1919,
16031,
2481,
678,
19612,
110,
22062,
5,
581,
40466,
509,
7464,
158200,
450,
442,
2806,
22304,
10,
98881,
4,
136,
176506,
47,
2633,
19528,
92712,
150180,
4734,
7103,
764,
1902,
103036,
71,
8306,
47,
94957,
16569,
5,
24372,
25975,
26518,
23,
37719,
4,
19528,
92712,
509,
144888,
297,
3934,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
126140,
5,
1529,
149976,
23,
14713,
23,
70,
198387,
126140,
5,
1529,
149849,
297,
47,
11301,
16569,
99,
10,
6096,
47832,
7639,
136,
509,
6044,
10,
5962,
450,
764,
509,
69463,
71,
1295,
30641,
4516,
136,
12989,
297,
47,
3173,
10,
8753,
5,
1529,
75935,
1632,
111,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
187,
4806,
84616,
25,
5117,
6,
90936,
12097,
78779,
297,
8753,
7,
4,
44,
3957,
45492,
29102,
740,
1650,
509,
23,
70,
116338,
4,
23,
26748,
4,
450,
19528,
92712,
435,
10208,
5581,
15882,
5,
24372,
520,
6496,
110518,
22759,
5369,
23,
70,
187,
1176,
4,
764,
176377,
47,
39897,
100,
150180,
35187,
99,
37837,
7,
29693,
23,
128366,
1760,
5,
1529,
509,
10,
9836,
111,
16706,
223,
10663,
528,
1674,
4,
2750,
65524,
71,
4049,
47,
35187,
5639,
6261,
136,
178992,
2320,
4,
1284,
959,
54704,
289,
16569,
5,
51404,
98,
36457,
115,
939,
4,
764,
75204,
6626,
182417,
1295,
126756,
57747,
48467,
99,
106837,
8356,
23,
142,
81887,
47,
37067,
678,
11192,
5744,
1419,
154453,
136,
41361,
5,
33306,
4,
70,
190647,
6777,
959,
3564,
98,
4127,
69407,
16792,
57747,
48467,
18822,
71,
450,
11907,
20537,
5608,
186,
15426,
297,
100,
4,
142,
51515,
3129,
19528,
92712,
5809,
959,
26946,
4,
102971,
59499,
47,
1919,
775,
31745,
19528,
92712,
4,
2685,
83,
10,
77488,
76456,
9,
40491,
6,
15555,
23,
44,
3957,
30948,
23,
70,
33384,
41946,
7,
830,
103383,
19528,
92712,
25,
7,
5117,
3620,
20179,
5,
360,
442,
4,
9716,
25,
7,
77488,
76456,
17116,
14,
99726,
621,
65508,
71,
12638,
5367,
214,
2363,
10002,
11651,
73048,
74,
442,
83,
151552,
237,
52,
3181,
67,
155034,
4,
41866,
3229,
91852,
7,
4034,
7,
5367,
214,
242,
4332,
91319,
25,
98,
10,
11192,
136,
91,
118862,
26725,
30125,
20537,
974,
21763,
4687,
297,
53,
6,
157272,
1735,
22600,
9,
77007,
132024,
1179,
89916,
4,
3129,
1902,
198395,
17164,
297,
16128,
803,
111659,
1760,
8753,
7,
5,
15,
73243,
132024,
1179,
89916,
5608,
959,
186,
55681,
5281,
678,
40101,
70,
72399,
27631,
7,
2356,
5753,
9,
77007,
20334,
67967,
4,
12488,
678,
28173,
9,
77007,
132024,
1179,
89916,
5,
16,
360,
45604,
4,
4687,
297,
53,
509,
22120,
297,
3934,
20662,
70,
5117,
182304,
111,
19528,
92712,
25,
7,
44043,
3263,
136,
14432,
1919,
104713,
5,
4966,
4687,
297,
53,
509,
51,
2886,
47,
8783,
1919,
54727,
7,
136,
23,
45604,
69347,
1919,
31347,
7,
645,
47,
1919,
17164,
106507,
214,
14380,
4,
70,
163731,
54877,
33734,
4,
6,
157272,
390,
9920,
136,
6678,
215228,
5,
581,
215228,
82953,
7,
33662,
98816,
70,
9351,
111,
2363,
8063,
47,
115016,
89916,
5,
32255,
61475,
19528,
92712,
115923,
54324,
5299,
4,
136,
764,
17164,
297,
136,
31089,
71,
3525,
115923,
100,
115016,
5,
1061,
191,
70,
14380,
509,
200513,
6,
160012,
47,
6,
55577,
71200,
7,
111,
19528,
92712,
115923,
12638,
128274,
4,
20662,
38040,
10821,
18348,
7,
5,
360,
59782,
4,
19528,
92712,
82649,
71,
40368,
108,
2594,
38715,
2844,
13,
136,
1919,
25927,
289,
6,
32271,
12960,
45,
6496,
3934,
70,
40836,
23,
138393,
5,
1529,
2806,
14432,
456,
10015,
450,
70,
6,
114777,
13,
133325,
2750,
45739,
71,
1902,
151552,
4049,
237,
10,
44,
13223,
284,
58,
15,
112,
712,
98,
30780,
141,
194,
19528,
92712,
192026,
297,
7103,
10,
10846,
21775,
4,
1284,
134729,
297,
678,
99996,
289,
24030,
13,
24503,
23,
1919,
44540,
100,
5369,
7103,
5,
581,
182260,
2843,
79507,
71,
1919,
75169,
20623,
98186,
27140,
4,
46389,
53,
43678,
6468,
43257,
3501,
38352,
53,
4,
11192,
9,
39659,
720,
2481,
4,
11001,
9,
48345,
127877,
5,
19528,
92712,
5808,
297,
70,
103383,
19528,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
6765,
171458,
19528,
92712,
15,
74,
14487,
305,
4,
23031,
46,
14487,
190,
4,
98946,
509,
142,
15672,
39644,
139356,
136,
150350,
42,
4,
90698,
1632,
111,
70,
100,
9825,
18,
78643,
35066,
111,
21185,
39644,
5,
52455,
111,
1919,
166577,
7,
765,
24209,
39644,
5570,
7,
26719,
44,
4153,
14804,
180,
7710,
87497,
42261,
58,
136,
44,
3957,
51978,
740,
19528,
92712,
25,
7,
20623,
37457,
71,
1295,
18831,
73,
297,
47,
35647,
28692,
4,
44961,
214,
15044,
1919,
42732,
25,
7,
54704,
289,
23189,
136,
1919,
10002,
6,
128659,
15032,
289,
59376,
5,
18763,
19612,
83,
51529,
100,
187016,
214,
225073,
1733,
138256,
7,
237,
5299,
237,
1601,
464,
7522,
214,
69822,
214,
6,
239530,
7,
4,
11903,
7,
4,
136,
47,
29858,
2449,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1715150 | en-train-1715150 | 1715150 | {
"title": [
"Early life and career.",
"Dave Brubeck Quartet.",
"Later career.",
"Personal life.",
"Recognition.",
"Death and legacy.",
"Discography.",
"Guest appearances."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Dave Brubeck was born in the San Francisco Bay Area city of Concord, California, and grew up in a city located in the Mother Lode called Ione, California. His father, Peter Howard \"Pete\" Brubeck, was a cattle rancher, and his mother, Elizabeth (née Ivey), who had studied piano in England under Myra Hess and intended to become a concert pianist, taught piano for extra money. His father had Swiss ancestry (the family surname was originally Brodbeck) and possibly Native American Modoc lineage, while his maternal grandparents were English and German. Brubeck originally did not intend to become a musician (his two older brothers, Henry and Howard, were already on that track), but took lessons from his mother. He could not read music during these early lessons, attributing this difficulty to poor eyesight, but \"faked\" his way through well enough that this deficiency went mostly unnoticed. Intending to work with his father on their ranch, Brubeck entered the College of the Pacific in Stockton, California (now the University of the Pacific), studying veterinary science. He changed to music on the urging of the head of zoology, Dr. Arnold, who told him \"Brubeck, your mind's not here. It's across the lawn in the conservatory. Please go there. Stop wasting my time and yours.\" Later, Brubeck was nearly expelled when one of his professors discovered that he could not read music on sight. Several of his professors came forward, arguing that his ability to write counterpoint and harmony more than compensated, and demonstrated his familiarity with music notation. The college was still afraid that it would cause a scandal, and agreed to let Brubeck graduate only after he had promised never to teach piano. After graduating in 1942, Brubeck was drafted into the U.S. Army. He served in Europe in the Third Army. He volunteered to play piano at a Red Cross show and was such a hit that he was spared from combat service and ordered to form a band. He created one of the U.S. armed forces' first racially integrated bands, \"The Wolfpack\". It was in the military, in 1944, that Brubeck met Paul Desmond. After serving nearly four years in the army, he returned to California for graduate study at Mills College in Oakland. He was a student of Darius Milhaud, who encouraged him to study fugue and orchestration, but not classical piano. While on active duty, he received two lessons from Arnold Schoenberg at UCLA in an attempt to connect with high modernist theory and practice. However, the encounter did not end on good terms since Schoenberg believed that every note should be accounted for, an approach which Brubeck could not accept, although according to his son Chris Brubeck, there is a twelve-tone row in \"The Light in the Wilderness\", Dave Brubeck's first oratorio. In it, Jesus's twelve disciples are introduced each singing their own individual notes; it is described as “quite dramatic, especially when Judas starts singing 'Repent' on a high and straining dissonant note.” Jack Sheedy owned San Francisco-based Coronet Records, which had previously recorded area Dixieland bands. (This Coronet Records should not be confused with either the late 1950s New York-based budget label, nor with Australia-based Coronet Records.) In 1949, Sheedy was talked into making the first recording of Brubeck's octet and later his trio. But Sheedy was unable to pay his bills and in 1949 turned his masters over to his record stamping company, the Circle Record Company, owned by Max and Sol Weiss. The Weiss brothers soon changed the name of their business to Fantasy Records. These initial Brubeck records sold well, and he recorded and issued new records for Fantasy. Soon the company was shipping 40,000 to 50,000 copies of Brubeck records each quarter, making enormous profits.",
"In 1951, Brubeck damaged several neck vertebrae and his spinal cord while diving into the surf in Hawaii. He would later remark that the rescue workers who responded had described him as a \"DOA\" (dead on arrival). Brubeck recovered after a few months, but suffered with residual nerve pain in his hands for years after. The injury also influenced his playing style towards complex, blocky chords rather than speedy, high-dexterity, single-note runs. Brubeck organized the Dave Brubeck Quartet in 1951, with Paul Desmond on alto saxophone. They took up a long residency at San Francisco's Black Hawk nightclub and gained great popularity touring college campuses, recording a series of albums with such titles as \"Jazz at Oberlin\" (1953), \"Jazz at the College of the Pacific\" (1953), and Brubeck's debut on Columbia Records, \"Jazz Goes to College\" (1954). When Brubeck signed with Fantasy Records, he thought he had a half interest in the company and he worked as a sort of A & R man for the label, encouraging the Weiss brothers to sign other contemporary jazz performers, including Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker and Red Norvo. When he discovered that all he owned was a half interest in his own recording, he quit to sign with another label, Columbia Records. In 1954, he was featured on the cover of \"Time\", the second jazz musician to be so honored (the first was Louis Armstrong on February 21, 1949). Brubeck personally found this accolade embarrassing, since he considered Duke Ellington more deserving of it and was convinced that he had been favored for being Caucasian. Ellington himself knocked on the door of Brubeck's hotel room to show him the cover and the only reaction Brubeck could give was, “It should have been you.” Early bassists for the group included Ron Crotty, Bob Bates and his brother Norman Bates; Lloyd Davis and Joe Dodge held the drum chair. In 1956 Brubeck hired drummer Joe Morello, who had been working with Marian McPartland; Morello's presence made possible the rhythmic experiments that were to come. In 1958 African-American bassist Eugene Wright joined for the group's U.S. Department of State tour of Europe and Asia. The group visited Poland, Turkey, India, Sri Lanka (then Ceylon), Pakistan, Iran and Iraq on behalf of the U.S. Government. They spent two weeks in Poland, giving thirteen concerts and spending time visiting with Polish musicians and citizens as part of the People-to-People program. Wright became a permanent member in 1959, making the \"classic\" Quartet's personnel complete. During the late 1950s and early 1960s Brubeck canceled several concerts because the club owners or hall managers continued to resist the idea of an integrated band on their stages. He also canceled a television appearance when he found out that the producers intended to keep Wright off-camera. In 1959, the Dave Brubeck Quartet recorded \"Time Out\", an album about which the record label was enthusiastic but which they were nonetheless hesitant to release. Featuring the cover art of S. Neil Fujita, the album contained all original compositions, almost none of which were in common time:,,, and were used, inspired by Eurasian folk music they experienced during their 1958 Department of State sponsored tour. Nonetheless, on the strength of these unusual time signatures (the album included \"Take Five\", \"Blue Rondo à la Turk\", and \"Three To Get Ready\"), it quickly went Platinum. It was the first jazz album to sell more than a million copies. \"Time Out\" was followed by several albums with a similar approach, including \"Time Further Out: Miro Reflections\" (1961), using more,, and, plus the first attempt at ; \"Countdown—Time in Outer Space\" (dedicated to John Glenn, 1962), featuring and more ; \"Time Changes\" (1963), with much, (which was really ), and ; and \"Time In\" (1966). These albums (except the last) were also known for using contemporary paintings as cover art, featuring the work of Joan Miró on \"Time Further Out\", Franz Kline on \"Time in Outer Space\", and Sam Francis on \"Time Changes\". On a handful of albums in the early 1960s, clarinetist Bill Smith replaced Desmond. These albums were devoted to Smith's compositions and thus had a somewhat different aesthetic than other Brubeck Quartet albums. Nonetheless, according to critic Ken Dryden, \"[Smith] proves himself very much in Desmond's league with his witty solos.\" Smith was an old friend of Brubeck's; they would record together, intermittently, from the 1940s until the final years of Brubeck's career. In the early 1960s, Brubeck and his wife, Iola, developed a jazz musical, \"The Real Ambassadors\", based in part on experiences they and their colleagues had during foreign tours on behalf of the Department of State. The soundtrack album, which featured Louis Armstrong, Lambert, Hendricks & Ross, and Carmen McRae was recorded in 1961; the musical was performed at the 1962 Monterey Jazz Festival. At its peak in the early 1960s, the Brubeck Quartet was releasing as many as four albums a year. Apart from the \"College\" and the \"Time\" series, Brubeck recorded four LPs featuring his compositions based on the group's travels, and the local music they encountered. \"Jazz Impressions of the U.S.A.\" (1956, Morello's debut with the group), \"Jazz Impressions of Eurasia\" (1958), \"Jazz Impressions of Japan\" (1964), and \"Jazz Impressions of New York\" (1964) are less well-known albums, but all are brilliant examples of the quartet's studio work, and they produced Brubeck standards such as \"Summer Song\", \"Brandenburg Gate\", \"Koto Song\", and \"Theme From Mr. Broadway\". (Brubeck wrote, and the Quartet performed, the theme song for this Craig Stevens CBS drama series; the music from the series became material for the \"New York\" album.) In 1961, Brubeck appeared in a few scenes of the British jazz/beat film \"All Night Long\", which starred Patrick McGoohan and Richard Attenborough. Brubeck merely plays himself, with the film featuring close-ups of his piano fingerings. Brubeck performs \"It's a Raggy Waltz\" from the \"Time Further Out\" album and duets briefly with bassist Charles Mingus in \"Non-Sectarian Blues\". In the early 1960s Dave Brubeck was the program director of WJZZ-FM radio (now WEZN-FM). He achieved his vision of an all-jazz format radio station along with his friend and neighbor John E. Metts, one of the first African Americans in senior radio management. The final studio album for Columbia by the Desmond/Wright/Morello quartet was \"Anything Goes\" (1966) featuring the songs of Cole Porter. A few concert recordings followed, and \"The Last Time We Saw Paris\" (1967) was the \"Classic\" Quartet's swan-song.",
"Brubeck produced \"The Gates of Justice\" in 1968, a cantata mixing Biblical scripture with the words of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The new senior management at Columbia Records decided not to renew Brubeck's contract in 1971, as they wished to focus on rock music. He moved to Atlantic Records. His music was used in the 1985 film \"Ordeal by Innocence\". He also composed for – and performed with his ensemble on – \"The NASA Space Station\", a 1988 episode of the CBS TV series \"This Is America, Charlie Brown\".",
"Dave Brubeck married jazz lyricist Iola Whitlock in September 1942, remaining married for 70 years up until his death. Iola died on March 12, 2014, from cancer in Wilton, Connecticut, at the age of 90. Four of Brubeck's six children have been professional musicians. Darius, the eldest, is a pianist, producer, educator and performer. (He was named after Dave Brubeck's mentor Darius Milhaud.) Dan is a percussionist, Chris is a multi-instrumentalist and composer. Matthew, the youngest, is a cellist with an extensive list of composing and performance credits. Another son, Michael, died in 2009. Brubeck's children often joined him in concerts and in the recording studio. Brubeck became a Catholic in 1980, shortly after completing the Mass \"To Hope\" which had been commissioned by Ed Murray, editor of the national Catholic weekly \"Our Sunday Visitor\". Although he had spiritual interests before that time, he said, \"I didn't convert to Catholicism, because I wasn't anything to convert from. I just joined the Catholic Church.\" In 1996, he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2006, Brubeck was awarded the University of Notre Dame's Laetare Medal, the oldest and most prestigious honor given to American Catholics, during the University's commencement. He performed \"Travellin' Blues\" for the graduating class of 2006. Brubeck founded the Brubeck Institute with his wife, Iola, at their alma mater, the University of the Pacific in 2000. What began as a special archive, consisting of the personal document collection of the Brubecks, has since expanded to provide fellowships and educational opportunities in jazz for students, also leading to having one of the main streets on which the school resides named in his honor, Dave Brubeck Way. The US Library of Congress conducted a conversation with Brubeck in April 2008: Jazz Conversation: Pianist, Composer Dave Brubeck.",
"The main-belt asteroid 5079 Brubeck was named after Brubeck. Brubeck recorded five of the seven tracks of his album \"Jazz Goes to College\" in Ann Arbor. He returned to Michigan many times, including a performance at Hill Auditorium where he received a Distinguished Artist Award from the University of Michigan's Musical Society in 2006. On April 8, 2008, United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice presented Brubeck with a \"Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy\" for offering an American \"vision of hope, opportunity and freedom\" through his music. \"As a little girl I grew up on the sounds of Dave Brubeck because my dad was your biggest fan\", said Rice. The State Department said in a statement that \"as a pianist, composer, cultural emissary and educator, Dave Brubeck's life's work exemplifies the best of America's cultural diplomacy.\" At the ceremony Brubeck played a brief recital for the audience at the State Department. \"I want to thank all of you because this honor is something that I never expected. Now I am going to play a cold piano with cold hands\", Brubeck stated. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008, that Brubeck would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony occurred December 10, and he was inducted alongside eleven other famous Californians. In 2008 Brubeck became a supporter of the Jazz Foundation of America in its mission to save the homes and the lives of elderly jazz and blues musicians, including those who had survived Hurricane Katrina. Brubeck supported the Jazz Foundation by performing in its annual benefit concert \"A Great Night in Harlem\". On October 18, 2008, Brubeck received an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the prestigious Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York. In September 2009, the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts announced Brubeck as a Kennedy Center Honoree for exhibiting excellence in performance arts. The Kennedy Center Honors Gala took place on Sunday, December 6 (Brubeck's 89th birthday), and was broadcast nationwide on CBS on December 29 at 9:00 pm EST. When the award was made, President Barack Obama recalled a 1971 concert Brubeck had given in Honolulu and said, \"You can't understand America without understanding jazz, and you can't understand jazz without understanding Dave Brubeck.\" On September 20, 2009, at the Monterey Jazz Festival, Brubeck was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus. \"honoris causa\") from Berklee College of Music. On May 16, 2010, Brubeck was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree (honoris causa) from the George Washington University in Washington, D.C. The ceremony took place on the National Mall. On July 5, 2010, Brubeck was awarded the Miles Davis Award at the Montreal International Jazz Festival. In 2010, Bruce Ricker and Clint Eastwood produced \"\", a documentary about Brubeck for Turner Classic Movies (TCM) to commemorate his 90th birthday in December 2010.",
"Brubeck died of heart failure on December 5, 2012, in Norwalk, Connecticut, one day before his 92nd birthday. He was on his way to a cardiology appointment, accompanied by his son Darius. A birthday party concert had been planned for him with family and famous guests. A memorial tribute was held in May 2013. The \"Los Angeles Times\" noted that he \"was one of Jazz's first pop stars,\" even though he was not always happy with his fame. He felt uncomfortable, for example, that \"Time\" had featured him on the cover before it did so for Duke Ellington, saying, \"It just bothered me.\" \"The New York Times\" noted he had continued to play well into his old age, performing in 2011 and in 2010 only a month after getting a pacemaker, with \"Times\" music writer Nate Chinen commenting that Brubeck had replaced \"the old hammer-and-anvil attack with something almost airy\" and that his playing at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York City was \"the picture of judicious clarity\". In \"The Daily Telegraph\", music journalist Ivan Hewett wrote: \"Brubeck didn't have the réclame of some jazz musicians who lead tragic lives. He didn't do drugs or drink. What he had was endless curiosity combined with stubbornness,\" adding, \"His work list is astonishing, including oratorios, musicals and concertos, as well as hundreds of jazz compositions. This quiet man of jazz was truly a marvel.\" In \"The Guardian\", John Fordham said \"Brubeck's real achievement was to blend European compositional ideas, very demanding rhythmic structures, jazz song-forms and improvisation in expressive and accessible ways. His son Chris told \"The Guardian\" \"when I hear Chorale, it reminds me of the very best Aaron Copland, something like Appalachian Spring. There's a sort of American honesty to it.\" Robert Christgau dubbed Brubeck the \"jazz hero of the rock and roll generation\". \"The Economist\" wrote: \"Above all they found it hard to believe that the most successful jazz in America was being played by a family man, a laid-back Californian, modest, gentle and open, who would happily have been a rancher all his days—except that he couldn't live without performing, because the rhythm of jazz, under all his extrapolation and exploration, was, he had discovered, the rhythm of his heart.\" The Concord Boulevard Park in his hometown of Concord, California, was renamed to \"Dave Brubeck Memorial Park\" in his honor. Mayor Dan Helix favorably recalled one of his performances at the park, saying \"He will be with us forever because his music will never die.\" While on tour performing \"Hot House\" in Toronto, Chick Corea and Gary Burton completed a tribute to Brubeck on the day of his death. Corea played \"Strange Meadow Lark\", from Brubeck's album \"Time Out\". Brubeck is interred at Umpawaug Cemetery in Redding, Connecticut. In the United States, May 4 is informally observed as \"Dave Brubeck Day\". In the format most commonly used in the U.S., May 4 is written \"5/4,\" recalling the time signature of \"Take Five\", Brubeck's best known recording. In September 2019, musicologist Stephen A. Crist's book, \"Dave Brubeck's Time Out\", provided the first scholarly book length analysis of the seminal album. In addition to his musical analyses of each of the album's original compositions, Crist provides insight into Brubeck's career during a time he was rising to the top of the jazz charts. A new biography of Dave Brubeck, by the British writer Philip Clark, was published by Da Capo Press in the US and Headline Publishing Group in the UK on February 18th 2020. On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Dave Brubeck among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal Studios fire.",
"",
"With Yo-Yo Ma Various artists"
]
} |
Fëanor | null | Fëanor () is a fictional character from J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium who plays an important part in "The Silmarillion" as the creator of the Silmarils, the skilfully-forged jewels that give the book their name and theme. He was the eldest son of Finwë, the High King of the Noldor, and his first wife Míriel Serindë. Fëanor's mother, Míriel, died shortly after giving birth, having given all her strength and essence to him. "For Fëanor was made the mightiest in all parts of body and mind: in valour, in endurance, in beauty, in understanding, in skill, in strength and subtlety alike: of all the Children of Ilúvatar, and a bright flame was in him." | null | [
250004,
250054,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
509,
70,
9836,
111,
1919,
67373,
9,
73,
9,
19729,
12576,
1076,
4,
2750,
509,
66570,
10,
9836,
111,
70,
77974,
62,
202,
1025,
5,
1529,
509,
10,
131346,
45211,
136,
30203,
9,
153144,
4,
26868,
748,
111,
70,
72163,
4205,
26499,
5,
1529,
2843,
509,
70,
179505,
111,
70,
44,
16917,
19,
5233,
416,
58,
15,
11,
6,
88981,
3129,
83,
2804,
390,
90410,
289,
420,
47,
186,
107314,
70,
112419,
111,
15044,
6987,
1900,
136,
7374,
38782,
247,
136,
509,
2804,
47,
765,
75935,
70,
540,
420,
34165,
23,
1632,
11389,
111,
6863,
32692,
5,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
4,
99,
70,
120964,
11030,
111,
1919,
13648,
4,
44,
73,
70,
158036,
111,
1919,
69307,
9035,
4,
141621,
71,
70,
22729,
111,
70,
32964,
4804,
90,
47,
3249,
70,
17262,
15432,
1727,
7870,
4,
2843,
35839,
70,
32774,
845,
8420,
7,
4,
21208,
1836,
3542,
959,
2563,
186116,
214,
3474,
1444,
4,
1836,
3542,
923,
272,
4,
68563,
1495,
2886,
4,
136,
57,
89921,
1242,
31267,
70,
4769,
147,
4,
26719,
62,
202,
1025,
4,
5809,
959,
43658,
2856,
5,
360,
15824,
4,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
66570,
5809,
959,
43658,
2856,
4,
237,
2831,
111,
1919,
3533,
3956,
23409,
3934,
2363,
20662,
5,
581,
481,
41965,
4,
23,
212754,
25,
7,
14997,
13,
4,
509,
20903,
47,
54241,
13,
4,
3853,
47,
70,
4769,
147,
4,
237,
1836,
3542,
36998,
136,
66617,
23935,
2886,
5,
1061,
44,
81827,
85,
256,
41566,
297,
70,
15432,
1727,
7870,
221,
450,
2685,
11,
46327,
110,
67573,
18738,
1495,
4,
12488,
44540,
51,
11030,
66,
4,
12488,
23937,
111,
28,
5115,
1221,
13648,
23996,
2856,
4,
100,
442,
2806,
186,
28780,
74694,
136,
678,
56,
297,
1242,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
494,
64807,
70,
15432,
1727,
7870,
36917,
756,
37076,
4,
136,
3514,
434,
118055,
538,
166,
181960,
223,
450,
70,
4769,
147,
136,
3789,
540,
1506,
552,
272,
3674,
2856,
5,
13892,
2434,
4,
78684,
121447,
1295,
17262,
10,
4188,
111,
566,
22876,
191,
674,
23,
70,
19449,
7,
111,
1572,
1140,
136,
5036,
3332,
86675,
23,
25447,
13665,
4,
24124,
23,
903,
166,
181960,
19,
142,
54591,
47,
221,
434,
4504,
19,
6889,
54940,
70,
438,
141,
1846,
5,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
6777,
959,
63207,
13892,
2434,
136,
128120,
71,
47,
6,
127219,
67,
678,
4049,
4,
1284,
509,
7464,
156892,
23,
70,
28,
5115,
62,
4266,
25,
7,
23577,
5,
13892,
2434,
11814,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
25,
7,
348,
56,
136,
30310,
26548,
4049,
4,
128219,
4049,
450,
1919,
10002,
23552,
9,
6369,
9319,
13316,
120291,
73,
509,
58136,
47,
20831,
10681,
1919,
3687,
237,
6,
150621,
47,
13316,
434,
1025,
5,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
120332,
33,
297,
13316,
120291,
73,
25,
7,
6897,
5,
15,
23389,
509,
99,
903,
1733,
450,
70,
438,
141,
1846,
4,
22648,
19,
47,
2837,
182825,
390,
13892,
2434,
25,
7,
2497,
1340,
4,
5117,
80723,
47,
100,
429,
142172,
7,
4,
3129,
2806,
14432,
186,
11814,
26548,
70,
1413,
1341,
5,
16,
1301,
1992,
4745,
674,
100,
1919,
120332,
4,
70,
4769,
147,
1119,
14,
6259,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
47,
15236,
76131,
5,
1529,
34739,
10,
193984,
241437,
678,
4049,
4,
26719,
70,
15432,
1727,
7870,
4,
3129,
764,
3884,
23,
10,
56776,
297,
16530,
5,
360,
8060,
100,
1919,
88,
18557,
775,
4,
13316,
434,
1025,
2843,
678,
7090,
434,
47,
15236,
76131,
5,
581,
4769,
147,
7068,
97384,
450,
13892,
2434,
509,
45258,
1916,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
4,
136,
9325,
35860,
2470,
47,
141621,
13892,
2434,
4,
1284,
764,
1902,
21771,
144281,
71,
5,
17106,
13316,
434,
1025,
136,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
25,
7,
6,
112199,
4,
13316,
120291,
73,
1902,
24209,
60097,
4,
136,
221,
442,
115058,
450,
13892,
2434,
25,
7,
400,
90,
3542,
29568,
5,
13892,
2434,
37842,
13438,
47,
122991,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
111,
2856,
4,
1284,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
2773,
52021,
450,
13892,
2434,
25,
7,
29568,
69236,
509,
47,
113054,
70,
15432,
1727,
7870,
4,
44,
2940,
764,
8633,
18,
70,
1911,
7,
111,
1919,
18276,
23,
70,
2577,
111,
70,
13648,
14,
525,
111,
756,
70,
104,
19256,
1314,
23,
241,
973,
1242,
360,
10,
6,
29838,
4,
13892,
2434,
25737,
5,
581,
4769,
147,
77049,
71,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
136,
13316,
120291,
73,
47,
25447,
13665,
47,
3249,
88669,
5,
13316,
120291,
73,
122399,
10,
3535,
47,
1919,
23552,
9,
6369,
9319,
4,
75530,
2706,
214,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
25,
7,
3687,
237,
70,
88,
18557,
5,
1529,
26038,
1919,
915,
181606,
47,
28960,
1919,
88,
820,
82953,
136,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
68186,
71,
5,
1215,
66,
204610,
4,
13892,
2434,
23409,
47,
57541,
36228,
23,
70,
127067,
111,
47031,
47,
40,
343,
1810,
40037,
5674,
1236,
5,
581,
2667,
6639,
223,
16195,
820,
104902,
13892,
2434,
47,
163684,
70,
32964,
4804,
90,
5,
13892,
2434,
136,
40037,
5674,
1236,
7068,
23409,
47,
15236,
76131,
4,
91,
71908,
13316,
434,
1025,
4,
136,
34739,
70,
17262,
15432,
1727,
7870,
5,
10660,
144281,
71,
390,
41421,
214,
70,
10440,
13403,
425,
1025,
4,
707,
169816,
214,
65058,
4,
23,
70,
144477,
47,
873,
1341,
2940,
5,
581,
4804,
90,
3542,
163684,
297,
20271,
70,
41186,
191,
111,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
136,
13316,
120291,
73,
5,
581,
4769,
147,
4,
2773,
72219,
450,
5036,
70,
22729,
111,
70,
4804,
90,
188545,
71,
4734,
23,
70,
15432,
1727,
7870,
4,
37170,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
47,
8337,
2856,
1257,
221,
450,
1836,
5809,
14359,
107,
70,
4804,
90,
5,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
2804,
12,
44,
23389,
1543,
186,
450,
87,
831,
51,
21135,
759,
55,
8420,
7,
4,
1284,
8306,
13438,
35299,
87,
3249,
2363,
1884,
74,
136,
2174,
87,
8110,
36356,
2856,
4,
87,
35299,
36356,
759,
26498,
1242,
3493,
442,
509,
7103,
903,
450,
764,
11341,
71,
450,
764,
2806,
959,
8337,
1257,
70,
15432,
1727,
7870,
111,
1919,
10002,
4092,
1221,
74,
2174,
70,
4769,
147,
168861,
4049,
4,
764,
2804,
4,
1836,
2806,
186,
110,
11522,
3501,
13892,
2434,
5,
31267,
7068,
4,
49903,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
15,
16,
83,
10,
127663,
289,
62816,
1295,
821,
5,
627,
5,
627,
5,
212754,
25,
7,
62673,
16219,
2750,
11301,
7,
142,
5526,
2831,
23,
44,
3957,
15432,
1727,
96222,
58,
237,
70,
179505,
111,
70,
15432,
1727,
7870,
4,
70,
16217,
126351,
9,
2472,
17704,
55,
8420,
7,
450,
8337,
70,
12877,
2363,
9351,
136,
73986,
5,
1529,
509,
70,
88,
18557,
775,
111,
13316,
434,
1025,
4,
70,
19694,
18813,
111,
70,
438,
141,
1846,
4,
136,
1919,
5117,
58386,
59321,
159053,
17898,
151760,
5,
563,
1025,
66,
748,
25,
7,
42732,
4,
59321,
159053,
4,
68,
71,
16610,
538,
7103,
68772,
127319,
4,
19441,
34475,
756,
604,
90254,
136,
3533,
3956,
47,
4049,
5,
44,
18537,
563,
1025,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2356114 | en-train-2356114 | 2356114 | {
"title": [
"Internal history.",
"Early life.",
"Silmarils.",
"Flight to Middle-earth.",
"Concept and creation.",
"In popular culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Fëanor was the student of his father-in-law Mahtan, who was himself a student of the Vala Aulë. He was a craftsman and gem-smith, inventor of the Tengwar script. He also was the creator of the \"palantíri\" (a feat which is said by Gandalf to be beyond the skill of both Sauron and Saruman), and was said to have created the Elfstone in one version of its history.",
"Fëanor, at the pinnacle of his might, \"in the greatest of his achievements, captured the light of the Two Trees to make the three Silmarils, also called the Great Jewels, though they were not mere glittering stones, they were alive, imperishable, and sacred.\" Even the Valar, including Aulë, could not copy them. In fact, Fëanor himself could not copy them, as part of his essence went into their making. Their worth, in Tolkien's universe, was close to infinite, even to the Valar, as they were unique and irreplaceable. So \"Varda hallowed the Silmarils so that thereafter no mortal flesh, nor hands unclean, nor anything of evil will might touch them, for it would be scorched and withered.\" Fëanor prized the Silmarils above all else, and grew increasingly suspicious that the Valar and other Eldar coveted them. Melkor, recently released from three ages of imprisonment in the Halls of Mandos and now residing in Valinor, saw in this suspicion an opportunity to sow dissension among the Noldor. Fëanor did not trust Melkor and refused to communicate with him, but was still caught in the evil Ainu's plot. Melkor used Fëanor's anger and pride against him, telling him that his own half-brother Fingolfin was planning to usurp his place as heir to Finwë. Fëanor threatened Fingolfin's life. (It was at this time that the Noldor, driven to distrust by Melkor's guile, first began to forge weapons, which would later be used against the Teleri.) As punishment for his threat, the Valar exiled Fëanor to Formenos. He took a substantial treasure with him, including the Silmarils, which he put in a locked box. In support for his eldest son, Finwë also withdrew to Formenos. The Valar then learned that Melkor was manipulating Fëanor, and sent Tulkas to capture Melkor, but he had already escaped. With Finwë and Fëanor's absence, Fingolfin had become king, and so it seemed that Melkor's lies were true. Melkor tried again to convince Fëanor of them, but Fëanor realised that Melkor's true goal was to obtain the Silmarils, \"and he shut the doors of his house in the face of the mightiest of all the dwellers in Eä.\" In a rage, Melkor left. The Valar invited Fëanor and Fingolfin to Valinor to make peace. Fingolfin offered a hand to his half-brother, recognising Fëanor's place as the eldest. He gave his pledge to follow his elder brother and Fëanor accepted. Meanwhile, Melkor went to Avathar in the south of Aman to seek out Ungoliant. The monstrous spider helped Melkor to destroy the Two Trees. Melkor and Ungoliant then went to Formenos, slew Finwë, and took the three Silmarils. They escaped by crossing the Helcaraxë, or Grinding Ice, in the north to Beleriand. The Trees were destroyed during the reunion of Fëanor and Fingolfin. The Valar, realising that now the light of the Trees survived only in the Silmarils, asked Fëanor to give them up so that they could restore the Trees. Fëanor said: \"It may be that I can unlock my jewels, but never again shall I make their like; and if I must break them, I shall break my heart.\" And it was after this that he stated that he would not give up the Silmarils of his own free will; if the Valar forced him, he said, they would be no better than Melkor. Even then, however, he wavered, and some later believed that at this point it may have still been possible to convince him to change his mind. However, messengers from Formenos then arrived and told that Finwë the High King of the Noldor had been killed by Melkor (and so was the first Elf to be slain in Valinor). Melkor had then stolen the Silmarils, as well as the other lesser jewels Fëanor had created. Without the living light from the Silmarils, Yavanna could not heal the Two Trees. The Valar and Eldar now fully understood the extent of Melkor's treachery. Fëanor, upon learning of his father's murder and the theft of his prized Silmarils, named Melkor \"Morgoth\", or \"Black Foe of the World\" (literally \"Black Enemy\"). Now King of the Noldor in Tirion, Fëanor delivered the most impassioned speech ever given in Arda, which he unwittingly filled with Morgoth's corruption. He railed against the Great Enemy, but because of Morgoth's influence, he also blamed the Valar for Morgoth's deeds. He persuaded most of his people that because the Valar had abandoned them, the Noldor must follow him to Middle-earth to wrest the Silmarils back from Morgoth and avenge Finwë. He declared that even if the Noldor ever managed to recover the Silmarils, he would never give them to the Valar to help recreate the Two Trees. Fëanor then swore an oath which all seven of his sons also proclaimed, vowing to fight anyone and everyone—whether Elf, Man, Maia, or Vala—who withheld the Silmarils, swearing upon Ilúvatar himself, and invoking the chief of the Valar and the mountains of Valinor themselves as witnesses. This became known as the Oath of Fëanor and, later, the cause for great tragedy on Middle-earth, particularly among his seven sons. The oath commanded Fëanor to press to Middle-earth and resulted in the first Kinslaying at the havens of the Teleri. Fëanor died soon after his return to Middle-earth but the remaining oath-takers, his sons, lived on in relative harmony with the Eldar of Beleriand. For the greater part of the First Age the oath kept the sons of Fëanor united in one cause to defeat Morgoth and retrieve the jewels. However, the true dangers of the oath became apparent when the lovers Beren and Lúthien recovered one of the jewels from Morgoth, which ultimately came into the possession of Dior, their son, who ruled after his grandfather Thingol in Menegroth. The presence of the Silmaril awoke the oath and caused the brothers to make war on the Elves of Doriath because Dior refused to yield the jewel. The brothers attacked Doriath, killed Dior and sacked the halls of the Sindar, committing the second Kinslaying. However, the Silmaril escaped the destruction of Doriath and the oath drove the sons onwards. When they learned that it was possessed by Elwing daughter of Dior, who dwelt near the mouths of Sirion together with exiles from Doriath and the city of Gondolin, they attacked the place (after Elwing also refused to return the Silmaril to them), committing the third and most terrible Kinslaying. All six of the remaining brothers survived even the complete rout of their forces at the Nírnaeth Arnoediad, but three of the brothers—Celegorm, Curufin, and Caranthir—died in the second sacking of Menegroth. At the third and final Kinslaying, Amras was slain. The fate of another brother, Amrod, varies by source. In the published Silmarillion, Amrod dies at Sirion with his brother. In subsequently published material, he dies much sooner as part of an accident that occurs when his father burns the stolen Teleri ships at Losgar. But the Silmaril escaped them again and was borne by Eärendil into the West. That Silmaril was lost to the sons of Fëanor but two more remained inside the crown of Morgoth. So after the War of Wrath the two remaining oath-takers, Maedhros and Maglor, stole the two Silmarils from the camp of the victorious West (the other five brothers were dead by this time). However, due to the terrible deeds committed by the brothers in their retrieval of the Silmarils they found they could not handle the Silmarils without enduring searing pain. The two brothers parted: in their anguish Maedhros threw himself and his Silmaril into a fiery chasm, and Maglor cast his Silmaril into the sea. Maglor would spend eternity wandering the shore, lamenting his fate (though in Tolkien's final words on the subject, Maglor cast himself with his Silmaril into the sea). Tolkien wrote at least four versions of the oath itself, as found in \"The History of Middle-earth.\" The three earliest versions are found in \"The Lays of Beleriand\": In alliterative verse (circa 1918–1920s), in chapter 2, \"Poems Early Abandoned\". \"The Flight of the Noldoli from Valinor\". Lines 132–141. In rhyming couplets (circa 1928), in chapter 3, \"The Lay of Leithian\". Canto VI, lines 1628–1643. In a different form as restated by Celegorm, third son of Fëanor, in chapter 3, \"The Lay of Leithian.\" Canto VI, lines 1848–1857. A later version is found in \"Morgoth's Ring\".",
"Seeking a way to get to Middle-earth, he went to the shores of Aman, where the seafaring Teleri lived, and asked for their aid. When Teleri refused to give or lend their ships, Fëanor ordered the Noldor to take the ships. The Teleri resisted, and a battle broke out, in which many of them were slain. The battle became known as the Kinslaying at Alqualondë, or the first kinslaying. His sons would commit two other acts of warfare against elves in Middle-earth in his name. In repentance for this act, Finarfin, Finwë's third son, took his host and turned back. They were accepted by the Valar, and Finarfin ruled as High-King of the Noldor in Valinor. The remaining Elves, those who followed Fëanor and Fingolfin, became subject to the Doom of Mandos. There were not enough ships to carry all of the Noldor across the sea, so Fëanor and his sons led the first group. Upon arriving at Losgar, in the land of Lammoth, in the far west of Beleriand, where Morgoth and Ungoliant had passed not long before, they decided to burn the ships and leave the followers of Fingolfin behind. However, Fëanor's son Amrod died at Losgar, having been accidentally burnt with the Telerin ships. The remaining Noldor saw the flames, and perceived that if they were to go to Middle-earth, they had no choice but to cross the Helcaraxë. Unwilling to return to Valinor, they did that under the leadership of Fingolfin, and suffered great losses along the way, which greatly added to the animosity they had for Fëanor and his sons. Learning of the Noldor's arrival, Morgoth summoned his armies from his fortress of Angband and attacked Fëanor's encampment in Mithrim. This battle was called the Battle under the Stars, or \"Dagor-nuin-Giliath\", for the Sun and Moon had not yet been made. The Noldor managed to win the battle, and destroy Morgoth's armies. Fëanor, still in a great rage, pressed on toward Angband with his sons. He came even within sight of Angband, but was ambushed by a force of Balrogs, with few elves about him. He fought mightily, hewing even after receiving several wounds from Gothmog, captain of the Balrogs. His sons came upon the Balrogs with a great force of elves, and were able to drive them off. However, as Fëanor was being escorted off the battlefield, he knew his wounds were fatal. He cursed Morgoth thrice, but with the eyes of death, he knew that his elves, unaided, would never throw down the dark towers of Thangorodrim. Nevertheless, he told his sons to keep the oath and to avenge their father. At the moment of his death the passing of his fiery spirit reduced his body to ashes. His sons were still bound by the Oath to recover the Silmarils, which would determine the events of Middle-earth during the First Age. According to Mandos' prophecy, following Melkor's final return and defeat in the Dagor Dagorath (Battle of Battles), the world will be changed and the Silmarils will be recovered by the Valar. Fëanor will be released from the Halls of Mandos and give Yavanna the Silmarils. Depending on the version of the story, either she or Fëanor will break them, and Yavanna will revive the Two Trees. The Pelóri Mountains will then be flattened and the light of the Two Trees will fill the world in eternal bliss.",
"The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey comments that Fëanor and his Silmarils relate to \"The Silmarillion\"s theme in a particular way: the sin of the elves is not human pride, as in the Biblical fall, but their \"desire to make things which will forever reflect or incarnate their own personality\". This elvish form of pride leads Fëanor to forge the Silmarils, and, Shippey suggests, led Tolkien to write his fictions: \"Tolkien could not help seeing a part of himself in Fëanor and Saruman, sharing their perhaps licit, perhaps illicit desire to'sub-create'.\" The critic Jane Chance Nitzsche sees Fëanor's pride as more simply Biblical, writing that Morgoth's corruption of elves and men \"mirrors that of Adam and Eve by Satan; the desire for power and godlike being is the same desire for knowledge of good and evil witnessed in the Garden of Eden.\" She treats the Silmarils as symbols of that desire, identifying Fëanor's wish to be like the Valar in creating \"things of his own\" as rebellious pride, and pointing out that his rebellion is echoed by that of the Numenorean man Ar-Pharazon, and then at the end of \"The Silmarillion\" by the (angelic) Maia, Sauron, who becomes the Dark Lord of \"Lord of the Rings\". The philologist Elizabeth Solopova suggests that the character of Fëanor was inspired by Byrhtnoth from the Anglo-Saxon poem \"The Battle of Maldon\" who is slain in battle. Tolkien has described Byrhtnoth as misled by \"pride and misplaced chivalry proven fatal\" and as \"too foolish to be heroic\", and Fëanor is driven by \"overmastering pride\" that causes his own death and that of countless followers. Fëanor is among those major characters whom Tolkien, who also used to illustrate his writings, supplied with a distinct heraldic device.",
"The black metal band Summoning's album \"Oath Bound\"s name comes from the Oath of Fëanor; the lyrics are all about the Quenta Silmarillion. Blind Guardian's song \"The Curse of Fëanor\", featured on the album \"Nightfall in Middle Earth\", tells of Fëanor swearing to go after Morgoth. The Russian power metal band Epidemia has a song entitled \"Feanor\" about the character's campaign against Morgoth, and his death."
]
} |
Kuçovë District | null | Kuçovë District () was one of the thirty-six districts of Albania (which were dissolved in 2000) that is now part of Berat County. It had a population of 34,907 (2010 estimate), and an area of 84 km2. It is in the centre of the country, and its capital was Kuçovë. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
103724,
58055,
7,
111,
70,
25632,
14834,
31075,
12,
18622,
12,
20,
27081,
14834,
31075,
23,
6,
65665,
1461,
8250,
91318,
83,
1632,
111,
70,
5201,
70880,
111,
70,
153549,
19,
29700,
53099,
4,
136,
70,
59444,
111,
1461,
8250,
91318,
509,
88303,
678,
134349,
127557,
23,
70,
27631,
7,
5,
1650,
83,
111,
33946,
47,
25921,
111,
52287,
271,
6,
159958,
136,
58136,
4,
102971,
5045,
111,
70,
29700,
150449,
1653,
63614,
70,
52287,
271,
14922,
136,
509,
20600,
297,
390,
70,
89176,
7,
20271,
70,
5880,
735,
271,
14922,
5,
38396,
756,
111,
70,
29700,
5299,
7,
621,
32354,
214,
4,
136,
23,
3060,
44677,
29700,
1957,
6423,
47,
70,
71579,
5,
1461,
8250,
91318,
1556,
1902,
70,
142105,
60687,
76875,
7,
23,
153549,
136,
2685,
83,
82424,
10,
5915,
111,
60687,
51,
111118,
2822,
5,
581,
84158,
271,
63647,
45367,
1461,
8250,
91318,
3934,
142,
25297,
26349,
4,
54940,
70,
2684,
25297,
29367,
23,
70,
23295,
4,
1284,
70,
43581,
63647,
4,
1660,
51776,
70,
60687,
181653,
2685,
136,
22027,
25,
18,
14145,
2499,
17265,
23,
6863,
150449,
5,
581,
59444,
1556,
134729,
297,
4552,
6494,
538,
20271,
70,
1305,
9,
277,
12303,
1419,
14922,
4,
136,
2685,
621,
5941,
32997,
297,
31461,
3387,
136,
14537,
18153,
7,
23,
136,
10932,
70,
59444,
4,
136,
442,
83,
9105,
38526,
70425,
56,
3501,
70,
108,
6958,
38648,
214,
59444,
7,
6044,
237,
79817,
5,
8622,
83,
10176,
47,
33946,
70,
63044,
135474,
4,
136,
135094,
100,
70,
9105,
1290,
621,
70425,
3853,
390,
4000,
5570,
7,
20,
135474,
7,
2806,
186,
11522,
115992,
71,
47,
88898,
1461,
587,
272,
1295,
79817,
5,
1461,
8250,
91318,
509,
36770,
538,
10,
155738,
116338,
103724,
4,
136,
70,
1831,
37382,
99,
1461,
8250,
91318,
47143,
7,
1632,
111,
70,
142105,
23,
153549,
136,
10,
17704,
1208,
724,
78431,
1314,
111,
27631,
7,
75796,
5809,
186,
51592,
12403,
214,
98,
10,
20324,
18231,
24189,
1836,
3542,
77681,
61585,
297,
23,
72399,
35652,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
1461,
8250,
91318,
59338,
15,
16,
509,
1632,
111,
70,
6,
95037,
939,
9,
7,
4084,
103724,
7,
111,
153549,
15,
143321,
3542,
26725,
141,
4126,
23,
3576,
16,
450,
83,
5036,
2831,
111,
79817,
47064,
5,
1650,
1902,
10,
43904,
111,
138,
127915,
8368,
15,
11436,
25902,
67,
247,
136,
142,
16128,
111,
14885,
1785,
5442,
1650,
83,
23,
70,
11698,
111,
70,
23295,
4,
136,
6863,
10323,
509,
1461,
8250,
91318,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1684090 | en-train-1684090 | 1684090 | {
"title": [
"Administrative divisions.",
"Kuçovë Municipality.",
"Description."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The district consists of the following municipalities:",
"Note: - urban municipalities in bold",
"Kuçovë is one of the main centres of the Albanian oil industry, and the town of Kuçovë was built with Soviet assistance in the 1950s. It is of interest to students of communist architecture and planning, although much of the oil infrastructure predates the communist period and was installed by the Italians during the Zogist period. Today all of the oil wells are functioning, and in some places oil seeps to the surface. Kuçovë has had the largest Oil reserves in Albania and there is currently a lot of Oil unexplored. The Communist regime build Kuçovë into an industrial city, among the most industrialized in the country, but the current regime, just takes the Oil produced there and doesn't invest any money in its infrastructure. The town has suffered very badly during the post-communist period, and there are many abandoned factories and power plants in and around the town, and it is visibly poorer than the neighbouring towns such as Berat. There is little to interest the casual tourist, and facilities for the visitor are poor even by local standards - tourists would be better advised to explore Kucove from Berat. Kuçovë was formerly a closed military district, and the airbase at Kuçovë remains one of the largest in Albania and aged MiG fighters of 1950s vintage could be seen flying on a regular basis until they were finally grounded in late 2005."
]
} |
Pyrometer | null | A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of distant objects. Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed. In the modern usage, it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the amount of the thermal radiation it emits, a process known as pyrometry and sometimes radiometry. | null | [
250004,
250054,
1650,
83,
35509,
98,
70,
24702,
133,
450,
70,
20753,
2481,
111,
22729,
75204,
390,
70,
160073,
56566,
7,
54799,
62488,
111,
160073,
1295,
31344,
136,
52768,
111,
95534,
31344,
5,
62,
5744,
6,
89399,
102220,
1556,
142,
233,
70760,
5426,
136,
10,
96391,
748,
5,
581,
233,
70760,
5426,
32153,
90,
70,
70,
42,
2749,
4567,
2320,
98,
188,
70,
96391,
748,
5,
581,
140992,
26073,
111,
70,
96391,
748,
15,
98334,
13,
44,
618,
18939,
83,
62548,
47,
70,
70,
42,
2749,
4567,
2320,
707,
193,
10541,
7154,
26168,
115187,
111,
70,
30388,
36746,
8305,
70,
36947,
1104,
136055,
9136,
5761,
27165,
4,
70,
53697,
111,
123875,
134393,
8954,
4,
35839,
70,
36947,
1104,
136055,
9136,
5761,
53697,
136,
70,
28,
86811,
3760,
53,
9350,
111,
70,
36746,
5,
3293,
140992,
83,
11814,
47,
53498,
70,
36746,
25,
7,
52768,
1295,
10,
62488,
4,
678,
110,
3871,
100,
70,
6,
89399,
102220,
47,
186,
23,
70,
42,
2749,
5470,
678,
70,
36746,
74,
2684,
3789,
182342,
29089,
7,
15,
13,
5,
177,
5,
182342,
12600,
99726,
136,
39746,
7154,
52768,
96391,
25251,
15,
20503,
397,
7,
16,
16,
621,
158012,
23,
70,
42,
2749,
5470,
678,
70,
36746,
4,
136,
107003,
47,
58359,
70,
42,
2749,
6,
155159,
316,
5,
166259,
87739,
53,
111,
106500,
13379,
7,
34844,
3387,
5,
32255,
621,
2684,
39210,
538,
645,
45738,
390,
17368,
6117,
19,
52770,
674,
6,
89399,
87739,
53,
707,
2260,
18,
6,
89399,
87739,
53,
5,
149766,
53088,
83687,
19336,
18652,
7,
23,
5470,
678,
8010,
106500,
5,
581,
160,
3055,
9265,
31655,
1401,
71,
177,
25876,
26868,
297,
70,
5117,
6,
89399,
102220,
47,
72350,
70,
52768,
23,
1919,
30568,
1779,
4,
3129,
5117,
154186,
70,
10576,
111,
26580,
53,
11476,
71,
99,
51529,
52768,
7,
4,
1284,
509,
155605,
116086,
71,
47,
163,
162,
53089,
70,
90978,
22241,
429,
111,
126371,
111,
26580,
53,
4,
3129,
42548,
71,
98,
30568,
19,
52768,
5,
147466,
27781,
7,
11814,
70,
14700,
66,
6889,
111,
10,
12924,
1909,
5,
581,
5117,
213566,
214,
9,
119948,
674,
6,
89399,
102220,
509,
88303,
390,
339,
5,
14355,
57332,
136,
563,
5,
5375,
141,
402,
316,
23,
91255,
5,
3293,
75186,
1902,
10,
6117,
19,
39108,
289,
52770,
674,
17721,
142,
160073,
25,
7,
36298,
136,
142,
23,
79647,
150506,
36746,
5,
581,
43581,
8305,
70,
52770,
674,
509,
126596,
297,
24189,
442,
509,
111,
70,
5701,
134855,
15,
2940,
8311,
329,
52768,
16,
237,
70,
36746,
4,
136,
110,
51713,
75693,
74,
442,
509,
72941,
2844,
3674,
47,
63769,
52768,
47,
186,
53498,
2822,
1295,
70,
43581,
5,
581,
52768,
176377,
390,
70,
131,
14,
54700,
52770,
674,
6,
89399,
102220,
136,
27060,
111,
6863,
8562,
4,
35839,
124498,
7432,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
4,
83,
108750,
98,
70,
28,
86811,
3760,
53,
111,
70,
36746,
5,
17106,
117396,
4527,
111,
124498,
7432,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
4,
442,
100512,
162520,
450,
44402,
13835,
71,
678,
456,
538,
214,
98,
51359,
111,
70,
34292,
111,
28,
86811,
3760,
53,
5,
241,
86811,
3760,
53,
509,
14037,
47,
15549,
4,
27983,
211228,
25958,
4,
678,
71579,
166904,
7432,
4,
11876,
92,
136,
71579,
166577,
4,
136,
3853,
70,
52768,
68034,
5,
717,
2046,
10932,
6097,
34844,
3387,
4,
70,
70460,
707,
6626,
9,
46133,
6,
89399,
102220,
509,
126809,
5,
10660,
456,
538,
98,
70,
15824,
450,
5586,
2594,
25,
7,
27165,
4,
3129,
33444,
90,
52768,
47,
70,
20753,
2481,
111,
4567,
2320,
53225,
3674,
99,
11651,
259,
272,
23986,
927,
7,
4,
831,
186,
86869,
71,
100,
52768,
2174,
5586,
2594,
25,
7,
63805,
111,
70,
20753,
31075,
99,
6626,
12921,
259,
272,
23986,
927,
7,
83,
101637,
71,
5,
3293,
29806,
41591,
7,
450,
70,
28,
86811,
3760,
53,
83,
70,
5701,
99,
15044,
259,
272,
23986,
927,
7,
136,
53017,
7,
1810,
23,
70,
91853,
5,
3293,
83,
51529,
237,
70,
4224,
53,
14361,
237259,
5,
2552,
5565,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
621,
85590,
538,
6626,
124498,
7432,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
23,
10,
11001,
13984,
5,
581,
41018,
289,
24702,
1577,
111,
70,
70460,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
3542,
126809,
23,
70,
23031,
7,
136,
28730,
7,
4,
136,
1836,
3542,
60091,
538,
19882,
23,
34578,
5,
1301,
70,
70460,
6,
89399,
102220,
21449,
3934,
5700,
4527,
4,
442,
509,
83324,
71,
450,
5941,
76319,
4,
111,
3129,
12924,
7,
621,
142,
27781,
4,
54,
959,
765,
70,
5701,
28,
86811,
3760,
53,
99,
6626,
259,
272,
23986,
927,
7,
5,
1326,
6097,
76319,
4,
70,
28,
86811,
3760,
53,
14602,
959,
53017,
1810,
136,
70,
52768,
72350,
674,
83,
23,
18499,
5,
581,
41170,
111,
18499,
56566,
7,
98,
70,
28,
86811,
686,
2449,
136,
70,
259,
272,
23986,
927,
7,
7440,
70,
72350,
9035,
621,
39958,
5,
32964,
9,
46133,
70460,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
53418,
72350,
36766,
10,
4912,
26,
7,
28,
86811,
3760,
53,
83,
259,
272,
23986,
927,
108750,
5,
717,
1286,
152018,
538,
72350,
70,
52768,
111,
2773,
36746,
7,
678,
51,
69723,
19,
707,
151134,
28,
86811,
686,
2449,
4,
6024,
634,
272,
23986,
927,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
3542,
22,
25826,
297,
99,
70,
7082,
9907,
43975,
111,
20744,
7,
136,
46473,
136,
151552,
23,
86591,
19335,
634,
272,
23986,
927,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
4527,
17262,
707,
1286,
259,
272,
23986,
927,
7,
136,
291,
140363,
70760,
45258,
1363,
111,
70,
50339,
47,
81887,
47,
69307,
152018,
52768,
72350,
674,
3853,
3229,
70,
28,
86811,
3760,
53,
83,
51,
69723,
19,
4,
151134,
4,
136,
12921,
99,
756,
259,
272,
23986,
927,
7,
5,
166259,
102220,
7,
621,
14947,
71,
41866,
47,
70,
72350,
674,
111,
98567,
36746,
7,
707,
2499,
71579,
7,
450,
53418,
186,
157578,
707,
53418,
186,
23996,
297,
5,
1657,
99736,
6635,
6024,
16711,
29088,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
621,
202319,
100,
163,
162,
53089,
11192,
52768,
7,
46132,
375,
4223,
1363,
1608,
26278,
7,
111,
9060,
164552,
13,
87907,
7,
678,
11192,
61689,
219,
2408,
5,
61727,
13,
83,
10,
20531,
171859,
23,
68259,
36447,
21533,
16387,
76,
329,
41018,
7,
5,
853,
150,
2886,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
6,
89399,
102220,
83,
10,
10644,
111,
148814,
9,
28290,
214,
182342,
29089,
11814,
47,
72350,
70,
52768,
111,
95534,
36746,
7,
5,
179117,
223,
3173,
7,
111,
6,
89399,
102220,
7,
765,
186768,
538,
13835,
71,
5,
360,
70,
5744,
127689,
4,
442,
83,
10,
75186,
450,
1295,
10,
62488,
83324,
7,
70,
52768,
111,
10,
71579,
1295,
70,
41170,
111,
70,
70,
42,
2749,
4567,
2320,
442,
53225,
7,
4,
10,
9433,
51529,
237,
6,
89399,
87739,
53,
136,
68018,
5977,
1928,
1294,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1338319 | en-train-1338319 | 1338319 | {
"title": [
"Principle.",
"History.",
"Applications."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"It is based on the principle that the intensity of light received by the observer depends upon distance of observer from source and temperature of distant source. A modern pyrometer has an optical system and a detector. The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (temperature \"T\") is related to the thermal radiation or irradiance formula_1 of the target object through the Stefan–Boltzmann law, the constant of proportionality σ, called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of the object. This output is used to infer the object's temperature from a distance, with no need for the pyrometer to be in thermal contact with the object; most other thermometers (e.g. thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)) are placed in thermal contact with the object, and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium. Pyrometry of gases presents difficulties. These are most commonly overcome by using thin filament pyrometry or soot pyrometry. Both techniques involve small solids in contact with hot gases.",
"The potter Josiah Wedgwood invented the first pyrometer to measure the temperature in his kilns, which first compared the color of clay fired at known temperatures, but was eventually upgraded to measuring the shrinkage of pieces of clay, which depended on kiln temperature. Later examples used the expansion of a metal bar. The first disappearing-filament pyrometer was built by L. Holborn and F. Kurlbaum in 1901. This device had a thin electrical filament between an observer's eye and an incandescent object. The current through the filament was adjusted until it was of the same colour (and hence temperature) as the object, and no longer visible; it was calibrated to allow temperature to be inferred from the current. The temperature returned by the vanishing filament pyrometer and others of its kind, called brightness pyrometers, is dependent on the emissivity of the object. With greater use of brightness pyrometers, it became obvious that problems existed with relying on knowledge of the value of emissivity. Emissivity was found to change, often drastically, with surface roughness, bulk and surface composition, and even the temperature itself. To get around these difficulties, the ratio or two-color pyrometer was developed. They rely on the fact that Planck's law, which relates temperature to the intensity of radiation emitted at individual wavelengths, can be solved for temperature if Planck's statement of the intensities at two different wavelengths is divided. This solution assumes that the emissivity is the same at both wavelengths and cancels out in the division. This is known as the gray body assumption. Ratio pyrometers are essentially two brightness pyrometers in a single instrument. The operational principles of the ratio pyrometers were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, and they were commercially available in 1939. As the ratio pyrometer came into popular use, it was determined that many materials, of which metals are an example, do not have the same emissivity at two wavelengths. For these materials, the emissivity does not cancel out and the temperature measurement is in error. The amount of error depends on the emissivities and the wavelengths where the measurements are taken. Two-color ratio pyrometers cannot measure whether a material’s emissivity is wavelength dependent. To more accurately measure the temperature of real objects with unknown or changing emissivities, multiwavelength pyrometers were envisioned at the US National Institute of Standards and Technology and described in 1992. Multiwavelength pyrometers use three or more wavelengths and mathematical manipulation of the results to attempt to achieve accurate temperature measurement even when the emissivity is unknown, changing, and different at all wavelengths.",
"Pyrometers are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that cannot be reached or cannot be touched. Contemporary multispectral pyrometers are suitable for measuring high temperatures inside combustion chambers of gas turbine engines with high accuracy. Temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace operations. Reliable and continuous measurement of the metal temperature is essential for effective control of the operation. Smelting rates can be maximized, slag can be produced at the optimum temperature, fuel consumption is minimized and refractory life may also be lengthened. Thermocouples were the traditional devices used for this purpose, but they are unsuitable for continuous measurement because they melt and degrade. Salt bath furnaces operate at temperatures up to 1300 °C and are used for heat treatment. At very high working temperatures with intense heat transfer between the molten salt and the steel being treated, precision is maintained by measuring the temperature of the molten salt. Most errors are caused by slag on the surface which is cooler than the salt bath. The \"tuyère pyrometer\" is an optical instrument for temperature measurement through the tuyeres which are normally used for feeding air or reactants into the bath of the furnace. A steam boiler may be fitted with a pyrometer to measure the steam temperature in the superheater. A hot air balloon is equipped with a pyrometer for measuring the temperature at the top of the envelope in order to prevent overheating of the fabric. Pyrometers may be fitted to experimental gas turbine engines to measure the surface temperature of turbine blades. Such pyrometers can be paired with a tachometer to tie the pyrometer output with the position of an individual turbine blade. Timing combined with a radial position encoder allows engineers to determine the temperature at exact points on blades moving past the probe."
]
} |
Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II | null | The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II is a single-seat, twin turbofan engine, straight wing jet aircraft developed by Fairchild-Republic for the United States Air Force (USAF). It is commonly referred to by the nicknames "Warthog" or "Hog", although the A-10's official name comes from the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, a World War II fighter-bomber effective at attacking ground targets. The A-10 was designed for close air support (CAS) of friendly ground troops, attacking armored vehicles and tanks, and providing quick-action support against enemy ground forces. It entered service in 1976 and is the only production-built aircraft that has served in the USAF that was designed solely for CAS. Its secondary mission is to provide forward air controller–airborne support, by directing other aircraft in attacks on ground targets. Aircraft used primarily in this role are designated OA-10. | null | [
250004,
250054,
2795,
9,
70646,
5550,
1995,
34754,
111,
101805,
25958,
187,
4806,
52875,
1831,
56379,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
1902,
138025,
27686,
5,
11724,
79825,
100,
36322,
70760,
1831,
56379,
162393,
98,
70,
117989,
111,
72249,
142172,
7,
17368,
11192,
9,
175870,
4331,
7,
1884,
70,
563,
9,
35046,
5346,
25166,
31,
136,
563,
9,
46659,
139808,
206,
29469,
5,
11724,
7,
142156,
214,
98,
101805,
289,
142172,
7,
1902,
2809,
21334,
538,
124962,
71,
4,
137802,
2363,
42805,
3934,
70,
39272,
5550,
12441,
390,
70,
133915,
5550,
9,
1704,
120469,
62,
5759,
17689,
42,
135011,
5,
51404,
10,
87709,
1831,
56379,
100,
6863,
1615,
4,
678,
10,
35845,
538,
21334,
8783,
63033,
136,
4989,
459,
16840,
1733,
4,
70,
25793,
14191,
9,
33926,
33,
4331,
509,
2843,
35845,
538,
72803,
136,
166553,
47,
61585,
11476,
5,
581,
345,
5,
294,
5,
5345,
59591,
136,
82485,
89499,
7,
72856,
1381,
910,
62,
5759,
7,
23,
22631,
23,
39272,
4,
21334,
538,
1295,
19336,
121641,
11476,
5,
581,
62,
5759,
17689,
42,
135011,
2843,
1902,
70425,
11476,
62783,
5,
581,
92635,
111,
5744,
101805,
289,
52875,
3540,
41159,
105876,
297,
11782,
7,
100,
10,
5361,
29367,
52875,
1831,
56379,
5,
2161,
361,
18237,
40418,
4,
196212,
133698,
903,
14922,
4,
70,
14098,
46684,
126140,
1902,
2809,
39864,
214,
70,
6,
60148,
5759,
87,
516,
30922,
164,
3934,
4516,
5,
23972,
11814,
23,
6863,
179140,
31486,
237,
10,
6181,
4,
442,
509,
33662,
73197,
297,
23,
70,
44457,
47,
85358,
1286,
36279,
17863,
7,
23,
2367,
100512,
51529,
237,
70,
764,
9120,
78478,
17863,
16070,
31486,
5,
3293,
77443,
60266,
26548,
70,
22729,
538,
187,
4806,
22,
195,
53,
4,
136,
3525,
17863,
136,
13950,
126,
855,
7,
3542,
49814,
5,
1061,
191,
70,
67909,
5759,
1311,
2844,
509,
65508,
71,
5,
3293,
509,
142,
52875,
764,
9120,
78478,
187,
4806,
678,
4989,
9,
94250,
335,
56948,
9,
15770,
9926,
1456,
18025,
1340,
7,
19048,
47,
163684,
32216,
7,
1295,
50782,
70,
37457,
111,
144419,
13,
11476,
5,
581,
764,
9120,
78478,
509,
60266,
4,
136,
105876,
297,
70,
345,
5,
294,
5,
116338,
47,
15549,
6863,
144419,
13,
113857,
23,
2161,
382,
6088,
36236,
4,
9082,
4939,
436,
5,
85283,
191,
69527,
4,
127873,
111,
112006,
111,
70,
4602,
919,
4,
12989,
297,
450,
10,
5361,
29367,
74213,
1831,
56379,
186,
82775,
4,
126809,
4,
136,
113054,
297,
5,
2161,
1039,
14487,
4,
10,
853,
3181,
107,
9035,
57945,
42666,
5844,
509,
31089,
71,
100,
70,
62,
9,
1542,
74213,
1831,
5868,
13,
4,
136,
70,
188515,
146797,
289,
15,
284,
9,
1542,
16,
1528,
23179,
509,
100,
4806,
5,
2161,
305,
11994,
28980,
4,
70,
5345,
59591,
121447,
10,
50336,
100,
4677,
47,
952,
165815,
18264,
25251,
100,
70,
62,
9,
1542,
5,
581,
151814,
509,
47,
28282,
10,
4331,
35187,
100,
10,
27226,
9,
587,
271,
52875,
1831,
56379,
5,
360,
31060,
4,
70,
196212,
111,
70,
5345,
59591,
37170,
58807,
33533,
53,
47,
2161,
209,
22482,
28506,
4,
76677,
53,
196212,
111,
207068,
19893,
151196,
7,
42179,
29367,
4393,
9,
17957,
36049,
4,
678,
70,
5117,
62,
9193,
8035,
68186,
71,
390,
70,
5345,
59591,
87524,
70760,
5345,
123573,
98,
496,
11994,
28506,
5,
118479,
136475,
136,
157578,
10,
280,
344,
34515,
111,
702,
1831,
56379,
117,
31150,
5,
3311,
20986,
4,
361,
1837,
1831,
5868,
90,
4,
26719,
6626,
160469,
90,
136,
37195,
34754,
1831,
56379,
4,
1902,
2809,
75060,
297,
5,
14847,
62,
9193,
4393,
9,
17957,
36049,
509,
5117,
42179,
29367,
70,
1831,
56379,
25,
7,
203251,
4516,
6897,
509,
6,
102525,
21974,
5,
62,
19336,
19574,
50930,
674,
47,
70,
4331,
509,
69405,
30666,
297,
3229,
70,
62,
9193,
165523,
61475,
209358,
134234,
99,
20668,
111,
134234,
74,
678,
70,
30022,
4,
70,
62,
9193,
115081,
70,
209358,
109921,
5,
6,
112694,
9,
420,
20016,
9,
497,
474,
4516,
60742,
3542,
141753,
39210,
99,
70,
1733,
4,
221,
209358,
134234,
111,
70,
62,
9193,
136475,
678,
10,
3525,
6,
112694,
9,
497,
474,
30388,
5,
3293,
3525,
30388,
69405,
134053,
85583,
116546,
7,
99,
601,
214,
38488,
1105,
15,
52143,
85520,
7440,
70,
1810,
24351,
126826,
7,
111,
70,
148,
5180,
581,
62,
9193,
1556,
75204,
5941,
116086,
7,
16792,
22,
33558,
4516,
5,
360,
25695,
4,
70,
62,
9193,
75204,
70,
1342,
272,
4267,
299,
32030,
53299,
42,
855,
4,
3129,
53299,
7,
44961,
297,
32030,
4567,
2320,
1295,
32030,
4331,
4597,
7,
47,
63769,
70,
1831,
56379,
47,
75060,
32030,
17997,
71,
51072,
5256,
5,
581,
1342,
272,
4267,
299,
855,
83,
175100,
98,
10,
164865,
191,
6,
121147,
297,
35064,
70,
7108,
5609,
111,
70,
99070,
6295,
136,
1556,
10,
34735,
21455,
111,
70,
61585,
5,
360,
15643,
4,
70,
62,
9193,
80723,
217063,
142,
23,
2529,
15403,
134470,
5426,
5,
360,
70,
39395,
11704,
7,
4,
70,
62,
9193,
80723,
47,
53299,
70,
61187,
9,
6210,
35810,
147715,
136,
160017,
214,
357,
1121,
329,
674,
15,
172905,
647,
16,
116086,
4,
3129,
62952,
13909,
29367,
142172,
9,
508,
14578,
98154,
4,
142,
1809,
105962,
4,
136,
10,
61585,
9,
62378,
6889,
1631,
592,
5426,
5,
360,
8272,
4,
1831,
56379,
80723,
217063,
13453,
99428,
214,
12353,
134470,
76519,
136,
10,
6024,
9,
137175,
44116,
5,
581,
3358,
43865,
5426,
509,
116086,
71,
678,
142,
91969,
3674,
189932,
619,
31143,
27131,
40139,
15,
159641,
13709,
194,
1250,
144429,
53333,
116086,
7,
99201,
78779,
297,
30641,
33938,
136,
6,
114777,
13,
7001,
4597,
76519,
136,
52295,
71,
39395,
1631,
592,
136,
2874,
9,
5095,
15970,
9,
208202,
1363,
76519,
4,
136,
70,
5345,
59591,
125296,
71,
450,
70,
62,
9193,
25,
7,
87907,
14537,
509,
1614,
9,
191244,
136,
1902,
2809,
58136,
47,
91995,
2856,
678,
1286,
113138,
87907,
7,
16792,
99,
19713,
6789,
99,
142,
25902,
3674,
11034,
111,
78790,
96090,
5,
360,
22059,
4,
22865,
59989,
55061,
65421,
34739,
645,
8060,
100,
70,
62,
9193,
1528,
5,
360,
13867,
4,
22865,
59989,
150011,
70,
82649,
6,
217784,
164031,
136,
59591,
63667,
73317,
141,
12321,
510,
7154,
5586,
136,
95001,
429,
6003,
1283,
18,
233397,
5,
9578,
70,
11737,
10846,
5369,
4,
44402,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
34997,
206,
38472,
47806,
62,
9193,
139808,
84764,
1995,
83,
10,
11001,
9,
184,
257,
4,
138241,
94779,
7260,
87907,
4,
80560,
6,
14775,
55,
18,
1831,
56379,
126809,
390,
34997,
206,
38472,
9,
4332,
57964,
100,
70,
14098,
46684,
5345,
59591,
15,
42101,
919,
194,
1650,
83,
39210,
538,
15005,
2822,
47,
390,
70,
128911,
11627,
7,
44,
71947,
927,
1663,
58,
707,
44,
841,
1663,
830,
102971,
70,
62,
9193,
25,
7,
51521,
9351,
32497,
1295,
70,
47806,
436,
139315,
139808,
84764,
4,
10,
6661,
5550,
1995,
6,
202523,
9,
96946,
56,
60266,
99,
52875,
214,
61585,
30388,
7,
5,
581,
62,
9193,
509,
82775,
100,
20903,
1831,
8060,
15,
123080,
16,
111,
101786,
61585,
3428,
68818,
4,
52875,
214,
187,
432,
2822,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2238138 | en-train-2238138 | 2238138 | {
"title": [
"Development.",
"Background.",
"Helicopter competition.",
"A-X program.",
"Production.",
"Upgrades.",
"HOG UP and Wing Replacement Program.",
"A-10C.",
"Design.",
"Overview.",
"Durability.",
"Weapons.",
"Modernization.",
"Colors and markings.",
"Operational history.",
"Entering service.",
"Gulf War and Balkans.",
"Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and recent deployments.",
"Future.",
"Other uses.",
"Operators.",
"Nicknames.",
"External links."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Post-World War II development of conventionally armed attack aircraft in the United States had stagnated. Design efforts for tactical aircraft focused on the delivery of nuclear weapons using high-speed designs like the F-101 Voodoo and F-105 Thunderchief. Designs concentrating on conventional weapons had been largely ignored, leaving their entry into the Vietnam War led by the Korean War-era Douglas A-1 Skyraider. While a capable aircraft for its era, with a relatively large payload and long loiter time, the propeller-driven design was also relatively slow and vulnerable to ground fire. The U.S. Air Force and Marine Corps lost 266 A-1s in action in Vietnam, largely from small arms fire. The A-1 Skyraider also had poor firepower. The lack of modern conventional attack capability prompted calls for a specialized attack aircraft. On 7 June 1961, Secretary",
"During this period, the United States Army had been introducing the UH-1 Iroquois into service. First used in its intended role as a transport, it was soon modified in the field to carry more machine guns in what became known as the helicopter gunship role. This proved effective against the lightly armed enemy, and new gun and rocket pods were added. Soon the AH-1 Cobra was introduced. This was an attack helicopter armed with long-range BGM-71 TOW missiles able to destroy tanks from outside the range of defensive fire. The helicopter was effective, and prompted the U.S. military to change its defensive strategy in",
"On 8 September 1966, General John P. McConnell, Chief of Staff of the USAF, ordered that a specialized CAS aircraft be designed, developed, and obtained. On 22 December, a Requirements Action Directive was issued for the A-X CAS airplane, and the Attack Experimental (A-X) program office was formed. On 6 March 1967, the Air Force released a request for information to 21 defense contractors for the A-X. The objective was to create a design study for a low-cost attack aircraft. In 1969, the Secretary of the Air Force asked Pierre Sprey to",
"On 10 February 1976, Deputy Secretary of Defense Bill Clements authorized full-rate production, with the first A-10 being accepted by the Air Force Tactical Air Command on 30 March 1976. Production continued and reached a peak rate of 13 aircraft per month. By 1984, 715 airplanes, including two prototypes and six development aircraft, had been delivered. When A-10 full-rate production was first authorized the aircraft's planned service life was 6,000 hours. A small reinforcement to the design was quickly adopted when the A-10 failed initial fatigue testing at 80% of testing; with the fix, the A-10 passed the fatigue tests. 8,000-flight-hour service lives were becoming common at the time, so fatigue testing of the A-10 continued with a new 8,000-hour target. This new target quickly discovered serious cracks at Wing Station 23 (WS23) where the outboard portions of the wings",
"The A-10 has received many upgrades since entering service. In 1978, the A-10 received the Pave Penny laser receiver pod, which receives reflected laser radiation from laser designators to allow the aircraft to deliver laser guided munitions. The Pave Penny pod is carried on a pylon mounted below the right side of the cockpit and has a clear view of the ground. In 1980, the A-10 began receiving an inertial navigation system. In the early 1990s, the A-10 began to receive the Low-Altitude Safety and Targeting Enhancement (LASTE) upgrade, which provided computerized weapon-aiming equipment, an autopilot, and a ground-collision warning system. In 1999, aircraft began receiving Global Positioning System navigation systems and a multi-function display. The LASTE system was upgraded with an Integrated Flight & Fire Control Computer (IFFCC). Proposed further upgrades included integrated combat search and rescue locator systems and improved early warning and anti-jam self-protection systems, and the Air Force recognized that the A-10's engine power was sub-optimal and had been planning to replace them with more powerful engines since at least 2001 at an estimated cost of $2 billion.",
"In 1987, Grumman Aerospace took over support for the A-10 program. In 1993, Grumman updated the damage tolerance assessment and Force Structural Maintenance Plan and Damage Threat Assessment. Over the next few years, problems with wing structure fatigue, first noticed in production years earlier, began to come to the fore. The process of implementing the maintenance plan was greatly delayed by the base realignment and closure commission (BRAC), which led to 80% of the original workforce being let go. During inspections in 1995",
"In 2005, the entire fleet of 356 A-10 and OA-10 aircraft began receiving the Precision Engagement upgrades including an improved fire control system (FCS), electronic countermeasures (ECM), and smart bomb targeting. The aircraft receiving this upgrade were redesignated A-10C. The Government Accounting Office in 2007 estimated the cost of upgrading, refurbishing, and service life extension plans for the A-10 force to total $2.25 billion through 2013. In July 2010, the USAF issued Raytheon a contract to integrate a Helmet Mounted Integrated Targeting (HMIT) system into the A-10C. The Air Force Material Command's Ogden Air Logistics Center at Hill AFB, Utah completed work on its 100th A-10 precision engagement upgrade in January 2008. The final aircraft was upgraded to A-10C configuration in June 2011. The aircraft also received all-weather combat capability, and a Hand-on-Throttle-and-Stick configuration mixing the F-16's flight stick with the F-15's throttle. Other changes included two multifunction displays, a",
"",
"The A-10 has a cantilever low-wing monoplane wing with a wide chord. The aircraft has superior maneuverability at low speeds and altitude because of its large wing area, low wing aspect ratio, and large ailerons. The wing also allows short takeoffs and landings, permitting operations from primitive forward airfields near front lines. The aircraft can loiter for extended periods and operate under ceilings with visibility. It typically flies at a relatively low speed of, which makes it a better platform for the ground-attack role than fast fighter-bombers, which often have difficulty targeting small, slow-moving targets. The leading edge of the wing has a honeycomb structure panel construction, providing strength with minimal weight; similar panels cover the flap shrouds, elevators, rudders and sections of the fins. The skin panels are integral with the stringers and are fabricated using computer-controlled machining, reducing production time and cost. Combat experience has shown that this type of panel is more resistant to damage. The skin is not load-bearing, so damaged skin sections can",
"The A-10 is exceptionally tough, being able to survive direct hits from armor-piercing and high-explosive projectiles up to 23 mm. It has double-redundant hydraulic flight systems, and a mechanical system as a back up if hydraulics are lost. Flight without hydraulic power uses the manual reversion control system; pitch and yaw control engages automatically, roll control is pilot-selected. In manual reversion mode, the A-10 is sufficiently controllable under favorable conditions to return to base, though control forces are greater than normal. The aircraft is designed to be able to fly with one engine, one half",
"Although the A-10 can carry a considerable amount of munitions, its primary built-in weapon is the 30×173 mm GAU-8/A Avenger autocannon. One of the most powerful aircraft cannons ever flown, it fires large depleted uranium armor-piercing shells. The GAU-8 is a hydraulically driven seven-barrel rotary cannon designed specifically for the anti-tank role with a high rate of fire. The cannon's original design could be switched by the pilot to 2,100 or 4,200 rounds per minute; this was later changed to a fixed rate of 3,900 rounds per minute. The cannon takes about half a second to reach top speed, so 50 rounds are fired during the first second, 65 or 70 rounds per second thereafter. The gun is accurate enough to place 80 percent of its shots within a 40-foot (12.4 m) diameter circle from 4,000 feet (1,220 m) while in flight. The GAU-8 is optimized for a slant range of with",
"The A-10 Precision Engagement Modification Program from 2006 to 2010 updated all A-10 and OA-10 aircraft in the fleet to the A-10C standard with a new flight computer, new glass cockpit displays and controls, two new color displays with moving map function, and an integrated digital stores management system. Since then, the A-10 Common Fleet",
"Since the A-10 flies low to the ground and at subsonic speed, aircraft camouflage is important to make the aircraft more difficult to see. Many different types of paint schemes have been tried. These have included a \"peanut scheme\" of sand, yellow and field drab; black and white colors for winter operations and a tan, green and brown mixed pattern. Many A-10s also featured a false canopy painted in dark gray on the underside of the aircraft, just behind the gun. This form of automimicry is an attempt to confuse the enemy as to aircraft attitude and maneuver direction. Many A-10s feature nose art, such as shark",
"",
"The first unit to receive the A-10 Thunderbolt II was the 355th Tactical Training Wing, based at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, in March 1976. The first unit to achieve full combat-readiness was the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing at Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina, in October 1977. Deployments of A-10As followed at bases both at home and abroad, including England AFB, Louisiana; Eielson AFB, Alaska; Osan Air Base, South Korea; and RAF Bentwaters/RAF Woodbridge, England. The 81st TFW of RAF Bentwaters/RAF Woodbridge operated rotating detachments of A-10s at four bases in Germany known as Forward Operating Locations (FOLs):",
"The A-10 was used in combat for the first time during the Gulf War in 1991, destroying more than 900 Iraqi tanks, 2,000 other military vehicles and 1,200 artillery pieces. A-10s also shot down two Iraqi helicopters with the GAU-8 cannon. The first of these was shot down by Captain Robert Swain over Kuwait on 6 February 1991 for the A-10's first air-to-air victory. Four A-10s were shot down during the war by surface-to-air missiles. Another two battle-damaged A-10s and OA-10As returned to base and were written off. Some sustained additional damage in crash landings. The A-10 had a mission capable rate of 95.7 percent, flew 8,100 sorties, and launched 90 percent of the AGM-65 Maverick missiles fired in the conflict. Shortly after the Gulf War, the Air Force abandoned the idea of replacing",
"During the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, A-10s did not take part in the initial stages. For the campaign against Taliban and Al Qaeda, A-10 squadrons were deployed to Pakistan and Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan, beginning in March 2002. These A-10s participated in Operation Anaconda. Afterwards, A-10s remained in-country, fighting Taliban and Al Qaeda remnants. Operation Iraqi Freedom began on 20 March 2003. Sixty OA-10/A-10 aircraft took part in early combat there. United States Air Forces Central Command issued \"Operation Iraqi Freedom: By the",
"The future of the platform remains the subject of debate. In 2007, the USAF expected the A-10 to remain in service until 2028 and possibly later, when it would likely be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. However, critics have said that replacing the A-10 with the F-35 would be a \"giant leap backwards\" given the A-10's performance and the F-35's high costs. In 2012, the Air Force considered the F-35B STOVL variant as a replacement CAS aircraft, but concluded that the aircraft could not generate sufficient sorties. In August 2013, Congress and the Air Force examined various proposals, including",
"On 25 March 2010, an A-10 conducted the first flight of an aircraft with all engines powered by a biofuel blend. The flight, performed at Eglin Air Force Base, used a 1:1 blend of JP-8 and Camelina-based fuel. On 28 June 2012, the A-10 became the first aircraft to fly using a new fuel blend derived from alcohol; known as ATJ (Alcohol-to-Jet), the fuel is cellulosic-based and can be produced using wood, paper, grass, or any cellulose based material, which are fermented into alcohols",
"The A-10 has been flown exclusively by the United States Air Force and its Air Reserve components, the Air",
"The A-10 Thunderbolt II received its popular nickname \"[[Warthog]]\" from the pilots and crews of the USAF attack squadrons who flew and maintained it. The A-10 is the last of Republic's jet attack aircraft",
"[[Category:Anti-tank aircraft]] [[Category:Fairchild aircraft|A-10 Thunderbolt II]] [[Category:1970s United States attack aircraft]] [[Category:Twinjets]] [[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1972]] [[Category:Low-wing aircraft]]"
]
} |
Quark (dairy product) | null | Quark or quarg is a type of fresh dairy product made by warming soured milk until the desired amount of curdling is met, and then straining it. It can be classified as fresh acid-set cheese. Traditional quark can be made without rennet, but in modern dairies small quantities of rennet are typically added. It is soft, white and unaged, and usually has no salt added. It is traditional in the cuisines of German-speaking, Dutch-speaking, Slavic and Scandinavian countries. | null | [
250004,
250054,
19559,
7190,
83,
144681,
151552,
390,
87524,
18031,
23,
1919,
12877,
44,
191697,
399,
58,
237,
44,
28549,
68831,
316,
58,
24073,
4450,
2594,
124111,
74054,
73203,
33,
390,
30839,
1771,
3395,
7,
5,
33306,
4,
903,
5809,
2843,
765,
131148,
5595,
2822,
124111,
707,
2499,
3789,
8562,
111,
63335,
96967,
707,
88487,
297,
124111,
12996,
5,
106073,
2799,
7190,
83,
68018,
15005,
2822,
47,
5078,
1428,
53,
237,
10,
10644,
111,
44,
47924,
16852,
96967,
830,
1836,
831,
186,
157167,
67175,
1295,
70,
12921,
36049,
128746,
136,
141640,
141,
31897,
4,
678,
70,
240131,
96967,
162048,
7,
151552,
237,
1286,
290,
5014,
707,
10548,
939,
5,
581,
2565,
44,
31583,
66874,
58,
15,
2729,
67,
102256,
19694,
30839,
12,
44,
94727,
238,
830,
44,
18,
4205,
238,
830,
44,
12781,
10566,
56128,
61187,
56,
105459,
191,
12,
44,
63475,
10566,
74054,
678,
127689,
23,
30839,
12937,
297,
16792,
70,
616,
927,
142642,
4,
83,
17569,
47,
122,
5844,
1295,
10,
10542,
187414,
238,
183234,
4,
6044,
237,
61187,
56,
13965,
62806,
44,
18,
4205,
1663,
830,
26655,
56,
13965,
62806,
44,
18,
634,
50767,
830,
28820,
127,
44,
18,
4205,
31561,
830,
103655,
136,
154350,
44,
48471,
10597,
830,
136,
83,
2843,
72180,
2182,
678,
102374,
44,
18,
3104,
1663,
58,
15,
16,
136,
113852,
3378,
12,
44,
48471,
1663,
58,
15,
38085,
3737,
194,
581,
7311,
25074,
139903,
1771,
44,
1639,
48471,
1663,
9430,
58,
83,
134598,
47,
186,
62548,
47,
70,
84084,
139903,
1771,
44,
8830,
9430,
830,
4307,
5,
44,
18,
3104,
830,
91084,
44,
5037,
740,
581,
91084,
831,
4911,
7,
186,
29481,
297,
237,
44,
12397,
92,
450,
18652,
47314,
136,
34739,
10,
3173,
740,
581,
2565,
27643,
83,
4911,
7,
21373,
47,
450,
111,
70,
89176,
44,
5037,
32367,
58,
136,
92265,
44,
161063,
4588,
740,
581,
187414,
238,
34153,
1543,
2843,
186,
72180,
2182,
678,
160600,
9351,
100,
96967,
44,
4008,
3,
19385,
235,
58,
24073,
38029,
11740,
51029,
62,
72180,
2182,
13579,
100,
2799,
7190,
4,
44,
38029,
849,
830,
83,
11814,
23,
112465,
66,
5,
1311,
7456,
1636,
2843,
74918,
23,
192286,
399,
15,
34119,
4745,
44,
97762,
92,
830,
103993,
136,
187951,
44,
97762,
177,
18939,
136,
70,
231118,
15,
17726,
18,
206,
44,
10521,
7190,
51029,
581,
25074,
14941,
3173,
83,
5,
64511,
30839,
3173,
7,
26698,
44,
31583,
147,
2594,
830,
136,
44,
31583,
147,
2679,
58,
24073,
31583,
7241,
2679,
51029,
360,
40368,
46876,
7,
2799,
7190,
83,
2843,
51529,
237,
44,
148477,
96967,
58,
15,
4,
127067,
9022,
707,
4,
4,
4,
4,
6,
247,
237,
233,
144429,
47,
2499,
10670,
1179,
9,
3509,
44,
1033,
41566,
96967,
740,
116267,
92265,
9351,
100,
442,
83,
44,
161063,
4588,
61667,
58,
15,
81946,
127,
96967,
247,
7440,
70,
60212,
47,
44,
161063,
4588,
38972,
58,
83,
61924,
71,
390,
92265,
27047,
1363,
12,
10,
12996,
24,
4806,
44,
161063,
4588,
61667,
58,
8110,
70541,
6867,
29394,
7,
3229,
54324,
4,
7440,
162,
678,
44,
161063,
4588,
38972,
58,
88487,
2320,
1556,
2809,
1870,
3674,
5,
360,
140434,
92265,
4,
442,
83,
56104,
35839,
44,
7,
48536,
740,
360,
8254,
4,
44,
429,
27533,
94205,
11,
58,
8,
157,
1636,
70,
24709,
53,
96551,
21373,
47,
70,
30839,
52895,
111,
2799,
7190,
5,
581,
11037,
56,
11389,
3129,
509,
65508,
71,
47,
8254,
20271,
70,
884,
62776,
111,
70,
11704,
7,
390,
177705,
7,
1295,
70,
36770,
134349,
32528,
83,
99710,
27686,
237,
44,
18,
3104,
1663,
740,
360,
66724,
4,
70,
9351,
44,
77888,
6211,
58,
15,
7804,
96967,
16,
83,
39210,
5,
360,
563,
101500,
7,
4,
442,
83,
35839,
44,
153376,
69093,
58,
15,
150632,
96967,
194,
360,
21079,
4745,
4,
442,
83,
51529,
237,
44,
3962,
161,
830,
12960,
23,
116342,
19,
237,
44,
24123,
59258,
464,
58,
15,
3584,
35624,
124111,
247,
23,
226185,
19,
237,
44,
1961,
794,
112925,
58458,
3679,
58,
15,
16820,
71,
96967,
247,
136,
23,
179838,
19,
237,
44,
964,
1255,
90399,
7,
58,
15,
4450,
2594,
124111,
194,
1650,
7,
89176,
9351,
83,
44,
735,
309,
36437,
58,
707,
44,
408,
24683,
102,
58,
15,
16820,
71,
194,
2022,
4021,
70,
153549,
1779,
2799,
7190,
83,
51529,
237,
44,
21506,
44844,
740,
19559,
7190,
83,
10,
32786,
111,
70,
43840,
9,
3509,
96967,
21115,
4,
124901,
5798,
177,
72403,
5201,
538,
28702,
90,
98,
70,
43840,
2481,
4,
181653,
390,
21,
49086,
43840,
152818,
61590,
214,
98,
70,
21,
128616,
13,
5,
4966,
71644,
13,
41170,
7,
111,
10670,
1179,
765,
2843,
2809,
23,
4527,
4,
15044,
99,
70,
5368,
18588,
254,
1363,
17366,
136,
70,
25297,
17366,
5,
204914,
238,
6644,
111,
2799,
7190,
3638,
538,
4527,
7,
452,
11685,
29367,
6,
9851,
124111,
237,
5201,
186227,
4,
1284,
24709,
831,
186,
49814,
14432,
47,
126596,
19780,
10941,
5,
581,
21,
49086,
43840,
152818,
621,
65508,
71,
23,
70,
3173,
111,
2409,
31,
66847,
1771,
44,
2729,
44150,
587,
10060,
223,
58,
44177,
29394,
7,
5,
360,
70,
22886,
53,
53099,
18925,
4,
2799,
7190,
83,
153161,
181653,
678,
10,
19336,
102134,
939,
111,
10670,
1179,
4,
49814,
7103,
70,
29394,
3229,
70,
29806,
83,
7464,
4734,
161549,
43840,
1771,
15,
11727,
91532,
194,
62,
55964,
41274,
107003,
47,
136622,
24189,
70,
81630,
58359,
90,
10932,
6,
115459,
4,
99,
3129,
43840,
2481,
17366,
70,
7225,
73,
21308,
7,
23,
70,
124111,
9842,
7,
47,
127841,
2182,
5,
360,
102126,
4,
442,
83,
19686,
79850,
96591,
2822,
47,
56282,
182,
112,
592,
4,
16750,
214,
23,
10,
6117,
2594,
4,
24709,
53,
168286,
4,
21373,
47,
9709,
71,
5,
129551,
47,
30839,
209332,
98,
96967,
24073,
605,
973,
115044,
71483,
74054,
44,
81946,
127,
96967,
7,
58,
24073,
66857,
9370,
68735,
13,
18939,
6044,
237,
2799,
7190,
707,
240131,
96967,
8110,
70541,
99,
19713,
361,
11587,
7401,
23,
70,
19780,
9,
32087,
82761,
5,
30839,
2799,
7190,
83,
56104,
54324,
23,
32204,
69323,
7,
678,
2684,
707,
756,
111,
70,
148,
59028,
5,
3293,
10644,
111,
2799,
7190,
1556,
70,
11037,
7432,
111,
221,
474,
24709,
1284,
83,
161549,
19014,
42,
4,
16750,
214,
23,
10,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
19559,
7190,
707,
2799,
10566,
83,
10,
10644,
111,
63335,
22886,
53,
12996,
7228,
390,
24814,
214,
5595,
2822,
124111,
24189,
70,
104851,
71,
41170,
111,
9709,
71,
2069,
83,
435,
4,
136,
7068,
91,
118862,
442,
5,
1650,
831,
186,
18507,
47314,
237,
63335,
43840,
9,
3509,
96967,
5,
97299,
289,
2799,
7190,
831,
186,
7228,
15490,
10670,
1179,
4,
1284,
23,
5744,
22886,
3387,
19336,
102134,
2449,
111,
10670,
1179,
621,
205794,
49814,
5,
1650,
83,
32977,
4,
35011,
136,
220,
17704,
4,
136,
56104,
1556,
110,
28279,
49814,
5,
1650,
83,
89160,
23,
70,
57409,
7,
111,
30839,
9,
9217,
11,
6048,
4,
174705,
9,
9217,
11,
6048,
4,
187414,
238,
136,
192286,
3378,
76726,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1611131 | en-train-1611131 | 1611131 | {
"title": [
"Name.",
"Etymology.",
"Other names.",
"Production.",
"Common uses.",
"Dishes in Germanic-speaking areas.",
"Slavic and Baltic countries.",
"Availability in other countries."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Quark is possibly described by Tacitus in his book \"Germania\" as \"lac concretum\" (\"thick milk\"), eaten by Germanic peoples. However, this could also have meant soured milk or any other kind of fresh cheese or fermented milk product. Although quark is sometimes referred to loosely as a type of \"cottage cheese\", they can be distinguished from the different production aspects and textural quality, with the cottage cheese grains described as more chewy or meaty.",
"The word \"Quark\" (Late Middle High German: \"quarc\", \"twarc\", \"zwarg\"; Lower Saxon: \"dwarg\"), with usage in German documented since the 14th century, is thought to derive from a West Slavic equivalent, such as Lower Sorbian \"twarog\", Upper Sorbian \"twaroh\", Polish \"twaróg\", Czech and Slovak \"tvaroh\", and is also cognate with Russian \"tvorog\" () and Belarusian: \"tvarog\" (тварог). The original Old Slavonic \"*tvarogъ\" is supposed to be related to the Church Slavonic \"творъ\", tr. \"tvor\", meaning \"form\". The meaning can thus be interpreted as \"milk that solidified and took a form\". The word formation is thus similar to that of the Italian \"formaggio\" and French \"fromage\". The Slavic words may also be cognate with Greek name for cheese \"τῡρός\" (\"túrós\"). A cognate term for quark, \"túró\", is used in Hungarian. Cognates also occur in Scandinavia (Danish \"kvark\", Norwegian and Swedish \"kvarg\") and the Netherlands (Dutch \"kwark\"). The Old English form is. Other German forms include \"Quarck\", and \"Quargel\" (\"Quärgel\").",
"In several languages quark is also known as \"white cheese\" (, southern or,,,, ), as opposed to any rennet-set \"yellow cheese\". Another French name for it is \"fromage frais\" (fresh cheese), where the difference to \"fromage blanc\" is defined by French legislation: a product named \"fromage frais\" must contain live cultures when sold, whereas with \"fromage blanc\" fermentation has been halted. In Swiss French, it is usually called \"séré\". In Israel, \"gevina levana\" denotes the creamy variety similar to the German types of quark. The firmer version which was introduced to Israel during the Aliyah of the 1990s by immigrants from the former Soviet Union is differentiated as \"tvorog\". In Austria, the name \"Topfen\" (pot cheese) is common. In Flanders, it is called \"plattekaas\" (flat cheese). In Finnish, it is known as \"rahka\", while in Estonian as \"kohupiim\" (foamy milk), in Lithuanian as \"varškės sūris\" (curd cheese), and in Latvian as \"biezpiens\" (thick milk). Its Italian name is \"giuncata\" or \"cagliata\" (curd). Among the Albanians quark is known as \"gjizë\".",
"Quark is a member of the acid-set cheese group, whose coagulation mainly relies on the acidity, produced by lactic acid bacteria feeding on the lactose. But moderate amounts of rennet have also been in use, both at the home consumption level and the industrial level. Manufacture of quark normally uses pasteurized skim milk as main ingredient, but cream can be added later to adjust fat content. The lactic acid bacteria are introduced in the form of mesophilic \"Lactococcus\" starter cultures. In the dairy industry today, quark is mostly produced with a small quantity of rennet, added after the culture when the solution is still only slightly acidic (ph 6.1). Acidification allowed to continues until the pH reaches around 4.6, at which acidity level the casein proteins in the milk begins to precipitate. In Germany, it is continuously stirred to prevent hardening, resulting in a thick, creamy texture, similar to curd. According to German regulations on cheese (\"Käseverordnung\"), \"fresh cheeses\" (\"Frischkäse\") such as quark or cottage cheese must contain at least 73% water in the fat-free component. German quark is usually sold in plastic tubs with most or all of the whey. This type of quark has the firmness of sour cream but is slightly drier, resulting in a somewhat crumbly texture (like ricotta). Basic quark contains about 0.2% fat; this basic quark or skimmed quark (\"Magerquark\") must under German law have less than 10% fat by dry mass. Quark with higher fat content is made by adding cream after cooling. It has a smooth and creamy texture, and is slightly sweet (unlike sour cream). A firmer version called \"Schichtkäse\" (layer cheese) is often used for baking. Schichtkäse is distinguished from quark by having an added layer of cream sandwiched between two layers of quark. Quark may be flavored with herbs, spices, or fruit. In general, dry mass of quark has 1% to 40% fat; most of the rest is protein (80% of which is casein), calcium, and phosphate. In the 19th century, there was no industrial production of quark (as end-product) and it was produced entirely for home use. In the traditional home-made process, the milk would be allowed to let stand until it soured naturally by the presence of naturally occurring bacteria, although the hardening could be encouraged with the addition of some rennet. Some or most of the whey is removed to standardize the quark to the desired thickness. Traditionally, this is done by hanging the cheese in a muslin bag or a loosely woven cotton gauze called cheesecloth and letting the whey drip off, which gives quark its distinctive shape of a wedge with rounded edges. In industrial production, however, cheese is separated from whey in a centrifuge and later formed into blocks. Variations in quark preparation occur across different regions of Germany and Austria. Most of the Austrian and other Central and Eastern European varieties contain less whey and are therefore drier and more solid than the German and Scandinavian ones. Under Russian governmental regulations, \"tvorog\" is distinguished from cheeses, and classified as a separate type of dairy product. Typical \"tvorog\" usually contain 65–80% water out of the total mass.",
"Various cuisines feature quark as an ingredient for appetizers, salads, main dishes, side dishes and desserts. In Germany, quark is sold in cubic plastic tubs and usually comes in three different varieties, \"Magerquark\" (skimmed quark, <10% fat by dry mass.), \"regular\" quark (20% fat in dry mass) and \"Sahnequark\" (\"creamy quark\", 40% fat in dry mass) with added cream. Similar gradations in fat content are also common in Eastern Europe. While \"Magerquark\" is often used for baking or is eaten as breakfast with a side of fruit or muesli, \"Sahnequark\" also forms the basis of a large number of quark desserts (called when homemade or when sold in German). Much like yoghurts in some parts of the world, these foods mostly come with fruit flavoring (\"Früchtequark\", fruit quark), sometimes with vanilla and are often also simply referred to as quark.",
"One common use for the quark is in making cheesecake called \"Käsekuchen\" or \"Quarkkuchen\" in Germany. Quark cheesecake is called \"Topfenkuchen\" in Austria. The \"Quarktorte\" in Switzerland may be equivalent, though this has also been described as a torte that combines quark and cream. There is also the \"kwarktaart\" in neighboring Netherlands. In these cakes, the quark is typically mixed with eggs, milk or cream, and sugar, and baked or fried. In Austria, \"Topfen\" is commonly used in baking in popular desserts like \"Topfenkuchen\" as already mentioned, Topfenstrudel and Topfen-Palatschinken (a form of crepes). Quark is also often used as an ingredient for sandwiches, salads, and savory dishes. Quark, vegetable oil and wheat flour are the ingredients of a popular kind of dough, called \"Quarkölteig\", used in German cuisine as an alternative to yeast-leavened dough in home baking, since it is considerably easier to handle and requires no rising period. The resulting baked goods look and taste very similar to yeast-leavened goods, although they do not last as long and are thus usually consumed immediately after baking. In Germany, quark mixed with chopped onions and herbs like parsley and chives is called. Kräuterquark is commonly eaten with boiled potatoes and has some similarity to tzatziki which is based on yoghurt. Quark with linseed oil and potatoes is the national dish of the Sorbs in Lusatia. Quark also has been used among Ashkenazi Jews.",
"Desserts using quarks (Russian: \"tvarog\", etc.) in Slavic regions include the \"tvarohovník\" in Slovakia, \"tvarožník\" in Czech Republic, \"sernik\" in Poland, and \"syrnyk\" in Ukraine) and cheese pancakes (\"syrnyky\" in Russia and Ukraine). In Poland, \"twaróg\" is mixed with mashed potatoes to produce a filling for \"pierogi\". \"Twaróg\" is also used to make gnocchi-shaped dumplings called \"leniwe pierogi\" (\"lazy pierogi\"). Ukrainian recipes for \"varenyky\" or \"lazy varenyky\" are similar but \"tvorog\" and mashed potatoes are different fillings which are usually not mixed together. In Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, \"tvorog\" (Russian: творог) is highly popular and is bought frequently by almost every family. In Russian families, it is especially recommended for growing babies. It can be enjoyed simply with sour cream, or jam, sugar, sugar condensed milk, or as a breakfast food. It is often used as a stuffing in \"blinchiki\" offered at many fast-food restaurants. It is also commonly used as the base for making Easter cakes. It is mixed with eggs, sugar, raisins and nuts and dried into a solid pyramid-shaped mass called \"paskha\". The mass can also be fried, then known as \"syrniki\". In Latvia, quark is eaten savory mixed with sour cream and scallions on rye bread or with potatoes. In desserts, quark is commonly baked into \"biezpiena plātsmaize\", a crusted sheet cake baked with or without raisins. A sweetened treat \"biezpiena sieriņš\" (small curd cheese) is made of small sweetened blocks of quark dipped in chocolate. Estonian Quark is evaluated on olfaction, vision, taste, after taste, and texture and is distributed nationally as well as to nearby regions.",
"Although common in continental Europe, manufacturing of quark is rare in the Americas. A few dairies manufacture it, such as the Vermont Creamery in Vermont, and some specialty retailers carry it. Lifeway Foods manufactures a product under the title \"farmer cheese\" which is available in a variety of metropolitan locations with Jewish, as well as former Soviet populations. Elli Quark, a Californian manufacturer of quark, offers soft quark in different flavors. In Canada, the firmer East European variety of quark is manufactured by Liberté Natural Foods; a softer German-style quark is manufactured in the Didsbury, Alberta, plant of Calgary-based Foothills Creamery. Glengarry Fine Cheesemaking in Lancaster (Eastern Ontario) also produces Quark. Also available in Canada is the very similar Dry Curd Cottage Cheese manufactured by Dairyland. Quark may also be available as \"baking cheese\", \"pressed cottage cheese\", or \"fromage frais\". In Australia, Ukrainian traditional quark is produced by Blue Bay Cheese in the Mornington Peninsula. It is also sometimes available from supermarkets labelled as quark or quarg. In New Zealand, European traditional Kwark is produced by Karikaas in North Canterbury. It is available in 350g pots and available online and in speciality stores such as Moore Wilsons. In the United Kingdom, fat-free quark is produced by several independent manufacturers based throughout the country. All the big four supermarkets in the UK sell their own branded quark, as well as other brands of quark."
]
} |
Veiled chameleon | null | The veiled chameleon ("Chamaeleo calyptratus") is a species of chameleon native to the Arabian Peninsula in Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Other common names include cone-head chameleon and Yemen chameleon. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
11280,
83,
4989,
1295,
70,
91,
30198,
47,
70,
6069,
111,
70,
6,
46741,
5,
581,
117776,
83,
16610,
56,
4,
110,
1286,
3501,
1672,
4,
1284,
442,
1556,
10,
6117,
11050,
14361,
5,
149766,
1100,
90,
765,
10,
4611,
944,
98,
70,
10336,
3129,
55993,
7,
150679,
237,
70,
1608,
32128,
191,
90638,
7,
4,
58359,
214,
1672,
23,
70,
142105,
116127,
5,
2356,
538,
1256,
74694,
27150,
621,
99286,
50997,
23,
10576,
136,
85493,
43613,
90,
237,
1836,
55993,
5,
110579,
117776,
7,
621,
50997,
678,
35011,
4,
1482,
13,
4,
205811,
4,
707,
2197,
2080,
18,
2069,
5,
110579,
11280,
7,
621,
124498,
56,
678,
1286,
61924,
71,
8753,
7,
111,
205811,
707,
57571,
136,
3060,
2080,
18,
2069,
5,
51193,
2320,
831,
186,
195052,
390,
40368,
120103,
4,
26719,
2265,
10778,
5,
360,
195935,
27289,
4,
27150,
10092,
6259,
1608,
32128,
5245,
22867,
2822,
23,
6,
219488,
621,
1011,
1728,
136,
115,
14155,
23,
10576,
3501,
8382,
165249,
678,
3789,
79165,
5,
213342,
7,
15549,
10576,
36880,
2363,
42238,
4935,
105823,
7,
5,
139975,
1018,
5245,
2843,
17660,
47,
15549,
47,
10,
5045,
1011,
1728,
10576,
3229,
11405,
297,
5,
3293,
1608,
32128,
191,
60742,
23,
10,
14012,
111,
117016,
52895,
23,
6863,
24,
4935,
37457,
4,
26719,
37385,
6287,
4,
101120,
7,
4,
136,
118666,
4778,
5,
18852,
2684,
3789,
1608,
32128,
5245,
4,
442,
83,
135197,
13,
289,
4,
38043,
23,
1360,
90,
136,
3789,
21334,
18153,
7,
5,
1650,
12601,
7,
24814,
56,
52768,
4,
137567,
17721,
5,
581,
10092,
6259,
1608,
32128,
191,
83,
102917,
538,
103665,
14,
3104,
10821,
5,
1650,
83,
1632,
111,
40368,
1608,
32128,
191,
114149,
2843,
51529,
47,
18588,
13,
18153,
26866,
4,
95134,
237,
10,
31344,
111,
7401,
20271,
70,
36898,
34003,
5,
581,
6897,
19332,
83,
1672,
190,
5369,
100,
117776,
7,
4,
136,
1257,
47,
382,
5369,
100,
11280,
7,
5,
10660,
58359,
17688,
28206,
2481,
99,
22759,
47,
43606,
21775,
5,
10660,
91566,
1286,
3501,
24145,
10,
6602,
5,
581,
117776,
21,
4778,
21334,
501,
14707,
17007,
111,
1257,
47,
9365,
56125,
7,
136,
373,
10484,
2856,
23,
19096,
5,
581,
56125,
7,
621,
35011,
678,
10,
143033,
21722,
5,
581,
352,
21731,
232,
16981,
10,
879,
149302,
4,
10,
140909,
111,
1733,
3229,
1836,
621,
104688,
1236,
23,
70,
56125,
8108,
1836,
9842,
168698,
5,
8942,
1283,
6953,
52768,
7,
23,
70,
218250,
13,
173969,
13,
34754,
5,
35220,
7,
44116,
100,
117776,
7,
20271,
29685,
16070,
4,
51339,
214,
123166,
7,
6044,
237,
44,
31251,
21972,
7,
58,
136,
44,
66624,
21922,
7,
740,
213342,
7,
15549,
10576,
3229,
1836,
621,
10658,
5844,
47,
91566,
214,
4,
136,
11280,
7,
621,
1286,
47041,
47,
29685,
2856,
20271,
903,
1733,
5,
581,
10092,
6259,
1608,
32128,
191,
83,
70,
2684,
39210,
44,
62467,
192,
1018,
31,
58,
114149,
23,
70,
8093,
52350,
5,
1650,
83,
23468,
47,
91566,
136,
113200,
14486,
23,
6863,
56125,
36049,
5,
1650,
6,
131145,
1636,
10,
37457,
111,
27289,
136,
188545,
7,
5299,
23,
157364,
2481,
5,
3293,
1608,
32128,
191,
83,
142,
65508,
71,
114149,
23,
138393,
4,
7440,
442,
83,
116000,
272,
23,
70,
4000,
49347,
16751,
5,
8622,
83,
10,
91566,
214,
43904,
170920,
98,
23788,
14,
5,
1650,
831,
2843,
186,
14037,
23,
70,
56409,
23,
52888,
4,
7440,
144281,
71,
8093,
7,
765,
170920,
43904,
7,
5,
581,
10092,
6259,
1608,
32128,
191,
83,
70,
7643,
111,
70,
159,
78441,
29908,
172852,
5426,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
581,
10092,
6259,
1608,
32128,
191,
24073,
62467,
192,
1018,
31,
6510,
30400,
1517,
2143,
18939,
83,
10,
114149,
111,
1608,
32128,
191,
24,
4935,
47,
70,
88172,
19,
4267,
73,
60243,
23,
116374,
136,
34724,
88172,
5,
64511,
39210,
123055,
26698,
158,
13,
9,
31251,
1608,
32128,
191,
136,
116374,
1608,
32128,
191,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1058211 | en-train-1058211 | 1058211 | {
"title": [
"Description.",
"Behavior and ecology.",
"In captivity.",
"Invasive species.",
"Culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The male is long from the snout to the tip of the tail. The female is shorter, no more than about, but it has a thicker body. Both sexes have a casque on the head which grows larger as the chameleon matures, reaching about in the largest adults. Newly hatched young are pastel green in color and develop stripes as they grow. Adult females are green with white, orange, yellow, or tan mottling. Adult males are brighter with more defined bands of yellow or blue and some mottling. Coloration can be affected by several factors, including social status. In experimental conditions, young veiled chameleons reared in isolation are darker and duller in color than those raised with other individuals. Females change color across their reproductive cycles. Chameleons also tend to change to a much darker color when stressed.",
"This chameleon lives in a number of habitat types in its native range, including plateaus, mountains, and valleys. Like most other chameleons, it is arboreal, living in trees and other large plants. It prefers warmer temperature, generally between. The veiled chameleon is primarily insectivorous. It is one of several chameleon species also known to consume plant matter, perhaps as a source of water during the dry season. The lifespan is about 5 years for females, and up to 8 years for males. They reach sexual maturity at four to five months. They breed more than once a year. The female lays large clutches of up to 85 eggs and buries them in sand. The eggs are white with a tough skin. The embryos experience a diapause, a length of time when they are dormant in the egg before they begin developing. Increasing temperatures in the substrate initiate development. Males display for females during courtship, performing behaviors such as \"head rolls\" and \"chin rubs\". Females change color when they are receptive to breeding, and males are more likely to court them during this time.",
"The veiled chameleon is the most common \"Chamaeleo\" species in the pet trade. It is easy to breed and prolific in its egg production. It tolerates a range of conditions and survives well in captivity.",
"This chameleon is an introduced species in Hawaii, where it is invasive in the local ecosystem. There is a breeding population established on Maui. It can also be found in the wild in Florida, where escaped pets have established populations.",
"The veiled chameleon is the logo of the SUSE Linux operating system."
]
} |
Euler's identity | null | In mathematics, Euler's identity (also known as Euler's equation) is the equality where Euler's identity is named after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler. It is considered to be an exemplar of mathematical beauty as it shows a profound connection between the most fundamental numbers in mathematics. | null | [
250004,
250054,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
83,
27983,
1059,
3674,
237,
142,
27781,
111,
53894,
291,
140363,
70760,
62607,
5,
129335,
111,
70,
62822,
187,
8962,
282,
9523,
41018,
7,
74918,
66161,
24145,
12638,
12,
66044,
4,
127664,
1363,
4,
136,
78643,
21616,
2320,
5,
581,
182324,
2843,
22317,
43606,
20531,
291,
140363,
70760,
53697,
7,
12,
27766,
9319,
17678,
4,
70,
28,
5490,
2320,
83,
34475,
23,
70,
3173,
111,
142,
125195,
5423,
105950,
47,
45234,
4,
3129,
83,
39210,
41361,
23,
40368,
58555,
111,
291,
140363,
41637,
5,
221107,
12535,
291,
140363,
41637,
16030,
203314,
40317,
2397,
1556,
2804,
4,
44,
5062,
10,
113154,
66,
775,
1179,
450,
141621,
7,
70,
4552,
3533,
3956,
111,
5161,
4,
707,
10,
178829,
450,
19095,
7,
1810,
70,
62607,
111,
70,
14135,
3173,
450,
83,
2060,
1286,
3501,
1660,
21722,
53894,
4,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
28,
5490,
2320,
58359,
90,
7565,
3934,
70,
4552,
6,
168867,
7,
111,
6,
116311,
740,
3493,
10208,
55395,
19,
4,
10,
16030,
50419,
18031,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
2356,
10699,
254,
72567,
4,
2750,
1556,
59121,
10,
12877,
171332,
47,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
26168,
136,
6863,
86685,
23,
65056,
6815,
114137,
4,
98363,
7,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
237,
8035,
44,
4390,
201602,
13,
62607,
740,
123426,
47148,
7,
6,
70035,
1657,
116071,
853,
532,
1556,
233,
73,
297,
450,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
83,
44,
2347,
2684,
170277,
26168,
23,
756,
291,
140363,
41637,
740,
3493,
74715,
1460,
481,
329,
4,
10,
953,
927,
9,
16797,
44616,
15672,
6,
119598,
56,
4,
48909,
13,
47148,
3378,
4,
136,
16030,
99,
107154,
12535,
4,
7103,
502,
6496,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
20271,
10,
59619,
4,
11341,
71,
450,
70,
182324,
44,
164,
115839,
145358,
21533,
74,
642,
53418,
28219,
442,
4,
136,
642,
2301,
25,
18,
3714,
2367,
442,
26950,
4,
1284,
642,
765,
77443,
442,
4,
136,
127298,
642,
3714,
442,
8110,
186,
70,
85027,
740,
62,
160,
1181,
111,
120709,
55080,
297,
390,
44,
3957,
123426,
88875,
141,
157075,
42,
58,
23,
11704,
24,
4806,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
237,
70,
44,
840,
18,
34923,
70,
58391,
23,
291,
140363,
41637,
740,
360,
15700,
160,
1181,
111,
120709,
450,
509,
55080,
297,
390,
44,
45689,
4778,
28021,
6661,
58,
23,
86097,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
146543,
678,
9920,
19256,
25,
7,
28,
13722,
5256,
15,
4390,
77556,
155116,
8780,
16,
237,
70,
44,
7134,
11,
6954,
28,
5490,
2320,
17669,
740,
62,
35187,
111,
70,
78574,
7,
111,
37195,
8927,
48909,
13,
47148,
72004,
14037,
450,
70,
44,
23800,
43315,
78574,
58,
15,
159975,
25958,
4,
70,
2450,
141,
103173,
31,
20549,
289,
59218,
425,
4,
3129,
22729,
7,
1257,
100,
34923,
19612,
4,
30260,
1294,
4,
75073,
4,
3021,
5,
16,
16060,
1257,
1286,
74729,
538,
100,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
3501,
100,
2499,
3789,
26168,
5,
1913,
19713,
17262,
42840,
23,
5700,
291,
140363,
41637,
765,
2809,
91376,
1672,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
12,
202483,
538,
4,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
237,
33657,
7,
450,
26168,
454,
304,
83,
105950,
47,
48768,
418,
5,
581,
125195,
26168,
454,
304,
83,
10,
5361,
7225,
111,
70,
125195,
26168,
454,
617,
4,
7440,
83,
2499,
27140,
14012,
5,
360,
4537,
4,
26168,
454,
617,
83,
61924,
71,
100,
27140,
390,
65042,
214,
1632,
111,
70,
80934,
7,
111,
70,
78643,
80973,
32354,
1295,
2773,
78643,
35066,
47,
27140,
78643,
35066,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
1632,
39210,
80934,
83,
12,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
127298,
117249,
450,
70,
17475,
4,
237,
51515,
90,
54241,
53,
4,
111,
26168,
454,
966,
83,
105950,
47,
48768,
418,
5,
3293,
17475,
83,
58755,
3674,
23,
70,
6,
114205,
47,
70,
7108,
5,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
83,
10,
5361,
7225,
111,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
26168,
4,
3129,
117249,
450,
100,
2499,
2773,
14012,
4,
7440,
70,
107730,
7,
111,
70,
171353,
157,
186518,
32354,
7,
6634,
136,
552,
14186,
621,
34475,
23,
4567,
10133,
5,
360,
17311,
4,
3229,
4,
66016,
136,
442,
28960,
7,
450,
3129,
11180,
19388,
7,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
12,
28541,
27140,
14012,
26168,
454,
2592,
831,
186,
33636,
297,
390,
70,
6275,
26168,
454,
1837,
98,
70,
27140,
47880,
5,
3293,
6275,
831,
2843,
186,
33636,
297,
23,
160,
320,
176866,
90,
237,
26168,
454,
2485,
4,
7440,
44,
42,
58,
83,
70,
89931,
34292,
111,
44,
169,
58,
15,
56883,
329,
1295,
70,
59665,
247,
136,
26168,
454,
2489,
83,
70,
10750,
111,
44,
169,
58,
15,
109217,
105416,
238,
21135,
90825,
1295,
70,
24491,
44,
425,
58,
9,
11,
33102,
194,
3311,
70,
80934,
7,
111,
6634,
136,
552,
14186,
4,
903,
6275,
1556,
129912,
3378,
176866,
90,
111,
26168,
454,
1819,
4,
21980,
538,
214,
450,
26168,
454,
2947,
5,
129551,
47,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
26168,
4,
903,
83,
183234,
47,
54433,
26168,
454,
1549,
5,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
17378,
450,
26168,
454,
3117,
5,
66016,
26168,
454,
304,
83,
26168,
454,
3742,
100,
44,
42,
58,
2203,
106,
136,
26168,
454,
2357,
4,
903,
831,
186,
29481,
297,
237,
10,
15824,
1672,
70,
14012,
48768,
418,
98,
70,
27140,
47880,
12,
6863,
62488,
1295,
70,
59665,
83,
106,
4,
136,
6863,
55291,
1295,
70,
24491,
44,
425,
58,
9,
11,
33102,
83,
26168,
454,
2588,
4567,
10133,
5,
29117,
14,
43315,
538,
4,
3229,
2499,
27140,
14012,
44,
169,
58,
83,
118126,
297,
390,
26168,
454,
4046,
4,
442,
1556,
70,
21543,
111,
47014,
1916,
44,
169,
58,
105416,
238,
21135,
90825,
390,
142,
55291,
111,
26168,
454,
2489,
98,
70,
27140,
47880,
5,
66016,
127664,
1363,
390,
48768,
418,
44961,
7,
10,
6275,
36880,
70,
59665,
4,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
831,
186,
29481,
297,
237,
54433,
450,
47014,
1916,
2499,
6275,
26168,
454,
2588,
4567,
10133,
10932,
70,
59665,
1556,
70,
5701,
21543,
237,
44961,
214,
70,
6275,
36880,
70,
59665,
5,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
83,
2843,
10,
5361,
7225,
111,
70,
1286,
4537,
182324,
450,
70,
5675,
74855,
7,
111,
51,
2481,
4,
100,
4,
15190,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
360,
291,
140363,
41637,
4,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
15,
289,
991,
51529,
237,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
28,
5490,
2320,
16,
83,
70,
28,
161789,
7440,
5177,
603,
25,
7,
182324,
83,
24,
4806,
7103,
70,
140434,
48909,
13,
47148,
3378,
31746,
25612,
5177,
603,
5,
1650,
83,
90698,
47,
186,
142,
56398,
111,
291,
140363,
70760,
62607,
237,
442,
45831,
10,
502,
151645,
94878,
17721,
70,
2684,
20531,
101935,
23,
291,
140363,
41637,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1782912 | en-train-1782912 | 1782912 | {
"title": [
"Mathematical beauty.",
"Explanations.",
"Imaginary exponents.",
"Geometric interpretation.",
"Generalizations.",
"History."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Euler's identity is often cited as an example of deep mathematical beauty. Three of the basic arithmetic operations occur exactly once each: addition, multiplication, and exponentiation. The identity also links five fundamental mathematical constants: Furthermore, the equation is given in the form of an expression set equal to zero, which is common practice in several areas of mathematics. Stanford University mathematics professor Keith Devlin has said, \"like a Shakespearean sonnet that captures the very essence of love, or a painting that brings out the beauty of the human form that is far more than just skin deep, Euler's equation reaches down into the very depths of existence\". And Paul Nahin, a professor emeritus at the University of New Hampshire, who has written a book dedicated to Euler's formula and its applications in Fourier analysis, describes Euler's identity as being \"of exquisite beauty\". Mathematics writer Constance Reid has opined that Euler's identity is \"the most famous formula in all mathematics\". And Benjamin Peirce, a 19th-century American philosopher, mathematician, and professor at Harvard University, after proving Euler's identity during a lecture, stated that the identity \"is absolutely paradoxical; we cannot understand it, and we don't know what it means, but we have proved it, and therefore we know it must be the truth\". A poll of readers conducted by \"The Mathematical Intelligencer\" in 1990 named Euler's identity as the \"most beautiful theorem in mathematics\". In another poll of readers that was conducted by \"Physics World\" in 2004, Euler's identity tied with Maxwell's equations (of electromagnetism) as the \"greatest equation ever\". A study of the brains of sixteen mathematicians found that the \"emotional brain\" (specifically, the medial orbitofrontal cortex, which lights up for beautiful music, poetry, pictures, etc.) lit up more consistently for Euler's identity than for any other formula. At least three books in popular mathematics have been published about Euler's identity:",
"",
"Fundamentally, Euler's identity asserts that formula_2 is equal to −1. The expression formula_2 is a special case of the expression formula_4, where is any complex number. In general, formula_4 is defined for complex by extending one of the definitions of the exponential function from real exponents to complex exponents. For example, one common definition is: Euler's identity therefore states that the limit, as approaches infinity, of formula_7 is equal to −1. This limit is illustrated in the animation to the right. Euler's identity is a special case of Euler's formula, which states that for any real number, where the inputs of the trigonometric functions sine and cosine are given in radians. In particular, when, Since and it follows that which yields Euler's identity:",
"Any complex number formula_14 can be represented by the point formula_15 on the complex plane. This point can also be represented in polar coordinates as formula_16, where \"r\" is the absolute value of \"z\" (distance from the origin), and formula_17 is the argument of \"z\" (angle counterclockwise from the positive \"x\"-axis). By the definitions of sine and cosine, this point has cartesian coordinates of formula_18, implying that formula_19. According to Euler's formula, this is equivalent to saying formula_20. Euler's identity says that formula_21. Since formula_2 is formula_23 for \"r\" = 1 and formula_24, this can be interpreted as a fact about the number −1 on the complex plane: its distance from the origin is 1, and its angle from the positive \"x\"-axis is formula_25 radians. Additionally, when any complex number \"z\" is multiplied by formula_26, it has the effect of rotating \"z\" counterclockwise by an angle of formula_17 on the complex plane. Since multiplication by −1 reflects a point across the origin, Euler's identity can be interpreted as saying that rotating any point formula_25 radians around the origin has the same effect as reflecting the point across the origin.",
"Euler's identity is also a special case of the more general identity that the th roots of unity, for, add up to 0: Euler's identity is the case where. In another field of mathematics, by using quaternion exponentiation, one can show that a similar identity also applies to quaternions. Let be the basis elements; then, In general, given real,, and such that, then, For octonions, with real such that, and with the octonion basis elements,",
"It has been claimed that Euler's identity appears in his monumental work of mathematical analysis published in 1748, \"Introductio in analysin infinitorum\". However, it is questionable whether this particular concept can be attributed to Euler himself, as he may never have expressed it. Moreover, while Euler did write in the \"Introductio\" about what we today call Euler's formula, which relates with cosine and sine terms in the field of complex numbers, the English mathematician Roger Cotes (who died in 1716, when Euler was only 9 years old) also knew of this formula and Euler may have acquired the knowledge through his Swiss compatriot Johann Bernoulli. Robin Wilson states the following."
]
} |
Acid–base homeostasis | null | Acid–base homeostasis is the homeostatic regulation of the pH of the body's extracellular fluid (ECF). The proper balance between the acids and bases (i.e. the pH) in the ECF is crucial for the normal physiology of the body, and cellular metabolism. The pH of the intracellular fluid and the extracellular fluid need to be maintained at a constant level. | null | [
250004,
250054,
581,
81630,
111,
70,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
4,
26719,
70,
59714,
80796,
4,
83,
3638,
538,
107137,
538,
15913,
3674,
17721,
2861,
6460,
136,
2861,
13023,
4,
390,
70,
165045,
373,
18234,
7,
4,
70,
143435,
53,
5426,
4,
136,
70,
218696,
5426,
5,
62,
944,
10821,
373,
18234,
51347,
1221,
131300,
678,
37515,
43840,
7,
707,
37515,
51039,
390,
57622,
214,
89978,
64707,
1409,
6,
17514,
4,
707,
64707,
5134,
112,
6,
17514,
4,
456,
133266,
214,
70,
37515,
43840,
7,
136,
51039,
678,
642,
344,
43840,
7,
136,
642,
344,
51039,
5,
3293,
1556,
70,
21543,
111,
48,
44287,
70,
21543,
111,
81630,
65572,
4,
707,
6,
241866,
70,
81630,
15549,
450,
2806,
120262,
765,
74918,
2822,
5,
4966,
373,
18234,
7,
53418,
26785,
1563,
33176,
81630,
90926,
23,
10,
29806,
4,
186,
450,
29806,
23,
10,
3034,
43333,
707,
23,
70,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
5,
667,
18234,
7,
205794,
58055,
111,
10,
80836,
111,
217773,
7,
23,
29806,
4,
1632,
111,
3129,
83,
10,
642,
344,
43840,
136,
70,
3789,
10,
642,
344,
3647,
5,
581,
2684,
130807,
660,
373,
18234,
23,
70,
241,
84683,
58055,
7,
111,
10,
29806,
111,
44603,
1771,
43840,
15,
841,
9688,
247,
136,
70,
235269,
13,
15,
16,
28279,
111,
4,
56104,
4,
221,
28483,
15,
4645,
194,
12613,
7,
4,
3229,
2685,
83,
142,
89978,
111,
6,
17514,
23,
70,
29806,
44603,
1771,
43840,
44,
15866,
25958,
58,
216989,
90,
2856,
390,
3173,
214,
21997,
136,
235269,
13,
15,
16,
6,
17514,
5,
209683,
538,
142,
89978,
111,
572,
6,
17514,
83,
44,
15866,
25958,
58,
216989,
297,
390,
70,
235269,
13,
82761,
111,
70,
373,
18234,
29806,
47,
3173,
44603,
1771,
43840,
15,
841,
9688,
247,
3129,
4,
6637,
442,
83,
10,
642,
344,
43840,
4,
47143,
7,
21334,
538,
23,
70,
165,
164,
45388,
27686,
3173,
4,
47130,
162,
214,
2060,
10846,
56,
572,
6,
17514,
3934,
70,
29806,
3501,
70,
7311,
37515,
43840,
2806,
765,
16940,
5,
581,
81630,
111,
10,
373,
18234,
29806,
56566,
7,
31247,
538,
98,
70,
44,
17131,
31,
58,
111,
70,
931,
320,
202104,
7,
111,
70,
642,
344,
43840,
47,
70,
642,
344,
3647,
5,
581,
77546,
70,
202104,
111,
70,
642,
344,
43840,
23,
70,
29806,
15,
277,
2500,
297,
47,
70,
642,
344,
3647,
16,
70,
92319,
70,
16750,
214,
81630,
111,
70,
29806,
5,
209683,
538,
4,
2174,
70,
642,
344,
3647,
156531,
1636,
70,
77546,
70,
16750,
214,
81630,
5,
3293,
24702,
133,
83,
162471,
297,
47,
44,
144867,
67,
58,
70,
81630,
111,
70,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
7,
15,
219,
9319,
3501,
1660,
44,
123759,
4209,
58,
70,
81630,
194,
1326,
70,
44603,
1771,
43840,
9,
81820,
13471,
127634,
373,
18234,
4,
10,
931,
320,
70460,
111,
642,
344,
43840,
47,
642,
344,
3647,
111,
106,
16619,
27489,
7,
10,
81630,
111,
2861,
617,
74,
136,
22925,
105274,
20,
3229,
70,
81630,
111,
70,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
7,
83,
2861,
617,
7068,
70,
70460,
111,
44603,
1771,
43840,
47,
235269,
13,
6,
17514,
23,
450,
79552,
83,
106,
16619,
5,
3293,
76755,
83,
151552,
291,
140363,
18,
71407,
390,
70,
115730,
56,
1681,
1104,
6495,
7,
1428,
3571,
206,
28,
5490,
2320,
4,
3129,
4,
3229,
190659,
47,
70,
44603,
1771,
43840,
9,
81820,
13471,
127634,
373,
18234,
5426,
23,
70,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
7,
4,
117249,
450,
12,
581,
81630,
111,
70,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
7,
831,
4911,
7,
186,
6226,
6259,
390,
84797,
538,
15913,
1916,
70,
2878,
289,
81147,
111,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
15,
143321,
83324,
7,
70,
44603,
1771,
43840,
202104,
247,
136,
70,
235269,
13,
45339,
202104,
23,
70,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
7,
5,
8622,
621,
127298,
99,
19713,
6626,
5368,
31,
201939,
40907,
58269,
76519,
102778,
100,
70,
15913,
1363,
111,
70,
80796,
81630,
5,
581,
5117,
83,
70,
5368,
31,
201939,
6226,
111,
70,
59714,
2878,
289,
81147,
111,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
4,
3129,
83324,
7,
70,
44603,
1771,
43840,
202104,
23,
70,
80796,
4,
136,
831,
15549,
70,
81630,
111,
70,
183918,
80796,
28032,
10,
10846,
94131,
5,
581,
2878,
289,
81147,
111,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
23,
70,
183918,
59714,
83,
12983,
297,
390,
70,
9879,
290,
432,
153524,
25251,
111,
70,
128,
20446,
995,
10617,
1724,
4,
136,
221,
621,
2831,
111,
70,
9879,
11066,
13048,
5426,
5,
32255,
290,
432,
153524,
25251,
621,
191125,
47,
70,
81630,
136,
90926,
111,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
23,
70,
145321,
70956,
289,
79552,
5,
15,
3957,
117,
14,
94266,
289,
290,
432,
153524,
25251,
621,
105866,
23,
70,
10,
748,
9523,
337,
34204,
136,
46624,
8460,
337,
34204,
123594,
16797,
47,
70,
187,
206,
111,
70,
10,
55033,
136,
47,
70,
333,
11443,
120639,
111,
70,
46624,
8460,
146027,
90,
4,
107013,
538,
5,
32255,
290,
432,
153524,
25251,
621,
191125,
102917,
538,
47,
65572,
23,
70,
2878,
289,
81147,
111,
230044,
23,
70,
183918,
59714,
136,
621,
127298,
959,
105237,
75412,
678,
81630,
5368,
5964,
6023,
5,
16,
581,
9879,
290,
432,
153524,
25251,
25379,
2363,
4677,
47,
70,
143435,
53,
70880,
23,
70,
128,
20446,
995,
10617,
1724,
136,
15266,
7,
111,
70,
78574,
48567,
5,
581,
143435,
53,
70880,
7068,
83324,
70,
83080,
34515,
111,
206419,
111,
70,
144,
272,
5674,
111,
70,
32386,
7,
4,
47,
13695,
70,
2878,
289,
81147,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
23,
70,
183918,
59714,
53697,
5,
581,
143435,
53,
27585,
14602,
221,
1829,
2926,
184940,
7,
3129,
34704,
67,
70,
123635,
7,
111,
45746,
1363,
15,
73,
17311,
70,
879,
179665,
177,
39,
194,
62,
6,
58944,
23,
70,
2878,
289,
81147,
111,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
23,
70,
183918,
59714,
80796,
36917,
129274,
472,
8335,
114354,
2866,
841,
177,
16,
71181,
538,
113660,
142,
51312,
23,
70,
34515,
136,
6,
168867,
111,
71191,
214,
5,
28723,
71191,
214,
83,
138755,
71,
3229,
70,
2878,
289,
81147,
111,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
1556,
176377,
47,
129274,
472,
8335,
5,
581,
158,
37676,
96276,
2174,
70,
2878,
289,
81147,
111,
44603,
6,
143961,
13,
123867,
35064,
70,
3638,
37457,
5,
189483,
214,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
62,
55964,
1104,
37382,
5368,
5964,
6023,
83,
70,
5368,
31,
201939,
15913,
1363,
111,
70,
81630,
111,
70,
14361,
25,
7,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
15,
16546,
919,
194,
581,
27798,
40197,
17721,
70,
43840,
7,
136,
51039,
15,
14,
5,
13,
5,
70,
81630,
16,
23,
70,
241,
84683,
83,
106157,
100,
70,
3638,
240877,
4867,
53,
111,
70,
14361,
4,
136,
2927,
120087,
159531,
5,
581,
81630,
111,
70,
18440,
8969,
120087,
79552,
136,
70,
4173,
8969,
120087,
79552,
3871,
47,
186,
76104,
297,
99,
10,
53697,
17366,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-933358 | en-train-933358 | 933358 | {
"title": [
"Acid–base balance.",
"Imbalance."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The pH of the extracellular fluid, including the blood plasma, is normally tightly regulated between 7.32 and 7.42, by the chemical buffers, the respiratory system, and the renal system. Aqueous buffer solutions will react with strong acids or strong bases by absorbing excess hydrogen ions, or hydroxide ions, replacing the strong acids and bases with weak acids and weak bases. This has the effect of damping the effect of pH changes, or reducing the pH change that would otherwise have occurred. But buffers cannot correct abnormal pH levels in a solution, be that solution in a test tube or in the extracellular fluid. Buffers typically consist of a pair of compounds in solution, one of which is a weak acid and the other a weak base. The most abundant buffer in the ECF consists of a solution of carbonic acid (HCO), and the bicarbonate () salt of, usually, sodium (Na). Thus, when there is an excess of ions in the solution carbonic acid \"partially\" neutralizes them by forming HO and bicarbonate () ions. Similarly an excess of H ions is \"partially\" neutralized by the bicarbonate component of the buffer solution to form carbonic acid (HCO), which, because it is a weak acid, remains largely in the undissociated form, releasing far fewer H ions into the solution than the original strong acid would have done. The pH of a buffer solution depends solely on the \"ratio\" of the molar concentrations of the weak acid to the weak base. The higher the concentration of the weak acid in the solution (compared to the weak base) the lower the resulting pH of the solution. Similarly, if the weak base predominates the higher the resulting pH. This principle is exploited to \"regulate\" the pH of the extracellular fluids (rather than just \"buffering\" the pH). For the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer, a molar ratio of weak acid to weak base of 1:20 produces a pH of 7.4; and vice versa - when the pH of the extracellular fluids is 7.4 then the ratio of carbonic acid to bicarbonate ions in that fluid is 1:20. This relationship is described mathematically by the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation, which, when applied to the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system in the extracellular fluids, states that: The pH of the extracellular fluids can thus be controlled by separately regulating the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (which determines the carbonic acid concentration), and the bicarbonate ion concentration in the extracellular fluids. There are therefore at least two homeostatic negative feedback systems responsible for the regulation of the plasma pH. The first is the homeostatic control of the blood partial pressure of carbon dioxide, which determines the carbonic acid concentration in the plasma, and can change the pH of the arterial plasma within a few seconds. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood is monitored by the central chemoreceptors of the medulla oblongata, and so are part of the central nervous system. These chemoreceptors are sensitive to the pH and levels of carbon dioxide in the cerebrospinal fluid. (The peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the aortic bodies and carotid bodies adjacent to the arch of the aorta and to the bifurcation of the carotid arteries, respectively. These chemoreceptors are sensitive primarily to changes in the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood and are therefore not directly involved with pH homeostasis.) The central chemoreceptors send their information to the respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata and pons of the brainstem. The respiratory centres then determine the average rate of ventilation of the alveoli of the lungs, to keep the partial pressure carbon dioxide in the arterial blood constant. The respiratory center does so via motor neurons which activate the muscles of respiration (in particular the diaphragm). A rise in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood plasma above 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg) reflexly causes an increase in the rate and depth of breathing. Normal breathing is resumed when the partial pressure of carbon dioxide has returned to 5.3 kPa. The converse happens if the partial pressure of carbon dioxide falls below the normal range. Breathing may be temporally halted, or slowed down to allow carbon dioxide to accumulate once more in the lungs and arterial blood. The sensor for the plasma HCO concentration is not known for certain. It is very probable that the renal tubular cells of the distal convoluted tubules are themselves sensitive to the pH of the plasma. The metabolism of these cells produces CO, which is rapidly converted to H and HCO through the action of carbonic anhydrase. When the extracellular fluids tend towards acidity, the renal tubular cells secrete the H ions into the tubular fluid from where they exit the body via the urine. The HCO ions are simultaneously secreted into the blood plasma, thus raising the bicarbonate ion concentration in the plasma, lowering the carbonic acid/bicarbonate ion ratio, and consequently raising the pH of the plasma. The converse happens when the plasma pH rises above normal: bicarbonate ions are excreted into the urine, and hydrogen ions into the plasma. These combine with the bicarbonate ions in the plasma to form carbonic acid (H + HCO = HCO), thus raising the carbonic acid:bicarbonate ratio in the extracellular fluids, and returning its pH to normal. In general, metabolism produces more waste acids than bases. The urine is therefore generally acid. This urinary acidity is, to a certain extent, neutralized by the ammonia (NH) which is excreted into the urine when glutamate and glutamine (carriers of excess, no longer needed, amino groups) are deaminated by the distal renal tubular epithelial cells. Thus some of the \"acid content\" of the urine resides in the resulting ammonium ion (NH) content of the urine, though this has no effect on pH homeostasis of the extracellular fluids.",
"Acid–base imbalance occurs when a significant insult causes the blood pH to shift out of the normal range (7.32 to 7.42). An abnormally low pH in the ECF is called an acidaemia and an abnormally high pH is called an alkalaemia. A second pair of terms is used in acid-base pathophysiology: \"acidosis\" and \"alkalosis\". They are often used as synonyms for \"acidaemia\" and \"alkalaemia\", though this can cause confusion. \"Acidaemia\" refers unambiguously to the actual change in the pH of the ECF, whereas \"acidosis\", strictly speaking, refers to \"either\" a rise in the amount of carbonic acid in the ECF \"or\" to a decrease in the amount of HCO in the ECF. Either change would \"on its own\" (i.e. if left \"uncompensated\" by an alkalosis) cause an acidaemia. Similarly an alkalosis refers to a rise in the concentration of bicarbonate in the ECF, \"or\" to a fall on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, either of which would \"on their own\" raise the pH of the ECF above the normal value. The terms \"acidosis\" and \"alkalosis\" should always be qualified by an adjective to indicate the cause of the disturbance: \"respiratory\" (indicating a change in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide), or \"metabolic\" (indicating a change in the bicarbonate concentration of the ECF). There are therefore four different acid-base problems: metabolic acidosis, respiratory acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, and respiratory alkalosis. One or a combination these conditions may occur simultaneously. For instance, a metabolic acidosis (as in uncontrolled diabetes mellitus) is almost always partially compensated by a respiratory alkalosis (hyperventilation), or a respiratory acidosis can be completely or partially corrected by a metabolic alkalosis. Whether an acidosis causes an acidaemia or not depends on the magnitude of the accompanying alkalosis. If the one cancels the other out (i.e. the \"ratio\" of carbonic acid to bicarbonate is returned to 1:20) then there is neither an acidaemia or an alkalaemia. If the accompanying alkalosis overwhelms the acidosis then an alkalaemia results; whereas if the acidosis is greater than the alkalosis then an acidaemia is the inevitable result. The same considerations determine whether an alkalosis results in an alkalaemia or not. The normal pH in the fetus differs from that in the adult. In the fetus, the pH in the umbilical vein pH is normally 7.25 to 7.45 and that in the umbilical artery is normally 7.18 to 7.38."
]
} |
Pituitary adenoma | null | Pituitary adenomas are tumors that occur in the pituitary gland. Pituitary adenomas are generally divided into three categories dependent upon their biological functioning: benign adenoma, invasive adenoma, and carcinomas. Most adenomas are benign, approximately 35% are invasive and just 0.1% to 0.2% are carcinomas. Pituitary adenomas represent from 10% to 25% of all intracranial neoplasms and the estimated prevalence rate in the general population is approximately 17%. | null | [
250004,
250054,
180644,
13,
23410,
214,
13380,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
7,
22304,
1632,
111,
40368,
3173,
7,
111,
59058,
6295,
34,
30188,
8780,
5,
581,
29458,
7,
56566,
98,
70,
10644,
111,
133818,
5,
31384,
57412,
7,
23410,
13,
1286,
3501,
1632,
133818,
4,
70,
2684,
39210,
162515,
8035,
6,
41877,
136,
502,
28549,
2311,
4,
3129,
13379,
237,
241957,
32881,
75678,
136,
241957,
52879,
22062,
15,
73,
15044,
453,
136,
24793,
194,
62,
37896,
678,
13380,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
1543,
13379,
678,
21176,
44457,
72104,
7,
4,
18507,
71407,
333,
99736,
289,
2360,
27173,
15759,
11,
5,
1650,
187,
62093,
1295,
70,
375,
48448,
111,
70,
233,
9523,
24030,
13,
390,
70,
57412,
5,
581,
29458,
16128,
111,
70,
21176,
60875,
7514,
99,
3129,
375,
48448,
390,
6097,
370,
432,
12824,
74918,
7,
83,
99,
70,
233,
9523,
16455,
18923,
5,
581,
10,
35931,
1176,
111,
903,
45646,
113660,
81147,
98,
442,
47,
27489,
10,
72104,
23,
70,
58663,
21176,
44457,
98,
15044,
5609,
7,
4,
10,
35431,
35839,
333,
99736,
289,
2360,
27173,
15759,
11,
5,
4263,
62038,
1916,
14597,
47,
70,
233,
9523,
16455,
7,
39,
4,
1286,
39210,
538,
23,
10,
6,
15182,
5305,
14612,
44413,
9702,
192,
111,
70,
13380,
7143,
6635,
20974,
92,
4,
70,
21176,
44457,
72104,
1221,
5117,
108975,
237,
333,
99736,
289,
44157,
68587,
19,
1076,
128482,
4,
2174,
62038,
1916,
44157,
47,
70,
233,
9523,
16455,
7,
39,
70,
21176,
44457,
72104,
1221,
5117,
108975,
237,
333,
99736,
289,
14597,
68587,
19,
1076,
128482,
5,
147466,
289,
14700,
66,
6889,
111,
10,
13380,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
831,
2843,
375,
11856,
70,
1563,
693,
35481,
24030,
13,
4,
216806,
10,
80707,
456,
24392,
11167,
4861,
5,
22376,
4,
10,
13380,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
831,
22304,
153698,
111,
124735,
23,
39989,
26372,
289,
81147,
5,
1250,
28549,
23968,
1510,
27983,
4034,
47,
8337,
153698,
41866,
20271,
479,
7456,
27771,
4,
3229,
70,
133818,
239269,
13,
51312,
7,
70,
57412,
25,
7,
75678,
34515,
5,
179117,
223,
52895,
111,
10336,
934,
90,
621,
39210,
23,
60264,
678,
13380,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
7,
5,
581,
44882,
31079,
1543,
186,
70,
20809,
7278,
4935,
31461,
50155,
70,
10336,
46994,
707,
1543,
21265,
47,
1119,
11,
3443,
99500,
10,
10336,
46994,
143434,
390,
3789,
120103,
5,
2022,
4021,
271,
70,
52895,
111,
10336,
934,
90,
122446,
621,
15044,
184843,
136,
91443,
1771,
39666,
1212,
4,
136,
1286,
51,
277,
3796,
538,
67842,
228038,
10336,
934,
90,
74,
158978,
66604,
23709,
10336,
46994,
4,
16610,
9,
120027,
228038,
108,
82451,
735,
5037,
10336,
46994,
52875,
7,
678,
158,
17043,
23835,
1405,
115049,
1830,
136,
120,
101098,
15,
136784,
43379,
16,
20,
15700,
10644,
111,
66604,
23709,
10336,
46994,
62816,
29367,
390,
16610,
66604,
7,
111,
24503,
20,
4,
234737,
10336,
46994,
4,
136,
2360,
1771,
88877,
9454,
15,
38131,
194,
142158,
7,
29888,
153698,
111,
13380,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
7,
15,
1824,
20605,
44457,
87024,
7,
4,
227204,
71,
21176,
11668,
2481,
4,
10336,
934,
90,
16,
621,
1286,
39210,
538,
51592,
678,
111789,
2873,
31079,
7,
15,
143321,
621,
117396,
3501,
209,
2866,
23,
148064,
16,
3501,
678,
11948,
2873,
31079,
7,
15,
143321,
621,
40715,
3501,
209,
2866,
23,
148064,
194,
3775,
9,
164054,
214,
44882,
31079,
7,
831,
738,
9232,
67,
89829,
100,
142,
65042,
297,
1733,
6637,
110,
162520,
1563,
33176,
31075,
621,
51592,
74,
70,
128839,
456,
77391,
23,
3638,
69924,
4743,
47,
227204,
71,
36049,
111,
133818,
7,
83,
43257,
40715,
36875,
5,
1326,
27781,
4,
23,
129980,
606,
107,
157,
10517,
13886,
133141,
238,
133818,
26950,
450,
70,
606,
982,
289,
706,
15534,
1221,
959,
27489,
6,
129980,
102043,
8748,
4,
16750,
214,
23,
72803,
145951,
1295,
202711,
4,
6,
203932,
136,
184843,
209358,
74,
23,
129980,
75678,
133818,
23,
20020,
136,
191208,
37105,
7,
47,
45,
65015,
5252,
33908,
107,
1284,
3129,
831,
765,
5941,
3789,
187136,
7,
5,
179117,
223,
137784,
1771,
155390,
7,
765,
2809,
137272,
678,
13380,
7143,
6635,
171986,
7,
26719,
13380,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
7,
5,
113441,
38459,
62233,
153698,
6044,
237,
105774,
4,
216598,
10,
192592,
4,
88965,
23,
271,
41159,
4,
23468,
72405,
83259,
136,
192586,
2481,
765,
2809,
959,
297,
5,
1301,
70,
13380,
7143,
6635,
706,
1760,
83,
23,
20903,
241846,
939,
47,
70,
78574,
4,
116000,
272,
44882,
31079,
7,
1543,
205491,
70,
21025,
41638,
4,
501,
26372,
289,
32881,
4,
707,
91,
88322,
48899,
32881,
5,
58242,
31079,
7,
111,
70,
14798,
13380,
7143,
6635,
706,
1760,
621,
10,
13036,
56465,
289,
60213,
111,
48716,
22,
29713,
36186,
16169,
52033,
399,
10644,
106,
15,
28751,
17727,
4,
10,
41207,
23,
86151,
3674,
22,
29713,
36186,
194923,
450,
52490,
7,
106,
3445,
23,
11907,
6,
133446,
5,
28141,
113660,
67842,
162515,
7,
111,
202019,
707,
186470,
1236,
57412,
7,
23,
67842,
706,
15534,
23,
70,
22,
29713,
36186,
5426,
707,
1543,
22304,
70,
706,
15534,
47,
24209,
22,
320,
17704,
15490,
3173,
214,
57412,
7,
5,
1650,
27983,
52490,
7,
70,
121,
29178,
63964,
706,
15534,
4,
2652,
129147,
238,
83,
1974,
38750,
7,
4,
136,
14798,
459,
372,
111,
70,
13380,
7143,
6635,
706,
1760,
5,
28141,
418,
1543,
2843,
22304,
351,
9,
4017,
33692,
86,
57412,
7,
6044,
237,
40911,
348,
846,
1029,
6369,
1510,
4,
167102,
31079,
7,
4,
136327,
1510,
4,
26213,
846,
1510,
4,
28,
2278,
87306,
1510,
4,
136,
4302,
306,
1410,
1510,
5,
5787,
64101,
1352,
37838,
714,
33297,
111,
60264,
678,
28141,
418,
85493,
13380,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
7,
5,
107281,
53,
27140,
15,
36115,
441,
247,
2843,
51529,
237,
3358,
12689,
194923,
136,
6,
182512,
194923,
83,
142,
1809,
5084,
289,
73944,
35431,
48402,
214,
759,
5387,
1510,
111,
70,
26498,
136,
21722,
4,
59058,
219915,
2320,
111,
70,
21722,
15,
22042,
8452,
56916,
7,
247,
136,
22,
29713,
36186,
645,
71234,
2481,
136,
83,
117781,
1295,
107281,
53,
25,
7,
1927,
712,
5,
5787,
64101,
1352,
37838,
98531,
111,
756,
165441,
759,
5387,
1510,
621,
137272,
678,
107281,
53,
27140,
5,
135004,
7,
678,
90959,
85493,
75678,
133818,
15,
41877,
16,
9,
102446,
214,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
45533,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
7,
621,
57412,
7,
450,
74918,
23,
70,
13380,
7143,
6635,
706,
1760,
5,
45533,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
7,
621,
137567,
101637,
71,
3934,
17262,
39283,
7,
108750,
54799,
2363,
333,
109622,
32354,
214,
12,
202019,
44882,
31079,
4,
116000,
272,
44882,
31079,
4,
136,
2258,
44924,
1510,
5,
17006,
44882,
31079,
7,
621,
202019,
4,
189275,
86475,
621,
116000,
272,
136,
1660,
107754,
3949,
47,
126175,
3949,
621,
2258,
44924,
1510,
5,
45533,
7143,
6635,
44882,
31079,
7,
33636,
1295,
10662,
47,
28602,
111,
756,
23,
39989,
26372,
289,
16169,
52033,
4432,
136,
70,
25902,
3674,
151497,
3956,
34515,
23,
70,
4537,
43904,
83,
189275,
147623,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1184718 | en-train-1184718 | 1184718 | {
"title": [
"Signs and symptoms.",
"Physical.",
"Psychiatric.",
"Complications.",
"Risk factors.",
"Multiple endocrine neoplasia.",
"Carney complex.",
"Familial isolated pituitary adenoma.",
"Genetics of FIPA.",
"Mechanism.",
"Diagnosis.",
"Classification.",
"Pituitary incidentalomas.",
"Ectopic pituitary adenoma.",
"Metastases to the pituitary gland.",
"Treatment."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"Hormone secreting pituitary adenomas cause one of several forms of hyperpituitarism. The specifics depend on the type of hormone. Some tumors secrete more than one hormone, the most common combination being GH and prolactin, which present as unexpected bone growth and unexpected lactation (in both men and women). A patient with pituitary adenoma may present with visual field defects, classically bitemporal hemianopsia. It arises from the compression of the optic nerve by the tumor. The specific area of the visual pathway at which compression by these tumours occurs is at the optic chiasma. The anatomy of this structure causes pressure on it to produce a defect in the temporal visual field on both sides, a condition called bitemporal hemianopsia. If originating superior to the optic chiasm, more commonly in a craniopharyngioma of the pituitary stalk, the visual field defect will first appear as bitemporal inferior quadrantanopia, if originating inferior to the optic chiasm the visual field defect will first appear as bitemporal superior quadrantanopia. Lateral expansion of a pituitary adenoma can also compress the abducens nerve, causing a lateral rectus palsy. Also, a pituitary adenoma can cause symptoms of increased intracranial pressure. Prolactinomas often start to give symptoms especially during pregnancy, when the hormone progesterone increases the tumor's growth rate. Various types of headaches are common in patients with pituitary adenomas. The adenoma may be the prime causative factor behind the headache or may serve to exacerbate a headache caused by other factors. Amongst the types of headaches experienced are both chronic and episodic migraine, and more uncommonly various unilateral headaches; primary stabbing headache, short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing (SUNCT) - another type of stabbing headache characterized by short stabs of pain -, cluster headache, and hemicrania continua (HS). Compressive symptoms of pituitary adenomas (visual field deficits, decreased visual acuity, headaches) are more commonly seen with macroadenomas (which are greater than 10 mm in diameter) than with microadenomas (which are less than 10 mm in diameter). Non-secreting adenomas can go undetected for an extended time because no obvious abnormalities are seen; the gradual reduction in normal activities due to decreased production of hormones is rather less evident. For example, insufficient adrenocorticotropic hormone means that the adrenal glands will not produce sufficient cortisol, resulting in slow recovery from illness, inflammation and chronic fatigue; insufficient growth hormone in children and adolescents leads to diminished stature but which can have many other explanations.",
"Various psychiatric manifestations have been associated with pituitary disorders including pituitary adenomas. Psychiatric symptoms such as depression, anxiety apathy, emotional instability, easy irritability and hostility have been noted.",
"As the pituitary gland is in close proximity to the brain, invasive adenomas may invade the dura mater, cranial bone, or sphenoid bone.",
"",
"Adenomas of the anterior pituitary gland are a major clinical feature of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1), a rare inherited endocrine syndrome that affects 1 person in every 30,000. MEN causes various combinations of benign or malignant tumors in various glands in the endocrine system or may cause the glands to become enlarged without forming tumors. It often affects the parathyroid glands, pancreatic islet cells, and anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. MEN1 may also cause non-endocrine tumors such as facial angiofibromas, collagenomas, lipomas, meningiomas, ependymomas, and leiomyomas. Approximately 25 percent of patients with MEN1 develop pituitary adenomas.",
"Carney complex (CNC), also known as LAMB syndrome and NAME syndrome is an autosomal dominant condition comprising myxomas of the heart and skin, hyperpigmentation of the skin (lentiginosis), and endocrine overactivity and is distinct from Carney's triad. Approximately 7% of all cardiac myxomas are associated with Carney complex. Patients with CNC develop growth hormone (GH)-producing pituitary tumors and in some instances these same tumors also secrete prolactin. There are however no isolated prolactinomas or any other type of pituitary tumor. In some patients with CNC, the pituitary gland is characterized by hyperplastic areas with the hyperplasia most likely preceding the formation of GH-producing adenomas.",
"Familial isolated pituitary adenoma (FIPA) is a term that is used to identify a condition that displays an autosomal dominant inheritance and is characterised by the presence of two or more related patients affected by adenomas of the pituitary gland only, with no other associated symptoms that occur in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN-1) or Carney complex. FIPA was first described in a limited cohort of families by group in Liège, Belgium; later FIPA was fully characterized in a multicenter international study of 64 families. FIPA families are divided into those that are homogenous and have the same type of pituitary adenoma in all the affected family members (e.g. only acromegaly, only prolactinoma, etc), while heterogeneous FIPA families can have different pituitary adenomas in affected family members.",
"FIPA has two known genetic causes, mutations in the AH receptor-interacting protein (AIP) gene and duplications in chromosome Xq26.3 that include the \"GPR101\" gene that also causes X-linked acrogigantism (X-LAG) syndrome. About 15-20% of FIPA families carry a germline \"AIP\" gene mutation or deletion, and the disease occurs as autosomal dominant with incomplete penetrance, meaning that about 20% of AIP mutation carriers will develop a pituitary adenoma. \"AIP\" mutation associated pituitary adenomas (either presenting as FIPA or as individual, non familial cases) are usually growth hormone secreting (acromegaly) or prolactin secreting (prolactinoma) adenomas that are large (macroadenomas) and often occur in children, adolescents and young adults. Daly and colleagues showed that acromegaly cases with \"AIP\" mutations occurred about 20 years before acromegaly cases without \"AIP\" mutations and these tumors are large and relatively treatment resistant. Due to their young age at onset, \"AIP\" mutations are the most frequent genetic cause of pituitary gigantism (29% of cases). X-LAG is a rare syndrome of very early childhood onset pituitary tumors/hyperplasia that leads to growth hormone excess and severe overgrowth and pituitary gigantism. Three FIPA families with X-LAG have been reported to date all of which had transmission of a chromosome Xq26.3 duplication from affected mother to affected son. The disease characteristics of very young onset pituitary gigantism leads to severe overgrowth if not treated adequately; many of the tallest humans in history (e.g. Robert Pershing Wadlow; Sandy Allen, André Rousimoff (Andre the Giant), Zeng Jinlian) had a similar clinical history to patients with X-LAG syndrome. The tallest historical individual with a known genetic cause was Julius Koch (Geant Constantin) who was found to have X-LAG on genetic study of his skeleton. X-LAG has 100% penetrance so far (all affected with the Xq26.3 duplication have the disease and it affects predominantly females. Isolated non familial cases of X-LAG can either have a constitutional duplication of a chromosome Xq26.3 including \"GPR101\", or mosaicism for the duplication (present in a minority of cells) in the case of isolated male patients. X-LAG causes about 10% of cases of pituitary gigantism.",
"The pituitary gland or hypophysis is often referred to as the \"master gland\" of the human body. Part of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, it controls most of the body's endocrine functions via the secretion of various hormones into the circulatory system. The pituitary gland is located below the brain in a depression (fossa) of the sphenoid bone known as the sella turcica. Although anatomically and functionally connected to the brain, the pituitary gland sits outside the blood–brain barrier. It is separated from the subarachnoid space by the diaphragma sella, therefore the arachnoid mater and thus cerebral spinal fluid cannot enter the sella turcica. The pituitary gland is divided into two lobes, the anterior lobe (which accounts for two thirds of the volume of the gland), and the posterior lobe (one third of the volume) separated by the pars intermedia. The posterior lobe (the neural lobe or neurohypophysis) of the pituitary gland is not, despite its name, a true gland. The posterior lobe contains axons of neurons that extend from the hypothalamus to which it is connected via the pituitary stalk. The hormones vasopressin and oxytocin, produced by the neurons of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus, are stored in the posterior lobe and released from axon endings (dendrites) within the lobe. The pituitary gland's anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) is a true gland which produces and secretes six different hormones: thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), growth hormone (GH), and prolactin (PRL).",
"Diagnosis of pituitary adenoma can be made, or at least suspected, by a constellation of related symptoms presented above. The differential diagnosis includes pituitary tuberculoma, especially in developing countries and in immumocompromised patients. The diagnosis is confirmed by testing hormone levels, and by radiographic imaging of the pituitary (for example, by CT scan or MRI).",
"Unlike tumors of the posterior Pituitary, Pituitary adenomas are classified as endocrine tumors (not brain tumors). Pituitary adenomas are classified based upon anatomical, histological and functional criteria.",
"Pituitary incidentalomas are pituitary tumors that are characterized as an incidental finding. They are often discovered by computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), performed in the evaluation of unrelated medical conditions such as suspected head trauma, in cancer staging or in the evaluation of nonspecific symptoms such as dizziness and headache. It is not uncommon for them to be discovered at autopsy. In a meta-analysis, adenomas were found in an average of 16.7% in postmortem studies, with most being microadenomas (<10mm); macrodenomas accounted for only 0.16% to 0.2% of the decedents. While non-secreting, noninvasive pituitary microadenomas are generally considered to be literally as well as clinically benign, there are to date scant studies of low quality to support this assertion. It has been recommended in the current Clinical Practice Guidelines (2011) by the Endocrine Society - a professional, international medical organization in the field of endocrinology and metabolism - that all patients with pituitary incidentalomas undergo a complete medical history and physical examination, laboratory evaluations to screen for hormone hypersecretion and for hypopituitarism. If the lesion is in close proximity to the optic nerves or optic chiasm, a visual field examination should be performed. For those with incidentalomas which do not require surgical removal, follow up clinical assessments and neuroimaging should be performed as well follow-up visual field examinations for incidentalomas that abut or compress the optic nerve and chiasm and follow-up endocrine testing for macroincidentalomas.",
"An ectopic (occurring in an abnormal place) pituitary adenoma is a rare type of tumor which occurs outside of the sella turcica, most often in the sphenoid sinus, suprasellar region, nasopharynx and the cavernous sinuses.",
"Carcinomas that metastasize into the pituitary gland are uncommon and typically seen in the elderly, with lung and breast cancers being the most prevalent, In breast cancer patients, metastases to the pituitary gland occur in approximately 6-8% of cases. Symptomatic pituitary metastases account for only 7% of reported cases. In those who are symptomatic Diabetes insipidus often occurs with rates approximately 29-71%. Other commonly reported symptoms include anterior pituitary dysfunction, visual field defects, headache/pain, and ophthalmoplegia.",
"Treatment options depend on the type of tumor and on its size:"
]
} |
Gödel's completeness theorem | null | Gödel's completeness theorem is a fundamental theorem in mathematical logic that establishes a correspondence between semantic truth and syntactic provability in first-order logic. It makes a close link between model theory that deals with what is true in different models, and proof theory that studies what can be formally proven in particular formal systems. | null | [
250004,
250054,
8622,
621,
183851,
8,
39367,
4935,
76519,
100,
5117,
9,
80596,
62775,
4,
26719,
76519,
111,
6083,
8,
77391,
136,
26370,
16466,
9,
40946,
76519,
5,
151301,
47,
756,
8,
39367,
4935,
76519,
83,
70,
110,
1363,
111,
10,
23113,
8,
77391,
5,
3293,
83,
10,
40,
944,
3956,
15,
748,
4,
23,
3060,
50218,
4,
10,
94418,
13,
53201,
16,
111,
26168,
7,
678,
10,
5361,
538,
9,
34198,
27686,
93192,
5,
581,
80934,
111,
10,
8,
77391,
83,
6044,
450,
442,
83,
94418,
13,
136,
450,
442,
83,
7722,
47,
493,
40383,
234873,
71407,
15,
1272,
10,
13909,
4,
100,
27781,
4,
707,
390,
3535,
16,
450,
10,
34475,
40,
944,
3956,
15,
748,
53201,
16,
111,
26168,
7,
83,
160463,
10,
8,
77391,
5,
62,
5117,
9,
80596,
26168,
83,
35839,
12684,
71407,
35604,
2174,
442,
83,
29568,
23,
11907,
45646,
100,
70,
46876,
111,
70,
26168,
15,
14,
5,
13,
5,
100,
2499,
95486,
674,
111,
142424,
47,
70,
77336,
7,
111,
70,
26168,
194,
717,
23113,
538,
11341,
4,
136,
7068,
23534,
4,
70,
28484,
7432,
70,
58391,
4,
442,
83,
63559,
47,
2843,
61924,
10,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
5,
62,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
83,
35839,
28484,
2174,
11907,
12684,
71407,
35604,
26168,
83,
70,
93192,
111,
3060,
23113,
8,
77391,
4,
136,
70,
28484,
7432,
70,
58391,
100,
10,
17311,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
83,
70,
70,
58391,
450,
442,
83,
28484,
23,
903,
10422,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
23,
10,
10422,
4,
2685,
83,
10,
12921,
28484,
7432,
70,
58391,
100,
12638,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
5,
62,
158,
37676,
47,
28484,
7432,
83,
45730,
7432,
4,
70,
15824,
450,
4734,
12684,
71407,
35604,
26168,
7,
621,
13395,
2661,
23,
70,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
5,
4263,
3060,
29458,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
111,
5117,
9,
80596,
62775,
83,
45730,
136,
28484,
4,
7068,
442,
83,
44,
185622,
58,
15,
11,
26168,
83,
13395,
2661,
2174,
136,
4734,
2174,
442,
83,
12684,
71407,
35604,
247,
4911,
7,
183234,
47,
2499,
3789,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
678,
70,
5701,
31897,
15,
4848,
6,
98869,
23,
1632,
5426,
831,
186,
117176,
71,
3934,
70,
3789,
194,
1401,
5117,
30022,
10,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
111,
5117,
9,
80596,
1653,
2063,
67,
44805,
223,
4,
218873,
2499,
111,
70,
5299,
9,
69723,
19,
183234,
76519,
5,
23912,
1743,
25,
7,
7311,
6,
98869,
41591,
71,
70,
26370,
16466,
9,
284,
11050,
5761,
6,
98869,
5426,
5,
581,
28484,
7432,
70,
58391,
17378,
450,
2174,
10,
26168,
83,
12684,
71407,
35604,
7068,
2685,
83,
10,
94418,
13,
8,
77391,
15,
11,
23113,
6,
98869,
16,
111,
70,
26168,
5,
12613,
7,
4,
70,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
83,
44,
277,
131801,
58,
23,
70,
10422,
450,
110,
78301,
53498,
6620,
91736,
621,
56065,
47,
23534,
756,
70,
12684,
71407,
35604,
26168,
7,
5,
62,
158,
37676,
47,
28484,
7432,
83,
45730,
7432,
4,
70,
15824,
450,
4734,
12684,
71407,
35604,
26168,
7,
621,
13395,
2661,
23,
70,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
5,
717,
429,
9319,
678,
45730,
7432,
15,
434,
497,
184,
493,
41274,
83,
23468,
247,
903,
70,
58391,
35388,
90,
450,
10,
26168,
83,
12684,
71407,
35604,
2174,
136,
4734,
2174,
442,
83,
70,
93192,
111,
10,
23113,
8,
77391,
5,
581,
70,
58391,
831,
186,
36510,
297,
1286,
137567,
23,
69407,
111,
62775,
289,
179804,
6620,
5,
1401,
5154,
450,
10,
149357,
44,
7,
58,
83,
10,
6002,
102,
49086,
179804,
6620,
111,
10,
154453,
44,
618,
830,
8,
157,
3674,
26168,
115187,
4,
2174,
44,
7,
58,
83,
13395,
2661,
1295,
44,
618,
58,
23,
2446,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
5,
1401,
5154,
450,
44,
7,
58,
83,
10,
484,
109109,
179804,
6620,
111,
44,
618,
830,
8,
157,
3674,
26168,
454,
304,
4,
2174,
44,
7,
58,
16401,
7,
23,
11907,
3299,
111,
44,
618,
740,
581,
28484,
7432,
70,
58391,
7068,
17378,
450,
100,
2499,
5117,
9,
80596,
154453,
44,
618,
58,
678,
10,
5299,
9,
80596,
2886,
46876,
4,
136,
2499,
149357,
44,
7,
58,
23,
70,
46876,
111,
44,
618,
830,
66016,
70,
158,
37676,
15,
165207,
7432,
16,
2843,
16401,
7,
4,
442,
28960,
7,
450,
26168,
454,
304,
6,
32920,
26168,
115187,
4,
136,
4911,
7,
450,
6002,
102,
49086,
136,
484,
109109,
179804,
6620,
621,
183234,
100,
5117,
9,
80596,
62775,
5,
3293,
1286,
4537,
70,
58391,
83,
11814,
165164,
538,
4,
100,
27781,
4,
3229,
10,
149357,
83,
127887,
47,
186,
13395,
2661,
1295,
70,
10,
5134,
28016,
111,
21115,
154453,
390,
179635,
142,
61799,
1294,
21115,
136,
141377,
450,
70,
149357,
83,
214521,
390,
450,
21115,
5,
23912,
1743,
25,
7,
7311,
26168,
1363,
83,
8,
106357,
71,
390,
35971,
70,
17311,
7225,
111,
10,
154453,
15490,
2499,
10,
5134,
306,
5,
581,
28484,
7432,
70,
58391,
831,
2843,
186,
217064,
23,
69407,
111,
35060,
27771,
4,
237,
10,
179804,
6620,
111,
164119,
73,
25,
7,
3299,
6,
116311,
70,
58391,
5,
1401,
5154,
450,
10,
154453,
44,
618,
58,
83,
6002,
18,
47013,
71407,
74729,
2174,
2685,
83,
110,
149357,
44,
7,
58,
6044,
450,
15044,
44,
7,
58,
136,
6863,
108,
125682,
6,
36927,
58,
7,
58,
621,
13395,
2661,
1295,
44,
618,
58,
23,
2446,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
5,
581,
3299,
6,
116311,
70,
58391,
17378,
450,
100,
2499,
5117,
9,
80596,
154453,
44,
618,
58,
678,
10,
5299,
9,
80596,
2886,
46876,
4,
116267,
11389,
4,
678,
94878,
7,
47,
70,
37300,
11697,
9491,
1104,
294,
6931,
195,
70,
58391,
4,
17378,
12,
77878,
19,
164119,
73,
25,
7,
70,
58391,
4,
70,
28484,
7432,
70,
58391,
831,
186,
77443,
237,
28960,
7,
12,
4263,
26168,
454,
1126,
4,
7068,
26168,
454,
963,
14602,
959,
765,
115774,
5,
3311,
70,
2304,
67890,
4935,
111,
164119,
73,
25,
7,
70,
58391,
4,
7068,
26168,
454,
963,
83,
6002,
18,
47013,
71407,
23,
25553,
6892,
18,
5,
1061,
10,
2304,
428,
10763,
15,
2472,
19908,
454,
55102,
83,
13395,
2661,
1295,
26168,
454,
963,
23,
70,
8,
39367,
4935,
5426,
5,
572,
6620,
26168,
454,
2592,
4,
136,
7068,
390,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
23912,
1743,
25,
7,
28484,
7432,
70,
58391,
83,
10,
20531,
70,
58391,
23,
291,
140363,
70760,
62775,
450,
137633,
90,
10,
42518,
6620,
17721,
484,
109109,
85027,
136,
6002,
102,
49086,
24355,
41159,
23,
5117,
9,
80596,
62775,
5,
1650,
30482,
10,
20903,
3126,
17721,
3299,
154453,
450,
8,
16765,
678,
2367,
83,
29568,
23,
12921,
115774,
4,
136,
6,
98869,
154453,
450,
96335,
2367,
831,
186,
23113,
538,
60449,
23,
17311,
23113,
76519,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-1956301 | en-train-1956301 | 1956301 | {
"title": [
"Preliminaries.",
"Statement.",
"Gödel's original formulation.",
"More general form.",
"Model existence theorem.",
"As a theorem of arithmetic.",
"Consequences.",
"Relationship to the second incompleteness theorem.",
"Relationship to the compactness theorem.",
"Completeness in other logics.",
"Proofs."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"There are numerous deductive systems for first-order logic, including systems of natural deduction and Hilbert-style systems. Common to all deductive systems is the notion of a formal deduction. This is a sequence (or, in some cases, a finite tree) of formulas with a specially-designated conclusion. The definition of a deduction is such that it is finite and that it is possible to verify algorithmically (by a computer, for example, or by hand) that a given sequence (or tree) of formulas is indeed a deduction. A first-order formula is called logically valid if it is true in every structure for the language of the formula (i.e. for any assignment of values to the variables of the formula). To formally state, and then prove, the completeness theorem, it is necessary to also define a deductive system. A deductive system is called complete if every logically valid formula is the conclusion of some formal deduction, and the completeness theorem for a particular deductive system is the theorem that it is complete in this sense. Thus, in a sense, there is a different completeness theorem for each deductive system. A converse to completeness is soundness, the fact that only logically valid formulas are provable in the deductive system. If some specific deductive system of first-order logic is sound and complete, then it is \"perfect\" (a formula is provable if and only if it is logically valid), thus equivalent to any other deductive system with the same quality (any proof in one system can be converted into the other).",
"We first fix a deductive system of first-order predicate calculus, choosing any of the well-known equivalent systems. Gödel's original proof assumed the Hilbert-Ackermann proof system.",
"The completeness theorem says that if a formula is logically valid then there is a finite deduction (a formal proof) of the formula. Thus, the deductive system is \"complete\" in the sense that no additional inference rules are required to prove all the logically valid formulas. A converse to completeness is soundness, the fact that only logically valid formulas are provable in the deductive system. Together with soundness (whose verification is easy), this theorem implies that a formula is logically valid if and only if it is the conclusion of a formal deduction.",
"The theorem can be expressed more generally in terms of logical consequence. We say that a sentence \"s\" is a syntactic consequence of a theory \"T\", denoted formula_1, if \"s\" is provable from \"T\" in our deductive system. We say that \"s\" is a semantic consequence of \"T\", denoted formula_2, if \"s\" holds in every model of \"T\". The completeness theorem then says that for any first-order theory \"T\" with a well-orderable language, and any sentence \"s\" in the language of \"T\", Since the converse (soundness) also holds, it follows that formula_2 iff formula_1, and thus that syntactic and semantic consequence are equivalent for first-order logic. This more general theorem is used implicitly, for example, when a sentence is shown to be provable from the axioms of group theory by considering an arbitrary group and showing that the sentence is satisfied by that group. Gödel's original formulation is deduced by taking the particular case of a theory without any axiom.",
"The completeness theorem can also be understood in terms of consistency, as a consequence of Henkin's model existence theorem. We say that a theory \"T\" is syntactically consistent if there is no sentence \"s\" such that both \"s\" and its negation ¬\"s\" are provable from \"T\" in our deductive system. The model existence theorem says that for any first-order theory \"T\" with a well-orderable language, Another version, with connections to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, says: Given Henkin's theorem, the completeness theorem can be proved as follows: If formula_9, then formula_10 does not have models. By the contrapositive of Henkin's theorem, then formula_10 is syntactically inconsistent. So a contradiction (formula_12) is provable from formula_10 in the deductive system. Hence formula_14, and then by the properties of the deductive system, formula_1.",
"The Model Existence Theorem and its proof can be formalized in the framework of Peano arithmetic. Precisely, we can systematically define a model of any consistent effective first-order theory \"T\" in Peano arithmetic by interpreting each symbol of \"T\" by an arithmetical formula whose free variables are the arguments of the symbol. (In many cases, we will need to assume, as a hypothesis of the construction, that \"T\" is consistent, since Peano arithmetic may not prove that fact.) However, the definition expressed by this formula is not recursive (but is, in general, Δ).",
"An important consequence of the completeness theorem is that it is possible to recursively enumerate the semantic consequences of any effective first-order theory, by enumerating all the possible formal deductions from the axioms of the theory, and use this to produce an enumeration of their conclusions. This comes in contrast with the direct meaning of the notion of semantic consequence, that quantifies over all structures in a particular language, which is clearly not a recursive definition. Also, it makes the concept of \"provability,\" and thus of \"theorem,\" a clear concept that only depends on the chosen system of axioms of the theory, and not on the choice of a proof system.",
"Gödel's second incompleteness theorem (see Gödel's incompleteness theorems), another celebrated result, shows that there are inherent limitations in what can be achieved with formal proofs in mathematics. The name for the incompleteness theorem refers to another meaning of \"complete\" (see model theory – Using the compactness and completeness theorems): A theory \"T \" is complete (or decidable) if for every formula \"f\" in the language of \"T\" either formula_16 or formula_17. Gödel's second incompleteness theorem states that in any consistent effective theory \"T\" containing Peano arithmetic (PA), a formula \"C\" like \"Cformula_18\" expressing the consistency of \"T\" cannot be proven within \"T\". The completeness theorem implies the existence of a model of \"T\" in which the formula \"C\" is false. Such a model (precisely, the set of \"natural numbers\" it contains) is necessarily a non-standard model, as it contains the code number of a proof of a contradiction of \"T\". But \"T\" is consistent when viewed from the outside. Thus this code number of a proof of contradiction of \"T\" must be a non-standard number. In fact, the model of \"any\" theory containing PA obtained by the systematic construction of the arithmetical model existence theorem, is \"always\" non-standard with a non-equivalent provability predicate and a non-equivalent way to interpret its own construction, so that this construction is non-recursive (as recursive definitions would be unambiguous). Also, there is no recursive non-standard model of PA.",
"The completeness theorem and the compactness theorem are two cornerstones of first-order logic. While neither of these theorems can be proven in a completely effective manner, each one can be effectively obtained from the other. The compactness theorem says that if a formula φ is a logical consequence of a (possibly infinite) set of formulas Γ then it is a logical consequence of a finite subset of Γ. This is an immediate consequence of the completeness theorem, because only a finite number of axioms from Γ can be mentioned in a formal deduction of φ, and the soundness of the deductive system then implies φ is a logical consequence of this finite set. This proof of the compactness theorem is originally due to Gödel. Conversely, for many deductive systems, it is possible to prove the completeness theorem as an effective consequence of the compactness theorem. The ineffectiveness of the completeness theorem can be measured along the lines of reverse mathematics. When considered over a countable language, the completeness and compactness theorems are equivalent to each other and equivalent to a weak form of choice known as weak König's lemma, with the equivalence provable in RCA (a second-order variant of Peano arithmetic restricted to induction over Σ formulas). Weak König's lemma is provable in ZF, the system of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without axiom of choice, and thus the completeness and compactness theorems for countable languages are provable in ZF. However the situation is different when the language is of arbitrary large cardinality since then, though the completeness and compactness theorems remain provably equivalent to each other in ZF, they are also provably equivalent to a weak form of the axiom of choice known as the ultrafilter lemma. In particular, no theory extending ZF can prove either the completeness or compactness theorems over arbitrary (possibly uncountable) languages without also proving the ultrafilter lemma on a set of same cardinality.",
"The completeness theorem is a central property of first-order logic that does not hold for all logics. Second-order logic, for example, does not have a completeness theorem for its standard semantics (but does have the completeness property for Henkin semantics), and the set of logically-valid formulas in second-order logic is not recursively enumerable. The same is true of all higher-order logics. It is possible to produce sound deductive systems for higher-order logics, but no such system can be complete. Lindström's theorem states that first-order logic is the strongest (subject to certain constraints) logic satisfying both compactness and completeness. A completeness theorem can be proved for modal logic or intuitionistic logic with respect to Kripke semantics.",
"Gödel's original proof of the theorem proceeded by reducing the problem to a special case for formulas in a certain syntactic form, and then handling this form with an \"ad hoc\" argument. In modern logic texts, Gödel's completeness theorem is usually proved with Henkin's proof, rather than with Gödel's original proof. Henkin's proof directly constructs a term model for any consistent first-order theory. James Margetson (2004) developed a computerized formal proof using the Isabelle theorem prover. Other proofs are also known."
]
} |
Adipocyte | null | Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat. Adipocytes are derived from mesenchymal stem cells which give rise to adipocytes through adipogenesis. In cell culture, adipocytes can also form osteoblasts, myocytes and other cell types. | null | [
250004,
250054,
22392,
19780,
38750,
7,
707,
22460,
330,
1010,
31,
320,
38750,
7,
70541,
10,
21334,
202951,
36069,
1974,
613,
42,
167457,
390,
10,
135355,
111,
19932,
188,
52033,
39,
5,
581,
315,
11030,
223,
83,
49878,
510,
297,
136,
105866,
98,
70,
117,
14,
94266,
53,
5,
62,
222201,
19780,
38750,
83,
107754,
2866,
23,
148064,
678,
3060,
8035,
186351,
450,
13267,
136,
27060,
23552,
450,
13267,
5,
581,
19780,
4343,
71,
83,
23,
10,
36137,
9,
150,
94385,
11341,
4,
136,
83,
150350,
71,
102917,
538,
111,
1927,
110608,
53038,
988,
136,
681,
133,
1515,
8613,
473,
42,
5,
22392,
19780,
38750,
7,
23410,
13,
5941,
21308,
7,
1030,
1916,
237,
20655,
24468,
12741,
6044,
237,
39746,
73,
4,
20655,
5416,
24762,
73,
4,
29963,
2311,
136,
22860,
73,
5,
893,
83080,
14135,
25171,
1556,
496,
96090,
19780,
38750,
7,
678,
10,
57888,
111,
496,
96,
16145,
707,
5847,
758,
5279,
5,
4263,
89978,
57888,
83,
21647,
297,
237,
142,
25171,
4,
19780,
38750,
7,
51312,
23,
13267,
1672,
22759,
42822,
8108,
61998,
449,
136,
118055,
70,
89931,
14012,
111,
19780,
38750,
7,
13379,
5,
40218,
19780,
38750,
7,
707,
69795,
330,
1010,
31,
320,
38750,
7,
621,
35874,
5252,
7263,
23,
115700,
5,
992,
5062,
35011,
19780,
38750,
7,
4,
6097,
38750,
7,
765,
150675,
19932,
188,
52033,
39,
4,
678,
202951,
36069,
1974,
7,
6,
16275,
3055,
297,
87420,
5,
581,
315,
11030,
223,
83,
68807,
136,
4,
102971,
50061,
46899,
71407,
105866,
4,
442,
83,
959,
23,
70,
117,
14,
94266,
53,
111,
70,
38750,
5,
581,
119455,
10576,
32497,
1295,
70,
21334,
102134,
939,
111,
86467,
3089,
29887,
11,
5,
40218,
19780,
4,
2843,
51529,
237,
44,
118630,
19780,
4,
58,
83,
11814,
47,
139392,
80097,
5,
1784,
15555,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
4,
1884,
119455,
136,
35011,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
4,
621,
16406,
4126,
1295,
2409,
33,
7668,
2749,
36418,
38750,
7,
5,
581,
1108,
15555,
20655,
78381,
108055,
13,
8,
7804,
83,
70425,
538,
217064,
23,
69407,
111,
6863,
240877,
137043,
32354,
136,
89515,
329,
47,
32881,
16227,
5,
1784,
15555,
20655,
78381,
108055,
13,
71062,
7,
23,
117249,
111,
27226,
32881,
168,
7,
2481,
1284,
78301,
538,
71062,
7,
23,
70,
53550,
111,
150009,
2481,
74,
5,
1784,
15555,
20655,
78381,
108055,
13,
57553,
47,
81979,
35707,
5134,
120126,
450,
111,
6,
109968,
81979,
34390,
7,
15044,
20655,
771,
2408,
67,
13267,
237,
5299,
237,
52136,
21950,
237,
55230,
47314,
390,
276,
16625,
707,
15247,
43379,
86898,
177,
111,
32881,
6138,
122009,
678,
70,
202951,
6,
186653,
362,
110346,
5,
1914,
9,
3938,
771,
2408,
1636,
621,
51,
238778,
14,
27686,
139940,
67301,
933,
450,
831,
186,
142405,
3674,
47,
3173,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
5,
169549,
96335,
6,
67175,
22729,
3934,
38516,
233239,
191619,
7,
23,
70,
87714,
27354,
1363,
111,
479,
9,
3938,
771,
2408,
1636,
102971,
70,
24763,
42592,
429,
111,
20655,
771,
2408,
67,
83,
7464,
51,
119488,
5,
581,
143834,
111,
14361,
19780,
113068,
16750,
214,
1295,
3638,
75678,
83,
79507,
71,
390,
150017,
289,
136,
147198,
10778,
23,
6,
215131,
98,
9407,
73,
27744,
60212,
7,
23,
38750,
7,
14037,
23,
12638,
20655,
78381,
8,
7804,
5,
12021,
33,
7668,
2749,
36418,
38750,
7,
831,
99710,
2182,
3934,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
4,
37067,
5844,
108055,
13,
4,
123635,
707,
32881,
5,
581,
13579,
44,
112114,
67301,
18,
58,
83,
11814,
47,
98363,
70,
479,
86927,
42,
111,
70,
25171,
38750,
5,
581,
13579,
44,
112114,
67301,
63348,
58,
83,
11814,
47,
98363,
10,
57412,
111,
903,
38750,
10644,
5,
24967,
38750,
7,
23,
3060,
324,
329,
765,
2809,
127887,
47,
36069,
23,
54529,
4743,
47,
4271,
214,
136,
3789,
183871,
3542,
139999,
71,
3229,
172554,
71,
47,
91097,
5,
4263,
70,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
23,
70,
14361,
58359,
2363,
38132,
177399,
111,
19780,
4,
1836,
1543,
143126,
67,
47,
63769,
78301,
19780,
132096,
5,
360,
3060,
117729,
136,
7986,
81415,
4,
70,
14012,
111,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
831,
51312,
23,
29041,
44462,
136,
131970,
3956,
4,
21208,
70,
41170,
83,
56104,
53697,
23,
116127,
5,
154966,
7,
2750,
24209,
150009,
13,
237,
116127,
4,
43257,
3501,
237,
191208,
4,
765,
110,
1286,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
3501,
1836,
1902,
8108,
5,
43960,
19780,
38750,
7,
765,
18150,
57553,
7,
47,
70,
645,
106095,
214,
450,
509,
22282,
71,
23,
25171,
28368,
7,
5,
360,
70,
1407,
56,
14361,
4,
142,
51312,
111,
20655,
771,
2408,
67,
13267,
8231,
174822,
678,
1407,
56,
9,
37873,
19780,
21647,
74,
49903,
4,
70,
14012,
111,
19780,
38750,
7,
509,
959,
207583,
98816,
5,
360,
69822,
47,
70,
1407,
56,
14361,
19780,
38750,
57553,
4,
70,
14012,
111,
92319,
9,
37873,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
6777,
207583,
51312,
20271,
70,
15411,
111,
28007,
5,
11205,
78458,
4,
2685,
509,
110,
15549,
23,
70,
13267,
111,
70,
92319,
9,
37873,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
5,
5787,
64101,
1352,
37838,
10662,
111,
19780,
38750,
7,
621,
75312,
24243,
77253,
538,
99,
756,
25171,
10,
4188,
136,
90926,
111,
14361,
46889,
63262,
15490,
10,
88551,
51312,
23,
70,
128512,
14012,
111,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
23,
25171,
44462,
5,
3545,
90,
2481,
83,
62816,
29367,
390,
70,
14700,
66,
6889,
111,
19780,
46889,
4,
8305,
20655,
771,
2408,
67,
13267,
51312,
15,
3038,
1264,
29813,
3038,
16,
136,
4,
47,
10,
199,
2189,
192961,
4,
38750,
215447,
1363,
15,
3038,
1264,
52033,
399,
194,
360,
70,
19780,
38750,
7,
111,
150009,
13,
79165,
4,
2685,
83,
124735,
36049,
111,
159531,
17055,
4597,
7,
4,
6044,
237,
100483,
3443,
929,
4,
133818,
7,
4,
111789,
14612,
429,
142405,
1916,
290,
31676,
12741,
4,
136,
502,
9,
73,
170180,
192,
31667,
19932,
6448,
12741,
4,
105207,
47,
70,
34754,
111,
91598,
39746,
7154,
5,
24967,
36049,
23,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
83,
37515,
538,
142405,
3674,
390,
91598,
5,
3311,
6226,
2069,
70,
103488,
111,
70,
17198,
882,
24836,
8,
180220,
1409,
6991,
136,
70,
10,
329,
90535,
9,
10625,
284,
111758,
76634,
62061,
193807,
90,
4,
91598,
125568,
7,
2234,
26690,
3674,
1071,
15145,
43840,
142518,
90,
164,
5,
1650,
2843,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
29150,
771,
2408,
1636,
4,
2843,
51529,
237,
136327,
2408,
1636,
136,
19780,
38750,
7,
4,
621,
70,
38750,
7,
450,
102917,
538,
150350,
20655,
78381,
108055,
13,
4,
5361,
29367,
23,
3082,
214,
48302,
237,
19780,
5,
29150,
771,
2408,
1636,
621,
16406,
4126,
1295,
2409,
33,
7668,
2749,
36418,
38750,
7,
3129,
8337,
6,
58944,
47,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
8305,
20655,
771,
15292,
6023,
5,
360,
38750,
29394,
4,
20655,
771,
2408,
1636,
831,
2843,
3173,
128204,
67301,
933,
4,
759,
31,
2408,
1636,
136,
3789,
38750,
52895,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-320306 | en-train-320306 | 320306 | {
"title": [
"Structure.",
"White fat cells (unilocular cells) fasting state.",
"Brown fat cells (multilocular cells).",
"Marrow fat cells (unilocular cells).",
"Development.",
"Function.",
"Cell turnover.",
"Adaptation.",
"Endocrine role."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"White fat cells or monovacuolar cells contain a large lipid droplet surrounded by a layer of cytoplasm. The nucleus is flattened and located on the periphery. A typical fat cell is 0.1 mm in diameter with some being twice that size and others half that size. The fat stored is in a semi-liquid state, and is composed primarily of triglycerides and cholesteryl ester. White fat cells secrete many proteins acting as adipokines such as resistin, adiponectin, leptin and apelin. An average human adult has 30 billion fat cells with a weight of 30 lbs or 13.5 kg. If excess weight is gained as an adult, fat cells increase in size about fourfold before dividing and increasing the absolute number of fat cells present.",
"Brown fat cells or plurivacuolar cells are polyhedral in shape. Unlike white fat cells, these cells have considerable cytoplasm, with lipid droplets scattered throughout. The nucleus is round and, although eccentrically located, it is not in the periphery of the cell. The brown color comes from the large quantity of mitochondria. Brown fat, also known as \"baby fat,\" is used to generate heat.",
"Marrow adipocytes, like brown and white adipocytes, are derived from mesenchymal stem cells. The marrow adipose tissue depot is poorly understood in terms of its physiologic function and relevance to bone health. Marrow adipose tissue expands in states of low bone density but additionally expands in the setting of obesity;. Marrow adipose tissue response to exercise approximates that of WAT exercise reduces both adipocyte size as well as MAT volume as quantified by MRI or μCT imaging of bone stained with the lipid binder osmium.",
"Pre-adipocytes are undifferentiated fibroblasts that can be stimulated to form adipocytes. Recent studies shed light into potential molecular mechanisms in the fate determination of pre-adipocytes although the exact lineage of adipocyte is still unclear. The variation of body fat distribution resulting from normal growth is influenced by nutritional and hormonal status in dependence on intrinsic differences in cells found in each adipose depot. Mesenchymal stem cells can differentiate into adipocytes, connective tissue, muscle or bone. The term \"lipoblast\" is used to describe the precursor of the adult cell. The term \"lipoblastoma\" is used to describe a tumor of this cell type.",
"",
"Fat cells in some mice have been shown to drop in count due to fasting and other properties were observed when exposed to cold. If the adipocytes in the body reach their maximum capacity of fat, they may replicate to allow additional fat storage. In some reports and textbooks, the number of adipocytes can increase in childhood and adolescence, though the amount is usually constant in adults. Individuals who become obese as adults, rather than as adolescents, have no more adipocytes than they had before. Body fat cells have regional responses to the overfeeding that was studied in adult subjects. In the upper body, an increase of adipocyte size correlated with upper-body fat gain; however, the number of fat cells was not significantly changed. In contrast to the upper body fat cell response, the number of lower-body adipocytes did significantly increase during the course of experiment. Notably, there was no change in the size of the lower-body adipocytes. Approximately 10% of fat cells are renewed annually at all adult ages and levels of body mass index without a significant increase in the overall number of adipocytes in adulthood.",
"Obesity is characterized by the expansion of fat mass, through adipocyte size increase (hypertrophy) and, to a lesser extent, cell proliferation (hyperplasia). In the fat cells of obese individuals, there is increased production of metabolism modulators, such as glycerol, hormones, macrophage stimulating chemokines, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to the development of insulin resistance. Fat production in adipocytes is strongly stimulated by insulin. By controlling the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase and the acetyl-CoA carboxylase enzymes, insulin promotes unsaturated fatty acid synthesis. It also promotes glucose uptake and induces SREBF1, which activates the transcription of genes that stimulate lipogenesis. SREBF1 (sterol regulatory element-binding transcription factor 1) is a transcription factor synthesized as an inactive precursor protein inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane by two membrane-spanning helices. Also anchored in the ER membrane is SCAP (SREBF-cleavage activating protein), which binds SREBF1. The SREBF1-SCAP complex is retained in the ER membrane by INSIG1 (insulin-induced gene 1 protein). When sterol levels are depleted, INSIG1 releases SCAP and the SREBF1-SCAP complex can be sorted into COPII-coated transport vesicles that are exported to the Golgi. In the Golgi, SREBF1 is cleaved and released as a transcriptionally active mature protein. It is then free to translocate to the nucleus and activate the expression of its target genes. Clinical studies have repeatedly shown that even though insulin resistance is usually associated with obesity, the membrane phospholipids of the adipocytes of obese patients generally still show an increased degree of fatty acid unsaturation. This seems to point to an adaptive mechanism that allows the adipocyte to maintain its functionality, despite the increased storage demands associated with obesity and insulin resistance. A study conducted in 2013 found that, while INSIG1 and SREBF1 mRNA expression was decreased in the adipose tissue of obese mice and humans, the amount of active SREBF1 was increased in comparison with normal mice and non-obese patients. This downregulation of INSIG1 expression combined with the increase of mature SREBF1 was also correlated with the maintenance of SREBF1-target gene expression. Hence, it appears that, by downregulating INSIG1, there is a resetting of the INSIG1/SREBF1 loop, allowing for the maintenance of active SREBF1 levels. This seems to help compensate for the anti-lipogenic effects of insulin resistance and thus preserve adipocyte fat storage abilities and availability of appropriate levels of fatty acid unsaturation in face of the nutritional pressures of obesity.",
"Adipocytes can synthesize estrogens from androgens, potentially being the reason why being underweight or overweight are risk factors for infertility. Additionally, adipocytes are responsible for the production of the hormone leptin. Leptin is important in regulation of appetite and acts as a satiety factor."
]
} |
Russell Alan Hulse | null | Russell Alan Hulse (born November 28, 1950) is an American physicist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with his thesis advisor Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr., ""for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"". He was a specialist in the pulsar studies and gravitational waves. | null | [
250004,
250054,
46840,
184,
509,
103122,
23,
2356,
5753,
6406,
136,
150180,
71,
1295,
70,
42911,
425,
19694,
19188,
111,
28745,
136,
70,
59797,
32528,
5,
1529,
75204,
1919,
13000,
5,
397,
5,
23,
6,
34053,
27744,
7,
1295,
70,
12535,
111,
157082,
2022,
3334,
271,
23,
26527,
5,
51404,
20697,
98,
1919,
13000,
5,
397,
5,
186533,
1363,
4,
764,
509,
10,
191225,
23,
27898,
99,
70,
15901,
318,
837,
87652,
31667,
23,
83775,
70867,
111,
74352,
141,
12535,
5,
8622,
764,
79786,
678,
63569,
98,
10,
21334,
9,
7,
57965,
110297,
100,
93628,
4295,
5,
1650,
509,
903,
4488,
450,
12441,
47,
70,
103882,
53,
111,
70,
5117,
2394,
6635,
93628,
42,
5,
360,
27898,
4,
46840,
184,
136,
63569,
134053,
2394,
6635,
93628,
42,
7940,
1052,
335,
2947,
2681,
1328,
2485,
4,
3129,
83,
7228,
1257,
111,
10,
93628,
42,
136,
22556,
226792,
6057,
5,
11059,
36867,
6057,
2062,
22062,
53225,
7,
50159,
90,
450,
621,
111531,
20324,
136,
144142,
23,
70,
5977,
259,
272,
10776,
136,
83,
43573,
1272,
158,
555,
5281,
4912,
14361,
137352,
1363,
15,
6431,
9,
112,
14656,
22819,
23,
70,
75693,
44457,
194,
46840,
184,
4,
63569,
4,
136,
3789,
230331,
765,
11814,
903,
5117,
2394,
6635,
93628,
42,
47,
3249,
11192,
9,
51606,
6889,
109921,
111,
4537,
90816,
939,
4,
106804,
214,
70,
6,
116311,
111,
137352,
43315,
4567,
2320,
5,
893,
35707,
53950,
2320,
111,
903,
4567,
1236,
48302,
83,
151552,
390,
70,
26168,
111,
70,
2799,
186514,
31,
320,
4567,
2320,
111,
24748,
119225,
5173,
56641,
5,
360,
24849,
4,
25188,
1314,
171530,
72350,
9035,
111,
19336,
197108,
1830,
93425,
111,
70,
103173,
289,
112664,
7,
111,
10,
93628,
42,
5,
3293,
509,
61475,
6,
98869,
450,
70,
5426,
111,
6097,
6626,
98567,
23860,
7,
53225,
7,
137352,
43315,
259,
3132,
5,
24372,
217063,
1919,
13000,
5,
397,
5,
4,
46840,
184,
6777,
1305,
246,
18770,
289,
4488,
99,
70,
9907,
6436,
85303,
1687,
53,
87652,
31667,
23,
15497,
4932,
4,
10542,
118623,
5,
1529,
109133,
47,
54041,
1507,
4,
7440,
764,
1556,
79786,
100,
5941,
5369,
99,
70,
54041,
1507,
128142,
192,
165712,
7,
54593,
4597,
53,
5,
1529,
1556,
2843,
79786,
98,
41664,
53019,
4,
136,
23,
6052,
33284,
297,
70,
12535,
111,
31464,
99,
140151,
237,
10,
150080,
16030,
111,
6,
34053,
27744,
7,
136,
111,
291,
140363,
41637,
136,
41664,
53019,
5,
360,
13867,
4,
46840,
184,
136,
63569,
99764,
70,
34676,
2319,
731,
23,
165712,
7,
100,
70,
103882,
53,
111,
70,
5117,
2394,
6635,
93628,
42,
5,
46840,
184,
509,
3163,
89829,
10,
9593,
17336,
111,
70,
15672,
56187,
100,
70,
223438,
674,
111,
28745,
23,
88847,
136,
83,
1059,
3674,
23,
70,
15672,
1111,
136,
58373,
111,
28745,
5,
360,
86097,
46840,
184,
33284,
297,
12535,
111,
31464,
99,
140151,
136,
100512,
70,
215624,
214,
31068,
111,
52282,
140151,
28745,
136,
123470,
43154,
11588,
15,
9127,
16546,
194,
360,
20414,
2691,
46840,
184,
33284,
297,
70,
143897,
3370,
66398,
46473,
606,
51858,
53,
45443,
5,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
158874,
44576,
46840,
184,
15,
57332,
7582,
29835,
27631,
16,
83,
142,
15672,
6,
34053,
27744,
1419,
136,
159690,
111,
70,
34676,
2319,
731,
23,
165712,
7,
4,
99764,
678,
1919,
159688,
606,
51858,
33876,
39016,
1507,
63569,
89596,
5,
4,
44,
58,
2472,
70,
103882,
53,
111,
10,
3525,
10644,
111,
93628,
42,
4,
10,
103882,
53,
450,
1556,
142096,
1257,
3525,
97370,
2449,
100,
70,
35187,
111,
137352,
1363,
58,
740,
1529,
509,
10,
17496,
23,
70,
93628,
42,
96335,
136,
137352,
43315,
259,
3132,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-459270 | en-train-459270 | 459270 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Later years."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Hulse was born in New York City and graduated from the Bronx High School of Science and the Cooper Union. He received his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1975. While working on his Ph.D. dissertation, he was a scholar in 1974 at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico of Cornell University. There he worked with Taylor on a large-scale survey for pulsars. It was this work that led to the discovery of the first binary pulsar. In 1974, Hulse and Taylor discovered binary pulsar PSR B1913+16, which is made up of a pulsar and black companion star. Neutron star rotation emits impulses that are extremely regular and stable in the radio wave region and is nearby condensed material body gravitation (non-detectable in the visible field). Hulse, Taylor, and other colleagues have used this first binary pulsar to make high-precision tests of general relativity, demonstrating the existence of gravitational radiation. An approximation of this radiant energy is described by the formula of the quadrupolar radiation of Albert Einstein (1918). In 1979, researchers announced measurements of small acceleration effects of the orbital movements of a pulsar. This was initial proof that the system of these two moving masses emits gravitational waves.",
"After receiving his Ph.D., Hulse did postdoctoral work at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, West Virginia. He moved to Princeton, where he has worked for many years at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. He has also worked on science education, and in 2003 joined the University of Texas at Dallas as a visiting professor of physics and of mathematics and science education. In 1993, Hulse and Taylor shared the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the first binary pulsar. Hulse was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2003, and is cited in the American Men and Women of Science. In 2004, Hulse joined University of Texas at Dallas and became the Founding Director of UT Dallas Science and Engineering Education Center (SEEC). In July 2007 Hulse joined the Aurora Imaging Technology advisory board."
]
} |
Wu-Tang Clan | null | Wu-Tang Clan is an American hip hop group and collective formed in the New York City borough of Staten Island in 1992, originally composed of rapper-producer RZA and rappers GZA, Ol' Dirty Bastard, Method Man, Raekwon, Ghostface Killah, Inspectah Deck, U-God, and Masta Killa. An important act in the East Coast and hardcore hip hop styles, Wu-Tang Clan are regarded as one of the most influential hip hop groups of all time. Their 1993 debut album, "Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers)", is considered one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time. | null | [
250004,
250054,
360,
70,
72399,
15643,
7,
4,
193429,
7,
12452,
49688,
9405,
4,
135730,
31945,
329,
4,
136,
158874,
29304,
100,
4806,
10,
21115,
24,
4806,
59591,
111,
70,
163628,
18897,
4,
2843,
51529,
237,
70,
3164,
23,
717,
429,
9319,
14240,
180282,
5,
98423,
32786,
17164,
297,
1379,
142,
55109,
12,
31945,
329,
237,
581,
71491,
223,
4,
49688,
9405,
237,
54041,
21010,
13,
195,
707,
581,
159,
45964,
1419,
4,
136,
29304,
237,
581,
171322,
5,
581,
21115,
8306,
181141,
47,
10,
13036,
67967,
4,
1284,
156892,
70,
35743,
111,
70,
2356,
5753,
6406,
29892,
28302,
136,
509,
125296,
71,
390,
673,
8079,
8981,
7880,
478,
5,
3311,
12898,
4,
581,
71491,
223,
136,
54041,
21010,
13,
195,
3542,
181141,
47,
84797,
17164,
67967,
7,
5,
581,
71491,
223,
121447,
44,
164805,
7,
1295,
70,
71491,
223,
58,
209721,
98,
146185,
129617,
73,
25,
89916,
136,
54041,
21010,
13,
195,
121447,
44,
670,
10597,
87,
11954,
2583,
21010,
13,
195,
58,
209721,
98,
100225,
29642,
89916,
5,
149766,
3542,
33662,
36069,
20051,
390,
2363,
67967,
7,
5,
241,
6332,
3055,
297,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
165854,
100512,
51529,
23,
13867,
25632,
70,
54452,
111,
70,
41371,
11001,
44,
127942,
2369,
799,
2594,
830,
3129,
104902,
21647,
70,
21115,
10,
12953,
2886,
1379,
64330,
25632,
5,
145733,
2685,
509,
3060,
34844,
53,
23,
90791,
10,
17164,
67967,
450,
2806,
24092,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
165854,
12960,
7464,
6,
190358,
12638,
32786,
47,
17164,
2639,
7156,
7,
678,
3789,
67967,
7,
4,
42225,
71,
64,
110325,
77681,
176506,
4,
47130,
162,
214,
2363,
34377,
7156,
4,
44,
155581,
70,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
15,
8659,
177467,
7,
16,
830,
23,
7582,
106540,
581,
7156,
75204,
130306,
1030,
164779,
4,
136,
47,
5622,
83,
28601,
297,
237,
1632,
111,
70,
158036,
26177,
72720,
7156,
7,
111,
756,
1733,
5,
581,
36272,
111,
44,
155581,
70,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
12,
4039,
17106,
2363,
2639,
80997,
7,
11037,
538,
170920,
4,
70,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
165854,
456,
93457,
71,
47,
54452,
2363,
17932,
12275,
7156,
4,
44,
1456,
34,
9,
618,
1463,
181109,
830,
23,
18237,
10586,
74,
442,
34377,
297,
99,
14012,
1632,
98,
70,
211441,
116287,
7,
5,
581,
7156,
25,
7,
37105,
11001,
4,
44,
618,
16219,
11727,
830,
83,
645,
43606,
14633,
4989,
4,
66139,
300,
86,
51389,
7,
15,
3630,
1295,
12638,
32786,
1001,
14304,
4299,
191,
76,
136,
39041,
6238,
9295,
25,
19946,
939,
90525,
4216,
2750,
118775,
98,
70,
64627,
136,
6,
80728,
247,
136,
110,
150522,
707,
10,
119140,
297,
113860,
5,
581,
45730,
111,
70,
7156,
88303,
207583,
98,
44,
155581,
70,
51438,
61765,
15,
8659,
177467,
7,
16,
830,
678,
627,
27008,
17368,
1286,
149186,
7,
136,
79315,
121413,
7,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
95486,
214,
3060,
111,
70,
7156,
25,
7,
36049,
47,
1919,
211351,
7,
87599,
18897,
136,
201,
927,
53092,
14,
8705,
5,
581,
21115,
25,
7,
68944,
129927,
297,
207583,
1295,
8382,
111,
44,
8659,
177467,
7,
830,
678,
5941,
51389,
7,
59121,
23,
10,
168,
184,
75973,
111,
6,
144729,
7432,
3173,
17305,
5115,
53,
79507,
71,
390,
70,
128169,
7,
111,
70,
156615,
908,
16797,
82581,
5,
77168,
214,
44,
1456,
34,
9,
618,
1463,
181109,
830,
70,
32153,
111,
70,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
352,
95972,
21334,
538,
122925,
297,
47,
70,
8891,
1916,
111,
50419,
9966,
148272,
71,
22104,
7,
5,
341,
146839,
2319,
525,
4,
10,
20903,
30699,
67,
111,
70,
21115,
4,
121447,
44,
13025,
11,
3033,
126260,
58,
23,
11994,
82490,
9925,
5701,
581,
21115,
44188,
1353,
297,
24145,
13438,
47,
3249,
44,
3957,
601,
830,
21208,
15490,
9295,
25,
19946,
939,
90525,
4216,
4,
2750,
509,
99,
70,
1733,
23,
3284,
3443,
27686,
23,
39897,
100,
54567,
1916,
70,
69407,
111,
1919,
21652,
1363,
5,
262,
61518,
903,
4,
9295,
25,
19946,
939,
90525,
4216,
145755,
47,
3249,
442,
98,
188,
70,
28560,
44,
11935,
428,
23850,
58,
3129,
60213,
71,
159,
157,
2146,
41129,
177,
5,
9295,
25,
19946,
939,
90525,
4216,
25,
7,
108171,
7,
3542,
17164,
297,
1829,
70,
203599,
7,
11814,
100,
23,
120126,
47,
22120,
678,
144994,
4,
12960,
23,
101085,
5,
44,
3957,
601,
58,
509,
121447,
23,
7582,
88922,
136,
509,
153161,
5299,
75204,
390,
35778,
7,
4,
106480,
100,
627,
27008,
25,
7,
36049,
4,
136,
2843,
26038,
70,
21115,
10,
5962,
11001,
678,
70,
1257,
65769,
44,
37878,
2601,
45533,
830,
2831,
111,
10,
1927,
4867,
53,
111,
21930,
7440,
70,
21115,
2806,
19922,
12921,
1615,
7,
678,
10,
1733,
26983,
214,
154630,
42,
4,
3129,
2843,
99201,
44,
127942,
2369,
360,
39395,
86097,
345,
9,
124938,
198371,
25737,
70,
21115,
23,
2837,
41128,
5,
62,
12352,
44759,
71,
44,
1052,
3075,
111,
10,
12676,
33,
6678,
63052,
58,
509,
121447,
22443,
214,
1919,
44402,
4,
3129,
3542,
153161,
678,
1919,
39734,
390,
627,
27008,
4,
2750,
764,
63043,
297,
1902,
6,
98333,
297,
1919,
36272,
237,
10,
2639,
22104,
5,
1529,
100,
4806,
10,
21115,
111,
27150,
73907,
2246,
35839,
70,
37639,
8752,
38213,
302,
42108,
7,
678,
136565,
764,
121447,
70,
7156,
44,
1062,
9,
124938,
169,
2298,
97721,
7,
70,
37639,
8752,
38213,
302,
42108,
7,
58,
23,
11994,
44211,
581,
167956,
167575,
3674,
23,
10,
764,
27686,
24089,
77104,
17721,
627,
27008,
136,
345,
9,
124938,
98,
6867,
5977,
4,
3129,
20654,
37838,
24124,
70,
6626,
44188,
83797,
5,
1529,
1556,
16792,
176377,
47,
70,
21115,
5,
4821,
24124,
70,
241957,
30646,
111,
70,
165854,
47,
70,
6867,
36541,
5,
10660,
352,
1299,
12225,
98,
10,
16610,
28811,
9742,
8108,
38162,
25842,
237,
10,
28484,
21115,
100,
70,
5117,
1733,
23,
40368,
5369,
47,
10336,
2256,
70,
14434,
70,
33500,
7,
8395,
23,
39897,
5,
581,
20428,
509,
121447,
98,
7915,
1379,
70,
9351,
44,
830,
136,
1836,
2843,
121447,
10,
19612,
9,
10248,
158036,
5962,
7,
7156,
4,
44,
5267,
21044,
111,
70,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
165854,
740,
9295,
25,
19946,
939,
90525,
4216,
25,
7,
80997,
23,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
509,
94419,
390,
72,
219,
9523,
123166,
5,
1913,
70,
9571,
189857,
54530,
4,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
165854,
83,
142,
15672,
26177,
72720,
21115,
136,
143849,
100,
4806,
23,
70,
2356,
5753,
6406,
6,
184721,
111,
137890,
18481,
23,
12839,
4,
7311,
538,
150350,
71,
111,
673,
8079,
9,
102446,
56,
627,
27008,
136,
29892,
21777,
527,
27008,
4,
9295,
25,
19946,
939,
90525,
4216,
4,
74644,
1572,
4,
2552,
343,
20430,
4,
130966,
40404,
341,
146839,
4,
360,
42706,
127,
162163,
4,
345,
9,
124938,
4,
136,
3010,
102,
341,
2298,
5,
893,
5526,
27992,
23,
70,
24453,
106294,
136,
24041,
26177,
72720,
20623,
7,
4,
51438,
9,
618,
1463,
165854,
621,
28601,
297,
237,
1632,
111,
70,
2684,
26794,
80973,
26177,
72720,
94407,
111,
756,
1733,
5,
581,
481,
13867,
34377,
7156,
4,
44,
155581,
70,
51438,
2
] | null | null | en-train-2111273 | en-train-2111273 | 2111273 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Founding.",
"1992–96: \"Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers)\" and solo albums.",
"1997–2000: \"Wu-Tang Forever\", diversification and second string of solo albums.",
"2000–01: \"The W\", \"Iron Flag\" and the turn of the millennium.",
"2004: Legal issues, death of Ol' Dirty Bastard and resurgence.",
"Death of Ol' Dirty Bastard.",
"2006–10: Fourth round of solo albums and \"8 Diagrams\".",
"2011–present: \"A Better Tomorrow\".",
"Members.",
"Production.",
"Lyrics.",
"Syndication.",
"Video games.",
"Clothing line.",
"Television.",
"Documentaries.",
"\"Wu-Tang: An American Saga\".",
"Controversy.",
"G-Unit.",
"The Notorious B.I.G..",
"Sean Combs.",
"Mase.",
"Joe Budden.",
"Collaborators."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"In the late 1980s, cousins Robert Diggs, Gary Grice, and Russell Jones formed a group named Force of the Imperial Master, also known as the All in Together Now Crew. Each member recorded under an alias: Grice as The Genius, Diggs as Prince Rakeem or The Scientist, and Jones as The Specialist. The group never signed to a major label, but caught the attention of the New York City rap scene and was recognized by rapper Biz Markie. By 1991, The Genius and Prince Rakeem were signed to separate record labels. The Genius released \"Words from the Genius\" (1991) on Cold Chillin' Records and Prince Rakeem released \"Ooh I Love You Rakeem\" (1991) on Tommy Boy Records. Both were soon dropped by their labels. Embittered",
"Wu-Tang Clan became known in 1993 following the release of the independent single \"Protect Ya Neck\", which helped gain the group a sizable underground following. Though there was some difficulty in finding a record label that would sign Wu-Tang Clan while still allowing each member to record solo albums with other labels, Loud/RCA finally agreed, releasing their debut album, \"Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers)\", in November 1993. The album received critical acclaim, and to date is regarded as one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time. The success of \"Enter the Wu-Tang: 36",
"With their solo careers firmly established, the Wu-Tang Clan reassembled to release their second studio album, \"Wu-Tang Forever\", in June 1997; it debuted at number one on the Billboard charts. The album's lead single, \"Triumph\", is over five minutes long, features nine verses (one from each member plus Cappadonna and excluding Ol' Dirty Bastard who appeared on the intro and bridge), and no hook or a repeated phrase. The sound of the album built significantly on \"Enter the Wu Tang (36 Chambers)\", with RZA using more keyboards and string samples, as well as assigning some of the album's production to his protégés True Master and 4th Disciple. The group's lyrics differed significantly from those of \"36 Chambers\", with many verses written in a dense stream of consciousness form heavily influenced by the teachings of the Five Percent Nation. Following \"Wu-Tang Forever\", the focus of the Wu-Tang empire largely shifted to the promoting of emerging affiliated artists. Killah Priest, a close associate of the group, released \"Heavy Mental\" in March 1998. That same",
"The group reconvened once again to make \"The W\", though without Ol' Dirty Bastard, who was at the time incarcerated in California for violating the terms of his probation. Despite this, Ol' Dirty Bastard managed to make it onto the track \"Conditioner\" which featured Snoop Dogg. Ol' Dirty Bastard's vocals were recorded via the telephones used for inmates to talk with visitors, while in prison. \"The W\" was released in November 2000, and was mostly well received by critics, particularly for RZA's production, and also gave the group a hit single with the uptempo \"Gravel Pit\", part of a trilogy of videos where the group would visit different eras with a time traveling elevator, which also included \"Protect Ya",
"In early 2004, U-God apparently left the group in disgust. A DVD titled \"Rise of a Fallen Soldier\" was released detailing his problems, which were mostly with his treatment by RZA, who he claimed had hindered his success as a solo artist. He formed a group of young protegés called the Hillside Scramblers with whom he released the album \"U-Godzilla Presents the Hillside Scramblers\" in March 2004. The dispute culminated in a heated phone conversation between RZA and U-God on live radio, which ultimately saw the two reconcile. He has since returned to the group. 2004 saw the unexpected return of the Clan to the live stage. They embarked on a short European tour before coming together as a complete group for the first time in several years to headline the Rock the Bells festival in California. The concert was released on CD under the name \"\", and they also released a music-video greatest hits album, \"Legend of the Wu-Tang Clan\".",
"Ol' Dirty Bastard's career in Wu-Tang was marked by erratic behavior. At the 1998 Grammy Awards, he protested the Clan's loss (to Puff Daddy in Best Rap Album) by interrupting Shawn Colvin's acceptance speech for her Song of the Year award. In addition, Ol' Dirty Bastard's run-ins with the law were well publicized—he was arrested several times for offenses including assault, shoplifting, wearing body armor after being convicted of a felony, and possession of cocaine, and he missed multiple court dates. In late 2000, Ol' Dirty Bastard unexpectedly escaped near the end of his rehab sentence, spending one month on the run as a",
"2005 saw the release of RZA's first book, \"The Wu-Tang Manual\", the release of U-God's second album, \"Mr. Xcitement\" and the long-awaited collaboration between GZA and producer DJ Muggs, entitled \"Grandmasters\". The collaborative record received good reviews and played fairly well with fans, who by and large had been waiting to see the Wu step up the quality of their releases. On March 28, 2006, Ghostface Killah released \"Fishscale\", to much critical acclaim and some commercial success. The entire Clan, including Cappadonna and the deceased Ol' Dirty Bastard, appeared on the track \"9 Milli Bros\". The album also offered an expansion of Ghostface's traditional sound—precipitated by the moderately successful club song \"Be Easy\" and battle rhymes in the Just Blaze-produced \"The Champ\". After its reception from fans, label Def Jam asked Ghostface Killah to release another album that year; the result, \"More Fish\", excited fans and critics somewhat less. On June 25, 2006, Inspectah Deck released a street album entitled \"The Resident Patient\", a prelude to his upcoming album, titled \"The Rebellion\", which is said to be his final solo album. Late summer of 2006 saw the release of Masta Killa's second studio album, \"Made in Brooklyn\", to lukewarm reviews, as well as Method Man's \"\", on which the rapper endeavored to make up for the poor response to \"Tical 0: The Prequel.\" Around this time, he was heavily featured in the media due to his displeasure with Def Jam's handling of his previous project. Despite what the rapper felt to be little promotion compared to other Def Jam artists, \"421...\" debuted in the Billboard Top Ten, and received much greater reviews than those of his previous album. Method Man also made the decision to fall back from Hollywood, and to only do acting work on films being handled by close friends. The summer of 2007 was the original release date scheduled for Raekwon's long-anticipated sequel to his 1995 debut \"Only Built 4 Cuban Linx\", entitled \"Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... Pt. II\". The album was to be released on Dr. Dre's Aftermath Records, however, it would turn out to be released on Raekwon's Ice H2O Records, and EMI on September 8, 2009, after numerous delays. Ghostface Killah released his seventh full-length album \"The Big Doe Rehab\" in December 2007, and exactly one week later, Wu-Tang released their fifth full-length group album, \"8 Diagrams,\" on Steve Rifkind's SRC Records, whose now-defunct Loud Records released the group's four previous albums. This album marked the inclusion of Cappadonna as an official member of the group. In an interview with MTV.com, Ghostface Killah stated that he was upset with RZA for starting the \"8 Diagrams\" project while he was in the middle of writing and recording \"The Big Doe Rehab\", and further upset with RZA for giving \"8 Diagrams\" the same release date as \"The Big Doe Rehab\", for which RZA rescheduled a release date one week later. The final outcome of \"8 Diagrams\" received mixed views from both fans",
"On June 29, 2011, Raekwon announced that the group were working on a new studio album, still in early stages. Ghostface Killah later said that the album should be released in May 2012. Members went back and forth on the issue. While GZA hinted that a new album was unlikely, the RZA said a new Wu-Tang Clan album might happen after all, on the occasion of the group's 20th anniversary, though Raekwon doubted it. On January 9, 2013, work on the sixth Wu-Tang Clan album was announced via the group's official Facebook page. In early March 2013 Method Man announced that the Clan was working on a sixth studio album and it would be released during 2013 in celebration of their 20-year anniversary since \"36 Chambers\". Cappadonna has said the album is in recording process taking place in New York, Los Angeles and the Wu mansion in New Jersey. RZA has also said he had talked to Adrian Younge about working on a song for the album. On April 11, 2013, it was announced via a press release that their upcoming sixth studio album would be titled, \"A Better Tomorrow\" and was set to be released in July 2013. During late April 2013, the Clan performed at the 2013 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.",
"",
"According to RZA, he tries to have no more than 20–25% sampling on any given record, something starkly different from many other major hip hop groups. He uses \"the sampler more like a painter's palette than a Xerox. Then again, I might use it as a Xerox if I find rare beats that nobody had in their crates yet\". He played much of the piano himself, with Bill Evans and Thelonious Monk as major influences; for instance, he created the piano part to \"Da Mystery of Chessboxin'\" after watching the Thelonious Monk documentary,",
"Raekwon's \"Only Built 4 Cuban Linx...\" helped (with the likes of Kool G Rap) popularize the Mafia theme in rap music that remained widespread for more than half a decade. The landmark album touted a lifestyle patterned on drug dealing, regrets of living in harsh conditions, and partying (including popularizing the Cristal brand of champagne) which Nas, Mobb Deep, Notorious B.I.G., Jay-Z,",
"",
"All nine original members of the group were featured in the game \"\", released for the PlayStation on October 31, 1999, as well as a special collector's edition controller. Ghostface Killah and Yung Dirty Doucette, as well as collaborators, Redman and Keith Murray, also play themselves in all three games in the Def Jam video games \"Def Jam Vendetta\", \"Def Jam Fight For NY\", and \"\". Method Man is an avid fan of video games himself and has publicly stated that he loves playing \"SOCOM\" online with other PlayStation 2 users, and is part of an online clan (\"KMA/Kiss My Ass\"). His \"SOCOM II\"",
"Oliver \"Power\" Grant was one of the first to move from music to clothes. The Clan's executive producer, Grant began making clothes in the early 1990s, with little success. But in 1995, after the platinum success of \"Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers)\", manufacturers who earlier wouldn't extend Power credit saw the potential. He opened four Wu Wear stores, in New York City, Los Angeles, Atlanta and Norfolk, Virginia. The line was carried in Macy's, Rich's, and d.e.m.o, among others. Power says he earned $10 million in 1998. Method Man was unhappy with the decision",
"",
"\"Wu-Tang Revealed\", a GZA-directed documentary, promised to show behind the scenes of the Clan, has yet to be released. \"U-God: Rise of a Fallen Soldier\" details U-God's side of the struggle between him and RZA circa 2004–2005. Gerald K. Barclay directed the Wu-Tang documentary, entitled \"Wu: The Story of the Wu-Tang Clan\", which premiered on BET",
"On 4 September 2019, Hulu released \"\", a fictionalized account of the formation of the Wu-Tang",
"",
"Ghostface had a non-publicized feud with 50 Cent in the late 1990s and early 2000s. On 50 Cent's track \"How to Rob\" insults were aimed at many high-profile rappers, including Wu-Tang. In the early 2000s the argument made it on to wax with skits titled \"Clyde Smith\" on \"Supreme Clientele\" featuring a low-pitched recording of what most fans believe to be Raekwon's voice derisively making fun of 50 Cent's behavior and his methods of attracting attention to himself. The skit also joked at other unnamed \"gangster rappers\"",
"During his career, The Notorious B.I.G. had a checkered relationship with the Wu-Tang Clan. He collaborated with Raekwon on the 1994 Ron G song \"Stop the Breaks,\" which also featured Killa Sin and KRS-One; the same year, on B.I.G.'s debut album \"Ready to Die\", Method Man was featured on the song \"The What\" (and was the only featured rapper on the album.) The song, \"The What,\" was produced by Easy Mo Bee, who had strong ties to Notorious B.I.G. as well as several Clan members, such as RZA and GZA. According to Method Man, though even at this point friction was present between Biggie and the Clan, the two rappers got along: It was no secret: Rae didn’t like him, Ghost didn’t like him. They thought he was a biter. But if you look at Rae and Ghost, they don’t like nobody! The rest of my niggas",
"In 1998, ODB rushed onstage unexpectedly during Shawn Colvin's acceptance speech for \"Song of the Year\" at the Grammy Awards, and began complaining that he had recently purchased expensive clothes in anticipation of winning the \"Best Rap Album\" award that he lost to Sean Combs. Before being escorted off-stage, he implored the audience, \"I don't know how you all see it, but when it comes to the children, Wu-Tang is for the children. We teach the children. Puffy is good, but Wu-Tang is the best. I want you all to know that this is ODB, and I love you all. Peace!\" His bizarre onstage antics were widely reported in the mainstream media. Dirty made it known on The Howard Stern Show that he meant no disrespect to Combs, but that feelings were hurt on Combs' end. Later that night Combs' bodyguards would physically threaten ODB, but Dirty insisted to",
"After badmouthing Wu-Tang at a concert, Bad Boy recording artist Mase had a run-in with Ghostface and his entourage at a club in New York City. There was some sort of physical altercation between Mase's and Ghostface's camps, and Mase left the incident with a broken jaw. Kanye West is among",
"In 2009, Joe Budden posted a video blog voicing his opinion on a \"Best rapper\" readers' poll posted in \"Vibe\" magazine. Throughout the video, Budden gave examples of rappers who were ranked too high, and claimed to be better than half of the rappers on the list. Some of the people he mentioned were Melle Mel, Prodigy, Ol' Dirty Bastard, and Method Man. At the end of the video, he went on to say that he'd beat Method Man in a battle if they were face to face. Shortly after this, Budden called into Ed Lover's Power 105.1, and took his claim on Method Man even further by stating, \"Lyrically, I will cut that",
"The Wu-Tang Clan has a wide range of collaborators and associates. Close collaborators to individual members or the group as a whole include or have included mainly East Coast-based artists, including Redman, Mobb Deep, Busta Rhymes, Erick Sermon, Nas, Pete Rock, and others."
]
} |
Alan Hodgkin | null | Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin (5 February 1914 – 20 December 1998) was an English physiologist and biophysicist, who shared the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Andrew Huxley and John Eccles. | null | [
250004,
250054,
93360,
177,
875,
509,
103122,
23,
5458,
87180,
4,
42673,
72567,
4,
98,
190,
22482,
41310,
5,
1529,
509,
70,
10332,
525,
111,
17262,
775,
7,
111,
19559,
25306,
14787,
93360,
177,
875,
136,
23213,
100708,
93360,
177,
875,
5,
18763,
67373,
509,
70,
775,
111,
14978,
93360,
177,
875,
136,
1902,
12301,
100,
70,
24955,
28745,
55903,
232,
99,
105109,
7440,
764,
1902,
186,
84240,
297,
77556,
34053,
9619,
106622,
203314,
74814,
5,
88949,
111,
70425,
46223,
22553,
764,
509,
51,
2886,
47,
35187,
54411,
136,
155605,
134620,
1257,
20697,
100,
10,
4620,
23,
5458,
87180,
5,
1301,
43032,
111,
70,
67081,
111,
102517,
4,
14787,
136,
23213,
233,
144429,
70,
67485,
53,
12349,
25515,
111,
64104,
136,
1902,
47,
28927,
13,
10,
6782,
35142,
111,
128431,
1295,
2363,
4000,
26908,
4,
26719,
142,
81887,
47,
104250,
14787,
23,
1632,
111,
70,
59444,
26944,
7,
5,
360,
64104,
14787,
93360,
177,
875,
26983,
6259,
47,
135665,
237,
2831,
111,
142,
145456,
111,
45,
95650,
5,
135828,
71,
390,
70,
76367,
53,
136,
178707,
111,
135665,
19,
211190,
90,
764,
81887,
297,
47,
738,
4420,
2685,
23,
24531,
98,
10,
36439,
8305,
70,
57309,
66,
16965,
420,
15,
162,
70,
144477,
9022,
36439,
509,
155738,
6637,
111,
70,
18374,
135555,
23,
49002,
194,
1529,
68,
71,
111,
2160,
71745,
53,
23,
177161,
12409,
98,
744,
18237,
24531,
4,
1660,
10,
10846,
40859,
7103,
1919,
27150,
525,
775,
4,
203314,
4,
1902,
2809,
103122,
5,
28090,
142,
39395,
6897,
98,
93360,
177,
875,
136,
1919,
82953,
7,
3542,
65524,
71,
47,
88898,
70,
23295,
10932,
2363,
5368,
4,
3129,
23,
92450,
71,
23,
44576,
10,
37515,
33946,
23,
24955,
65786,
4,
106480,
707,
93,
927,
25443,
5,
1913,
70,
32070,
111,
423,
4,
764,
104902,
18899,
41347,
26828,
23923,
42814,
678,
110297,
7,
111,
604,
191,
10484,
136,
14432,
4,
99,
10255,
7,
3915,
25,
7,
19188,
4,
764,
645,
143,
48398,
136,
66933,
10,
5915,
111,
1733,
678,
6765,
239,
2594,
5,
360,
28730,
4,
764,
509,
70,
159690,
111,
10,
52656,
13,
40501,
23,
70,
16934,
19188,
7,
155057,
223314,
131168,
71,
390,
70,
25674,
67081,
100,
70,
124550,
111,
72607,
7,
5,
44576,
26859,
1919,
53019,
99,
581,
49472,
7,
19188,
7440,
1919,
158,
99736,
11,
10484,
99201,
22690,
172647,
7,
120025,
92,
22986,
56,
4,
62,
8996,
26387,
3915,
4,
44,
33157,
9319,
216348,
538,
230451,
99,
10696,
58,
59499,
47,
93360,
177,
875,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
22690,
22104,
7,
155484,
2016,
14775,
136,
195784,
96190,
19,
62600,
5,
24372,
70,
49472,
7,
19188,
4,
764,
23409,
98,
47,
10255,
7,
3915,
25,
7,
19188,
7440,
764,
645,
143,
48398,
678,
22690,
150350,
42,
74715,
169823,
33,
237,
5299,
237,
23788,
1294,
11204,
8828,
66159,
19,
5,
1529,
134620,
1257,
217063,
10,
191225,
16070,
99,
40067,
2481,
29693,
4,
105109,
23,
111396,
299,
4,
5880,
25443,
136,
83230,
38904,
5,
6300,
1177,
33,
10696,
136,
40466,
4,
764,
66933,
4347,
60775,
99,
70,
133540,
36448,
1843,
109622,
38488,
99,
601,
7092,
120304,
35509,
98,
10,
67330,
2320,
111,
1919,
22690,
31068,
111,
132268,
99,
40067,
2481,
4,
25075,
4378,
2311,
5,
24372,
601,
7092,
120304,
4,
764,
66933,
6626,
21775,
678,
10,
30839,
14449,
23,
37061,
237,
44,
73,
8382,
13312,
442,
509,
17569,
103210,
224,
481,
2886,
450,
35672,
892,
33770,
47,
12301,
41664,
5608,
765,
10,
169022,
51359,
111,
30839,
1242,
24372,
1919,
30646,
47,
30715,
23,
39395,
8055,
60775,
4,
1919,
42732,
23213,
509,
456,
1727,
46572,
47,
171338,
37700,
7435,
4836,
1104,
123599,
247,
70,
88,
18557,
775,
111,
62,
5,
339,
5,
37700,
4,
124901,
76849,
151912,
3038,
509,
2843,
139505,
47,
44576,
25,
7,
51,
11030,
12452,
131211,
93360,
177,
875,
5,
360,
10,
89583,
19,
111,
60775,
93360,
177,
875,
26859,
237,
10,
63335,
669,
191225,
99,
40067,
2481,
29693,
4,
105109,
7440,
1919,
23902,
99201,
54704,
64370,
4939,
136210,
136,
11617,
110427,
4,
145042,
9,
7,
45964,
64370,
22758,
19010,
429,
136,
4939,
572,
5,
19210,
11727,
36840,
4,
237,
5299,
237,
9017,
538,
136,
6765,
37639,
4,
70,
20020,
111,
34676,
239,
3408,
2182,
78599,
3571,
71,
37639,
5,
1529,
34739,
13000,
53,
172,
25443,
678,
83230,
38904,
136,
5880,
25443,
100,
70,
5117,
6626,
5369,
4,
26719,
59619,
7,
390,
34676,
239,
3408,
2182,
241,
5,
397,
5,
46932,
5,
1326,
16995,
1995,
111,
70,
24745,
232,
764,
68872,
47,
32153,
98,
240877,
4867,
53,
64457,
111,
1602,
25443,
5,
89726,
2347,
9393,
4,
764,
42938,
297,
23,
10,
1602,
109622,
55812,
1363,
47,
70,
110588,
71175,
7,
23,
102706,
13400,
12441,
390,
4939,
24795,
15592,
23,
58020,
5,
1529,
122799,
16995,
1995,
111,
70,
24745,
232,
23,
20414,
61540,
136,
24765,
297,
99,
40067,
2481,
237,
10,
25188,
145042,
5,
133698,
1919,
96335,
4,
93360,
177,
875,
4,
2750,
151552,
66570,
237,
44,
528,
6496,
2809,
91048,
1257,
237,
10,
132756,
111,
70,
56101,
239,
38648,
31016,
58,
509,
23902,
678,
60013,
64370,
136,
36457,
538,
42938,
297,
23,
113068,
111,
8332,
9,
71947,
19377,
11727,
1974,
7,
5,
1913,
105109,
4,
764,
55950,
14631,
341,
35159,
5761,
136,
4939,
5631,
19,
13534,
4,
1284,
764,
242661,
297,
23,
1919,
1809,
964,
87168,
450,
351,
13,
111,
1919,
23902,
44,
42424,
2499,
85583,
71834,
47,
96760,
163,
378,
188,
84158,
7,
39,
268,
4,
40101,
7068,
707,
14432,
1242,
28090,
61540,
1104,
190891,
4,
93360,
177,
875,
509,
10,
32786,
111,
70,
105109,
62,
4594,
1577,
5,
93360,
177,
875,
26859,
55080,
214,
28007,
7,
98,
3642,
39108,
289,
103488,
83,
71872,
3674,
23,
70,
13047,
11,
9523,
24030,
13,
111,
6,
211209,
7,
23,
20414,
58020,
5,
1529,
14037,
450,
10,
24030,
13,
50159,
13,
24387,
6496,
99,
10,
91097,
707,
375,
48448,
46389,
4,
831,
227204,
70,
39108,
289,
159399,
7,
16200,
107314,
70,
46389,
4,
42459,
214,
450,
70,
50159,
13,
27489,
7,
10,
93403,
111,
142,
77556,
188,
6402,
38516,
23,
70,
24030,
13,
107314,
70,
46389,
5,
360,
44500,
4,
93360,
177,
875,
509,
77049,
71,
390,
177592,
2902,
16865,
4,
7068,
14364,
111,
70,
14434,
4240,
14191,
43975,
23,
2356,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
10868,
44576,
144973,
93360,
177,
875,
11516,
22482,
41310,
46,
387,
14487,
9571,
16,
509,
142,
14941,
240877,
106622,
136,
3530,
34053,
27744,
1419,
4,
2750,
99764,
70,
36102,
34676,
2319,
731,
23,
13000,
53,
172,
25443,
707,
119210,
678,
60701,
7674,
425,
4293,
136,
4939,
222575,
5,
2
] | null | null | en-train-483370 | en-train-483370 | 483370 | {
"title": [
"Early life and education.",
"Pre-war research.",
"Wartime activities.",
"Post-war research and career.",
"Achievements.",
"Awards and honours.",
"Personal life.",
"Death."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Hodgkin was born in Banbury, Oxfordshire, on 5 February 1914. He was the oldest of three sons of Quakers George Hodgkin and Mary Wilson Hodgkin. His father was the son of Thomas Hodgkin and had read for the Natural Science Tripos at Cambridge where he had befriended electrophysiologist Keith Lucas. Because of poor eyesight he was unable to study medicine and eventually ended up working for a bank in Banbury. As members of the Society of Friends, George and Mary opposed the Military Service Act of 1916 and had to endure a great deal of abuse from their local community, including an attempt to throw George in one of the town canals. In 1916 George Hodgkin travelled to Armenia as part of an investigation of distress. Moved by the misery and suffering of Armenian refugees he attempted to go back there in 1918 on a route through the Persian Gulf (as the northern route was closed because of the October Revolution in Russia). He died of dysentery in Baghdad on 24 June 1918, just a few weeks after his youngest son, Keith, had been born. From an early life on Hodgkin and his brothers were encouraged to explore the country around their home, which instilled in Alan a strong interest in Natural History, particularly ornithology. At the age of 15, he helped Wilfred Backhouse Alexander with surveys of heronries and later, at Gresham's School, he overlapped and spent a lot of time with David Lack. In 1930, he was the winner of a bronze medal in the Public Schools Essay Competition organised by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Alan started his education at The Downs School where his contemporaries included future scientists Frederick Sanger, Alec Bangham, \"neither outstandingly brilliant at school\" according to Hodgkin, as well as future artists Lawrence Gowing and Kenneth Rowntree. After the Downs School, he went on to Gresham's School where he overlapped with future composer Benjamin Britten as well as Maury Meiklejohn. He ended up receiving a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge in Botany, Zoology and Chemistry. Between school and college, he spent May 1932 at the Freshwater Biological Station at Wray Castle based on a recommendation of his future Director of Studies at Trinity, Carl Pantin. After Wray Castle, he spent two months with a German family in Frankfurt as \"in those days it was thought highly desirable that anyone intending to read science should have a reasonable knowledge of German.\" After his return to England in early August 1932, his mother Mary was remarried to Lionel Smith (1880–1972), the eldest son of A. L. Smith, whose daughter Dorothy was also married to Alan's uncle Robert Howard Hodgkin. In autumn of 1932 Hodgkin started as a freshman scholar at Trinity College, Cambridge where his friends included classicists John Raven and Michael Grant, fellow-scientists Richard Synge and John H. Humphrey, as well as Polly and David Hill, the children of Nobel Laureate Archibald Hill. He took Physiology with Chemistry and Zoology for the first two years, including lectures by Nobel Laureate E.D. Adrian. For Part II of the tripos he decided to focus on physiology instead of zoology. Nevertheless, he participated in a zoological expedition to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco led by John Pringle in 1934. He finished Part II of the tripos in July 1935 and stayed at Trinity as a research fellow. During his studies, Hodgkin, who described himself as \"having been brought up as a supporter of the British Labour Party\" was friends with communists and actively participated in distribution of Anti-War pamphlets. At Cambridge, he knew James Klugmann and John Cornford, but he emphasised in his autobiography that none of his friends \"made any serious effort to convert me [to Communism], either then or later.\" From 1935–1937, Hodgkin was a member of the Cambridge Apostles.",
"Hodgkin started conducting experiments on how electrical activity is transmitted in the sciatic nerve of frogs in July 1934. He found that a nerve impulse arriving at a cold or compression block, can decrease the electrical threshold beyond the block, suggesting that the impulse produces a spread of an electrotonic potential in the nerve beyond the block. In 1936, Hodgkin was invited by Herbert Gasser, then director of the Rockefeller Institute in New York City, to work in his laboratory during 1937–38. There he met Rafael Lorente de Nó and Kenneth Stewart Cole with whom he ended up publishing a paper. During that year he also spent time at the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory where he was introduced to the squid giant axon, which ended up being the model system with which he conducted most of the research that eventually led to his Nobel Prize. In spring 1938 he visited Joseph Erlanger at Washington University in St. Louis who told him he would take Hodgkin's local circuit theory of nerve impulse propagation seriously if he could show that altering the resistance of the fluid outside a nerve fibre made a difference to the velocity of nerve impulse conduction. Working with single nerve fibres from shore crabs and squids, he showed that the conduction rate was much faster in sea water than in oil, providing strong evidence for the local circuit theory. After his return to Cambridge he started collaborating with Andrew Huxley who had entered Trinity as a freshman in 1935, three years after Hodgkin. With a £300 equipment grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, Hodgkin managed to set up a similar physiology setup to the one he had worked with at the Rockefeller Institute. He moved all his equipment to the Plymouth Marine Laboratory in July 1939. There, he and Huxley managed to insert a fine cannula into the giant axon of squids and record action potentials from inside the nerve fibre. They sent a short note of their success to \"Nature\" just before the outbreak of World War II.",
"Despite his Quaker upbringing, Hodgkin was eager to join the war effort as contact with the Nazis during his stay in Germany in 1932 had removed all his pacifist beliefs. Hist first post was at the Royal Aircraft Establishment where he worked on issues in Aviation Medicine, such as oxygen supply for pilots at high altitude and the decompression sickness caused by nitrogen bubbles coming out of the blood. In February 1940 he transferred to the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) where he worked on the development of centimetric radar, including the design of the Village Inn AGLT airborne gun-laying system. He was a member of E.G. Bowen's group in St Athan in South Wales and lived in a local guest house together with John Pringle and Robert Hanbury Brown. The group moved to Swanage in May 1940 where Pringle replaced Bowen as leader of the group. In March 1941, Hodgkin flew on the test flight of a Bristol Blenheim fitted with the first airborne centimetric radar system. In February and March 1944, Hodgkin visited the MIT Radiation Laboratory to help foster the interchange of information on developments in radar between Britain and America. Providing a readable account of the little-known piece of military history that he was a part of during World War II was a main motivation for Hodgkin to write his autobiography \"Chance and Design: Reminiscences of Science in Peace and War\".",
"As the Allied Forces' invasion of France and their continued advance towards Germany in autumn 1944 suggested an end of the war in the foreseeable future, Hodgkin started to plan his return to a career in research at Cambridge. He renewed his collaboration with W. A. H. Rushton and they published an article on how to calculate a nerve fibre's membrane resistance, membrane capacity, its axoplasm's resistance, and the resistance of the external fluid in which the fibre is placed, from experimental observations. He was the Foulerton Professor of the Royal Society between 1951 and 1969. He served on the Royal Society Council from 1958 to 1960 and on the Medical Research Council from 1959 to 1963. He was foreign secretary of the Physiological Society from 1961 to 1967. He was appointed the John Humphrey Plummer Professor of Biophysics at Cambridge University in 1970. He also held additional administrative posts such as Chancellor, University of Leicester, from 1971 to 1984, and Master, Trinity College, Cambridge, from 1978 to 1985.",
"With Andrew Fielding Huxley, Hodgkin worked on experimental measurements and developed an action potential theory representing one of the earliest applications of a technique of electrophysiology, known as the \"voltage clamp\". The second critical element of their research was the use of the giant axon of the veined squid (\"Loligo forbesii\"), which enabled them to record ionic currents as they would not have been able to do in almost any other neuron, such cells being too small to study using the techniques of the time. The experiments started at the University of Cambridge, beginning in 1935 with frog sciatic nerve, and soon after they continued their work using squid giant axons at the Marine Biological Association Laboratory in Plymouth. In 1939, reporting work done in Plymouth, Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley published a short paper in the journal \"Nature\" announcing their achievement of recording action potentials from inside a nerve fibre. Research was interrupted by World War II but after resuming their experimental work in Plymouth, the pair published their theory in 1952 in a series of publications. With Huxley, he established the propagation mechanism of nerve impulse called \"action potentials\", the electrical impulses which enable the activity of an organism to be coordinated by a central nervous system. In addition Hodgkin and Huxley's findings led them to hypothesize the existence of ion channels on cell membranes, which were confirmed only decades later. Confirmation of ion channels came with the development of the patch clamp leading to a Nobel prize in 1991 for Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, and in 2003 for Roderick MacKinnon. Hodgkin was also the discoverer of cell membrane depolarisation sequence now known as the Hodgkin cycle.",
"Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Fielding Huxley, and John Carew Eccles (for his research on synapses) were jointly awarded the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine \"for their discoveries concerning the ionic mechanisms involved in excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central portions of the nerve cell membrane\". Hodgkin was knighted (KCB) in 1972 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1973. He was elected President of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom in 1966. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1948, and served as President of the Royal Society (PRS) from 1970 to 1975. The Royal Society awarded him its Royal Medal in 1958 and Copley Medal in 1965. He was also elected to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, American Philosophical Society, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Deutsche Akademie, and Indian National Science Academy. A portrait of Hodgkin by Michael Noakes hangs in Trinity College's collection. He was elected a Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences in 1964.",
"During his stay at the Rockefeller Institute in 1937, Hodgkin got to know the American pathologist Francis Peyton Rous who was later awarded the 1966 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. When Rous invited him for dinner to his home, Hodgkin got to know Rous' daughter, Marni, who was then a student at Swarthmore College. He proposed to her before going back to England in 1938, but she rejected him. When Hodgkin briefly returned to the USA in 1944 (see Wartime activities), they reunited and got married on March 31. Their first daughter, Sarah, was born in April 1945, shortly before the Hodgkins moved back to Cambridge. They had three more children – Deborah Hodgkin (born 2 May 1947), Jonathan Hodgkin (born 24 August 1949), and Rachel Hodgkin (born June 1951). Marni became Children's Book Editor at Macmillan Publishing Company and a successful writer of children's literature, including \"Young Winter's Tales\" and \"Dead Indeed\". Jonathan Hodgkin became a molecular biologist at Cambridge University. Deborah Hodgkin is also a successful psychologist. Thomas Hodgkin (1798–1866), who first described Hodgkin's lymphoma, was Alan Hodgkin's ancestor.",
"Hodgkin died in 1998 in Cambridge."
]
} |
Albert Claude | null | Albert Claude (24 August 1899 – 22 May 1983) was a Belgian-American cell biologist and medical doctor who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 with Christian de Duve and George Emil Palade. His elementary education started in a comprehensive primary school at Longlier, his birthplace. He served in the British Intelligence Service during the First World War, and got imprisoned in concentration camps twice. In recognition of his service, he was granted enrolment at the University of Liège in Belgium to study medicine without any formal education required for the course. He earned his Doctor of Medicine degree in 1928. Devoted to medical research, he initially joined German institutes in Berlin. In 1929 he found an opportunity to join the Rockefeller Institute in New York. At Rockefeller University he made his most groundbreaking achievements in cell biology. In 1930 he developed the technique of cell fractionation, by which he discovered the agent of the Rous sarcoma, components of cell organelles such as mitochondrion, chloroplast, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosome and lysosome. He was the first to employ the electron microscope in the field of biology. In 1945 he published the first detailed structure of cell. His collective works established the complex functional and structural properties of cells. | null | [
250004,
250054,
24748,
6,
101956,
509,
103122,
23,
122815,
15,
8789,
59499,
47,
9782,
68067,
117752,
16,
23,
14407,
56786,
4,
10,
2057,
1974,
23,
11059,
420,
206,
45658,
8918,
4,
199458,
4,
47,
237705,
33876,
6,
101956,
136,
24479,
9,
724,
107948,
2980,
6586,
416,
44764,
6,
101956,
5,
1529,
509,
70,
27150,
525,
54940,
17262,
82953,
7,
136,
1632,
114015,
5,
18763,
67373,
509,
10,
7270,
9,
4448,
122009,
3472,
56,
136,
11675,
10,
3472,
26976,
9,
10591,
9,
180300,
4343,
99,
14407,
56786,
118666,
53,
43573,
6,
68823,
52562,
29398,
5,
18763,
42732,
4,
2750,
126809,
57262,
27968,
23,
115275,
4,
68,
71,
3229,
764,
509,
59671,
5369,
10332,
5,
1529,
66933,
1919,
479,
9,
48738,
6897,
678,
1919,
10,
49725,
42732,
5,
1529,
26859,
53019,
23,
14407,
56786,
19012,
1294,
19188,
4,
10,
97308,
48242,
10696,
111,
11001,
17155,
4,
17664,
297,
44000,
7,
4,
136,
756,
1379,
1632,
117914,
5,
360,
6,
61518,
111,
70,
23,
2271,
23221,
69098,
4,
764,
456,
79466,
70,
53019,
5426,
237,
44,
3355,
34680,
2517,
1242,
1529,
149976,
237,
10,
87219,
25299,
4,
15789,
214,
106820,
87219,
11907,
42141,
99,
2289,
786,
13,
47,
25313,
105774,
70,
14449,
109133,
47,
43471,
223,
4,
10,
78737,
10821,
10776,
678,
158285,
48137,
7,
4,
23,
91234,
5,
1529,
30957,
297,
30839,
9,
9217,
11,
6048,
10696,
5,
24372,
6626,
5369,
764,
509,
37170,
47,
6713,
7103,
1919,
51,
11030,
2750,
509,
238335,
678,
119856,
256,
13,
4514,
42,
126422,
23,
14407,
56786,
5,
1529,
36069,
20051,
1810,
111,
10696,
136,
138155,
538,
1649,
5281,
1919,
51,
11030,
100,
40368,
5369,
5,
1913,
70,
1810,
70751,
111,
70,
23972,
6661,
5550,
764,
509,
4027,
982,
24494,
71,
47,
158285,
48137,
7,
136,
79786,
237,
142,
25297,
51517,
5,
156241,
390,
221606,
209800,
4,
7068,
56101,
33744,
111,
5550,
4,
764,
33284,
297,
70,
39746,
7154,
136,
149849,
297,
23,
56101,
157075,
12349,
23,
3129,
764,
149976,
20271,
70,
28271,
1631,
5,
1913,
70,
3564,
111,
70,
1631,
764,
509,
122329,
297,
678,
70,
5337,
65844,
297,
165605,
33233,
678,
52129,
10778,
5,
1529,
7068,
36663,
47,
21342,
53019,
5,
66016,
764,
1902,
110,
23113,
37526,
1294,
53019,
4,
106480,
56065,
100,
54411,
15411,
4,
6044,
237,
23,
160600,
136,
42845,
4,
764,
37842,
47,
33284,
19188,
111,
1208,
592,
23,
1261,
111451,
5,
3311,
450,
1733,
76012,
49506,
875,
100512,
10336,
111,
70,
176774,
111,
19694,
56,
43154,
23,
199458,
25,
7,
185236,
111,
16934,
72022,
10763,
4,
136,
1379,
1919,
86052,
115081,
70,
27165,
450,
225081,
1631,
52129,
7,
47,
237360,
77546,
53019,
15490,
37578,
707,
3789,
96730,
5256,
5,
1301,
142,
3486,
34639,
47,
1919,
1631,
4516,
4,
764,
509,
34475,
606,
21150,
47,
70,
12535,
111,
1261,
111451,
23,
63445,
47,
35187,
54411,
5,
1529,
113054,
297,
1919,
79385,
111,
52625,
111,
119210,
23,
61786,
5,
6,
101956,
75204,
26983,
80731,
7,
1295,
41267,
66,
27759,
100,
1919,
22072,
289,
159688,
98,
70,
116192,
2320,
111,
114669,
27968,
7,
3934,
12540,
7,
5,
17106,
903,
764,
79786,
1919,
1305,
246,
18770,
289,
25188,
23,
10271,
20271,
70,
41710,
111,
61786,
74668,
4235,
4,
5117,
99,
70,
20048,
643,
193233,
162588,
4,
136,
7068,
99,
70,
138789,
96513,
43975,
100,
1843,
25443,
4,
121156,
195,
4,
23,
70,
139915,
53,
111,
108055,
90,
29394,
111,
11739,
5,
24748,
136290,
5,
26828,
23,
199458,
764,
75204,
145042,
16070,
23,
54566,
1295,
70,
41267,
66,
15672,
43154,
289,
32807,
15,
10770,
21150,
100,
853,
51821,
23,
199458,
4,
313,
45176,
16,
100,
25188,
23,
70,
14098,
46684,
5,
1529,
190659,
100,
70,
14434,
4240,
14191,
43975,
15,
35613,
70,
14434,
4240,
14191,
12535,
16,
23,
2356,
5753,
4,
4602,
5,
26328,
153033,
1679,
4,
7068,
31068,
4,
68186,
71,
1919,
152132,
47,
4488,
98,
70,
6,
219488,
136,
6,
221160,
111,
70,
56709,
7,
10649,
277,
11,
14994,
5,
360,
6088,
54566,
764,
33284,
297,
70,
14434,
4240,
14191,
43975,
5,
360,
28730,
4,
764,
134053,
70,
9433,
111,
38750,
6,
175921,
2320,
4,
3129,
509,
61585,
70751,
214,
23,
1919,
1733,
5,
581,
9433,
58055,
7,
111,
98845,
214,
1257,
38750,
7,
47,
36356,
70,
107834,
13,
136,
54452,
70,
38750,
25,
7,
10941,
7,
5,
1529,
7068,
46312,
297,
1810,
70,
38750,
107834,
90,
136,
158012,
70,
47143,
214,
38750,
10941,
7,
23,
10,
69514,
54957,
13,
47,
84797,
2856,
59499,
47,
46889,
5,
1529,
101637,
71,
70,
69514,
54957,
297,
10941,
7,
3934,
6,
175921,
7,
4,
12638,
111,
10,
29458,
46889,
4,
136,
134053,
450,
17311,
6,
175921,
7,
3542,
102778,
100,
17311,
38750,
32354,
7,
5,
360,
41933,
764,
207487,
136,
7398,
47314,
100,
70,
5117,
1733,
82761,
111,
56709,
7,
10649,
277,
11,
14994,
4,
70,
7278,
141,
23882,
111,
2258,
44924,
192,
4,
237,
44,
11049,
8364,
241454,
80000,
73,
58,
15,
90141,
34,
25958,
24,
4806,
6,
125499,
194,
1529,
509,
70,
5117,
47,
4527,
77556,
19,
11948,
70820,
47,
35187,
333,
109622,
38750,
7,
5,
241,
147,
56786,
77556,
19,
11948,
70820,
7,
3542,
11814,
4734,
23,
72761,
25188,
90,
5,
18763,
5117,
77556,
19,
11948,
12064,
18695,
35187,
509,
98,
70,
45646,
111,
86467,
3089,
29887,
11,
23,
18608,
5,
1529,
509,
34475,
15672,
130367,
16070,
23,
24644,
5,
1529,
134053,
450,
86467,
3089,
29887,
11,
621,
70,
44,
62783,
18276,
7,
58,
111,
756,
38750,
7,
5,
1529,
2843,
134053,
19932,
188,
52033,
21068,
140885,
90,
4393,
111,
6,
125499,
136,
24,
4806,
2856,
44,
187840,
43452,
7,
830,
3129,
3542,
14432,
120514,
4806,
105598,
43452,
7,
4,
70,
21308,
142518,
90,
84382,
36279,
10484,
111,
38750,
5,
17106,
1919,
30699,
67,
4,
203314,
13791,
56,
4,
764,
14037,
10,
44,
143,
329,
9,
18244,
58,
45646,
450,
509,
155605,
60449,
47,
186,
70,
13036,
118990,
141,
60213,
111,
70,
14566,
111,
756,
1175,
1153,
1410,
9523,
38750,
7,
5,
3293,
509,
70,
103882,
53,
111,
22,
246,
52033,
21068,
35425,
68510,
15,
11,
42845,
100,
44,
84433,
1179,
51029,
360,
45604,
4,
764,
100512,
31068,
111,
70,
112876,
7,
48606,
126,
43975,
100,
147146,
42477,
136,
183367,
15,
57404,
112876,
7,
48606,
126,
2
] | [
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1
] | [
250004,
24748,
6,
101956,
42389,
8055,
122815,
46,
1039,
4347,
26819,
16,
509,
10,
41267,
66,
9,
127345,
38750,
28387,
271,
136,
29874,
22072,
2750,
99764,
70,
34676,
2319,
731,
23,
13000,
53,
172,
25443,
707,
119210,
23,
27898,
678,
14949,
8,
786,
272,
136,
14787,
55598,
17743,
112,
5,
18763,
131830,
53,
53019,
26859,
23,
10,
199083,
158978,
10696,
99,
14407,
56786,
4,
1919,
127319,
23935,
5,
1529,
149976,
23,
70,
56101,
157075,
12349,
20271,
70,
23972,
6661,
5550,
4,
136,
4163,
566,
22876,
191,
297,
23,
202104,
11491,
7,
186351,
5,
360,
230466,
111,
1919,
4516,
4,
764,
509,
2855,
3674,
22,
12722,
674,
99,
70,
12535,
111,
1261,
111451,
23,
199458,
47,
35187,
54411,
15490,
2499,
23113,
53019,
56065,
100,
70,
15411,
5,
1529,
2
] | null | null | en-train-543235 | en-train-543235 | 543235 | {
"title": [
"Early life and education.",
"Career.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Albert Claude was born in 1899 (but according to civil register 1898) in Longlier, a hamlet in Neufchâteau, Belgium, to Florentin Joseph Claude and Marie-Glaudice Watriquant Claude. He was the youngest among three brothers and one sister. His father was a Paris-trained baker and run a bakery-cum-general store at Longlier valley near railroad station. His mother, who developed breast cancer in 1902, died when he was seven years old. He spent his pre-school life with his ailing mother. He started education in Longlier Primary School, a pluralistic school of single room, mixed grades, and all under one teacher. In spite of the inconveniences, he remarked the education system as \"excellent.\" He served as a bell boy, ringing church bell every morning at 6. Due to economic depression the family moved to Athus, a prosperous region with steel mills, in 1907. He entered German-speaking school. After two years he was asked to look after his uncle who was disabled with cerebral haemorrhage in Longlier. He dropped out of school and practically nursed his uncle for several years. At the outbreak of the First World War he was apprenticed to steel mills and worked as an industrial designer. Inspired by Winston Churchill, then British Minister of War, he joined the resistance and volunteered in British Intelligence Service in which he served during the whole war. At the end of the war he was decorated with the Interallied Medal along with veteran status. He then wanted to continue education. Since he had no formal secondary education, particularly required for medicine course, such as in Greek and Latin, he tried to join School of Mining in Liège. By that time Marcel Florkin became head of the Direction of Higher Education in Belgium's Ministry of Public Instruction, and under his administration passed the law that enabled war veterans to pursue higher education without diploma or other examinations. As an honour to his war service, he was given admission to the University of Liège in 1922 to study medicine. He obtained his degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1928.",
"Claude received travel grants from Belgian government for his doctoral thesis on the transplantation of mouse cancers into rats. With this he worked his postdoctoral research in Berlin during the winter of 1928–1929, first at the Institut für Krebsforschung, and then at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology, Dahlem, in the laboratory of tissues culture of Prof. Albert Fischer. Back in Belgium he received fellowship in 1929 from the Belgian American Educational Foundation (Commission for Relief in Belgium, CRB) for research in the United States. He applied for the Rockefeller Institute (now the Rockefeller University) in New York, USA. Simon Flexner, then Director, accepted his proposal to work on the isolation and identification of the Rous sarcoma virus. In September 1929 he joined the Rockefeller Institute. In 1930, he discovered the process of cell fractionation, which was groundbreaking in his time. The process consists of grinding up cells to break the membrane and release the cell's contents. He then filtered out the cell membranes and placed the remaining cell contents in a centrifuge to separate them according to mass. He divided the centrifuged contents into fractions, each of a specific mass, and discovered that particular fractions were responsible for particular cell functions. In 1938 he identified and purified for the first time component of Rous sarcoma virus, the causal agent of carcinoma, as \"ribose nucleoprotein\" (eventually named RNA). He was the first to use electron microscope to study biological cells. Earlier electron microscopes were used only in physical researches. His first electron microscopic study was on the structure of mitochondria in 1945. He was given American citizenship in 1941. He discovered that mitochondria are the \"power houses\" of all cells. He also discovered cytoplasmic granules full of RNA and named them \"microsomes\", which were later renamed ribosomes, the protein synthesizing machineries of cell. With his associate, Keith Porter, he found a \"lace-work\" structure that was eventually proven to be the major structural feature of the interior of all eukaryotic cells. This was the discovery of endoplasmic reticulum (a Latin for \"fishnet\"). In 1949, he became Director of the Jules Bordet Institute for Cancer Research and Treatment (Institut Jules Bordet) and Professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Free University of Brussels, where he was Emeritus in 1971. In the mid sixties during an Electron Microscopy symposium in (Bratislava)-(Czechoslovakia) organized by the (UNESCO) at the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, he meets young scientist Dr. Emil Mrena who was at that time head of the Electron Microscopy department. He invited him to come and work with him in Brussels, making it possible for Dr. Mrena's family to escape the communist regime. Their close collaboration gave fruition to 5 publications from 1969 to 1974. With the support of his colleague and friend Christian de Duve, he became in 1972 Professor at the University of Louvain (Université catholique de Louvain) and Director of the \"Laboratoire de Biologie Cellulaire et Cancérologie\" in Louvain-la-Neuve where he moved with Dr. Emil Mrena as sole collaborator. At the same time, he was appointed Professor at the Rockefeller University, an institution with which he had remained connected, in different degrees, since 1929.",
"He married Julia Gilder in 1935, with whom he had a daughter Philippa. They got divorced while at Rockefeller. Philippa became a neuroscientist and married Antony Stretton. Claude was known to be a bit of an eccentric and had close friendship with painters, including Diego Rivera and Paul Delvaux, and musicians such as Edgard Varèse. After his retirement in 1971 from the Université libre de Bruxelles and from the directorship of the Institut Jules Bordet, he continued his research at the University of Louvain with his collaborator Dr. Emil Mrena, who ended up resigning in 1977 due to decreasing activity of the Laboratory, moving to other research works. It is said that he continued his research in seclusion until he died of natural causes, at his home in Brussels, on Sunday night on 22 May 1983, but he had stopped visiting his own laboratory in Louvain already in 1976 due to his weak health."
]
} |
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.