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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1971–1975: Early years.", "1975–1978: Rise to prominence.", "1978: Solo and film projects.", "1979–1983: Final make-up years.", "1983–1995: Unmasking.", "1995–2001: Reunion.", "2001–2008: Post-reunion.", "2008–2012: \"Sonic Boom\" and \"Monster\".", "2013–2015: 40th anniversary, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and international collaboration.", "2016–present: Freedom to Rock Tour, possible twenty-first album and final tour.", "Musical style.", "Influences.", "Members.", "Makeup designs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Kiss trace their roots to Wicked Lester, a New York City-based rock band led by Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley. They recorded one album, which was shelved by Epic Records, and played a handful of live shows. Simmons and Stanley, feeling a new musical direction was needed, abandoned Wicked Lester in 1972 and began forming a new group. After abandoning the name Wicked Lester late in 1972, Simmons and Stanley came across an ad in the East Coast version of \"Rolling Stone\" placed by Peter Criss, a veteran drummer from the New York City scene who had previously played in the bands Lips and Chelsea. Simmons and Stanley met Criss in a nightclub where he was playing drums. After hearing Criss sing, they thought Criss should be in the new band they were forming. Criss then auditioned for, and later joined their new band. The trio focused on a much harder style of rock than what Wicked Lester played. They also began experimenting with their image, by wearing makeup and various outfits. In November 1972, the", "Kiss wanted to express the excitement felt at their concerts (which their studio albums had so far failed to do) with their first live album. Compiled from May–July concerts in Detroit, Cleveland and Wildwood, NJ and released on September 10, 1975, \"Alive!\" achieved Gold status and spawned Kiss' first top 40 single: a live version of \"Rock and Roll All Nite\". It was the first version of the song with a guitar solo, and this recording has become the best-known version. It is also the basis of most covers, such as the cover by Poison in 1987. In recent years the band admitted that additional audience noise had been added to the album, as", "Kiss were at their commercial peak by 1978. \"Alive II\" was the band's fourth platinum album in just under two years, and the ensuing tour had the highest average attendance (13,550) in the group's history. In addition, Kiss' gross income for 1977 was $10.2 million. The group, along with manager Aucoin, sought to take the band to the next level of popularity. To that end, an ambitious, two-pronged strategy was devised for 1978. The first part involved the simultaneous release of four solo albums from the members of Kiss. Although", "Kiss' first album of new material in two years, \"Dynasty\" (1979), continued their platinum streak. The disco-flavored \"I Was Made for Lovin' You\" became one of the band's biggest hit singles to date, peaking at No. 11. Session drummer Anton Fig did almost all the percussion on the album while Criss recovered from an automobile accident. The only song to feature Criss' drumming was \"Dirty Livin, on which he also sang lead. Billed as \"The Return of Kiss\", the Dynasty Tour was expected by Kiss and their management to build on the success of previous tours. Plans were drawn up for a Kiss-themed traveling amusement park called \"Kiss World\", but were abandoned because of the immense costs involved; however, \"The Return of Kiss\" saw a marked decline in attendance. The crowds on this tour were much younger than previous audiences had been, with many preadolescent children in Kiss make-up with their mothers and fathers (who were sometimes wearing the make-up themselves) in tow at most concerts. Kiss themselves did little to dissuade this new fan base, donning colorful costumes that reinforced a cartoonish image for these younger fans. The fans were unaware of the dissension within the band. One very public indication of the heightened friction within the group was an infamous October 31, 1979 interview on Tom Snyder's late-night \"The Tomorrow Show\". During the episode, a visibly irritated Simmons and Stanley attempted, unsuccessfully, to contain the inebriated Frehley, whose frequent laughter and joking overshadowed the conversation between Snyder and the rest of the band. Criss made references to his large gun collection, to the chagrin of Simmons. By the end of the \"Dynasty\" tour in December 1979, tensions between Criss and the rest", "Sensing it was time for a change, Kiss made the decision to abandon their trademark make-up and costumes. The band officially appeared in public without make-up for the first time since their very early days on a September 18, 1983, appearance on MTV, which coincided with the release of \"Lick It Up\". The tour to promote the new album and the unmasked band members began in Lisbon, Portugal, on October 11, 1983, at Pavilhão Dramático de Cascais, their first concert without make-up since early 1973. \"Lick It Up\" became Kiss' first gold record in three years, but the tour was even more sparsely attended than the previous one. Vincent did not get along with Simmons and Stanley, and he left the band at the conclusion of the tour in March 1984. Vincent's replacement was Mark St. John, a session player and guitar tutor. With St. John, Kiss released the album \"Animalize\" on September 13, 1984. \"Animalize\" followed the success of", "On August 9, 1995, Kiss joined the long line of musicians to perform on \"MTV Unplugged\". The band contacted Criss and Frehley and invited them to participate in the event. Both joined Kiss on stage for several songs at the end of the set: \"Beth\", \"2000 Man\", \"Nothin' to Lose\" and \"Rock and Roll All Nite\". The \"Unplugged\" appearance set off months of speculation that a possible reunion of the original Kiss lineup was in the works. In the weeks following the \"Unplugged\" concert, however, the band (with Kulick and Singer), returned to the studio for the first time in three years to record a follow-up to \"Revenge\". \"\" was completed in February 1996, but its release", "On the eve of the Japanese and Australian leg of the Farewell Tour on January 31, 2001, Criss suddenly left the band once again, because he and the band could not come to agreement with his contract salary. Taking his place was previous Kiss drummer Singer who, in a move that was controversial among longtime fans, assumed Criss' Cat persona as the Farewell Tour continued. With the band supposedly set to retire by early 2001, a career-encompassing collection entitled simply \"The Box Set\", consisting of 94 tracks on five CDs, was released in November of that year, while the summer saw perhaps the most outrageous item of Kiss merchandise yet – the Kiss Kasket. In introducing the Kiss Kasket, Simmons quipped, \"I love livin', but this makes the alternative look pretty damn good.\" On December 4, 2001, Kiss was one of the honorees at the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (\"The Recording Academy\") Heroes Award ceremony, at the NARAS New York Chapter. NARAS has 12 chapters throughout the United States, hence 12 ceremonies throughout the year, with the honorees each being honored by the chapter closest to their residence. By receiving this honor, which NARAS has renamed the \"Recording Academy Honors\", Kiss effectively received NARAS' second-highest career honor, right behind the Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award. Kiss was relatively quiet through the rest of the year, but 2002 started with some controversy as Simmons took part in a controversial interview on National Public Radio with host Terry Gross. In February 2002, Kiss (with Singer on drums and Frehley on lead guitar) performed during the closing ceremony of the 2002", "More than 10 years after their last studio album, and following years of denials about ever wanting to do a new album, Stanley and Simmons changed their minds. In November 2008, Stanley stated to rock photographer Ross Halfin that a new Kiss album was in the works. Stanley himself would be the producer, and the album would have a \"real 70s Kiss sound\" to it. Later that month, Simmons and Stanley both publicly confirmed the information about a new Kiss album: The band appeared on \"American Idol\" in May 2009, performing \"Detroit Rock City\" and \"Rock and Roll All Nite\" with Adam Lambert. In October 2009, a new studio album, titled \"Sonic Boom\", was released. It included a CD of new material, re-recorded versions of famous Kiss hits (previously released as \"Jigoku-Retsuden\", a Japanese exclusive album in 2008) and a live DVD recorded in Buenos Aires, Argentina. \"Modern Day", "On October 16, 2013, Kiss was again announced as a nominee for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and was subsequently announced as an inductee on December 17. In 2013, Kiss purchased a share of an Arena Football League expansion franchise set to begin play at the Honda Center in Anaheim, California, in 2014. Simmons, Stanley and manager McGhee jointly owned the team, called the Los Angeles Kiss. Both Simmons and Stanley are known fans of the AFL. The LA Kiss offered National Football League free agent quarterback Tim Tebow a contract to join their team and play in the AFL, but he did not join. The team folded in 2016. In 2014, Kiss toured as co-headliners with Def Leppard. After Simmons toured with Joe Elliott in South America, the two talked about their bands working together. From June 23 to August 31, 2014, the bands toured 42 cities, with a dollar per ticket donated to", "In 2016, Kiss conducted a summer tour, titled the Freedom to Rock Tour, of less frequented cities and smaller venues. The tour ran throughout the summer, with opening acts Caleb Johnson and the Dead Daisies. On December 13, 2016, Kiss performed during the season 11 finale of \"The Voice\", accompanied by the season winner Sundance Head. There had been conflicting stories regarding whether Kiss would record another album. Simmons had said \"yes\" in interviews, saying that he had songs written and lined up for a new album. Stanley and Thayer dispute this however and say that they did not", "Kiss have typically been classified under the genres of hard rock, shock rock, and heavy metal. Most of their '70s albums, particularly the first six released between 1974 and 1977 as well as 1982's \"Creatures of the Night\" and 1984's \"Animalize\", featured a hard rock or traditional heavy metal style. 1979's \"Dynasty\" and 1980's \"Unmasked\" featured a more disco/pop rock sound, and 1981's \"Music from \"The Elder\"\" found the band dabbling in progressive rock. In 1983, starting with \"Lick It Up\" and the removal of their trademark make-up, the band began incorporating elements of glam metal into their sound and visual image. Later, in the early 1990s, their sound grew heavier", "Kiss was strongly influenced by Alice Cooper and the New York Dolls, while Gene Simmons states \"their musical heart and soul lies in England\". The Beatles and the trio of rock guitarists Jimmy Page, Eric Clapton and Jeff Beck were among the British acts he praised, with Simmons stating, \"I've ripped off so many English riffs, if the British influence wasn't there, we wouldn't be here. 'Rock and Roll All Nite' is a direct bastard child of Slade's 'Mama Weer All Crazee Now'\". In his book, \"Kiss and Make-Up\", Simmons wrote of the glam rock group Slade, \"...", "Current", "The band are famous for their iconic makeup designs, each of which represents a different character or persona. The current lineup consists of the original 4 designs: the \"Starchild\", the \"Demon\", the \"Spaceman\" and the \"Catman\". The band formerly included a practice of giving any new members a new persona, such as \"The Fox\" for Carr and \"The Ankh Warrior\" for Vincent; this practice was ended after Singer and Thayer took up Frehley's \"Spaceman\" and Criss's \"Catman\" personas. When asked on the matter, Simmons stated \"Why wouldn't we use the classic makeup? We own it\". Criss relinquished his rights to his makeup when he left the band in 2004, which he later regretted, saying \"I'm pissed at myself that my makeup slipped through my hands\"; while Frehley claims he licensed his design to the band and would get it back, a notion which Stanley has called \"a fantasy\". During 1973–74, Stanley occasionally used an alternative makeup design called the \"Bandit\" for select photo-shoots and live shows after Neil Bogart, head of Casablanca Records, suggested to him that he use a design that was symmetrical with the rest of the band's faces. During this time, he was also still using the Starchild makeup— sometimes even using both designs at the same photo-shoots. In 1974, he stopped using the Bandit design permanently. Criss used a drastically different variation of his Catman makeup on the cover of their debut album, dubbed the \"Pantomime Cat\", after Criss allowed the makeup artist at the shoot to use their own ideas instead of following the usual design. Carr was originally going to be the \"Hawk\", a design which Simmons recalled in his autobiography looked like Big Bird from Sesame Street. One photo of Carr wearing this proposed design exists today and one of a mannequin Stanley set up wearing the proposed makeup and outfit. Unlike the Bandit and Pantomime Cat, this alternative design was never used in any official capacity. The Hawk design was also considered for Vincent and Singer. St. John and Kulick were members of Kiss only during the non-makeup period. Kulick stated had he ever worn makeup in the band, he would have liked to have been the \"Dog\": \"I figure that since there's already a cat in the band, I should probably be the dog. I'd have a big circle around one eye and I'd look like Petey from the Little Rascals. I've actually seen one or two fan renditions of what that might look like, so yeah, I'd be the dog.\" The four original makeup designs have been registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, with ownership and licensing rights held by Simmons and Stanley." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Youth.", "Marriage and children.", "Family life.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "She was born in St. Gilgen, Archbishopric of Salzburg, to Eva Rosina (1681–1755) and Wolfgang Nicolaus Pertl (1667–1724), deputy prefect of Hildenstein. Nicolaus had a university degree in jurisprudence from the Benedictine University in Salzburg and held many positions of responsibility, including district superintendent in St. Andrae. He was apparently a skilled musician. He suffered a severe illness in 1714 and had to change positions to one with a relatively small salary as deputy superintendent of. During the last portion of his life, he fell deeply into debt, and he died on 7 March 1724. Nicolaus's possessions were liquidated to help pay the debt, and his remaining family (Anna Maria's mother and her older sister Maria Rosina, born 24 August 1719) lapsed into poverty. They moved to Salzburg, not far away, and lived on a charity pension of just eight (later nine) florins per month, perhaps supplemented by low-level employment. Anna Maria's older sister died in 1728, aged nine. Anna Maria herself was not well when she was young: legal documents from the time describe her as \"constantly ill\" (1733) and \"the constantly ill bedridden daughter\" (1739).", "She married Leopold Mozart in Salzburg in 1747; Abert writes, \"the two were regarded at the time as the handsomest couple in Salzburg.\" The couple moved (perhaps with Anna Maria's mother) into an apartment on the third floor of Getreidegasse 9. Their landlord was Lorenz Hagenauer, who was a close friend of Leopold's, and a frequent correspondent on the family's later travels. The Mozarts had seven children, of whom only two survived infancy: Anna Maria nearly died giving birth to Wolfgang. Her womb retained the placenta, and its subsequent enforced removal at that time posed an extreme risk of fatal infection. The two surviving children achieved fame. The daughter Maria Anna was called \"Nannerl\" as a child. She was a talented musician who performed with her brother on tour, but whose later life was very limited in its experiences and possibilities. The son, Wolfgang Amadeus, born 27 January 1756, achieved distinction first as a child prodigy, later as one of the most celebrated of all composers.", "Assessing the evidence of the surviving letters, Abert writes of her role as spouse: \"she understood her husband's phlegmatic and painfully conscientious nature and did all she could to spare him the numerous troubles and worries that stemmed from it, a task that cannot have been easy, given his perpetual mistrust, and there is no doubt that she will have drawn a veil over many an unpleasant incident not merely out of prudence, but also from fear. She was utterly devoted to him and willingly submitted to the strict regime to which he inevitably and unquestioningly subjected her.\" Concerning Anna Maria as a mother, he says, \"It was a pure and healthy spirit that reigned in the Mozart household... and Anna Maria must take much of the credit for this. Above all, she was a true mother to her children, who invariably sought refuge with her when their father's strict hand weighed unduly heavily upon them. Wolfgang loved and admired her to distraction.\" The letters record that Anna Maria participated with zest in the family's tendency toward scatological humor, a tendency seen more strongly in Wolfgang; see \"Mozart and scatology\". Anna Maria went on the series of tours (1762–1768) through Europe, during which the two children were exhibited as prodigies. She unwillingly remained in Salzburg with Nannerl during the tours of Italy that Wolfgang and Leopold took during 1769–1773. In 1777, she accompanied the now-adult Wolfgang (again unwillingly) on a job-hunting tour that took him to Augsburg, Mannheim, and Paris.", "While in Paris she suddenly got sick and died on 3 July 1778 of an undiagnosed illness. She was buried in the cemetery of Saint-Eustache." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Early career.", "Palermo.", "Fiorentina.", "Bayern Munich.", "Roma (loan).", "Genoa.", "Juventus.", "Al Nasr.", "Return to Fiorentina.", "Verona.", "International career.", "After football.", "Style of play.", "Goal celebrations.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Toni started his professional career at Modena. This was followed by a number of seasons spent around Serie B and Serie C1 with teams such as Empoli, Fiorenzuola, and Lodigiani. After a Serie B season with Treviso in 1999, he moved to Vicenza, playing in Serie A for the first time. He then moved to Brescia, playing for two seasons under manager Carlo Mazzone, alongside Roberto Baggio and Pep Guardiola.", "In 2003, he agreed to join ambitious Serie B club Palermo, being one of the main factors behind the winning team campaign that brought the \"Rosanero\" back to Serie A after over 30 years, thanks to a record 30 goals scored during the season. He consequently gained his first cap for the Italian national team in a friendly match 18 August 2004 lost 2–0 to Iceland in Reykjavík, which also marked Marcello Lippi's debut at the helm of the \"Azzurri\". In the following season, Toni confirmed his prolificity by scoring 20 goals in Palermo's first Serie A campaign, leading the Sicilian club to a historical first qualification to the UEFA Cup.", "Toni's move to Fiorentina was marked by controversy as the fans dubbed him a traitor for his departure. \"La Viola\" paid €10 million to sign him. During his first season in Florence, he scored 31 goals, making him one of the most prolific Serie A strikers of all-time (the most goals ever scored in a season being 35); this was also the first time in 50 years that a Serie A player had scored more than 30 goals. Toni was awarded the European Golden Shoe for this feat, the first Italian player to win this award. His goal scoring ability brought Fiorentina to heights never seen since the late 1990s, when Gabriel Batistuta was playing for them. They clinched fourth spot and qualified for the Champions League. This league position, however, was revoked in the courts during the \"Calciopoli\" scandal. Italian courts recognized Fiorentina as culpable of shady dealings and convicted them to start the 2006–07 season with a 19-point deduction. Toni expressed his desire to leave the team several times during the summer to the press, but was eventually convinced by club President Andrea Della Valle to stay and help the club overcome its unfavourable position. The following season was plagued by injury, limiting Toni's goals to a less considerable, albeit impressive, 16 goals. This was Toni's final season at the Florence club, as they agreed to sell him to Bundesliga giants Bayern Munich. Before he left, Toni promised Della Valle not to sign for any big Italian clubs, which is believed to be the main reason he went to Germany.", "On 30 May 2007, Bayern Munich chairman Karl-Heinz Rummenigge confirmed that Toni had signed a four-year contract with the club after agreeing to a deal worth €11.58 million with Fiorentina. On 7 June, Toni was presented at a Bayern press conference along with fellow new signing Franck Ribéry. Toni was given the number 9 shirt. Toni scored four goals in a 19 December 6–0 home win against Aris of Greece to help Bayern win their UEFA Cup group. On 17 February 2008, he scored his first Bundesliga hat-trick (a \"perfect hat-trick\": a goal with each foot and a header, all coming in one half) against Hannover 96. Bayern won the away fixture 3–0. In a quarter-final second leg match in the UEFA Cup, Toni scored two dramatic goals on 115th and 120th minutes of extra time, in a game which finished 3–3 and lifted Bayern Munich past Getafe CF of Spain on away goals. Bayern eventually lost to Zenit Saint Petersburg in the semi-final. At the 2007–08 UEFA Cup, he shared the first place with Pavel Pogrebnyak from Zenit at the top scorers list with 10 goals. He scored two goals in the German Cup final against Borussia Dortmund in a 2–1 win; his second goal was the winner in extra time to give Bayern Munich another cup victory. Toni finished as top scorer in the 2007–08 Bundesliga season with 24 goals. Overall, Toni finished the season with 39 goals and 12 assists in 46 matches. In the 2008–09 season, Toni maintained his high-standard of form for Bayern. In the Bundesliga, he started 13 games from January, in which he scored nine goals, a notable one being a late stoppage-time winner he scored against TSG Hoffenheim. Toni battled an Achilles tendon injury for most of the second half of the 2008–09 season, but still finished as Bayern's leading scorer in league play, tallying 14 goals in 25 Bundesliga appearances. Recovering from his injury he appeared in two matches of the second team Bayern Munich II in the 3. Liga in September 2009. On 7 November 2009, he was fined for leaving the stadium during the match after being substituted at half-time. Following his fall out with Bayern manager Louis van Gaal, Bayern's President, Uli Hoeneß, stated on \"DSF Doppelpass\" that Toni would be allowed to leave the club on a free transfer. Eventually, Toni, by mutual agreement with Bayern, was loaned out to Italian club A.S. Roma.", "On 31 December 2009, Bayern Munich confirmed the transfer of the Italian striker on a six-month loan basis to Roma, which offered him pre-tax basic salary of €3.1 million. He debuted for Roma against Cagliari on 6 January 2010. He scored his first two goals for Roma against Genoa on 17 January 2010 (for 2–0 and 3–0). Toni would go on to score five goals in total for the \"Giallorossi\" during the remainder of the 2009–10 season, including the winner against Internazionale to cut the Milanese club's lead in \"Serie A\" to a single point ahead of Roma.", "On 16 June 2010, Bayern announced the termination of Toni's contract. In the same month, after some days of speculation, it was confirmed that Luca Toni had found an agreement with Genoa for a two-year contract, reportedly at a net salary of €4 million per season, as subsequently confirmed by club Chairman Enrico Preziosi. The player, who was presented to the press on 1 July, took on the number 9 jersey.", "On 7 January 2011, a statement in the Juventus official website announced that Luca Toni would be joining Juventus on a free transfer deal, until 30 June 2012. Toni scored his 100th goal in Serie A with a header from 16 meters against Cagliari, which was also his debut goal for Juventus. Toni also scored the first goal at the new Juventus Stadium against Notts County on 8 September 2011.", "On 30 January 2012, Juventus confirmed that they have agreed a deal for Luca Toni with Emirati club Al Nasr.", "On 31 August 2012, in the closing hour of the transfer market, Fiorentina announced that they completed the signing of Luca Toni, after he had been previously linked with a move to Siena. Toni made it a goal-scoring return for \"La Viola\" when, after coming on as a 64th-minute substitute for Adem Ljajić, he scored with his first touch the second goal in a 2–0 win over Catania in the Stadio Artemio Franchi on 16 September 2012.", "On 5 July 2013, Toni signed a one-year contract with newly promoted to Serie A club Verona. On 17 August, Toni scored his first goal for Verona in a 1–0 victory over Palermo in the Coppa Italia. In his Serie A debut for the club on 24 August, Toni scored twice as Verona recorded a 2–1 home win over Milan on the opening day of the season. Toni displayed fine form for Verona and after scoring two as well as assisting a goal in successive games there were calls for him to return to the national squad with Toni stating \"I am thinking about doing well. Then it is for Cesare Prandelli to decide. For me, it would be a pleasure and an honour to go to the World Cup, but whatever happens there would be no issue\". He ended the 2013–14 season with 20 goals, making him the second-top goalscorer in Serie A at the age of 37. During the 2014–15 season, he maintained a high standard of performance, scoring his 300th career goal in a 2–1 win over Udinese on 14 December 2014. He finished the season with 22 goals, which took him to the top of the Serie A goalscoring charts, along with Mauro Icardi, at the age of 38 becoming the oldest Capocannoniere in Serie A. In 2015, France Football rated him as one of the 10 best footballers in the world who are over the age of 36. Toni's third season with the club was less successful, as injuries and clashes with the club's manager Luigi Delneri saw him struggle to gain form and playing time. After Verona was seen relegated from the 2015–16 Serie A season, Toni confirmed his retirement from football on 4 May 2016. He scored his last ever career goal on his final match from the penalty spot in a 2–1 home win over Serie A champions Juventus, with a Panenka style penalty, and later also started the play which led to Verona's second goal; this was his 23rd appearance and sixth goal of the league season. In the 85th minute, a visibly emotional Toni was substituted and received a standing ovation from the fans. In total, he had managed 48 league goals for Verona during his three seasons in the Italian top division with the club, 157 career Serie A goals in 344 league appearances, and a career total of 324 goals in all competitions (with 659 appearances and 306 goals at club level, and 47 appearances and 16 goals with the Italian national team). Toni explained his decision to retire after the match, stating that he would not be playing in Verona's final match of the season, in an away fixture against his former club Palermo, as he wanted to play his final career match in his team's home stadium.", "Toni scored 16 goals in 47 appearances for the Italy national football team. He received his first international call-up in August 2004 under manager Marcello Lippi, and subsequently made his debut for the Italian national team as a substitute on 18 August 2004, in a 2–0 friendly defeat against Iceland. He scored his first international goal on 4 September 2004, after coming off the bench in a 2–1 home win against Norway, in a World Cup Qualifying match. On 17 November, Toni made his first international start in a 1–0 friendly home win over Finland. On 11 June 2005, he captained the Italian squad for the first time in his career in a friendly match in New York against Ecuador, due to the absence of Fabio Cannavaro and other experienced players; he scored Italy's only goal in the eventual 1–1 draw. On 7 September, Toni scored his first international hat-trick in a 4–1 victory against Belarus in a 2006 World Cup qualifying match, becoming the first Fiorentina player ever to do so. Toni was selected to Italy's 23-man 2006 World Cup squad, and was given the number 9 shirt. In Italy's opening match against Ghana, he hit the crossbar as Italy won 2–0, and he later scored two goals in the quarter-finals against Ukraine on 30 June, his only goals of the tournament, as Italy won 3–0 to advance to the semi-finals against the hosts Germany. In the final against France, he hit the crossbar with a powerful header and later netted another header, although the goal was disallowed as the attempt was controversially ruled offside. Italy eventually defeated France 5–3 on penalties, after a 1–1 draw following extra-time, to win their fourth World Cup title; Toni finished the tournament as Italy's top goal-scorer, alongside Marco Materazzi, with 2 goals, also producing 20 shots and hitting the crossbar twice. He was also fouled 28 times throughout the tournament, more than other player. For his performances, Toni was named to the 2006 World Cup Team of the Tournament. On 28 March 2007, Toni scored two goals in Italy's 2–0 home win over Scotland in a Euro 2008 qualifier. After undergoing surgery due to an injury to his left foot which he had struggled to overcome since the beginning of the 2006–07 season, he missed Italy's next two qualifiers against the Faroe Islands and Lithuania. He returned to action for his nation's qualification game against Georgia in Genoa on 13 October, and assisted Fabio Grosso, who scored Italy's second goal in a 2–0 win. On 17 November 2007, Toni struck in the first minute of a 2–1 win in a qualifying match against Scotland at Hampden Park, which secured Italy's place at the final stages of the competition. Four days later, he scored the second goal against the Faroe Islands, as Italy closed off their qualifying campaign with a 3–1 home win. He finished the qualifying round as Italy's top-scorer with 5 goals in six appearances. Toni was called up to the 23-man Italian squad for UEFA Euro 2008 by manager Roberto Donadoni, but his form in the tournament was disappointing, as he failed to score; he managed a goal in Italy's second group match against Romania, but it was controversially disallowed for offside, as Italy drew the match 1–1. Toni's main contribution for the team was winning a decisive penalty kick in the final group match against France, which ended 2–0, and allowed the Italians to progress to the knock-out round. Italy then bowed out of the tournament on penalties to eventual champions Spain in the quarter-final, following a 0–0 draw after extra-time. Despite disappointing at Euro 2008, Toni was called up by returning coach Marcello Lippi for Italy's first two 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers. Toni also scored an equaliser in a 1–1 draw against Greece, in an international friendly on 19 November 2008, which was his final international goal. He was subsequently named to Lippi's 23-man Italy squad that took part at the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup in South Africa, and appeared in all three of his nation's group matches, although Italy disappointed, suffering a first-round elimination. Following the tournament, he was no longer called up to the national team, and he was not included in Lippi's provisional 30-man Italian squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup final tournament. Toni's goalscoring form with Verona in 2014 saw him become a popular potential candidate for a place as a reserve in Italy's 23-man 2014 FIFA World Cup squad, although he was later excluded from Cesare Prandelli's final team for the tournament. Following Toni's retirement from professional football at the end of the 2015–16 season with Verona, the Italian Football Federation paid tribute to him before Italy's friendly match against Finland at the Stadio Bentegodi in Verona on 6 June 2016; he was presented with a commemorative shirt by FIGC President Carlo Tavecchio, and was awarded a city plaque by Verona's mayor, Flavio Tosi, and the town's sports councillor, Alberto Bozza.", "Following his retirement, Toni undertook a course to become a director of sport with his former club Verona. However, Verona announced that he would leave the club after his contract expired on 30 June 2017. On 15 December, he received his coaching licence. In August 2019, he enrolled in the UEFA Pro Licence courses at Coverciano.", "A prolific goal-scorer, Toni was a traditional centre-forward, who excelled in the air and acrobatically; although in his youth he was known for his attacking movement, which allowed him to play anywhere along the front-line or off of his teammates, he mainly operated in the penalty area in his later career, as he lost his pace and his work-rate decreased. Although naturally right footed, he was an accurate finisher with both feet, and an excellent penalty taker. Although his physical, opportunistic, \"goal-poaching\" style of play was at times criticised as unrefined and unorthodox, due to his lack of notable technical skills, he also drew praise throughout his career for his leadership and ability to utilise his height, solid first touch, and strong physique to win aerial challenges, hold up the ball for his teammates, and provide them with assists when playing with his back to goal, in addition to his ability to score goals himself. His strength, aerial prowess, and power saw him become one of the best ever headers of the ball in the Italian League. Writing for \"The Guardian\", Tom Mason has said of his play, \"His retirement marks the end of not only a remarkable career, but of a whole breed of striker...he seems to be a relic of an out-dated and discredited ideology. In a world where forwards are the first line of defense, where high-intensity pressing and sharp bursts of energy are a prerequisite for strikers, there seems to be little room for players in the mold of Luca Toni. Ill-equipped for a fast-paced counter-attack, unlikely to trouble defenders in behind, his domain is the 18-yard box and little outside it.\" In the final season of his career, Toni was described as \"the last great Italian centre-forward\" by Italian sports newspaper \"La Gazzetta dello Sport\".", "Throughout his career, Toni was known for celebrating his goals by looking at his teammates and rotating his right hand next to his ear, as if to say, \"do you realise what it is I have just done?\"", "In 2010, he declared to be Catholic. Toni is married to Italian model Marta Cecchetto. Their son was stillborn on 1 June 2012. Their daughter Bianca was born in June 2013. On 30 July 2014, a second son, Leonardo, was born in Florence. In March 2015, German authorities sued Toni for €1.7 million in unpaid taxes to the Catholic Church. That July, he sued his former tax adviser for the same amount, claiming that he had been registered without prior knowledge as a Roman Catholic in Germany and thus had paid taxes to the Church in conflict with his own beliefs. In December, he received a payout of €1.25 million when the court found in his favour. In 2019, he revealed that he has center-right political ideas and that he is a supporter of Matteo Salvini, going up with him on stage during a rally in Modena." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Revitalization.", "Alphabet.", "Example words and their relationship to other languages.", "Sample texts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In origin, Wymysorys appears to derive from 12th-century Middle High German, with a strong influence from Low German, Dutch, Polish, Old English and perhaps Frisian. The inhabitants of Wilamowice are thought to be descendants of German, Flemish and Scottish settlers who arrived in Poland during the 13th century. However, the inhabitants of Wilamowice always denied any connections with Germany and proclaimed their Flemish origins. Although related to German, Wymysorys is not mutually intelligible with Standard German (that is the case for most other German dialects as well). Wymysorys was the vernacular language of Wilamowice until 1939–1945. However, it seems it has been in decline since the late 19th century. In 1880 as many as 92% of the town's inhabitants spoke Wymysorys (1,525 out of 1,662 people), in 1890 - only 72%, in 1900 - 67%, in 1910 - 73% again. Although Wymysorys was taught in local schools (under the name of \"local variety of German\"), since 1875 the basic language of instruction in most schools in Austro-Hungarian Galicia was Polish. During World War II and the German occupation of Poland Wymysorys was openly promoted by the Nazi administration, but after the war the tables turned: local communist authorities forbade the use of Wymysorys in any form. The widespread bilingualism of the people saved most local residents from being forcibly resettled to Germany, many of them stopped teaching their children their language or even using it in daily life. Although the ban was lifted after 1956, Wymysorys has been gradually replaced by Polish, especially amongst the younger generation. Acting on a proposal by Tymoteusz Król, the Library of Congress added the Wymysorys language to the register of languages on July 18, 2007. It was also registered in the International Organization for Standardization, where it received the \"wym\" ISO 639-3 code. In a 2009 UNESCO report Wymysorys has been reported as \"severely endangered\" and nearly extinct. Wymysorys was the language of the poetry of Florian Biesik, during the 19th century.", "Some new revitalization efforts were started in the first decade of the 21st century, led by speaker Tymoteusz Król, whose efforts include private lessons with a group of pupils as well as compiling language records, standardizing written orthography and compiling the first ever dictionary of Wymysorys. Additionally, a new project called The Wymysiöeryśy Akademyj – Accademia Wilamowicziana or WA-AW was established under the \"Artes Liberales\" program at the University of Warsaw with the intention of creating a unified scholastic body for the study of the Wymysorys language.", "Wymysorys has been for centuries mostly a spoken language. It was not until the times of Florian Biesik, the first author of major literary works in the language, that a need for a separate version of a Latin alphabet arose. Biesik wrote most of his works in plain Polish alphabet, which he considered better-suited for the phonetics of his language. In recent times Józef Gara (1929–2013), another author of works in the local language, devised a distinct Wymysorys alphabet, consisting of 34 letters derived from the Latin script and mostly based on Polish as well: Wilamowicean orthography includes the digraph \"AO\", which is treated as a separate letter.", "A sample of Wymysorys words with German, Dutch and English translations. Note that ł is read in Wymysorys like English w (as in Polish), and w like v (as in Polish and German):", "Lord's Prayer in Wymysorys A lullaby in Wymysorys with English translation:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Season 1: 2001–2002.", "Season 2: 2002–2003.", "Season 3: 2003–2004.", "Season 4: 2005.", "Season 5: 2005–2006.", "Cast.", "Main characters.", "Recurring characters.", "Production and crew.", "Credits, logos, and graphics.", "Timeframe.", "Costumes, hair and wigs.", "Reception.", "Critical response.", "U.S. television ratings.", "Cultural influence.", "Parodies.", "Reboot.", "Merchandise.", "Soundtracks.", "Video game.", "Original novels." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Seven years before the first episode, Sydney Bristow was an undergraduate student. She was approached by someone who claimed to work for the Central Intelligence Agency and offered her a job as an agent. Having accepted, she was assigned to a unit called SD-6, which she was told was a secret 'Black Ops' section of the CIA. She became a field agent. In the pilot, she tells her fiancé Danny Hecht (played by Edward Atterton) that she is a spy and as a result of her revealing SD-6's existence to an outsider, Danny is murdered by SD-6. She discovers that her father Jack Bristow is also an SD-6 agent and that SD-6 is not part of the CIA; instead, it is part of the Alliance of Twelve, an organization that is an enemy to the United States. Sydney decides to offer her services to the \"real\" CIA as a double agent. Having learned that her father is also a double agent for the CIA, she begins the long and arduous task of destroying SD-6 from the inside. Major plotlines from season 1 include Sydney hiding her triple identity from her friends, both in her personal life and in her SD-6 job, Will Tippin's investigation into Danny's death, and the past activities of Sydney's mother. Sub-plots include Sydney's friendship with Francie, Francie's romantic relationship with Charlie, and Sydney's developing relationship with her CIA handler Michael Vaughn, of whom she is skeptical at first but grows to trust as her life becomes increasingly stressful. Season One focuses on the development of Sydney's character, and allows the audience to become familiar with her.", "The second season begins with the introduction of Irina Derevko, Sydney's mother, who soon becomes a key character in the series. Midway through the second season, the series underwent a \"reboot\" of sorts with Sydney successfully destroying SD-6 and becoming a regular agent for the CIA, still in pursuit of former SD-6 leader Arvin Sloane, his associate Julian Sark, and the Rambaldi artifacts. Sydney's friends at SD-6, Marcus Dixon and Marshall Flinkman, are finally made aware of her dual identity and recruited into the CIA. Sydney also begins a romantic relationship with Vaughn, now that their relationship will not endanger them. In the second half of the season, it is revealed that Francie Calfo, Sydney's best friend, was murdered and replaced by Allison Doren, a woman who was transfigured to look exactly like her. Allison was then in a position to spy on Sydney and Will. The end of the season saw Will possibly murdered and Sydney killing Allison and then falling unconscious. Sydney awakens two years later in Hong Kong, unable to remember the two years that have passed. She soon learns that her friends and the CIA believed her to be dead, and Vaughn found a new love and is now married.", "The third season takes place two years after the events of season 2, with Sydney having been missing and presumed dead. DNA evidence in a badly burned body confirmed her death to her family and friends. The truth, however, is that Sydney was kidnapped by a terrorist organization called The Covenant, who tried to brainwash her into believing she was an assassin named Julia Thorne. Eventually Sydney voluntarily had her memories of the two years erased in an attempt to forget some of the deeds she was forced to undertake as Julia and to ensure that one of Rambaldi's most dangerous artifacts would never be found. As Sydney recovers, she begins investigating her absence while reintegrating into the CIA. There she deals with the facts that Arvin Sloane had become a world-renowned humanitarian after being pardoned, and that Michael Vaughn had married NSC agent Lauren Reed. Reed is later revealed to be a member of the Covenant and a lover of Julian Sark. The National Security Council plays a role as a government organization that holds massive unsupervised power, with a Guantanamo-like detention facility, considerable influence over the CIA, and driven by questionable motives. Sydney later discovers that her mother and Arvin Sloane had a child together, the result of an affair between the two years earlier. She locates her half-sister, Nadia, and rescues her from being killed by the Covenant. At the end of the season, Sydney goes on a mission and encounters Lauren. After they battle, Lauren begins to taunt Sydney by saying she has information about her past. When Vaughn shows up, Sydney goes to him, leaving Lauren a chance to attack again. Vaughn shoots Lauren, and she dies, but before she does she gives Sydney the number of a security deposit box where she can find information about her past.", "Season 4 begins where season three ended: with Sydney uncovering a shocking, classified document called \"S.A.B. 47 Project.\" It is explained that the document authorizes Jack Bristow to execute Sydney's mother, who had mysteriously placed a contract on Sydney's life (this was apparently something of a retcon to cover for actress Lena Olin presumably not returning to the series). The first page refers to Sydney as the \"active\" subject of a \"project\" that began on April 17, 1975, a possible reference to Project Christmas, and also setting up Jack as either the real head of (or somehow involved with) the Covenant and/or being a descendant of Rambaldi or Rambaldi himself. Sydney joins a black ops division of the CIA, patterned after SD-6 and run by her one-time nemesis Arvin Sloane. The new division is dubbed \"APO\": \"Authorized Personnel Only\". Members of APO (all hand-picked by Sloane) include almost all of the recurring characters from previous seasons, including Jack, Vaughn, Sydney's former partner (and third-season CIA director) Marcus Dixon, the computer and technical genius, Marshall Flinkman, and Vaughn's best friend Eric Weiss (brought in after having to be rescued by Sydney and Vaughn, who he previously believed to have left the CIA). Sloane's daughter and Sydney's half-sister Nadia Santos also eventually returns to join APO. During the season, an Arvin Sloane impostor, jokingly identified as \"Arvin Clone\", acquired the technology to implement a Rambaldi-predicted apocalypse. Using Omnifam, the real Sloane had polluted the world's drinking water with chemicals that caused feelings of peace and tranquility. However, these feelings can be reversed with the Mueller device. The third Derevko sister, Elena, had built a giant Mueller device in Sovogda, Russia, which drove the residents to insanity. Sydney, Jack, Irina, Nadia, and Vaughn parachute in, destroy the device and kill Elena. But Nadia is injected with the tainted water and driven insane. She battles Sydney until Sloane is forced to shoot his own daughter. Nadia is later put into a coma while a cure is sought and Irina is allowed to escape. The season concludes with Sydney and Vaughn becoming engaged. On a trip to Santa Barbara, Vaughn confides a shocking secret: his name isn't really Michael Vaughn; their initial meeting wasn't coincidental; and that his allegiance may not be to the CIA. Before he can divulge any more information, another car crashes into theirs and the season ends.", "As season five begins, Vaughn is abducted. Sydney learns that Vaughn is under suspicion of being a double agent and that the crash may have been a cover for his extraction. Vaughn later escapes and explains to Sydney that his real name is André Michaux. He reveals that he is investigating a secret operation known as Prophet Five, which at one point involved his father. During a mission in recovering a Prophet Five book, Sydney receives a phone call from her doctor with some untimely news – she's pregnant. (This development was created to deal with the actress' real-life pregnancy.) Vaughn is later shot, and apparently killed, on orders of Prophet Five operative Gordon Dean. Four months later, as Sydney continues to investigate Vaughn's murder, she works with an assassin and associate of his, Renée Rienne, in order to unearth the inner workings of Prophet Five, while at the same time trailing Dean and his criminal organization \"The Shed\", disguised as a black ops CIA division, very much like SD-6. Two new members are added to APO to replace Weiss, who moved to Washington, D.C. for a new job, and Nadia, who is still in a coma. Thomas Grace is a brash young agent with unorthodox methods who often butts heads with Sydney. Rachel Gibson is a computer specialist who, like Sydney, was deceived into thinking she was working for the real CIA and briefly works as a mole within The Shed, as did Sydney within SD-6, before The Shed's destruction by Dean. Sydney's mom and dad help her deliver her baby girl while under attack in a high-rise in Vancouver, Canada, on a mission in season 5, episode 11: \"Maternal Instinct.\" In an ongoing subplot, Arvin Sloane follows his own personal obsession, finding a cure for Nadia. Sloane is jailed for his actions during Season 4; however, he is released after the sentencing committee is manipulated by Dean. In exchange for his freedom, Sloane is now working for Dean as a mole within APO. Unaware of Sloane's new allegiance, Jack agrees to let Sloane rejoin APO and use its resources to seek a cure for his daughter. With the series' end, it emerges that Sloane's ultimate goal is that of immortality, for which he sacrifices his daughter Nadia's life. However, he is trapped in Rambaldi's tomb by a critically wounded Jack, who sacrifices himself via a bomb to avenge all the pain Sloane caused Sydney over the years. Thus moments after Sloane achieves immortality he is trapped for all of eternity in a cave, where even Nadia's ghost deserts him. Sydney tracks Sark and the Horizon to Hong Kong, finding Irina. After a final battle between them, Irina plunges to her death. The series ends with a flash forward to several years in the future. Sydney and Vaughn are semi-retired and married, with a second child named Jack in honour of Sydney's father. Daughter Isabelle exhibits the same ability to complete the CIA test that marked Sydney's inborn skills to be an ideal agent at that age. After completing the puzzle, Sydney calls to her from outside, asking what she is doing. She responds by saying, \"Nothing\", as she casually knocks it over before running outside to join everyone.", "", "\"Alias\" featured an ensemble cast portraying the various people in Sydney's life. During the course of the series, every main character becomes involved in the world of espionage in some form or another.", "Characters are listed in order of appearance on the show. In addition, \"Alias\" also featured many other famous actors in roles ranging from single-episode guest appearances to semi-recurring characters, including Jonathan Banks as Frederick Brandon, Raymond J. Barry as Senator George Reed, Tobin Bell as Karl Dreyer, Peter Berg as Noah Hicks, David Carradine as Conrad, David Cronenberg as Dr. Brezzel, Faye Dunaway as Ariana Kane, Griffin Dunne as Leonid Lisenker, Vivica A. Fox as Toni Cummings, Ricky Gervais as Daniel Ryan, John Hannah as Martin Shepard, Rutger Hauer as Anthony Geiger, Ethan Hawke as James Lennox, Djimon Hounsou as Kazari Bomani, Richard Lewis as Mitchell Yaeger, Peggy Lipton as Olivia Reed, Sir Roger Moore as Edward Poole, Richard Roundtree as Thomas Brill, Jason Segel as Sam Hauser, Christian Slater as Neil Caplan, Quentin Tarantino as McKenas Cole, Justin Theroux as Simon Walker, Keone Young as Professor Choy, and Danny Trejo as Emilio Vargas.", "Produced by Touchstone Television and Bad Robot Productions, film production primarily took place in the greater Los Angeles area. Studio shooting primarily took place at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California, along with some outdoor shots near some of the studio's famous buildings (such as the original Animation Building or the ABC building, which appeared as a building in Hong Kong in the season 1 episode \"The Coup\"). Despite its worldwide locales, only one episode was ever filmed outside the Los Angeles region, in Las Vegas, Nevada.", "\"Alias\" is unusual for an American drama series in that the opening credits do not run until the end of the first long act, sometimes as late as 19 minutes into the episode. In some respects, this mimics the James Bond films, which likewise feature sometimes-lengthy pre-credits sequences. Depending on the demands of a particular episode, the credit sequence is occasionally dropped as the actor credits play over a scene; on those occasions, the series title does not appear on screen until the final fade out. As the opening credits appear, the letters in the \"Alias\" reference flash in negative form one by one. The \"S\" is the last letter to appear, this time in permanent negative. In virtually every episode, the title of a city or town location will slowly zoom in, with one letter being shown in negative and a specific scene appearing within that negative. As it usually does with the \"S\" in the show title at the very start, this letter eventually takes up the entire screen and gives way to the scene itself. The first three seasons used a minimalist credit sequence consisting only of the actors names appearing as the title \"Alias\" gradually forms in one corner of an otherwise black screen. For one frame in Seasons 1 and 3 during Victor Garber's credit, the Rambaldi \"eye\" symbol ( <o> ) flashes over the \"Alias\" title, accompanied by a short \"whooshing\" sound; In Season 2, it flashes during Lena Olin's credit. In season 5 it flashes during Balthazar Getty's credit. For the fourth season, a shorter, flashier credit sequence was introduced that used a new, remixed version of the theme. As the cast names appeared, 52 images of Sydney in 47 various disguises appear in rapid succession, ending with a shot from the third-season premiere of her shooting a miniature grenade launcher. For the fifth season, another credit sequence was designed, as the previous version was criticized for making it difficult to read the actors' names (since the eye was drawn to the many images of Jennifer Garner) and for focusing exclusively on Garner. Now for the first time, the actors are shown on screen as their names appear. The same remix of the theme music from the previous year is utilized. Also, the flashing of the letters when ALIAS is spelled out is actually in Morse code. The flashing translates to AGENT KANE (who was a character in the 2nd season played by Faye Dunaway). During the first half of the season, Elodie Bouchez appeared in the opening credits, but beginning with the episode \"S.O.S.\" her credit was changed to a \"special guest star\" credit outside the opening sequence and Amy Acker was added to the opening credits in place of Bouchez. Most episodes in the first season included a prologue narrated by Sydney Bristow, setting up the premise of the series. In the first half of season two this was replaced by a voiceover by Greg Grunberg (who plays Agent Weiss) and later in season 2 was dropped entirely.", "The events of the first season of \"Alias\" begin in 2001, the same year the series first aired. A reference to Homeland security midway through the first season suggests that the series begins not long before, or not long after September 11. (The series premiered 19 days following the 9/11 attacks.) Though there was reference to such a part of government, the federal Homeland Security department was not established until 2003. (Aside from the Homeland Security reference, there is no explicit reference to 9/11 in the first season; however, there is a reference to Osama bin Laden and a reference to the War on Terror in two episodes in season 2.) In season 1, each episode covers roughly the events of one week in Sydney's life; thus, each episode is said to take place a week apart, although this pattern is not maintained throughout the series. In several episodes, references were made to actual real world events. For example, in one episode, Sydney suggested to Vaughn that they should catch an L.A. Kings game and that they'd be taking on the Islanders. This actual game took place roughly around the same time that the episode was broadcast on January 20, 2002. The season 2 finale, which sees Sydney lose two years of her life, suggests that the series as of the start of season 3 takes place two years ahead of \"real world\" time. However, the series was not always consistent in maintaining this. For example, in season 3, episode 17 (airdate March 28, 2004), the date March 26, 2004, was shown on Lauren's event calendar. For most of the episodes in Season 3–4, the writers avoided mentioning any current calendar dates. The one fact that contradicted this was the date on the tombstone of the supposedly dead Irina Derevko, which, when calculated, suggests that the show was still running on \"real world\" time rather than 2 years in the future. However, a statement made by Sydney in the fifth-season premiere \"Prophet 5\" regarding the length of time since she first went undercover at SD-6 is in keeping with the established timeline. And finally, the timeline seems to jump back one more time. In the season 5 episode \"Out of the Box\", character Renee tells Dr. Desantis, the genetic double of her father from the cryogenic box, that it is currently 2006. This appears to be the first direct reference to the actual date of events. In another episode in the same season, a hockey magazine received by Sydney indicates the date to be November 2005. Also in season five, Nadia Santos' hospital admission bracelet following her recovery in the episode \"30 Seconds\" reads \"04-23-05,\" and she mentions that it has almost been a year since she was hospitalized. No time elapses between the end of season 1 and the beginning of season 2, and there are two years, one month, and several hours between seasons 2 and 3, 3 and 4, and 4 and 5 respectively (in addition, the events of the season 5 premiere episode take place over the course of 4 months). Given that there were roughly three to four months between the airing of the first few seasons, an 8-month interval between the broadcast of seasons 3 and 4, and a 4-month hiatus in the midst of season 5, by the final season, \"Alias\" would be only months ahead of real-world time, making the 2006 statement plausible in the timeline. The series finale makes a further jump forward of several years (c. 2014 based upon the age of Sydney's daughter).", "The program was renowned for the vast array of hair styles adopted by the characters. Head Hair Designer Michael Reitz was nominated for Outstanding Hairstyling for a Series at the Emmys 5 years in a row (2002–2006); as well as 3 nominations and 1 win at the Hollywood Makeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Awards. Notable contributions to the hair stylist team include: \"Alias\" was also known for the variety of its costumes. \"USA Today\" wrote that the show \"features the most outrageous array of sexy costumes since \"Cher\" went off the air\". Laura Goldsmith was the costume designer and she received one Costume Designers Guild Award nomination.", "", "The New York edition of \"Time Out\" listed the show in their top 50 TV shows of the decade 2000 – 2009. \"Alias\" also appeared in UGO.com's list of Top 50 TV Shows of All Time. In 2010, Kristin dos Santos of E! ranked it number 4 on her list, \"Top 20 TV Series of the Past 20 Years\".", "Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of \"Alias\" on ABC. \"Note: Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.\" Although \"Alias\" was never considered a major \"hit\", its series run began during a time when the ABC television network was in decline, after \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire\" saw its ratings plummet. In fact, \"Alias\" was one of the first shows to be placed in one of the old \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire\" timeslots, which were Sunday nights at 9:00 p.m. in late 2001. For its first two seasons, family-friendly program \"The Wonderful World of Disney\" served as \"Alias\" incompatible lead-in. Unlike many of the programs on ABC from 2001 to 2003, \"Alias\" was a series that garnered critical buzz, a cult following, and decent viewing numbers in the advertiser-friendly age 18–49 demographic. This led to ABC keeping the series on its schedule for 5 years. The season 2 episode \"Phase One\" aired as a lead-out for Super Bowl XXXVII. Despite earning critical acclaim from \"USA Today\", and achieving series-high ratings of 17.4 million viewers, it was unable to fully benefit from the post-Super Bowl timeslot due to ABC airing an 40-minute post-game show (unusually long even by Super Bowl standards), which pushed its start time past 11:00 p.m. ET. The episode retained only 19 percent of the Super Bowl audience, and has the dubious distinction of earning the lowest overall ratings for a program airing after a Super Bowl since at least 1987, and the lowest rating ever (8.3 rating) in the age 18–49 demographic for a post-Super Bowl program, until \"Elementary\" in 2013. Its ratings peak was reached in its fourth season, when ABC moved the program to Wednesday, in a 9:00 p.m. time slot following another (yet more successful) J. J. Abrams' drama, \"Lost\", while airing the season's episodes in (almost) consecutive weeks beginning with the January 5, 2005, 2-hour season premiere (watched by 15.8 million viewers; the second most-watched episode in the series) and ending in May 2005. However, the fourth season was the only season in which this near-consecutive-week schedule was used, and the increase in audience numbers was minimal, as it faced competition from the results broadcasts of season 4 of \"American Idol\", then nearing the peak of its popularity. Coming off its most-watched season, \"Alias\" was moved to Thursdays at 8:00 p.m. in the fall of 2005 by ABC in an effort to invigorate the network's weak Thursday-night lineup. However, the move proved unsuccessful for the series, receiving the lowest viewership in the show's history. \"Alias\" became another scripted show in the history of ABC to not survive more than a year in this timeslot since \"Mork & Mindy\" was cancelled in 1982. In November 2005, ABC announced that the current fifth season of \"Alias\" would be its final one. ABC then temporarily aired \"Alias\" on Wednesdays at 10 p.m. in December, receiving the lead-in support of \"Lost\". ABC gave the show a 4-month hiatus (to allow Jennifer Garner to give birth to her first child) and when it was brought back in April 2006, its new timeslot was Wednesdays at 8:00 p.m. However, the viewer numbers remained dismal, culminating in a 2-hour series finale airing on Monday, May 22, 2006 (against the season finales of the hit dramas, Fox's \"24\" and CBS' \"\") which attracted 6.68 million viewers. In comparison, the first season averaged 9.7 million viewers.", "In August 2003, the actual CIA enlisted Jennifer Garner to appear in a recruitment video, which would be shown at fairs and college campuses. A CIA officer said: \"Jennifer and the character of Sydney Bristow both reflect a lot of the qualities we look for in new career field officers.\"", "The \"Alias\" production team has participated in at least two spoofs based upon the series and featuring cast members. Other spoofs and humorous references include:", "In May 2010, \"E! Online\" Kristin dos Santos reported that ABC was toying with the idea of rebooting \"Alias\", but getting rid of the mythological Rambaldi elements to make the storylines more accessible for a mainstream audience. Subsequently, \"Entertainment Weekly\" columnist Michael Ausiello confirmed that ABC was in the early stages of developing a reboot, but that the potential series probably would not make it beyond the development phase.", "", "Varèse Sarabande released a season one soundtrack containing 26 tracks. These tracks were used in the show, including the opening theme. All of them are composed by Michael Giacchino, except for the opening theme which was composed by J. J. Abrams. The tracks share a similar dance genre, however a few tracks, such as \"In the Garden\" share more of a slowed down tempo. A second soundtrack was also released containing music from the second season, but did not receive as much praise as the first soundtrack. A soundtrack for \"Alias: The Video Game\", composed by Chris Tilton (who also provided additional music for later episodes of the TV series), was also released, but can only be downloaded online.", "The video game \"Alias\", based on the series, is a third-person stealth action title developed and released by Acclaim Entertainment for the PC, PlayStation 2 and Xbox. The plot was written by the creators of the show and the game features the voices of the cast principals. It was released on April 6, 2004, and has a rating of T for Teen. The game is set between episodes 19 and 20 of season 2. The game allows the player to be Sydney (and briefly on one mission Vaughn), and sends her on various missions to many different locations. The missions become more difficult as you come closer to finishing the game. The game includes using many spy-skills that Sydney uses in the show. Prior to the Acclaim release, ABC Television produced an episodic downloadable video game \"Alias: Underground\" which is available through ABC's website. The game was a 3D third-person stealth action game much like the Acclaim production, with missions released monthly during the original broadcast of the TV show's second season.", "A number of original novels based upon the series have been published, primarily for a teenage reading audience. Due to the intricate and story arc-based nature of the series, most novels published to date have been prequels to the series, some focusing on Sydney in her early missions for SD-6, and others focusing on Vaughn's missions before meeting her. Their canon status with regards to the televised series has yet to be determined. Although aimed at young readers, the books tackle serious subject matter, such as one volume which details the first time Sydney kills someone. The second series of novels, titled \"The APO Series\", fit into the season four timeframe and are published by Simon Spotlight Entertainment." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Spacecraft.", "Instruments.", "Mission.", "Planning.", "Launch.", "Jupiter swing-by.", "Polar regions of the Sun.", "Comet C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake).", "Comet C/1999 T1 (McNaught–Hartley).", "Second Jupiter encounter.", "Comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught).", "Extended mission.", "Results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The spacecraft body was roughly a box, approximately 3.2 × 3.3 × 2.1 m (10.5 x 10.8 x 6.9 ft) in size. The box mounted the 1.65 m (5.4 ft) dish antenna and the GPHS-RTG radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) power source. The box was divided into noisy and quiet sections. The noisy section abutted the RTG; the quiet section housed the instrument electronics. Particularly \"loud\" components, such as the preamps for the radio dipole, were mounted outside the structure entirely, and the box acted as a Faraday cage. \"Ulysses\" was spin-stabilised about its z-axis which roughly coincides with the axis of the dish antenna. The RTG, whip antennas, and instrument boom were placed to stabilize this axis, with the spin rate nominally at 5 rpm. Inside the body was a hydrazine fuel tank. Hydrazine monopropellant was used for course corrections inbound to Jupiter, and later used exclusively to repoint the spin axis (and thus, the antenna) at Earth. The spacecraft was controlled by eight thrusters in two blocks. Thrusters were pulsed in the time domain to perform rotation or translation. Four Sun sensors detected orientation. For fine attitude control, the S-band antenna feed was mounted slightly off-axis. This offset feed combined with the spacecraft spin introduced an apparent oscillation to an radio signal transmitted from Earth when received on board the spacecraft. The amplitude and phase of this oscillation were proportional to the orientation of the spin axis relative to the Earth direction. This method of determining the relative orientation is called conical scanning and was used by early radars for automated tracking of targets and was also very common in early infrared guided missiles. The spacecraft used S-band for uplinked commands and downlinked telemetry, through dual redundant 5-watt transceivers. The spacecraft used X-band for science return (downlink only), using dual 20 W TWTAs until the failure of the last remaining TWTA in January 2008. Both bands used the dish antenna with prime-focus feeds, unlike the Cassegrain feeds of most other spacecraft dishes. Dual tape recorders, each of approximately 45-megabit capacity, stored science data between the nominal eight-hour communications sessions during the prime and extended mission phases. The spacecraft was designed to withstand both the heat of the inner Solar System and the cold at Jupiter's distance. Extensive blanketing and electric heaters protected the probe against the cold temperatures of the outer Solar System. Multiple computer systems (CPUs/microprocessors/Data Processing Units) are used in several of the scientific instruments, including several radiation-hardened RCA CDP1802 microprocessors. Documented 1802 usage includes dual-redundant 1802s in the COSPIN, and at least one 1802 each in the GRB, HI-SCALE, SWICS, SWOOPS and URAP instruments, with other possible microprocessors incorporated elsewhere. Total mass at launch was, of which 33.5 kg (73.9 lb) was hydrazine (used for attitude control and orbit correction).", "Radio/Plasma antennas: Two beryllium copper antennas were unreeled outwards from the body, perpendicular to the RTG and spin axis. Together this dipole spanned 72 meters (236.2 ft). A third antenna, of hollow beryllium copper, was deployed from the body, along the spin axis opposite the dish. It was a monopole antenna, 7.5 meters (24.6 ft) long. These measured radio waves generated by plasma releases, or the plasma itself as it passed over the spacecraft. This receiver ensemble was sensitive from DC to 1 MHz. Experiment Boom: A third type of boom, shorter and much more rigid, extended from the last side of the spacecraft, opposite the RTG. This was a hollow carbon-fiber tube, of 50 mm (2 in.) diameter. It can be seen in the photo as the silver rod stowed alongside the body. It carried four types of instruments: a solid-state X-ray instrument, composed of two silicon detectors, to study X-rays from solar flares and Jupiter's aurorae; the Gamma-Ray Burst experiment, consisting of two CsI scintillator crystals with photomultipliers; two different magnetometers, a helium vector magnetometer and a fluxgate magnetometer; and a two-axis magnetic search coil antenna measured AC magnetic fields. Body-Mounted Instruments: Detectors for electrons, ions, neutral gas, dust, and cosmic rays were mounted on the spacecraft body around the quiet section. SWOOPS (Solar Wind Observations Over the Poles of the Sun) measured positive ions and electrons. Lastly, the radio communications link could be used to search for gravitational waves (through Doppler shifts) and to probe the Sun's atmosphere through radio occultation. No gravitational waves were detected. Total instrument mass was 55 kg (121.3 lb).", "", "Until \"Ulysses\", the Sun was only observed from low solar latitudes. The Earth's orbit defines the ecliptic plane, which differs from the Sun's equatorial plane by only 7.25 degrees. Even spacecraft directly orbiting the Sun do so in planes close to the ecliptic because a direct launch into a high-inclination solar orbit would require a prohibitively large launch vehicle. Several spacecraft (Mariner 10, Pioneer 11, and \"Voyagers 1\" and \"2\") had performed gravity assist manoeuvres in the 1970s. Those manoeuvres were to reach other planets also orbiting close to the ecliptic, so they were mostly in-plane changes. However, gravity assists are not limited to in-plane maneuvers; a suitable flyby of Jupiter could produce a significant plane change. An Out-Of-The-Ecliptic mission (OOE) was thereby proposed. \"See article\" Pioneer H. Originally, two spacecraft were to be built by NASA and ESA, as the International Solar Polar Mission. One would be sent over Jupiter, then under the Sun. The other would fly under Jupiter, then over the Sun. This would provide simultaneous coverage. Due to cutbacks, the US spacecraft was canceled in 1981. One spacecraft was designed, and the project recast as \"Ulysses,\" due to the indirect and untried flight path. NASA would provide the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) and launch services, ESA would build the spacecraft assigned to Astrium GmbH, Friedrichshafen, Germany (formerly Dornier Systems). The instruments would be split into teams from universities and research institutes in Europe and the United States. This process provided the 10 instruments on board. The changes delayed launch from February 1983 to May 1986 when it was to be deployed by the Space Shuttle \"Challenger\" (boosted by the proposed Centaur-G upper stage). However, the \"Challenger\" disaster forced a two-and-a-half year stand down of the shuttle fleet, mandated the cancellation of the Centaur-G upper stage, and pushed the launch date to October 1990.", "\"Ulysses\" was deployed into low-Earth orbit from the Space Shuttle \"Discovery\". From there, it was propelled on a trajectory to Jupiter by a combination of solid rocket motors. This upper stage consisted of a two-stage Boeing IUS (Inertial Upper Stage), plus a McDonnell Douglas PAM-S (Payload Assist Module-Special). The IUS was inertially stabilised and actively guided during its burn. The PAM-S was unguided and it and \"Ulysses\" were spun up to 80 rpm for stability at the start of its burn. On burnout of the PAM-S, the motor and spacecraft stack was yo-yo de-spun (weights deployed at the end of cables) to below 8 rpm prior to separation of the spacecraft. On leaving Earth, the spacecraft became the fastest ever artificially-accelerated object, and held that title until the \"New Horizons\" probe was launched. On its way to Jupiter the spacecraft was in an elliptical non-Hohmann transfer orbit. At this time \"Ulysses\" had a low orbital inclination to the ecliptic.", "It arrived at Jupiter on February 8, 1992 for a swing-by maneuver that increased its inclination to the ecliptic by 80.2 degrees. The giant planet's gravity bent the spacecraft's flight path southward and away from the ecliptic plane. This put it into a final orbit around the Sun that would take it past the Sun's north and south poles. The size and shape of the orbit were adjusted to a much smaller degree so that aphelion remained at approximately 5 AU, Jupiter's distance from the Sun, and perihelion was somewhat greater than 1 AU, the Earth's distance from the Sun. The orbital period is approximately six years.", "Between 1994 and 1995 it explored both the southern and northern polar regions of the Sun, respectively.", "On May 1, 1996, the spacecraft unexpectedly crossed the ion tail of Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2), revealing the tail to be at least 3.8 AU in length.", "An encounter with a comet tail happened again in 2004 when \"Ulysses\" flew through the ion tailings of C/1999 T1 (McNaught-Hartley). A coronal mass ejection carried the cometary material to \"Ulysses\".", "\"Ulysses\" approached aphelion in 2003/2004 and made further distant observations of Jupiter.", "In 2007 \"Ulysses\" passed through the tail of comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught). The results were surprisingly different from its pass through Hyakutake's tail, with the measured solar wind velocity dropping from approximately 700 kilometers per second (1,566,000 mph) to less than 400 kilometers per second (895,000 mph).", "ESA's Science Program Committee approved the fourth extension of the \"Ulysses\" mission to March 2004 thereby allowing it to operate over the Sun's poles for the third time in 2007 and 2008. After it became clear that the power output from the spacecraft's RTG would be insufficient to operate science instruments and keep the attitude control fuel, hydrazine, from freezing, instrument power sharing was initiated. Up until then, the most important instruments had been kept online constantly, whilst others were deactivated. When the probe neared the Sun, its power-hungry heaters were turned off and all instruments were turned on. On February 22, 2008, 17 years and 4 months after the launch of the spacecraft, ESA and NASA announced that the mission operations for \"Ulysses\" would likely cease within a few months. On April 12, 2008 NASA announced that the end date will be July 1, 2008. The spacecraft operated successfully for over four times its design life. A component within the last remaining working chain of X-band downlink subsystem failed on January 15, 2008. The other chain in the X-band subsystem had previously failed in 2003. Downlink to Earth resumed on S-band, but the beamwidth of the high gain antenna in the S-band was not as narrow as in the X–band, so that the received downlink signal was much weaker, hence reducing the achievable data rate. As the spacecraft traveled on its outbound trajectory to the orbit of Jupiter, the downlink signal would have eventually fallen below the receiving capability of even the largest antennas (70 meters - 229.7 feet - in diameter) of the Deep Space Network. Even before the downlink signal was lost due to distance, the hydrazine attitude control fuel on board the spacecraft was considered likely to freeze, as the radioisotope thermal generators (RTGs) failed to generate enough power for the heaters to overcome radiative heat loss into space. Once the hydrazine froze, the spacecraft would no longer be able to maneuver to keep its high gain antenna pointing towards Earth, and the downlink signal would then be lost in a matter of days. The failure of the X-band communications subsystem hastened this, because the coldest part of the fuel pipework was routed over the X-band TWTAs, because when one of them was operating, this kept this part of the pipework warm enough. The previously announced mission end date of July 1, 2008, came and went but mission operations continued albeit in a reduced capacity. The availability of science data gathering was limited to only when \"Ulysses\" was in contact with a ground station due to the deteriorating S-band downlink margin no longer being able to support simultaneous real-time data and tape recorder playback. When the spacecraft was out of contact with a ground station, the S-band transmitter was switched off and the power was diverted to the internal heaters to add to the warming of the hydrazine. On June 30, 2009, ground controllers sent commands to switch to the low gain antennas. This stopped communications with the spacecraft, in combination with previous commands to shut down its transmitter entirely.", "During cruise phases, \"Ulysses\" provided unique data. As the only spacecraft out of the ecliptic with a gamma-ray instrument, \"Ulysses\" was an important part of the InterPlanetary Network (IPN). The IPN detects gamma ray bursts (GRBs); since gamma rays cannot be focused with mirrors, it was very difficult to locate GRBs with enough accuracy to study them further. Instead, several spacecraft can locate the burst through multilateration. Each spacecraft has a gamma-ray detector, with readouts noted in tiny fractions of a second. By comparing the arrival times of gamma showers with the separations of the spacecraft, a location can be determined, for follow-up with other telescopes. Because gamma rays travel at the speed of light, wide separations are needed. Typically, a determination came from comparing: one of several spacecraft orbiting the Earth, an inner-Solar-system probe (to Mars, Venus, or an asteroid), and \"Ulysses\". When \"Ulysses\" crossed the ecliptic twice per orbit, many GRB determinations lost accuracy. Additional discoveries:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Classification by technology.", "Passive filters.", "Single element types.", "L filter.", "T and π filters.", "Multiple-element types.", "Active filters.", "Other filter technologies.", "The transfer function.", "Classification by topology.", "Classification by design methodology.", "Direct circuit analysis.", "Image impedance analysis.", "Network synthesis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The oldest forms of electronic filters are passive analog linear filters, constructed using only resistors and capacitors or resistors and inductors. These are known as RC and RL single-pole filters respectively. However, these simple filters have very limited uses. Multipole LC filters provide greater control of response form, bandwidth and transition bands. The first of these filters was the constant k filter, invented by George Campbell in 1910. Campbell's filter was a ladder network based on transmission line theory. Together with improved filters by Otto Zobel and others, these filters are known as image parameter filters. A major step forward was taken by Wilhelm Cauer who founded the field of network synthesis around the time of World War II. Cauer's theory allowed filters to be constructed that precisely followed some prescribed frequency function.", "", "Passive implementations of linear filters are based on combinations of resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C). These types are collectively known as \"passive filters\", because they do not depend upon an external power supply and/or they do not contain active components such as transistors. Inductors block high-frequency signals and conduct low-frequency signals, while capacitors do the reverse. A filter in which the signal passes through an inductor, or in which a capacitor provides a path to ground, presents less attenuation to low-frequency signals than high-frequency signals and is therefore a \"low-pass filter\". If the signal passes through a capacitor, or has a path to ground through an inductor, then the filter presents less attenuation to high-frequency signals than low-frequency signals and therefore is a \"high-pass filter\". Resistors on their own have no frequency-selective properties, but are added to inductors and capacitors to determine the \"time-constants\" of the circuit, and therefore the frequencies to which it responds. The inductors and capacitors are the reactive elements of the filter. The number of elements determines the order of the filter. In this context, an LC tuned circuit being used in a band-pass or band-stop filter is considered a single element even though it consists of two components. At high frequencies (above about 100 megahertz), sometimes the inductors consist of single loops or strips of sheet metal, and the capacitors consist of adjacent strips of metal. These inductive or capacitive pieces of metal are called stubs.", "The simplest passive filters, RC and RL filters, include only one reactive element, except hybrid LC filter which is characterized by inductance and capacitance integrated in one element.", "An L filter consists of two reactive elements, one in series and one in parallel.", "Three-element filters can have a 'T' or 'π' topology and in either geometries, a low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop characteristic is possible. The components can be chosen symmetric or not, depending on the required frequency characteristics. The high-pass T filter in the illustration, has a very low impedance at high frequencies, and a very high impedance at low frequencies. That means that it can be inserted in a transmission line, resulting in the high frequencies being passed and low frequencies being reflected. Likewise, for the illustrated low-pass π filter, the circuit can be connected to a transmission line, transmitting low frequencies and reflecting high frequencies. Using m-derived filter sections with correct termination impedances, the input impedance can be reasonably constant in the pass band.", "Multiple-element filters are usually constructed as a ladder network. These can be seen as a continuation of the L,T and π designs of filters. More elements are needed when it is desired to improve some parameter of the filter such as stop-band rejection or slope of transition from pass-band to stop-band.", "Active filters are implemented using a combination of passive and active (amplifying) components, and require an outside power source. Operational amplifiers are frequently used in active filter designs. These can have high Q factor, and can achieve resonance without the use of inductors. However, their upper frequency limit is limited by the bandwidth of the amplifiers.", "There are many filter technologies other than lumped component electronics. These include digital filters, crystal filters, mechanical filters, surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters, bulk acoustic wave (BAW) filters, garnet filters, and atomic filters (used in atomic clocks).", "The transfer function formula_1 of a filter is the ratio of the output signal formula_2 to that of the input signal formula_3 as a function of the complex frequency formula_4: The transfer function of all linear time-invariant filters, when constructed of lumped components (as opposed to distributed components such as transmission lines), will be the ratio of two polynomials in formula_4, i.e. a rational function of formula_7. The order of the transfer function will be the highest power of formula_7 encountered in either the numerator or the denominator.", "Electronic filters can be classified by the technology used to implement them. Filters using passive filter and active filter technology can be further classified by the particular electronic filter topology used to implement them. Any given filter transfer function may be implemented in any electronic filter topology. Some common circuit topologies are:", "Historically, linear analog filter design has evolved through three major approaches. The oldest designs are simple circuits where the main design criterion was the Q factor of the circuit. This reflected the radio receiver application of filtering as Q was a measure of the frequency selectivity of a tuning circuit. From the 1920s filters began to be designed from the image point of view, mostly being driven by the requirements of telecommunications. After World War II the dominant methodology was network synthesis. The higher mathematics used originally required extensive tables of polynomial coefficient values to be published but modern computer resources have made that unnecessary.", "Low order filters can be designed by directly applying basic circuit laws such as Kirchhoff's laws to obtain the transfer function. This kind of analysis is usually only carried out for simple filters of 1st or 2nd order.", "This approach analyses the filter sections from the point of view of the filter being in an infinite chain of identical sections. It has the advantages of simplicity of approach and the ability to easily extend to higher orders. It has the disadvantage that accuracy of predicted responses relies on filter terminations in the image impedance, which is usually not the case.", "The network synthesis approach starts with a required transfer function and then expresses that as a polynomial equation of the input impedance of the filter. The actual element values of the filter are obtained by continued-fraction or partial-fraction expansions of this polynomial. Unlike the image method, there is no need for impedance matching networks at the terminations as the effects of the terminating resistors are included in the analysis from the start. Here is an image comparing Butterworth, Chebyshev, and elliptic filters. The filters in this illustration are all fifth-order low-pass filters. The particular implementation – analog or digital, passive or active – makes no difference; their output would be the same. As is clear from the image, elliptic filters are sharper than all the others, but they show ripples on the whole bandwidth." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Symptoms.", "Radiographic Features.", "Histopathology.", "Treatment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Patients who have a periapical granuloma are usually asymptomatic; however, when there is inflammation, patients could experience temperature sensitivity, pain while chewing solid foods, swelling and sensitivity to a dental percussion test. Generally, periapical granuloma is diagnosed due to acute pain in a tooth, or during a radiographic examination in routine visits to the dentist.", "When looking at the radiographic features of periapical granuloma, typically there is a radiolucent lesion visible at the tip of a root on a nonvital tooth. This often is associated with root resorption. The radiolucency must correlate with the lateral root surface or the root of the tooth. The average size of radiography when looking at periapical granuloma is 7.4 millimeters (mm).", "When examining the tissues of periapical granuloma for disease, hyperaemia, oedema and chronic inflammation is observed in the periodontal ligament. The vascular amplification and inflammation is adjacent to the bone, and bone absorption occurs next to a large growth in fibroblast and endothelial cells which is composed of the minute fibers (fibrils) with small vascular conduits (channels of passage for fluids). The lesion is predominantly composed of plasma cells that are mixed with macrophages and lymphocytes with endothelial cells and fibroblasts.", "Treatment for periapical granuloma is initially treated with a nonsurgical procedure. Endodontic treatments of teeth with periapical lesions (lesions that occurred as a result of dental pulp inflammation) have a success rate up to 85 percent. Other forms of nonsurgical treatments used for periapical lesions are: a root canal, an aspiration-irrigation technique (a technique to help minimize the force required for the removal of root canal irrigant); a decompression technique (a minimally invasive surgery that involves the placement of tubing to help maintain drainage); Lesion Sterilization and Repair Therapy (a technique that allows disinfection of pulpal (dental pulp), dentinal (dentin) and periradicular (around a root) lesions by using a combination of antibacterial drugs; a method using calcium hydroxide and the Apexum procedure (a minimally invasive removal, through a root canal access, of periapical chronically inflamed tissue). It is essential to monitor the healing closely after treatment with frequent follow-up examinations. If nonsurgical techniques fail, surgical intervention is then recommended. There are many things to be considered prior to surgical treatment in order to decide which technique will have the best outcome. When determining an approach for surgical approaches, clinicians must establish the correct diagnosis of the lesion to make sure there isn’t treatment being done on healthy (vital) teeth. It is also important to take into consideration the distance (proximity) of the lesion to the vital teeth. If the lesion is in close proximity to the roots of vital teeth, a surgical approach may have negative outcomes that include the blood vessels and nerves of the adjacent teeth being injured, this of which would jeopardize their vitality (life). Surgical approaches increase the risk of the anatomic structures being damaged. Some of these anatomic structures include: the nasal cavity, mental foramen, the inferior alveolar nerve and / or the inferior alveolar artery and the maxillary sinus. When sinus cavities or adjacent tissue spaces are involved, the nonsurgical aspiration-irrigation technique is also not advised. The patient’s cooperation and age of the patient are very important as well. Patients may experience pain or discomfort during or after treatment when taking the surgical approach which could make them uncooperative. Patients that are older may not be able to tolerate this pain or discomfort, therefore they may require nonsurgical approaches. If access to the apical foramen is prevented due to blockages in the root canal system, a surgical approach may be warranted. Finally, surgery is recommended in cases where patients have the presence of cholesterol crystals or inflammatory apical true cysts (the top of an enclosed space lined by the epithelium and usually contains fluid) due to the fact that these can prevent the healing of the lesions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Roman and medieval times.", "15th century until the French Revolution.", "Modern times.", "Arlon today.", "Politics.", "International relations.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Before the Roman conquests of Gaul, the territory of Arlon and a vast area to the southeast were settled by the Treveri, a Celtic tribe. The local population adapted relatively easily to Roman culture. The number and quality of sculpted stones and monuments that have been unearthed in the area demonstrate that the \"vicus\" of \"Orolaunum\" quickly became a vibrant commercial and administrative centre of Roman civilization. The Germanic invasions of the 3rd century destroyed most of these early advances, despite the defensive walls that had been built on the Knipchen hill to protect the \"vicus\". During most of the Middle Ages, the population still used the earlier buildings such as the \"thermae\". In 1060, Waleran I of Limburg, Count of Arlon, built a castle on the Knipchen hill. In the 13th century, the only women's Cistercian abbey known to date was built in Clairefontaine.", "The Duchy of Luxembourg itself, of which Arlon was dependent, became part of the Burgundian Netherlands under Philip the Good in 1441. After Charles V's abdication of his empire to his son Philip II of Spain in 1556, a troubled period started for the whole region as continuous wars opposed France, Spain, and the Southern Netherlands. In 1558, nearly half of the city, including its castle, was destroyed by the French troops of Duke François of Guise. In the 17th century, Capuchin friars built a convent on the ruins of the castle and the French strengthened the defensive walls according to Vauban's designs. An accidental fire destroyed a large part of the city again in 1785.", "On 9 June 1793 the French Revolutionary troops opposed the Austrians just outside Arlon. The French emerged victorious and occupied the city. They expelled the Capuchin friars and used their convent as a hospital. After the Battle of Waterloo, Arlon's history is entwined with that of Belgium. Arlon was one of the first victims of the German invasion in 1914 as 121 inhabitants were executed on 26 August, on the orders of Colonel Richard Karl von Tessmar. Its territory was again among the first to be invaded at the onset of World War II. During the war, the mayor of Arlon, Paul Reuter collaborated with the occupying Germans. He was shot in 1946.", "Being situated very close to the border with the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, Arlon has continued to expand with new residential areas and commercial development zones, and many people cross the border everyday to work in the Grand Duchy. One of the largest industrial employers is the Ferrero Rocher chocolate factory. All International express trains make a stop in Arlon, as it is the last station on the main Brussels—Luxembourg City railway line.", "List of mayors :", "", "Arlon is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Philosophy.", "Recreation.", "Caricature.", "Iconography.", "Word usage.", "Simulacrum as artificial beings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Simulacra have long been of interest to philosophers. In his \"Sophist\", Plato speaks of two kinds of image-making. The first is a faithful reproduction, attempted to copy precisely the original. The second is intentionally distorted in order to make the copy appear correct to viewers. He gives the example of Greek statuary, which was crafted larger on the top than on the bottom so that viewers on the ground would see it correctly. If they could view it in scale, they would realize it was malformed. This example from the visual arts serves as a metaphor for the philosophical arts and the tendency of some philosophers to distort the truth so that it appears accurate unless viewed from the proper angle. Nietzsche addresses the concept of simulacrum (but does not use the term) in the \"Twilight of the Idols\", suggesting that most philosophers, by ignoring the reliable input of their senses and resorting to the constructs of language and reason, arrive at a distorted copy of reality. Postmodernist French social theorist Jean Baudrillard argues that a simulacrum is not a copy of the real, but becomes truth in its own right: the hyperreal. According to Baudrillard, what the simulacrum copies either had no original or no longer has an original (think a copy of a copy without an original). Where Plato saw two types of representation—faithful and intentionally distorted (simulacrum)—Baudrillard sees four: (1) basic reflection of reality; (2) perversion of reality; (3) pretence of reality (where there is no model); and (4) simulacrum, which \"bears no relation to any reality whatsoever\". In Baudrillard's concept, like Nietzsche's, simulacra are perceived as negative, but another modern philosopher who addressed the topic, Gilles Deleuze, takes a different view, seeing simulacra as the avenue by which an accepted ideal or \"privileged position\" could be \"challenged and overturned\". Deleuze defines simulacra as \"those systems in which different relates to different \"by means of\" difference itself. What is essential is that we find in these systems no \"prior identity\", no \"internal resemblance\"\". Alain Badiou, in speaking with reference to Nazism about Evil, writes, \"fidelity to a simulacrum, unlike fidelity to an event, regulates its break with the situation not by the universality of the void, but by the closed particularity of an abstract set... (the 'Germans' or the 'Aryans')\".", "Recreational simulacra include reenactments of historical events or replicas of landmarks, such as Colonial Williamsburg and the Eiffel Tower, and constructions of fictional or cultural ideas, such as Fantasyland at The Walt Disney Company's Magic Kingdom. The various Disney parks have by some philosophers been regarded as the ultimate recreational simulacra, with Baudrillard noting that Walt Disney World Resort is a copy of a copy, \"a simulacrum to the second power\". In 1975, Italian author Umberto Eco argued that at Disney's parks, \"we not only enjoy a perfect imitation, we also enjoy the conviction that imitation has reached its apex and afterwards reality will always be inferior to it\". This is for some an ongoing concern. Examining the impact of Disney's simulacrum of national parks, Disney's Wilderness Lodge, environmentalist Jennifer Cypher and anthropologist Eric Higgs expressed worry that \"the boundary between artificiality and reality will become so thin that the artificial will become the centre of moral value\". Eco also refers to commentary on watching sports as sports to the power of three, or sports cubed. First, there are the players who participate in the sport (the real), then the onlookers merely witnessing it, and finally the commentary on the act of witnessing the sport. Visual artist Paul McCarthy has created entire installations based on \"Pirates of the Caribbean\" and theme park simulacra, with videos playing inside the installation.", "An interesting example of simulacrum is caricature. When an artist produces a line drawing that closely approximates the facial features of a real person, the subject of the sketch cannot be easily identified by a random observer; it can be taken for a likeness of any individual. However, a caricaturist exaggerates prominent facial features, and a viewer will pick up on these features and be able to identify the subject, even though the caricature bears far less actual resemblance to the subject.", "Beer (1999: p. 11) employs the term \"simulacrum\" to denote the formation of a sign or iconographic image, whether iconic or aniconic, in the landscape or greater field of Thangka art and Tantric Buddhist iconography. For example, an iconographic representation of a cloud formation sheltering a deity in a thanka or covering the auspice of a sacred mountain in the natural environment may be discerned as a simulacrum of an \"auspicious canopy\" (Sanskrit: Chhatra) of the Ashtamangala. Perceptions of religious imagery in natural phenomena approach a cultural universal and may be proffered as evidence of the natural creative spiritual engagement of the experienced environment endemic to the human psychology.", "The Latinised plural \"simulacra\" is interchangeable with the anglicised version \"simulacrums\".", "Simulacra often appear in speculative fiction. Examples of simulacra in the sense of artificial or supernaturally or scientifically created artificial life forms include: Also, the illusions of absent loved ones created by an alien life form in Stanislaw Lem's \"Solaris\" can be considered simulacra." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Geography.", "Relation to surroundings.", "Human presence.", "Political divisions.", "People.", "Biodiversity and ecology.", "Ecoregions.", "Terrestrial.", "Freshwater.", "Marine.", "History.", "Early history.", "Precolonial history.", "European contact.", "World War II.", "Since World War II." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The island has been known by various names: The name \"Papua\" was used to refer to parts of the island before contact with the West. Its etymology is unclear; one theory states that it derived from Tidore, the language used by the Sultanate of Tidore, which controlled parts of the island's coastal region. The name apparently comes from the words \"papo\" (to unite) and \"ua\" (negation), which means \"not united\" or, \"territory that geographically is far away (and thus not united)\". Ploeg reports that the word \"papua\" is often said to be derived from the Malay word \"papua\" or \"pua-pua\", meaning \"frizzly-haired\", referring to the highly curly hair of the inhabitants of these areas. Another possibility, put forward by Sollewijn Gelpke in 1993, is that it comes from the Biak phrase \"sup i papwa\" which means 'the land below [the sunset]' and refers to the islands west of the Bird's Head, as far as Halmahera. Whatever its origin, the name \"Papua\" came to be associated with this area, and more especially with Halmahera, which was known to the Portuguese by this name during the era of their colonization in this part of the world. When the Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the island via the Spice Islands, they also referred to the island as \"Papua\". However, the name \"New Guinea\" was later used by Westerners starting with the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545, referring to the similarities of the indigenous people's appearance with the natives of the Guinea region of Africa. The name is one of several toponyms sharing similar etymologies, ultimately meaning \"land of the blacks\" or similar meanings, in reference to the dark skin of the inhabitants. The Dutch, who arrived later under Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten, called it \"Schouten island\", but later this name was used only to refer to islands off the north coast of Papua proper, the Schouten Islands or Biak Island. When the Dutch colonized it as part of Netherlands East Indies, they called it \"Nieuw Guinea\". The name \"Irian\" was used in the Indonesian language to refer to the island and Indonesian province, as \"Irian Jaya Province\". The name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. It is taken from the Biak language of Biak Island, and means \"to rise\", or \"rising spirit\". \"Irian\" is the name used in the Biak language and other languages such as Serui, Merauke and Waropen. The name was used until 2001, when the name \"Papua\" was again used for the island and the province. The name \"Irian\", which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name imposed by the authority of Jakarta.", "New Guinea is an island to the north of the Australian mainland, but south of the equator. It is isolated by the Arafura Sea to the west, and the Torres Strait and Coral Sea to the east. Sometimes considered to be the easternmost island of the Indonesian archipelago, it lies north of Australia's Top End, the Gulf of Carpentaria and Cape York peninsula, and west of the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands Archipelago. Politically, the western half of the island comprises two provinces of Indonesia: Papua and West Papua. The eastern half forms the mainland of the country of Papua New Guinea (PNG). The shape of New Guinea is often compared to that of a bird-of-paradise (indigenous to the island), and this results in the usual names for the two extremes of the island: the Bird's Head Peninsula in the northwest (\"Vogelkop\" in Dutch, \"Kepala Burung\" in Indonesian; also known as the Doberai Peninsula), and the Bird's Tail Peninsula in the southeast (also known as the Papuan Peninsula). A spine of east–west mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, dominates the geography of New Guinea, stretching over from the 'head' to the 'tail' of the island, with many high mountains over. The western-half of the island of New Guinea contains the highest mountains in Oceania, rising up to high, which is even higher than Mont Blanc in Europe, ensuring a steady supply of rain from the equatorial atmosphere. The tree line is around elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers—which have been retreating since at least 1936. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges. Except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season. The highest peaks on the island of New Guinea are: Another major habitat feature is the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometres, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, and some of the largest expanses of mangrove forest in the world. The southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northern lowlands are drained principally by the Mamberamo River and its tributaries on the Indonesian side, and by the Sepik on the PNG side; the more extensive southern lowlands by a larger number of rivers, principally the Digul on the Indonesian side and the Fly on the PNG side. These are the island's major river systems, draining roughly northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast, respectively. Many have broad areas of meander and result in large areas of lakes and freshwater swamps. The largest island offshore, Dolak (Frederik Hendrik, Yos Sudarso), lies near the Digul estuary, separated by a strait so narrow it has been named a \"creek\". New Guinea contains many of the world's ecosystem types: glacial, alpine tundra, savanna, montane and lowland rainforest, mangroves, wetlands, lake and river ecosystems, seagrasses, and some of the richest coral reefs on the planet.", "The island of New Guinea lies to the east of the Malay Archipelago, with which it is sometimes included as part of a greater Indo-Australian Archipelago. Geologically it is a part of the same tectonic plate as Australia. When world sea levels were low, the two shared shorelines (which now lie 100 to 140 metres below sea level), and combined with lands now inundated into the tectonic continent of Sahul, also known as Greater Australia. The two landmasses became separated when the area now known as the Torres Strait flooded after the end of the last glacial period. Anthropologically, New Guinea is considered part of Melanesia. New Guinea is differentiated from its drier, flatter, and less fertile southern counterpart, Australia, by its much higher rainfall and its active volcanic geology, with its highest point, Puncak Jaya, reaching an elevation of 4,884 m (16,023 ft). Yet the two land masses share a similar animal fauna, with marsupials, including wallabies and possums, and the egg-laying monotreme, the echidna. Other than bats and some two dozen indigenous rodent genera, there are no pre-human indigenous placental mammals. Pigs, several additional species of rats, and the ancestor of the New Guinea singing dog were introduced with human colonization. Prior to the 1970s, archaeologists called the single Pleistocene landmass by the name \"Australasia\", although this word is most often used for a wider region that includes lands, such as New Zealand, which are not on the same continental shelf. In the early 1970s, they introduced the term \"Greater Australia\" for the Pleistocene continent. Then, at a 1975 conference and consequent publication, they extended the name \"Sahul\" from its previous use for just the Sahul Shelf to cover the continent.", "The human presence on the island dates back at least 40,000 years, to the oldest \"Homo sapiens\" migrations out of Africa. Research indicates that the highlands were an early and independent center of agriculture, with evidence of irrigation going back at least 10,000 years. Because of the time depth of its inhabitation and its highly fractured landscape, an unusually high number of languages are spoken on the island, with some 1,000 languages (a figure higher than that of most continents) having been catalogued out of an estimated worldwide pre-Columbian total of more than 7,000 currently spoken human languages according to Ethnologue. Most are classified as Papuan languages, a generally accepted geographical term. A number of Austronesian languages are spoken on the coast and on offshore islands. In the 16th century, Portuguese explorers arrived at the island and called it \"Papua\". In recent history, western New Guinea was included in the Dutch East Indies colony. The Germans annexed the northern coast of the eastern half of the island as German New Guinea in their pre–World War I effort to establish themselves as a colonial power, whilst the southeastern portion was reluctantly claimed by Britain. Following the Treaty of Versailles, the German portion was awarded to Australia (which was already governing the British claim, named the Territory of Papua) as a League of Nations mandate. The eastern half of the island was granted independence from Australia in 1975, as Papua New Guinea. The western half gained independence from the Dutch in 1961, but became part of Indonesia soon afterwards in controversial circumstances.", "The island of New Guinea is divided politically into roughly equal halves across a north-south line:", "The current population of the island of New Guinea is about eleven million. Many believe human habitation on the island dates to as early as 50,000 BC, and first settlement possibly dating back to 60,000 years ago has been proposed. The island is presently populated by almost a thousand different tribal groups and a near-equivalent number of separate languages, which makes New Guinea the most linguistically diverse area in the world. Ethnologue's 14th edition lists 826 languages of Papua New Guinea and 257 languages of Western New Guinea, total 1073 languages, with 12 languages overlapping. They can be divided into two groups, the Austronesian languages, and all the others, called Papuan languages for convenience. The term \"Papuan languages\" refers to an areal grouping, rather than a linguistic one, since so-called Papuan languages comprise hundreds of different languages, most of which are not related. The separation is not merely linguistic; warfare among societies was a factor in the evolution of the \"men's house\": separate housing of groups of adult men, from the single-family houses of the women and children, for mutual protection from other tribal groups. Pig-based trade between the groups and pig-based feasts are a common theme with the other peoples of southeast Asia and Oceania. Most societies practice agriculture, supplemented by hunting and gathering. Current evidence indicates that the Papuans (who constitute the majority of the island's peoples) are descended from the earliest human inhabitants of New Guinea. These original inhabitants first arrived in New Guinea at a time (either side of the Last Glacial Maximum, approx 21,000 years ago) when the island was connected to the Australian continent via a land bridge, forming the landmass known as Sahul. These peoples had made the (shortened) sea-crossing from the islands of Wallacea and Sundaland (the present Malay Archipelago) by at least 40,000 years ago, subsequent to the dispersal of peoples from Africa (circa) 50,000 – 70,000 years ago. The ancestral Austronesian peoples are believed to have arrived considerably later, approximately 3,500 years ago, as part of a gradual seafaring migration from Southeast Asia, possibly originating in Taiwan. Austronesian-speaking peoples colonized many of the offshore islands to the north and east of New Guinea, such as New Ireland and New Britain, with settlements also on the coastal fringes of the main island in places. Human habitation of New Guinea over tens of thousands of years has led to a great deal of diversity, which was further increased by the later arrival of the Austronesians and the more recent history of European and Asian settlement through events like transmigration. About half of the 2.4 million inhabitants of Indonesian Papua are Javanese migrants. Large areas of New Guinea are yet to be explored by scientists and anthropologists. The Indonesian province of West Papua is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.", "With some 786,000 km of tropical land—less than one-half of one percent (0.5%) of the Earth's surface—New Guinea has an immense biodiversity, containing between 5 and 10 percent of the total species on the planet. This percentage is about the same amount as that found in the United States or Australia. A high percentage of New Guinea's species are endemic, and thousands are still unknown to science: probably well over 200,000 species of insect, between 11,000 and 20,000 plant species, and over 650 resident bird species. Most of these species are shared, at least in their origin, with the continent of Australia, which was until fairly recent geological times part of the same landmass (see Australia-New Guinea for an overview). The island is so large that it is considered 'nearly a continent' in terms of its biological distinctiveness. In the period from 1998 to 2008, conservationists identified 1,060 new species in New Guinea, including 218 plants, 43 reptiles, 12 mammals, 580 invertebrates, 134 amphibians, 2 birds and 71 fish. Biogeographically, New Guinea is part of Australasia rather than the Indomalayan realm, although New Guinea's flora has many more affinities with Asia than its fauna, which is overwhelmingly Australian. Botanically, New Guinea is considered part of Malesia, a floristic region that extends from the Malay Peninsula across Indonesia to New Guinea and the East Melanesian Islands. The flora of New Guinea is a mixture of many tropical rainforest species with origins in Asia, together with typically Australasian flora. Typical Southern Hemisphere flora include the conifers \"Podocarpus\" and the rainforest emergents \"Araucaria\" and \"Agathis,\" as well as tree ferns and several species of \"Eucalyptus\". New Guinea has 284 species and six orders of mammals: monotremes, three orders of marsupials, rodents and bats; 195 of the mammal species (69%) are endemic. New Guinea has 578 species of breeding birds, of which 324 species are endemic. The island's frogs are one of the most poorly known vertebrate groups, totalling 282 species, but this number is expected to double or even triple when all species have been documented. New Guinea has a rich diversity of coral life and 1,200 species of fish have been found. Also about 600 species of reef-building coral—the latter equal to 75 percent of the world's known total. The entire coral area covers 18 million hectares off a peninsula in northwest New Guinea.", "", "According to the WWF, New Guinea can be divided into twelve terrestrial ecoregions:", "The WWF and Nature Conservancy divide New Guinea into five freshwater ecoregions:", "The WWF and Nature Conservancy identify several marine ecoregions in the seas bordering New Guinea:", "", "The first inhabitants of New Guinea arrived at least 50,000 years ago, having travelled through the south-east Asian peninsula. These first inhabitants, from whom the Papuan people are probably descended, adapted to the range of ecologies and, in time, developed one of the earliest known agricultures. Remains of this agricultural system, in the form of ancient irrigation systems in the highlands of Papua New Guinea, are being studied by archaeologists. This work is still in its early stages, so there is still uncertainty as to precisely what crop was being grown, or when/where agriculture arose. Sugar cane was cultivated for the first time in New Guinea around 6000 BC. The gardens of the New Guinea Highlands are ancient, intensive permacultures, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls (as high as 10,000 mm/yr (400 in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and occasional frost. Complex mulches, crop rotations and tillages are used in rotation on terraces with complex irrigation systems. Western agronomists still do not understand all of the practices, and it has been noted that native gardeners are as, or even more, successful than most scientific farmers in raising certain crops. There is evidence that New Guinea gardeners invented crop rotation well before western Europeans. A unique feature of New Guinea permaculture is the silviculture of \"Casuarina oligodon\", a tall, sturdy native ironwood tree, suited to use for timber and fuel, with root nodules that fix nitrogen. Pollen studies show that it was adopted during an ancient period of extreme deforestation. In more recent millennia, another wave of people arrived on the shores of New Guinea. These were the Austronesian people, who had spread down from Taiwan, through the South-east Asian archipelago, colonising many of the islands on the way. The Austronesian people had technology and skills extremely well adapted to ocean voyaging and Austronesian language speaking people are present along much of the coastal areas and islands of New Guinea. These Austronesian migrants are considered the ancestors of most people in insular Southeast Asia, from Sumatra and Java to Borneo and Sulawesi, as well as coastal new Guinea.", "The western part of the island was in contact with kingdoms in other parts of modern-day Indonesia. The \"Negarakertagama\" mentioned the region of Wanin in eastern Nusantara as part of Majapahit's tributary. This has been identified with the Onin Peninsula, part of the Bomberai Peninsula near the city of Fakfak. The sultans of Tidore, in Maluku Islands, claimed sovereignty over various coastal parts of the island. During Tidore's rule, the main exports of the island during this period were resins, spices, slaves and the highly priced feathers of the bird-of-paradise. Sultan Nuku, one of the most famous Tidore sultans who rebelled against Dutch colonization, called himself \"Sultan of Tidore and Papua\", during his revolt in 1780s. He commanded loyalty from both Moluccan and Papuan chiefs, especially those of Raja Ampat Islands. Following Tidore's defeat, much of the territory it claimed in western part of New Guinea came under Dutch rule as part of Dutch East Indies.", "The first European contact with New Guinea was by Portuguese and Spanish sailors in the 16th century. In 1526–27, the Portuguese explorer Jorge de Meneses saw the western tip of New Guinea and named it \"ilhas dos Papuas\". In 1528, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra also recorded its sighting when trying to return from Tidore to New Spain. In 1545, the Spaniard Íñigo Ortíz de Retes sailed along the north coast of New Guinea as far as the Mamberamo River, near which he landed on 20 June, naming the island 'Nueva Guinea'. The first map showing the whole island (as an island) was published in 1600 and shows it as 'Nova Guinea'. In 1606, Luís Vaz de Torres explored the southern coast of New Guinea from Milne Bay to the Gulf of Papua including Orangerie Bay, which he named \"Bahía de San Lorenzo\". His expedition also discovered Basilaki Island naming it \"Tierra de San Buenaventura\", which he claimed for Spain in July 1606. On 18 October, his expedition reached the western part of the island in present-day Indonesia, and also claimed the territory for the King of Spain. A successive European claim occurred in 1828, when the Netherlands formally claimed the western half of the island as Netherlands New Guinea. In 1883, following a short-lived French annexation of New Ireland, the British colony of Queensland annexed south-eastern New Guinea. However, the Queensland government's superiors in the United Kingdom revoked the claim, and (formally) assumed direct responsibility in 1884, when Germany claimed north-eastern New Guinea as the protectorate of German New Guinea (also called Kaiser-Wilhelmsland). The first Dutch government posts were established in 1898 and in 1902: Manokwari on the north coast, Fak-Fak in the west and Merauke in the south at the border with British New Guinea. The German, Dutch and British colonial administrators each attempted to suppress the still-widespread practices of inter-village warfare and headhunting within their respective territories. In 1905, the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over southeast New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area \"Territory of Papua\"); and, in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. During World War I, Australian forces seized German New Guinea, which in 1920 became the Territory of New Guinea, to be administered by Australia under a League of Nations mandate. The territories under Australian administration became collectively known as The Territories of Papua and New Guinea (until February 1942). Before about 1930, European maps showed the highlands as uninhabited forests. When first flown over by aircraft, numerous settlements with agricultural terraces and stockades were observed. The most startling discovery took place on 4 August 1938, when Richard Archbold discovered the Grand Valley of the Baliem River, which had 50,000 yet-undiscovered Stone Age farmers living in orderly villages. The people, known as the Dani, were the last society of its size to make first contact with the rest of the world.", "Netherlands New Guinea and the Australian territories were invaded in 1942 by the Japanese. The Australian territories were put under military administration and were known simply as New Guinea. The highlands, northern and eastern parts of the island became key battlefields in the South West Pacific Theatre of World War II. Papuans often gave vital assistance to the Allies, fighting alongside Australian troops, and carrying equipment and injured men across New Guinea. Approximately 216,000 Japanese, Australian and U.S. soldiers, sailors and airmen died during the New Guinea Campaign.", "Following the return to civil administration after World War II, the Australian section was known as the Territory of Papua-New Guinea from 1945 to 1949 and then as Territory of Papua and New Guinea. Although the rest of the Dutch East Indies achieved independence as Indonesia on 27 December 1949, the Netherlands regained control of western New Guinea. During the 1950s, the Dutch government began to prepare Netherlands New Guinea for full independence and allowed elections in 1959; the elected New Guinea Council took office on 5 April 1961. The Council decided on the name of West Papua for the territory, along with an emblem, flag, and anthem to complement those of the Netherlands. On 1 October 1962, the Dutch handed over the territory to the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority, until 1 May 1963, when Indonesia took control. The territory was renamed West Irian and then Irian Jaya. In 1969, Indonesia, under the 1962 New York Agreement, organised a referendum named the Act of Free Choice, in which hand picked Papuan tribal elders reached a consensus to continue the union with Indonesia. There has been resistance to Indonesian integration and occupation, both through civil disobedience (such as Morning Star flag raising ceremonies) and via the formation of the Organisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM, or Free Papua Movement) in 1965. Amnesty International has estimated more than 100,000 Papuans, one-sixth of the population, have died as a result of government-sponsored violence against West Papuans. From 1971, the name Papua New Guinea was used for the Australian territory. On 16 September 1975, Australia granted full independence to Papua New Guinea. In 2000, Irian Jaya was formally renamed \"The Province of Papua\" and a Law on Special Autonomy was passed in 2001. The Law established a Papuan People's Assembly (MRP) with representatives of the different indigenous cultures of Papua. The MRP was empowered to protect the rights of Papuans, raise the status of women in Papua, and to ease religious tensions in Papua; block grants were given for the implementation of the Law as much as $266 million in 2004. The Indonesian courts' enforcement of the Law on Special Autonomy blocked further creation of subdivisions of Papua: although President Megawati Sukarnoputri was able to create a separate West Papua province in 2003 as a fait accompli, plans for a third province on western New Guinea were blocked by the courts. Critics argue that the Indonesian government has been reluctant to establish or issue various government implementing regulations so that the legal provisions of special autonomy could be put into practice, and as a result special autonomy in Papua has failed. The culture of inter-tribal warfare and animosity between the neighboring tribes are still present in New Guinea." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first written record of Královo Pole comes from 1240, as a village (or literally a field) belonging to the king. A Carthusian monastery was established here in late 14th century. Rapid development took place during the second half of the 19th century. It was started by the building of a sugar mill, followed by other industries, especially the \"Královopolská\" machine works. In 1885, Královo Pole was connected to the railway. In 1905 the settlement became a town (city). Soon after the World War I it became a part of Brno. While the oldest part of Královo Pole down at the Ponávka brook retained its village look, the newly built-up area on a slope ascending westwards developed a cohesive urbanistic structure centered in the Slovanské náměstí (\"The Slavic Square\"), with Art Nouveau city blocks and functionalistic family houses. After World War II there was another development, housing estates were built south and later also north around. The railway with the station were relocated and some adjacent streets and blocks were rearranged.", "Královo Pole is connected with the Brno centre by several tram lines and one trolleybus line. Another trolleybus line provides a tangential connection with city districts in the west. The Brno-Královo Pole railway station is served by local passenger trains and fast trains Brno-Prague (via Havlíčkův Brod). A bus terminal is located in front of the station, with bus lines to the northern outskirts of Brno. The Brno outer ring road is tunneled west-east under the district and at the tunnel portals it crosses radial highways leading to Svitavy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "His parents were Duke William of Opava and Salome, a daughter of the Bohemian nobleman Půta III of Častolovice. After his father's death in 1452, his brother Ernest took up the guardianship of Przemko and his four siblings. Przemko III and his brothers Frederick and Wenceslas III inherited a two thirds share of the Duchy of Opava; their cousin john II held the remaining third. Their father had held the Duchy of Münsterberg for a while, however, Przemko and his brothers did not inherit it, because their father had swapped it with Ernest for the latter's third of Opava. The brothers nevertheless sometimes used the title of \"Duke of Münsterberg\". Ernest, in his capacity as their guardian, sold the brothers' two-thirds of Opava in 1464 to Duke Bolko V of Opole. John II retained his share. As Przemko III had no prospect of a steady income, his uncle destined him for a career in the clergy. In 1464, he enrolled at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków under the name. He became a member of the Cathedral chapter in Wrocław, together with his uncle Przemko II, Duke of Opava ( and ). The archives of Wrocław describe him as \"Duke of Münsterberg\" in 1466. He also became canon of Olomouc, probably around the same time. During the winter semester of 1471, Przemko III studied at the University of Vienna, where he probably received his bachelor's degree. In 1479, he succeeded Paul Laubmann and Cathedral Dean in Vienna. In the certificate of his appointment, he is called. He also succeeded Paul Laubmann as provost of the St. Othmar parish in Mödling. He received this appointment from Emperor Frederick III, together with an apartment at the ducal court, where he lived for the rest of his life. His coat of arms can still be seen in this apartment. He appears to have taken his job as pastor very seriously. In the episcopal archive in Vienna, several documents from the years 1481-1484 describe his work. Although he had been financially ruined by the destruction in the Duchy of Opava, his university degree made him oen of the more outstanding and accomplished Moravian and Silesian noblemen of his time. Przemko II died unmarried and childless on 17 February 1493. He was buried in the St. Othmar church in Mödling. A red marble grave plate can still be found on the northern wall. It bears the inscription:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Functionality.", "Visualisation.", "Interaction and experimentation.", "Supported languages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The development of BlueJ was started in 1999 by Michael Kölling and John Rosenberg at Monash University, as a successor to the Blue system. BlueJ is an IDE (Integrated Development Environment). Blue was an integrated system with its own programming language and environment, and was a relative of the Eiffel language. BlueJ implements the Blue environment design for the Java programming language. In March 2009, the BlueJ project became free and open source software, and licensed under GNU GPL with the classpath exception. BlueJ is currently being maintained by a team at King's College London, England, where Kölling works.", "BlueJ has a simpler interface than most professional IDEs, but its functionality is not a subset of those kinds of environment. While many of the standard development tools exist, such as an editor, compiler and runtime environment, it also offers tools that are specific to its educational goals and not found in this form in common professional environments. These includes interactive object creation and method invocation (via the \"Object Bench\"), simplified debugging and teamwork controls, interactive, line-based expression and statement evaluation (via the \"Code Pad\"), and automated creation of JUnit classes from recordings of interactive test sequences.", "The BlueJ interface emphasises class structure (in preference of source code) by showing a UML-like diagram as its main screen. Class structures can be manipulated by the user, and the class relation display is generated automatically from the source code. Source level structure is visualised through \"scope highlighting\" (the visual emphasis of lexical scope through use of graphical frames and background colour).", "Supported interaction features include the ability to create objects interactively for ad-hoc testing and experimentation, and support for interactive invocation of public methods. Parameters may be passed and objects can be composed in interactive calls. Interactive tests may be recorded and stored as standard unit test classes. Code fragments can be evaluated interactively in the Code Pad, which provides a Java-based REPL.", "BlueJ supports programming in Java and in Stride. Java support has been provided in BlueJ since its inception, while Stride support was added in 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early years.", "John Mayall's Bluesbreakers.", "Fleetwood Mac.", "Post-Fleetwood Mac.", "Illness and first re-emergence.", "Peter Green Splinter Group.", "Playing style and song writing.", "Equipment.", "Influence.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Peter Allen Greenbaum was born in Bethnal Green, London on 29 October 1946, into a Jewish family, the youngest of Joe and Ann Greenbaum's four children. His brother, Michael, taught him his first guitar chords and by the age of eleven Green was teaching himself. He began playing professionally by the age of fifteen. He first played bass guitar in a band called Bobby Dennis and the Dominoes, which performed pop chart covers and rock 'n' roll standards, including Shadows covers. He later stated that Hank Marvin was his guitar hero and he played The Shadows song \"Midnight \"on the 1996 tribute album \"Twang.\" He went on to join a rhythm and blues outfit, the Muskrats, then a band called The Tridents in which he played bass. In 1966, Green played lead guitar in Peter Bardens' band \"Peter B's Looners\", where he met drummer Mick Fleetwood. It was with Peter B's Looners that he made his recording début with the single \"If You Wanna Be Happy\" with \"Jodrell Blues\" as a B-side. His recording of \"If You Wanna Be Happy\" was an instrumental cover of a song by Jimmy Soul.", "After three months with Bardens' group, Green had the opportunity to fill in for Eric Clapton in John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers for three concerts. Soon after, when Clapton left the Bluesbreakers, Green became a full-time member of Mayall's band. Mike Vernon, a producer at Decca Records recalls Green's début with the Bluesbreakers: Green made his recording debut with the Bluesbreakers in 1966 on the album \"A Hard Road\" (1967), which featured two of his own compositions, \"The Same Way\" and \"The Supernatural\". The latter was one of Green's first instrumentals, which would soon become a trademark. So proficient was he that his musician friends bestowed upon him the nickname \"The Green God\". In 1967, Green decided to form his own blues band and left the Bluesbreakers.", "Green's new band, with former Bluesbreaker Mick Fleetwood on drums and Jeremy Spencer on guitar, was initially called \"Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac featuring Jeremy Spencer\". Bob Brunning was temporarily employed on bass guitar, as Green's first choice, Bluesbreakers' bassist John McVie, was not yet ready to join the band. Within a month they played at the Windsor National Jazz and Blues Festival in August 1967 and were quickly signed to Mike Vernon's Blue Horizon label. Their repertoire consisted mainly of blues covers and originals, mostly written by Green, but some were written by slide guitarist Jeremy Spencer. The band's first single, Spencer's \"I Believe My Time Ain't Long\" with Green's \"Rambling Pony\" as a B-side, did not chart but their eponymous debut album made a significant impression, remaining in the British charts for over a year. By September 1967, John McVie had replaced Brunning. Although classic blues covers and blues-styled originals remained prominent in the band's repertoire through this period, Green rapidly blossomed as a songwriter and contributed many successful original compositions from 1968 onwards. The songs chosen for single release showed Green's style gradually moving away from the group's blues roots into new musical territory. Their second studio album \"Mr. Wonderful\" was released in 1968 and continued the formula of the first album. In the same year they scored a hit with Green's \"Black Magic Woman\" (later covered by Santana), followed by the guitar instrumental \"Albatross\" (1969), which reached number one in the British singles charts. More hits written by Green followed, including \"Oh Well\", \"Man of the World\" (both 1969) and the ominous \"The Green Manalishi\" (1970). The double album \"Blues Jam in Chicago\" (1969) was recorded at the Chess Records Ter-Mar Studio in Chicago. There, under the joint supervision of Vernon and Marshall Chess, they recorded with some of their American blues heroes including Otis Spann, Big Walter Horton, Willie Dixon, J. T. Brown and Buddy Guy. In 1969, after signing to Immediate Records for one single (\"Man of the World\", prior to that label's collapse) the group signed with Warner Bros. Records' Reprise Records label and recorded their third studio album \"Then Play On\", prominently featuring the group's new third guitarist, 18-year-old Danny Kirwan. Green had first seen Kirwan in 1967 playing with his blues trio Boilerhouse, with Trevor Stevens on bass and Dave Terrey on drums. Green was impressed with Kirwan's playing and used the band as a support act for Fleetwood Mac before recruiting Kirwan to his own band in 1968 at the suggestion of Mick Fleetwood. Spencer, however, made virtually no contribution to \"Then Play On\", owing to his reported refusal to play on any of Green's original material. Beginning with \"Man of the World\"'s melancholy lyric, Green's bandmates began to notice changes in his state of mind. He was taking large doses of LSD, grew a beard and began to wear robes and a crucifix. Mick Fleetwood recalls Green becoming concerned about accumulating wealth: \"I had conversations with Peter Green around that time and he was obsessive about us not making money, wanting us to give it all away. And I'd say, 'Well you can do it, I don't wanna do that, and that doesn't make me a bad person.'\" While touring Europe in late March 1970, Green took LSD at a party at a commune in Munich, an incident cited by Fleetwood Mac manager Clifford Davis as the crucial point in his mental decline. Communard Rainer Langhans mentions in his autobiography that he and Uschi Obermaier met Green in Munich, where they invited him to their \"Highfisch-Kommune\". Fleetwood Mac roadie Dinky Dawson remembers that Green went to the party with another roadie, Dennis Keane, and that when Keane returned to the band's hotel to explain that Green would not leave the commune, Keane, Dawson and Mick Fleetwood travelled there to fetch him. By contrast, Green stated that he had fond memories of jamming at the commune when speaking in 2009: \"I had a good play there, it was great, someone recorded it, they gave me a tape. There were people playing along, a few of us just fooling around and it was... yeah it was great.\" He told Jeremy Spencer at the time \"That's the most spiritual music I've ever recorded in my life.\" After a final performance on 20 May 1970, Green left Fleetwood Mac.", "On 27 June 1970 Green appeared at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music with John Mayall, Rod Mayall (organ), Ric Grech (bass) and Aynsley Dunbar (drums). In that same year he recorded a jam session with drummer Godfrey Maclean, keyboardists Zoot Money and Nick Buck, and bassist Alex Dmochowski of The Aynsley Dunbar Retaliation; Reprise Records released the session as \"The End of the Game\", Peter's first post-Fleetwood Mac solo album. Also soon after leaving Fleetwood Mac, Green accompanied former bandmate keyboardist Peter Bardens (Peter B's Looners) on Bardens' solo LP \"The Answer\", playing lead guitar on several tracks. In 1971, he had a brief reunion with Fleetwood Mac, helping them to complete a US tour after guitarist Jeremy Spencer had left the group, performing under the pseudonym Peter Blue. He recorded two tracks for the album \"Juju\" with Bobby Tench's band Gass, followed by a solo single, one with Nigel Watson, sessions with B. B. King in London in 1972 and an uncredited appearance on Fleetwood Mac's \"Penguin\" LP in 1973, on the song \"Night Watch\". At this time, Green's mental illness and drug use had become entrenched and he faded into professional obscurity.", "Green was eventually diagnosed with schizophrenia and spent time in psychiatric hospitals undergoing electroconvulsive therapy during the mid-1970s. Many sources attest to his lethargic, trancelike state during this period. In 1977, Green was arrested for threatening his accountant David Simmons with a shotgun. The exact circumstances are the subject of much speculation, the most famous being that Green wanted Simmons to stop sending money to him. In the 2011 BBC documentary \"Peter Green: Man of the World\", Green stated that at the time he had just returned from Canada needing money and that, during a telephone conversation with his accounts manager, he alluded to the fact that he had brought back a gun from his travels. His accounts manager promptly called the police, who surrounded Green's house. In 1979, Green began to re-emerge professionally. With the help of his brother Michael, he was signed to Peter Vernon-Kell's PVK label, and produced a string of solo albums starting with 1979's \"In the Skies\". He also made an uncredited appearance on Fleetwood Mac's double album \"Tusk\", on the song \"Brown Eyes\", released the same year. In 1981, Green contributed to \"Rattlesnake Shake\" and \"Super Brains\" on Mick Fleetwood's solo album \"The Visitor\". He recorded various sessions with a number of other musicians notably the Katmandu album \"A Case for the Blues\" with Ray Dorset of Mungo Jerry, Vincent Crane from The Crazy World of Arthur Brown and Len Surtees of The Nashville Teens. Despite attempts by Gibson Guitar Corporation to start talks about producing a \"Peter Green signature Les Paul\" guitar, Green's instrument of choice at this time was a Gibson Howard Roberts Fusion guitar. In 1986 Peter and his brother Micky contributed to the album \"A Touch of Sunburn\" by Lawrie 'The Raven' Gaines (under the group name 'The Enemy Within'). This album has been re-issued many times under such titles as \"Post Modern Blues\" and \"Peter Green and Mick Green – Two Greens Make a Blues\", often crediting Pirates guitarist Mick Green. In 1988 Green was quoted as saying: \"I'm at present recuperating from treatment for taking drugs. It was drugs that influenced me a lot. I took more than I intended to. I took LSD eight or nine times. The effect of that stuff lasts so long... I wanted to give away all my money... I went kind of holy - no, not holy, religious. I thought I could do it, I thought I was all right on drugs. My failing!\" In the early 2000s there were rumours of a reunion of the early line-up of Fleetwood Mac, involving Peter Green and Jeremy Spencer. The two guitarists and vocalists were apparently unconvinced of the merits of such a project, but in April 2006, during a question-and-answer session on the \"Penguin\" Fleetwood Mac fan website, bassist John McVie said of the reunion idea: On 25 February 2020 an all-star tribute concert was performed at the London Palladium, billed as \"Mick Fleetwood and Friends Tribute to Peter Green\". The \"Guitar World\" review said Green himself was not in attendance and possibly unaware of the event, but was presumed well.", "Green formed the Peter Green Splinter Group in the late 1990s, with the assistance of Nigel Watson and Cozy Powell. The Splinter Group released nine albums between 1997 and 2004. Early in 2004, a tour was cancelled and the recording of a new studio album stopped when Green left the band and moved to Sweden. Shortly afterwards he signed on to a tour with The British Blues All Stars scheduled for the following year. The tour was cancelled, however, after the death of saxophonist Dick Heckstall-Smith. At the time, Green stated that the medication he was taking to treat his psychological problems was making it hard for him to concentrate and sapped his desire to play guitar. In February 2009, Green began playing and touring again, this time as Peter Green and Friends. In May 2009 he was the subject of the BBC Four documentary \"Peter Green: Man of the World\", produced by Henry Hadaway. Green and the band subsequently played a tour of Ireland, Germany and England. They went on to play several dates in Australia during March 2010, including the Byron Bay Bluesfest. The band were supported by singer-songwriter Garron Frith on their UK tour dates during May 2010.", "Green has been praised for his swinging shuffle grooves and soulful phrases and favoured the minor mode and its darker blues implications. His distinct tone can be heard on \"The Supernatural\", an instrumental written by Green for John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers' 1967 album \"A Hard Road\". This song demonstrates Green's control of harmonic feedback. The sound is characterised by a shivering vibrato, clean cutting tones and a series of ten-second sustained notes. These tones were achieved by Green controlling feedback on a Les Paul guitar.", "Early in his career, Green played a Harmony Meteor, an inexpensive hollow-body guitar. He began playing a Gibson Les Paul with the Bluesbreakers, a guitar which was often referred to as his \"magic guitar\". Though he played other guitars, he is best known for deriving a unique tone from his 1959 Les Paul. Green later sold it to Northern Irish guitarist Gary Moore for $US300, which was the same price he had paid for it. In 2016, Kirk Hammett of Metallica bought the guitar for a reported 2 million USD. In the 1990s, Green played a 1960s Fender Stratocaster and a Gibson Howard Roberts Fusion model, using Fender Blues DeVille and Vox AC30 amplifiers. More recently, the Gibson ES-165 has seen more use.", "Many rock guitarists have cited Green as an influence, including Gary Moore, Joe Perry of Aerosmith and Andy Powell of Wishbone Ash, as well as Radiohead bassist Colin Greenwood. Green was The Black Crowes' Rich Robinson's pick in Guitar World's \"30 on 30: The Greatest Guitarists Picked by the Greatest Guitarists\" (2010). In the same article Robinson cites Jimmy Page, with whom the Crowes toured: \"he told us so many Peter Green stories. It was clear that Jimmy loves the man's talent\". Green's songs have been recorded by artists such as Santana, Aerosmith, Status Quo, Black Crowes, Midge Ure, Tom Petty, Judas Priest and Gary Moore, who recorded \"Blues for Greeny\", an album of Green compositions.", "Enduring periods of mental illness and destitution throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Green moved in with his older brother Len and his wife Gloria, and his mother in their house in Great Yarmouth, where a process of recovery began. Green married Jane Samuels in January 1978; the couple divorced in 1979. They have a daughter, Rosebud Samuels-Greenbaum (born 1978). Green lived on Canvey Island after leaving Fleetwood Mac." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Common names.", "Description.", "Size and weight.", "Coloring.", "Scalation.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behavior.", "Hunting and diet.", "Reproduction and development.", "Captivity.", "Economic significance.", "Conservation.", "Subspecies.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Though all boids are constrictors, only this species is properly referred to as a \"boa constrictor\" – a rare instance of an animal having the same common English name and scientific binomial name. (Another such animal is the extinct theropod dinosaur \"Tyrannosaurus rex\".) All subspecies are referred to as \"boa constrictors\", while the nominate subspecies, \"B. c. constrictor\", is often referred to specifically as the \"red-tailed boa\". Within the exotic pet trade, it is also known as a \"BCC\", an abbreviation of its scientific name, to distinguish it from other boa species such as \"B. imperator\", which is also regularly, and erroneously, referred to as a \"red-tailed boa\" or \"common boa\". Other common names include \"chij-chan\" (Mayan), \"jiboia\" (Latin American), and \"macajuel\" (Trinidadian).", "", "The boa constrictor is a large snake, although it is only modestly sized in comparison to other large snakes, such as the reticulated python and Burmese python, and can reach lengths from depending on the locality and the availability of suitable prey. Clear sexual dimorphism is seen in the species, with females generally being larger in both length and girth than males. The usual size of mature female boas is between whereas males are. Females commonly exceed, particularly in captivity, where lengths up to or even can be seen. The largest documented non-stretched dry skin is deposited at Zoologische Staatssammlung München (ZSM 4961/2012) and measures 14.6 ft (4.45 m) without head. A report of a boa constrictor growing up to was later found to be a misidentified green anaconda. The boa constrictor is a heavy-bodied snake, and large specimens can weigh up to. Females, the larger sex, more commonly weigh. Some specimens of this species can reach or possibly exceed, although this is not usual. The size and weight of a boa constrictor depends on subspecies, locale, and the availability of suitable prey. \"B. c. constrictor\" reaches, and occasionally tops, the averages given above, as it is one of the relatively large subspecies of \"Boa constrictor\". Other examples of sexual dimorphism in the species include males generally having longer tails to contain the hemipenes and also longer pelvic spurs, which are used to grip and stimulate the female during copulation. Pelvic spurs are the only external sign of the rudimentary hind legs and pelvis, and are seen in all boas and pythons.", "The coloring of boa constrictors can vary greatly depending on the locality. However, they are generally a brown, gray, or cream base color, patterned with brown or reddish-brown \"saddles\" that become more pronounced towards the tail. This coloring gives \"B. c. constrictor\" the common name of \"red-tailed boa\", as it typically has more red saddles than other \"B. constrictor\" subspecies. The coloring works as very effective camouflage in the jungles and forests of its natural range. Some individuals exhibit pigmentary disorders, such as albinism. Although these individuals are rare in the wild, they are common in captivity, where they are often selectively bred to make a variety of different color \"morphs\". Boa constrictors have an arrow-shaped head with very distinctive stripes on it: One runs dorsally from the snout to the back of the head; the others run from the snout to the eyes and then from the eyes to the jaw. Boa constrictors can sense heat via cells in their lips, though they lack the labial pits surrounding these receptors seen in many members of the family Boidae. Boa constrictors also have two lungs, a smaller (non-functional) left and an enlarged (functional) right lung to better fit their elongated shape, unlike many colubrid snakes, which have completely lost the left lung.", "\"Boa imperator\" has 81–95 dorsal scales, 231–250 ventral scales, 43–62 subcaudal scales, 21–25 supralabial scales and 2–3 anal scales.", "Depending on the subspecies, \"Boa constrictor\" can be found through South America north of 35°S (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Brazil, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Argentina), and many other islands along the coasts of South America. An introduced population exists in extreme southern Florida, and a small population on St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands now appears to be reproducing in the wild. The type locality given is \"Indiis\" – a mistake, according to Peters and Orejas-Miranda (1970). \"B. constrictor\" flourishes in a wide variety of environmental conditions, from tropical rainforests to arid semidesert country. However, it prefers to live in rainforest due to the humidity and temperature, natural cover from predators, and vast amount of potential prey. It is commonly found in or along rivers and streams, as it is a very capable swimmer. Boa constrictors also occupy the burrows of medium-sized mammals, where they can hide from potential predators.", "Boa constrictors generally live on their own, and do not interact with any other snakes unless they want to mate. They are nocturnal, but they may bask during the day when night-time temperatures are too low. As semi-arboreal snakes, young boa constrictors may climb into trees and shrubs to forage; however, they become mostly terrestrial as they become older and heavier. Boa constrictors strike when they perceive a threat. Their bite can be painful, especially from large snakes, but is rarely dangerous to humans. Specimens from Central America are more irascible, hissing loudly and striking repeatedly when disturbed, while those from South America tame down more readily. Like all snakes, boa constrictors in a shed cycle are more unpredictable, because the substance that lubricates between the old skin and the new makes their eyes appear milky, blue, or opaque, so that the snake cannot see very well, causing it to be more defensive than it might otherwise be.", "Their prey includes a wide variety of small to medium-sized mammals and birds. The bulk of their diet consists of rodents, but larger lizards and mammals as big as ocelots are also reported to have been consumed. Young boa constrictors eat small mice, birds, bats, lizards, and amphibians. The size of the prey item increases as they get older and larger. Boa constrictors are ambush predators, so they often lie in wait for an appropriate prey to come along, then they attack. However, they have also been known to actively hunt, particularly in regions with a low concentration of suitable prey, and this behavior generally occurs at night. The boa first strikes at the prey, grabbing it with its teeth; it then proceeds to constrict the prey until death before consuming it whole. Unconsciousness and death likely result from shutting off vital blood flow to the heart and brain, rather than suffocation as was previously believed; constriction can interfere with blood flow and overwhelm the prey's usual blood pressure and circulation. This would lead to unconsciousness and death very quickly. Their teeth also help force the animal down the throat while muscles then move it toward the stomach. It takes the snake about 4–6 days to fully digest the food, depending on the size of the prey and the local temperature. After this, the snake may not eat for a week to several months, due to its slow metabolism.", "Boa constrictors are viviparous, giving birth to live young. They generally breed in the dry season—between April and August—and are polygynous; thus, males may mate with multiple females. Half of all females breed in a given year, and a larger percentage of males actively attempt to locate a mate. Due to their polygynous nature, many of these males will be unsuccessful. As such, female boas in inadequate physical condition are unlikely to attempt to mate, or to produce viable young if they do mate. Reproduction in boas is almost exclusively sexual. In 2010, a boa constrictor was shown to have reproduced asexually via parthenogenesis. The Colombian rainbow boa (\"Epicrates maurus\") was found to reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis resulting in production of WW female progeny. The WW females were likely produced by terminal automixis (see Figure), a type of parthenogenesis in which two terminal haploid products of meiosis fuse to form a zygote, which then develops into a daughter progeny. This is only the third genetically confirmed case of consecutive virgin births of viable offspring from a single female within any vertebrate lineage. In 2017, boa constrictors, along with \"Boa imperator\"s and Burmese pythons, were found to contain a new set of sex determining chromosomes. Males were discovered to contain a pair of XY sex determining chromosomes, while females have a XX pair. This is the first time snakes were thought to contain male heterogamety, and since then has been found in ball pythons (\"Python regius\") as well. During the breeding season, the female boa emits pheromones from her cloaca to attract males, which may then wrestle to select one to breed with her. During breeding, the male curls his tail around the female's and the hemipenes (or male reproductive organs) are inserted. Copulation can last from a few minutes to several hours, and may occur several times over a few-week period. After this period, ovulation may not occur immediately, but the female can hold the sperm inside her for up to one year. When the female ovulates, a midbody swell can be noticed that appears similar to the snake having eaten a large meal. The female then sheds two to three weeks after ovulation, in what is known as a post-ovulation shed which lasts another 2–3 weeks, which is longer than a normal shed. The gestation period, which is counted from the postovulation shed, is around 100–120 days. The female then gives birth to young that average in length. The litter size varies between females, but can be between 10 and 65 young, with an average of 25, although some of the young may be stillborn or unfertilized eggs known as \"slugs\". The young are independent at birth and grow rapidly for the first few years, shedding regularly (once every one to two months). At 3–4 years, boa constrictors become sexually mature and reach the adult size of, although they continue to grow at a slow rate for the rest of their lives. At this point, they shed less frequently, about every 2–4 months.", "This species does well in captivity, usually becoming quite tame. It is a common sight in both zoos and private reptile collections. Though still exported from their native South America in significant numbers, they are widely bred in captivity. When kept in captivity, they are fed mice, rats, rabbits, chickens, and chicks depending on the size and age of the individual. Captive life expectancy is 20 to 30 years, with rare accounts over 40 years, making them a long-term commitment as a pet. The greatest reliable age recorded for a boa constrictor in captivity is 40 years, 3 months and 14 days. This boa constrictor was named Popeye and died in the Philadelphia Zoo, Pennsylvania, on April 15, 1977. Proper animal husbandry is the most significant factor in captive lifespan; this includes providing adequate space, correct temperatures and humidity, and suitable food items. Up to 41.5% of captive boas test positive for eosinophilic inclusion bodies.", "Boa constrictors are very popular within the exotic pet trade, and have been both captured in the wild and bred in captivity. Today, most captive boa constrictors are captive-bred, but between 1977 and 1983, 113,000 live boa constrictors were imported into the United States. These huge numbers of wild-caught snakes have put considerable pressure on some wild populations. Boa constrictors have also been harvested for their meat and skins, and are a common sight at markets within their geographic range. After the reticulated python, boa constrictors are the snake most commonly killed for snakeskin products, such as shoes, bags, and other items of clothing. In some areas, they have an important role in regulating the opossum populations, preventing the potential transmission of leishmaniasis to humans. In other areas, they are often let loose within the communities to control the rodent populations.", "All boa constrictors fall under CITES and are listed under CITES Appendix II, except \"B. c. occidentalis\", which is listed in CITES Appendix I. In some regions, boa constrictor numbers have been severely hit by predation from humans and other animals and over-collection for the exotic pet and snakeskin trades. Most populations, though, are not under threat of immediate extinction; thus, they are within Appendix II rather than Appendix I. Boa constrictors may be an invasive species in Florida.", "Seven subspecies of \"Boa constrictor\" have been described, but many of these are poorly differentiated and further research may redefine many of them. Some appear to be based more on location than biological differences \"Boa imperator\" has been elevated to full species status. Several other subspecies have been described at different times, but currently these are no longer considered to be subspecies by many herpetologists and taxonomists. They include:", "The subspecific name \"amarali\" is in honor of Brazilian herpetologist Afrânio Pompílio Gastos do Amaral. The subspecific name \"ortonii\" is in honor of American naturalist James Orton." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Right after Stephen the Great won the battle in which he conquered the Kilia citadel, he began work on the monastery as a means to give thanks to God, on July 10, 1466 - the church was to be dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Previous eremitic life (on the place the monastery was built) was proven by humans buried deep under the foundation of the oldest buildings from Stephen the Great. A chronicle of the time mentions that Stephen bought the Vicovu de Sus village in exchange for 200 \"zloty\", and awarded the land and revenue to the treasury of the monastery. Putna was completed in three years, but was consecrated only after one more year passed, given that the Moldavians engaged in other battles. On September 3, 1470, during a ceremony attended by Stephen and all his family, the monastery was consecrated by Metropolitan Teoctist, and subsequently became the most important religious site in the area. The present church was practically rebuilt between 1653 and 1662 by Vasile Lupu and his successors. Although the building follows the ground plan of a typical 15th and 16th century Moldavian church, it has many architectural and decorative features that are characteristic of 17th century architecture. For long, the site was believed to have been designed by a Greek architect named Theodor - the interpretation of the Kilia chronicles on which this was based has since been proven wrong. The oldest embroidery of the monastery, dated at the end of the 14th century, is an epitaphion made with silk and gold thread by Euphima, a Serbian nun, daughter of Vojihna, together with her daughter Euprasijka." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Editions.", "Editors.", "Role and purpose in Soviet society.", "Translations.", "English.", "Greek.", "Content.", "\"Damnatio memoriae\".", "\"Great Russian Encyclopedia\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The idea of the \"Great Soviet Encyclopedia\" emerged in 1923 on the initiative of Otto Schmidt, a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In early 1924 Schmidt worked with a group which included Mikhail Pokrovsky, (rector of the Institute of Red Professors), Nikolai Meshcheryakov (Head of Gosizdat, the State Publishing House), Valery Bryusov (poet), Veniamin Kagan (mathematician) and Konstantin Kuzminsky to draw up a proposal which was agreed by the in April 1924. Also involved was Anatoly Lunacharsky, Commissar of Enlightenment (Narkompros), who had previously been involved with a proposal by Alexander Bogdanov and Maxim Gorky to produce a Workers' Encyclopedia.", "There were three editions. The first edition of 65 volumes (65,000 entries, plus a supplementary volume about the Soviet Union) was published during 1926–1947, the chief editor being Otto Schmidt (until 1941). The second edition of 50 volumes (100,000 entries, plus a supplementary volume) was published in 1950–1958; chief editors: Sergei Vavilov (until 1951) and Boris Vvedensky (until 1969); two index volumes to this edition were published in 1960. The third edition of 1969–1978 contains 30 volumes (100,000 entries, plus an index volume issued in 1981). Volume 24 is in two books, one being a full-sized book about the USSR, all with about 21 million words, and the chief editor being Alexander Prokhorov (since 1969). In the third edition, much attention was paid to the philosophical problems of natural sciences, physical and chemical sciences, and mathematical methods in various branches of knowledge. From 1957 to 1990, the \"Yearbook of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia\" was released annually with up-to-date articles about the Soviet Union and all countries of the world. The first online edition, an exact replica of text and graphics of the third (so-called Red) edition, was published by Rubricon.com in 2000.", "Editors and contributors to the GSE included a number of leading Soviet scientists and politicians:", "The foreword to the first volume of the GSE (2nd ed.) proclaims \"The Soviet Union has become the center of the civilized world.\" The \"GSE\", along with all other books and other media and communications with the public, was directed toward the \"furtherance of the aims of the party and the state.\" The 1949 decree issued for the production of the second edition of the GSE directed: The foreword to the \"GSE\" (3rd ed.) expanded on that mission, paying particular attention to developments in science and technology: nuclear engineering, space technology, atomic physics, polymer chemistry, and radio electronics; also detailing the history and activities of the Russian revolutionary movement, the development of the labor movement worldwide and summarizing Marxist scholarship on political economy, sociology, and political science. In support of that mission, the GSE (2nd ed.) described as the role of education: The third edition of the \"GSE\" subsequently expanded on the role of education: Education is essential to preparing for life and work. It is the basic means by which people come to know and acquire culture, and it is the foundation of culture's development...The Soviet education rests on the principles of the unity of education and communist upbringing; cooperation among the school, the family, and the society in bringing up young people; and the linkage of education and training to life and the practical experience of building communism. The underlying principles of the Soviet system of public education include a scientific approach to and continual improvement of education on the basis of the latest achievements in science, technology and culture; a humanistic and highly moral orientation in education and upbringing; and co-education of both sexes, secular education which excludes the influence of religion. Based on his extensive talks with the editors of the \"GSE\", to whom he was granted unprecedented access, William Benton, publisher of the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", wrote the following in observation of the \"GSE\"s chief editor B. A. Vvedensky stating their compliance with the 1949 decree of the Council of Ministers: It is just this simple for the Soviet board of editors. They are working under a government directive that orders them to orient their encyclopedia as sharply as a political tract. The encyclopedia was thus planned to provide the intellectual underpinning for the Soviet world offensive in the duel for men's minds. The Soviet government ordered it as a fighting propaganda weapon. And the government attaches such importance to its \"political role\" that its board of editors is chosen by and is responsible only to the high Council of Ministers itself.", "", "The third edition was translated and published into English in 31 volumes between 1974 and 1983 by Macmillan Publishers. Each volume was translated separately, requiring use of the index found at the front of each volume to locate specific items; knowledge of Russian can be helpful to find the right volume the first time. Not all entries were translated into English; these are indicated in the index. Articles from the English edition are made available online by TheFreeDictionary.com.", "The third edition was translated into Greek and published in 34 volumes between 1977 and 1983. All articles that were related to Greece or Greek history, culture and society were expanded and hundreds of new ones were written especially for the Greek edition. Thus the encyclopedia contains, for example, both the Russian entry on Greece as well as a much larger one prepared by Greek contributors. Finally, a supplementary volume covering the 1980s was published in 1989. It contains translated and original Greek articles which, sometimes, do not exist in the 34-volume set.", "The \"Soviet Encyclopedia\" is a systematic summary of knowledge in social and economic studies and in the applied sciences. It became a universal reference work for the Soviet intelligentsia. According to the publisher's foreword in the English-language translation of the encyclopedia, the encyclopedia is important for knowledge and understanding of USSR. A major value of the Encyclopedia is its comprehensive information about the Soviet Union and its peoples. Every aspect of Soviet life is systematically presented, including history, economics, science, art, and culture. The ethnic diversity of USSR's peoples and its languages and cultures are extensively covered. There are biographies of prominent cultural and scientific figures who are not as well known outside of Russia. There are detailed surveys of USSR's provinces and towns, as well as their geology, geography, flora and fauna. The encyclopedia's Chief Editorial Board and Advisory board sought input from the general public. The entry list was sent to universities, scientific institutions, museums, and private specialists in every field. More than 50,000 suggestions were received and many additions were made. Scholars believe that the Encyclopedia is a valuable and useful source for Russian history. The \"Encyclopedia\", though noted as having a strong Marxist bias, provides useful information for understanding the Soviet point of view.", "Following the arrest and punishment of Lavrentiy Beria, the head of the NKVD, in 1953 the encyclopedia—ostensibly in response to overwhelming public demand—mailed subscribers to the second edition a letter from the editor instructing them to cut out and destroy the three-page article on Beria and paste in its place enclosed replacement pages expanding the adjacent articles on F. W. Bergholz (an 18th-century courtier), the Bering Sea, and Bishop Berkeley. By April 1954, the Library of the University of California, Berkeley had received this “replacement.” This was not the only case of political influence. According to one author, encyclopedia subscribers received missives to replace articles in the fashion of the Beria article frequently. Other articles, especially biographical articles on political leaders, changed significantly to reflect the current party line. An article affected in such a fashion was the one on Nikolai Bukharin, whose descriptions went through several evolutions.", "Publication of the \"Great Soviet Encyclopedia\" was suspended in 1990 and halted in 1991, but in 2002 it was reinstituted by decree of Vladimir Putin. In 2003 and 2004 a team of editors overhauled the old encyclopedia by updating facts, removing most examples of overt political bias, and changing its name to the \"Great Russian Encyclopedia\". Many outdated articles are being entirely rewritten. In 2004 the first volume of the newly overhauled \"Great Russian Encyclopedia\" was published. The complete edition of 35 volumes was released by 2017. Publication of the \"Great Russian Encyclopedia\" is overseen by the Russian Academy of Sciences, and funded by the Government of the Russian Federation. The encyclopedia is now found in libraries and schools throughout the CIS. Additionally, the 1980s editions remain in widespread use, particularly as references in scientific and mathematical research." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Military career.", "Maurice and Oldenbarnevelt.", "Thirty Years' and Eighty Years' War.", "List of military battles.", "Coat of arms and titles.", "Descendants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Maurice was the son of William the Silent and Anna of Saxony and was born at the castle of Dillenburg. He was named after his maternal grandfather, the Elector Maurice of Saxony, who was also a noted general. Maurice never married but was the father of illegitimate children by Margaretha van Mechelen (including Willem of Nassau, Lord of the Lek and Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd) and Anna van de Kelder. He was raised in Dillenburg by his uncle Johan of Nassau (Jan the Old). Together with his cousin Willem Lodewijk he studied in Heidelberg and later in Leiden where he met Simon Stevin. The States of Holland and Zeeland paid for his studies, as their father had run into financial problems after spending his entire fortune in the early stages of the Dutch revolt. Only 16 when his father was murdered in Delft in 1584, he soon was appointed to his father's office of stadtholder (\"Stadhouder\"). The monarchs of England and France had been requested to accept sovereignty but had refused. This had left Maurice as the only acceptable candidate for the position of Stadtholder. He became stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland in 1585, of Guelders, Overijssel and Utrecht in 1590 and of Groningen and Drenthe in 1620 (following the death of Willem Lodewijk, who had been stadtholder there and in Friesland). Protestant Maurice was preceded as Prince of Orange (not a Dutch title) by his Roman Catholic eldest half-brother Philip William, Prince of Orange, deceased 1618. However, Philip William was in the custody of Spain, remaining so until 1596, and was thus unable to lead the Dutch independence cause. Maria of Nassau (1556–1616) was a full sister of Philip William from the first marriage of William I, Prince of Orange, (assassinated 1584), to wealthy and powerful aristocrat Anna van Egmont (1533–1558), and a contender to Maurice over the estate of their father. He was appointed captain-general of the army in 1587, bypassing the Earl of Leicester, who returned to England on hearing this news.", "Maurice organized the rebellion against Spain into a coherent, successful revolt. He reorganized the Dutch States Army together with Willem Lodewijk, studied military history, strategy and tactics, mathematics and astronomy, and proved himself to be among the best strategists of his age. The Eighty Years' War was a challenge to his style, so he could prove himself a good leader by taking several Spanish Outposts. Paying special attention to the siege theories of Simon Stevin, he took valuable key fortresses and towns during a period known as the \"Ten Glory Years\": Breda in 1590, Zutphen, Knodsenburg in 1591, Steenwijk and Coevorden in 1592, Geertruidenberg in 1593, and Groningen in 1594. In 1597 he went on a further offensive and took Rheinberg, Meurs, Groenlo, Bredevoort, Enschede, Ootmarsum, and Oldenzaal and closed off the year with the capture of Lingen. These victories rounded out the borders to the Dutch Republic, solidifying the revolt and allowing a national state to develop behind secure borders. They also established Maurice as the foremost general of his time. Many of the great generals of the succeeding generation, including his brother Frederick Henry and many of the commanders of the English Civil War, learned their trade under his command. For a series of maps showing Maurice's campaigns to extend and consolidate the borders of the Republic, see. His victories in the pitched battles at Turnhout (1597) and at Nieuwpoort (1600) were dependent on his innovation of cooperation between arms, with his cavalry playing a major role. The victories earned him military fame and acknowledgement throughout Europe. Despite these successes, the House of Orange did not attain great respect among European royalty, as the Stadtholdership was not inheritable. The training of his army was especially important to early modern warfare and the Military Revolution of 1560–1650. Previous generals had made use of drill and exercise in order to instill discipline or to keep the men physically fit, but for Maurice, they \"were the fundamental postulates of tactics.\" This change affected the entire conduct of warfare, since it required the officers to train men in addition to leading them, decreased the size of the basic infantry unit for functional purposes since more specific orders had to be given in battle, and the decrease in herd behavior required more initiative and intelligence from the average soldier. One major contribution was the introduction of volley fire, which enabled soldiers to compensate for the inaccuracy of their weapons by firing in a large group. It was first used in European combat at the battle of Nieuwpoort in 1600. As part of his efforts to find allies against Spain, Maurice received Moroccan envoys such as Al-Hajari. They discussed the possibility of an alliance between Holland, the Ottoman Empire, Morocco and the Moriscos, against the common enemy Spain. Al-Hajari's journey chronicles, authored in 1637, mentions in detail the discussion for a combined offensive against Spain. Maurice was known in his time and by historians as the first general of his age. His reputation rests not as much on his ability to win and exploit field battles as it does on tis expertise as a siege commander, military organizer, and innovator. Of his two great adversaries, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, and Ambrogio Spinola, he cautiously never allowed himself to be brought to battle with Parma and did not follow up chances to offer Spinola battle with forces in his favour on the Yssel in 1606. He was, however, dealt a defeat by the Spanish general at the battle of Mülheim in October 1605. Based on his preference for sieges and small-scale actions, historian David Trim states that it is difficult to reach a verdict on his ability as a tactician. Jonathan Israel notes that on one of the rare occasions when he did have to fight a major battle in the open – the 1600 Battle of Nieuwpoort – it did end with a Dutch victory, but this outcome was highly risky, and Maurice took care to extricate his army and avoid a second such battle. Maurice founded a whole new school of military professional practice. These pointed the way to the professional armies of the future by reapplying Roman tactics and innovating in the fields of logistics, training, and economics (e.g. paying troops regularly and on time). Many graduates of service under Maurice, such as his nephew, the Marshal Turenne, or his disciples such as Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, applied the Mauritian reforms to great effect in the remainder of the 17th century.", "Maurice started out as the protégé of Landsadvocaat (Land's Advocate, i.e. secretary to the nobility of Holland and legal counsel to the States of Holland, but functioning as de facto chief minister of Holland and the States-General) Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, but gradually tensions rose between these two men. Against Maurice's advice, and despite his protests, Van Oldenbarnevelt decided to sign the Twelve Years' Truce with Spain, which lasted from 1609 to 1621. The required funds to maintain the army and navy and the general course of the war were other topics of constant struggle. With the religious troubles between Gomarists (strict Calvinists) and the Remonstrants (Arminians), the struggle between Van Oldenbarnevelt and Maurice reached a climax. Van Oldenbarnevelt was arrested, tried and decapitated despite numerous requests for mercy. From 1618 till his death Maurice now enjoyed uncontested power over the Republic. He expanded the Stadtholder's palace at the Binnenhof in the Hague. The Maurice Tower is now part of the building complex of the Senate of the Netherlands. In 1618, he also succeeded his elder half-brother Philip William as Prince of Orange, a title he seems rarely to have used. Maurice urged his cadet half brother Frederick Henry to marry in order to preserve the dynasty.", "Jonathan Israel places upon Maurice part of the responsibility for the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in which Germany was devastated and a large part of its population killed. As noted by Israel, German Protestants were not eager for an all-out confrontation with the Catholics. Maurice significantly helped precipitate such a confrontation by persuading his nephew Frederick V, Elector Palatine, to accept the Bohemian Crown, as well as actively encouraging the Bohemians to confront Habsburg rule, providing them 50,000 guilders as well as sending Dutch troops to fight in the doomed Battle of the White Mountain. This ill-considered decision proved disastrous to the Bohemians, who were thereby plunged into prolonged oppression, and to Frederick who lost his ancestral lands. It also worsened the Dutch Republic's own strategic position. In 1621 the war with Spain resumed after a 12-year period of truces. The Spanish, led by Ambrogio Spinola, had notable successes, including the siege of Breda, the old family residence of the Nassau's, in 1625. Maurice died on 23 April 1625, with the siege still underway. Justin of Nassau surrendered Breda in June 1625 after a costly eleven-month siege.", "Maurice participated in these battles as principal commander of Dutch forces:", "Maurice, besides being stadtholder of several provinces and Captain-General, both non-hereditary and appointive titles, was the hereditary sovereign of the principality of Orange in what is today Provence in France. He also was the lord of many other estates, which formed his wealth: During his lifetime he kept using the arms as during his father's life-time shown here, and never changed to the simpler arms used by his father and half brothers.", "Maurice never married but was the father of several illegitimate children: by Margaretha van Mechelen: by Cornelia Jacobsdochter: by Ursula de Rijck: by Anna van de Kelder: by Deliana de Backer:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Basic principle.", "Types: natural or man-made reservoirs.", "Economic efficiency.", "Small-scale facilities.", "History.", "Worldwide use.", "Pump-back hydroelectric dams.", "Potential technologies.", "Seawater.", "Underground reservoirs.", "Decentralised systems.", "Underwater reservoirs.", "Home use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the upper reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine/generator assemblies act as a combined pump and turbine generator unit (usually a Francis turbine design). In micro-PSH applications, a group of pumps and Pump As Turbine (PAT) could be implemented respectively for pumping and generating phases. The same pump could be used in both modes by changing rotational direction and speed: the operation point in pumping usually differs by operation point in PAT mode.", "In open-loop systems, pure pumped-storage plants store water in an upper reservoir with no natural inflows, while pump-back plants utilize a combination of pumped storage and conventional hydroelectric plants with an upper reservoir that is replenished in part by natural inflows from a stream or river. Plants that do not use pumped-storage are referred to as conventional hydroelectric plants; conventional hydroelectric plants that have significant storage capacity may be able to play a similar role in the electrical grid as pumped storage by deferring output until needed.", "Taking into account evaporation losses from the exposed water surface and conversion losses, energy recovery of 70–80% or more can be achieved. This technique is currently the most cost-effective means of storing large amounts of electrical energy, but capital costs and the presence of appropriate geography are critical decision factors in selecting pumped-storage plant sites. The relatively low energy density of pumped storage systems requires either large flows and/or large differences in height between reservoirs. The only way to store a significant amount of energy is by having a large body of water located relatively near, but as high above as possible, a second body of water. In some places this occurs naturally, in others one or both bodies of water were man-made. Projects in which both reservoirs are artificial and in which no natural inflows are involved with either reservoir are referred to as \"closed loop\" systems. These systems may be economical because they flatten out load variations on the power grid, permitting thermal power stations such as coal-fired plants and nuclear power plants that provide base-load electricity to continue operating at peak efficiency, while reducing the need for \"peaking\" power plants that use the same fuels as many base-load thermal plants, gas and oil, but have been designed for flexibility rather than maximal efficiency. Hence pumped storage systems are crucial when coordinating large groups of heterogeneous generators. Capital costs for pumped-storage plants are relatively high, although this is somewhat mitigated by their long service life of up to 75 years or more, which is three to five times longer than utility-scale batteries. Along with energy management, pumped storage systems help control electrical network frequency and provide reserve generation. Thermal plants are much less able to respond to sudden changes in electrical demand, potentially causing frequency and voltage instability. Pumped storage plants, like other hydroelectric plants, can respond to load changes within seconds. The most important use for pumped storage has traditionally been to balance baseload powerplants, but may also be used to abate the fluctuating output of intermittent energy sources. Pumped storage provides a load at times of high electricity output and low electricity demand, enabling additional system peak capacity. In certain jurisdictions, electricity prices may be close to zero or occasionally negative on occasions that there is more electrical generation available than there is load available to absorb it; although at present this is rarely due to wind or solar power alone, increased wind and solar generation will increase the likelihood of such occurrences. It is particularly likely that pumped storage will become especially important as a balance for very large scale photovoltaic generation. Increased long distance transmission capacity combined with significant amounts of energy storage will be a crucial part of regulating any large-scale deployment of intermittent renewable power sources. The high non-firm renewable electricity penetration in some regions supplies 40% of annual output, but 60% may be reached before additional storage is necessary.", "While smaller scale pumped storage experiences an economy of scale penalty, there are small-scale installations of such technology, including a recent 13 MW project in Germany. Shell Energy has proposed a 5 MW project in Washington State. Some have proposed small pumped storage plants in buildings, although these are economically unfeasible given the economies of scale present. Also, a large volume of water is required for a meaningful storage capacity which is a difficult fit for an urban setting. Nevertheless, some authors defend its technological simplicity and secure provision of water as important externalities.", "The first use of pumped storage was in 1907 in Switzerland, at the Engeweiher pumped storage facility near Schaffhausen, Switzerland. In the 1930s reversible hydroelectric turbines became available. These turbines could operate as both turbine-generators and in reverse as electric motor driven pumps. The latest in large-scale engineering technology are variable speed machines for greater efficiency. These machines operate in synchronization with the network frequency when generating, but operate asynchronously (independent of the network frequency) when pumping. The first use of pumped-storage in the United States was in 1930 by the Connecticut Electric and Power Company, using a large reservoir located near New Milford, Connecticut, pumping water from the Housatonic River to the storage reservoir above.", "In 2009, world pumped storage generating capacity was 104 GW, while other sources claim 127 GW, which comprises the vast majority of all types of utility grade electric storage. The EU had 38.3 GW net capacity (36.8% of world capacity) out of a total of 140 GW of hydropower and representing 5% of total net electrical capacity in the EU. Japan had 25.5 GW net capacity (24.5% of world capacity). In 2010 the United States had 21.5 GW of pumped storage generating capacity (20.6% of world capacity). PSH generated (net) −5.501 GWh of energy in 2010 in the US because more energy is consumed in pumping than is generated. Nameplate pumped storage capacity had grown to 21.6 GW by 2014, with pumped storage comprising 97% of grid-scale energy storage in the US. As of late 2014, there were 51 active project proposals with a total of 39 GW of new nameplate capacity across all stages of the FERC licensing process for new pumped storage hydroelectric plants in the US, but no new plants were currently under construction in the US at the time. The five largest operational pumped-storage plants are listed below \"(for a detailed list see List of pumped-storage hydroelectric power stations)\": China currently has 31 Pumped storage schemes under construction. In June 2018 the Australian federal government announced that 14 sites had been identified in Tasmania for pumped storage hydro, with the potential of adding 4.8GW to the national grid if a second interconnector beneath Bass Strait was constructed.", "Conventional hydroelectric dams may also make use of pumped storage in a hybrid system that both generates power from water naturally flowing into the reservoir as well as storing water pumped back to the reservoir from below the dam. The Grand Coulee Dam in the US was expanded with a pump-back system in 1973. Existing dams may be repowered with reversing turbines thereby extending the length of time the plant can operate at capacity. Optionally a pump back powerhouse such as the Russell Dam (1992) may be added to a dam for increased generating capacity. Making use of an existing dam's upper reservoir and transmission system can expedite projects and reduce costs. In January 2019, the State Grid Corporation of China announced plans to invest US$5.7 billion in five pumped hydro storage plants with a total 6GW capacity, to be located in Hebei, Jilin, Zhejiang, Shandong provinces, and in Xinjiang Autonomous Region. China is seeking to build 40GW of pumped hydro capacity installed by 2020.", "", "Pumped storage plants can operate with seawater, although there are additional challenges compared to using fresh water. Inaugurated in 1966, the 240 MW Rance tidal power station in France can partially work as a pumped-storage station. When high tides occur at off-peak hours, the turbines can be used to pump more seawater into the reservoir than the high tide would have naturally brought in. It is the only large-scale power plant of its kind. In 1999, the 30 MW Yanbaru project in Okinawa was the first demonstration of seawater pumped storage. It has since been decommissioned. A 300 MW seawater-based Lanai Pumped Storage Project was considered for Lanai, Hawaii, and seawater-based projects have been proposed in Ireland. A pair of proposed projects in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile would use 600 MW of photovoltaic solar (Skies of Tarapacá) together with 300 MW of pumped storage (Mirror of Tarapacá) raising seawater up a coastal cliff.", "The use of underground reservoirs has been investigated. Recent examples include the proposed Summit project in Norton, Ohio, the proposed Maysville project in Kentucky (underground limestone mine), and the Mount Hope project in New Jersey, which was to have used a former iron mine as the lower reservoir. The proposed energy storage at the Callio site in Pyhäjärvi (Finland) would utilize the deepest base metal mine in Europe, with elevation difference. Several new underground pumped storage projects have been proposed. Cost-per-kilowatt estimates for these projects can be lower than for surface projects if they use existing underground mine space. There are limited opportunities involving suitable underground space, but the number of underground pumped storage opportunities may increase if abandoned coal mines prove suitable. In Bendigo, Victoria, Australia, the Bendigo Sustainability Group has proposed the use of the old gold mines under Bendigo for Pumped Hydro Energy Storage. Bendigo has the greatest concentration of deep shaft hard rock mines anywhere in the world with over 5,000 shafts sunk under Bendigo in the second half of the 19th Century. The deepest shaft extends 1,406 metres vertically underground. A recent pre-feasibility study has shown the concept to be viable with a generation capacity of 30 MW and a run time of 6 hours using a water head of over 750 metres.", "Small (or micro) applications for pumped-storage could be built on streams and within infrastructures, such as drinking water networks and artificial snow making infrastructures. In this regard, a storm-water basin has been concretely implemented as a cost-effective solution for a water reservoir in a micro pumped hydro energy storage. Such plants provide distributed energy storage and distributed flexible electricity production and can contribute to the decentralized integration of intermittent renewable energy technologies, such as wind power and solar power. Reservoirs that can be used for small pumped-storage hydropower plants could include natural or artificial lakes, reservoirs within other structures such as irrigation, or unused portions of mines or underground military installations. In Switzerland one study suggested that the total installed capacity of small pumped-storage hydropower plants in 2011 could be increased by 3 to 9 times by providing adequate policy instruments.", "In March 2017 the research project StEnSea (Storing Energy at Sea) announced their successful completion of a four-week test of a pumped storage underwater reservoir. In this configuration a hollow sphere submerged and anchored at great depth acts as the lower reservoir, while the upper reservoir is the enclosing body of water. Electricity is created when water is let in via a reversible turbine integrated into the sphere. During off-peak hours the turbine changes direction and pumps the water out again, using \"surplus\" electricity from the grid. The quantity of power created when water is let in grows proportionally to the height of the column of water above the sphere, in other words: the deeper the sphere is located, the more potential energy it can store, which can be transformed into electric power. On the other hand, pumping the water back out at greater depths also uses up more power, since the turbine-turned-pump must act on the same entire column of water. As such the energy storage capacity of the submerged reservoir is not governed by the gravitational energy in the traditional sense, but rather by the vertical pressure variation. While StEnSea's test took place at a depth of 100 m in the fresh water Lake Constance, the technology is foreseen to be used in salt water at greater depths. Since the submerged reservoir needs only a connecting electrical cable, the depth at which it can be employed is limited only by the depth at which the turbine can function, currently limited to 700 m. The challenge of designing salt water pumped storage in this underwater configuration brings a range of advantages: A current commercial design featuring a sphere with an inner diameter of 30 m submerged to 700 m would correspond to a 20 MWh capacity which with a 5 MW turbine would lead to a 4-hour discharge time. An energy park with multiple such reservoirs would bring the storage cost to around a few eurocents per kWh with construction and equipment costs in the range €1,200-€1,400 per kW. To avoid excessive transmission cost and loss, the reservoirs should be placed off deep water coasts of densely populated areas, such as Norway, Spain, USA and Japan. With this limitation the concept would allow for worldwide electricity storage of close to 900 GWh. For comparison, a traditional, gravity-based pumped storage capable of storing 20 MWh in a water reservoir the size of a 30 m sphere would need a hydraulic head of 519 m with the elevation spanned by a pressurized water pipe requiring typically a hill or mountain for support.", "Using a pumped-storage system of cisterns and small generators, pico hydro may also be effective for \"closed loop\" home energy generation systems." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family of hers.", "Mythology.", "Heracles and Omphale.", "Sons of Heracles in Lydia.", "In cinema." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Omphale was the daughter of Iardanus, either a king of Lydia, or a river-god. According to \"Bibliotheke\" she was the wife of Tmolus, the oak-clad mountain king of Lydia; after he was gored to death by a bull, she continued to reign on her own.", "", "In one of many Greek variations on the theme of penalty for \"inadvertent\" murder, for his murder of Iphitus, the great hero Heracles, whom the Romans identified as Hercules, was, by the command of the Delphic Oracle Xenoclea, remanded as a slave to Omphale for the period of a year, the compensation to be paid to Eurytus, who refused it. The theme, inherently a comic inversion of sexual roles, is not fully illustrated in any surviving text from Classical Greece. Plutarch, in his \"vita\" of Pericles, 24, mentions lost comedies of Kratinos and Eupolis, which alluded to the contemporary capacity of Aspasia in the household of Pericles, and to Sophocles in \"The Trachiniae\" it was shameful for Heracles to serve an Oriental woman in this fashion, but there are many late Hellenistic and Roman references in texts and art to Heracles being forced to do women's work and even wear women's clothing and hold a basket of wool while Omphale and her maidens did their spinning. Omphale even wore the skin of the Nemean Lion and carried Heracles' olive-wood club. No full early account survives to supplement the later vase-paintings. But it was also during his stay in Lydia that Heracles captured the city of the Itones and enslaved them, killed Syleus who forced passersby to hoe his vineyard, and captured the Cercopes. He buried the body of Icarus and took part in the Calydonian Boar Hunt and the Argonautica. After some time, Omphale freed Heracles and took him as her husband. They travelled to the grove of Dionysus and planned to celebrate the rites of Bacchus at dawn. Heracles slept alone in a bed covered with the clothes of Omphale. The Greek god Pan hoped to have his way with Omphale and crept naked into the bed of Heracles who threw Pan to the floor and laughed.", "Diodorus Siculus (4.31.8) and Ovid in his \"Heroides\" (9.54) mention a son named Lamos. But \"Bibliotheca\" (2.7.8) gives the name of the son of Heracles and Omphale as Agelaus. Pausanias (2.21.3) gives yet another name, mentioning Tyrsenus, son of Heracles by \"the Lydian woman\", by whom Pausanias presumably means Omphale. This Tyrsenus supposedly first invented the trumpet, and Tyrsenus' son Hegeleus taught the Dorians with Temenus how to play the trumpet and first gave to Athena the surname \"Trumpet\". The name \"Tyrsenus\" appears elsewhere as a variant of Tyrrhenus, whom many accounts bring from Lydia to settle the Tyrsenoi/ Tyrrhenians/ Etruscans in Italy. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1.28.1) cites a tradition that the supposed founder of the Etruscan settlements was Tyrrhenus, the son of Heracles by Omphale the Lydian, who drove the Pelasgians out of Italy from the cities north of the Tiber river. Dionysius gives this as an alternate to other versions of Tyrrhenus' ancestry. Herodotus (1.7) refers to a Heraclid dynasty of kings who ruled Lydia, yet were perhaps not descended from Omphale, writing, \"The Heraclids, descended from Heracles and the slave-girl of Iardanus...\" Omphale as slave-girl seems odd. However, Diodorus Siculus relates that when Heracles was still Omphale's slave, before Omphale (daughter of Iardanus) set Heracles free and married him, Heracles fathered a son, Cleodaeus, on a slave-woman. This fits, though in Herodotus the son of Heracles and the slave-girl of Iardanus is named Alcaeus. But according to the historian Xanthus of Lydia (fifth century B.C.) as cited by Nicolaus of Damascus, the Heraclid dynasty of Lydia traced their descent to a son of Heracles and Omphale named Tylon, and were called Tylonidai. It is known from coins that this Tylon was a native Anatolian god equated with the Greek Heracles. Herodotus asserts that the first of the Heraclids to reign in Sardis was Agron, the son of Ninus, son of Belus, son of Alcaeus, son of Heracles. Later writers know a Ninus who is the primordial king of Assyria, and they often call this Ninus son of Belus. Their Ninus is the legendary founder and eponym of the city of Ninus, referring to Ninevah, while Belus, though sometimes treated as a human, is identified with the god Bel. An earlier genealogy may have made Agron, as a legendary first king of an ancient dynasty, to be a son of the mythical Ninus, son of Belus, and stopped at that point. In the genealogy given by Herodotus, someone may have grafted the tradition of a Lydian son of Heracles at the top end of it, so that Ninus and Belus in the list now become descendants of Heracles, who just happen to bear the same names as the more famous Ninus and Belus. That, at least, is the interpretation of later chronologists who also ignored Herodotus' statement that Agron was the first to be a king, and included Alcaeus, Belus, and Ninus in their List of kings of Lydia. As to how Agron gained the kingdom from the older dynasty descended from Lydus son of Atys, Herodotus only says that the Heraclids, \"having been entrusted by these princes with the management of affairs, obtained the kingdom by an oracle.\" Strabo (5.2.2) makes Atys father of Lydus, and Tyrrhenus to be one of the descendants of Heracles and Omphale. But all other accounts place Atys, Lydus, and Tyrrhenus brother of Lydus among the pre-Heraclid kings of Lydia.", "Queen Omphale is a main character of \"Hercules Unchained\", the sequel of \"Hercules\" (1958). Her guards capture males who drink from a fountain of forgetfulness one by one. She makes him her love slave, calls him the King, and then has him killed by her guards when they come with the next guy. In Hercules's quest to mediate the power struggle between Polynices and Eteocles, he drinks from the fountain and becomes captive to Omphale. His sidekick, Ulysses (Odysseus), pretends to be deaf and mute in order to remain imprisoned on the island and stay in contact with Hercules, as opposed to being killed. He sneaks out of his cell one night to find a cave filled with preserved statues of Omphale's previous love slaves. He continues to feed Hercules regular water, which eventually leads to Hercules regaining memory and escaping the island. Omphale ultimately commits suicide by jumping in the preservation bath when Hercules escapes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Heracles' love for Iole leads to his death.", "Versions of the tale.", "Ovid's account.", "Sophocles' account.", "Seneca's account.", "Appearances in popular culture.", "Middle Age tradition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Apollodorus recounted the tale in his \"Bibliotheca\". King Eurytus was an expert archer who taught his sons his knowledge of the bow and arrow. He promised his daughter Iole to whoever could beat him and his sons in an archery contest. The sons shot so well that they beat all the others from the kingdom. Heracles then heard of the prize and eagerly entered the contest for he desired the maiden. Heracles shot with keenness and even beat Eurytus' scores. It is ironic because Eurytus in his early years had taught Heracles to become an archer. When the king realized that Heracles was winning, he stopped the contest and forbade him to participate. Eurytus was well-aware of Heracles' murder of his previous wife, Megara and their children and thus afraid that Iole and her offspring by him would suffer the same fate. Eventually, Heracles had won the contest but was not entitled to the prize because of his reputation. Eurytus broke his promise to give his royal daughter to the winner of the archery contest. Iphitos urged his father to reconsider, but Eurytus did not pay any heed and stood by his decision. Heracles had not left the city yet when Eurytus' mares were run off, presumably by Autolycus, a notorious thief. Iphitos asked Heracles to help him find them, which he agreed to do so. Heracles, in one of his madness, hurled Iphitos over the city walls, murdering him. According to Diodorus Siculus, it was Heracles himself that drove off the mares of Eurytus in revenge. The hero had failed in his courtship to win Iole. After the archery contest, Heracles went to Calydon, where, on the steps of the temple, he saw Deianira, Prince Meleager's sister. He forgot about Iole for a while and wooed her, eventually won her over and married her. Heracles after acquiring a kingdom and in control of an army, went about to kill Eurytus in revenge for not giving up his promised prize. Hyginus added that Heracles not only murdered Eurytus, but also slayed Iole's brothers and other relatives as well. The hero plundered Oechalia and overthrew its walls while Iole threw herself down from the high city wall to escape. It turned out that the garment she was wearing opened up and acted like a parachute which ensured her soft and safe descent. Heracles captured and took Iole unwillingly as captive. His wife, Deianira, did not like Iole to become Heracles' concubine but she forebore to object and tolerated it temporarily. Deianira feared she would lose Heracles to the younger and more beautiful Iole. Years earlier, the centaur Nessus had ferried her across the river Evenus and attempted to rape her when they were on the other side. Heracles saved her from Nessus by shooting him with poisoned arrows. She had kept some of Nessus' blood for the centaur told her in his dying breath that if she were to give Heracles a cloak (chiton) soaked in his blood, it would be a love charm. Deianira, being concerned by Heracles' infidelity, believed Nessus’ lie that Heracles would no longer desire any other woman after he was under the spell of the love philter. This seemed like the perfect solution to her problem to reclaim her husband's love from him Iole, the foreign concubine. The cloak was delivered to Heracles and when he put it on the poison went into his body. Deianira had unwittingly poisoned her husband with this purported love potion because of her sadness over her husband's unfaithfulness. Upon realizing the mistake she had made, Deianira then killed herself. Because of his love for his concubine Iole, Heracles asked his eldest son, Hyllus to marry her so that she would be well taken care of. Iole and Hyllus had a son called Cleodaeus, and also three daughters, Evaechme, Aristaechme, and Hyllis.", "", "Ovid's version of this story (\"Heroides\" 9) has Heracles under the erotic control of Iole. She specifically has Heracles wear women's clothing and perform women's work. Heracles at this time all the while is bragging about his heroic deeds. However, Deianira reminds him how he is dressed in feminine attire and Iole is wearing his clothing while carrying his club. Deianira ultimately urges silence from him. The same version shows the disgrace and shame of Heracles, who was once a strong warrior fighter, outwitted by Iole in being made to do effeminate acts. In this skillful crafty manner, she had avenged her father's death.", "According to Sophocles' play \"Women of Trachis\", Iole's mother was Antiope and her siblings were Iphitos, Clytius, Toxeus, Deioneus, Molion, and Didaeon. In the play, Iole is described as the daughter of King Eurytus, the royal princess of Oechalia. She is among the captive maidens of Oechalia when Heracles ransacks the city. She is to become the concubine of Heracles. Toward the end of the play Heracles asks his son Hyllus to marry her when he dies, so she will be well taken care of. Hyllus agrees to do this for his father.", "According to Seneca, Deianira is concerned if the captive Iole that Heracles took as his concubine will give brothers to her sons. She fears that Iole will become daughter-in-law of Jove. He explains how Deianira thinks of the possible children of Heracles by Iole and her chance for vengeance on them. He shows the same jealousy Deianira has of Iole as does Apollodorus.", "Iole appears in \"Hercules in the Underworld\", played by Marley Shelton. She is a Neurian Maiden, one trained in the art of seduction. She recruits Hercules to help her village because a portal to the underworld has opened up. Though she already has a boyfriend named Lycastus, in an effort to persuade Hercules to help, she attempts to seduce him and manages to kiss him, but he remains faithful to his wife Deianeira and says he'll help her village because it is the right thing to do. Similar to the original myth, Deianeira becomes suspicious of the two spending time together as they travel to her village and sends Hercules a cloak smeared with Nessus's blood, thinking it will keep Hercules faithful to her. Instead, the cloak tries to strangle him when he puts it on, but he manages to destroy it. After Hercules manages to solve the portal problem, Iole decides to start a family with Lycastus. Iole appears as a little girl in 2005's mini-series, \"Hercules\"; she is the daughter of Eurystheus and Megara. In an attempt to bring peace between the two branches of the family, Hercules asks for his son Hyllas to be betrothed to Iole- to marry one day, should he fulfill one of his Labours: capturing/ shooting the Cerynian Hind; he's successful, but Eurystheus refuses- having been foretold that Iole's husband would eventually kill him. This is later proved true, when Hyllas throws a knife at the king.", "She is remembered in \"De Mulieribus Claris\", a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The canal starts at, just south of the city of Aksu (formerly Yermak), where it takes water from one of the branches of the Irtysh River. It runs for 451 km in the general western, south-western, and southern direction. It reaches an industrial area on the north-eastern outskirts of Karaganda at (Kokpekti District), at which point its water apparently goes into an underground pipeline. On its route, the canal passes through numerous reservoirs (the Ekibastuz Reservoir (, about 10 km north of Ekibastuz), as well as other reservoirs at,, etc.). The canal crosses the Nura River at, in what appears to be a tunnel. Some of the canal's water is directed into the Nura (a chute below the dam at ), replenishing this river. As Karaganda is located at a higher elevation than the Irtysh, the canal is furnished with 22 pumping stations, raising the water by 475 m in total.", "The construction of the canal started in 1962. It was put to use by 1968, and fully completed by 1974. In the early 21st century, a pipeline was built from the canal to the Ishim River, to supply Kazakhstan's capital Astana with water. As of 2013, proposals are floated in Kazakhstan about either extending the Irtysh–Karaganda Canal all the way to the Ishim River upstream of Astana, or building a new canal between the Irtysh and Astana. According to a report published in 2013, the canal presently operates at only about one-half of its full capacity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "First efforts.", "Looking for alternatives.", "Construction plans.", "Pre-construction preparations.", "Location.", "Construction.", "Transport of material.", "Construction works.", "Opening ceremony.", "Construction funding.", "Base.", "Individual buildings.", "Operation.", "Research.", "Another “Czech” station." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A plan to build a Czech polar station first appeared in the 1960s. It was driven partly by political interests of the Soviet Union, but mostly by an effort to expand the biological, glaciological, climatological and geological research in Czechoslovakia. However, the efforts to build the station came to an end at the beginning of the 1970s due to a lack of funding. At the same time, interest in investing into research in such a distant and unusual location began to wane. The interest started to grow again in the 1980s on the part of the Czech Geological Institute (now Czech Geological Survey). At the same time, they chose a location where the base was to be built: in the eastern part of Antarctica on Prydz Bay. (Later on, Australia, Russia, and China all built their stations in this area.) However, the project was cancelled again despite sufficient funding. This time, it failed to find a federal institution willing to support it and submit the plan for approval to the Federal Assembly, as required; even the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic issued a negative decision.", "In 1994 a group of Czech researchers from Masaryk University, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice and Czech Hydrometeorological Institute set out to King George Island to carry out research at the Polish station, which is one of eight stations located in that area. This cooperation continued until 1997. However, working at a foreign station proved to be unsuitable due to conflicts between the individual research teams. Afterwards, it was proposed to build a common station of the countries of the Visegrád Group (the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and Hungary). However, this proposal was later rejected due to problems with the distribution of funding among the countries. The research activities of Masaryk University and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic in Antarctica continued between 1999 and 2004. As there was still no Czech station (even though preparations for construction were already under way), the research was carried out at the stations of the United Kingdom and Ukraine.", "The first site chosen for the future Czech station was Turret Point, which is located close to King George Bay on King George Island, approximately north of the current location. In 2001 the proposed location was submitted to the Committee for Environmental Protection at a conference in Saint Petersburg. However, the proposal was refused, primarily due to the number of existing stations in the area and a proposal submitted by other countries to declare the area protected. There was also the option of using one of the mothballed British stations, but none of them met the needs of the Czech scientific expedition. Therefore, a new location was chosen and presented at the next Committee conference, which took place in Warsaw. This time, the proposed location of the station was approved without any further problems. The location was at the northern tip of James Ross Island and it is the place where the station was finally built. The ice-free surroundings and large distance from other station – the closest one is the Argentinian Marambio Base, more than to the south-east – were the most obvious benefits of this location. The project documentation of the station was completed during the next conference of the Committee for Environmental Protection in 2003, but it was refused due to changes made after the deadline. It was approved the following year, with almost no changes to the scope of construction, at a conference in Cape Town. The transport of material to the future location of the station started already in autumn 2004.", "The structure of the station had to meet two requirements: minimum energy consumption and minimum environmental burden for the surrounding area. The main principles for the construction of the station included:", "The station is located at 63°48′02.3′′ S, 57°52′59.9′′ W on James Ross Island near the coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. This peninsula juts out from mainland Antarctica to the north towards the southern tip of South America. The first sailor to reach James Ross Island was probably James Clark Ross in the 19th century, who called it \"Haddington Land\". It was not until the winter of 1902/1903 that the expedition led by Otto Nordenskjöld found out that Haddington Land is actually an island and called it James Ross Island in honour of its discoverer. They also named the Strait separating it from the mainland the Prince Gustav Channel. It is an area with low concentration of polar stations; the closest station is the Argentinian Marambio Base on Seymour Island. The Mendel Polar Station building and facilities are located on the northern coast of James Ross Island, on a slightly stony beach about from the shoreline at an altitude of between the Bibby Point and Cape Lachman headlands. It faces the Prince Gustav Channel, which is long and used to be covered by a permanent layer of ice that disintegrated in the summer of 1994. However, it is still full of ice floes and pieces of icebergs, so ship transport remains complicated (as of 2010). The whole north-western part of the island – Ulu Peninsula – represents one of the largest ice-free areas of Antarctica. Up to 80% of the island area is free of ice. Thanks to a rain shadow cast by the Antarctic Peninsula, the annual precipitation is low – about –and the occasional snowfall quickly melts and is absorbed into the ground. This is because the station is located on a marine terrace formed by compact fine sand (Regolith). In 2008, the minimum temperature was and the maximum temperature was (mean ); the minimum humidity was 71.2% and the maximum humidity was 88.1% (mean 81%). The specific location of the station was chosen based on three main criteria:", "", "Structural elements and parts of the infrastructure needed for the station were produced in 2001–2002 in the Czech Republic. During the preparations phase, some parts were assembled and tried out to reduce on-site construction time and eliminate potential problems. Transport of construction material started in November 2004. The material was sent first to Hamburg and then to the Punta Arenas port in Chile. The plan was to transport everything from there directly to James Ross Island, but the transport was fraught with problems: the first ship, \"Antarctic Dream\", could not set out at all due to its poor technical condition and the second one, \"Porvenir I.\", had an accident close to the Port on its way to the loading site. The third attempt, which used a Chilean military Icebreaker, \"Oscar Almirante Viel\", finally succeeded.", "The icebreaker approached the construction site in the morning of 24 February 2004. During the two days that followed, eight containers weighing together 130 tonnes (286,601 pounds) were unloaded from the ship. Construction works started as soon as the ship was unloaded. This first delivery of material was used to build almost the whole main building, which was then used to store materials for further construction. The construction took place towards the end of the Antarctic summer and lasted seven days. As the first delivery did not contain all the necessary construction materials and systems, the main building and surrounding containers were winterised and the construction activities continued the following year. For Antarctica, weather conditions were very favourable during the construction, but the temperature was still between and the winds reached, sometimes blowing incessantly for several days.", "After all the necessary preparations, the station was inaugurated and christened on 22 February 2007. The members of the scientific team, a representative from the Czech embassy in Argentina and the dean of the Faculty of Science at Masaryk University all attended the ceremony.", "The project was financed by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic and owned by the Masaryk University. The whole complex was built by the PSG-International company from Zlín, which was chosen in a tender. The station construction costs amounted to approximately 60 million Czech crowns (€2,1M as of February 2007).", "", "Compared to other older Antarctic bases, the station is rather small and stands out among the often overlarge buildings previously built in Antarctica by other countries. The design of the whole complex revolves around the Climate conditions in the area. The main building is a one-storey Wooden structure (, high) used for accommodation, cooking, and eating as well as for leisure and research activities. There are twelve single or twin rooms, two shared studies, a dining room, a small kitchen, sanitary facilities, and a drying room. There is a grating made of Oak railway sleepers embedded in the shallow foundations of the building; this structure is no less than above the ground to reduce Heat losses caused by the cold Antarctic soil. The walls are thick and they are built using the K-Kontrolsystem. They consist of two oriented strand boards with insulation filling in between the boards. The external surface of the walls is covered with Plywood to protect the structure from adverse effects of the environment (sea salt aerosol, occasional Dust storms). The floor and the ceilings are constructed in a similar way, but they are thicker –. The roof slopes to the south at a pitch of 5% and is covered with a PVC board, which protects the building from Ultraviolet radiation. There are nine containers around the main building measuring, which have been converted to storage places for engine generators and spare parts, garages, a waste incinerator and a power generator. Attached to the containers are wind turbines that can be folded if the wind is too strong. The fact that the individual structures are scattered around in the area decreases the risk of a fire or an environmental disaster.", "The station is seasonal and is only operated during the summer months, with about 15 people working at the station. Heating and obtaining drinking water would be difficult outside the summer season: the water would have to be obtained by melting snow, requiring a large amount of diesel oil. The station features a well thought-out system of Alternative energy sources that decreases the consumption of diesel oil in the summer months. Solar thermal collectors covering a wall area of are installed on the northern side of the building, which receives the most solar radiation, and are capable of heating the air up to. The hot air is blown inside the building, keeping the indoor temperature at. Originally, there were also flat plate collectors heating water for the kitchen and the bathroom during warm days attached to the wall. However, the capacity of these collectors was found to be insufficient; they were removed and Solar cells producing electric energy were installed in their place. Electricity is also produced by eight 1.5 kW wind turbines; the energy they produce can be stored in NiCd batteries. The rest of the required electric energy is produced by diesel generators. Depending on the weather, sources of renewable energy provide 60–90% of the energy consumed by the station. The station uses the Argentinian time zone UTC−3. Water is obtained from a nearby stream; however, as the stream occasionally freezes over in February and March, water is also stored in special containers inside the building. Communication with the outside world is possible thanks to the Bender satellite technology system based on the Inmarsat network and developed in cooperation with the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at the Czech Technical University in Prague. It allows data exchange at a speed of up to 492 Kbit/s. The station equipment also includes a ramp and a waste water disposal system discharging treated waste water into the sea. The design of the station and all its systems fully respects all environmental requirements and regulations listed in the appendix to the Antarctic Treaty (\"Protocol of Environmental Protection in Antarctica\"). The annual cost of operating the station is 11 million Czech crowns and is mostly covered by the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports; the rest is paid by the Masaryk University. In case of sudden withdrawal of funds or budget cuts – as in 2015, when only six researchers could leave for the station – the missing finances should be provided by the Czech Antarctic Foundation, which was founded in 2014 and is led by the founder of the Czech polar station Pavel Prošek.", "The location of the station had not been researched before the station was built, even though the area is attractive for the type of projects that are the focus of the Czech research in Antarctica. From geological perspective, it is an area of chalk sediments rich in fossils with occasional intrusions of igneous rock. Volcanic activity often took place below the glaciers. The consequences of climate change have been observed in this area since the mid 20th century in the retreat of glaciers and colonisation of the exposed surface by non-vascular plants. Many organisms are completely new to science and there is a high share of endemic species. The freshwater lakes in the surrounding area contain interesting and hitherto uninvestigated communities of algae, cyanobacteria and simple animal species. The research projects in the area had started before the construction of the station and included geological research led by the Czech Geological Survey as well as climatological and geomorphological research led by the Masaryk University Faculty of Science. As the construction was nearing completion, the Faculty of Science of the University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice and the Institute of Botany at the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic started a joint botanical project of cyanobacteria research. The MU Faculty of Science also prepared a research project focused on ultraviolet radiation in the area; besides UV radiation, the project also studied Ozone layers. The area surrounding the station was also geologically mapped by the Czech Geological Survey. There has been basic ornithological research as well; however, the Nesting season of most birds starts in mid November, while ornithologist usually arrive at the station only at the beginning of January. Ichthyological research focused on fish in coastal waters and their parasites and there was also a study on the Gammarus genus focused on how animals detect the magnetic field. The bacteriological research has described new species of Bacteria. One of the projects assessed the stress of polar researches during their stay at the station and the extent to which their bodies accommodated to the conditions in Antarctica, while another project studied ageing of plastic materials in the extreme Antarctic weather. Institutions from other countries, such as the Instituto Antártico Argentino, Instituto Nacional Antártico Chileno, British Antarctic Survey, Servicio Meteorológico Nacional Argentina, and Nederlands Instituut voor Ecologie also participate in the research. Available spots at the station are offered to researchers and students at both Czech and foreign universities and research institutions.", "On Nelson Island, which is one of South Shetland Islands, there is the Eco-Nelson polar station founded in 1988 by another Czech polar explorer Jaroslav Pavlíček. However, this station hosts international research and is therefore not considered a Czech station." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Current addressing schemes.", "House numbering or naming.", "Quadrants.", "Street-naming conventions.", "Postal codes.", "Postal alternatives to physical addresses.", "Address format.", "Format by country and area.", "Argentina.", "Australia.", "Austria.", "Bangladesh.", "Belarus.", "Belgium.", "Brazil.", "Bulgaria.", "Canada.", "Chile.", "China.", "Colombia.", "Croatia.", "Czech Republic.", "Denmark.", "Estonia.", "Finland.", "France.", "Germany.", "Greece.", "Hong Kong.", "Hungary.", "Iceland.", "India.", "Indonesia.", "Iran.", "Iraq.", "Ireland.", "Israel.", "Italy.", "Japan.", "South Korea.", "Latvia.", "Macau.", "Malaysia.", "Mexico.", "Netherlands.", "New Zealand.", "Norway.", "Oman.", "Pakistan.", "Peru.", "Philippines.", "Poland.", "Portugal.", "Qatar.", "Romania.", "Russia.", "Saudi Arabia.", "Serbia.", "Singapore.", "Slovakia.", "Slovenia.", "Spain.", "Sri Lanka.", "Sweden.", "Switzerland.", "Taiwan.", "Thailand.", "Turkey.", "Ukraine.", "United Arab Emirates.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Vietnam." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Until the 18th and 19th centuries, most houses and buildings were not numbered. Street naming and numbering began under the age of Enlightenment, also as part of campaigns for census and military conscription, such as in the dominions of Maria Theresa in the mid 18th century. Numbering allowed everyone to efficiently receive mail, as the postal system evolved in the", "", "In most English-speaking countries, the usual method of house numbering is an alternating numbering scheme progressing in each direction along a street, with odd numbers on one side (often west or south or the left-hand side leading away from a main road) and even numbers on the other side, although there is significant variation on this basic pattern. Many older towns and cities in the UK have \"up and down\" numbering where the numbers progress sequentially along one side of the road, and then", "In cities with Cartesian-coordinate-based addressing systems, the streets that form the north–south and east–west dividing lines constitute the \"x\" and \"y\" axes of a Cartesian coordinate plane and thus divide the city into quadrants. The quadrants are typically", "Street names may follow a variety of themes. In many North American cities, such as, San Francisco USA, and Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Vancouver, British Columbia, streets are simply numbered sequentially across the street grid. Washington, D.C. has its numbered streets running north–south and lettered or alphabetically named streets running east–west, while diagonal avenues are typically named after states. In Salt Lake", "Postal codes are a relatively recent development in addressing, designed to speed", "For privacy and other purposes, postal services have made it possible to receive mail without", "In most of the world, addresses are written in order from most specific to general, i.e. finest to coarsest information, starting with the addressee and ending with the largest geographical unit. For example: In English-speaking countries, the postal code usually comes last. In much of Europe, the code precedes the town name, thus: \"1010 Lausanne\". Sometimes, the country code is placed in front of the postal code: \"CH-1010 Lausanne\". If a house number is provided, it is written on the same line as the street name; a house name is written on the previous line. When addresses are written inline, line breaks are replaced", "", "In Argentina, an address must be mailed this way: The postal code has been changed from a four digit format to an eight digit format, which is shown in the example. The", "In common with the rest of the English-speaking world, addresses in Australia put the street number—which may be a range—before the street name, and the placename before the postcode. Unlike addresses in most other comparable places, the city is not included in the address, but rather a much more fine-grained locality is used, usually referred to in Australia as a suburb or locality – although these words are understood in a different way than in other countries. Because the suburb or town serves to locate the street or delivery type, the postcode serves only as routing information rather than to distinguish previous other parts of an address. As an example, there are around 8000 localities in Victoria (cf. List of localities in Victoria (Australia) and List of Melbourne suburbs), yet around 700 unique geographic postcodes. For certain large volume receivers or post offices, the \"locality\" may be an institution or street name. It is always considered incorrect to include the city or metropolis name in an address (unless this happens to be the name of the suburb), and doing so may delay delivery. Australia Post recommends that the last line of the address should be set in capital letters. In Australia, subunits are essential and should be separated from the street by two spaces; apartments, flats and units are typically separated", "In Austria, the address is generally formatted", "In Bangladesh, the format used for rural and urban addresses is", "In Belarus, Some neighbourhoods may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings don't face a named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, a \"main\" building may have the same number as one or more \"subsidiary\" buildings accessible via driveways behind the main building. They will be addressed as \"vul. Lenina, d. 123\" (\"123 Lenin St\") An address may also cover one or more \"subsidiary buildings\"", "In Belgium, the address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (postcode and town for domestic mail or country for cross border mail.) Spatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line. The street number is placed after the thoroughfare name (unlike in France), separated by a space. Separators such as punctuation (point, comma or other signs) or 'n°’, or 'nr' are not allowed. Extension designation (box numbers), if present, appears in the", "In Brazil, an address must be written this way: States can have their name written in full, abbreviated in some way, or totally abbreviated to two letters (SP = São Paulo, RJ = Rio de Janeiro, etc.). Only towns with 60,000 inhabitants and above have postal codes individualized for streets,", "Similar to Belgium and most other European countries, in Bulgaria the address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (postcode and town for domestic mail or country for cross border (international) mail.) Spatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line. The street number is placed after the thoroughfare name (unlike in France), separated by a space and the symbol 'No. '. Separators such as punctuation (point, comma or other signs) are allowed if needed. Extension designation (box numbers), if present, appears in the delivery point location line, preceded by the word for \"box\" (\"П.К. {numeral}\", \"П. К. {numeral}\", or \"Пощенска кутия {numeral}\"). Symbols such as \"#\", \"-\", \"/\" are not strictly disallowed as separators between the street number element and the box number element. Note that there may sometimes be a confusion between \"П.К.\" (\"пощенски код\", postal code (of the local post-office)) and \"П.К.\" (\"пощенска кутия\", P.O. (post-office box), the individual physical P.O. box of a specific address or a subscription-based physical P.O. box", "Addressing guidelines can differ between English- and French-speaking populations in Canada. Here are some formatting rules that are", "Chilean urban addresses require only the street name, house number, apartment number (if necessary) and municipality; however, more information is frequently included, such as neighbourhood, city, region. Postal codes are rarely included by people. All postal codes have seven digits, the first three indicating the municipality, the next four identifying a block or in", "In China, the Postal area when written in Chinese characters (preferably Simplified Chinese characters), has the order of the largest unit first, ending with the addressee, i.e. country, province, municipality, town, street or road, building name, floor/level, house/flat number, company name,", "In Colombia the address format uses a numeric format based on \"calles\"", "Croatian Post recommends the following format: Croatia uses five-digit postal code numbers. The Croatian", "Common format in Czech Republic: Postal codes are in the format \"### ##\" (i.e. 158 00 = Prague 58) or \"CZ-#####\" (especially for international sendings). At pre-printed Czech postcards and envelopes, the postal code is filled into frames at separate last row. If the envelope doesn't have pre-printed rows and frames, the postal code should be before the town (or post office) name. On private letters, the first line is usually constituted by a courtesy title (pan, paní, slečna, žák...) For private mails addressed to the workplace, the order is (name + company), while in official mails it is (company + name).", "In Denmark, apartment buildings will usually have two or three apartments per floor. Thus, if the addressee lives in an apartment, the address should contain the floor they live on, and a side (\"t.v.\", \"mf.\" or", "In Estonia,", "In Finland, if a person's name is written before the company name in the address field of a letter, then that person is considered the recipient. In this case, no other employee is allowed to open the letter but the indicated recipient. If the company name is before the", "In France, the address is generally formatted as follows: The postal code always consists of five digits. The \"location\" is usually a town, but may", "In Germany, the address", "Hellenic Post recommends the following format for Greek addresses: The most widespread format, shown above, gives on the last line the recipient's five-digit post code (with a single space between the third and fourth digits) and the name of the town or village that is the base of a post office, in capital letters and", "The official languages of Hong Kong are Chinese and English. For domestic mail within Hong Kong, the address may be written entirely in either Chinese or English. For overseas mail going out from Hong Kong, the address may be written in the language of the destination country, provided that the city name and the country name are in English. However, for an overseas mail from Hong Kong to Mainland China, Macao, Taiwan or Singapore, the address may be written entirely in Chinese. While traditional Chinese characters are commonly used in Hong", "In Hungarian mail addresses, the city/town name precedes the street address. The post code then comes after the street address. Hungarian family names precede given names in Hungarian. In this example, Kis is the family name. Sometimes a district number", "In Iceland,", "In India, multiple formats are used. General Address The format used for rural", "In Indonesia, the address format is like this: Generally \"Jalan\" or \"Jl.\" means'street'", "Postal addresses in Iran has a standard which should be used by mail or parcel senders.", "In Iraq,", "In July 2015, Ireland introduced Eircodes, a seven digit alphanumeric code, consisting of a 3 character routing key and a 4 character unique identifier for the property. Example A65 F4E2. Up until the introduction of Eircodes Dublin was the only county with a form of postal district", "In Israel, the Universal Postal Union recommend the following: In apartment buildings the building number should appear first and than the apartment number separated by a \"/\". In the below example, \"16\" is the building number", "An internal address, in Italy, must be composed of three to five rows.", "A Japanese postal address, when written in Japanese phonetic and Chinese characters, starts with the largest geographical division, continues with progressively smallers subdivisions before ending with the addressee, i.e. country, prefecture, town, chōme, banchi, building number, building name, floor number, company name, addressee. This is the most common addressing format used when mailing within Japan. It is common practice to add", "South Korea uses a system similar to Western addressing, but previously used a system", "In Latvia, the address in generally", "The official languages of Macau are Portuguese and Cantonese. For domestic mail within Macau, the address may be written entirely in either Portuguese or Chinese. For overseas mail going out from Macau, the address may be written in the language of the destination country, provided that the city name and the country name are in English. However, for an overseas mail from Macau to China, Hong Kong, Taiwan or Singapore, the address may be written entirely in Chinese. While traditional Chinese characters are commonly used in Macau,", "Pos Malaysia recommends", "In Mexico Correos de", "In the Netherlands, the address is generally formatted as follows: The postal code is a unique street identifier, and always consists of four numbers followed by a space and then two capital letters. PostNL, which is appointed by the Dutch government to carry out the UPD (Dutch for \"Universal Postal Service\"), recommends putting two spaces between postal code and town. Also, the", "In New Zealand, New Zealand Post recommends the following format: Note that no space or full stops exists between P and O in PO Box or R and D in RD. One should put only one space between the town/city and the postcode. Note for Wellington metropolitan area, users should use the city name (i.e. Wellington, Lower", "Postal addresses in Norway are formatted as follows: The first line, \"Recipient (Person or Entity)\", is the legal recipient of the item being sent. The Recipient's name must be marked on the mail box in order for the item to be delivered. Flat or floor number is", "In the Sultanate of Oman (2012), the address is formatted as follows:", "The format used in the", "In Peru, addresses in the Metropolitan Area of Lima and", "The Philippines follows Western conventions on", "In Poland, the address is generally formatted as follows: ul. = Str (Street)<br> al. = Ave (Avenue)<br> pl. = Sq (Square, or Circus) The abbreviation \"m.\" (meaning \"mieszkanie\" = \"flat\") can be used instead of \"/\" before the flat number. The postal code always", "Portuguese postal addresses is similar to continental European addresses: Postal codes have the codice_1 format. Street name and the number is traditionally separated by a comma, but nowadays CTT recommends just a blank space, or two blank", "In Qatar, Q-Post recommends the following format: Not all of Qatar's roads", "In Romania, the address", "In Russia, the address must be written in Cyrillic or Latin alphabet, in usual format (from most specific to general). Example: \"Note: sub-region and region/oblast names are void if the city is Moscow or Saint Petersburg or if it is sub-region administrative center.\" Some neighbourhoods may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings face no named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, such as the historical center of Moscow, a \"main\" building may have the same number as one or more \"subsidiary\" buildings", "In Saudi Arabia, the address could", "Serbian postal addresses conform to rules similar to continental European rules: In addition to", "In Singapore, SingPost recommends the following format for addresses: Generally, the", "Common format in Slovakia: Postal codes are in the format \"### ##\" (i.e. 851 01 = Bratislava 5). Street numbers can be written as orientation numbers (related to street) or descriptive numbers (unique within the town) or as a combination separated by a slash (descriptive/orientation).", "Slovenia uses a four-digit postal number. The first digit indicates the area: The simpler the code, the bigger the locality: 1000 Ljubljana, 2000 Maribor (big cities); 1310 Ribnica, 9250 Gornja Radgona (mid-sized towns); 4263 Bohinjska Bela, 8262 Krška vas (smaller settlements, including villages). Some cities have more than one post office, thus having multiple postcodes (usually in the x1xx format). For example, Ljubljana which has a \"general\"", "In Spain, the addresses are generally formatted as follows: 5oB means 5th floor (Spanish: quinto), door B. Also, there may be door number, printed as 1a (primera-first). Suffixes \"o\" and \"a\" derives", "Sri Lanka Post recommends the following format: Sri Lanka uses a five-digit postal", "In Sweden, the address is generally formatted as follows: The postal code is always a five-digit number divided into groups of three and", "In Switzerland, the address is generally formatted as follows: The canton abbreviation (SO, VD in the examples) is needed only for cities/town", "In Taiwan, addresses are regulated by the Department of Household Registration, while mails", "In Thailand, address", "Turkish addressing system is as follows: However, in rural areas", "Some neighbourhoods in the Ukraine may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings don't face a named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, a \"main\" building may have the same number as one or more \"subsidiary\" buildings accessible via driveways behind the main building. They will be addressed as \"vul. Bandery, d. 123\" (\"123 Bandera St\") An address may also cover one or more", "In the United Arab Emirates, Emirates Post Group recommends the following format: Not all of the roads and buildings", "In the United Kingdom, the format specified by the postal operator Royal Mail is as follows: The locality is required only where its absence would cause ambiguity, for example where a post town or postcode district includes two streets with the same name. Royal Mail specifies that post towns should be written in block capitals. Until 1996 a postal county (or permitted abbreviation) was required after the post town, unless it was", "In the United States, addresses are generally formatted as", "In the Vietnam," ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Church.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The age of the monastic site is not known. A legend tells us that Stephen the Great, in a moment of crisis during a war against the Ottoman Turks, came to Daniel the Hermit at his skete in Voroneț and asked for advice. Daniel told him not to surrender the fight. Then, after victory, he must build a monastery dedicated to Saint George. The original entrance above the Church of Saint George, now in the exonarthex, bears the inscription: The church was built on a triconch plan (with three apses), with a chancel, a naos with its tower, and a pronaos. In 1547, the Metropolitan Bishop of Moldavia Grigorie Roșca added the exonarthex to the west end of the church and had the exterior walls painted. His contribution is recorded on the left of the entrance door: The monastery contains tombstones commemorating Saint Daniel the Hermit, Grigorie Roșca, and other patrons of the church and noblemen. Voroneţ was known for its school of calligraphy, where priests, monks and friars learned to read, write and translate religious texts. The school produced two notable copies of Romanian translations of the Bible: \"The Codex of Voroneț\", discovered in 1871, and \"The Psalter of Voroneț\", found in 1882. These books are now held at the Romanian Academy. The monastery was deserted soon after 1775, when the Habsburg Monarchy annexed the northern part of Moldavia. The monastic community returned to Voroneț in 1991. Since their return, those living in the monastery have constructed housing for the resident nuns, a chapel, fountains, stables, barns, and a house for pilgrims.", "The katholikon (main church) of Saint George at Voroneț Monastery is possibly the most famous church in Romania. It is known throughout the world for its exterior frescoes of bright and intense colours, and for the hundreds of well-preserved figures placed against the renowned azurite background. The small windows, their rectangular frames of crossed rods and the receding pointed or shouldered arches of the interior doorframes are Gothic. The south and north doors of the exonarthex of 1547 have rectangular frames, which indicate a transition period from Gothic to Renaissance. But, above them, on each wall is a tall window with a flamboyant Gothic arch. The whole west façade is without any openings, which indicates that the intention of the Metropolitan Roșca was from the beginning to reserve it for frescoes. On the north façade is still visible the original decoration of the church, the rows of ceramic enamelled discs in yellow, brown and green, decorated in relief. These include heraldic motifs, such as the rampant lion and the aurochs' head of the Moldavian coat of arms, and creatures inspired by Western European mediaeval literature, such as two-tailed mermaids. The tower is decorated with sixteen tall niches, in four of which are windows. A row of small niches encircles the tower above them. The fragmented roof probably follows the shape of the original roof, which doubtless was made with shingles.", "5. Kocój E., Świątynie, postacie, ikony. Malowane cerkwie i monastyry Bukowiny Południowej w wyobrażeniach rumuńskich, Kraków 2006, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, ss. 444, 120 pf, https://www.academia.edu/24331662/%C5%9Awi%C4%85tynie_postacie_ikony._Malowane_cerkwie_i_monastyry_Bukowiny_Po%C5%82udniowej_w_wyobra%C5%BCeniach_rumu%C5%84skich_Temples_persons_icons._Painted_churches_and_monasteries_of_South_Bukovina_in_Romanian_imagology_Wydawnictwo_Uniwersytetu_Jagiello%C5%84skiego_Krak%C3%B3w_2006_s._440" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Functionality focus.", "3D video players.", "Home theater PC." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Different media players have different goals and feature sets. \"Video players\" are a group of media players that have their features geared more towards playing digital video. For example, Windows DVD Player exclusively plays DVD-Video discs and nothing else. Media Player Classic can play individual audio and video files but many of its features such as color correction, picture sharpening, zooming, set of hotkeys, DVB support and subtitle support are only useful for video material such as films and cartoons. \"Audio players\", on the other hand, specialize in digital audio. For example, AIMP exclusively plays audio formats. MediaMonkey can play both audio and video formats, but many of its features including media library, lyric discovery, music visualization, online radio, audiobook indexing, and tag editing are geared toward consumption of audio material; watching video files on it can be a trying feat. General-purpose media players also do exist. For example, Windows Media Player has exclusive features for both audio and video material, although it cannot match the feature set of Media Player Classic and MediaMonkey combined.", "3D video players are used to play 2D video in 3D format. A high-quality three-dimensional video presentation requires that each frame of a motion picture be embedded with information on the depth of objects present in the scene. This process involves shooting the video with special equipment from two distinct perspectives or modelling and rendering each frame as a collection of objects composed of 3D vertices and textures, much like in any modern video game, to achieve special effects. Tedious and costly, this method is only used in a small fraction of movies produced worldwide, while most movies remain in the form of traditional 2D images. It is, however, possible to give an otherwise two-dimensional picture the appearance of depth. Using a technique known as anaglyph processing a \"flat\" picture can be transformed so as to give an illusion of depth when viewed through anaglyph glasses (usually red-cyan). An image viewed through anaglyph glasses appears to have both protruding and deeply embedded objects in it, at the expense of somewhat distorted colours. The method itself is old enough, dating back to mid-19th century, but it is only with recent advances in computer technology that it has become possible to apply this kind of transformation to a series of frames in a motion picture reasonably fast or even in real time, i.e. as the video is being played back. Several implementations exist in the form of 3D video players that render conventional 2D video in anaglyph 3D, as well as in the form of 3D video converters that transform video into stereoscopic anaglyph and transcode it for playback with regular software or hardware video players.", "A home theater PC or media center computer is a convergence device that combines some or all the capabilities of a personal computer with a software application that supports video, photo, audio playback, and sometimes video recording functionality. Although computers with some of these capabilities were available from the late 1980s, the \"Home Theater PC\" term first appeared in mainstream press in 1996. Since 2007, other types of consumer electronics, including gaming systems and dedicated media devices have crossed over to manage video and music content. The term \"media center\" also refers to specialized computer programs designed to run on standard personal computers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Definition.", "Techniques.", "Saving and compression.", "Categories.", "Scaling.", "Uses.", "Software." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pixel art largely originates from classic video games, particularly classic arcade games such as \"Space Invaders\" (1978) and \"Pac-Man\" (1980), and 8-bit consoles such as the Nintendo Entertainment System (1983) and Sega Master System (1985). The term \"pixel art\" was first published by Adele Goldberg and Robert Flegal of Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in 1982. The concept, however, goes back about 11 years before that, for example in Richard Shoup's SuperPaint system in 1972, also at Xerox PARC. Some traditional art forms, such as counted-thread embroidery (including cross-stitch) and some kinds of mosaic and beadwork, are very similar to pixel art. These art forms construct pictures out of small colored units similar to the pixels of modern digital computing. A similar concept on a much bigger scale can be seen in the North Korean Arirang Festival.", "Although the definition of the medium is not concrete, the majority of pixel artists agree that an image can be categorized as pixel art when the artist is manipulating the image with deliberate control over the placement of each individual pixel. When purposefully editing in this way, changing the position of a few pixels can have a drastic effect on the image. Most pixel artists do not consider images that have had filters applied to them which cause the image to look pixellated to be the same as pixel art, as the pixels that make up the image were not consciously placed by the artist, and usually do not hold much importance to the bigger picture. A common characteristic in pixel art is the low overall colour count in the image. Pixel art as a medium mimics a lot of traits found in older video game graphics, rendered by machines which were capable of only outputting a limited number of colours at once. Additionally, many pixel artists are of the opinion that in most cases, using a large number of colours, especially when very similar to each other in value, is unnecessary, and detracts from the overall cleanliness of the image, making it look messier. Many experienced pixel artists recommend not using more colours than necessary.", "Drawings usually start with what is called the line art, which is the basis line that defines the character, building or anything else the artist is intending to draw. Linearts are usually traced over scanned drawings and are often shared among other pixel artists. Other techniques, some resembling painting, also exist. The limited palette often implemented in pixel art usually promotes dithering to achieve different shades and colors, but due to the nature of this form of art this is usually done completely by hand, but most software specifically geared toward pixel art offers a dithering option. See the Softwares section for a list of options. \"Hand-made\" anti-aliasing is also used. Here are a few parts of the above image of “The Gunk” in detail, depicting a few of the techniques involved: 1. The basic form of dithering, using two colors in a 2×2 checkerboard pattern. Changing the density of each color will lead to different subtones. 2. Stylized dithering with 2×2 pixel squares randomly scattered can produce interesting textures. Small circles are also frequent. 3. Anti-aliasing can be used, by hand, to smooth curves and transitions. Some artists only do this internally, to keep crisp outlines that can go over any background. The PNG alpha channel can be used to create external anti-aliasing for any background.", "Pixel art is preferably stored in a file format utilizing lossless data compression, such as run-length encoding or an indexed color palette. GIF and PNG are two file formats commonly used for storing pixel art. The JPEG format is avoided because its lossy compression algorithm is designed for smooth continuous-tone images and introduces visible artifacts in the presence of dithering.", "Pixel art is commonly divided in two subcategories: isometric and non-isometric. The isometric kind is drawn in a near-isometric dimetric projection. This is commonly seen in games to provide a three-dimensional view without using any real three-dimensional processing. Technically, an isometric angle would be of 35.264 degrees from the horizontal, but this is avoided since the pixels created by a line drawing algorithm would not follow a neat pattern. To fix this, lines with a 1:2 pixel ratio are picked, leading to an angle of about 26.57 degrees (arctan 0.5). One subcategory is planometric, which is done at a 1:1 angle, giving a more top-down look. Another subcategory is \"RPG perspective\", in which the x and z (vertical) axes are combined into a side/top view. This view is facing an edge, instead of a vertex. Non-isometric pixel art is any pixel art that does not fall in the isometric category, such as views from the top, side, front, bottom or perspective views.", "When pixel art is displayed at a higher resolution than the source image, it is often scaled using the nearest-neighbor interpolation algorithm. This avoids blurring caused by other algorithms, such as bilinear and bicubic interpolation—which interpolate between adjacent pixels and work best on continuous tones, but not sharp edges or lines. Nearest-neighbor interpolation preserves these sharp edges, but it makes diagonal lines and curves look blocky, an effect called pixelation. Thus, hybrid algorithms have been devised to interpolate between continuous tones while preserving the sharpness of lines in the piece; such attempts include the 2xSaI, Super Eagle, and the high-quality hqx algorithms.", "Pixel art was very often used in older computer and console video games. With the increasing use of 3D graphics in games, pixel art lost some of its use. Despite that, there is still a very active professional/amateur community, since mobile phones and other portable devices still have low resolution and therefore require skillful use of space and memory. The improvement in current technology has caused pixel art to evolve, as it allows for better detail and animation in the art style than previously attainable. Pixel art has also been used in advertising, with one such company being Bell. The group eBoy specializes in isometric pixel graphics for advertising. Icons for operating systems with limited graphics abilities are also pixel art. The limited number of colors and resolution presents a challenge when attempting to convey complicated concepts and ideas in an efficient way. On the Microsoft Windows desktop icons are raster images of various sizes, the smaller of which are not necessarily scaled from the larger ones and could be considered pixel art. On the GNOME and KDE desktops, icons are represented primarily by SVG images, but also with hand-optimized, pixel art PNGs for smaller sizes such as 16x16 and 24x24. Another use of pixel art on modern desktop computers is favicons. Modern pixel art has been seen as a reaction to the 3D graphics industry by amateur game/graphic hobbyists. Many retro enthusiasts often choose to mimic the style of the past. Some view the pixel art revival as restoring the golden age of third and fourth generation consoles, where it is argued graphics were more aesthetically pleasing. Pixel art still remains popular and has been used in social networking virtual worlds such as Citypixel and Habbo, as well as among hand-held devices such as the Nintendo DS, Nintendo 3DS, PSP, PS Vita and mobile phones, and in modern indie games such as \"Hotline Miami\" and \"\".", "Notable software for pixel art include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Artistic medals have been produced since the late Renaissance period, and, after some classical precedents and Late Medieval revivals, the form was essentially invented by Pisanello, who is credited with the first portrait medal, which has remained a very popular type. He cast them like bronze sculptures, rather than minting them like coins. Medalists are also often confusingly referred to as \"engravers\" in reference works, referring to the \"engraving\" of dies, although this is often in fact not the technique used; however many also worked in engraving, the technique in printmaking. The production of coins is accomplished through the use of either a die for minting coins by hammering or, in modern times, milling or, mostly in prehistoric times and also in Asia, a mold for casting the desired object. Artistic medals and plaquettes have mostly been produced by lost wax casting. The design for the coin faces were originally engraved into the coin dies. It was necessary to use a burin to engrave the designs directly into the die inverted (i.e. raised areas of finished coin were hollowed out on the die) and as a mirror image so that the finished coin appeared correct. This resulted in the early medalists being called steel-chiselers. Medalists who were contracted by the state to produce the coins and medallions for the mint were often given official state titles. In addition to their state contracts, medalists were also allowed to earn income through private commissions for medals." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Retrieving messages from a mailbox.", "Message composition.", "Submitting messages to a server.", "Encryption.", "Encryption of the message body.", "Webmail.", "Remote messages.", "Protocols.", "Port numbers.", "Proprietary client protocols." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Like most client programs, an email client is only active when a user runs it. The common arrangement is for an email user (the client) to make an arrangement with a remote Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) server for the receipt and storage of the client's emails. The MTA, using a suitable mail delivery agent (MDA), adds email messages to a client's storage as they arrive. The remote mail storage is referred to as the user's mailbox. The default setting on many Unix systems is for the mail server to store formatted messages in mbox, within the user's home directory. Of course, users of the system can log-in and run a mail client on the same computer that hosts their mailboxes; in which case, the server is not actually \"remote\", other than in a generic sense. Emails are stored in the user's mailbox on the remote server until the user's email client requests them to be downloaded to the user's computer, or can otherwise access the user's mailbox on the possibly remote server. The email client can be set up to connect to multiple mailboxes at the same time and to request the download of emails either automatically, such as at pre-set intervals, or the request can be manually initiated by the user. A user's mailbox can be accessed in two dedicated ways. The Post Office Protocol (POP) allows the user to download messages one at a time and only deletes them from the server after they have been successfully saved on local storage. It is possible to leave messages on the server to permit another client to access them. However, there is no provision for flagging a specific message as \"seen\", \"answered\", or \"forwarded\", thus POP is not convenient for users who access the same mail from different machines. Alternatively, the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) allows users to keep messages on the server, flagging them as appropriate. IMAP provides folders and sub-folders, which can be shared among different users with possibly different access rights. Typically, the \"Sent\", \"Drafts\", and \"Trash\" folders are created by default. IMAP features an \"idle\" extension for real-time updates, providing faster notification than polling, where long-lasting connections are feasible. See also the remote messages section below. In addition, the mailbox storage can be accessed directly by programs running on the server or via shared disks. Direct access can be more efficient but is less portable as it depends on the mailbox format; it is used by some email clients, including some webmail applications.", "Email clients usually contain user interfaces to display and edit text. Some applications permit the use of a program-external editor. The email clients will perform formatting according to RFC 5322 for headers and body, and MIME for non-textual content and attachments. Headers include the destination fields, \"To\", \"Cc\" (short for \"Carbon copy\"), and \"Bcc\" (\"Blind carbon copy\"), and the originator fields \"From\" which is the message's author(s), \"Sender\" in case there are more authors, and \"Reply-To\" in case responses should be addressed to a different mailbox. To better assist the user with destination fields, many clients maintain one or more address books and/or are able to connect to an LDAP directory server. For originator fields, clients may support different identities. Client settings require the user's \"real name\" and \"email address\" for each user's identity, and possibly a list of LDAP servers.", "When a user wishes to create and send an email, the email client will handle the task. The email client is usually set up automatically to connect to the user's mail server, which is typically either an MSA or an MTA, two variations of the SMTP protocol. The email client which uses the SMTP protocol creates an authentication extension, which the mail server uses to authenticate the sender. This method eases modularity and nomadic computing. The older method was for the mail server to recognize the client's IP address, e.g. because the client is on the same machine and uses internal address 127.0.0.1, or because the client's IP address is controlled by the same Internet service provider that provides both Internet access and mail services. Client settings require the name or IP address of the preferred \"outgoing mail server\", the \"port number\" (25 for MTA, 587 for MSA), and the \"user name\" and \"password\" for the authentication, if any. There is a non-standard port 465 for SSL encrypted SMTP sessions, that many clients and servers support for backward compatibility.", "With no encryption, much like for postcards, email activity is plainly visible by any occasional eavesdropper. Email encryption enables privacy to be safeguarded by encrypting the mail sessions, the body of the message, or both. Without it, anyone with network access and the right tools can monitor email and obtain login passwords. Examples of concern include the government censorship and surveillance and fellow wireless network users such as at an Internet cafe. All relevant email protocols have an option to encrypt the whole session, to prevent a user's \"name\" and \"password\" from being sniffed. They are strongly suggested for nomadic users and whenever the Internet access provider is not trusted. When sending mail, users can only control encryption at the first hop from a client to its configured \"outgoing mail server\". At any further hop, messages may be transmitted with or without encryption, depending solely on the general configuration of the transmitting server and the capabilities of the receiving one. Encrypted mail sessions deliver messages in their original format, i.e. plain text or encrypted body, on a user's local mailbox and on the destination server's. The latter server is operated by an email hosting service provider, possibly a different entity than the Internet \"access\" provider currently at hand. Encrypting an email retrieval session with, e.g., SSL, can protect both parts (authentication, and message transfer) of the session. Alternatively, if the user has SSH access to their mail server, they can use SSH port forwarding to create an encrypted tunnel over which to retrieve their emails.", "There are two main models for managing cryptographic keys. S/MIME employs a model based on a trusted certificate authority (CA) that signs users' public keys. OpenPGP employs a somewhat more flexible \"web of trust\" mechanism that allows users to sign one another's public keys. OpenPGP is also more flexible in the format of the messages, in that it still supports plain message encryption and signing as they used to work before MIME standardization. In both cases, only the message body is encrypted. Header fields, including originator, recipients, and subject, remain in plain text.", "In addition to email clients running on a desktop computer, there are those hosted remotely, either as part of a remote UNIX installation accessible by telnet (i.e. a shell account), or hosted on the Web. Both of these approaches have several advantages: they share an ability to send and receive email away from the user's normal base using a web browser or telnet client, thus eliminating the need to install a dedicated email client on the user's device. Some websites are dedicated to providing email services, and many Internet service providers provide webmail services as part of their Internet service package. The main limitations of webmail are that user interactions are subject to the website's operating system and the general inability to download email messages and compose or work on the messages offline, although there are software packages that can integrate parts of the webmail functionality into the OS (e.g. creating messages directly from third party applications via MAPI). Like IMAP and MAPI, webmail provides for email messages to remain on the mail server. See next section.", "POP3 has an option to leave messages on the server. By contrast, both IMAP and webmail keep messages on the server as their method of operating, albeit users can make local copies as they like. Keeping messages on the server has advantages and disadvantages.", "Popular protocols for retrieving mail include POP3 and IMAP4. Sending mail is usually done using the SMTP protocol. Another important standard supported by most email clients is MIME, which is used to send binary file email attachments. Attachments are files that are not part of the email proper but are sent with the email. Most email clients use a \"User-Agent\" header field to identify the software used to send the message. According to RFC 2076, this is a common but non-standard header field. RFC 6409, \"Message Submission for Mail\", details the role of the Mail submission agent. RFC 5068, \"Email Submission Operations: Access and Accountability Requirements\", provides a survey of the concepts of MTA, MSA, MDA, and MUA. It mentions that \"\" Access Providers MUST NOT block users from accessing the external Internet using the SUBMISSION port 587\"\" and that \"\"MUAs SHOULD use the SUBMISSION port for message submission.\"\"", "Email servers and clients by convention use the TCP port numbers in the following table. For MSA, IMAP and POP3, the table reports also the labels that a client can use to query the SRV records and discover both the host name and the port number of the corresponding service. Note that while webmail obeys the earlier HTTP disposition of having separate ports for encrypt and plain text sessions, mail protocols use the STARTTLS technique, thereby allowing encryption to start on an already established TCP connection. While RFC 2595 used to discourage the use of the previously established ports 995 and 993, RFC 8314 promotes the use of implicit TLS when available.", "Microsoft mail systems use the proprietary Messaging Application Programming Interface (MAPI) in client applications, such as Microsoft Outlook, to access Microsoft Exchange electronic mail servers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "As elected official.", "Presidential conventions.", "Democratic Party.", "Republican Party." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Delegate is the title of a person elected to the United States House of Representatives to serve the interests of an organized United States territory, at present only overseas or the District of Columbia, but historically in most cases in a portion of North America as the precursor to one or more of the present states of the union. Delegates have powers similar to that of Representatives, including the right to vote in committee, but have no right to take part in the floor votes in which the full house actually decides whether the proposal is carried. A similar mandate is held in a few cases under the style Resident commissioner.", "", "The Democratic Party uses pledged delegates and superdelegates. A candidate for the Democratic nomination must win a majority of combined delegate votes at the Democratic National Convention. Pledged delegates are elected or chosen at the state or local level, with the understanding that they will support a particular candidate at the convention. Pledged delegates are, however, not actually bound to vote for that candidate, thus the candidates are allowed to periodically review the list of delegates and eliminate any of those they feel would not be supportive. Currently there are 4,051 pledged delegates. Of the 4,765 total Democratic delegates, 714 (approximately 15%) are superdelegates, which are usually Democratic members of Congress, Governors, former Presidents, and other party leaders and elected officials. They are not required to indicate preference for a candidate. In 2018, the party changed the rules to state that superdelegates would not get a vote on the first ballot unless the outcome was certain. The Democratic Party uses a proportional representation to determine how many delegates each candidate is awarded in each state. A candidate must win at least 15% of the vote in a particular contest in order to receive any delegates. Pledged delegates are awarded proportionally in both state-wide and regional contests. In each separate state-wide or regional contest, a subset of the total pledged delegates are chosen based on proportional representation, so it is possible for candidates to win delegates even if they receive fewer than 15% of overall votes in a state provided they receive more than 15% in a particular regional contest. There is no process to win superdelegates, since they can vote for whomever they please. A candidate needs to win a simple majority of total delegates to earn the Democratic nomination.", "The Republican Party utilizes a similar system with slightly different terminology, employing pledged and unpledged delegates. Of the total 2,472 Republican delegates, most are pledged delegates who, as with the Democratic Party, are elected at the state or local level. To become the Republican Party nominee, the candidate must win a simple majority of 1,237 of the 2,472 total delegates at the Republican National Convention. The Republican Party, however, has established a few unpledged delegates. The only people who get unpledged status are each state's three Republican National Committee members. This means that unpledged delegates are only 168 of the total number of delegates. However, unpledged delegates do not have the freedom to vote for whichever candidate they please. The RNC ruled in 2015 that the unpledged delegates must vote for the candidate that their state voted for; the unpledged RNC members will be bound in the same manner as the state’s at-large delegates unless the state elects their delegates on the primary ballot, then all three RNC members will be allocated to the statewide winner. The process by which delegates are awarded to a candidate will vary from state to state. Many states use a winner-take-all system, where popular vote determines the winning candidate for that state. However, beginning in 2012 many states now use proportional representation. While the Republican National Committee does not require a 15% minimum threshold, individual state parties may impart such a threshold." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Name History.", "After the title." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Founded in 1951, TVMK played in regional leagues until 1986, when the club eneterd the \"Jõgeva III division\", winning promotion to the II liiga the same year. TVMK won the Estonian SSR title in 1990 and the league plus cup double the following year, the last title before Estonia regained its independence. The club was renamed TVMV Tallinn for the next season. The following year the club was acquired by the Nikol company and it is generally believed that the history of the original TVMK ended at that point. The newly created Nikol Tallinn served as a prototype for the creation of Lantana Tallinn two years later. Just to avoid any possible confusion, Nikol is usually viewed as a separate club. The future of TVMK and its history is generally linked with the acquisition of Tevalte Tallinn (\"formerly \"Vigri\"\") by the Marlekor company in 1995, the same company that privatized \"\"Tallinn's furniture and plywood factory\"\" (\"abbreviated simply as TVMK\" in Estonian) in 1993. The company's name was changed to \"\"AS TVMK\"\" in 1997 and the club's historic name was restored the same year. TVMK won their first Meistriliiga title in 2005.", "After winning the title TVMK lost several key players to other clubs in the pre-season. Club top scorers Ingemar Teever and Tarmo Neemelo left to Sweden (although the latter would later return on loan, after a troubled start abroad), Maksim Smirnov and Deniss Malov left for rivals FC Levadia, Egidijus Juška returned to Lithuania. Vyacheslav Bulavin continued as the head coach, but was sacked in mid-season, with the former Russia international Sergei Yuran taking over. The fortunes didn't change much though, and the highlights of the season were winning the Estonian Cup and Estonian Super Cup, as the club finished only fourth in the league. The following season Yuran left for Shinnik Yaroslavl. Vjatšeslav Smirnov took over and led the team to a third-place finish in the league. After the 2007 season Pjotr Sedin, the chairman, announced that the club is currently considering a possibility of giving up their professional status, because of financial difficulties. 2005 2002–03, 2005–06 2005, 2006" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Education.", "Undergraduate.", "Postgraduate.", "Academic career.", "University of Sarajevo.", "Prison.", "Political career.", "ICTY/MICT.", "Indictment.", "Custody.", "Provisional release.", "Verdict.", "Personal life.", "Health.", "Books." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Vojislav Šešelj was born in Sarajevo, PR Bosnia-Herzegovina, FPR Yugoslavia, to Nikola Šešelj (1925–1978) and Danica Šešelj (née Misita; 1924–2007), Serbs from the Popovo Valley region of eastern Herzegovina. His parents wed in 1953 before moving to Sarajevo, where they lived on modest means in adapted housing at the old Sarajevo train station as his father was employed in the state-run ŽTP railway company. His mother stayed at home and took care of her two children, Vojislav and his younger sister, Dragica. A relative on his mother's side was Chetnik commander Lt. Col. Veselin Misita.", "Šešelj began his elementary education in September 1961 at the Vladimir Nazor Primary School before transferring to the newly built Bratstvo i Jedinstvo primary school. A successful student until the fourth grade, he increasingly grew uninterested with the curriculum, realizing the minimal effort he needed in order to achieve adequate grades. History was his favourite subject and he generally preferred social sciences to natural ones. For his secondary education, Šešelj enrolled at First Sarajevo Gymnasium, receiving good grades. In the summer of 1971, at age 16, he accepted an offer to join the Communist League (SKJ), which got extended to him and two other youth workers as a result of the exceptional effort shown at a youth work action in Banja Luka, organized in the wake of the 1969 earthquake. He was involved with student organizations in school as the president of the gymnasium's student union and later as the president of its youth committee. Šešelj acted from the platform of communist ideology, as his worldview at the time was largely shaped by the works of Marx, Engels, and Lenin, which theorized on social justice and communist ethics. He also read works by Trotsky and Mao for a time. Šešelj continued going to youth work actions for summer holidays while at the gymnasium. In 1972 and 1973, he worked as a laborer around the Morava River, building embankments.", "After his second level schooling, Šešelj enrolled at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Law in fall 1973. He additionally took part in student bodies becoming a vice-dean counterpart in the student organization for fifteen months. Controversy followed him again as he openly criticized Fuad Muhić, a candidate for dean, publicly proclaiming Muhić unfit to perform the duties of that position. Muhić still got elected to the post. After being a tutor for freshmen, Šešelj became a course demonstrator, holding two sets of tutorials per week, helping professors with student oral exams as well as with conference papers. In 1975, as part of a university delegation, the 21-year-old Šešelj visited the University of Mannheim in West Germany for two weeks, which was his first trip abroad. He completed his four-year undergraduate studies in two years and eight months.", "Immediately after graduating in 1976, Šešelj wanted a job as assistant lecturer at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Law, however, no assistant positions were posted at the faculty for the following school year leaving him with nothing to apply for. Šešelj saw the unusual situation as Muhić's personal revenge for Šešelj's public criticism. Realizing his minimal chances of getting hired at the Faculty of Law in Sarajevo, Šešelj turned his attention to other faculties. While preparing his application for the Faculty of Law in Mostar (at the time organizationally transforming from a remote unit of Sarajevo's law faculty into a separate independent educational entity) where they needed assistants for courses on constitutional law, he learned of an assistant job posting at Sarajevo University's Faculty of Political Science for a course called \"Political Parties and Organizations\" and decided instead to apply there. He had friends, such as Zdravko Grebo, Rodoljub Marjanović, and Milan Tomić, already working at the faculty as assistants, while Grebo's mother was the faculty's dean. After learning that the 'Political Parties and Organizations' course was taught by professor, a friend and political companion of Muhić, Šešelj withdrew his application, fearing a rejection that would reflect badly on future vocational efforts. Through Grebo's mother, Šešelj learned the faculty was about to establish the Department for People's Defense where many assistants would be needed. A month later, in September 1976, he was hired and began assisting lecturers on \"War Theory\". He held tutorials relying on classical Marxist literature such as \"The Civil War in France\", \"The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon\", \"Anti-Dühring\", etc., as well as such works by Lenin as \"The State and Revolution\". Šešelj delved deeper into Trotsky's works, as well as reading Isaac Deutscher's books on Trotsky and Stalin. In parallel, Šešelj began postgraduate studies, enrolling in November 1976 at the University of Belgrade's Faculty of Law. Due to employment obligations in Sarajevo, he didn't move to Belgrade, but instead went there two to three times a month to attend lectures and obtain literature. He earned a master's degree in June 1978 with a masters thesis titled \"The Marxist Concept of an Armed People\". In 1978, he spent two and a half months at the Grand Valley State Colleges in the US in its exchange program with the University of Sarajevo. Also in 1978, after returning from the U.S., Šešelj began pursuing a doctorate at the Belgrade University's Faculty of Law. After submitting his dissertation in early fall 1979, he chose specialization at the University of Greifswald in East Germany. He earned his doctorate on 26 November 1979 after successfully defending his dissertation (doctoral thesis) titled \"The Political Essence of Militarism and Fascism\", which made him the youngest PhD holder in Yugoslavia at 25 years of age. In December 1979 Šešelj joined the Yugoslav People's Army to serve his mandatory military service and was stationed in Belgrade. He completed his army service in November 1980, but in the meantime he had lost his position at the University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Political Sciences.", "", "In the early 1980s, Šešelj began to associate more with individuals from dissident intellectual circles in Belgrade, some of whom had Serbian nationalist political leanings. He repeatedly held Muslim professors at the Faculty of Political Sciences responsible for his situation, openly criticizing his former friend Dr Atif Purivatra, as well as Hasan Sušić, and Omer Ibrahimagić, for having harmed his career and denouncing them as Pan-Islamists. He took his criticism to the literary journal \"Književna reč\", where he further reproached Purivatra, Sušić and Muhamed Filipović for having taken part in an international conference in Madrid that focused on Muammar al-Gaddafi's \"Green Book\". Šešelj described the views expressed in their contributions to the conference as \"pan-Islamist\". In September 1981 Šešelj rejoined the Faculty of Political Sciences where he was asked to teach courses on international relations. The Faculty of Political Sciences, as a breeding ground for future politicians, was closely controlled and overseen by the Communist Party, and outspoken Šešelj quickly drew the attention of party officials. He openly supported another prominent young intellectual, Nenad Kecmanović, who was himself embroiled in a controversy that drew criticism from some sections of the communist nomenklatura in Bosnia due to his writings in \"NIN\" magazine. Still, the biggest controversy was raised when Šešelj came up against faculty colleague Brano Miljuš. A protege of Hamdija Pozderac and Branko Mikulić (SR Bosnia-Herzegovina's highest and most powerful political figures at the time), Miljuš was well positioned within the communist apparatus as the secretary of the Bosnia-Herzegovina Communist League's Sarajevo branch. Šešelj dissected Miljuš's master's degree thesis and accused him of plagiarizing more than 40 pages in it from the published works by Marx and Edvard Kardelj. Šešelj criticised the highest political echelons, particularly Pozderac who was the reviewer of Miljuš's master's degree thesis. A power struggle spilled outside the faculty and into the political institutions and corridors of power. Other faculty members and intellectuals to offer their support to Šešelj included Boro Gojković, Džemal Sokolović, Hidajet Repovac, Momir Zeković and Ina Ovadija-Musafija. The Pozderac side was stronger; Šešelj was expelled from the Communist League on 4 December 1981. By spring 1982, barely six months after being re-hired, his position at the Faculty of Political Sciences was in jeopardy. He ended up being demoted to the Institute for Social Research (Institut za društvena istraživanja), an institution affiliated with the Faculty. Belgrade intellectuals, mostly writers and researchers in the social sciences, came to his defense by writing letters of protest to the government of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, to the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and to the Faculty of Political Science in Sarajevo. He became critical of the way in which the national question was dealt with in Yugoslavia: he spoke out in favour of the use of force against Kosovo Albanians and denounced the passivity of the Serbian political leadership in handling the Kosovo crisis. In his view the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina were not a nation but a religious group. He expressed his concern of seeing Bosnia and Herzegovina turn into a republic dominated by Muslims. He began to be spied on by UDBA agents. Šešelj's first arrest took place on 8 February 1984, the second day of the Sarajevo Olympics. He was on a train from Sarajevo heading to Belgrade when the secret police burst on board around Podlugovi station and seized some of his writings that he had in the suitcase. Among the agents handling his arrest that day was Dragan Kijac (later Republika Srpska state security chief). In Doboj, Šešelj was taken off the train, transferred into a police Mercedes, and transported to Belgrade where he was questioned for 27 hours before being released and informed that he would be contacted again. After getting back to Sarajevo, UDBA took him in twice more for questionings, which were handled by Rašid Musić and Milan Krnjajić. According to Šešelj, they had the transcripts of the various conversations he had with some of his closest friends in which he and his friends openly criticized subjects ranging from specific political figures and the communist regime in general, and were trying to get him to implicate them as a basis for \"a group trial for ethnic balance purposes, [...] a Serbian group to persecute since they just convicted Izetbegović's Muslim one.\" On 20 April 1984, he was arrested at a private apartment in Belgrade among the group of 28 individuals during the lecture given by Milovan Đilas as part of Free University, a semi-clandestine organization that gathered intellectuals critical of the communist regime. Šešelj spent four days in prison before being released.", "However, Šešelj was a free man for barely three weeks. In mid-May 1984, Stane Dolanc, the Slovene representative in Yugoslav Presidency and longtime state security chief, gave an interview to TV Belgrade regarding Šešelj's unpublished manuscript, \"Odgovori na anketu-intervju: Šta da se radi?\" in which Šešelj calls for \"reorganization of the Yugoslav federalism, SFR Yugoslavia with only four constituent republics (Serbia, Macedonia, Croatia and Slovenia), abolishing of the single-party system, and the abolishing of artificial nationalities\". Two days later, on 15 May 1984, Šešelj was arrested again in Sarajevo. Several days after being jailed at Sarajevo's Central Prison, he began a hunger strike, which attracted the attention of the foreign press. In jail, he passed the time by reading without devoting much effort to preparing his defense at the impending trial. A few weeks later, his then wife Vesna Mudreša gave birth to their first child – a boy named Nikola, after Šešelj's father – however, Šešelj refused to end the hunger strike even after being told this. Weak, frail, and with rapidly deteriorating overall health, he eventually relented on the last day of the trial, ending the strike after 48 days. Several days later, on 9 July 1984, he was given an eight-year sentence. The verdict delivered by presiding judge Milorad Potparić concluded that Šešelj \"acted from the anarcho-liberal and nationalist platform thereby committing the criminal act of counterrevolutionary endangerment of the social order\". The single most incriminating piece of evidence cited by the court was the unpublished manuscript that the secret police found in Šešelj's home. On appeal, the Supreme Court of SFR Yugoslavia reduced the sentence to six years, then to four, and finally two. Šešelj served the first eight months of his sentence in Sarajevo before getting transferred to prison in Zenica in January 1985, where he was placed in quarantine and isolated from other inmates for three weeks while medical checks and general psychological observation were conducted in order to come up with a rehabilitation plan and program during his prison stay. From the start he informed the prison officials of his refusal to do any labour, reasoning that \"since jailed communists didn't have to do prison labour in the pre-World War II capitalist Yugoslavia, I too, as someone espousing anti-communist ideology, refuse to do labour in a communist prison\". His conduct earned him multiple stays in solitary confinement that initially lasted two weeks but were later extended to a whole month. During his first solitary confinement stay he went on another hunger strike. A week into his strike, he was beaten by the guards in an effort to force him to stop, but he did not, lasting 16 days without food. In total, out of his fourteen months in Zenica, six and a half were spent in solitary confinement. He was released in March 1986 – two months early due to continuous pressure, protests and petitions by intellectuals throughout Yugoslavia and abroad, many of whom would later become his political opponents. Upon release from prison, Šešelj permanently moved to Belgrade. According to John Mueller, Šešelj \"later seems to have become mentally unbalanced as the result of the torture and beatings he endured while in prison\".", "In 1989, Šešelj returned to the United States where Momčilo Đujić, a Chetnik leader from World War II living there in exile, bestowed on Šešelj the title \"Chetnik vojvoda\" (Vojvoda of the Chetniks), the first since World War II, to make a \"unitary Serbian state where all Serbs would live, occupying all the Serb lands\". In 1998, Đujić said that he regretted awarding the title to Šešelj on account of his involvement with Slobodan Milošević. Together with Vuk Drašković and Mirko Jović, Šešelj founded the anti-communist Chetnik party Serbian National Renewal (SNO) in late 1989. In the late 1980s, Šešelj made calls for 360,000 Albanians to be deported from Kosovo. In March 1990, together with Drašković, he however went on to form the monarchist party Serbian Renewal Movement (SPO). that he soon left again to form the more radical Serbian Chetnik Movement (SČP). Because of its name the party was denied registration, but was merged in March 1991 with the National Radical Party (NRS) creating the Serbian Radical Party (SRS) under his presidency. He has described himself and his supporters as \"not fascists, just chauvinists who hate Croats.\" In late 1991, during the Battle of Vukovar, Šešelj went to Borovo Selo to meet with a Serbian Orthodox Church bishop and publicly described Croats as a genocidal and perverted people. The paramilitary group White Eagles active at the time in the Yugoslav Wars was reportedly associated with him, being referred to as \"Šešeljevci\" (\"Šešelj's men\"). In May and July 1992, Šešelj visited the Vojvodina village of Hrtkovci and initiated a campaign of persecution of local ethnic Croats. In the elections of December 1992, the SRS won 27 percent of the vote versus the 40 percent won by the Socialist Party of President Slobodan Milošević. His relationship with Milošević was amicable during the first years of the Yugoslav Wars. Šešelj and his party were in effect Milošević's close allies who helped them orchestrate the mass layoffs of journalists in 1992, and Šešelj publicly proclaimed their backing of Milošević as late as August 1993. Vojislav Šešelj publicly advocated creating a Greater Serbia through the ethnic cleansing of all Croats and Bosniaks. In September 1993, however, Šešelj and Milošević came into conflict over Milošević's withdrawal of support for Republika Srpska in the Bosnian War, and Milošević described Šešelj as \"the personification of violence and primitivism\". Šešelj was jailed in 1994 and 1995 for his opposition to Milošević. The Serbian Radical Party subsequently became the main opposition party and criticized Slobodan Milošević for corruption, ties to organized crime, nepotism, and for poor economic conditions. In 1995, Vojislav Šešelj wrote in the publication \"Velika Srbija\" (Greater Serbia) a memorandum that outlined the Serbianisation of Kosovo. Šešelj called for violence and expulsion against Albanians and their leadership with aims toward discrediting them within Western public opinion. In July 1997, Šešelj made a guest appearance on BKTV's \"Tête-à-tête\" talk duel programme with lawyer Nikola Barović as the other duelist. The duel quickly degenerated into an exchange of verbal antagonism and ad hominem attacks that culminated in Barović throwing water from a glass in Šešelj's face. Sometime later Barović was physically assaulted by Šešelj's security detail. Šešelj quipped that Barović slipped on a banana peel and tumbled down a flight of stairs. In 1998, as violence in the Serbian province of Kosovo increased, Šešelj joined Milošević's national unity government, siding briefly with the pro-Milošević government. Šešelj was appointed deputy president of the Serbian government in 1998. In September 1998, he objected to foreign media and human rights organizations acting in Yugoslavia, saying: Human Rights Watch condemned the statement. During the 1999 Kosovo War and the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, he and his political party were willing to support Milošević, but after three months of bombardment they were the only party to vote against the withdrawal of FR Yugoslav security forces from Kosovo.. Vojislav Šešelj advocated the forcible removal of all Albanians from Kosovo.", "", "In an interview for NIN held on 4 February 2003 Šešelj stated that he had inside information that he would be indicted by the Hague in the following weeks, and had already booked a flight to the Hague for 24 February. The initial indictment was filed on 14 February 2003. The crimes in the indictment include, among others, that Šešelj, both individually and as part of a \"joint criminal enterprise\", engaged in \"the permanent forcible removal, through the commission of crimes in violation of Articles 3 and 5 of the Statute of the Tribunal, of a majority of the Croat, Muslim and other non Serb populations from approximately one-third of the territory of the Republic of Croatia (\"Croatia\"), and large parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and from parts of Vojvodina, in the Republic of Serbia (\"Serbia\"), in order to make these areas part of a new Serb-dominated state\".", "On 23 February 2003, following a \"farewell meeting\" held on Republic Square, Šešelj surrendered to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) on the indictment of \"eight counts of crimes against humanity and six counts of violations of the laws or customs of war for his alleged participation in a joint criminal enterprise\". He was transferred to the ICTY the following day. In 2005, Šešelj made headlines when he was asked to read a letter which he earlier sent to the ICTY that stated his contempt for the court. The letter was read in front of cameras by Šešelj and contained insults and expletives aimed at the top ICTY officials and judges. In his letter, Šešelj said the presiding judge has only \"the right\" (mocking the Hague's judges) to perform oral sex on him, and referred to Carla Del Ponte as \"the prostitute\". In custody, he wrote \"Kriminalac i ratni zločinac Havijer Solana\" (\"Felon and War Criminal Javier Solana\"), a criticism of the NATO Secretary General (and the current High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy and the Secretary-General of the Council of the European Union and the Western European Union) who led the 1999 war in Kosovo. On 2 December 2006, around 40,000 people marched in the Serbian capital of Belgrade in support of Šešelj during his 28-day hunger strike in The Hague after the ICTY denied him the right to choose his own defence counsel. Speaking at the rally, Radical Party secretary Aleksandar Vučić said \"\"He's not fighting just for his life. But he's fighting for all of us who are gathered here. Vojislav Šešelj is fighting for Serbia!\"\" Šešelj ended the hunger strike on 8 December after being allowed to present his own defence. While in custody in The Hague, Šešelj led his party's list of contenders for the January 2007 general election. Under the ICTY indictment, Šešelj was charged with 15 counts of crimes against humanity and violations of the laws or customs or war. The first of these charges is for persecution of Croats, Muslims and other non-Serbs in Vukovar, Šamac, Zvornik and Vojvodina. The other charges include murder, forced deportation, illegal imprisonment, torture and property destruction during the Yugoslav wars. Šešelj's aide, Ljubiša Petković, was found guilty by the ICTY's Trial Chamber III of contempt for refusing to appear as a Chamber's witness in Šešelj's trial. Petković was released on 26 September from the ICTY Detention Unit. He had been sentenced to four months' imprisonment, credit being given for the three months and 14 days already spent in the Detention Unit. On 11 February 2009, after 71 witnesses had been heard and with the expected conclusion of the prosecution's case seven hours away, the presiding judges suspended Šešelj's trial indefinitely at the request of prosecutors, who alleged that witnesses were being intimidated. Šešelj claimed the true motive of the prosecutors was that they were losing their case. He claimed the court had presented numerous false witnesses to avoid having to acquit him and said it should pay him damages for \"\"all the suffering and six years spent in detention\"\". One of the three judges voted against the suspension of the trial stating that it was \"unfair to interrupt the trial of someone who has spent almost six years in detention\". A contempt of court case against Šešelj was opened for having revealed, in a book he had written, the identities of three witnesses whose names had been ordered suppressed by the tribunal, and for which he was sentenced to 15 months imprisonment by the ICTY. On 24 July 2009, he was sentenced to 15 months in detention for disrespecting the court after publishing names of trial witnesses on his personal website. On 25 November 2009, it was announced that Šešelj's trial would resume on 12 January 2010. The trial resumed on schedule and continued until 17 March 2010. On 10 March 2010, the weekly ICTY press briefing announced that Šešelj was scheduled to appear in court on 20 April 2010 for contempt of court for allegedly disclosing court restricted information on 11 protected witnesses. This is the second time he was charged with contempt. In July 2009 he was found guilty of contempt on similar charges involving two protected witnesses and was sentenced to fifteen months in jail. On 17 March 2010, the weekly ICTY press briefing announced that \"The trial of Vojislav Šešelj has been adjourned until further notice, pending checks on the health status of the remaining four Chamber witnesses\". In the weekly ICTY briefing on 24 March stated \"The trial of Vojislav Šešelj is expected to continue on Tuesday at 14:15 in Courtroom I with the testimony of one of the four remaining Trial Chamber witnesses\". On 14 April 2010, the weekly ICTY press briefing announced that with only one witness still to be heard, on 30 March 2010 Šešelj trial was adjourned until further notice but was likely to resume in May 2010, after Šešelj's second contempt proceeding initiated against him by the Tribunal have ended. Prosecutors demanded a 28-year sentence against Šešelj for allegedly recruiting paramilitary groups and inciting them to commit atrocities during the Balkan wars of the early 1990s. In closing remarks at his war crimes trial on 14 March 2012, Šešelj said the Yugoslav tribunal empowered by the U.N. Security Council is actually a creation of Western intelligence agencies and it doesn't have jurisdiction in his case. He reportedly vowed \"to make a mockery of his trial\". In September 2011, the ICTY rejected Šešelj's bid to have his long-running trial discontinued. In his submission to the court, Šešelj had argued that his right to be tried in a reasonable amount of time has been violated, and called the situation \"incomprehensible, scandalous and inappropriate\". However, the bench ruled that \"there is no predetermined threshold with regard to the time period beyond which a trial may be considered unfair on account of undue delay\" and declared that Šešelj \"failed to provide concrete proof of abuse of process\".", "On 6 November 2014, the ICTY granted Šešelj provisional release. The decision was made on the basis of Šešelj's diagnosis of metastatic cancer and deteriorating health. Šešelj returned to Belgrade after spending more than 11 years on what proved to be an inconclusive trial at the Hague.", "On 31 March 2016, one week after the conviction of Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić, the ICTY found Šešelj not guilty on all charges, with a majority decision on eight counts and a unanimous decision on one. His acquittal was described by \"The Economist\" as \"a victory for advocates of ethnic cleansing\" which would have \"broad ramifications for international justice.\" In other quarters, however, the ICTY case against Šešelj was seen as inherently flawed and politicized from the beginning. The acquittal was appealed by prosecutors from the MICT, a United Nations Security Council agency which functions as oversight program of, and successor entity to, the ICTY. On 11 April 2018, the Appeals Chamber sentenced him to 10 years in prison under Counts 1, 10, and 11 of the indictment for instigating deportation, persecution (forcible displacement), and other inhumane acts (forcible transfer) as crimes against humanity due to his speech in Hrtkovci on 6 May 1992, in which he called for the expulsion of Croats from Vojvodina.", "Šešelj's wife, Jadranka Šešelj (Serbian Cyrillic: Јадранка Шешељ) was born in Podujevo on 11 October 1960. She participated in the President of Serbia elections in 2012 but failed to pass the first round gaining 3.78% of the votes. She is a member of the SRS.", "Šešelj was diagnosed with metastatic cancer and underwent surgery to remove a tumor from his colon on 19 December 2013, and later underwent chemotherapy.", "Šešelj authored close to 200 books, mostly in the form of (court) documents and transcripts from interviews and public appearances. Some of the book titles are formulated as insults to his enemies, ICTY judges and prosecutors, and domestic and foreign political figures." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Content.", "No. 1 in F major, BWV 1046.", "No. 2 in F major, BWV 1047.", "No. 3 in G major, BWV 1048.", "No. 4 in G major, BWV 1049.", "No. 5 in D major, BWV 1050.", "No. 6 in B major, BWV 1051.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Bach wrote out the music himself for presentation to the Margrave rather than leaving it to a copyist. While he took the opportunity to revise the music, most likely, it was not freshly composed. He appears to have selected the six pieces from concertos he had composed over a number of years while Kapellmeister at Köthen, and possibly extending back to his employment at Weimar (1708–17). Bach's dedication to the Margrave was dated 24 March 1721. Translated from the original French, the first sentence of Bach's dedication reads: As I had the good fortune a few years ago to be heard by Your Royal Highness, at Your Highness's commands, and as I noticed then that Your Highness took some pleasure in the little talents which Heaven has given me for Music, and as in taking Leave of Your Royal Highness, Your Highness deigned to honour me with the command to send Your Highness some pieces of my Composition: I have in accordance with Your Highness's most gracious orders taken the liberty of rendering my most humble duty to Your Royal Highness with the present Concertos, which I have adapted to several instruments; begging Your Highness most humbly not to judge their imperfection with the rigor of that discriminating and sensitive taste, which everyone knows Him to have for musical works, but rather to take into benign Consideration the profound respect and the most humble obedience which I thus attempt to show Him. Bach's reference to his scoring the concertos for \"several instruments\" (\"Concerts avec plusieurs instruments\") is an understatement. Bach used the \"widest spectrum of orchestral instruments... in daring combinations,\" as Christoph Wolff has commented. \"Every one of the six concertos set a precedent in scoring, and every one was to remain without parallel.\" Heinrich Besseler has noted that the overall forces required (leaving aside the first concerto, which was rewritten for a special occasion) tallies exactly with the 17 players Bach had at his disposal in Köthen.", "", "Title on autograph score: Concerto 1 à 2 Corni di Caccia, 3 Hautb: è Bassono, Violino Piccolo concertato, 2 Violini, una Viola col Basso Continuo. \"Instrumentation\": two corni da caccia (natural horns), three oboes, bassoon, violino piccolo, two violins, viola and basso continuo (harpsichord, cello, viola da gamba and/or violone) \"Duration\": about 22 minutes The \"Brandenburg Concerto\" No. 1, BWV 1046.2 (formerly BWV 1046), is the only one in the collection with four movements. The concerto also exists in an alternative version, Sinfonia BWV 1046.1 (formerly BWV 1046a), which appears to have been composed during Bach's years at Weimar. The Sinfonia, which lacks the third movement entirely, and the Polacca (polonaise) from the final movement, appears to have been intended as the opening of the cantata \"Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd\", BWV 208. This implies a date of composition possibly as early as the 1713 premiere of the cantata, although it could have been used for a subsequent revival. The first movement can also be found as the sinfonia of a later cantata \"Falsche Welt, dir trau ich nicht\", BWV 52, but in a version without the piccolo violin that is closer to Sinfonia BWV 1046a. The third movement was used as the opening chorus of the cantata \"Vereinigte Zwietracht der wechselnden Saiten\", BWV 207, where the horns are replaced by trumpets.", "Title on autograph score: Concerto 2 à 1 Tromba, 1 Flauto, 1 Hautbois, 1 Violino, concertati, è 2 Violini, 1 Viola è Violone in Ripieno col Violoncello è Basso per il Cembalo. \"Concertino\": natural trumpet in F, recorder, oboe, violin \"Ripieno\": two violins, viola, violone, cello and harpsichord (as basso continuo) \"Duration\": about 13 minutes The trumpet part is still considered one of the most difficult in the entire repertoire, and was originally written for a clarino specialist, almost certainly the court trumpeter in Köthen, Johann Ludwig Schreiber. After clarino skills were lost in the eighteenth century and before the rise of the historically informed performance movement of the late twentieth century, the part was usually played on the valved trumpet sometimes on a modern F trumpet, a French Horn, or even a Bb Piccolo Trumpet. The clarino does not play in the second movement, as is common practice in baroque era concerti. This is due to its construction, which allows it to play only in major keys. Because concerti often move to a minor key in the second movement, concerti that include the instrument in their first movement and are from the period before the valved trumpet was commonly used usually exclude the trumpet from the second movement. The first movement of this concerto was chosen as the first musical piece to be played on the Voyager Golden Record, a phonograph record containing a broad sample of Earth's common sounds, languages, and music sent into outer space with the two Voyager probes. The first movement served as a theme for \"Great Performances\" in the early-to-mid 1980s, while the third movement served as the theme for William F. Buckley, Jr.'s \"Firing Line\"; a revival featuring Margaret Hoover would also use the first movement. Recent research has revealed that this concerto is based on a lost chamber music version for quintet called \"Concerto da camera in Fa Maggiore\" (Chamber Concerto in F major): catalogue number is BWV 1047R. It's similar to the orchestra version, in that the Trumpet, Flute, Oboe, & Solo Violin parts are the same, however the orchestra part has been arranged for Basso Continuo (or Piano) by Klaus Hofmann. This reconstructed quintet arrangement is also the very first Piano reduction of the 2'nd Brandenburg Concerto ever heard of & published by Barenreiter Verlag (Product Number BA 5196)", "Title on autograph score: Concerto 3 a tre Violini, tre Viole, è tre Violoncelli col Basso per il Cembalo. \"Instrumentation\": three violins, three violas, three cellos, and harpsichord (as basso continuo) \"Duration\": about 10 minutes The second movement consists of a single measure with the two chords that make up a 'Phrygian half cadence' and—although there is no direct evidence to support it—it was likely that these chords are meant to surround or follow a cadenza improvised by a harpsichord or violin player. Modern performance approaches range from simply playing the cadence with minimal ornamentation (treating it as a sort of \"musical semicolon\"), to inserting movements from other works, to cadenzas varying in length from under a minute to over two minutes. Wendy Carlos's three electronic performances (from \"Switched-On Bach\", \"Switched-On Brandenburgs\", and \"Switched-On Bach 2000\") have second movements that are completely different from each other. Occasionally, the third movement from Bach's Sonata for Violin and Continuo in G, BWV 1021 (marked Largo) is substituted for the second movement as it contains an identical 'Phrygian cadence' as the closing chords. The Largo from the Sonata for Violin and Obbligato Harpsichord in G major, BWV 1019, has also been used. The outer movements use the ritornello form found in many instrumental and vocal works of the time. The first movement can also be found in reworked form as the sinfonia of the cantata \"Ich liebe den Höchsten von ganzem Gemüte\", BWV 174, with the addition of three oboes and two horns. This concerto is the shortest of the six.", "Title on autograph score: Concerto 4 à Violino Principale, due Fiauti d'Echo, due Violini, una Viola è Violone in Ripieno, Violoncello è Continuo. \"Concertino\": violin and two recorders (described in the original score as \"fiauti d'echo\"). \"Ripieno\": two violins, viola, violone, cello and basso continuo (harpsichord and/or viola da gamba) \"Duration\": about 16 minutes The violin part in this concerto is extremely virtuosic in the first and third movements. In the second movement, the violin provides a bass when the concertino group plays unaccompanied. It has been debated what instrument Bach had in mind for the \"fiauti d'echo\" parts. Nowadays these are usually played on alto recorders, although traverse flutes are sometimes used instead: it is also theorized Bach's original intent may have been the flageolet. In some performances, such as those conducted by Nikolaus Harnoncourt, the two recorders are positioned offstage, thus giving an \"echo\" effect. Bach adapted the 4th Brandenburg concerto as a harpsichord concerto, BWV 1057.", "Title on autograph score: Concerto 5 à une Traversiere, une Violino principale, une Violino è una Viola in ripieno, Violoncello, Violone è Cembalo concertato. \"Concertino\": harpsichord, violin, flute \"Ripieno\": violin, viola, cello and violone \"Duration\": about 23 minutes The harpsichord is both a concertino and a ripieno instrument. In the concertino passages the part is obbligato; in the ripieno passages it has a figured bass part and plays continuo. This concerto makes use of a popular chamber music ensemble of the time (flute, violin, and harpsichord), which Bach used on its own for the middle movement. It is believed that it was written in 1719, to show off a new harpsichord by Michael Mietke which Bach had brought back from Berlin for the Köthen court. It is also thought that Bach wrote it for a competition at Dresden with the French composer and organist Louis Marchand; in the central movement, Bach uses one of Marchand's themes. Marchand fled before the competition could take place, apparently scared off in the face of Bach's great reputation for virtuosity and improvisation. The concerto is well suited throughout to showing off the qualities of a fine harpsichord and the virtuosity of its player, but especially in the lengthy solo cadenza to the first movement. It seems almost certain that Bach, considered a great organ and harpsichord virtuoso, was the harpsichord soloist at the premiere. Scholars have seen in this work the origins of the solo keyboard concerto as it is the first example of a concerto with a solo keyboard part. An earlier version, BWV 1050a, exists, and has many small differences from its later cousin, but no major difference in structure or instrumentation. It is dated ca. 1720–21.", "Title on autograph score: Concerto 6 à due Viole da Braccio, due Viole da Gamba, Violoncello, Violone e Cembalo. \"Instrumentation\": two viole da braccio, two viole da gamba, cello, violone, and harpsichord \"Duration\": about 16 minutes The absence of violins is unusual. viola da braccio means the normal viola, and is used here to distinguish it from the viola da gamba. When the work was written in 1721, the viola da gamba was already an old-fashioned instrument: the strong supposition that one viola da gamba part was taken by his employer, Prince Leopold, also points to a likely reason for the concerto's composition—Leopold wished to join his \"Kapellmeister\" playing music. Other theories speculate that, since the viola da braccio was typically played by a lower socioeconomic class (servants, for example), the work sought to upend the musical status quo by giving an important role to a \"lesser\" instrument. This is supported by the knowledge that Bach wished to end his tenure under Prince Leopold. By upsetting the balance of the musical roles, he would be released from his servitude as Kapellmeister and allowed to seek employment elsewhere. The two violas start the first movement with a vigorous subject in close canon, and as the movement progresses, the other instruments are gradually drawn into the seemingly uninterrupted steady flow of melodic invention which shows the composer's mastery of polyphony. The two violas da gamba are silent in the second movement, leaving the texture of a trio sonata for two violas and continuo, although the cello has a decorated version of the continuo bass line. In the last movement, the spirit of the gigue underlies everything, as it did in the finale of the fifth concerto.", "Because King Frederick William I of Prussia was not a significant patron of the arts, Christian Ludwig seems to have lacked the musicians in his Berlin ensemble to perform the concertos. The full score was left unused in the Margrave's library until his death in 1734, when it was sold for 24 groschen (as of 2014, about US$24) of silver. The autograph manuscript of the concertos was only rediscovered in the archives of Brandenburg by Siegfried Wilhelm Dehn in 1849; the concertos were first published in the following year. The manuscript was nearly lost in World War II, when being transported for safekeeping to Prussia by train in the care of a librarian. The train came under aerial bombardment, and the librarian escaped from the train to the nearby forest, with the scores hidden under his coat. In the modern era these works have been performed by orchestras with the string parts each played by a number of players, under the batons of, for example, Karl Richter and Herbert von Karajan. They have also been performed as chamber music, with one instrument per part, especially by groups using baroque instruments and historically informed techniques and practice. There is also an arrangement for four-hand piano duet by composer Max Reger. A Karl Richter recording was sent into space in 1977 on the Voyager Golden Record. In 2001, the piece came in at number 22 in the Classic 100 Original (ABC) listing. In 2007, all six of the concertos appeared on the Classic 100 Concerto (ABC) listing." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Prehistory.", "Roman.", "Medieval.", "Modern.", "Tudor.", "Stuart.", "Civil War.", "Industrial era.", "Early 20th century.", "Contemporary.", "Urban expansion; central rapprochement.", "Immigration.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Governance.", "Political control.", "Representation at Westminster.", "Coat of arms.", "Demography.", "Demographic comparatives.", "Languages.", "Population change.", "Economy.", "Engineering.", "Shopping.", "Food and drink.", "Landmarks.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Road.", "National Cycle Network.", "Rail.", "Mainline rail.", "Great Central Railway.", "Education.", "Schools.", "Tertiary.", "Religion.", "Places of worship.", "Culture.", "In popular culture.", "Sport.", "Public services.", "Local media.", "Twin cities.", "Freedom of the City." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name of Leicester comes from Old English. It is first recorded in Latinised form in the early ninth century as \"Legorensis civitatis\" and in Old English itself in an \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\" entry for 924 as'(and, in various spellings, frequently thereafter). In the \"Domesday Book\" of 1086, it is recorded as '. The first element of the name is the name of a people, the \"Ligore\" (whose name appears in \"Ligera ceastre\" in the genitive plural form); their name", "", "Leicester is one of the oldest cities in England, with a history going back at least two millennia. The native Iron Age settlement encountered by the Romans at the site seems to have developed in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC. Little is known about this settlement or the condition of the River Soar at this time, although roundhouses from this era have been excavated and seem to have clustered along roughly of the east bank of the Soar above its confluence with the Trent. This", "It is believed that the Romans arrived in the Leicester area around AD 47, during their conquest of southern Britain. The Corieltauvian settlement lay near a bridge on the Fosse Way, a Roman road between the legionary camps at Isca (Exeter) and Lindum (Lincoln). It remains unclear whether the Romans fortified and garrisoned", "Knowledge of the town following the Roman withdrawal from Britain is limited. Certainly there is some continuation of occupation of the town, though on a much reduced scale in the 5th and 6th centuries. Its memory was preserved as the \"\" of the \"History of the Britons\". Following the Saxon invasion of Britain, Leicester was occupied by the Middle Angles and subsequently administered by the kingdom of Mercia. It was elevated to a bishopric in either 679 or 680; this see survived until the 9th century, when Leicester was captured by Danish Vikings. Their settlement became one of the Five Burghs of the Danelaw, although this position was short-lived. The Saxon bishop, meanwhile, fled to Dorchester-on-Thames and Leicester did not become a bishopric again until the Church of became Leicester Cathedral in 1927. The settlement", "", "On 4 November 1530, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey was arrested on charges of treason and taken from York Place. On his way south to face dubious justice at the Tower of London, he fell ill. The group escorting him was concerned enough to stop at", "The Corporation of Leicester opposed the efforts of Charles I of England to disafforest the nearby Leicester Forest, believing them to be likely to throw many of its residents into poverty and need of relief. Sir Miles Fleetwood was sent to commission the disafforestation and division of lands being used in common. Riots destroyed enclosures in spring 1627 and", "Leicester was a Parliamentarian (colloquially called Roundhead) stronghold during the English Civil War. In 1645, King Charles I of England and Prince Rupert decided to attack the (then) town to draw the New Model Army away from the Royalist (colloquially called Cavaliers) headquarters of Oxford. Royalist guns were set up on Raw Dykes and, after an unsatisfactory response to a demand for surrender, the assault began at 3pm on 30 May 1645 by a Royalist battery opposite the Newarke. The town - which only had approximately 2,000 defenders opposed to the Royalist Army of", "The construction of the Grand Union Canal in the 1790s linked Leicester to London and Birmingham. The first railway station in Leicester opened in 1832, in the form of The Leicester and Swannington Railway which provided a supply of coal to the town from nearby collieries. The Midland Counties Railway (running from Derby to Rugby) linked the town to the national network by 1840. A direct link to London St Pancras Station was established by the Midland Railway in the 1860s. These developments", "In 1900, the Great Central Railway provided another link to London, but the rapid population growth of the previous decades had already begun to slow by the time of Queen Victoria's death in 1901. World War I and the subsequent epidemics had further impacts. Nonetheless, Leicester was finally recognised as a legal city once more in 1919 in recognition of its contribution to the British war effort. Recruitment to the armed forces was lower in Leicester than in other English cities, partly because of the low level of unemployment and the need for many of its industries, such as clothing and footwear manufacturing, to supply the army. As the war progressed, many of Leicester's factories were given over to arms production; Leicester produced the first batch of Howitzer shells by a British company which was not making ammunition before the war. After the war, the city received a royal visit; the king and queen received a march-past in Victoria Park of thousands of serving and demobilised soldiers. Following the end of the war, a memorial arch—the Arch of Remembrance—was built in Victoria Park and unveiled in 1925. The arch, one of the largest First World War memorials", "The years after World War II, particularly from the 1960s onwards, brought many social and economic challenges.", "Mass housebuilding continued across Leicester for some 30 years after 1945. Existing housing estates such as Braunstone were expanded, while several completely new estates – of both private and council tenure – were built. The last major development of this era was Beaumont Leys in the north of the city, which was developed in the 1970s as a mix of private and council housing. There was a steady decline in Leicester's traditional manufacturing industries and, in the city centre, working factories and light industrial premises have now been almost entirely replaced. Many former factories, including some on Frog Island and at Donisthorpe Mill, have", "Since World War II Leicester has experienced large scale immigration from across the world. Many Polish servicemen were prevented from returning to their homeland after the war by the communist regime, and they established a small community in Leicester. Economic migrants from the Irish Republic continued to arrive throughout the post war period. Immigrants from the Indian sub-continent began to arrive in the 1960s, their numbers boosted by Asians arriving from Kenya and Uganda in the early 1970s. In 1972, Idi Amin announced that the entire Asian community in Uganda had 90 days to leave the country. Shortly thereafter, the Leicester City Council launched a campaign aimed at dissuading Ugandan Asians from migrating to the city. The adverts did not have their intended effect, instead making more migrants aware of the possibility of settling in Leicester. Nearly a quarter of initial Ugandan refugees (around 5000 to 6000) settled in Leicester, and by the end of the 1970s around another quarter of the initially dispersed refugees had made their way to Leicester. Officially, the adverts were taken out for fear that immigrants to Leicester would place pressure on city services and at least", "The Office for National Statistics has defined a Leicester Urban Area (LUA); broadly the immediate Leicester conurbation, although without administrative status. The LUA contains the unitary authority area and several towns, villages and suburbs outside the city's administrative boundaries.", "Leicester experiences a maritime climate with mild to warm summers and cool winters, rain spread throughout the year, and low sunshine levels. The nearest official Weather Station was Newtown Linford, about northwest of Leicester city centre and just outside the edge of the urban area. However, observations stopped there in 2003. The current nearest weather station is Market Bosworth, about west of the city centre. The highest temperature recorded at Newtown Linford was 34.5 °C", "On 5 May 2011, Peter Soulsby became the first directly elected Mayor of Leicester, a post he continues to hold. This post exists in addition to that of Lord Mayor, which these days is a ceremonial post. The first mayor of Leicester was a Norman knight, Peter fitz Roger (\"Peter, son of Roger\") in 1251. Following the restoration of city status this title was elevated to \"Lord Mayor.\" In 1987 the first Asian Mayor of Leicester was indirectly elected by the councillors, Councillor Gordhan Parmar. After institution of a directly elected mayor in 2011 the Lord Mayor of Leicester still exists as a ceremonial role under Leicester City Council. On 1 April 1997, Leicester City Council became a unitary authority. Previously, local government had been a two-tier system: the city and county councils were responsible for different aspects of local-government services. That system is still in place in the rest of Leicestershire. Leicestershire County Council retained its headquarters at County Hall in Glenfield, just outside the city boundary but within the urban area. The administrative offices of Leicester City Council are in the centre of the city at 115 Charles Street, having moved from Welford Place. The buildings at Welford Place have been demolished and the site is to be developed into a complex of offices and plazas. Some services (particularly the police and the ambulance service) still cover the whole of the city and county, but for the most part the councils are independent. Leicester is divided into 21 electoral wards: Abbey, Aylestone, Beaumont Leys, Belgrave, Braunstone Park & Rowley Fields, Castle, Evington, Eyres Monsell, Fosse, Humberstone & Hamilton, Knighton, North Evington, Rushey Mead, Saffron, Spinney Hills, Stoneygate, Thurncourt, Troon, Westcotes, Western, and Wycliffe.", "After a long period of Labour administration (since 1979), the city council from May 2003 was run by a Liberal Democrat/Conservative coalition under Roger Blackmore, which collapsed in November 2004. The minority Labour group ran the city until May 2005, under Ross Willmott, when the Liberal Democrats and Conservatives formed a new coalition, again under the leadership of Roger Blackmore. In the local government elections of 3 May 2007, Leicester's Labour Party once again took control of the council in what can be described as a landslide victory. Gaining 18 new councillors, Labour polled on the day 38 councillors, creating a governing majority of +20. Significantly however, the", "Leicester is divided into three Parliamentary constituencies, all held by the Labour Party : Leicester East, represented by Claudia Webbe, Leicester South,", "The Corporation of Leicester's coat of arms was first granted to the city at the Heraldic Visitation of 1619, and is based on the arms of the first Earl of Leicester, Robert Beaumont. The charge is a cinquefoil ermine, on a red field, and this emblem is used by the city council. After Leicester became a city again in 1919, the city council applied to add to the arms. Permission for this was", "", "In the 2011 census, the population of the Leicester unitary authority area was 329,839, an increase of 11.8% compared to the United Kingdom Census 2001 figure of 279,921. The wider Leicester Urban Area, showed an estimated population of 509,000. The population of the Leicester unitary authority area is marginally higher than that of Nottingham, while Nottingham has a higher urban area population compared to Leicester. Eurostat's Larger Urban Zone lists the population of the Leicester LUZ at 886,673 (2017) below that of Nottingham; metropolitan and city region populations tend to be similar. According to the 2011 census Leicester had the largest proportion of people aged 19-and-under in the East Midlands at 27 per cent. Coventry, to the south west, has a population of 352,900 (2016", "A demographic profile of Leicester published by the city council in 2008 noted: Certain European languages such as Polish will undoubtedly feature in current statistics, although", "As one of the fastest growing cities in the country, the", "Leicester has the second largest economy in the East Midlands, after Nottingham. Companies that have their principal offices or significant sites in Leicester and the surrounding area include; Brantano Footwear, Dunelm Mill, Next, Shoe Zone, Everards brewing and associated businesses, KPMG, Mazars, Cambridge & Counties Bank, HSBC and Santander banking, Hastings Insurance, British Gas, British Telecom, Caterpillar (Inc.), Topps Tiles and DHL. The city has historically had a strong association with the production of textiles, clothing and shoes. While important companies such as Corah, Liberty Shoes and Equity Shoes have closed, companies such as Next and Boden are still active in the city. Moreover, in recent years the higher transport prices and longer lead-times associated with globalised production in Asia mean some textile manufacturers are locating to the city.", "Engineering Companies include Jones & Shipman (machine tools and control systems), Richards Engineering (foundry equipment), Transmon Engineering (materials handling equipment) and Trelleborg (suspension components for rail, marine, and", "Central Leicester has two primary shopping \"malls\" – Highcross Leicester and the Haymarket Shopping Centre: - The Haymarket Shopping Centre was opened on the site in 1974, and was the first to be built in the City, with parking for up to 500 cars on several levels, two levels of shopping with bus station, and it is also the site of the Haymarket Theatre. - Highcross Leicester opened in 2008 after work to redevelop \"The Shires Centre\" was", "Henry Walker was a successful pork butcher who moved from Mansfield to Leicester in the 1880s to take over an established business in High Street. The first Walker's crisp production line was in the empty upper storey of Walker's Oxford Street factory in Leicester. In the early days the potatoes were sliced by hand and cooked in an ordinary deep fryer. In 1971 the Walker's crisps business was sold to Standard Brands, an American firm, who sold on the company to Frito-Lay. Walker's crisps makes 10 million bags of crisps", "There are ten Scheduled Monuments in Leicester and thirteen Grade I listed buildings: some sites, such as Leicester Castle and the Jewry Wall, appear on both lists. 20th-century architecture: Leicester University Engineering Building (James Stirling & James Gowan : Grd II Listed), Kingstone Department Store, Belgrave Gate (Raymond McGrath : Grd II Listed), National Space Centre tower. Older architecture: Parks: Abbey Park, Botanic Gardens, Castle Gardens, Gorse Hill City Farm, Grand Union Canal, Knighton Park, Nelson Mandela Park,", "", "East Midlands Airport (EMA), at Castle Donington north northwest of the City is the closest international airport. The airport is", "Leicester is at the midpoint; Junctions 21, 21A and 22, of the primary English north/south M1 motorway between London and Leeds/York. This is where the M1 motorway transects with one of the primary northeast–southwest routes; the M69 motorway/A46 corridor linking to the A1 and M6 motorway at Newark-on-Trent and Coventry respectively. The M42 motorway towards Birmingham Airport terminates in North West Leicestershire some west northwest of the Leicester urban area. Leicester is at the nexus of the A6/(A14), A50, A47", "National Cycle Network Route 6 passes through Leicestershire along with other secondary routes. The Leicester Bike", "", "The rail network is of growing importance in Leicester, and with the start of Eurostar international services from London St Pancras International in November 2007 Leicester railway station has gained connections at St Pancras station to Lille, Brussels and Paris onwards. InterCity services are operated by East Midlands Railway providing connectivity on 'fast' and'semi-fast' services to London and the south east, and to major cities and towns in the East Midlands and Yorkshire in addition to providing local services within the East Midlands region. Trans-regional services to the West Midlands", "The decommissioned Leicester Central railway station is on the late Victorian Great Central Railway line that ran from London Marylebone northwards. Beeching cuts closed the route in the late 1960s. A preserved section, however, remains operational in the East Midlands centred on Loughborough Great Central railway station providing touristic services through central Leicestershire\",\" passing Swithland Reservoir on to the Leicester North railway station terminus.", "", "Leicester is home to a number of comprehensive schools and independent schools. There are three sixth form colleges, all of which were previously grammar schools. The Leicester City Local Education Authority initially had a troubled history when formed in 1997 as part of the local government reorganisation – a 1999 Ofsted inspection found \"few strengths and many weaknesses\", although there has been considerable improvement since then. Tudor", "Leicester is home to two universities, the University of Leicester, which attained its Royal Charter in 1957 and was ranked 12th by the 2009 Complete University Guide, and De Montfort University, which", "The Cathedral Church of Saint Martin, Leicester, usually known as Leicester Cathedral, is the Church of England cathedral and is the seat of the Bishop of Leicester. The church was elevated to a collegiate church in 1922 and made a cathedral in 1927 following the establishment of a new Diocese of Leicester in 1926. The Church of England parish church of St Nicholas is the oldest place of worship in the city. Parts of the church certainly date from about 880 AD, and a recent architectural survey suggested possible Roman building work. The tower is Norman. By 1825 the church was in an extremely poor condition, and plans were made for its demolition. Instead, it was extensively renovated between 1875 and 1884, including the building of a new north aisle. Renovation continued into the twentieth century. A fifteenth-century octagonal font. from the redundant Church of St Michael the Greater, Stamford, was transferred to St Nicholas. In the 19th century Leicester was a centre for Nonconformist sects and many religious buildings were built including Baptist, Congregational, Methodist as well as Catholic congregations. In 2011 Christians were the largest religious group in the city at 32.4%, with Muslims next (18.6%), followed by Hindus (15.2%), Sikhs (4.4%), Buddhists (0.4%), and Jews (0.1%). In addition, 0.6% belonged to other religions, 22.8% identified with no religion and 5.6% did not respond to the question. The city is home to places of worship or gathering for all the faith groups mentioned and many of their respective sub-denominations. In the case of Judaism, for example, with only 0.1% declaring it as their faith, the city hosts three active synagogues: one Liberal, one Orthodox and one Messianic.", "Places of worship include: Holy Cross Priory (Roman Catholic), Shree Jalaram Prarthana Mandal (Hindu temple), the Stake Centre", "The city hosts annually a Caribbean Carnival and parade (the largest in the UK outside London), Diwali celebrations (the largest outside of India),the largest comedy festival in the UK Leicester Comedy Festival and a Pride Parade (Leicester Pride). Belgrave Road, not far from the city centre, is colloquially known as \"The Golden Mile\" because of the number of Jewellers. The Leicester International Short Film Festival is an annual event; it commenced in 1996 under the banner title of \"Seconds Out\". It has become one of the most important short film festivals in the UK and usually runs in early November, with venues including the Phoenix Square. Notable arts venues in the city include:", "Leicester is the setting for the fictional diaries of Adrian Mole, created by Sue Townsend. In the early books he lives in a suburb of Leicester and attends a local school where he first meets \"the love of his life\", Pandora Braithwaite. After a period of years spent working in Oxford and London Mole returns to Leicester and gets a job in a second-hand bookshop and a flat in an \"upmarket\" development on a swan-infested waterfront which is a barely disguised representation of the area near to St. Nicholas Circle. Vastly in debt he is forced to move to the fictional village of Mangold Parva. The local (fictional) MP for", "Leicester Tigers have been the most successful English rugby union football club since the introduction of a league in 1987, winning it a record ten times, four more than either Bath or Wasps. They last won the Premiership title in 2013. Leicester City F.C. are a professional association football club based at the King Power Stadium who play in the Premier League. They were promoted as champions of the Football League Championship in the 2013–14 season, a return to the top flight", "In the public sector, University Hospitals Leicester NHS Trust is one of the larger employers in the city, with over 12,000 employees working for the Trust. Leicester City Primary Care Trust", "Leicester is home to the \"Leicester Mercury\" newspaper, and the Midlands Asian Television channel known as MATV Channel 6. BBC Radio Leicester was the first BBC Local Radio station in Britain, opening on 8 November 1967. Other analogue FM radio stations are Leicester Community Radio for English speaking over 35's (1449 AM/MW), Demon FM which is Leicester's community", "Leicester is twinned with six cities. Since 1973, the fire services", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Leicester." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Governance.", "Geography.", "Demography.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "National and international travel.", "Road.", "Rail.", "Coach.", "Canal.", "Air.", "Local travel.", "Education.", "Universities and colleges.", "Secondary, primary and pre-school education.", "Sport.", "Culture and attractions.", "Attractions.", "Music.", "Theatres.", "Museums.", "Greenspace.", "Entertainment.", "Media and film.", "Folk culture.", "Public services.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The area now occupied by the City of Sheffield is believed to have been inhabited since at least the late Upper Paleolithic, about 12,800 years ago. The earliest evidence of human occupation in the Sheffield area was found at Creswell Crags to the east of the city. In the Iron Age the area became the southernmost territory of the Pennine tribe called the Brigantes. It is this tribe who are thought to have constructed several hill forts in and around Sheffield. Following the departure of the Romans, the Sheffield area may have been the southern part of the Brittonic kingdom of Elmet, with the rivers Sheaf and Don forming part of the boundary between this kingdom and the kingdom of Mercia. Gradually, Anglian settlers pushed west from the kingdom of Deira. A Britonnic presence within the Sheffield area is evidenced by two settlements called Wales and Waleswood close to Sheffield. The settlements that grew and merged to form Sheffield, however, date from the second half of the first millennium, and are of Anglo-Saxon and Danish origin. In Anglo-Saxon times, the Sheffield area straddled the border between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. The \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\" reports that Eanred of Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at the hamlet of Dore (now a suburb of Sheffield) in 829, a key event in the unification of the kingdom of England under the House of Wessex. After the Norman conquest of England, Sheffield Castle was built to protect the local settlements, and a small town developed that is the nucleus of the modern city. By 1296, a market had been established at what is now known as Castle Square, and Sheffield subsequently grew into a small market town. In the 14th century, Sheffield was already noted for the production of knives, as mentioned in Geoffrey Chaucer's \"The Canterbury Tales\", and by the early 1600s it had become the main centre of cutlery manufacture in England outside London, overseen by the Company of Cutlers in Hallamshire. From 1570 to 1584, Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned in Sheffield Castle and Sheffield Manor. During the 1740s, a form of the crucible steel process was discovered that allowed the manufacture of a better quality of steel than had previously been possible. In about the same period, a technique was developed for fusing a thin sheet of silver onto a copper ingot to produce silver plating, which became widely known as Sheffield plate. These innovations spurred Sheffield's growth as an industrial town, but the loss of some important export markets led to a recession in the late 18th and early 19th century. The resulting poor conditions culminated in a", "Sheffield is governed at the local level by Sheffield City Council. It consists of 84 councillors elected to represent 28 wards: three councillors per ward. Following the 2016 local elections, the distribution of council seats is Labour 56, Liberal Democrats 20, the Green Party 4 and UKIP 4. The city also has a Lord Mayor; though now simply a ceremonial position, in the past the office carried considerable authority, with executive powers over the finances and affairs of the city council. For much of its history the council was controlled by the Labour Party, and", "Sheffield is located at. It lies directly beside Rotherham, from which it is separated largely by the M1 motorway. Although Barnsley Metropolitan Borough also borders Sheffield to the north, the town itself is a few miles further away. The southern and western borders of the city are shared with Derbyshire; in the first half of the 20th century Sheffield extended its borders south into Derbyshire, annexing a number of villages, including Totley, Dore and the area now known as Mosborough Townships. Directly to the west of the city are the Peak District National Park and the Pennine upland range, while the lowlands of the South Yorkshire Coalfield lie to the east. Sheffield is a geographically diverse city. Lying in the eastern foothills of the Pennines, the city nestles in a natural amphitheatre created by several hills and the confluence of five rivers: Don, Sheaf, Rivelin, Loxley and Porter. As such, much of the city is built on hillsides with views into the city centre or out to the countryside. Blake Street, in the S6 postcode area, is the third steepest residential street in England, with a gradient of 16.6°. The city's lowest point is just above sea level near Blackburn Meadows, while some parts of the city are at over ; the highest point being at High Stones, near Margery Hill. However, 79% of the housing in the city is between above sea level. Estimated to contain around 4.5 million trees, Sheffield has more trees per person than any other city in Europe, and it is claimed by Sheffield City Council to be England's greenest city, a claim that was reinforced when it won the 2005 Entente Florale competition. With more than 250 parks, woodlands and gardens, it has over 170 woodlands (covering ), 78 public parks (covering ) and 10 public gardens. Added to the of national park and of water this means that 61% of the city is greenspace. Despite this, about 64% of Sheffield householders live further than from their nearest greenspace, although access is better in less affluent neighbourhoods across the city. Sheffield also has a very wide variety of habitat, comparing favourably with any city in the United Kingdom: urban, parkland and woodland, agricultural and arable land, moors, meadows and freshwater-based habitats. There are six areas within the city that are designated as sites of special scientific interest. The present city boundaries were set in 1974 (with slight modification in 1994), when the former county borough of Sheffield merged with Stocksbridge Urban District and two parishes from the Wortley Rural District. This area includes a significant part of the countryside surrounding the main urban region. Roughly a third of Sheffield lies in the Peak District National Park. No other English city had parts of a national park within its boundary, until the creation in March 2010 of the South Downs National Park, part of which lies within Brighton and Hove.", "The United Kingdom Census 2001 reported a resident population for Sheffield of 513,234, a 2% decline from the 1991 census. The city is part of the wider Sheffield urban area, which had a population of 640,720. In 2011 the racial composition of Sheffield's population was 84% White (81% White British, 0.5% White Irish, 0.1% Gypsy or Irish Traveller, 2.3% Other White), 2.4% of mixed race (1.0% White and Black Caribbean, 0.2% White and Black African, 0.6% White and Asian, 0.6% Other Mixed), 8% Asian (1.1% Indian, 4% Pakistani, 0.6% Bangladeshi, 1.3% Chinese, 1.0% Other Asian), 3.6% Black (2.1% African, 1% Caribbean, 0.5% Other Black), 1.5% Arab and 0.7% of other ethnic heritage. In terms of religion,", "After many years of decline, the Sheffield economy is going through a strong revival. The 2004 Barclays Bank Financial Planning study revealed that, in 2003, the Sheffield district of Hallam was the highest ranking area outside London for overall wealth, the proportion of people earning over £60,000 a year standing at almost 12%. A survey by Knight Frank revealed that Sheffield was the fastest-growing city outside London for office and residential space and rents during the second half of 2004. This can be seen in a surge of redevelopments, including the City Lofts Tower and accompanying St Paul's Place, Velocity Living and the Moor redevelopment, the forthcoming NRQ and the Winter Gardens, Peace Gardens, Millennium Galleries and many projects completed under the Sheffield One redevelopment agency. The Sheffield economy grew from £5.6 billion in 1997 (1997 GVA) to £9.2 billion in 2007 (2007 GVA). The \"UK Cities Monitor 2008\" placed Sheffield among the top ten \"best cities to locate a business today\", the city occupying third and fourth places respectively for best office location and best new call centre location. The same report places Sheffield in third place regarding \"greenest reputation\" and second in terms of the availability of financial incentives. Sheffield has an international reputation for metallurgy and steel-making. Playing a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution, the city became an industrial powerhouse in the 18th century, and was dubbed \"Steel City\". Many innovations in these fields have been made in Sheffield, for example Benjamin Huntsman discovered the crucible technique in the 1740s at his workshop in Handsworth. This process was rendered obsolete in 1856 by Henry Bessemer's invention of the Bessemer converter. Thomas Boulsover invented Sheffield Plate (silver-plated copper) in the early 18th century. Stainless steel was invented by Harry Brearley in 1912, bringing affordable cutlery to the masses. The work of F. B. Pickering and T. Gladman throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s was fundamental to", "", "", "Sheffield is linked into the national motorway network via the M1 and M18 motorways. The M1 skirts the north-east of the city, linking Sheffield with London to the", "Major railway routes through Sheffield railway station include the Midland Main Line, which links the city to London via the East Midlands, the Cross Country Route which links the East of Scotland and Northeast of England with the West Midlands and the Southwest, and the lines linking Liverpool and Manchester with Hull and East Anglia. With the redevelopment of London St Pancras station (now St Pancras International) complete, Sheffield has a direct connection to continental Europe. East Midlands Railway run services to St Pancras International and Eurostar run services from there to France and Belgium. The \"Master Cutler\", a named passenger express train running from Sheffield", "Coach services running through Sheffield are operated by National Express and to a lesser extent Megabus, part of the Stagecoach Group. National Express services call at Sheffield Interchange, Meadowhall Interchange and Meadowhead Bus Stop. Megabus services only call at Meadowhall. National Express services 564, 560, 350, 320, 310", "The Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation (S&SY) is a system of navigable inland waterways (canals and canalised rivers) in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. Chiefly based", "Following the closure of Sheffield City Airport in 2008, the closest international airport to Sheffield is Doncaster Sheffield Airport which is located from the city centre. It operates on the site of the former RAF Finningley. It opened on 28 April 2005 and is served mainly by charter and budget airlines. It handles about one million passengers a year. A link road, called the Great Yorkshire Way, connects Doncaster Sheffield Airport to the M18 motorway, reducing the journey time from Sheffield city centre from 40 to 25 minutes. Phase 1, from the M18 at Junction 3 to the A638 Great North Road was completed in February 2016. The second and final phase of the project, connecting the A638 to Hurst Lane, was completed in June 2018. East Midlands Airport is within one hour's drive of the city, and Manchester Airport is connected directly to Sheffield by a direct train every hour.", "The A57 and A61 roads are the major trunk roads through Sheffield. These run east–west and north–south respectively, crossing in the city centre, from where the other major roads generally radiate spoke-like. An inner ring road, mostly constructed in the 1970s and extended in 2007 to form a complete ring, allows traffic to avoid the city centre, and an outer ring road runs to the east, south east and north, nearer the edge of the city, but does not serve the western side of Sheffield. Sheffield does not have as extensive a suburban and inter-urban railway network as other comparable British cities. However, there are several local rail routes running along the city's valleys and beyond, connecting it with other parts of South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Lincolnshire and Derbyshire. These local routes include the Penistone Line, the Dearne Valley Line, the Hope Valley Line and the Hallam Line. As well as the main stations of Sheffield and Meadowhall, there are five suburban stations, at Chapeltown, Darnall, Woodhouse, and Dore & Totley. The Sheffield Supertram (not derived from the previous tramways), operated by Stagecoach, opened in 1994, shortly after the similar Metrolink scheme in Manchester. Its network consists of of track and four lines, from Halfway to Malin Bridge (Blue Line), from Meadowhall to Middlewood (Yellow Line), from Meadowhall to Herdings Park (Purple Line), and the tram-train line from Cathedral to Rotherham Parkgate (Black Line), with all four lines running via the city centre. The network operated as three", "", "Sheffield has two universities, the University of Sheffield and Sheffield Hallam University. The two combined bring about 65,000 students to the city every year. Sheffield University was established in 1897 as University College Sheffield and became the University of Sheffield in 1905. Sheffield Hallam University (SHU) is a university on two sites in Sheffield. City Campus is located in the city centre, close to Sheffield railway station, and Collegiate Crescent Campus is about two miles away, adjacent to Ecclesall Road in south-west Sheffield. The university is the third largest", "There are 137 primary schools, 26 secondary schools – of which 11 have sixth forms: (High Storrs, King Ecgberts, King Edward VII, Silverdale, Meadowhead, Tapton, UTC Sheffield City Centre, UTC Sheffield Olympic Legacy Park, Notre Dame Catholic High, Bradfield and All Saints Catholic High) – and a sixth-form college, Longley Park Sixth Form", "Sheffield has a long sporting heritage. In 1857 a collective of cricketers formed the world's first-ever official football club, Sheffield FC, and the world's second-ever, Hallam FC, who also play at the world's oldest football ground in the suburb of Crosspool. Sheffield and Hallam are today Sheffield's two major non-league sides, although Sheffield now play just outside the city in nearby Dronfield, Derbyshire. Sheffield and Hallam contest what has become known as the Sheffield derby. By 1860 there were 15 football clubs in Sheffield, with the first ever amateur league and cup competitions taking place in the city. In the pre-war era, both Wednesday and United enjoyed large amounts of success and found themselves two of the country's top clubs; Sheffield Wednesday have been champions of the Football League four times – in 1902–03, 1903–04, 1928–29 and 1929–30, whilst Sheffield United have won it once, in 1897–98. During the 1970s and early 1980s the two sides fell from grace, with Wednesday finding themselves in the Third Division by the mid 70s and United as far as the Fourth Division in 1981. Wednesday once again became one of England's high-flying clubs following promotion back to the First Division in 1984, winning the League Cup in 1991, competing in the UEFA Cup in 1992–93, and reaching the final of both the League Cup and FA Cup in the same season. United and Wednesday were both founding members of the Premier League in 1992, but The Blades were relegated in 1994. The Owls remained until 2000. Both clubs had gone into decline in the 21st century, Wednesday twice relegated to League One and United suffering the same fate in 2011, despite a brief spell in the Premier League in 2006–07.United were promoted to the Premier League in 2019 under manager Chris Wilder, an astonishing rise considering their League One status just 2 seasons earlier. Despite being written off by most football pundits, and declared favourites for relegation from the Premier League, United have exceeded expectations and have spent the majority of the season in the top half of the league table. Sheffield was the site of the deadliest sports venue disaster in the United Kingdom, the Hillsborough disaster in 1989, when 96 Liverpool supporters were killed in a stampede and crush during an FA Cup semi final at the venue. Rotherham United, who play in League One, did play their home games in the city between 2008 and 2012, having moved to play at Sheffield's Don Valley Stadium in 2008 following a dispute with their previous landlord at their traditional home ground of Millmoor,", "Sheffield made the shortlist for the first city to be designated UK City of Culture, but in July 2010 it was announced that Derry had been selected.", "The Sheffield Walk of Fame in the City Centre honours famous Sheffield residents past and present in a similar way to the Hollywood version. Sheffield also had its own Ferris Wheel known as the Wheel of Sheffield, located atop Fargate shopping precinct. The Wheel was dismantled in October 2010 and moved to London's Hyde Park. Heeley City Farm and Graves Park are home to Sheffield's two farm animal collections, both of which are fully open to the public. Sheffield also has its own zoo; the Tropical Butterfly House, Wildlife & Falconry Centre. There are about 1,100 listed buildings in Sheffield (including the", "Sheffield has been home to several well-known bands and musicians, with a notably large number of synthpop and other electronic bands originating from the city. These include The Human League, Heaven 17, ABC and the more industrially inclined Cabaret Voltaire & Clock DVA. This electronic tradition has continued: techno label Warp Records was a central pillar of the Yorkshire Bleeps and Bass scene of the early 1990s, and has gone on to become one of the UK's oldest and best-loved dance music labels. More recently, other popular genres of electronic music such as bassline house have originated in the city. Sheffield was once home to a number of historically important nightclubs in the early dance music scene of the 1980s and 1990s, Gatecrasher One was one of the most popular clubs in the North of England until its destruction by fire on 18 June 2007. A number of major music acts, including Joe Cocker, Def Leppard, Arctic Monkeys, Bring Me the Horizon, Rolo Tomassi, While She Sleeps, Pulp and Moloko, hail from the city. Indie band", "Sheffield has two large theatres, the Lyceum Theatre and the Crucible Theatre, which together with the smaller Studio Theatre make up the largest theatre complex outside London, located in Tudor Square. The Crucible Theatre is the home (since 1977) of the World Snooker Championships and hosts many", "Sheffield's museums are managed by two distinct organisations. Museums Sheffield manages the Weston Park Museum (a Grade II* listed Building), Millennium Galleries and Graves Art Gallery. Sheffield Industrial Museums Trust manages the museums dedicated to Sheffield's industrial heritage of which there are three. Kelham", "Sheffield has a reputed 4.5 million trees and has been described as the greenest city in Europe, despite a large number of highway tree fellings taking place across the city since 2012. There are many parks and woods throughout the city and beyond. Containing more than 250 parks, woodlands and gardens, there are around 78 public parks and 10 public gardens in Sheffield, including 83 managed parks (13 'City' Parks, 20 'District' Parks and 50 'Local' Parks) located throughout the city. Included in the city parks category are 3 of Sheffield's 6 public gardens (the Sheffield Botanical Gardens, the Peace Gardens and Hillsborough Walled Gardens, with the Sheffield Winter Gardens, Beauchief Gardens and Lynwood Gardens being the separate entities). The Sheffield Botanical Gardens are on a 19-acre site located to the south west of the city centre and date back to 1836. The site includes a large, Grade II listed, Victorian era glasshouse. The Peace Gardens, neighboured next to the Town Hall and forming part of the Heart of the City project, occupy a site in the centre of the city.", "Sheffield has six cinema complexes, four of which are in the city centre and a further two in the Lower Don Valley. One of these complexes is located at Valley Centertainment, a leisure and entertainment complex in the Don Valley. It was built on land previously occupied by steel mills near what is now Meadowhall and the Sheffield Arena. It is home to several restaurants, bars, a cinema multiplex and a bowling alley. It is also the largest Cineworld complex in the United Kingdom, containing 20 screens in one building. Odeon Sheffield, situated on Arundel Gate in the city Centre and Vue, located within Meadowhall Shopping Centre, are the two other mainstream cinemas in the city. The Showroom, an independent cinema showing non-mainstream productions, is located in Sheaf Square, close to Sheffield station. In 2002 the Showroom", "Sheffield has two commercial newspapers, \"The Star\" and \"Sheffield Telegraph\", both published by Johnston Press PLC. \"The Star\" has been published daily since 1897; the \"Sheffield Telegraph\", now a weekly publication, originated in 1855. Sheffield has its own TV station; Sheffield Live TV, a not-for-profit company which began broadcasting on 23 September 2014. SLTV has been awarded a 12-year licence to provide the digital terrestrial broadcasting service. Regional broadcasters BBC Yorkshire and Yorkshire Television also cover the city. Five local radio stations broadcast in the city. The professional services are BBC Radio Sheffield, the independent Hallam FM and its sister station Greatest Hits South Yorkshire. Sheffield is also home to two FM licensed community radio stations: Sheffield Live", "Sheffield has a thriving folk music, song and dance community. Singing and music sessions occur weekly in many pubs around the city and it also hosts the annual Sheffield Sessions Festival. The University of Sheffield runs a number of courses and research projects dedicated to folk culture. The tradition of singing carols in pubs around Christmas is still kept alive in the city. The Sheffield Carols, as they are known locally, predate modern carols by over a century and are sung with alternative words and verses. Although there is a core of carols that are sung at most venues, each particular place has its", "Sheffield is policed by South Yorkshire Police (a territorial police force) whose headquarters are in the city. Sheffield constitutes one of its four Districts (Barnsley, Doncaster and Rotherham being the other three). The force polices an area of approximately 1,554 square kilometres and is the 13th largest force in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Medical services in Sheffield are provided by three NHS Foundation Trusts. Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust provides healthcare to people (primarily adults) throughout Sheffield and South Yorkshire. The trusts title includes the word 'teaching' because it undertakes training of medical students at the University of Sheffield and has strong links to Sheffield Hallam University as well. The trust has two campuses: The West Campus containing the Royal Hallamshire Hospital, the Jessop Wing (maternity wing), Weston Park Hospital (specialist cancer treatment) and Charles Clifford Dental Hospital. The Northern General Hospital is the second 'campus'", "The Sheffield International Linking Committee promotes Sheffield overseas, especially with five sister cities: A further four cities have a Friendship Agreement with Sheffield: Two roads in Sheffield have been named after sister cities; a section of the A6102 in Norton is named Bochum Parkway, and a road in Hackenthorpe is named Donetsk Way. Likewise in Bochum, Germany there is a major road called the Sheffield-Ring." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uses.", "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.", "Narcolepsy.", "Other medical uses.", "Enhancing performance.", "Contraindications.", "Adverse effects.", "Overdose.", "Addiction and dependence.", "Biomolecular mechanisms.", "Interactions.", "Pharmacology.", "Pharmacodynamics.", "Pharmacokinetics.", "Chemistry.", "Detection in biological fluids.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Names.", "Available forms.", "Immediate-release.", "Extended-release.", "Skin patch.", "Cost.", "Controversy.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Methylphenidate is most commonly used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy.", "Methylphenidate is used for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The addition of behavioural modification therapy can have additional benefits on treatment outcome. The dosage may vary and is titrated to effect. The short-term benefits and cost effectiveness of methylphenidate are well established. A number of reviews have established the safety and effectiveness of the stimulants for individuals with ADHD over several years. A 2018 review found tentative evidence that it may cause both serious and non-serious adverse effects in children. The precise magnitude of improvements in ADHD symptoms and quality of life that are produced by methylphenidate treatment remains uncertain as of November 2015. The World Health Organization; however, did not add methylphenidate to the World Health Organization Essential Medicines List as they found the evidence for benefits versus harms to be unclear in ADHD. Approximately 70% of those who use methylphenidate see improvements in ADHD symptoms. Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members, perform better in school, are less distractible and impulsive, and have longer attention spans. People with ADHD have an increased risk of substance use disorders without treatment, and stimulant medications reduce this risk. Some studies suggest that since ADHD diagnosis is increasing significantly around the world, using the drug may cause more harm than good in some populations using methylphenidate as a \"study drug\". This applies to people who potentially may be experiencing a different issue and are misdiagnosed with ADHD. People in this category can then experience negative side-effects of the drug which worsen their condition, and make it harder for them to receive adequate care as providers around them may believe the drugs are sufficient and the problem lies with the user. Methylphenidate is not approved for children under six years of age. Immediate release methylphenidate is used daily along with the longer-acting form to achieve full-day control of symptoms.", "Narcolepsy, a chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and uncontrollable sleep, is treated primarily with stimulants. Methylphenidate is considered effective in increasing wakefulness, vigilance, and performance. Methylphenidate improves measures of somnolence on standardized tests, such as the Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT), but performance does not improve to levels comparable to healthy people.", "Methylphenidate may also be prescribed for off-label use in treatment-resistant cases of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. It can also improve depression in several groups including stroke, cancer, and HIV-positive patients. However, the use of stimulants such as methylphenidate in cases of treatment-resistant depression is controversial. Stimulants may have fewer side-effects than tricyclic antidepressants in the elderly and medically ill. In individuals with terminal cancer, methylphenidate can be used to counteract opioid-induced somnolence, to increase the analgesic effects of opioids, to treat depression, and to improve cognitive function.", "A 2015 review found that therapeutic doses of amphetamine and methylphenidate result in modest improvements in cognition, including working memory, episodic memory, and inhibitory control, in normal healthy adults; the cognition-enhancing effects of these drugs are known to occur through the indirect activation of both dopamine receptor D and adrenoceptor α in the prefrontal cortex. Methylphenidate and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency and increase arousal. Stimulants such as amphetamine and methylphenidate can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks, and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid. Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, performance-enhancing use rather than use as a recreational drug, is the primary reason that students use stimulants. Excessive doses of methylphenidate, above the therapeutic range, can interfere with working memory and cognitive control. Like amphetamine and bupropion, methylphenidate increases stamina and endurance in humans primarily through reuptake inhibition of dopamine in the central nervous system. Similar to the loss of cognitive enhancement when using large amounts, large doses of methylphenidate can induce side effects that impair athletic performance, such as rhabdomyolysis and hyperthermia. While literature suggests it might improve cognition, most authors agree that using the drug recreationally as a study aid when ADHD diagnosis is not present does not actually improve GPA. Moreover, it has been suggested that students who use the drug for studying may be self-medicating for potentially deeper underlying issues.", "Methylphenidate is contraindicated for individuals using monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., phenelzine, and tranylcypromine), or individuals with agitation, tics, glaucoma, or a hypersensitivity to any ingredients contained in methylphenidate pharmaceuticals. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) gives methylphenidate a pregnancy category of C, and women are advised to only use the drug if the benefits outweigh the potential risks. Not enough human studies have been conducted to conclusively demonstrate an effect of methylphenidate on fetal development. In 2018, a review concluded that it has not been teratogenic in rats and rabbits, and that it \"is not a major human teratogen\".", "The most common adverse effects include appetite loss, dry mouth, anxiety/nervousness, nausea, and insomnia. Gastrointestinal adverse effects may include abdominal pain and weight loss. Nervous system adverse effects may include akathisia (agitation/restlessness), irritability, dyskinesia (tics), lethargy (drowsiness/fatigue), and dizziness. Cardiac adverse effects may include palpitations, changes in blood pressure and heart rate (typically mild), and tachycardia (rapid heart rate). Ophthalmologic adverse effects may include blurred vision and dry eyes, with less frequent reports of diplopia and mydriasis. There is some evidence of mild reductions in height with prolonged treatment in children. This has been estimated at or less per year during the first three years with a total decrease of over 10 years. Hypersensitivity (including skin rash, urticaria, and fever) is sometimes reported when using transdermal methylphenidate. The Daytrana patch has a much higher rate of skin reactions than oral methylphenidate. Methylphenidate can worsen psychosis in people who are psychotic, and in very rare cases it has been associated with the emergence of new psychotic symptoms. It should be used with extreme caution in people with bipolar disorder due to the potential induction of mania or hypomania. There have been very rare reports of suicidal ideation, but some authors claim that evidence does not support a link. Logorrhea is occasionally reported. Libido disorders, disorientation, and hallucinations are very rarely reported. Priapism is a very rare adverse event that can be potentially serious. USFDA-commissioned studies from 2011 indicate that in children, young adults, and adults there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events (sudden death, heart attack, and stroke) and the medical use of methylphenidate or other ADHD stimulants. Because some adverse effects may only emerge during chronic use of methylphenidate, a constant watch for adverse effects is recommended. A 2018 Cochrane review found that methylphenidate might be associated with serious side effects such as heart problems, psychosis, and death; the certainty of the evidence was stated as very low and the actual risk might be higher.", "The symptoms of a moderate acute overdose on methylphenidate primarily arise from central nervous system overstimulation; these symptoms include: vomiting, nausea, agitation, tremors, hyperreflexia, muscle twitching, euphoria, confusion, hallucinations, delirium, hyperthermia, sweating, flushing, headache, tachycardia, heart palpitations, cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension, mydriasis, and dryness of mucous membranes. A severe overdose may involve symptoms such as hyperpyrexia, sympathomimetic toxidrome, convulsions, paranoia, stereotypy (a repetitive movement disorder), rapid muscle breakdown, coma, and circulatory collapse. A methylphenidate overdose is rarely fatal with appropriate care. Following injection of methylphenidate tablets into an artery, severe toxic reactions involving abscess formation and necrosis have been reported. Treatment of a methylphenidate overdose typically involves the administration of benzodiazepines, with antipsychotics, α-adrenoceptor agonists and propofol serving as second-line therapies.", "Methylphenidate is a stimulant with an addiction liability and dependence liability similar to amphetamine. It has moderate liability among addictive drugs; accordingly, addiction and psychological dependence are possible and likely when methylphenidate is used at high doses as a recreational drug. When used above the medical dose range, stimulants are associated with the development of stimulant psychosis. As with all addictive drugs, the overexpression of ΔFosB in D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is implicated in methylphenidate addiction. Methylphenidate has shown some benefits as a replacement therapy for individuals who are addicted to and dependent upon methamphetamine. Methylphenidate and amphetamine have been investigated as a chemical replacement for the treatment of cocaine addiction in the same way that methadone is used as a replacement drug for physical dependence upon heroin. Its effectiveness in treatment of cocaine or psychostimulant addiction, or psychological dependence has not been proven and further research is needed.", "Methylphenidate has the potential to induce euphoria due to its pharmacodynamic effect (i.e., dopamine reuptake inhibition) in the brain's reward system. At therapeutic doses, ADHD stimulants do not sufficiently activate the reward system, or the reward pathway in particular, to the extent necessary to cause persistent increases in ΔFosB gene expression in the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens; consequently, when taken as directed in doses that are commonly prescribed for the treatment of ADHD, methylphenidate use lacks the capacity to cause an addiction. However, when methylphenidate is used at sufficiently high recreational doses through a bioavailable route of administration (e.g., insufflation or intravenous administration), particularly for use of the drug as a euphoriant, ΔFosB accumulates in the nucleus accumbens. Hence, like any other addictive drug, regular recreational use of methylphenidate at high doses eventually gives rise to ΔFosB overexpression in D1-type neurons which subsequently triggers a series of gene transcription-mediated signaling cascades that induce an addiction.", "Methylphenidate may inhibit the metabolism of vitamin K anticoagulants, certain anticonvulsants, and some antidepressants (tricyclic antidepressants, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors). Concomitant administration may require dose adjustments, possibly assisted by monitoring of plasma drug concentrations. There are several case reports of methylphenidate inducing serotonin syndrome with concomitant administration of antidepressants. When methylphenidate is coingested with ethanol, a metabolite called ethylphenidate is formed via hepatic transesterification, not unlike the hepatic formation of cocaethylene from cocaine and ethanol. The reduced potency of ethylphenidate and its minor formation means it does not contribute to the pharmacological profile at therapeutic doses and even in overdose cases ethylphenidate concentrations remain negligible. Coingestion of alcohol (ethanol) also increases the blood plasma levels of d-methylphenidate by up to 40%. Liver toxicity from methylphenidate is extremely rare, but limited evidence suggests that intake of β-adrenergic agonists with methylphenidate may increase the risk of liver toxicity.", "", "Methylphenidate primarily acts as a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI). It is a benzylpiperidine and phenethylamine derivative which also shares part of its basic structure with catecholamines. Methylphenidate is a psychostimulant and increases the activity of the central nervous system through inhibition on reuptake of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine. As models of ADHD suggest, it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems, particularly those involving dopamine in the mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways and norepinephrine in the prefrontal cortex and locus coeruleus. Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine may be effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems. When reuptake of those neurotransmitters is halted, its concentration and effects in the synapse increase and last longer, respectively. Therefore, methylphenidate is called a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor. By increasing the effects of norepinephrine and dopamine, methylphenidate increased the activity of the central nervous system and produced effects such as increased alertness, combated fatigue, and improved attention. Methylphenidate is most active at modulating levels of dopamine (DA) and to a lesser extent norepinephrine. Methylphenidate binds to and blocks dopamine transporters (DAT) and norepinephrine transporters. Variability exists between DAT blockade, and extracellular dopamine, leading to the hypothesis that methylphenidate amplifies basal dopamine activity, leading to nonresponse in those with low basal DA activity. On average, methylphenidate elicits a 3–4 times increase in dopamine and norepinephrine in the striatum and prefrontal cortex. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with ADHD stimulants (specifically, amphetamine and methylphenidate) decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD. Both amphetamine and methylphenidate are predominantly dopaminergic drugs, yet their mechanisms of action are distinct. Methylphenidate acts as a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor, while amphetamine is both a releasing agent and reuptake inhibitor of dopamine and norepinephrine. Methylphenidate's mechanism of action in the release of dopamine and norepinephrine is fundamentally different from most other phenethylamine derivatives, as methylphenidate is thought to increase neuronal firing rate, whereas amphetamine reduces firing rate, but causes monoamine release by reversing the flow of the monoamines through monoamine transporters via a diverse set of mechanisms, including TAAR1 activation and modulation of VMAT2 function, among other mechanisms. The difference in mechanism of action between methylphenidate and amphetamine results in methylphenidate inhibiting amphetamine's effects on monoamine transporters when they are co-administered. Methylphenidate has both dopamine transporter and norepinephrine transporter binding affinity, with the dextromethylphenidate enantiomers displaying a prominent affinity for the norepinephrine transporter. Both the dextrorotary and levorotary enantiomers displayed receptor affinity for the serotonergic 5HT and 5HT subtypes, though direct binding to the serotonin transporter was not observed. A later study confirmed the d-threo-methylphenidate (dexmethylphenidate) binding to the 5HT receptor, but no significant activity on the 5HT receptor was found. Methylphenidate may protect neurons from the neurotoxic effects of Parkinson's disease and methamphetamine abuse. The hypothesized mechanism of neuroprotection is through inhibition of methamphetamine-DAT interactions, and through reducing cytosolic dopamine, leading to decreased production of dopamine-related reactive oxygen species. The dextrorotary enantiomers are significantly more potent than the levorotary enantiomers, and some medications therefore only contain dexmethylphenidate. The studied maximized daily dosage of methyphenidate appears to be 144 mg/day.", "Methylphenidate taken orally has a bioavailability of 11–52% with a duration of peak action around 2–4 hours for instant release (i.e. Ritalin), 3–8 hours for sustained release (i.e. Ritalin SR), and 8–12 hours for extended release (i.e. Concerta). The half-life of methylphenidate is 2–3 hours, depending on the individual. The peak plasma time is achieved at about 2 hours. Methylphenidate has a low plasma protein binding of 10-33% and a volume of distribution of 2.65L/kg. Dextromethylphenidate is much more bioavailable than levomethylphenidate when administered orally, and is primarily responsible for the psychoactivity of racemic methylphenidate. Contrary to the expectation, taking methylphenidate with a meal speeds absorption. The effects of a high fat meal on the observed C differ between some extended release formulations, with combined IR/ER and OROS formulations showing reduced C levels while liquid-based extended release formulations showed increased C levels when administered with a high fat meal. Methylphenidate is metabolized into ritalinic acid by CES1A1, enzymes in the liver. Dextromethylphenidate is selectively metabolized at a slower rate than levomethylphenidate. 97% of the metabolised drug is excreted in the urine, and between 1 and 3% is excreted in the faeces. A small amount, less than 1%, of the drug is excreted in the urine in its unchanged form.", "Four isomers of methylphenidate are possible, since the molecule has two chiral centers. One pair of threo isomers and one pair of erythro are distinguished, from which primarily d-threo-methylphenidate exhibits the pharmacologically desired effects. The erythro diastereomers are \"pressor\" amines, a property not shared with the threo diastereomers. When the drug was first introduced it was sold as a 4:1 mixture of erythro:threo diastereomers, but it was later reformulated to contain only the threo diastereomers. \"TMP\" refers to a threo product that does not contain any erythro diastereomers, i.e. (±)-threo-methylphenidate. Since the threo isomers are energetically favored, it is easy to epimerize out any of the undesired erythro isomers. The drug that contains only dextrorotatory methylphenidate is sometimes called d-TMP, although this name is only rarely used and it is much more commonly referred to as dexmethylphenidate, d-MPH, or d-threo-methylphenidate. A review on the synthesis of enantiomerically pure (2\"R\",2\"'R\")-(+)-\"threo\"-methylphenidate hydrochloride has been published.", "The concentration of methylphenidate or ritalinic acid, its major metabolite, may be quantified in plasma, serum or whole blood in order to monitor compliance in those receiving the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims or to assist in the forensic investigation in a case of fatal overdosage.", "Methylphenidate was first made in 1944, and was identified as a stimulant in 1954. Methylphenidate was synthesized by Ciba (now Novartis) chemist Leandro Panizzon. He named the drug after his wife, nicknamed Rita, who used Ritalin to compensate for low blood pressure. Originally it was marketed as a mixture of two racemates, 80% (±)-erythro and 20% (±)-threo. Subsequent studies of the racemates showed that the central stimulant activity is associated with the threo racemate and were focused on the separation and interconversion of the erythro isomer into the more active threo isomer. Methylphenidate was first used to allay barbiturate-induced coma, narcolepsy and depression. It was later used to treat memory deficits in the elderly. Beginning in the 1960s, it was used to treat children with ADHD based on earlier work starting with the studies by American psychiatrist Charles Bradley on the use of psychostimulant drugs, such as Benzedrine, with then called \"maladjusted children\". Production and prescription of methylphenidate rose significantly in the 1990s, especially in the United States, as the ADHD diagnosis came to be better understood and more generally accepted within the medical and mental health communities. In 2000, ALZA Corporation received US FDA approval to market \"Concerta\", an extended-release form of methylphenidate.", "", "Methylphenidate is produced in the United States, Switzerland, Canada, Mexico, Spain, Sweden, Pakistan, and India. It is also sold in the majority of countries worldwide (although in much lower volumes than in the United States). Brand names for methylphenidate include Ritalin, Concerta, Medikinet, Adaphen, Addwize, Artige, Attenta, Cognil, Equasym, Inspiral, Methylin, Penid, Phenida, Prohiper, and Tradea. Generic forms are produced by numerous pharmaceutical companies throughout the world.", "Methylphenidate is available in numerous forms, and a doctor will determine the appropriate formulation of the drug to prescribe based on the patient's history, the doctor's experiences treating other patients with methylphenidate products, and product pricing or availability. Currently available forms include a variety of tablets and capsules, an adhesive-based matrix transdermal system (transdermal patch), and an oral suspension (liquid syrup). The dextrorotary enantiomer of methylphenidate, known as dexmethylphenidate, is sold as a generic and under the brand names Focalin and Attenade in both an immediate-release and an extended-release form. In some circumstances it may be prescribed instead of methylphenidate, however it has no significant advantages over methylphenidate at equipotent dosages and so it is sometimes considered to be an example of an evergreened drug.", "Methylphenidate was originally available as an immediate-release racemic mixture formulation under the Novartis trademark name Ritalin, although a variety of generics are now available, some under other brand names. Generic brand names include Ritalina, Rilatine, Attenta, Medikinet, Metadate, Methylin, Penid, Tranquilyn, and Rubifen.", "Extended-release methylphenidate products include: Concerta tablets are marked with the letters \"ALZA\" and followed by: \"18\", \"27\", \"36\", or \"54\", relating to the mg dosage strength. Approximately 22% of the dose is immediate release, and the remaining 78% of the dose is released over 10–12 hours post ingestion, with an initial increase over the first 6 to 7 hours, and subsequent decline in released drug. Ritalin LA capsules are marked with the letters \"NVR\" (abbrev.: Novartis) and followed by: \"R20\", \"R30\", or \"R40\", depending on the (mg) dosage strength. Ritalin LA provides two standard doses – half the total dose being released immediately and the other half released four hours later. In total, each capsule is effective for about eight hours. Metadate CD capsules contain two types of beads; 30% are immediate release, and the other 70% are evenly sustained release. Quillivant XR is an extended-release oral suspension (after reconstitution with water): 25 mg per 5 mL (5 mg per mL). It was designed and is patented and made by Pfizer. The medication comes in various sizes from 60ml to 180ml (after reconstitution). Each bottle is shipped with the medication in powder form containing roughly 20% instant-release and 80% extended-release methylphenidate, to which water must be added by the pharmacist in an amount corresponding with the total intended volume of the bottle. The bottle must be shaken vigorously for ten seconds prior to administration via included oral syringe to ensure proper ratio.", "A methylphenidate skin patch is sold under the brand name Daytrana in the United States. It was developed and marketed by Noven Pharmaceuticals and approved in the US in 2006. It is also referred to as methylphenidate transdermal system (MTS). It is approved as a once daily treatment in children — ages 6 to 17 — with ADHD. It is mainly prescribed as a second-line treatment when oral forms are not well tolerated or if people have difficulty with compliance. Noven's original FDA submission indicated that it should be used for 12 hours. When the FDA rejected the submission they requested evidence that a shorter time period was safe and effective, Noven provided such evidence and it was approved for a 9-hour period. Orally administered methylphenidate is subject to first-pass metabolism, by which the levo-isomer is extensively metabolized. By circumventing this first-pass metabolism, the relative concentrations of l-threo-methylphenidate are much higher with transdermal administration (50-60% of those of dexmethylphenidate instead of about 14-27%). A 39 nanograms/mL peak serum concentration of methylphenidate be has been found to occur between 7.5 and 10.5 hours after administration. However the onset to peak effect is 2 hours and the clinical effects remain up to 2 hours after patch has been removed. The absorption is increased when the transdermal patch is applied onto inflamed skin or skin that has been exposed to heat. The absorption lasts for approximately 9 hours after application (onto normal, unexposed to heat and uninflamed skin). 90% of the medication is excreted in the urine as metabolites and unchanged drug.", "Generic immediate-release methylphenidate is relatively inexpensive. The average wholesale cost is about US$0.15 per defined daily dose (retail pharmacies normally charge more). However, the most expensive brand-name extended-release tablets may retail for as much as $12.40 per defined daily dose. There are two main reasons for this price difference:", "Methylphenidate has been the subject of controversy in relation to its use in the treatment of ADHD. The prescription of psychostimulant medication to children to reduce ADHD symptoms has been a major point of criticism. The contention that methylphenidate acts as a gateway drug has been discredited by multiple sources, according to which abuse is statistically very low and \"stimulant therapy in childhood does not increase the risk for subsequent drug and alcohol abuse disorders later in life\". A study found that ADHD medication was not associated with increased risk of cigarette use, and in fact stimulant treatments such as Ritalin seemed to lower this risk. One of the highest use of methylphenidate medication is in Iceland, where research shows that the drug was the most commonly abused substance among intravenous substance abusers. The study involved 108 intravenous substance abusers and 88% of them had injected methylphenidate within the last 30 days and for 63% of them, methylphenidate was the most preferred substance. Treatment of ADHD by way of methylphenidate has led to legal actions, including malpractice suits regarding informed consent, inadequate information on side effects, misdiagnosis, and coercive use of medications by school systems.", "Methylphenidate may have benefit as a treatment of apathy in patients with Alzheimer's disease. It may be useful in losing weight. Methylphenidate may provide possible protection from methamphetamine induced dopamine neuron damage and possible protection from Parkinson's disease." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "His parents were Duke Wenceslas II of Opava and Głubczyce and his wife Elizabeth of Kravař. His father died around 1445-1447 and John II inherited a third of the Duchy of Opava and, jointly with his elder brother John I, the Duchy of Głubczyce. John I died in 1464 and John II inherited his title of Lord of Fulnek. The other two thirds of Opava were held by his paternal uncles William and Ernest. In 1451, William transferred his claim on the Duchy of Münsterberg to Ernest and received Ernest's third of Opava in return. Thus, William owned a two-third share of Opava. However, William died the following year and Ernest, acting as guardian for William's underage sons, sold this share to Duke Bolko V of Opole. Bolko V died in 1460, and his share of Opava fell to King George of Bohemia as a completed fief. In 1464, John II sold his one-third share to George, who thereby came into full possession of Opava, thus considerably expanding his sphere of influence. In the armed conflict about George's succession, John II initially supported Vladislaus II. After Matthias Corvinus conquered Silesia in 1479, John II paid him homage. In 1480, he founded a Franciscan monastery in Głubczyce. John II was married to a Catherine of unknown descent. She died without issue in 1485. His nickname \"the Pious\" allegedly refers to the fact that he didn't remarry after her death. John II died. With his death the main Opava line of the Přemyslid dynasty died out, although the Opava-Ratibor line continued to exist until 1521. The Duchy of Głubczyce fell to King Matthias as a completed fief. Matthias gave it to his son John." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Effects.", "Occurrence.", "Influence of aerosols." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "While most drizzle has only a minor immediate impact upon humans, freezing drizzle can lead to treacherous conditions. Freezing drizzle occurs when supercooled drizzle drops land on a surface whose temperature is below freezing. These drops immediately freeze upon impact, leading to the buildup of sheet ice (sometimes called black ice) on the surface of roads.", "Drizzle tends to be the most frequent form of precipitation over large areas of the world's oceans, particularly in the colder regions of the subtropics. These regions are dominated by shallow marine stratocumulus and trade wind cumulus clouds, which exist entirely within the marine boundary layer. Despite the low rates of surface accumulation, it has become apparent that drizzle exerts a major influence over the structure, coverage, and radiative properties of clouds in these regions. This has motivated scientists to design more sophisticated and sensitive instruments such as high-frequency radars that can detect drizzle. These studies have shown that the quantity of drizzle is strongly linked to cloud morphology and tends to be associated with updrafts within the marine boundary layer. Increased amounts of drizzle tend to be found in marine clouds that form in clean air masses that have low concentrations of cloud droplets. This interconnection between clouds and drizzle can be explored using high-resolution numerical modelling such as large eddy simulation.", "It has been hypothesized by a group of atmospheric scientists at Texas A&M University that particulates in the atmosphere caused by human activities may suppress drizzle. According to this hypothesis, because drizzle can be an effective means of removing moisture from a cloud, its suppression could help to increase the thickness, coverage, and longevity of marine stratocumulus clouds. This would lead to increased cloud albedo on a regional to global scale, and a cooling effect on the atmosphere. Estimates using complex global climate models suggest that this effect may be partially masking the effects of greenhouse gas increases on global surface temperature. However, it is not clear that the representation of the chemical and physical processes needed to accurately simulate the interaction between aerosols, clouds, and drizzle in our current climate models is sufficient to fully understand the global impacts of changes in particulates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Embedded metalanguage.", "Ordered metalanguage.", "Nested metalanguage.", "In natural language.", "Types of expressions.", "Deductive systems.", "Metavariables.", "Metatheories and metatheorems.", "Interpretations.", "Role in metaphor.", "Metaprogramming." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are a variety of recognized metalanguages, including \"embedded\", \"ordered\", and \"nested\" (or \"hierarchical\") metalanguages.", "An embedded metalanguage is a language formally, naturally and firmly fixed in an object language. This idea is found in Douglas Hofstadter's book, \"Gödel, Escher, Bach\", in a discussion of the relationship between formal languages and number theory: \"... it is in the nature of any formalization of number theory that its metalanguage is embedded within it.\" It occurs in natural, or informal, languages, as well—such as in English, where words such as \"noun,\" \"verb,\" or even \"word\" describe features and concepts pertaining to the English language itself.", "An ordered metalanguage is analogous to an ordered logic. An example of an ordered metalanguage is the construction of one metalanguage to discuss an object language, followed by the creation of another metalanguage to discuss the first, etc.", "A nested (or \"hierarchical\") metalanguage is similar to an ordered metalanguage in that each level represents a greater degree of abstraction. However, a nested metalanguage differs from an ordered one in that each level includes the one below. The paradigmatic example of a nested metalanguage comes from the Linnean taxonomic system in biology. Each level in the system incorporates the one below it. The language used to discuss genus is also used to discuss species; the one used to discuss orders is also used to discuss genera, etc., up to kingdoms.", "Natural language combines nested and ordered metalanguages. In a natural language there is an infinite regress of metalanguages, each with more specialized vocabulary and simpler syntax. Designating the language now as formula_1, the grammar of the language is a discourse in the metalanguage formula_2, which is a sublanguage nested within formula_1. Since all of these metalanguages are sublanguages of formula_1, formula_2 is a nested metalanguage, but formula_5 and sequel are ordered metalanguages. Since all these metalanguages are sublanguages of formula_1 they are all embedded languages with respect to the language as a whole. Metalanguages of formal systems all resolve ultimately to natural language, the 'common parlance' in which mathematicians and logicians converse to define their terms and operations and'read out' their formulae.", "There are several entities commonly expressed in a metalanguage. In logic usually the object language that the metalanguage is discussing is a formal language, and very often the metalanguage as well.", "A deductive system (or, \"deductive apparatus\" of a formal system) consists of the axioms (or axiom schemata) and rules of inference that can be used to derive the theorems of the system.", "A metavariable (or \"metalinguistic\" or \"metasyntactic\" variable) is a symbol or set of symbols in a metalanguage which stands for a symbol or set of symbols in some object language. For instance, in the sentence: The symbols \"A\" and \"B\" are not symbols of the object language formula_18, they are metavariables in the metalanguage (in this case, English) that is discussing the object language formula_18.", "A \"metatheory\" is a theory whose subject matter is some other theory (a theory about a theory). Statements made in the metatheory about the theory are called metatheorems. A metatheorem is a true statement about a formal system expressed in a metalanguage. Unlike theorems proved within a given formal system, a metatheorem is proved within a metatheory, and may reference concepts that are present in the metatheory but not the object theory.", "An interpretation is an assignment of meanings to the symbols and words of a language.", "Michael J. Reddy (1979) argues that much of the language we use to talk about language is conceptualized and structured by what he refers to as the conduit metaphor. This paradigm operates through two distinct, related frameworks. The \"major framework\" views language as a sealed pipeline between people: 1. Language transfers people's thoughts and feelings (mental content) to others 2. Speakers and writers insert their mental content into words 3. Words are containers 4. Listeners and writers extract mental content from words The \"minor framework\" views language as an open pipe spilling mental content into the void: 1. Speakers and writers eject mental content into an external space 2. Mental content is reified (viewed as concrete) in this space 3. Listeners and writers extract mental content from this space", "Computers follow programs, sets of instructions in a formal language. The development of a programming language involves the use of a metalanguage. The act of working with metalanguages in programming is known as \"metaprogramming\". Backus–Naur form, developed in the 1960s by John Backus and Peter Naur, is one of the earliest metalanguages used in computing. Examples of modern-day programming languages which commonly find use in metaprogramming include ML, Lisp, m4, and Yacc." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Use.", "Technique.", "History and future." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The pointing machine is used for making one-to-one copies of existing sculptures and to reproduce models made of plaster, modeling clay or modeling wax in materials like stone or wood. It is not possible to use a pointing machine to produce enlarged or reduced copies; the traditional instruments for this are a set of calipers or a three-dimensional version of the pantograph. However, there is also a special version of the pointing machine that was used for mirroring, enlargements or reduced carving. To better control the end result of the finished sculpture, sculptors have increasingly taken to making a detailed model and then reproducing it, on the same scale or enlarged, in stone. Particularly in the 19th century, sculptors would follow a specific procedure: first a wax or clay model was made, of which a plaster cast was taken, which in its turn served as the model to be copied in stone with the use of calipers or a pointing machine. This is called the indirect method of carving. The advantages of this method are that the end result is very controllable and that the chance of making irreparable mistakes is reduced drastically. In addition, the process is much faster when carving difficult sculptures, because the search for the right shape is done during the modelling process instead of during the carving itself, thus making it much easier to adjust it or make changes. Finally, using this method, much or all of the work can be done by assistant sculptors, increasing productivity. The disadvantages of using the pointing machine are a great loss of directness and the risk of loss of expression. Famous sculptors increasingly tended to use assistants. Sometimes a sculptor would run a large workshop with dozens of assistants and pupils. Art academies were formed where the skills of sculpture were taught in detail. The consequence of this development was the generation of 'academy art', from which some sculptors wanted to distance themselves. Sculptors eventually returned to more direct forms of expression, by means of for example the 'direct carving method', impressionism and expressionism. This was sometimes influenced by the indigenous art of Africa and Oceania, which brought about a shock because of its directness and raw expression. The pointing machine's popularity waned as a result, reflecting the diminishing knowledge and skills of carving in wood and stone during the 20th century.", "To transfer measuring points from a model to a block of stone or wood, the sculptor usually takes three reference points on both model and block. By using these points a sculpture can be measured accurately, for the three directions of measuring – width, height and depth – are thus defined. These three measuring points are traditionally used by sculptors to copy a sculpture with calipers, but this was simplified significantly with the invention of the pointing machine. In using the pointing machine, the sculptor mounts or glues three metal rivets, that correspond to each other, on both model and block of stone or wood. To these basic points, a (usually wooden) T-shaped support is hooked up, the \"cross\". On this crosswood, the actual pointing device is attached. The sculptor sets the device by moving the arms of the tool so that the point of the needle just touches the point to be measured on the model (for instance, the nose of a bust). The needle is set at a right angle to the surface that is measured and the stop is tightened. The sculptor then takes the whole cross, pointing machine and all, to the block of stone or wood and sets it up on the identical, corresponding basic points. The needle that defines the measuring point can slide. By subsequently carving or drilling carefully until the needle touches the stop, the sculptor can place their measuring point exactly in the block. By thus copying several dozens or hundreds of points, an accurate copy can be carved. The quality of the copy will still depend on the skill of the sculptor, however, because these points are only the basis for the final sculpture. The real advantage is the need to measure each point only once, instead of three times with callipers (once each for height, width and depth). Also there is no need to read scales in inches or centimetres, and consequently there is less room for error. Usually, the sculptor will make their own crosswood for the statue, as a small statue needs a much smaller crosswood than a life-size statue does.", "Before the invention of the pointing machine by Gatteaux, sculptors used several methods to measure and copy sculpture, such as grids, which were already in use in early Egyptian sculpture, plumb-bobs, measuring sticks and calipers. The main technique was to measure the model from three fixed points with calipers. Nowadays laser pointing machines are available. These have the advantages that the needle does not hinder carving and that the sculptor is given an audible warning when the right depth is reached. The latest developments are computer guided router systems that scan a model and can reproduce it in a variety of materials and in any desired size." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Close-mid front compressed vowel.", "Occurrence.", "Close-mid front protruded vowel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The close-mid front compressed vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as, which is the convention used in this article. There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter as (simultaneous and labial compression) or ( modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic may also be used with a rounded vowel letter as an \"ad hoc\" symbol, but'spread' technically means unrounded. For the close-mid front compressed vowel that is usually transcribed with the symbol, see near-close front compressed vowel. If the usual symbol is, the vowel is listed here.", "Because front rounded vowels are assumed to have compression, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some of the following may actually have protrusion.", "Catford notes that most languages with rounded front and back vowels use distinct types of labialization, protruded back vowels and compressed front vowels. However, a few, such as the Scandinavian languages, have protruded front vowels. One of them, Swedish, even contrasts the two types of rounding in front vowels (see near-close near-front rounded vowel, with Swedish examples of both types of rounding). As there are no diacritics in the IPA to distinguish protruded and compressed rounding, an old diacritic for labialization,, will be used here as an \"ad hoc\" symbol for protruded front vowels. Another possible transcription is or (a close-mid front vowel modified by endolabialization), but that could be misread as a diphthong. For the close-mid front protruded vowel that is usually transcribed with the symbol, see near-close front protruded vowel. If the usual symbol is, the vowel is listed here. Acoustically, the sound is in between the more typical compressed close-mid front vowel and the unrounded close-mid front vowel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Marriage and issue." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "His parents were John \"the Iron\" and Helena of Lithuania (niece of King Wladyslaw II Jagiello of Poland). Although Nicholas and his younger brother Wenceslaus II were probably adults when their father died in 1424, their mother, Helena of Lithuania nevertheless acted as regent until 1428. Until 1449, she styled herself as \"Lady of Pless\", suggesting that she had received Pless as her jointure. Nicholas V and Wenceslaus II ruled their duchy jointly until 1437, at which time they divided their inheritance. Nicholas V received Krnov, Bruntál, Rybnik, Pless, and Baborów, while Wenceslaus II received Racibórz. In 1433, a Hussite army passing through the Váh valley devastated Racibórz and prepared to hand it to Duke Bolko V of Opole, who supported the Hussites. However, Nicholas V reconquered Racibórz. In 1436, Nicholas V also conquered the Duchy of Głubczyce, which was owned by Duke Wenceslaus II of Opava, who retaliated by conquering Żory. In 1437, Nicholas V and Wenceslaus II of Opava reached a compromise. In 1443, Nicholas allied himself with Dukes William of Opava, Przemyslaus II of Cieszyn, and Henry IX of Żagań-Głogów against the robber barons who infested Silesia. Nicholas V died in 1452. Initially, his sons John IV and Wenceslaus III ruled jointly. However, in 1464, they divided their inheritance, with John IV taking Krnov and Wodzisław Śląski and Wenceslaus III taking Rybnik, Pless and Żory.", "In 1435, Nicholas V married Margaret Clemm of Ellguth. They had three children: In 1451 in Kraków, Nicholas V married his second wife. She was Barbara Rockemberg (d. 1464) from a patrician family in Kraków. They had two children: Since her stepsons John IV and Wenceslaus II were minors when Nicholas V died in 1452, Barbara was regent of Racibórz, Krnov, Bruntál and Rybnik from 1452 until 1462. She was also Lady of Pless, which was probably her jointure." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Types of stone.", "Sedimentary.", "Types.", "Training.", "Tools." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Masonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical shapes, at times simple, but some of considerable complexity, and then arranging the resulting stones, often together with mortar, to form structures. The basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years. The modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on skill is complemented by intimate knowledge of each stone type, its application and best uses, and how to work and fix each stone in place. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the various branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability.", "Stonemasons use all types of natural stone: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary; while some also use artificial stone as well.", "Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built of sedimentary stone, from Durham Cathedral to St Peter's in Rome. There are two main types of sedimentary stone used in masonry work, limestones and sandstones. Examples of limestones include Bath and Portland stone. Yorkstone and Sydney sandstone are most commonly used sandstone.", "Types of stonemasonry are: Today's stonemasons undergo training that is quite comprehensive and is done both in the work environment and in the classroom. It isn't enough to have hands-on skill anymore. One must also have knowledge of the types of stones as well as its best uses and how to work it as well as how to fix it in place.", "Traditionally medieval stonemasons served a seven-year apprenticeship. A similar system still operates today. A modern apprenticeship lasts three years. This combines on-site learning through personal experience, the experience of the tradesmen and college work where apprentices are given an overall experience of the building, hewing and theory work involved in masonry. In some areas colleges offer courses which teach not only the manual skills but also related fields such as drafting and blueprint reading or construction conservation. Electronic Stonemasonry training resources enhance traditional delivery techniques. Hands-on workshops are a good way to learn about stonemasonry also. Those wishing to become stonemasons should have little problem working at heights, possess reasonable hand-eye co-ordination, be moderately physically fit, and have basic mathematical ability. Most of these things can be developed while learning.", "Stonemasons use a wide variety of tools to handle and shape stone blocks (ashlar) and slabs into finished articles. The basic tools for shaping the stone are a mallet, chisels, and a metal straight edge. With these one can make a flat surface – the basis of all stonemasonry. Chisels come in a variety of sizes and shapes, dependent upon the function for which they are being used and have many different names depending on locality. There are different chisels for different materials and sizes of material being worked, for removing large amounts of material and for putting a fine finish on the stone. Mixing mortar is normally done today with mortar mixers which usually use a rotating drum or rotating paddles to mix the mortar. The masonry trowel is used for the application of the mortar between and around the stones as they are set into place. Filling in the gaps (joints) with mortar is referred to as pointing. Pointing in smaller joints can be accomplished using tuck pointers, pointing trowels, and margin trowels, among other tools. A mason's hammer has a long thin head and is called a Punch Hammer. It would be used with a chisel or splitter for a variety of purposes A walling hammer (catchy hammer) can be used in place of a hammer and chisel or pincher to produce rubble or pinnings or snecks. Stonemasons use a lewis together with a crane or block and tackle to hoist building stones into place. Today power tools such as compressed-air chisels, abrasive spinners and angle grinders are much used: these save time and money, but are hazardous and require just as much skill as the hand tools that they augment. But many of the basic tools of stonemasonry have remained virtually the same throughout vast amounts of time, even thousands of years, for instance when comparing chisels that can be bought today with chisels found at the pyramids of Giza the common sizes and shapes are virtually unchanged. Stonemasonry is one of the earliest trades in civilization's history. During the time of the Neolithic Revolution and domestication of animals, people learned how to use fire to create quicklime, plasters, and mortars. They used these to fashion homes for themselves with mud, straw, or stone, and masonry was born. The Ancients heavily relied on the stonemason to build the most impressive and long lasting monuments to their civilizations. The Egyptians built their pyramids, the civilizations of Central America had their step pyramids, the Persians their palaces, the Greeks their temples, and the Romans their public works and wonders (See Roman Architecture). People of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as at Dholavira made entire cities characterized by stone architecture. Among the famous ancient stonemasons is Sophroniscus, the father of Socrates, who was a stone-cutter. Castle building was an entire industry for the medieval stonemasons. When the Western Roman Empire fell, building in dressed stone decreased in much of Western Europe, and there was a resulting increase in timber-based construction. Stone work experienced a resurgence in the 9th and 10th centuries in Europe, and by the 12th century religious fervour resulted in the construction of thousands of impressive churches and cathedrals in stone across Western Europe. Medieval stonemasons' skills were in high demand, and members of the guild, gave rise to three classes of stonemasons: apprentices, journeymen, and master masons. Apprentices were indentured to their masters as the price for their training, journeymen were qualified craftsmen who were paid by the day, and master masons were considered freemen who could travel as they wished to work on the projects of the patrons and could operate as self-employed craftsmen and train apprentices. During the Renaissance, the stonemason's guild admitted members who were not stonemasons, and eventually evolved into the Society of Freemasonry; fraternal groups which observe the traditional culture of stonemasons, but are not typically involved in modern construction projects. A medieval stonemason would often carve a personal symbol onto their block to differentiate their work from that of other stonemasons. This also provided a simple ‘quality assurance’ system. The Renaissance saw stonemasonry return to the prominence and sophistication of the Classical age. The rise of the humanist philosophy gave people the ambition to create marvellous works of art. The centre stage for the Renaissance would prove to be Italy, where Italian city-states such as Florence erected great structures, including the Florence Cathedral, the Fountain of Neptune, and the Laurentian Library, which was planned and built by Michelangelo Buonarroti, a famous sculptor of the Renaissance. When Europeans settled the Americas, they brought the stonemasonry techniques of their respective homelands with them. Settlers used what materials were available, and in some areas stone was the material of choice. In the first waves, building mimicked that of Europe, to eventually be replaced by unique architecture later on. In the 20th century, stonemasonry saw its most radical changes in the way the work is accomplished. Prior to the first half of the century, most heavy work was executed by draft animals or human muscle power. With the arrival of the internal combustion engine, many of these hard aspects of the trade have been made simpler and easier. Cranes and forklifts have made moving and laying heavy stones relatively easy for the stonemasons. Motor powered mortar mixers have saved much in time and energy as well. Compressed-air powered tools have made working of stone less time-intensive. Petrol and electric powered abrasive saws can cut through stone much faster and with more precision than chiseling alone. Carbide-tipped chisels can stand up to much more abuse than the steel and iron chisels made by blacksmiths of old. Categories:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Middle Ages.", "Early modern period.", "Since 1815.", "Geography and demographics.", "Topography.", "Climate.", "Administrative division.", "Demographics.", "Culture, sights and cityscape.", "Museums.", "Cityscape.", "Economy and infrastructure.", "Agriculture, industry and services.", "Transport.", "By rail.", "By road.", "By aviation.", "By bike.", "Trams and buses.", "Education.", "Politics.", "Mayor and city council.", "Twin towns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The place name \"Gera\" originally referred to the area of the Elster river valley where the city stands now. The name most likely originated before the European Migration Period – the Slavic people who first settled the area during the 8th century adopted the name. The first known documentary mention of Gera dates from 995. In 999 Emperor Otto III assigned the \"province\" of Gera to the Quedlinburg Abbey. In turn, the church assigned the protectorship of this area in 1209 to the Vogts of Weida (in German: \"Vögte von Weida\") who served as its administrators. The Vogts of Weida were the ancestors of the Reussians, who ruled Gera until 1918. Gera was first mentioned as a town in 1237, though it is unclear in which year Gera got the municipal law. The small town got circumvallated in the 13th century on an area of 350 x 350 m and the Vogts' city castle was built in the south-western corner at today's Burgstraße. A municipal seal was first used in 1350, the council was first named in 1360 and the town hall was mentioned in 1426. The abbess of Quedlinburg remained the formal sovereign of Gera until 1358, as the Wettins followed her up. The Vogt's couldn't emancipate theirselfs from Wettin rule. In 1450, Gera was almost totally destroyed during the Saxon Fratricidal War, but it could recuperate quick because the starting textile manufacture brought wealth to the town.", "The Reformation was introduced in Gera in 1533 against the will of the Vogts by the Wettins. After the Schmalkaldic War in 1546, the Wettins lost Gera to the Bohemian Crown, who however had no influence on the city, so that the Vogts resp. the Reussians (which arose from the Vogts in the mid-16th century) as indeed rulers were strengthened. During the 16th century, some cloth-makers from the Spanish Netherlands migrated to Gera as religious refugees at Count Henry's invitation and raised the textile business in Gera. In the 18th century, there was a first peak in this industry (Putting-out system), which can be seen today at the large agents houses. In 1673, the Reussians were raised to Imperial Counts which granted them full sovereignty within the Holy Roman Empire; Gera became their royal residence. In 1686 and 1780, big town fires destroyed most buildings in Gera. The town was rebuilt relatively uniform during the 1780s in late-Baroque style, which marks the inner city until today. In 1806 Napoleon established his Imperial Headquarters at Gera during the War of the Fourth Coalition. From here, on October 12, 1806, the French Emperor purposely sent an arrogant and threatening letter to King Frederick William III of Prussia – a letter that enticed Prussia to war and a crushing defeat at the Battle of Jena a few days later.", "The Gera line of Reussians died out in 1802, so that it had no royal residence until the new one moved there from Schleiz in 1848. From 1848 to 1918 Gera served as the capital of the Principality of Reuss-Gera. With the industrial revolution in the mid-19th century, Gera grew rapidly, due largely to its textile industry, which saw the first Power loom installed in 1836. In 1859, Gera was first connected by railway to Halle via Zeitz and Weißenfels. During the following decades, rail lines in all directions made Gera to a transport hub, and the town kept growing. The second electric tram in Germany was installed in Gera in 1892. After World War I, during the German Revolution of 1918–19, the prince of Reuss was forced to abdicate and as the resultant \"Republic of Reuss\" joined the newly founded state of Thuringia in 1920. After the incorporation of some suburbs in the 1910s and 1920s Gera, with some 80,000 inhabitants, was the largest city in Thuringia, although the more centrally located Weimar became its capital. After the Nazi takeover of Germany, the Jewish community of Gera was destroyed, the synagogue burnt down in the Kristallnacht in 1938 and the city's Jews emigrated or were murdered in concentration camps. A month before the end of World War II, on 6 April 1945, U.S. bombing destroyed parts of the city and killed 514 residents. Some 300 buildings were hit, including the Osterstein castle and several historic buildings in city centre, many of which weren't rebuilt after the war. U.S. forces occupied Gera on 14 April 1945 but were replaced by the Soviets on 1 July 1945. Gera became part of the GDR in 1949 and was a flash point in the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany as thousands of workers – among them many employees of the Soviet-established Wismut uranium mining entity in the nearby Ore Mountains (\"Erzgebirge\") – demanded higher wages and free elections. The demonstrations were put down by Soviet military forces, including armored units. With governmental reorganization in East Germany, the city became the capital of the newly created District of Gera in 1952. The population rose during the GDR period, and massive \"Plattenbau\" prefabricated apartment blocks, built throughout East Germany, were constructed in Gera. After German reunification in 1990, Gera became part of the restored state of Thuringia. However, Gera lost most of its administrative functions after reunification, and nearly all the city's factories were closed. This led to a continuing economic crisis with significant unemployment, and the city's population declined from 135,000 in 1990 to less than 100,000 a decade later. The city hosted the Bundesgartenschau (federal horticultural exhibition) in 2007.", "", "Gera is located in a smooth-hilly landscape in eastern Thuringia at the White Elster river, between the Thuringian Highland approx. in the south-west, the Ore Mountains approx. in the south-east and the Leipzig Bay approx. in the north. The municipal territory is marked by the Elster valley, crossing it in south-northern direction. West of the valley, the landscape is more hilly and forested (with the Gera Municipal Forest), whereas the eastern parts are more flat and in agricultural use. The elevation is between 180 metres (the level of the White Elster river) and (when measured at Gera-Falka at the furthest southeastern point). Usually the height above sea level for the city appears as when measured at the market place. Small tributaries of the White Elster river within the borders of Gera are the \"Erlbach\" on the western side and the \"Wipsenbach\", \"Gessenbach\" and \"Brahme\" on the eastern side.", "Gera has a humid continental climate (Dfb) or an oceanic climate (\"Cfb\") according to the Köppen climate classification system. Summers are warm and sometimes humid, winters are relatively cold. The city's topography creates a microclimate caused through the basin position with sometimes inversion in winter (quite cold nights under ) and heat and inadequate air circulation in summer. Annual precipitation is only with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Light snowfall mainly occurs from December through February, but snow cover does not usually remain for long.", "Gera abuts the following municipalities: Gera is divided in different ways. Historically, there are more than 60 villages in the densely settled Elster valley area belonging to Gera today. The actual division knows on the one hand statistical districts and on the other hand political districts. The 12 statistical districts are covering the whole city area and consist of (sometimes) several political districts, urban quarters and/or rural villages. The 16 political districts are covering only few parts of Gera, but not the central urban areas, instead usually rural districts got incorporated during the second half of the 20th century. Each political district can (but doesn't have to) consist of more than one village. Each political district elects an own district council and a district mayor, whereas the statistical districts don't have any political function. The main urban quarters are the city centre, Untermhaus (incorporated 1919) in the west, Langenberg (1950), Tinz (1919) and Bieblach (1905) in the north, Leumnitz (1919) in the east, Pforten (1919) and Zwötzen (1919) in the south-east as well as Debschwitz (1912) and Lusan (1919) in the south-west.", "During the centuries, Gera has been a quite small town of 2,000 inhabitants. As the textile business saw a first peak, the population rose to 7,000 in 1800 and further to 17,000 after the early stage of industrialisation in 1870. Gera's heyday between 1870 and 1930 led to a demographic boom with a population of 83,000 at the end of this phase in 1930. In 1950, Gera had 98,000 inhabitants and the all-time peak was reached in 1988 with a population of 135,000. After the German reunification in 1990, the city saw a significant decline in population, despite the large incorporations of 1994. The population shrunk to 113,000 in 2000 and 95,000 in 2012. The average decrease of population between 2009 and 2012 was approximately 0.55% p. a, whereas the population in bordering rural regions is shrinking with accelerating tendency. Suburbanization played only a small role in Gera. It occurred after the reunification for a short time in the 1990s, but most of the suburban areas were situated within the administrative city borders. During the 1990s and the 2000s, many inhabitants left Gera to search a better life in west Germany or other major east German cities like Jena or Leipzig. Since 2010, emigration is no big issue anymore. Now, the birth deficit, caused by the high average age of the population, is getting a bigger problem because the immigration isn't sufficient to compensate it yet. Despite urban planning activities to tear down unused flats, vacancy is still a problem with rates around 12% (according to 2011 EU census). A positive side effect for the inhabitants is that Gera has one of the lowest rent levels in Germany. The birth deficit was 715 in 2012, this is -7.5 per 1,000 inhabitants (Thuringian average: -4.5; national average: -2.4). The net migration rate was +3.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2012 (Thuringian average: -0.8; national average: +4.6). The most important regions of origin of Gera migrants are bordering rural areas of Thuringia, Saxony-Anhalt and Saxony as well as foreign countries like Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria. Like other eastern German cities, Gera has only a small amount of foreign population: circa 1.6% are non-Germans by citizenship and overall 5.0% are migrants (according to 2011 EU census). Differing from the national average, the biggest groups of migrants in Gera are Russians, Vietnamese people and Ukrainians. During recent years, the economic situation of the city improved a bit: the unemployment rate declined from 22% in 2005 to 11% in 2013, which is still the highest one out of all Thuringian districts. Due to the official atheism in former GDR, most of the population is non-religious. 9.8% are members of the Evangelical Church in Central Germany and 2.6% are Catholics (according to 2011 EU census) making one of the world's lowest amounts of religious people.", "", "There are some museums in Gera:", "Like its western neighbour-city Jena, Gera is a protracted city along a wide valley in south-northern direction. The historic city centre is quite small and located between Sorge in the north, Nicolaistraße in the east, Stadtgraben in the south and Reichsstraße in the west. It survived World War II, but during the 1960s and 1970s, the GDR government demolished larger inner-city areas to rebuild them with modern concrete architecture, which marks the view of Gera's centre, particularly in the north-west until today. Between 1870 and 1930, the city was largely extended in all directions. As distinct from other German cities, there is no citywide spatial separation between the worker's quarters and the upper-class mansion districts, instead, the mansions and the tenements are situated near to each other, spread over all the districts. The hilly areas and those next to the river and the parks are more upscale, whereas the areas next to the railway and the factories are more working-class styled. Nevertheless, the Gründerzeit architecture is quite diverse and interesting in Gera. Most buildings were extensively refurbished after 1990. Especially Gera's mansion architecture from the 1900s and 1910s is unique. The 1920s brought some modern-style Bauhaus buildings to the then rich city. During the GDR period, urban growth was handled by establishing big Plattenbau settlements on the city's periphery, like the Lusan district in south and the Bieblach district in north.", "", "Agriculture has some importance in the rural districts of Gera, especially in the northern and eastern city parts. Approximately 57% of the municipal territory is in agricultural use: growing maize, rapeseed and crops as well as pasturing cattle. The city's economy features industrial machinery (Dagro Gera GmbH), communications (DTKS GmbH, Deutsche Telekom), security locks (Schloßsicherungen Gera GmbH), optics (POG Präzisionsoptik Gera GmbH), electrical equipment (Electronicon Kondensatoren GmbH), and margarine manufacturing (Othüna). Other companies include a compressor manufacturer (Kompressorenwerk Kaeser), a precision-tool maker (SMK-Präzisionsmechanik), and a subsidiary of the construction company Max Bögl. The e-commerce service-provider D+S Europe has a service centre in Gera with several hundred workers, and Rittal, a manufacturer of information-technology enclosures, moved from Bad Köstritz to Gera. Some industrial branches operating before 1990 no longer have major importance. Sectors either no longer existing or sharply reduced include those in toolmaking (VEB Wema Union), textiles (VEB Modedruck), textile machinery (VEB Textima), electronic equipment (VEB Elektronik Gera). Other industries that had a presence included VEB Carl Zeiss Jena and a brewery. One important industrial branch had been uranium-ore mining in nearby Ronneburg (Wismut), whereby the region became the Soviet Union's leading uranium supplier. In 2012 Gera had 41 companies with more than 20 workers in the industrial sector, employing 3,400 people and generating an overall turnover of €452 million. Gera is a supra-centre according to the Central Place Theory in German regional planning. This makes the city a regional centre for retailing, with three major shopping centres: \"Gera-Arcaden\", \"Amthor-Passage\" and \"Elster-Forum\". Health services are important, with one of the biggest hospitals in Thuringia, the SRH Waldklinikum. Nevertheless, Gera's economy is weak compared to equal-sized neighbouring cities like Jena or Zwickau. While Jena counts 51,000 and Zwickau 50,000 jobs liable to pay into the German social insurance, Gera had only 35,000 of those full-time jobs in 2012. The commuter balance was +14,000 in Jena and +16,000 in Zwickau, but only +2,000 in Gera, which is one of the lowest ratios among German supra-centres, highlighting the lack of ability of Gera to provide jobs for the region. The unemployment rate reached 11.2% in September 2013 - the highest among all Thuringian districts.", "", "Since the late 19th century, Gera has been a hub in the railway network. The first railway ran to the Thuringian Railway in Weißenfels (with connection to Halle) via Zeitz in 1859. Further main lines were opened to Gößnitz (with connection to Chemnitz) in 1865, to Saalfeld in 1871, to Leipzig (via Zeitz) in 1873, to Plauen in 1875, to Weimar (with connection to Erfurt) via Jena in 1876 and to Hof in 1883. The secondary railways to Werdau (opened in 1876) and Meuselwitz (opened via Pölzig in 1901 and via Lumpzig in 1887) are abandoned. Nevertheless, none of these lines are electrified or in use for long-distance trains. Today, there are regional express trains to Göttingen via Jena and Erfurt, to Leipzig via Zeitz, to Altenburg, Glauchau and Zwickau via the Gößnitz line, to Greiz, to Hof and to Saalfeld. Local trains provide connections to Weimar via Jena, Leipzig, Weischlitz (near Plauen), Hof and Saalfeld. The most lines run every two hours, so that there is hourly service (express and local trains in alternation) to most directions. The electrification of the west-eastern mainline Weimar – Jena – Gera – Gößnitz is in discussion for closing that gap in the network and enable Gera's connection to long-distance trains, which can be reached today either via Jena or via Leipzig. The most important stations in Gera are the \"Gera main station\" (former Prussian station), where all the trains stop, and the \"Gera southern station\" (former Saxonian station), where all the trains, except the local ones to Weimar, stop. More stations in Gera are \"Langenberg\" at the Leipzig line, \"Zwötzen\" at the Saalfeld and Hof line as well as \"Gera Ost\" and \"Liebschwitz\" at the Plauen line. Freight transport by rail is immaterial in Gera since the 1990s.", "The two Autobahnen crossing each other nearby at \"Hermsdorf junction\" are the Bundesautobahn 4 (Frankfurt–Dresden) and the Bundesautobahn 9 (Berlin–Munich), which were both built during the 1930s. Furthermore, there are three Bundesstraßen connecting Gera: the Bundesstraße 2 to Zeitz in the north and Hof in the south, the Bundesstraße 7 to Jena (via Eisenberg) in the west and to Altenburg in the east and the Bundesstraße 92 to Plauen (via Greiz) in the south. Important secondary roads run to Altenburg (via Lumpzig), to Werdau (via Linda), to Wünschendorf, to Stadtroda and to Hermsdorf. As part of the Bundesgartenschau 2007, a new bypass road was built in the east to improve the connection of southern city parts to the A 4 and to relieve the city centre from transit traffic.", "The closest regional airports are the Leipzig/Halle Airport, about north and the Erfurt-Weimar Airport, about west of Gera. Both serve mainly holiday flights. The nearest major airports are the Frankfurt Airport, the Munich Airport and the prospective Berlin Brandenburg Airport. In the eastern part of Gera lies the airfield Gera-Leumnitz meant for private aviation.", "Cycling is becoming more popular since the construction of quality cycle tracks began in the 1990s. For tourists, there are the \"Weiße Elster track\" and the \"Thuringian city string track (Radweg Thüringer Städtekette)\". Both connect points of tourist interest, the first along the White Elster valley from the Elster Mountains at the Czech border to Saale river in Halle and second from Eisenach via Erfurt, Weimar, Jena and Gera to Altenburg. For inner city every-day traffic, some cycle lanes exist along several main streets.", "The Gera tram network was the second in Germany that launched electrical engines in 1892. Today, there are two long lines, one from Bieblach via city centre to Lusan (line 3) and another one – opened in 2006 – from Untermhaus via city centre to Zwötzen (line 1). The third short line is a connection between Lusan and the Zwötzen railway station (line 2). Another line is planned to connect Langenberg and the northern city parts. On line 3 is one course every 5 minutes, on line 1 every 10 minutes and on line 2 every 20 minutes. The bus network connects districts without trams as well as neighbouring municipalities that do not have a rail connection.", "Tertiary institutions are the private college \"SRH Fachhochschule für Gesundheit Gera\" (university of applied sciences for health) with 500 students and the \"Berufsakademie Gera\" (Cooperative education) with 700 students. Furthermore, there are four Gymnasiums, all of them are state-owned. The Goethe-Gymnasium/Rutheneum focuses on music education as an elite boarding school, in addition to the common curriculum.", "", "The current mayor Julian Vonarb (independent) has been in office since 2018. Since 1990, there have been six freely-elected mayors. Since 1994, mayors in Thuringia are elected directly by the people. The previous municipal election was held in 2014 with the results: The last municipal election was held in 2019 with the results:", "Gera is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Marriage and issue." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "His parents were John II \"the Iron\" and his wife Helen of Lithuania, a niece of King Jogaila of Poland. Wenceslaus fought together with his father and other Silesian princes on the Polish side against the Teutonic Knights in the Hunger War in 1414. Although Wenceslaus and his older brother Nicholas V were probably already adults when their father died in 1424, their mother, Helen of Lithuania, acted as regent until 1428. From 1428 to 1449, she styled herself as \"Lady of Pleß\"; presumably Pleß was her \"Wittum\". From 1428 to 1437, Wenceslaus and Nicholas V ruled their territory jointly. In 1437, it was divided, with Wenceslaus taking Ratibor and Nicholas taking Duchy of Krnov, Bruntál, Rybnik, Pleß and Baborów. In late 1437, a majority of the Bohemian Estates elected Albert II from the House of Habsburg as the new King of Bohemia. A minority favoured his eleven-year-old rival Casimir, the son of King Jogaila of Poland. In 1438, Poland invaded Silesia and devastated the Duchies of Opole and Ratibor. After this, Duke Wenceslaus of Ratibor, as well as Duke Wenceslaus I of Zator and his brothers Duke Przemysław of Toszek and Duke Jan IV of Oświęcim, were willing to accept Casimir as King, under certain conditions. Nevertheless, all Silesian Dukes paid homage to Albert II in Wrocław in November 1438. After Nicholas V died in 1452, Wenceslaus took up the guardianship over his underage sons John IV \"the Elder\" and Wenceslaus III, jointly with their step-mother, Barbara Rockenberg, until 1464. From 1452 to 1462, she styled herself \"Lady of Pleß\"; presumably Pleß was her \"Wittum\". Duke Wenceslaus of Ratibor died in 1456 and was buried in the church of the Dominican monastery at Ratibor.", "In 1437, Wencelsaus married Margaret (d. 1464), a daughter of Vincent of Szamotuły, Castellan of Międzyrzecz and widow of Casimir II of Belz. They had the following children:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Predicting expansion.", "Contraction effects (negative thermal expansion).", "Factors affecting thermal expansion.", "Coefficient of thermal expansion.", "General thermal expansion coefficient.", "Expansion in solids.", "Linear expansion.", "Effects on strain.", "Area expansion.", "Volume expansion.", "Isotropic materials.", "Anisotropic materials.", "Isobaric expansion in gases.", "Expansion in liquids.", "Apparent and absolute expansion of a liquid.", "Examples and applications.", "Thermal expansion coefficients for various materials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "If an equation of state is available, it can be used to predict the values of the thermal expansion at all the required temperatures and pressures, along with many other state functions.", "A number of materials contract on heating within certain temperature ranges; this is usually called negative thermal expansion, rather than \"thermal contraction\". For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of water drops to zero as it is cooled to 3.983 °C and then becomes negative below this temperature; this means that water has a maximum density at this temperature, and this leads to bodies of water maintaining this temperature at their lower depths during extended periods of sub-zero weather. Also, fairly pure silicon has a negative coefficient of thermal expansion for temperatures between about 18 and 120 kelvins.", "Unlike gases or liquids, solid materials tend to keep their shape when undergoing thermal expansion. Thermal expansion generally decreases with increasing bond energy, which also has an effect on the melting point of solids, so, high melting point materials are more likely to have lower thermal expansion. In general, liquids expand slightly more than solids. The thermal expansion of glasses is higher compared to that of crystals. At the glass transition temperature, rearrangements that occur in an amorphous material lead to characteristic discontinuities of coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat. These discontinuities allow detection of the glass transition temperature where a supercooled liquid transforms to a glass. Absorption or desorption of water (or other solvents) can change the size of many common materials; many organic materials change size much more due to this effect than due to thermal expansion. Common plastics exposed to water can, in the long term, expand by many percent.", "The coefficient of thermal expansion describes how the size of an object changes with a change in temperature. Specifically, it measures the fractional change in size per degree change in temperature at a constant pressure. Several types of coefficients have been developed: volumetric, area, and linear. The choice of coefficient depends on the particular application and which dimensions are considered important. For solids, one might only be concerned with the change along a length, or over some area. The volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is the most basic thermal expansion coefficient, and the most relevant for fluids. In general, substances expand or contract when their temperature changes, with expansion or contraction occurring in all directions. Substances that expand at the same rate in every direction are called isotropic. For isotropic materials, the area and volumetric thermal expansion coefficient are, respectively, approximately twice and three times larger than the linear thermal expansion coefficient. Mathematical definitions of these coefficients are defined below for solids, liquids, and gases.", "In the general case of a gas, liquid, or solid, the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion is given by The subscript \"p\" to the derivative indicates that the pressure is held constant during the expansion, and the subscript \"V\" stresses that it is the volumetric (not linear) expansion that enters this general definition. In the case of a gas, the fact that the pressure is held constant is important, because the volume of a gas will vary appreciably with pressure as well as temperature. For a gas of low density this can be seen from the ideal gas law.", "When calculating thermal expansion it is necessary to consider whether the body is free to expand or is constrained. If the body is free to expand, the expansion or strain resulting from an increase in temperature can be simply calculated by using the applicable coefficient of Thermal Expansion. If the body is constrained so that it cannot expand, then internal stress will be caused (or changed) by a change in temperature. This stress can be calculated by considering the strain that would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to reduce that strain to zero, through the stress/strain relationship characterised by the elastic or Young's modulus. In the special case of solid materials, external ambient pressure does not usually appreciably affect the size of an object and so it is not usually necessary to consider the effect of pressure changes. Common engineering solids usually have coefficients of thermal expansion that do not vary significantly over the range of temperatures where they are designed to be used, so where extremely high accuracy is not required, practical calculations can be based on a constant, average, value of the coefficient of expansion.", "Linear expansion means change in one dimension (length) as opposed to change in volume (volumetric expansion). To a first approximation, the change in length measurements of an object due to thermal expansion is related to temperature change by a coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE). It is the fractional change in length per degree of temperature change. Assuming negligible effect of pressure, we may write: where formula_3 is a particular length measurement and formula_4 is the rate of change of that linear dimension per unit change in temperature. The change in the linear dimension can be estimated to be: This estimation works well as long as the linear-expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature formula_6, and the fractional change in length is small formula_7. If either of these conditions does not hold, the exact differential equation (using formula_4) must be integrated.", "For solid materials with a significant length, like rods or cables, an estimate of the amount of thermal expansion can be described by the material strain, given by formula_9 and defined as: where formula_11 is the length before the change of temperature and formula_12 is the length after the change of temperature. For most solids, thermal expansion is proportional to the change in temperature: Thus, the change in either the strain or temperature can be estimated by: where is the difference of the temperature between the two recorded strains, measured in degrees Fahrenheit, degrees Rankine, degrees Celsius, or kelvins, and formula_16 is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion in \"per degree Fahrenheit\", \"per degree Rankine\", “per degree Celsius”, or “per kelvin”, denoted by,,, or, respectively. In the field of continuum mechanics, the thermal expansion and its effects are treated as eigenstrain and eigenstress.", "The area thermal expansion coefficient relates the change in a material's area dimensions to a change in temperature. It is the fractional change in area per degree of temperature change. Ignoring pressure, we may write: where formula_18 is some area of interest on the object, and formula_19 is the rate of change of that area per unit change in temperature. The change in the area can be estimated as: This equation works well as long as the area expansion coefficient does not change much over the change in temperature formula_6, and the fractional change in area is small formula_22. If either of these conditions does not hold, the equation must be integrated.", "For a solid, we can ignore the effects of pressure on the material, and the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be written: where formula_24 is the volume of the material, and formula_25 is the rate of change of that volume with temperature. This means that the volume of a material changes by some fixed fractional amount. For example, a steel block with a volume of 1 cubic meter might expand to 1.002 cubic meters when the temperature is raised by 50 K. This is an expansion of 0.2%. If we had a block of steel with a volume of 2 cubic meters, then under the same conditions, it would expand to 2.004 cubic meters, again an expansion of 0.2%. The volumetric expansion coefficient would be 0.2% for 50 K, or 0.004% K. If we already know the expansion coefficient, then we can calculate the change in volume where formula_27 is the fractional change in volume (e.g., 0.002) and formula_6 is the change in temperature (50 °C). The above example assumes that the expansion coefficient did not change as the temperature changed and the increase in volume is small compared to the original volume. This is not always true, but for small changes in temperature, it is a good approximation. If the volumetric expansion coefficient does change appreciably with temperature, or the increase in volume is significant, then the above equation will have to be integrated: where formula_31 is the volumetric expansion coefficient as a function of temperature \"T\", and formula_32,formula_33 are the initial and final temperatures respectively.", "For isotropic materials the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is three times the linear coefficient: This ratio arises because volume is composed of three mutually orthogonal directions. Thus, in an isotropic material, for small differential changes, one-third of the volumetric expansion is in a single axis. As an example, take a cube of steel that has sides of length \"L\". The original volume will be formula_35 and the new volume, after a temperature increase, will be We can easily ignore the terms as change in L is a small quantity which on squaring gets much smaller. So The above approximation holds for small temperature and dimensional changes (that is, when formula_6 and formula_39 are small); but it does not hold if we are trying to go back and forth between volumetric and linear coefficients using larger values of formula_6. In this case, the third term (and sometimes even the fourth term) in the expression above must be taken into account. Similarly, the area thermal expansion coefficient is two times the linear coefficient: This ratio can be found in a way similar to that in the linear example above, noting that the area of a face on the cube is just formula_42. Also, the same considerations must be made when dealing with large values of formula_6.", "Materials with anisotropic structures, such as crystals (with less than cubic symmetry, for example martensitic phases) and many composites, will generally have different linear expansion coefficients formula_16 in different directions. As a result, the total volumetric expansion is distributed unequally among the three axes. If the crystal symmetry is monoclinic or triclinic, even the angles between these axes are subject to thermal changes. In such cases it is necessary to treat the coefficient of thermal expansion as a tensor with up to six independent elements. A good way to determine the elements of the tensor is to study the expansion by x-ray powder diffraction. The thermal expansion coefficient tensor for the materials possessing cubic symmetry (for e.g. FCC, BCC) is isotropic.", "For an ideal gas, the volumetric thermal expansion (i.e., relative change in volume due to temperature change) depends on the type of process in which temperature is changed. Two simple cases are constant pressure (an \"isobaric process\") and constant volume (an \"isochoric process\"). The derivative of the ideal gas law, formula_45, is where formula_47 is the pressure, formula_24 is the specific volume, and formula_49 is temperature measured in \"energy units\". By the definition of an isobaric thermal expansion, we have formula_50, so that formula_51, and the isobaric thermal expansion coefficient is: Similarly, if the volume is held constant, that is if formula_53, we have formula_54, so that the isochoric thermal expansion coefficient is", "Theoretically, the coefficient of linear expansion can be found from the coefficient of volumetric expansion (\"α\" ≈ 3\"α\"). For liquids, \"α\" is calculated through the experimental determination of \"α\". Liquids, unlike solids have no definite shape and they take the shape of the container. Consequently, liquids have no definite length and area, so linear and areal expansions of liquids have no significance. Liquids in general, expand on heating. However water is an exception to this general behaviour: below 4 °C it contracts on heating. For higher temperature it shows the normal positive thermal expansion. The thermal expansion of liquids is usually higher than in solids because of weak intermolecular forces present in liquids. Thermal expansion of solids usually shows little dependence on temperature, except at low temperatures, whereas liquids expand at different rates at different temperatures.", "The expansion of liquids is usually measured in a container. When a liquid expands in a vessel, the vessel expands along with the liquid. Hence the observed increase in volume of the liquid level is not actual increase in its volume. The expansion of the liquid relative to the container is called its \"apparent expansion\", while the actual expansion of the liquid is called \"real expansion\" or \"absolute expansion\". The ratio of apparent increase in volume of the liquid per unit rise of temperature to the original volume is called its \"coefficient of apparent expansion\". For small and equal rises in temperature, the increase in volume (real expansion) of a liquid is equal to the sum of the apparent increase in volume (apparent expansion) of the liquid and the increase in volume of the containing vessel. Thus a liquid has \"two\" coefficients of expansion. Measurement of the expansion of a liquid must account for the expansion of the container as well. For example, when a flask with a long narrow stem, containing enough liquid to partially fill the stem itself, is placed in a heat bath, the height of the liquid column in the stem will initially drop, followed immediately by a rise of that height until the whole system of flask, liquid and heat bath has warmed through. The initial drop in the height of the liquid column is not due to an initial contraction of the liquid, but rather to the expansion of the flask as it contacts the heat bath first. Soon after, the liquid in the flask is heated by the flask itself and begins to expand. Since liquids typically have a greater expansion over solids, the expansion of the liquid in the flask eventually exceeds that of the flask, causing the level of liquid in the flask to rise. A direct measurement of the height of the liquid column is a measurement of the apparent expansion of the liquid. The absolute expansion of the liquid is the apparent expansion corrected for the expansion of the containing vessel.", "The expansion and contraction of materials must be considered when designing large structures, when using tape or chain to measure distances for land surveys, when designing molds for casting hot material, and in other engineering applications when large changes in dimension due to temperature are expected. Thermal expansion is also used in mechanical applications to fit parts over one another, e.g. a bushing can be fitted over a shaft by making its inner diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the shaft, then heating it until it fits over the shaft, and allowing it to cool after it has been pushed over the shaft, thus achieving a'shrink fit'. Induction shrink fitting is a common industrial method to pre-heat metal components between 150 °C and 300 °C thereby causing them to expand and allow for the insertion or removal of another component. There exist some alloys with a very small linear expansion coefficient, used in applications that demand very small changes in physical dimension over a range of temperatures. One of these is Invar 36, with expansion approximately equal to 0.6 K. These alloys are useful in aerospace applications where wide temperature swings may occur. Pullinger's apparatus is used to determine the linear expansion of a metallic rod in the laboratory. The apparatus consists of a metal cylinder closed at both ends (called a steam jacket). It is provided with an inlet and outlet for the steam. The steam for heating the rod is supplied by a boiler which is connected by a rubber tube to the inlet. The center of the cylinder contains a hole to insert a thermometer. The rod under investigation is enclosed in a steam jacket. One of its ends is free, but the other end is pressed against a fixed screw. The position of the rod is determined by a micrometer screw gauge or spherometer. To determine the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of a metal, a pipe made of that metal is heated by passing steam through it. One end of the pipe is fixed securely and the other rests on a rotating shaft, the motion of which is indicated by a pointer. A suitable thermometer records the pipe's temperature. This enables calculation of the relative change in length per degree temperature change. The control of thermal expansion in brittle materials is a key concern for a wide range of reasons. For example, both glass and ceramics are brittle and uneven temperature causes uneven expansion which again causes thermal stress and this might lead to fracture. Ceramics need to be joined or work in concert with a wide range of materials and therefore their expansion must be matched to the application. Because glazes need to be firmly attached to the underlying porcelain (or other body type) their thermal expansion must be tuned to 'fit' the body so that crazing or shivering do not occur. Good example of products whose thermal expansion is the key to their success are CorningWare and the spark plug. The thermal expansion of ceramic bodies can be controlled by firing to create crystalline species that will influence the overall expansion of the material in the desired direction. In addition or instead the formulation of the body can employ materials delivering particles of the desired expansion to the matrix. The thermal expansion of glazes is controlled by their chemical composition and the firing schedule to which they were subjected. In most cases there are complex issues involved in controlling body and glaze expansion, so that adjusting for thermal expansion must be done with an eye to other properties that will be affected, and generally trade-offs are necessary. Thermal expansion can have a noticeable effect on gasoline stored in above-ground storage tanks, which can cause gasoline pumps to dispense gasoline which may be more compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in winter, or less compressed than gasoline held in underground storage tanks in summer. Heat-induced expansion has to be taken into account in most areas of engineering. A few examples are:", "This section summarizes the coefficients for some common materials. For isotropic materials the coefficients linear thermal expansion \"α\" and volumetric thermal expansion \"α\" are related by \"α\" = 3\"α\". For liquids usually the coefficient of volumetric expansion is listed and linear expansion is calculated here for comparison. For common materials like many metals and compounds, the thermal expansion coefficient is inversely proportional to the melting point. In particular, for metals the relation is: for halides and oxides In the table below, the range for \"α\" is from 10 K for hard solids to 10 K for organic liquids. The coefficient \"α\" varies with the temperature and some materials have a very high variation ; see for example the variation vs. temperature of the volumetric coefficient for a semicrystalline polypropylene (PP) at different pressure, and the variation of the linear coefficient vs. temperature for some steel grades (from bottom to top: ferritic stainless steel, martensitic stainless steel, carbon steel, duplex stainless steel, austenitic steel). The highest linear coefficient in a solid has been reported for a Ti-Nb alloy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Home Cinema.", "Black Edition.", "Features.", "DirectShow.", "Matroska and Ogg containers.", "TV tuners." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Media Player Classic was created and maintained by a programmer named \"Gabest\" who also created PCSX2 graphics plugin GSDX. It was developed as a closed-source application, but later relicensed as free software under the terms of the GNU General Public License. MPC is hosted under the codice_1 project at SourceForge.net. The project itself is something of an umbrella organization for works by Gabest. \"Media Player Classic\" development stalled in May 2006. Gabest, the main developer of the original version, stated in March 2007 that development of \"Media Player Classic\" is not dead but that he was unable to work on it. The community at the Doom9 forum has since continued the project in two main veins. The version known as Media Player Classic 6.4.9.1 was meant for fixing bugs and updating outdated libraries; its branch's development is inactive.", "A fork, called \"Media Player Classic - Home Cinema (MPC-HC)\", adds new features, as well as fixes bugs and updates libraries. MPC-HC updates the original player and adds many useful functionalities including the option to remove tearing, additional video decoders (in particular H.264, VC-1 and MPEG-2 with DirectX Video Acceleration support), Enhanced Video Renderer support, and multiple bug fixes. There is also a 64 bit-version of \"Media Player Classic - Home Cinema\" for the various Windows x64 platforms. MPC-HC requires at least Windows XP Service Pack 3. As of version 1.4.2499.0, MPC-HC implemented color management support, an uncommon feature in video players at the time. Windows 8 support was introduced in version 1.6.5. Beginning with version 1.6.6 the stable releases are signed. Apart from stable releases as published, nightly builds are also publicly available. MPC-HC is also distributed in the PortableApps format. MPC-HC 1.7.8 released in 2015 was built with the MediaInfoLib 0.7.71. MPC-HC 1.7.1 added support for HEVC format. MPC-HC 1.7.13 now requires SSE2 supporting CPU and no longer runs on Intel Pentium III or AMD Athlon XP. MPC-HC 1.7.13 is the final version and the program has been officially discontinued as of July 16, 2017, due to a shortage of active developers with C/C++ experience. Its source code on GitHub was last updated on August 27, 2017, a month and a half after the official final version.. Unofficial versions from the same developer responsible for MPC 6.4.9.1 started appearing in January 2018. These builds contain small fixes/improvements, updated internal codecs (LAV Filters), AV1 support, \"youtube-dl\" integration, and updates to some other external components; support for Windows XP was also dropped in these builds. Binary releases are available, as well as source code.", "\"Media Player Classic - Black Edition (MPC-BE)\" is a fork of MPC and MPC-HC. It moved away from MPC's aim to mimic the look and feel of Windows Media Player with updated player controls and provides additional features on top of MPC-HC such as Seekbar Previews. Player development began in February 2011. Developers used a modification of MPC-HC made by a programmer nicknamed \"bobdynlan\". The first version (1.0.1.0) was released on September 12, 2012. Starting with version 1.5.0, MPC-BE no longer supports Windows XP. MPC-BE version 1.5.1 and newer require SSE2 supporting CPU and no longer run on Intel Pentium III or AMD Athlon XP. MPC-BE stable release version 1.5.4.4969, was released December 27, 2019, and nightly builds are also available.", "Media Player Classic is capable of VCD, SVCD, and DVD playback without installation of additional software or codecs. MPC has built-in codecs for MPEG-2 video with support for subtitles and codecs for LPCM, MP2, 3GP, AC3, and DTS audio. MPC also contains an improved MPEG splitter that supports playback of VCDs and SVCDs using its VCD/SVCD/XCD Reader. On October 30, 2005, Gabest added *.mp4 and MPEG-4 Timed Text support. An AAC decoding filter had once been present in MPC. MPC-HC is also one of the first(unknown) to support Dolby Atmos audio natively. MPC can use an INI file in its application folder, making it a portable application.", "Media Player Classic is primarily based on the DirectShow architecture and therefore automatically uses installed DirectShow decoding filters. For instance, after the open source DirectShow decoding filter ffdshow has been installed, fast and high quality decoding and postprocessing of the MPEG-4 ASP, H.264, and Flash Video formats is available in MPC. MPC-HC can play videos in these formats directly without ffdshow. MPC provides DXVA support for newer Intel, NVIDIA and ATI video cards when using an H.264 or VC-1 codec. This provides hardware-acceleration for playback. In addition to DirectShow, MPC can also use the QuickTime, RealPlayer, and SHOUTcast codecs and filters (if installed on the computer) to play their native files..", "Media Player Classic supports native playback of OGM and Matroska container formats. In 2006 OGM audio playback was limited by a lack of support for the CoreVorbis DirectShow filter, which mainly affected files.", "MPC supports playback and recording of television if a supported TV tuner is installed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath.", "Battle of Sunda Strait.", "Second Java Sea.", "Bali Strait.", "Consequences.", "Wrecks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies progressed at a rapid pace as they advanced from their Palau Islands colony and captured bases in Sarawak and the southern Philippines. They seized bases in eastern Borneo and in northern Celebes while troop convoys, screened by destroyers and cruisers with air support provided by swarms of fighters operating from captured bases, steamed southward through the Makassar Strait and into the Molucca Sea. To oppose these invading forces was a small force, consisting of Dutch, American, British and Australian warships—many of them of World War I vintage—initially under the command of Admiral Thomas C. Hart. On 23 January 1942, a force of four American destroyers attacked a Japanese invasion convoy in Makassar Strait as it approached Balikpapan in Borneo. On 13 February, the Allies fought unsuccessfully—in the Battle of Palembang—to prevent the Japanese from capturing the major oil port in eastern Sumatra. On the night of 19/20 February, an Allied force attacked the Eastern Invasion Force off Bali in the Battle of Badung Strait. Also on 19 February, the Japanese made two air raids on Darwin, on the Australian mainland, one from carrier-based planes and the other by land-based planes. The destruction of Darwin rendered it useless as a supply and naval base to support operations in the East Indies.", "The Japanese amphibious forces gathered to strike at Java, and on 27 February 1942, the main Allied naval force, under Doorman, sailed northeast from Surabaya to intercept a convoy of the Eastern Invasion Force approaching from the Makassar Strait. The Eastern Strike Force, as it was known, consisted of two heavy cruisers ( and ), three light cruisers (Doorman's flagship,, ), and nine destroyers (,,,,,,,, and ). The Japanese task force protecting the convoy, commanded by Rear-Admiral Takeo Takagi, consisted of two heavy ( and ) and two light cruisers ( and ) and 14 destroyers (,,,,,,,,,,,,, and ) including the 4th Destroyer Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Shoji Nishimura. The Japanese heavy cruisers were much more powerful, armed with ten 8-inch (203 mm) guns each, and superb torpedoes. By comparison, \"Exeter\" was armed only with six 8-inch guns and only six of \"Houston\"s nine 8-inch guns remained operable after her aft turret had been knocked out in an earlier air attack. The Allied force engaged the Japanese in the Java Sea, and the battle raged intermittently from mid-afternoon to midnight as the Allies tried to reach and attack the troop transports of the Java invasion fleet, but they were repulsed by superior firepower. The Allies had local air superiority during the daylight hours, because Japanese air power could not reach the fleet in the bad weather. The weather also hindered communications, making cooperation between the many Allied parties involved—in reconnaissance, air cover and fleet headquarters—even worse than it already was. The Japanese also jammed the radio frequencies. \"Exeter\" was the only ship in the battle equipped with radar, an emerging technology at the time. The battle consisted of a series of attempts over a seven-hour period by Doorman's Combined Striking Force to reach and attack the invasion convoy; each was rebuffed by the escort force with heavy losses being inflicted on the Allies. The fleets sighted each other at about 16:00 on 27 February and closed to firing range, opening fire at 16:16. Both sides exhibited poor gunnery and torpedo skills during this phase of the battle. Despite her recent refit (with the addition of modern Type 284 gunnery control radar), \"Exeter\"s shells did not come close to the Japanese ships, while \"Houston\" only managed to achieve a straddle on one of the opposing cruisers. The only notable result of the initial gunnery exchange was \"Exeter\" being critically damaged by a hit in the boiler room from an 8-inch shell. The ship then limped away to Surabaya, escorted by \"Witte de With\". The Japanese launched two huge torpedo salvoes, consisting of 92 torpedoes in all, but scored only one hit, on \"Kortenaer\". She was struck by a Long Lance, broke in two and sank rapidly after the hit. \"Electra\"—covering \"Exeter\"—engaged in a duel with \"Jintsū\" and \"Asagumo\", scoring several hits but suffering severe damage to her superstructure. After a serious fire started on \"Electra\" and her remaining turret ran out of ammunition, abandon ship was ordered. On the Japanese side, only \"Asagumo\" was forced to retire because of damage. The Allied fleet broke off and turned away around 18:00, covered by a smoke screen laid by the four destroyers of U.S Destroyer Division 58 (DesDiv 58). They also launched a torpedo attack but at too long a range to be effective. Doorman's force turned south toward the Java coast, then west and north as night fell in an attempt to evade the Japanese escort group and fall on the convoy. It was at this point the ships of DesDiv 58—their torpedoes expended—left on their own initiative to return to Surabaya. Shortly after, at 21:25, \"Jupiter\" ran onto a mine and was sunk, while about 20 minutes later, the fleet passed where \"Kortenaer\" had sunk earlier, and \"Encounter\" was detached to pick up survivors. Doorman's command, now reduced to four cruisers, again encountered the Japanese escort group at 23:00; both columns exchanged fire in the darkness at long range, until \"De Ruyter\" and \"Java\" were sunk by one devastating torpedo salvo. Doorman and most of his crew went down with \"De Ruyter\"; only 111 were saved from both ships. Only the cruisers \"Perth\" and \"Houston\" remained; low on fuel and ammunition, and following Doorman's last instructions, the two ships retired, arriving at Tanjung Priok on 28 February. Although the Allied fleet did not reach the invasion fleet, the battle did give the defenders of Java a one-day respite.", "", "\"Perth\" and \"Houston\" were at Tanjung Priok on 28 February when they received orders to sail through Sunda Strait to Tjilatjap. Material was running short in Java, and neither was able to rearm or fully refuel. Departing at 19:00 on 28 February for the Sunda Strait, by chance they encountered the main Japanese invasion fleet for West Java in Bantam Bay. The Allied ships were engaged by at least three cruisers and several destroyers. In a ferocious night action that ended after midnight on 1 March, \"Perth\" and \"Houston\" were sunk. A Japanese minesweeper and a troop transport were sunk by friendly fire, while three other transports were damaged and had to be beached. The Dutch destroyer HNLMS \"Evertsen\" had been scheduled to depart Tanjung Priok with the cruisers, but was delayed, and she followed them about two hours later. Her crew sighted the gunfire of the main action, and her captain managed to evade the Japanese main force. However, \"Evertsen\" was then engaged by two Japanese destroyers in the Strait, and on fire and in a sinking condition, grounded herself on a reef near Sebuku Island. The surviving crew abandoned ship just as the aft magazine exploded.", "After emergency repairs the badly-damaged \"Exeter\" left Surabaya for Ceylon; she departed at dusk on 28 February and limped toward Sunda Strait, escorted by the destroyers and. However, all three ships were intercepted by the Japanese heavy cruisers \"Nachi\", \"Haguro\", \"Myōkō\" and \"Ashigara\"—and their attendant destroyers—on the morning of 1 March. \"Exeter\" and \"Encounter\" were sunk together around noon, while \"Pope\" escaped only to be sunk several hours later by aerial attack.", "The four U.S destroyers of DesDiv 58—\"John D. Edwards\", \"John D. Ford\", \"Alden\", and \"Paul Jones\"—were also at Surabaya; they left for Australia via the harbor's shallow eastern entrance at nightfall on 28 February. After a brief encounter with Japanese destroyers in the Bali Strait, which they were able to evade, they reached Fremantle safely on 4 March.", "Another Dutch destroyer (HNLMS \"Witte de With\") and three American ships (destroyers USS \"Pillsbury\" and USS \"Edsall\", along with the gunboat USS \"Asheville\") were either scuttled or sunk as they attempted to escape to Australia. The main ABDA naval force had been almost totally destroyed: 10 ships and approximately 2,173 sailors had been lost. The Battle of the Java Sea ended significant Allied naval operations in Southeast Asia in 1942, and Japanese land forces invaded Java on 28 February. The Dutch surface fleet was practically eradicated from Asian waters and the Netherlands would never reclaim full control of its colony. The Japanese now controlled one of the most important food-producing regions (Java), and by conquering the Dutch East Indies, Japan also controlled the fourth-largest oil producing area in the world in 1940. The U.S. and Royal Air Force retreated to Australia. Dutch troops, aided by British remnants, fought fiercely for a week. In the campaign the Japanese executed many Allied POWs and sympathizing Indonesians. Eventually, the Japanese won this decisive battle of attrition and ABDA forces surrendered on 9 March.", "As of 2002 the location of the wreck of only one of the eight ships sunk during the two so-called Java Sea Battles, HMS \"Jupiter\", was known and plotted on an Admiralty chart. However, given her location in very shallow water so close to shore she had already been heavily salvaged. In December 2002 the wrecks of Hr. Ms. \"Java\" and Hr. Ms. \"De Ruyter\" were discovered by a specialist wreck diving group aboard the dive vessel MV \"Empress\". \"Empress\" then went on to discover the wrecks of HMS \"Electra\" in August 2003; Hr. Ms. \"Kortenaer\" in August 2004; and HMS \"Exeter\" and HMS \"Encounter\" in February 2007. When discovered these wreck were all in a very well-preserved state, save for battle damage. In late 2008, \"Empress\" discovered remnants of the last wreck, USS \"Pope\", which had already been largely removed by illegal salvage diving operations. Although the MV \"Empress\" team kept the locations of their discoveries secret, by 2017 all eight ships had been reduced to remnants or even entirely removed by illegal commercial salvage operations.'" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and marriage.", "Life after marriage.", "Beliefs about prayer.", "Grace vs. works.", "Death and influence.", "Date of birth.", "Bibliography.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Guyon was the daughter of \"Claude Bouvier\", a procurator of the tribunal of Montargis, 110 kilometers south of Paris and 70 kilometers east of Orléans. Of a sensitive and delicate constitution, she was sickly in her childhood and her education was neglected. Her childhood was spent between the convent, and the home of her well–to–do parents, moving nine times in ten years. Guyon's parents were very religious people, and they gave her an especially pious training. Other important impressions from her youth that remained with her came from reading the works of St. Francis de Sales, and from certain nuns, her teachers. Prior to her marriage she had wanted to become a nun, but this desire did not last long. In 1664, when she was 15 years old, after turning down many other proposals, she was forced into an arranged marriage to a wealthy gentleman of Montargis, Jacques Guyon, aged thirty eight. During her twelve years of marriage, Guyon suffered terribly at the hands of her mother-in-law and maidservant. Adding to her misery were the deaths of her half-sister, followed by her mother, and her son. Her daughter and father then died within days of each other in July 1672. Guyon retained belief in God's perfect plan and that she would be blessed in suffering. She bore another son and daughter shortly before her husband's death in 1676. After twelve years of an unhappy marriage (in which she had borne five children, of whom three had survived), Madame Guyon had become a widow at the age of 28. During her marriage, Guyon became introduced to mysticism by Fr. François La Combe, a Barnabite, and was instructed by him.", "After her husband's death, Madame Guyon initially lived quietly as a wealthy widow in Montargis. In 1679, she re-established contact with François La Combe, the superior of the Barnabite house in Thonon in Savoy. After a third mystical experience in 1680, Madame Guyon felt herself drawn to Geneva. The Bishop of Geneva, Jean d’Arenthon d’Alex, persuaded her to use her money to set up a house for “new Catholics” in Gex, in Savoy, as part of broader plans to convert Protestants in the region. In July 1680, Madame Guyon left Montargis with her young daughter and travelled to Gex. The project was problematic, however, and Madame Guyon clashed with the sisters who were in charge of the house. The Bishop of Geneva sent Father La Combe to intervene. At this point, Guyon introduced La Combe to a mysticism of interiority. While her daughter was in an Ursuline convent in Thonon as a pensioner, Madame Guyon continued in Gex, experiencing illness and great difficulties, including opposition from her family. She gave over guardianship of her two sons to her mother-in-law and took leave of her personal possessions, although keeping a sizeable annuity for herself. Because of her ideas on mysticism, the Bishop of Geneva, who had at first viewed her coming with pleasure, asked her to leave his diocese, and at the same time he expelled Father Lacombe, who was then went to Vercelli. Madame Guyon followed her director to Turin, then returned to France and stayed at Grenoble, where she spread her religious convictions more widely with the publication of \"Moyen court et facile de faire oraison\" in January 1685. The Bishop of Grenoble, Cardinal Le Camus, was perturbed by the appeal her ideas aroused and she left the city at his request, rejoining Lacombe at Vercelli. In July the following year the pair returned to Paris, where Madame Guyon set about to gain adherents for her mystical vision. The timing was ill-chosen; Louis XIV, who had recently been exerting himself to have the Quietism of Molinos condemned at Rome, was by no means pleased to see gaining ground, even in his own capital, a form of mysticism which, to him, resembled that of Molinos in many of its aspects. By his order Lacombe was shut up in the Bastille, and afterwards in the castles of Oloron and of Lourdes. The arrest of Madame Guyon, delayed by illness, followed on 29 January 1688, brought about, she claimed, by Father de La Motte, her brother and a Barnabite. She was not released until seven months later, after she had placed in the hands of the theologians, who had examined her book, a retraction of the propositions which it contained. Some days later she met, at Beyne, in the Duchess de Béthune-Charrost's country house, her cousin, François Fénelon, who was to be the most famous of her supporters. Fénelon was deeply impressed by her piety. Through Fenelon, the influence of Madame Guyon reached and influenced religious circles powerful at court—the Beauvilliers, the Chevreuses, the Montemarts—who followed his spiritual guidance. Madame de Maintenon and, through her, the young ladies of Saint-Cyr, were soon won over to the new mysticism. This was at the height of Madame Guyon's influence, most of all when Fénelon was appointed on 18 August 1688 to be the tutor to the Duke of Burgundy, the king's grandson. Before long, however, the Bishop of Chartres, in whose diocese Saint-Cyr was located, took alarm at the spiritual ideas which were spreading there. Warned by him, Madame de Maintenon sought the advice of persons whose piety and wisdom she valued, and these advisers were unanimous in their rejection of Madame Guyon's ideas. Madame Guyon then asked for an examination of her conduct and her writings by civil and ecclesiastical judges. The king consented that her writings should be submitted to the judgment of Bossuet, Louis-Antoine, Cardinal de Noailles, and of Tronson, superior of the Society of Saint-Sulpice. After a certain number of secret conferences held at Issy, where Tronson was detained by a sickness, the commissioners presented in thirty-four articles the principles of Catholic teaching as to spirituality and the interior life (four of these articles were suggested by Fénelon, who in February had been nominated to the Archbishopric of Cambrai). But on 10 October 1694 François de Harlay de Champvallon, the Archbishop of Paris, who had been excluded from the conferences at Issy, anticipated their results by condemning the published works of Madame Guyon. She, fearing another arrest, took refuge for some months at Meaux, with the permission of Bossuet who was the presiding bishop there. After placing in his hands her signed submission to the thirty-four articles of Issy, she returned secretly to Paris. At Paris, the police, however, arrested her on 24 December 1695 and imprisoned her, first at Vincennes, then in a convent at Vaugirard, and then in the Bastille, where on 23 August 1699 she again signed a retraction of her theories and promised to refrain from spreading them further. From that time on she took no part, personally, in public discussions, but the controversy about her ideas only grew all the more heated between Bossuet and Fénelon. Madame Guyon remained imprisoned in the Bastille until 21 March 1703, when, after more than seven years of her final captivity, she went to live with her son in a village in the Diocese of Blois. There she passed some fifteen years surrounded by a stream of pilgrims, many from England and Scotland, and spending her time writing volumes of correspondence and poetry. She continued to be revered by the Beauvilliers, the Chevreuses, and Fénelon, who never failed to communicate with her whenever safe and discreet intermediaries were available. Among the pilgrims, Milord Chewinkle stayed in Blois with Guyon for 7 years. One visitor, Pierre Poiret, went on to publish many of Guyon's works. One of her greatest works, published in 1717 by Pierre Poiret – \"Ame Amante de son Dieu, representée dans les emblems de Hermannus Hugo sur ses pieux desirs\" – features her poetry written in response to the striking and popular emblem images of the Jesuit Herman Hugo and the Flemish master Otto von Veen. Guyon herself states that she took these emblems into the Bastille.", "Guyon believed that one should pray at all times, and that one should devote all one's time to God. \"Prayer is the key of perfection and of sovereign happiness; it is the efficacious means of getting rid of all vices and of acquiring all virtues; for the way to become perfect is to live in the presence of God. He tells us this Himself: 'walk before Me and be blameless'. Prayer alone can bring you into His presence, and keep you there continually.\" As she wrote in one of her poems: \"There was a period when I chose a time and place for prayer.... But now I seek that constant prayer, in inward stillness known...\"", "In the Christian dispute regarding grace and works, Guyon defended the belief that salvation is the result of grace rather than works. Like St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Calvin, and Martin Luther, she thought that a person's deliverance can only come from God as an outside source, never from within the person himself or herself. As a result of His own free will, God bestows his favour as a gift. This predestination was opposed by Pelagians, who considered it to be irrational in that God would favour a wicked sinner over a good person. However, according to the atheist Schopenhauer, describing this controversy, \"if it were works, springing from motives and deliberate intention, that led to the blissful state, then, however we may turn it, virtue would always be only a prudent, methodical, far–seeing egoism.... Works...can never justify, because they are always an action from motives.\" In her autobiography, for example, Madame Guyon criticized self–righteous people who try to gain heaven through their works. She praised lowly sinners who merely submitted themselves to God's will. Of the so-called righteous, she wrote: \"the righteous person, supported by the great number of works of righteousness he presumes to have done, seems to hold his salvation in his own hands, and regards heaven as the recompense due to his merits.... His Saviour is, for him, almost useless. \"These 'righteous persons' expect God to save them as a reward for their good works.\" In contrast to the self-sufficient, \"righteous\" egoists, the sinners who have selflessly submitted to God \"are carried swiftly by the wings of love and confidence into the arms of their Saviour, who gives them gratuitously what He has infinitely merited for them\". God's \"bounties are effects of His will, and not the fruits of our merits.\"", "In 1704, her works were published in the Netherlands, becoming very popular. Many English and Germans visited her at Blois, among them Johann Wettstein and Lord Forbes. She spent the remainder of her life in retirement with her daughter, the Marquise de Bois, at Blois, where she died at the age of 69, believing that she had died submissive to the Catholic Church, from which she had never had any intention of separating herself. Her published works, the \"Moyen Court\" and the \"Règles des associées à l'Enfance de Jésus\", were both placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum in 1688. Fénelon's \"Maximes des saints\" was also condemned by both the Pope and the bishops of France. An anonymous 18th-century manuscript, hand-written in French, entitled \"Supplement to the life of Madame Guyon\" exists in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University, which sets forth many fresh details about the Great Conflict which surrounded Madame Guyon.", "There is some controversy surrounding the date of birth of Madame Guyon, but the date of 18 April 1648 given in the (highly condensed) English translation of Madame Guyon's autobiography, published by Moody Press, appears to be a typographical error—all French editions of the autobiography from the earliest one on, published in 1720, state 13 April 1648 as her birthday. Her date of birth, however, nonetheless remains unclear since Madame Guyon writes \"Je naquis, à ce que disent quelques uns, la veille de Pâques, le 13. d'Avril... de l'année 1648\" (\"I was born, as some say, on the eve of Easter..., the 13th of April of the year 1648\"). The 13th of April 1648 was, however, Easter Monday of that year.", "", "Other modern editions" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "uMkhonto we Sizwe.", "Ideology.", "Tripartite Alliance.", "2008 schism.", "2013 NUMSA split from Cosatu.", "ANC flag.", "Party list.", "\"ANC Today\".", "Role of the ANC in resolving the conflict.", "Criticism and controversy.", "Corruption controversies.", "Condemnation over Secrecy Bill.", "Role in the Marikana killings.", "Constitutional failures.", "Qualification fraud.", "Racism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The founding of the SANNC was in direct response to injustice against black South Africans at the hands of the government then in power. It can be said that the SANNC had its origins in a pronouncement by Pixley ka Isaka Seme who said in 1911, \"Forget all the past differences among Africans and unite in one national organisation.\" The SANNC was founded the following year on 8 January 1912. The government of the newly formed Union of South Africa began a systematic oppression of black people in South Africa. The Land Act was promulgated in 1913 forcing many black South Africans from their farms into the cities and towns to work, and to restrict their movement within South Africa. By 1919, the SANNC was leading a campaign against passes (an ID which black South Africans had to possess). However, it then became dormant in the mid-1920s. During that time, black people were also represented by the ICU and the previously white-only Communist party. In 1923, the organisation became the African National Congress, and in 1929 the ANC supported a militant mineworkers' strike. By 1927, J.T. Gumede (president of the ANC) proposed co-operation with the Communists in a bid to revitalise the organisation, but he was voted out of power in the 1930s. This led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive, until the mid-1940s when the ANC was remodelled as a mass movement. The ANC responded to attacks on the rights of black South Africans, as well as calling for strikes, boycotts, and defiance. This led to a later Defiance Campaign in the 1950s, a mass movement of resistance to apartheid. The government tried to stop the ANC by banning party leaders and enacting new laws to stop the ANC, however these measures ultimately proved to be ineffective. In 1955, the Congress of the People officially adopted the Freedom Charter, stating the core principles of the South African Congress Alliance, which consisted of the African National Congress and its allies the South African Communist Party (SACP), the South African Indian Congress, the South African Congress of Democrats (COD) and the Coloured People's Congress. The government claimed that this was a communist document, and consequently leaders of the ANC and Congress were arrested. 1960 saw the Sharpeville massacre, in which 69 people were killed when police opened fire on anti-apartheid protesters.", "uMkhonto we Sizwe or MK, translated \"The Spear of the Nation\", was the military wing of the ANC. Partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre of 1960, individual members of the ANC found it necessary to consider violence to combat what passive protests had failed to quell. In co-operation with the South African Communist Party, MK was founded in 1961. MK commenced the military struggle against apartheid with acts of sabotage aimed at the installations of the state, and in the early stages was reluctant to target civilian targets. MK was responsible for the deaths of both civilians and members of the military. Acts committed by MK include the Church Street bombing, the Magoo's Bar bombing and bombing a branch of the Standard Bank in Roodepoort. It was integrated into the South African National Defence Force by 1994. The ANC and its members were officially removed from the US terrorism watch list in 2008.", "The ANC deems itself a force of national liberation in the post-apartheid era; it officially defines its agenda as the \"National Democratic Revolution\". The ANC is a member of the Socialist International. It also sets forth the redressing of socio-economic differences stemming from colonial- and apartheid-era policies as a central focus of ANC policy. The National Democratic Revolution (NDR) is described as a process through which the National Democratic Society (NDS) is achieved; a society in which people are intellectually, socially, economically and politically empowered. The drivers of the NDR are also called the motive forces and are defined as the elements within society that gain from the success of the NDR. Using contour plots or concentric circles the centre represents the elements in society that gain the most out of the success of the NDR. Moving away from the centre results in the reduction of the gains that those elements derive. It is generally believed that the force that occupies the centre of those concentric circles in countries with low unemployment is the working class while in countries with higher levels of unemployment it is the unemployed. Some of the many theoreticians that have written about the NDR include Joe Slovo, Joel Netshitenzhe and Tshilidzi Marwala. In 2004, the ANC declared itself to be a social democratic party. The 53rd National Conference of the ANC, held in 2015, stated in its \"Discussion Document\" that \"China economic development trajectory remains a leading example of the triumph of humanity over adversity. The exemplary role of the collective leadership of the Communist Party of China in this regard should be a guiding lodestar of our own struggle.\" It went on to state that \"The collapse of the Berlin Wall and socialism in the Soviet Union and Eastern European States influenced our transition towards the negotiated political settlement in our country. The cause of events in the world changed tremendously in favour of the US led imperialism.\"", "The ANC holds a historic alliance with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), known as the \"Tripartite Alliance\". The SACP and COSATU have not contested any election in South Africa, but field candidates through the ANC, hold senior positions in the ANC, and influence party policy and dialogue. During Mbeki's presidency, the government took a more pro-capitalist stance, often running counter to the demands of the SACP and COSATU.", "Following Zuma's accession to the ANC leadership in 2007 and Mbeki's resignation as president in 2008, a number of former ANC leaders led by Mosiuoa Lekota split away from the ANC to form the Congress of the People.", "On 20 December 2013, a special congress of the National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa (NUMSA), the country's biggest trade union with 338,000 members, voted to withdraw support from the ANC and SACP, and form a socialist party to protect the interests of the working class. NUMSA secretary general Irvin Jim condemned the ANC and SACP's support for big business and stated: \"It is clear that the working class cannot any longer see the ANC or the SACP as its class allies in any meaningful sense.\"", "The ANC flag comprises three equal horizontal stripes – black, green and gold. Black symbolises the native people of South Africa, green represents the land and gold represents the mineral and other natural wealth of South Africa. This flag was also the battle flag of uMkhonto we Sizwe. The Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach used an unrelated but identical flag from 1813 to 1897. The black, green and gold tricolor was also used on the flag of the KwaZulu 'bantustan'. Although the colours of the new national Flag of South Africa since the transition from apartheid in 1994 have no official meaning, the three colours of the ANC flag were included in it, together with red, white and blue.", "Politicians in the party win a place in parliament by being on the \"Party List\", which is drawn up before the elections and enumerates, in order, the party's preferred MPs. The number of seats allocated is proportional to the popular national vote, and this determines the cut-off point. The ANC has also gained members through the controversial floor crossing process. Although most South African parties announced their candidate list for provincial premierships in the 2009 election, the ANC did not, as it is not required for parties to do so.", "In 2001, the ANC launched an online weekly web-based newsletter, \"ANC Today – Online Voice of the African National Congress\" to offset the alleged bias of the press. It consists mainly of updates on current programmes and initiatives of the ANC.", "The ANC represented the main opposition to the government during apartheid and therefore they played a major role in resolving the conflict through participating in the peacemaking and peace-building processes. Initially intelligence agents of the National Party met in secret with ANC leaders, including Nelson Mandela, to judge whether conflict resolution was possible. Discussions and negotiations took place leading to the eventual unbanning of the ANC and other opposing political parties by then President de Klerk on 2 February 1990. The next official step towards rebuilding South Africa was the Groote Schuur Minute where the government and the ANC agreed on a common commitment towards the resolution of the existing climate of violence and intimidation, as well as a commitment to stability and to a peaceful process of negotiations. The ANC negotiated the release of political prisoners and the indemnity from prosecution for returning exiles and moreover channels of communication were established between the Government and the ANC. Later the Pretoria Minute represented another step towards resolution where agreements at Groote Schuur were reconsolidated and steps towards setting up an interim government and drafting a new constitution were established as well as suspension of the military wing of the ANC – the Umkhonto we Sizwe. This step helped end much of the violence within South Africa. Another agreement that came out of the Pretoria Minute was that both parties would try and raise awareness that a new way of governance was being created for South Africa, and that further violence would only hinder this process. However, violence still continued in Kwazulu-Natal, which violated the trust between Mandela and de Klerk. Moreover, internal disputes in the ANC prolonged the war as consensus on peace was not reached. The next significant steps towards resolution were the Repeal of the Population Registration Act, the repeal of the Group Areas and the Native Land Acts and a catch-all Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act was passed. These measures ensured no one could claim, or be deprived of, any land rights on the basis of race. In December 1991 the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) was held with the aim of establishing an interim government. However, a few months later in June 1992 the Boipatong massacre occurred and all negotiations crumbled as the ANC pulled out. After this negotiations proceeded between two agents, Cyril Ramaphosa of the ANC, and Roelf Meyer of the National Party. In over 40 sessions the two men discussed and negotiated over many issues including the nature of the future political system, the fate of over 40,000 government employees and if/how the country would be divided. The result of these negotiations was an interim constitution that meant the transition from apartheid to democracy was a constitutional continuation and that the rule of law and state sovereignty remained intact during the transition, which was vital for stability within the country. A date was set for the first democratic elections on 27 April 1994. The ANC won 62.5% of the votes and has been in power ever since.", "", "The most prominent corruption case involving the ANC relates to a series of bribes paid to companies involved in the ongoing R55 billion Arms Deal saga, which resulted in a long term jail sentence to then Deputy President Jacob Zuma's legal adviser Schabir Shaik. Zuma, the former South African President, was charged with fraud, bribery and corruption in the Arms Deal, but the charges were subsequently withdrawn by the National Prosecuting Authority of South Africa due to their delay in prosecution. The ANC has also been criticised for its subsequent abolition of the Scorpions, the multidisciplinary agency that investigated and prosecuted organised crime and corruption, and was heavily involved in the investigation into Zuma and Shaik. Tony Yengeni, in his position as chief whip of the ANC and head of the Parliaments defence committee has recently been named as being involved in bribing the German company ThyssenKrupp over the purchase of four corvettes for the SANDF. Other recent corruption issues include the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of Beaufort West municipal manager Truman Prince, and the Oilgate scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were funnelled into ANC coffers. The ANC has also been accused of using government and civil society to fight its political battles against opposition parties such as the Democratic Alliance. The result has been a number of complaints and allegations that none of the political parties truly represent the interests of the poor. This has resulted in the \"No Land! No House! No Vote!\" Campaign which became very prominent during elections. In 2018, the \"New York Times\" reported on the killings of ANC corruption whistleblowers.", "In late 2011 the ANC was heavily criticised over the passage of the Protection of State Information Bill, which opponents claimed would improperly restrict the freedom of the press. Opposition to the bill included otherwise ANC-aligned groups such as COSATU. Notably, Nelson Mandela and other Nobel laureates Nadine Gordimer, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and F. W. de Klerk have expressed disappointment with the bill for not meeting standards of constitutionality and aspirations for freedom of information and expression.", "The ANC have been criticised for its role in failing to prevent 16 August 2012 massacre of Lonmin miners at Marikana in the North West. Some allege that Police Commissioner Riah Phiyega and Police Minister Nathi Mthethwa, a close confidant of Jacob Zuma, may have given the go ahead for the police action against the miners on that day. Commissioner Phiyega of the ANC came under further criticism as being insensitive and uncaring when she was caught smiling and laughing during the Farlam Commission's video playback of the'massacre'. Archbishop Desmond Tutu has announced that he no longer can bring himself to exercise a vote for the ANC as it is no longer the party that he and Nelson Mandela fought for, and that the party has now lost its way, and is in danger of becoming a corrupt entity in power.", "The ANC has a growing list of constitutional failures. One of the most prominent relates to president of the ANC and of the Republic, Jacob Zuma, and his Nkandla homestead's security upgrades, valued at around R250 million. His swimming pool, for example, was termed a 'fire pool' and his amphitheatre an 'emergency meeting point', thus leaving the taxpayer to carry the costs. After the Public Protector released her report (Secure in Comfort) which found that Zuma must pay back the money spent on the non-security features, he refused to do so. In 2016 the Constitutional Court ruled that Zuma, as well as the National Assembly, had \"breached the Constitution\" and failed to uphold it. Zuma apologised to the nation as follows: \"The matter has caused a lot of frustration and confusion for which I apologise on my behalf and on behalf of government.\" However he claimed not to have asked nor known about the non-security upgrades, despite the media reporting on them almost daily.", "There is also a growing trend for ANC members as well as those individuals appointed by the ANC to public positions of power to misrepresent their qualifications. The result of such lies typically lead to those appointed being unable to fulfill their obligations while being paid very large salaries, and typically cost the taxpayer large amount of money while attempting to defend themselves in court. A small selection follows: Carl Niehaus, who served as ANC speaker, claimed to have a B.A., Masters and Doctorate degrees; in reality he never received the Masters or Doctoral degrees. Pallo Jordan, who served as Minister of Arts and Culture claimed to be in possession of a PhD, when in reality he has no tertiary education at all. Daniel Mtimkulu, who was employed as chief engineer at Passenger Rail Agency of South Africa (Prasa) claimed to have a PhD in engineering, which was a lie; he was merely qualified as an engineering technician. Under Mtimkulu's leadership, Prasa ordered 70 new locomotives, valued at R3.5 billion. The first 13 Afro 4000 diesel locomotives to arrive, at a cost of R600 million, were too tall to be of use on their intended routes. Ellen Tshabalala, former chairperson of the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), claimed to have a BComm degree. In reality her marks were so poor that she was not allowed to rewrite some of her exams. She later claimed that her degree certificate was stolen. Defending Tshabalala in court cost the SABC more than R1 million. Hlaudi Motsoeneng, former COO of the SABC lied about being in possession of a Matric certificate. By his own admission, he simply invented marks for himself. He was appointed by Ellen Tshabalala, and his various court cases have cost the SABC more than R1.5 million. Further, under Motsoeneng's reign, the broadcaster recorded a net loss of R411 million in the 2015/16 financial year. Dudu Myeni, chairperson of South African Airways (SAA) and good friend of Jacob Zuma, claimed to have a Bachelor's degree in administration. This was proven false. Under her leadership \"SAA's losses for the 2014/15 financial year were R5.6-billion – close to R1-billion more than the expected amount of R4.7-billion\". Sicelo Shiceka, Minister of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs lied about being in possession of a Master's degree. He used taxpayer's money to fund a party for his mother and secured a government car for his girlfriend, whereafter he was appointed as a member of the inter-ministerial task team on corruption.", "A 2016 statement issued by Zizi Kodwa, the ANC National Spokesperson states that \"[t]he ANC rejects these [racist] comments with the contempt they deserve and calls on all South Africans to join in the rejection of all racists in our country, wherever they are. It is sad that well meaning South Africans have to contend with this backward attitude.\" In support of this statement, the ANC has publicly called for legal action to be taken against whites who have publicly made racist comments against blacks, usually through social media. Penny Sparrow is one such high-profile case. She posted the following through her Facebook account:These monkeys that are allowed to be released on New Year's eve and New Year's day on to public beaches towns etc obviously have no education what so ever so to allow them loose is inviting huge dirt and troubles and discomfort to others. I'm sorry to say that I was among the revellers and all I saw were black on black skins what a shame. I do know some wonderful and thoughtful black people. This lot of monkeys just don't want to even try. But think they can voice opinions about statute and get their way oh dear. From now I shall address the blacks of South Africa as monkeys as I see the cute little wild monkeys do the same, pick drop and litter. Sparrow pleaded guilty to crimen injuria, and was presented with a choice of either paying a R5,000 fine or 12 months in jail, in addition to paying the legal fees incurred by the ANC, who brought the matter to court. In a separate instance, she was also ordered to pay R150,000 to the Oliver and Adelaide Tambo Trust. In contrast to the ANC's swift and decisive action towards Sparrow and other white racists, they have mostly ignored racist comments voiced by blacks, in particular ANC members. For example, Kenny Barrel Nkosi, an ANC ward councillor (Govan Mbeki Municipality, Mpumalanga) posted the following on his Facebook account: \"The first people that need to fokkof [fuck off] are whites, cubans never oppressed us. these are our true friends they were there in the times on needs. welcom cdes welcome [sic]\" The municipality issued the following statement: \"The matter has been investigated and at the time of the comment, the ward councillor was not representing the views of either the ANC or the Govan Mbeki Municipality, but merely as a personal opinion.\" No further action was taken. At a Gupta family wedding held at Sun City in 2013, various incidents of racism occurred. The family made clear that they wanted only white workers, including waiters, security, bar staff and cleaning staff. Black workers were told to wash before they interacted with guests. These allegations were denied by the Gupta family. Nonetheless, in the Gupta e-mail leak of 2017 these allegations were shown to be correct. Moreover, the e-mails also make clear that a black worker was called a monkey by a member of the Gupta family. That the Gupta family is a large, vocal and powerful supporter of the ANC and a personal friend of Jacob Zuma, may explain why no action was taken against them with regards to racism. Lindiwe Sisulu, ANC member and Minister of Defence and Military Veterans (who demanded that the Estate Agency Affairs Board report to her regarding action taken against Sparrow) called the Democratic Alliance leader, Mmusi Maimane, a \"hired native\". Ironically – due to the fact that Chris Hart, prominent economist and investment strategist at Standard Bank, was forced to resign for his racist tweet stating that \"[m]ore than 25 years after Apartheid ended, the victims are increasing along with a sense of entitlement and hatred towards minorities....\" – Sisulu said the following, while discussing the 2.3 million housing backlog: \"What makes an 18-year-old think the state owes them a house? It's a culture of entitlement... we can't continue with a dependency culture.\" No action has been taken against Sisulu. Lulu Xingwana, former ANC Minister of Women, Children and People with Disabilities, stated that \"[y]oung Afrikaner men are brought up in the Calvinist religion believing that they own a woman, they own a child, they own everything and therefore they can take that life because they own it\". The minister apologised, and no further action was taken against her. Jimmy Manyi, ANC director general of labour and later ANC spokesperson, is quotes as saying the following on a TV interview: \"I think its very important for coloured people in this country to understand that South Africa belongs to them in totality, not just the Western Cape. So this over-concentration of coloureds in the Western Cape is not working for them. They should spread in the rest of the country... so they must stop this over-concentration situation because they are in over-supply where they are so you must look into the country and see where you can meet the supply.\" No action has been taken against Manyi. Julius Malema, former ANCYL leader and current EFF leader, stated at a political rally in 2016 that \"We [the EFF] are not calling for the slaughter of white people‚ at least for now\". When asked for comment by a news agency, the ANC spokesperson, Zizi Kodwa stated that there will be no comment from the ANC, as \"[h]e [Malema] was addressing his own party supporters.\" While still the ANCYL leader, Malema was taken to the Equality Court by AfriForum for repeatedly singing \"dubul' ibhunu\", which translate as \"shoot the boer [white farmer]\". The ANC supported Malema, though AfriForum and the ANC reached a settlement before the appeal case was due to be argued in the Supreme Court of Appeal. In partial response to the Penny Sparrow case, Velaphi Khumalo, while working for the Department of Sport, Arts, Culture and Recreation, posted the following on his Facebook account:\"I want to cleans this country of all white people. we must act as Hitler did to the Jews. I don't believe any more that the is a large number of not so racist whit people. I'm starting to be sceptical even of those within our Movement the ANC. I will from today unfriend all white people I have as friends from today u must be put under the same blanket as any other racist white because secretly u all are a bunch of racist fuck heads. as we have already seen [all sic].\" He also posted:\"Noo seriously though u oppressed us when u were a minority and then manje u call us monkeys and we supposed to let it slide. white people in south Africa deserve to be hacked and killed like Jews. U have the same venom moss. look at Palestine. noo u must be bushed alive and skinned and your off springs used as garden fertiliser [all sic]\". The Department of Sports, Arts, Culture and Recreation responded with a statement wherein it \"views the hateful post by Velaphi Khumalo in a serious light. Our key mandate is nation-building and social cohesion. His sentiments take our country backwards and do not reflect what the Gauteng provincial government stands for.\" Khumalo was suspended on full pay while an investigation was undertaken, was found to be guilty by an internal disciplinary procedure, and issued with a warning, whereafter he resumed his work at the department. Esethu Hasane, Media and Communication Manager for the Department of Sport and Recreation tweeted the following during the severe droughts in the Western cape in 2017: \"Only Western Cape still has dry dams. Please God, we have black people there, choose another way of punishing white people.\" Despite calls for his dismissal, no action was taken." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Description." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The diamond was found in the 17th century in Golconda, India. According to one legend, a French soldier who had deserted during the Carnatic wars in Srirangam disguised himself as a Hindu convert in order to steal it in 1747, when it served as the eye of a temple deity. The as yet unnamed stone passed from merchant to merchant, eventually appearing for sale in Amsterdam. Shaffrass, an Iranian millionaire who then owned the diamond, found an eager buyer in Count Grigory Grigorievich Orlov. The Count paid a purported 1,4 mln Dutch florins for it. Count Orlov had been romantically involved with Catherine the Great of Russia for many years, and he led the way in the dethronement of her husband in a coup d'état and the elevation of Catherine to power. Their relationship carried on for many years and produced an illegitimate child, but Catherine eventually forsook Count Orlov for Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin. Count Orlov was said to have tried to rekindle their romance by offering her the diamond, as it is said he knew she had wished for it. While he failed to regain her affections, Catherine did bestow many gifts upon Count Orlov; these gifts included the Marble Palace in Saint Petersburg. Catherine named the diamond after the Count, and she had her jeweller design a sceptre incorporating the diamond. Now known as the Imperial Sceptre, it was completed in 1774. Actually, as the researchers have proved, Catherine herself bought the diamond and only used Orlov's help with the deal and delivery, inventing the story about his generous present only to avoid criticism for spending the state's budget on jewelry. The Russian empress was very fond of diamonds, and she put them into fashion at her court and even called her personal stallion Diamond. In the 18th century, the sum of 1,4 mln florins was so immense that only the empress herself could afford it, and Count Orlov did not have such a fortune. Also, it is known that the precious stone was bought by installments lasting 7 years, and when Count Orlov was going to pay the first payment, he discovered that it had already been paid from the empress's personal account.", "A description was given by Eric Burton in 1986: The Orlov is a rarity among historic diamonds, for it retains its original Indian rose-style cut (see diamond cut). Its colour is widely stated as white with a faint bluish-green tinge. Data released by the Kremlin gives the Orlov's measurements as 32 millimetres x 35 millimetres x 21 millimetres, its weight being 189.62 carats (37.924 g). The weight is just an estimate – it has not formally been weighed in many years. Lord Twining's book \"A History of the Crown Jewels of Europe\" mentions how once, during a circa 1913 inspection of the crown jewels by the curator, the stone accidentally fell out of its sceptre. He weighed the stone, but did not write down its exact weight. He later said that it was about, which corresponds to the measurement-based estimate." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Methods.", "Follow-up.", "Around the world.", "Australia.", "The Commonwealth Level.", "The State and Territory Level.", "Canada.", "Opposition.", "China.", "Egypt.", "EU.", "Annexed projects.", "The Netherlands.", "United Kingdom.", "Hong Kong.", "Iraq.", "India.", "Korea, South.", "Malaysia.", "Nepal.", "New Zealand.", "Russian Federation.", "Sri Lanka.", "Ukraine.", "United States.", "Environmental assessment.", "Environmental impact statement.", "Transboundary application.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental awareness. EIAs involved a technical evaluation intended to contribute to more objective decision making. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in 1969, with enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act. EIAs have been", "General and industry specific", "At the end of the project, an audit evaluates the accuracy of the EIA by comparing actual to predicted impacts. The objective is to make future EIAs more valid and effective. Two primary considerations are: Audits can be performed either as a rigorous assessment of the null", "", "The history of EIA in Australia could be linked to the enactment of the U.S. National Environment Policy Act (NEPA) in 1970, which made the preparation of environmental impact statements a requirement. In Australia, one might say that the EIA procedures were introduced at a State Level prior to that of the Commonwealth (Federal), with a majority of the states having divergent views to the Commonwealth. One of the pioneering states was New South Wales, whose State Pollution Control Commission issued EIA guidelines", "The EPBC Act provides a legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places. It defines this as matters of \"national environmental significance\". The following are the nine matters of such significance: In addition to this, the EPBC Act aims at providing a streamlined national assessment and approval process for activities. These activities could be by the Commonwealth, or its agents, anywhere in the world or activities on Commonwealth land; and activities that are listed as having a ‘significant impact’ on matters of ‘national environment significance'. The EPBC Act comes into play when a person (a proponent) wants an action (often called \"a proposal\" or \"a project\") assessed for environmental impacts under the EPBC Act, he or she must refer the project to the Department of the Environment and Energy", "", "In \"Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transportation)\", La Forest J of the Supreme Court of Canada described environmental impact assessment in terms of the proper scope of federal jurisdiction with respect to environments matters, Supreme Court Justice La Forest cited, \"The basic concepts behind environmental assessment are simply stated: (1) early identification and evaluation of all potential environmental consequences of a proposed undertaking; (2) decision making that both guarantees the adequacy of this process and reconciles, to the greatest extent possible, the proponent’s development", "Environmental Lawyer Dianne Saxe argued that the CEAA 2012 \"allows the federal government to create mandatory timelines for assessments of even the largest and most important projects, regardless of public opposition.\" On 3 August 2012 the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency designated nine projects: Saxe compares these timelines with environmental assessments for the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline. Thomas R. Berger, Royal Commissioner of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (9 May 1977), worked extremely hard to ensure that industrial development on Aboriginal people's land resulted in benefits to those indigenous people. On 22 April 2013, NDP MP Megan Leslie issued a statement claiming that the Harper government's recent changes to \"fish habitat protection, the \"Navigable Waters Protection Act\" and the \"Canadian Environmental Assessment Act\"\", along with gutting existing laws and making cuts to science and research, \"will be", "The Environmental Impact Assessment Law (EIA Law) requires that an environmental impact assessment be completed prior to project construction. However, if a developer completely ignores this requirement and builds a project without submitting an environmental impact statement, the only penalty is that the environmental protection bureau (EPB) may require the developer to do a make-up environmental assessment. If the developer does not complete this make-up assessment within the designated time, only then is the EPB authorized to fine the developer. Even so, the possible fine is capped at a maximum of about US$25,000, a fraction of the overall cost of most major projects. The lack of more stringent enforcement mechanisms has resulted in a significant percentage of projects not completing legally required environmental impact assessments prior to", "Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) EIA is implemented in Egypt under the umbrella of the Ministry of state for environmental affairs. The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) is responsible for the EIA services. In June 1997, the responsibility of Egypt's first full-time Minister of State for Environmental Affairs was assigned as stated in the Presidential Decree no.275/1997. From thereon, the new ministry has focused, in close collaboration with the national and international development partners, on defining environmental policies, setting priorities and implementing initiatives within a context of", "A wide range of instruments exist in the Environmental policy of the European Union. Among them the European Union has established a mix of mandatory and discretionary procedures to assess environmental impacts. European Union Directive (85/337/EEC) on Environmental Impact Assessments (known as the \"EIA Directive\") was first introduced in 1985 and was amended in 1997. The directive was amended again in 2003, following EU signature of the 1998 Aarhus Convention, and once more in 2009. The initial Directive of 1985 and its three amendments have been codified in Directive 2011/92/EU of 13 December 2011. In 2001, the issue was enlarged to the assessment of plans and programmes by the so-called \"Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive\" (2001/42/EC), which was amended by Directive 2014/52/EU of 16 April 2014. Under the EU directive, an EIA must provide certain information to comply. There are seven key areas which are required:", "All projects are either classified as Annex 1 or Annex 2 projects. Those lying in Annex 1 are large scale developments such as motorways, chemical works, bridges, power stations etc. These always require an EIA", "EIA was implemented in Dutch legislation on September 1, 1987. The categories of projects which require an EIA are summarised in Dutch legislation, the Wet milieubeheer. The use of thresholds for activities makes sure that EIA is obligatory", "The EU Directives concerning environmental impact assessment are implemented in England through the Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 2017, which also apply to projects serving national defence purposes in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.", "EIA in Hong Kong is regulated by the \"Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance 1997\", which became effective in 1998. The original proposal to construct the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line overground across the Long Valley failed to get through EIA, and the Kowloon–Canton Railway Corporation had to change", "The Ministry of Environment of the federal government of Iraq is in charge of issuing Environmental compliance certificates based on an EIA report prepared by professional consultant and thoroughly reviewed by MOE. Any project or activity prior to its establishment or even already existing project has to be approved and obtain such certificate from the MOE. Projects are classified into 3 categories; “A”, “B” and “C”. EIA report is usually obligatory for those projects and activities falling under categories “A” (large-scale) and “B” (small-scale) that may have considerable impacts on environment. An example of “A” category activities such as: dams and reservoirs, forestry production projects, industrial plants, irrigation, drainage and flood control, land clearance and leveling, port and harbor development, river basin development, thermal power and hydro-power development, manufacture, transportation and use of pesticides or other hazardous materials, hazardous waste management and disposal...etc. An example of “B” category activities such as: agro-industries, electrical transmission, renewable energy, rural electrification, tourism, rehabilitation or maintenance of highway or rural roads, rehabilitation or modification of existing industrial facilities...etc. preparation of EIA report", "The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) of India has been in a great effort in Environmental Impact Assessment in India. The main laws in action are the Water Act(1974), the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981) and the Environment (Protection) Act (1986), Biological Diversity Act(2002). The responsible body for this is the Central Pollution Control Board. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies need a significant amount of primary and secondary environmental data. Primary data are those collected in the field to define the status of the environment (like air quality data, water quality data etc.). Secondary data are those collected over the years that can be used to understand the existing environmental scenario of the study area. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies are conducted over a short period of time and therefore the understanding of the environmental trends, based on a few months of primary data, has limitations. Ideally, the primary data must be considered along with the secondary data for complete understanding of", "Recycling culture and", "In Malaysia, Section 34A, Environmental Quality Act, 1974 requires developments", "In Nepal, EIA has been integrated in major development projects since the early 1980s. In the planning history of Nepal, the sixth plan (1980–85), for the first time, recognized the need for EIA with the establishment of Environmental Impact Study Project (EISP) under the Department of Soil Conservation in 1982 to develop necessary instruments for integration of EIA in infrastructure development projects. However, the government of Nepal enunciated environment conservation related policies in the seventh plan (NPC, 1985–1990). To enforce this policy and make necessary arrangements, a series of guidelines were developed, thereby incorporating the elements", "In New Zealand, EIA is usually referred to as \"Assessment of Environmental Effects\" (AEE). The first use of EIA's dates back to a Cabinet minute passed in 1974 called Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures. This had no legal force and only related to the activities of government departments. When the Resource Management Act was passed in 1991, an", ", the state authority responsible for conducting the State EIA in Russia has been split between two Federal bodies: 1) Federal service for monitoring the use of natural resources – a part of the Russian Ministry for Natural Resources and Environment and 2) Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Nuclear Control. The two main pieces of environmental legislation in Russia are the Federal Law 'On Ecological Expertise', 1995 and the 'Regulations on Assessment of Impact from Intended Business and Other Activity on Environment in the Russian Federation', 2000. In 2006, the parliament committee on ecology in conjunction with the Ministry for Natural Resources", "The National Environmental Act, 1998 requires environmental impact assessment for", "The new law of Ukraine on evaluation of impact on surroundings prescribes the requirements of environmental safety, rational use of national resources, minimizing of harmful impact on surroundings in the process of making managerial decisions about planned activity. The designing of", "The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), enacted in 1970, established a policy of environmental impact assessment for federal agency actions, federally funded activities or federally permitted/licensed activities that in the U. S. is termed \"environmental review\" or simply \"the NEPA process.\" The law also created the Council on Environmental Quality, which promulgated regulations to codify the law's requirements. Under United States environmental law an Environmental Assessment (EA) is compiled to determine the need for an \"Environmental Impact Statement\" (EIS).", "An environmental assessment (EA) is an environmental analysis prepared pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act to determine whether a federal action would significantly affect the environment and thus require a more detailed \"Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)\". The certified release of an Environmental Assessment results in either a \"Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)\" or an EIS. The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), which oversees the administration of NEPA, issued regulations for implementing the NEPA in 1979. Eccleston reports that the NEPA regulations barely mention preparation of EAs. This is because the EA was originally intended to be a simple document used in relatively", "The adequacy of an environmental impact statement (EIS) can be challenged in federal court. Major proposed projects have been blocked because of an agency's failure to prepare an acceptable EIS. One prominent example was the Westway landfill and highway development in and along the Hudson River in New York City. Another prominent case involved the Sierra Club suing the Nevada Department of Transportation over its denial of the club's request to issue a supplemental EIS addressing air emissions of particulate matter and hazardous air pollutants in the case of widening U.S. Route 95", "Environmental threats do not respect national borders. International pollution can have detrimental effects on the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, aquifers, farmland, the weather and biodiversity. Global climate change is transnational. Specific pollution threats include acid rain, radioactive contamination, debris in outer space, stratospheric ozone depletion and toxic oil spills. The Chernobyl disaster, precipitated by a nuclear accident on April 26, 1986, is a stark reminder of the devastating effects of transboundary nuclear pollution. Environmental protection is inherently a cross-border issue and has led to the creation of transnational regulation via multilateral and bilateral treaties. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE or Stockholm Conference) held", "According to Jay \"et al.\", EIA is used as a decision aiding tool rather than decision making tool. There is growing dissent about them as their influence on decisions is limited. Improved training for practitioners, guidance on bestpractice and continuing research have all been proposed. EIAs have been criticized for excessively limiting their scope in space and time. No accepted procedure exists for determining such boundaries. The boundary refers to ‘the spatial and temporal boundary of the proposal’s effects’. This boundary is determined by the applicant and the lead assessor, but in practice, almost all EIAs address only direct and immediate on-site effects. Development causes both direct and indirect effects. Consumption of goods and services, production, use and disposal of building materials and machinery, additional land use for activities of manufacturing and services, mining and refining, etc., all have environmental impacts. The indirect effects of development can be much higher than the direct effects examined by an EIA. Proposals such as airports or shipyards cause wide-ranging national and international effects, which should be covered in EIAs. Broadening the scope of EIA can benefit the conservation of threatened species. Instead of concentrating on the project site, some EIAs employed a habitat-based approach that focused on much broader relationships among humans and the environment. As a result, alternatives that reduce the negative effects to the population of whole species, rather than local subpopulations, can be assessed. Thissen and Agusdinata have argued that little attention is given to the systematic identification and assessment of uncertainties in environmental studies which is critical in situations where uncertainty cannot be easily reduced by doing more research. In line with this, Maier et al. have concluded on the need to consider uncertainty at all stages of the decision-making process. In such a way decisions can be made with confidence or known uncertainty. These proposals are justified on data that shows that environmental assessments fail to predict accurately the impacts observed. Tenney et al. and Wood et al. have reported evidence of the intrinsic uncertainty attached to EIAs predictions from a number of case studies worldwide. The gathered evidence consisted of comparisons between predictions in EIAs and the impacts measured during, or following project implementation. In explaining this trend, Tenney et al. have highlighted major causes such as project changes, modelling errors, errors in data and assumptions taken and bias introduced by people in the projects analyzed. Some approaches to deal with uncertainty in EIA have been reviewed in." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "United Nations Secretary-General.", "Nomination and election.", "Tenure.", "Death.", "Personal life.", "Spirituality and \"Markings\".", "Depictions in popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Dag Hammarskjöld was born in Jönköping to the noble family Hammarskjöld (also spelled \"Hammarskiöld\" or \"Hammarsköld\"). He spent most of his childhood in Uppsala. His home there, which he considered his childhood home, was Uppsala Castle. He was the fourth and youngest son of Hjalmar Hammarskjöld, Prime Minister of Sweden from 1914 to 1917, and wife Agnes Maria Carolina Hammarskjöld (née Almquist). Hammarskjöld's family was ennobled in 1610 due to deeds of the warrior Peder Mikaelsson (after 1610) Hammarskiöld (approximately 1560 – 12 April 1646), an officer in the cavalry who fought for both sides in the War against Sigismund, where he took the name \"Hammarskiöld\" at his ennobling. Hammarskjöld's ancestors had served the Monarchy of Sweden since the 17th century. Hammarskjöld studied first at Katedralskolan and then at Uppsala University. By 1930, he had obtained Licentiate of Philosophy and Master of Laws degrees. Before he finished his law degree he had already obtained a job as Assistant Secretary of the Unemployment Committee.", "From 1930 to 1934, Hammarskjöld was Secretary of a governmental committee on unemployment. During this time he wrote his economics thesis, \"\"Konjunkturspridningen\"\" (\"The Spread of the Business Cycle\"), and received a doctorate from Stockholm University. In 1936, he became a secretary in Sweden's central bank, the Riksbank. From 1941 to 1948, he served as chairman of the Riksbank's General Council. Hammarskjöld quickly developed a successful career as a Swedish public servant. He was state secretary in the Ministry of Finance 1936–1945, Swedish delegate to the Organization for European Economic Cooperation 1947–1953, cabinet secretary for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs 1949–1951 and minister without portfolio in Tage Erlander's government 1951–1953. He helped coordinate government plans to alleviate the economic problems of the post-World War II period and was a delegate to the Paris conference that established the Marshall Plan. In 1950, he became head of the Swedish delegation to UNISCAN, a forum to promote economic cooperation between the United Kingdom and the Scandinavian countries. Although Hammarskjöld served in a cabinet dominated by the Social Democrats, he never officially joined any political party. In 1951, Hammarskjöld was vice chairman of the Swedish delegation to the United Nations General Assembly in Paris. He became the chairman of the Swedish delegation to the General Assembly in New York in 1952. On 20 December 1954, he was elected to take his father's vacated seat in the Swedish Academy.", "", "On 10 November 1952 Trygve Lie announced his resignation as Secretary-General of the United Nations. Several months of negotiations ensued between the Western powers and the Soviet Union, without reaching an agreement on his successor. On 13 and 19 March 1953, the Security Council voted on four candidates. Lester B. Pearson of Canada was the only candidate to receive the required majority, but he was vetoed by the Soviet Union. At a consultation of the permanent members on 30 March 1953, French ambassador Henri Hoppenot suggested four candidates, including Hammarskjöld, whom he had met at the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation. The superpowers hoped to seat a Secretary-General who would focus on administrative issues and refrain from participating in political discussion. Hammarskjöld's reputation at the time was, in the words of biographer Emery Kelèn, \"that of a brilliant economist, an unobtrusive technician, and an aristro-bureaucrat\". As a result, there was little to no controversy in his selection; the Soviet permanent representative, Valerian Zorin, found Hammarskjöld \"harmless\". Zorin declared that he would be voting for Hammarskjöld, surprising the Western powers. The announcement set off a flurry of diplomatic activity. British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden was strongly in favor of Hammarskjöld and asked the United States to \"take any appropriate action to induce the [Nationalist] Chinese to abstain.\" (Sweden recognized the People's Republic of China and faced a potential veto from the Republic of China.) At the U.S. State Department, the nomination \"came as a complete surprise to everyone here and we started scrambling around to find out who Mr. Hammarskjold was and what his qualifications were.\" The State Department authorized Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., the US Ambassador, to vote in favor after he told them that Hammarskjöld \"may be as good as we can get.\" On 31 March 1953, the Security Council voted 10-0-1 to recommend Hammarskjöld to the General Assembly, with an abstention from Nationalist China. Shortly after midnight on 1 April 1953, Hammarskjöld was awakened by a telephone call from a journalist with the news, which he dismissed as an April Fool's Day joke. He finally believed the news after the third phone call. The Swedish mission in New York confirmed the nomination at 03:00 and a communique from the Security Council was soon thereafter delivered to him. After consulting with the Swedish cabinet and his father, Hammarskjöld decided to accept the nomination. He sent a wire to the Security Council: With strong feeling personal insufficiency I hesitate to accept candidature but I do not feel I could refuse to assume the task imposed on me should the [UN General] Assembly follow the recommendation of the Security Council by which I feel deeply honoured. Later in the day Hammarskjöld held a press conference at the Swedish Foreign Ministry. According to diplomat Sverker Åström, he displayed an intense interest and knowledge in the affairs of the UN, which he had never shown any indication of before. The U.N. General Assembly voted 57-1-1 on 7 April 1953 to appoint Dag Hammarskjöld as Secretary-General of the United Nations. Hammarskjöld was sworn in as Secretary-General on 10 April 1953. He was unanimously reelected on 26 September 1957 for another term, taking effect on 10 April 1958.", "Immediately following the assumption of the Secretariat, Hammarskjöld attempted to establish a good rapport with his staff. He made a point in going to every UN department to shake hands with as many workers as possible, eating in the cafeteria as often as possible, and relinquishing the Secretary-General's private elevator for general use. He began his term by establishing his own secretariat of 4,000 administrators and setting up regulations that defined their responsibilities. He was also actively engaged in smaller projects relating to the UN working environment. For example, he planned and supervised every detail in the creation of a \"meditation room\" at the UN headquarters. This is a place dedicated to silence, where people can withdraw into themselves, regardless of their faith, creed, or religion. During his term, Hammarskjöld tried to improve relations between Israel and the Arab states. Other highlights include a 1955 visit to China to negotiate the release of 11 captured US pilots who had served in the Korean War, the 1956 establishment of the United Nations Emergency Force, and his intervention in the 1956 Suez Crisis. He is given credit by some historians for allowing participation of the Holy See within the United Nations that year. In 1960, the newly independent Congo asked for UN aid in defusing the Congo Crisis. Hammarskjöld made four trips to Congo, but his efforts toward the decolonisation of Africa were considered insufficient by the Soviet Union; in September 1960, the Soviet government denounced his decision to send a UN emergency force to keep the peace. They demanded his resignation and the replacement of the office of Secretary-General by a three-man directorate with a built-in veto, the \"troika.\" The objective was, citing the memoirs of Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, to \"equally represent interests of three groups of countries: capitalist, socialist and recently independent.\"", "On 18 September 1961, Hammarskjöld was en route to negotiate a cease-fire between United Nations Operation in the Congo forces and Katangese troops under Moise Tshombe. His Douglas DC-6 airliner SE-BDY crashed near Ndola, Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). Hammarskjöld perished in the crash, as did all but one of the 16 passengers, who died from injuries a few days later. Hammarskjöld's death set off a succession crisis at the United Nations, as there was no line of succession and the Security Council had to vote on a successor. The circumstances of the crash are still unclear. A 1962 Rhodesian inquiry concluded that pilot error was to blame, while a later UN investigation could not determine the cause of the crash. There is evidence suggesting the plane was shot down. A CIA report claimed the KGB was responsible. The day after the crash, former U.S. President Harry Truman commented that Hammarskjöld \"was on the point of getting something done when they killed him. Notice that I said 'when they killed him'.\" In 1998, documents surfaced suggesting CIA, MI6, and/or Belgian mining interest involvement via a South African paramilitary organization. The information was contained in a file from the South African National Intelligence Agency turned over to the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission in relation to the 1993 assassination of Chris Hani, leader of the South African Communist Party. These documents included an alleged plot to \"remove\" Hammarskjöld and contained a supposed statement from CIA director Allen Dulles that \"Dag is becoming troublesome... and should be removed.\" Hammarskjöld's mission to end the war over the mineral-rich Katangese secession from the newly formed Republic of the Congo was contrary to the interests of those organizations. However these documents were copies rather than originals, precluding substantiation of authenticity through ink and paper testing. Göran Björkdahl, a Swedish aid worker whose father worked for the UN in Zambia, wrote in 2011 that he believed Hammarskjöld's death was a murder committed, in part, to benefit mining companies like Union Minière, after Hammarskjöld had made the UN intervene in the Katanga crisis. Björkdahl based his assertion on interviews with witnesses of the plane crash near the border of the DRC with Zambia and on archival documents. In 2013 accident investigator Sven Hammarberg was asked by the International Commission of Jurists to investigate Hammarskjöld's death. In his report Hammarberg concluded that the two pilots were fatigued, having been flying for over 17 hours, and that the hill they flew into was simply not marked on their charts. In 2014, newly declassified documents revealed that the American ambassador to the Congo sent a cable to Washington D.C. warning that the plane could have been shot down by Belgian mercenary pilot Jan van Risseghem, commander of the small Katanga air force. Van Risseghem died in 2007. On 16 March 2015, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon appointed members to an Independent Panel of Experts to examine new information related to Hammarskjöld's death. The three-member panel was led by Mohamed Chande Othman, the Chief Justice of Tanzania, and included Kerryn Macaulay (Australia's representative to the ICAO) and Henrik Larsen (a ballistics expert from the Danish National Police). The panel's 99-page report, released 6 July 2015, assigned \"moderate\" value to nine new eyewitness accounts and transcripts of radio transmissions. Those accounts suggested that Hammarskjöld's plane was already on fire as it landed and that other jet aircraft and intelligence agents were nearby. In 2016, the original documents from the 1998 South African investigation surfaced. Those familiar with the investigation cautioned that even if authentic, the documents could have been initially authored as part of a disinformation campaign. In 2019, the documentary film \"Cold Case Hammarskjöld\" revealed that the previously named pilot Van Risseghem told a friend that he shot down Hammarskjöld's aircraft. The film also named a paramilitary white supremacy group who claimed involvement. Van Risseghem had extensive ties to Britain, including a British mother and wife, had trained with the RAF, and was decorated by Britain for his service in the Second World War. In Hammarskjöld’s 1959 will he left his personal archive to the National Library of Sweden.", "Following his appointment as UN Secretary-General, Hammarskjöld carried a copy of the oath of office with him on his travels. It was found in one of his books in the Ndola crash site. Hammarskjöld was never married and had no children.", "In 1953, soon after his appointment as United Nations Secretary-General, Hammarskjöld was interviewed on radio by Edward R. Murrow. In this talk Hammarskjöld declared: But the explanation of how man should live a life of active social service in full harmony with himself as a member of the community of spirit, I found in the writings of those great medieval mystics <nowiki>[</nowiki>Meister Eckhart and Jan van Ruysbroek<nowiki>]</nowiki> for whom'self-surrender' had been the way to self-realization, and who in'singleness of mind' and 'inwardness' had found strength to say yes to every demand which the needs of their neighbours made them face, and to say yes also to every fate life had in store for them when they followed the call of duty as they understood it. Hammarskjöld's only book, \"Vägmärken\" (\"Markings\", or more literally \"Waymarks\"), was published in 1963. A collection of his diary reflections, the book starts in 1925, when he was 20 years old, and ends the month before his death in 1961. This diary was found in his New York house, after his death, along with an undated letter addressed to then Swedish Permanent Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Leif Belfrage. In this letter, Hammarskjöld wrote: These entries provide the only true 'profile' that can be drawn... If you find them worth publishing, you have my permission to do so. The foreword is written by the English poet W. H. Auden, a friend of Hammarskjöld's. \"Markings\" was described by the late theologian Henry P. Van Dusen as \"the noblest self-disclosure of spiritual struggle and triumph, perhaps the greatest testament of personal faith written... in the heat of professional life and amidst the most exacting responsibilities for world peace and order.\" Hammarskjöld wrote, for example: We are not permitted to choose the frame of our destiny. But what we put into it is ours. He who wills adventure will experience it – according to the measure of his courage. He who wills sacrifice will be sacrificed – according to the measure of his purity of heart. \"Markings\" is characterised by Hammarskjöld's intermingling of prose and haiku poetry in a manner exemplified by the 17th-century Japanese poet Basho in his \"Narrow Roads to the Deep North\". In his foreword to \"Markings\", W. H. Auden quotes Hammarskjöld as stating: In our age, the road to holiness necessarily passes through the world of action. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America commemorates the life of Hammarskjöld as a renewer of society, on the anniversary of his death, 18 September.", "In the 2016 \"The Siege of Jadotville\", depicting the events of the Congo Crisis, Hammarskjöld is played by his fellow countryman, actor Mikael Persbrandt." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Until 1703, the Northern Dvina was the main waterway connecting Russia and Europe, and Arkhangelsk was the main Russian harbor used for foreign trade. In 1703, Saint Petersburg was founded, and Peter the Great issued a number of decrees limiting capacities of Arkhangelsk as a sea port and intended to reroute foreign trade to the Baltic Sea. Arkhangelsk was fully restored as a sea port in 1762, and thus water connections between the Northern Dvina basin and central Russia were badly needed. In 1798 research started on the best route for a canal connecting the Sheksna and Lake Kubenskoye. In the beginning of the 19th century, the North Ekaterininsky Canal was considered to be more important, and the project was shelved. However, the North Ekaterininsky Canal proved inefficient for a number of reasons and was finally closed in 1838. On the other side, the Napoleonic wars blocked the access of Russia to Europe via the Baltic Sea, and for some time Arkhangelsk again became the most important foreign trade harbor, with shipbuilding as an important local industry. In 1823 a route for the canal was surveyed for the second time, and construction started in 1824. The canal opened in 1828 under the name Alexander of Württemberg Canal, after the Russian minister of transportation in 1822-1833, Duke Alexander Friedrich of Württemberg. Subsequently, maintenance works were performed. In 1834 a dam was constructed on the Sukhona to stabilize the level of Lake Kubenskoye. In 1884 the reconstruction of the canal (four of the locks were demolished) increased the maximum size of the ships which could use the canal. Finally, one more reconstruction was performed between 1916 and 1921. After the reconstruction the name of the canal was changed to avoid any mention of the royal family." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Theoretical basis of FLOTOX structure.", "Today's EEPROM structure.", "Security protections.", "Electrical interface.", "Serial bus devices.", "Parallel bus devices.", "Other devices.", "Failure modes.", "Related types.", "Comparison with EPROM and EEPROM/flash.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In the early 1970s, some studies, inventions, and development for electrically re-programmable non-volatile memories were performed by various companies and organizations. In 1971, the earliest research report was presented at \"the 3rd Conference on Solid State Devices, Tokyo\" in Japan by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi, and Kiyoko Nagai at \"Electrotechnical Laboratory\"; a Japanese national research institute. They fabricated an EEPROM device in 1972, and continued this study for more than 10 years. These papers have been repeatedly cited by later papers and patents. One of their research studies includes \"MONOS\" (metal-oxide-nitride-oxide-semiconductor) technology, which used Renesas Electronics' flash memory integrated in single-chip microcontrollers. In 1972, a type of electrically re-programmable non-volatile memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba, who is also known as the inventor of \"flash memory\". Most of the major semiconductor manufactures, such as Toshiba, Sanyo (later, ON Semiconductor), IBM, Intel, NEC (later, Renesas Electronics), Philips (later, NXP Semiconductors), Siemens (later, Infineon Technologies), Honeywell (later, Atmel), Texas Instruments, studied, invented, and manufactured some electrically re-programmable non-volatile devices until 1977. The theoretical basis of these devices is \"Avalanche\" hot-carrier injection. But in general, programmable memories, including EPROM, of early 1970s had reliability and endurance problems such as the data retention periods and the number of erase/write cycles. In 1975, NEC's semiconductor operations unit, later NEC Electronics, currently Renesas Electronics, applied the trademark name \"EEPROM®\" to Japan Patent Office. In 1978, this trademark right is granted and registered as No.1,342,184 in Japan, and still survives as of March 2018. In February 1977, Eliyahou Harari at Hughes Aircraft Company invented a new EEPROM technology using \"Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling\" through a thin silicon dioxide layer between the floating-gate and the wafer. Hughes went on to produce this new EEPROM devices. But this patent cited NEC's EEPROM® invention. In May 1977, some important research result was disclosed by Fairchild and Siemens. They used \"SONOS\" (polysilicon-oxynitride-nitride-oxide-silicon) structure with thickness of silicon dioxide less than 30 Å, and \"SIMOS\" (stacked-gate injection MOS) structure, respectively, for using \"Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling\" hot-carrier injection. Around 1976 to 1978, Intel's team, including George Perlegos, made some inventions to improve this tunneling EPROM technology. In 1978, they developed a 16K (2K word × 8) bit Intel \"2816\" device with a thin silicon dioxide layer, which was less than 200 Å. In 1980. this structure was publicly introduced as \"FLOTOX\"; floating gate tunnel oxide. The \"FLOTOX\" structure improved reliability of erase/write cycles per byte up to 10,000 times. But this device required additional 2022V V bias voltage supply for byte erase, except for 5V read operations. In 1981, Perlegos and 2 other members left Intel to form Seeq Technology, which used on-device charge pumps to supply the high voltages necessary for programming EPROMs. In 1984, Perlogos left Seeq Technology to found Atmel, then Seeq Technology was acquired by Atmel.", "As is described in former section, old EEPROMs are based on Avalanche breakdown-based hot-carrier injection with high reverse breakdown voltage. But \"FLOTOX\"'s theoretical basis is Fowler–Nordheim tunneling hot-carrier injection through a thin silicon dioxide layer between the floating-gate and the wafer. In other words, it uses a tunnel junction. Theoretical basis of the physical phenomenon itself is the same as today's flash memory. But each FLOTOX structure is in conjunction with another read-control transistor because the floating gate itself is just programming and erasing one data bit. Intel's \"FLOTOX\" device structure improved EEPROM's reliability, in other words, the endurance of the write and erase cycles, and the data retention period. A material of study for single event effect about FLOTOX is available. Today, a detailed academical explanation of \"FLOTOX\" device structure can be found in various materials.", "Nowadays, EEPROM is used for embedded microcontrollers as well as standard EEPROM products. EEPROM still requires a 2-transistor structure per bit to erase a dedicated byte in the memory, while flash memory has 1 transistor per bit to erase a region of the memory.", "Because EEPROM technology is used for some security gadgets, such as credit card, SIM card, key-less entry, etc., some devices have security protection mechanisms.", "EEPROM devices use a serial or parallel interface for data input/output.", "The common serial interfaces are SPI, I2C, Microwire, UNI/O, and 1-Wire. These use from 1 to 4 device pins and allow devices to use packages with 8 pins or less. A typical EEPROM serial protocol consists of three phases: OP-Code Phase, Address Phase and Data Phase. The OP-Code is usually the first 8 bits input to the serial input pin of the EEPROM device (or with most I2C devices, is implicit); followed by 8 to 24 bits of addressing depending on the depth of the device, then the read or write data. Each EEPROM device typically has its own set of OP-Code instructions mapped to different functions. Common operations on SPI EEPROM devices are: Other operations supported by some EEPROM devices are:", "Parallel EEPROM devices typically have an 8-bit data bus and an address bus wide enough to cover the complete memory. Most devices have chip select and write protect pins. Some microcontrollers also have integrated parallel EEPROM. Operation of a parallel EEPROM is simple and fast when compared to serial EEPROM, but these devices are larger due to the higher pin count (28 pins or more) and have been decreasing in popularity in favor of serial EEPROM or flash.", "EEPROM memory is used to enable features in other types of products that are not strictly memory products. Products such as real-time clocks, digital potentiometers, digital temperature sensors, among others, may have small amounts of EEPROM to store calibration information or other data that needs to be available in the event of power loss. It was also used on video game cartridges to save game progress and configurations, before the usage of external and internal flash memories.", "There are two limitations of stored information; endurance, and data retention. During rewrites, the gate oxide in the floating-gate transistors gradually accumulates trapped electrons. The electric field of the trapped electrons adds to the electrons in the floating gate, lowering the window between threshold voltages for zeros vs ones. After sufficient number of rewrite cycles, the difference becomes too small to be recognizable, the cell is stuck in programmed state, and endurance failure occurs. The manufacturers usually specify the maximum number of rewrites being 1 million or more. During storage, the electrons injected into the floating gate may drift through the insulator, especially at increased temperature, and cause charge loss, reverting the cell into erased state. The manufacturers usually guarantee data retention of 10 years or more.", "Flash memory is a later form of EEPROM. In the industry, there is a convention to reserve the term EEPROM to byte-wise erasable memories compared to block-wise erasable flash memories. EEPROM occupies more die area than flash memory for the same capacity, because each cell usually needs a read, a write, and an erase transistor, while flash memory erase circuits are shared by large blocks of cells (often 512×8). Newer non-volatile memory technologies such as FeRAM and MRAM are slowly replacing EEPROMs in some applications, but are expected to remain a small fraction of the EEPROM market for the foreseeable future.", "The difference between EPROM and EEPROM lies in the way that the memory programs and erases. EEPROM can be programmed and erased electrically using field electron emission (more commonly known in the industry as \"Fowler–Nordheim tunneling\"). EPROMs can't be erased electrically and are programmed via hot carrier injection onto the floating gate. Erase is via an ultraviolet light source, although in practice many EPROMs are encapsulated in plastic that is opaque to UV light, making them \"one-time programmable\". Most NOR flash memory is a hybrid style—programming is through hot carrier injection and erase is through Fowler–Nordheim tunneling.", "The Stanford Graduate Students in Electrical Engineering (GSEE) has annually hosted a dance (i.e. prom) called EEPROM since 2012." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Background.", "Invention and commercialization.", "Later developments.", "Principles of operation.", "Floating-gate MOSFET.", "Fowler–Nordheim tunneling.", "Internal charge pumps.", "NOR flash.", "Programming.", "Erasing.", "NAND flash.", "Writing and erasing.", "Vertical NAND.", "Structure.", "Construction.", "Performance.", "Limitations.", "Block erasure.", "Memory wear.", "Read disturb.", "X-ray effects.", "Low-level access.", "NOR memories.", "NAND memories.", "Standardization.", "Distinction between NOR and NAND flash.", "Flash file systems.", "Capacity.", "Transfer rates.", "Applications.", "Serial flash.", "Firmware storage.", "Flash memory as a replacement for hard drives.", "Flash memory as RAM.", "Archival or long-term storage.", "FPGA configuration.", "Industry.", "Manufacturers.", "Shipments.", "Flash scalability." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The origins of flash memory can be traced back to the development of the floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS), also known as the floating-gate transistor. The original MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Egyptian engineer Mohamed M. Atalla and Korean engineer Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. Kahng went on to develop a variation, the floating-gate MOSFET, with", "Fujio Masuoka, while working for Toshiba, proposed a new type of floating-gate memory that allowed entire sections of memory to be erased quickly and easily, by applying a voltage to a single wire connected to a group of cells. This led to Masuoka's invention of flash memory at Toshiba in 1980. According to Toshiba, the name \"flash\" was suggested by Masuoka's colleague, Shōji Ariizumi, because the erasure process of the memory contents reminded him of the flash of a camera. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984, and then NAND flash at the \"IEEE 1987 International Electron Devices Meeting\" (IEDM) held in San Francisco. Toshiba commercially launched NAND flash memory in 1987. Intel Corporation introduced the first commercial NOR type flash chip in 1988. NOR-based flash has long erase and write times, but provides full address and data buses, allowing random access to any memory location. This makes it a suitable replacement for older read-only memory (ROM)", "A new generation of memory card formats, including RS-MMC, miniSD and microSD, feature extremely small form factors. For example, the microSD card has an area of just over 1.5 cm, with a thickness of less than 1 mm. NAND flash has achieved significant levels of memory density as a result of several major technologies that were commercialized during the late 2000s to early 2010s. Multi-level cell (MLC) technology stores more than one bit in each memory cell. NEC demonstrated quad-level cell (QLC)", "Flash memory stores information in an array of memory cells made from floating-gate transistors. In single-level cell (SLC) devices, each cell stores only one bit of information. Multi-level cell (MLC) devices, including triple-level cell (TLC) devices, can store more than one bit per cell. The floating gate may be conductive (typically polysilicon in most kinds of flash memory) or non-conductive (as in SONOS flash memory).", "In flash memory, each memory cell resembles a standard metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) except that the transistor has two gates instead of one. The cells can be seen as an electrical switch in which current flows between two terminals (source and drain) and is controlled by a floating gate (FG) and a control gate (CG). The CG is similar to the gate in other MOS transistors, but below this, there is the FG insulated all around by an oxide layer. The FG is interposed between the CG and the MOSFET channel. Because the FG is electrically isolated by its insulating layer, electrons placed on it are trapped. When the FG is charged with electrons, this charge screens the electric field from the CG, thus,", "The process of moving electrons from the control gate and into the floating gate is called Fowler–Nordheim tunneling, and it fundamentally changes the characteristics of the cell by increasing the MOSFET's threshold voltage. This,", "Despite the need for relatively high programming and erasing voltages, virtually all flash chips today require only a single supply voltage and produce the high voltages that are required using on-chip charge pumps. Over half the energy used by a 1.8 V NAND flash chip is lost in the charge pump itself. Since boost", "In NOR flash, each cell has one end connected directly to ground, and the other end connected directly to a bit line. This arrangement is called \"NOR flash\" because it acts like a NOR gate: when one of the word lines (connected to the cell's CG) is brought high, the corresponding storage transistor acts to pull the output bit line low. NOR flash continues to be the technology of choice for embedded applications requiring a discrete non-volatile memory device. The low read latencies characteristic of NOR devices allow for both direct code execution and data storage in a single memory product.", "A single-level NOR flash cell in its default state is logically equivalent to a binary \"1\" value, because current will flow through the channel", "To erase a NOR flash cell (resetting it to the \"1\" state), a large voltage \"of the opposite polarity\" is applied between the CG and source terminal, pulling the electrons off the FG through quantum tunneling. Modern NOR flash memory chips are divided into erase segments (often called blocks or sectors). The erase operation can be performed only on a block-wise basis; all the cells in an erase segment must be erased together. Programming of NOR cells, however, generally can be performed one byte or word at a time.", "NAND flash also uses floating-gate transistors, but they are connected in a way that resembles a NAND gate: several transistors are connected in series, and the bit line is pulled low only if all the word lines are pulled high (above the transistors' V). These groups are then connected via some additional transistors to a NOR-style bit line array in the same way that single transistors are linked in NOR flash. Compared to NOR flash, replacing single transistors with serial-linked groups adds an extra level of addressing. Whereas NOR flash might address memory by page then word, NAND flash might address it by page, word and bit. Bit-level addressing suits bit-serial applications (such as hard disk emulation), which access only one bit at a time. Execute-in-place applications,", "NAND flash uses tunnel injection for writing and tunnel release for erasing. NAND flash memory forms the core of the removable USB storage devices known as USB flash drives, as well as most memory card formats and solid-state drives available today. The architecture of NAND Flash means that data can be read and programmed in pages, typically between 4 KiB and 16 KiB in size, but can only be erased at the level of entire blocks consisting of multiple pages and MB in size. When a block", "Vertical NAND (V-NAND) or 3D NAND memory stacks memory cells vertically and uses a charge trap flash architecture. The vertical layers allow larger areal bit densities without requiring smaller individual cells. It is also known as 3D NAND or BiCS Flash. 3D NAND was first announced by Toshiba in 2007. V-NAND was first commercially manufactured by Samsung Electronics in 2013.", "V-NAND uses a charge trap flash geometry (which was commercially introduced in 2002 by AMD and Fujitsu) that stores charge on an embedded silicon nitride film. Such a film is more robust against point defects and can be made thicker to hold larger numbers of electrons. V-NAND wraps a planar charge trap cell into a cylindrical form. The hierarchical structure of NAND Flash starts at a cell level which establishes strings, then pages, blocks, planes and ultimately a die. A string is a series of connected NAND cells in which the source of one cell is connected to the drain of the next one. Depending on the NAND technology, a string typically consists of 32 to 128 NAND cells. Strings are organised into pages which are then organised into blocks in which each", "Growth of a group of V-NAND cells begins with an alternating stack of conducting (doped) polysilicon layers and insulating silicon dioxide layers. The next step is to form a cylindrical hole through these", "As of 2013, V-NAND flash architecture allows read and write operations twice as fast as conventional NAND and can last up to 10 times as long, while consuming 50 percent less power. They offer comparable physical bit density using 10-nm lithography but may be able to increase bit density by up to two orders of magnitude.", "", "One limitation of flash memory is that, although it can be read or programmed a byte or a word at a time in a random access fashion, it can be erased only a block at a time. This generally sets all bits in the block to 1. Starting with a freshly erased block, any location within that block can be programmed. However, once a bit has been set to 0, only by erasing the entire block can it be changed back to 1. In other words, flash memory (specifically NOR flash) offers random-access read and programming operations but does not offer arbitrary random-access rewrite or erase operations. A location can, however, be rewritten as long as the new value's 0 bits are a superset of the over-written values.", "Another limitation is that flash memory has a finite number of program erase cycles (typically written as P/E cycles). Most commercially available flash products are guaranteed to withstand around 100,000 P/E cycles before the wear begins to deteriorate the integrity of the storage. Micron Technology and Sun Microsystems announced an SLC NAND flash memory chip rated for 1,000,000 P/E cycles on 17 December 2008. The guaranteed cycle count may apply only to block zero (as is the case with TSOP NAND devices), or to all blocks (as in NOR). This effect is mitigated in some chip firmware or file system drivers by counting the writes and dynamically remapping blocks in order to spread write operations between sectors; this technique is called wear leveling. Another approach is to perform write verification and remapping to spare sectors in case of write failure, a technique called bad block management (BBM). For portable consumer devices, these wear out", "The method used to read NAND flash memory can cause nearby cells in the same memory block to change over time (become programmed). This is known as read disturb. The threshold number of reads is generally in the hundreds of thousands of reads between intervening erase operations. If reading continually from one cell, that cell will not fail but rather one of the surrounding", "Most flash ICs come in ball grid array (BGA) packages, and even the ones that do not are often mounted on a PCB next to other BGA packages. After PCB Assembly, boards with BGA packages are often X-rayed to", "The low-level interface to flash memory chips differs from those of other memory types such as DRAM, ROM, and EEPROM, which support bit-alterability (both zero to one and one to zero) and random access via externally accessible address buses. NOR memory has an external address bus for reading and programming. For NOR memory, reading and programming are random-access, and unlocking and erasing are block-wise. For NAND memory, reading and programming are page-wise, and unlocking and erasing are block-wise.", "Reading from NOR flash is similar to reading from random-access memory, provided the address and data bus are mapped correctly. Because of this, most microprocessors can use NOR flash memory as execute in place (XIP) memory, meaning that programs stored in NOR flash can be executed directly from the NOR flash without needing to be copied into RAM first. NOR flash may be programmed in a random-access manner similar to reading. Programming changes bits from a logical one to a zero. Bits that are already zero are left unchanged. Erasure must happen a block at a time, and resets all the bits in the erased block back to one. Typical block sizes", "NAND flash architecture was introduced by Toshiba in 1989. These memories are accessed much like block devices, such as hard disks. Each block consists of a number of pages. The pages are typically 512, 2,048 or 4,096 bytes in size. Associated with each page are a few bytes (typically 1/32 of the data size) that can be used for storage of an error correcting code (ECC) checksum. Typical block sizes include: While reading and programming is performed on a page basis, erasure can only be", "A group called the Open NAND Flash Interface Working Group (ONFI) has developed a standardized low-level interface for NAND flash chips. This allows interoperability between conforming NAND devices from different vendors. The ONFI specification version 1.0 was released on 28 December 2006. It specifies: The ONFI group is supported by major NAND flash manufacturers, including Hynix, Intel, Micron Technology, and Numonyx, as well as by major manufacturers of devices incorporating", "NOR and NAND flash differ in two important ways: These two are linked by the design choices made in the development of NAND flash. A goal of NAND flash development was to reduce the chip area required to implement a given capacity of flash memory, and thereby to reduce cost per bit and increase maximum chip capacity so that flash memory could compete with magnetic storage devices like hard disks. NOR and NAND flash get their names from the structure of the interconnections between memory cells. In NOR flash, cells are connected in parallel to the bit lines, allowing cells to be read and programmed individually. The parallel connection of cells resembles the parallel connection of transistors in a CMOS NOR gate. In NAND flash, cells are connected in series, resembling a CMOS NAND gate. The series connections consume less space than parallel ones, reducing the cost of NAND flash. It does not, by itself, prevent NAND cells from being read and programmed individually. Each NOR flash cell is larger than a NAND flash cell 10 F vs 4 F even when using exactly the same semiconductor device fabrication and so each transistor, contact, etc. is exactly the same size because NOR flash cells require a separate metal contact for each cell. When NOR flash was developed, it was envisioned as a more economical and conveniently rewritable ROM than contemporary EPROM and EEPROM memories. Thus random-access reading circuitry was necessary. However, it was expected that NOR flash ROM would be read much more often than written, so the write circuitry included was fairly slow and could erase only in a block-wise fashion. On the other hand, applications that use flash as a replacement for disk drives do not require word-level write address, which would only add to the complexity and cost unnecessarily. Because of the series connection and removal of wordline contacts, a large grid of NAND flash memory cells will occupy perhaps only 60% of the area of equivalent NOR cells (assuming the same CMOS process resolution, for example, 130 nm, 90 nm, or 65 nm). NAND flash's designers realized that the area of a NAND chip, and thus the cost, could be further reduced by removing the external address and data bus circuitry. Instead, external devices could communicate with NAND flash via sequential-accessed command and data registers, which would internally retrieve and output the necessary data. This design choice made random-access of NAND flash memory impossible, but the goal of NAND flash was to replace mechanical hard disks, not to replace ROMs.", "Because of the particular characteristics of flash memory, it is best used with either a controller to perform wear leveling and error correction or specifically designed flash file systems, which spread writes over the media and deal with the long erase times of NOR flash blocks. The basic concept behind flash file systems is the following: when the flash store", "Multiple chips are often arrayed to achieve higher capacities for use in consumer electronic devices such as multimedia players or GPSs. The capacity of flash chips generally follows Moore's Law because they are manufactured with many of the same integrated circuits techniques and equipment. Consumer flash storage devices typically are advertised with usable sizes expressed as a small integer power of two (2, 4, 8, etc.) and a designation of megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB); e.g., 512 MB, 8 GB. This includes SSDs marketed as hard drive replacements, in accordance with traditional hard drives, which use decimal prefixes. Thus, an SSD marked as \"64 GB\" is at least bytes (64 GB). Most users will have slightly less capacity than this available for their files, due to the space taken by file system metadata. The flash memory chips inside them are sized in strict binary multiples, but the actual total capacity of the chips is not usable at the drive interface. It is considerably larger than the advertised capacity in order to allow for distribution", "Flash memory devices are typically much faster at reading than writing. Performance also depends on the quality of storage controllers", "", "Serial flash is a small, low-power flash memory that provides only serial access to the data - rather than addressing individual bytes, the user reads or writes large contiguous groups of bytes in the address space serially. Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) is a typical protocol for accessing the device. When incorporated into an embedded system, serial flash requires fewer wires on the PCB than parallel flash memories, since it transmits and receives data one bit at a time. This may permit a reduction in board space, power consumption, and total system cost. There are several reasons why a serial device, with fewer external pins than a parallel device, can significantly reduce overall cost:", "With the increasing speed of modern CPUs, parallel flash devices are often much slower than the memory bus of the computer they are connected to. Conversely, modern SRAM offers access times below 10 ns, while DDR2 SDRAM offers access times below 20 ns. Because of this, it is often desirable to shadow code stored in flash into RAM; that is, the code is copied from flash into RAM before execution, so that the CPU may access it at full speed. Device firmware may be stored in a serial flash device, and then copied into SDRAM or SRAM when the device is powered-up. Using an external serial flash device rather than on-chip flash removes the need for significant process compromise (a manufacturing process that is good for high-speed logic is generally not good for flash and vice versa). Once it is decided to read the firmware in as one big block it is common to add compression to allow a smaller flash chip to be used. Typical applications for serial flash include storing firmware for hard drives, Ethernet controllers, DSL modems, wireless network devices, etc.", "One more recent application for flash memory is as a replacement for hard disks. Flash memory does not have the mechanical limitations and latencies of hard drives, so a solid-state drive (SSD) is attractive when considering speed, noise, power consumption, and reliability. Flash drives are gaining traction as mobile device secondary storage devices; they are also used as substitutes for hard drives in high-performance desktop computers and some servers with RAID and SAN architectures. There remain some aspects of flash-based SSDs that make them unattractive. The cost per gigabyte of flash memory remains significantly higher than that of hard disks. Also flash memory has a finite number of P/E cycles, but this seems to be currently under control since warranties on flash-based SSDs are approaching those of current hard drives. In addition, deleted files on SSDs can remain for an indefinite period of time before being overwritten by fresh data; erasure or shred techniques or software that work well on magnetic", "As of 2012, there are attempts", "It is unclear how long flash memory will persist under archival conditions i.e., benign temperature and humidity with infrequent access with or without prophylactic rewrite. Datasheets of Atmel's flash-based \"ATmega\" microcontrollers typically promise retention times of 20 years at", "Some FPGAs are based on flash configuration cells that are used directly as (programmable) switches", "One source states that, in 2008, the flash memory industry includes about US$9.1 billion in production and sales. Other sources put the flash memory market at a size of more than US$20 billion in 2006, accounting for more than eight percent of the overall semiconductor market and more than 34 percent of the total semiconductor memory market. In 2012, the market was estimated at $26.8 billion. It can take up to 10 weeks to produce a flash memory chip.", "The following are the largest NAND", "In addition to individual flash memory chips, flash memory is also embedded in microcontroller (MCU) chips and system-on-chip (SoC) devices. Flash memory is embedded in ARM chips, which have sold 150billion units", "Due to its relatively simple structure and high demand for higher capacity, NAND flash memory is the most aggressively scaled technology among electronic devices. The heavy competition among the top few manufacturers only adds to the aggressiveness in shrinking the floating-gate MOSFET design rule or process technology node. While the expected shrink timeline is a factor of two every three years per original version of Moore's law, this has recently been accelerated in the case of NAND flash to a factor of two every two years. As the MOSFET feature size of flash memory cells reaches the 15-16 nm minimum limit, further flash density increases will be driven by TLC (3 bits/cell) combined with vertical stacking of NAND memory planes. The decrease in endurance and increase in uncorrectable bit error rates that accompany feature size shrinking can be compensated by improved error correction mechanisms. Even with these advances, it may be impossible to economically scale flash to smaller and smaller dimensions as the number of electron holding capacity reduces. Many promising new technologies (such as FeRAM, MRAM, PMC, PCM, ReRAM, and others) are under investigation and development as possible more scalable replacements for flash." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Programming." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The PROM was invented in 1956 by Wen Tsing Chow, working for the Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation in Garden City, New York. The invention was conceived at the request of the United States Air Force to come up with a more flexible and secure way of storing the targeting constants in the Atlas E/F ICBM's airborne digital computer. The patent and associated technology were held under secrecy order for several years while the Atlas E/F was the main operational missile of the United States ICBM force. The term \"burn\", referring to the process of programming a PROM, is also in the original patent, as one of the original implementations was to literally burn the internal whiskers of diodes with a current overload to produce a circuit discontinuity. The first PROM programming machines were also developed by Arma engineers under Mr. Chow's direction and were located in Arma's Garden City lab and Air Force Strategic Air Command (SAC) headquarters. OTP (one time programmable) memory is a special type of non-volatile memory (NVM) that permits data to be written to memory only once. Once the memory has been programmed, it retains its value upon loss of power (i.e., is non-volatile). OTP memory is used in applications where reliable and repeatable reading of data is required. Examples include boot code, encryption keys and configuration parameters for analog, sensor or display circuitry. OTP NVM is characterized, over other types of NVM like eFuse or EEPROM, by offering a low power, small area footprint memory structure. As such OTP memory finds application in products from microprocessors & display drivers to Power Management ICs (PMICs). Commercially available semiconductor antifuse-based OTP memory arrays have been around at least since 1969, with initial antifuse bit cells dependent on blowing a capacitor between crossing conductive lines. Texas Instruments developed a MOS gate oxide breakdown antifuse in 1979. A dual-gate-oxide two-transistor (2T) MOS antifuse was introduced in 1982. Early oxide breakdown technologies exhibited a variety of scaling, programming, size and manufacturing problems that prevented volume production of memory devices based on these technologies. Although antifuse-based PROM has been available for decades, it wasn’t available in standard CMOS until 2001 when Kilopass Technology Inc. patented 1T, 2T, and 3.5T antifuse bit cell technologies using a standard CMOS process, enabling integration of PROM into logic CMOS chips. The first process node antifuse can be implemented in standard CMOS is 0.18 um. Since the gate oxide breakdown is less than the junction breakdown, special diffusion steps were not required to create the antifuse programming element. In 2005, a split channel antifuse device was introduced by Sidense. This split channel bit cell combines the thick (IO) and thin (gate) oxide devices into one transistor (1T) with a common polysilicon gate.", "A typical PROM comes with all bits reading as \"1\". Burning a fuse bit during programming causes the bit to read as \"0\". The memory can be programmed just once after manufacturing by \"blowing\" the fuses, which is an irreversible process. The bit cell is programmed by applying a high-voltage pulse not encountered during a normal operation across the gate and substrate of the thin oxide transistor (around 6V for a 2 nm thick oxide, or 30MV/cm) to break down the oxide between gate and substrate. The positive voltage on the transistor's gate forms an inversion channel in the substrate below the gate, causing a tunneling current to flow through the oxide. The current produces additional traps in the oxide, increasing the current through the oxide and ultimately melting the oxide and forming a conductive channel from gate to substrate. The current required to form the conductive channel is around 100μA/100nm and the breakdown occurs in approximately 100μs or less." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "1960 to 1990.", "The 1990s and 2000s.", "Latest developments.", "Corporate affairs.", "Head office.", "Financial results.", "Corporate identity.", "Logo.", "Destinations.", "Codeshare agreements.", "Charter flights.", "Fleet.", "Current fleet.", "Historical fleet.", "Services.", "Catering.", "Frequent-flyer program." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "CSA was founded on 6 October 1923, by the Czechoslovak government as ČSA \"Československé státní aerolinie\" (Czechoslovak State Airlines). Twenty-three days later its first transport flight took place, flying between Prague and Bratislava. It operated only domestic services until its first international flight from Prague to Bratislava and on to Zagreb in Yugoslavia in 1930. After the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia in 1939 with the country splitting up into three parts, the airline was terminated. Following a coup in February 1948, the Communist Party suspended some western European and Middle Eastern routes, and also gradually replaced much of the fleet with Soviet-built airliners, due to the embargo imposed by the West on the western-built aircraft spares and other equipment. The Ilyushin Il-14 was updated and built under licence in Czechoslovakia as the Avia-14. In 1950, CSA became the world's first victim of a mass hijacking. Three Czechoslovak Douglas DC-3 airliners flown to an American airbase in Erding, near Munich, stirred the world on both sides of the \"burnt through\" Iron Curtain and the case intensified the Cold War between East and West overnight. On the morning of 24 March the three aircraft landed near Munich instead of at Prague; the first from Brno, at 08:20, the second from Moravská Ostrava at 08:40, and the third one from Bratislava at 09:20. Two-thirds of the people on board were involuntary passengers who later returned to Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak Communist government commissioned a 'flight to freedom' book, stage play, and film (all bearing the name \"Kidnap to Erding\") which celebrated the kidnapped returnees as heroes who had not allowed themselves to be swayed by promises of capitalist opulence. The non-returnees who requested political asylum in West Germany were, on the other hand, proclaimed criminals and the Prague government vigorously requested their extradition – although in vain. The pilot from Brno was Josef Klesnil, a former Royal Air Force pilot with 311 squadron, who flew from Brno to Erding with a pistol at his head. In 1957 CSA became the third of the world's airlines to fly jet services, taking delivery/putting in service the first Tupolev Tu-104A in 1957. ČSA was the only airline other than Aeroflot to operate the Tu-104. The service operated by the Tu-104A from 1957 between Prague and Moscow was the first jet-only connection (other airlines used both jets and piston/turboprop aircraft simultaneously). The first transatlantic services started on 3 February 1962 with a flight to Havana, using a Bristol Britannia turboprop leased from Cubana de Aviación. CSA's transatlantic flights were code-shared with Cubana's services to Prague, and Cubana's crews provided initial training and assistance in the operation of the Britannias.", "From the late 1960s, CSA used a range of Soviet-built aircraft, and modifications of them, for its extensive European and intercontinental services which totalled some 50 international and 15 domestic destinations. The Britannia was replaced with long-range Ilyushin Il-18D turboprops at this time, and transatlantic routes were established to Montreal and New York City, besides Havana. Apart from the Il-18D, other aircraft in CSA's fleet included the short-range Tupolev Tu-134, the medium-range Tupolev Tu-154, and the long-range Ilyushin Il-62. As was the case in several other countries, the Il-62 was the first long-range jet airliner to be put into operation by CSA (which was also the first foreign customer to buy Il-62s from Russia). CSA operated a fleet of 21 Il-62s between 1969 and 1997 including 15 Il-62s and six Il-62Ms. A CSA-registered Il-62 and three Il-62Ms were used as official Czech government transports between 1974 and 1996. After absorbing the \"heavier\" part of Slov-air and taking its Let L-410A Turbolet turboprop commuters into its fleet in the early 1970s, the ČSA partner Slov-air became the world's first airline whose captain, Ján Mičica, was slain at the controls by a hijacker, the event happening during a hijacking to West Germany. The aircraft involved, OK-ADN is nowadays displayed in an open-air aircraft museum in Martin, Slovakia.", "After the breakup of the Czechoslovak Federation, the airline adopted its present name in May 1995. By the late 1990s, most of the Soviet aircraft were either sold on to other airlines or retired (a number were preserved), and replaced with Western ones such as the Boeing 737, the Airbus A310 and the Airbus A320. CSA became a full member of the SkyTeam alliance on 18 October 2000. As of March 2007 the airline, with 5,440 employees, was owned by the Czech Ministry of Finance (56.92%), Czech Consolidation Agency (34.59%), and other Czech institutions. On 1 January 2010, the whole non-office ground staff of CSA was transferred to the subsidiary ČSA Support, now named Czech airlines handling s.r.o. In February 2010, ČSA a.s. sold off its duty-free shops to another entity. EU competition regulators began an investigation into Czech Airlines on 23 February 2011, stating that it doubted the loss-making concern could return to viability and comply with European Union state aid regulations. In late 2012, CSA Czech Airlines announced plans for expansion and to resume long-haul flights from summer 2013 with Airbus A330 aircraft between Prague and Seoul. Since March 2013, the company operates direct flights from Prague to Perm, Nice, Munich, Zurich, Seoul, and Florence. Upon the completion of stock sales to Korean Air on 10 April 2013, CSA Czech Airlines was owned by Czech Aeroholdings, a.s. (56%) and Korean Air Lines Co., Ltd. (44%). On May 14, 2013, Czech Airlines Extraordinary General shareholders' meeting elected Cho Won-tae as a new member of its Supervisory Board. Cho replaced Petr Matousek, who resigned from his position in the Supervisory Board. This personnel change took effect on 1 June 2013 as a result of Korean Air's equity purchase. In April 2015 Travel Service Group bought 34% of the airline, over which Korean Air had an option. In 2016 the airline returned to profit for the first time in many years. On 6 October 2017, Korean Air announced the sale of its 44-percent stake in Czech Airlines, which it held for four years, to Travel Service. Travel Service then owned 78.9 percent of CSA. The Czech state company Prisko owned 20 percent of CSA. Travel Service later also acquired Prisko's stake, enabling Travel Service a 97.74% stake in the airline.", "In March 2019, Smartwings announced that CSA will transition its fleet, with the Airbus A319 and ATR 72 aircraft to be retired. In October 2019, Czech Airlines announced an order for four Airbus A220-300 and three A321XLR, which had been converted from orders for the A320neo. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, Czech Airlines announced in April 2020 to terminate their sole long-haul route to Seoul, which will not be restarted after operations resume. Therefore their sole Airbus A330 is to be returned to lessor Korean Air by October 2020.", "", "In 2016, Czech Airlines head office moved to Evropská street in 6th district, Prague, district Vokovice. Main reason was a lower price. Czech Airlines formerly had its head office, the APC Building, on the grounds of Václav Havel Airport Prague in Ruzyně, 6th district, Prague. On 30 December 2009 CSA announced that it will sell its head office to the airport for CZK 607 million.", "Since its transformation to a joint stock company in August 1992, ČSA has never paid dividends. The sale of a minority share to Air France was a fiasco leading to withdrawal of the French airline. Subsequently, Antonín Jakubše and Miroslav Kůla stabilised the company and enlarged its fleet. In September 2003, Miroslav Kůla was fired. New CEO, ex-minister Jaroslav Tvrdík, agreed with the unions to increase wages by a third and announced \"unprecedented\" enlargement of the fleet. In 2005, the financial situation sharply deteriorated. Although the sale of two ATR aircraft improved the operating result by CZK 198 million, the operating loss was almost half a billion Czech crowns and the Government of Jiří Paroubek replaced Jaroslav Tvrdík with Radomír Lašák. The airline generated further operating losses, despite revenue of CZK 2.1 bn from the sale of almost all real estate and CZK 1.2 bn from sales of aircraft. In 2005-2010, ČSA generated an operating loss of CZK 3.4 bn; without long-term asset sales revenues, the operating loss would have been twice as large. The gross margin did not even cover the personnel expenses. In 2016, the airline handled 2.7 million passengers and announced a net profit of 241 million crowns.", "", "A new look for Czech Airlines was revealed in September 2007. The new logo was created by Michal Kotyza, who works for the airline.", "As of the summer season 2019, Czech Airlines flies to 27 year-round and 5 seasonal destinations in 24 countries. Flights are operated mainly in Europe, with a small number of Asian destinations Beirut, and Riyadh. Including codeshare partners, CSA flies to more than 110 destinations and 45 countries from Prague. Before major cuts to its network, Czech Airlines used to operate 32 monopoly routes from Prague, including one domestic route to Ostrava which does not exist anymore, alongside the feeder route from Košice in Slovakia. These 32 routes represented about 40% of total flights and just over 30% of total capacity.", "Czech Airlines codeshares with the following airlines:", "In June 2007, CSA signed a contract with Exim Tours, the largest Czech travel agency, extending their contract for another three years. In May 2010, CSA withdrew its last Airbus A310 and Exim Tours signed a new contract with Travel Service Airlines from winter 2010/2011.", "", ", the Czech Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft:", "Czech or Czechoslovak Airlines operated these aircraft types in the past:", "", "Czech Airlines offers buy on board service on some flights in addition to free service.", "The OK Plus frequent flyer programme gives passengers \"OK Plus Miles\" for flights with Czech Airlines, SkyTeam member airlines, other partner airlines or non-airline partners such as hotels, car rentals, banks etc. OK Plus membership cards are available with the following tier levels: OK Plus membership, OK Plus Silver, OK Plus Gold, and OK Plus Platinum. The higher the card level, the greater the number of benefits passengers receive." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Crew.", "Crew notes.", "Mission highlights.", "Mission notes.", "Final Assembly Power Converter Unit mission for \"Discovery\".", "Mission payloads.", "Mission background.", "Mission timeline.", "7 December (Launch attempt 1).", "9 December (Flight day 1 – Launch).", "10 December (Flight day 2).", "11 December (Flight day 3 – Docking to ISS).", "12 December (Flight day 4 – EVA #1).", "13 December (Flight day 5 – Solar Array Reorganization).", "14 December (Flight day 6 – EVA #2).", "15 December (Flight day 7).", "16 December (Flight day 8 – EVA #3).", "17 December (Flight day 9).", "18 December (Flight day 10 – EVA #4).", "19 December (Flight day 11 – Undocking).", "20 December (Flight day 12).", "21 December (Flight day 13).", "22 December (Flight day 14 – Landing).", "Contingency planning.", "STS-301.", "STS-317.", "Wake-up calls." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Originally this mission was to carry the Expedition 8 crew to the ISS. The original crew was to be:", "", "As one of the main goals of STS-116 was to exchange ISS Expedition 14 crew members, the crew of STS-116 changed mid-flight. ISS Flight Engineer Sunita \"Suni\" Williams was part of the STS-116 crew for the first portion of the mission. She then replaced ISS Flight Engineer Thomas Reiter on the Expedition 14 crew and Reiter joined the STS-116 crew for the return to Earth.", "During planned orbiter upgrades that took place subsequent to this mission, \"Discovery\"'s \"Assembly Power Converter Units\" (APCUs) were removed and replaced with the shuttle-side components of the Station-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS). The APCUs converted 28VDC orbiter main bus power to 124VDC, compatible with the ISS's 120VDC main bus power. During initial station assembly missions, orbiter APCU power was used to augment the power available from the Russian service segment. With the operation of permanent main electrical systems (e.g. P4 array and SARJ, MBSUs, DDCUs, Ammonia cooling systems), orbiter power was no longer needed by the ISS. After STS-118, \"Discovery\" and \"Endeavour\" drew power from the ISS, although \"Atlantis\" was never upgraded with the SSPTS. This system slowed the orbiters' consumption of hydrogen and oxygen used by their onboard electricity-generating fuel cells. The hydrogen and oxygen supplies, stored cryogenically in tanks aboard the orbiter, limited the duration of Space Shuttle missions. As a result of the changeover to SSPTS, \"Discovery\" and \"Endeavour\" gained approximately 50% of the time that would have been spent docked otherwise. This resulted in 2–4 extra days for each ISS-docked mission.", "The primary payload for the STS-116 mission was the P5 Truss segment of the International Space Station. The shuttle also carried a Spacehab Logistics Module to resupply the ISS, and an Integrated Cargo Carrier with four sub-satellites, which were deployed after undocking from the ISS: the ANDE technology demonstrator (OSCAR 61 and 62), developed by the Naval Research Laboratory, and three CubeSats (RAFT-1 (OSCAR 60) and MARScom for the United States Naval Academy, and MEPSI 2A/2B for DARPA). It was the first Shuttle mission to deploy satellites since STS-113 in 2002.", "STS-116 was planned (post return-to-flight) to launch on 14 December 2006. But on 29 November 2006 NASA announced that the launch team had been asked to aim for a launch on 7 December 2006 rather than the original target date of 14 December. The launch window for the STS-116 mission opened on 7 December and extended through 17 December. The seven-member flight crew arrived for launch at Kennedy's Shuttle Landing Facility on 3 December 2006 in the afternoon. Primary payloads on the 13-day mission were the P5 integrated truss segment, SPACEHAB single logistics module, and an integrated cargo carrier. The STS-116 mission was the 20th Shuttle flight to the station. Launch on the new, earlier date required a night-time launch. Subsequent to the \"Columbia\" disaster, NASA had imposed rules requiring shuttle launches to be conducted during the day, when light would be sufficient for cameras to observe falling debris. With the redesign of shuttle tank foam having minimized the amount of falling debris and the availability of in-orbit inspection procedures, the daylight-launch requirement was relaxed. Rollover of \"Discovery\" to the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) occurred on 31 October, and on 1 November the orbiter was raised into a vertical orientation and moved into High Bay 3 to be mated with the external tank and solid rocket boosters. Rollout to Launch Complex 39B was completed on Thursday 11 November. The crew for the mission arrived at Kennedy Space Center on 13 November to begin their final four-day prelaunch training for the mission, which included familiarization activities, rehearsal of emergency procedures and practice on NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft, along with a simulated countdown, which took place on the morning of 16 November 2006. The astronauts then traveled to Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, and returned to Kennedy Space Center on 3 December 2006, four days before the planned launch date. The payloads for the mission, including a SPACEHAB module and the P5 truss, were loaded from the payload canister into \"Discovery's\" payload bay on 16 November, and, with the sealing of the payload bay doors, all that remained was to fill the external fuel tank before the \"Discovery\" shuttle stack was in full launch configuration. With the completion of the Flight Readiness Review over 28–29 November (which evaluated all activities and elements necessary for the safe and successful performance of the shuttle during the mission, including the Orbiter itself, the payload and flight crew), \"Discovery\" was given her Certificate of Flight Readiness, the launch date was officially set to 7 December 2006, and the mission officially given the \"Go\" for launch.", "", "Following the completion of the pre-launch preparations, all eyes were on the Florida skies, due to a forecast low cloud ceiling for the night of the launch. The mission's seven astronauts were loaded into \"Discovery\" ready for the scheduled launch at 21:37 EST, with hopes high for a break in the clouds, but as the scheduled launch time approached it became apparent that the cloud would not break, and the launch attempt was scrubbed, with the next attempt scheduled for 9 December 2006. Prior to the initial attempt on 7 December, NASA had determined that they would not attempt a launch on Friday because of a cold front moving in that eventually scrubbed Thursday's launch attempt.", "\"Discovery\" lifted off successfully at 8:47 pm EST (01:47 UTC), lighting up the Florida's coastline. Weather conditions – in particular crosswinds at the launch and landing sites – continued to trend positively in the hours approaching the launch window Saturday night. The fueling process for Discovery's external tanks began at 12:46 EST (17:46 UTC) and was completed at approximately 15:45 EST (20:45 UTC). If a transatlantic abort landing (TAL) had been required during ascent, the shuttle had three possible landing sites: Zaragoza or Morón Air Base in Spain, or Istres, France. The launch was the third shuttle mission in five months, being preceded by STS-121 in July and STS-115 in September, and was the first night launch in four years since STS-113 and first night launch following the Columbia accident during STS-107.", "Flight day 2 began for the astronauts at 15:47 UTC. The first order of business for the day was a thorough inspection of the Shuttle. Using sensors and cameras attached to a fifty-foot boom, which was in turn connected to a fifty-foot robotic arm, Nicholas Patrick inspected the leading edge of the wings and the nose cap. The process, which took five and a half hours, suffered a minor glitch that required Patrick to order the arm to manually grab the boom. During this time, the crew also inspected the upper surface of the orbiter. Astronauts also completed a check of the spacesuits to be used during the mission, along with preparation for docking with the International Space Station.", "Flight day 3 began for the astronauts at 15:18 UTC. Following the rendezvous pitch maneuver, docking to the International Space Station occurred at 22:12 UTC. The hatch between the International Space Station and \"Discovery\" was opened at 23:54 UTC. The joint ISS/Shuttle crew then worked to undertake some further detailed inspection of the orbiter and unloaded the P5 truss segment from the payload bay, handing it off successfully from the shuttle robotic arm to the station arm. The astronauts scheduled for Day 4's EVA, Robert Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang, ended their day by entering the airlock for a \"campout\" sleep session to prepare for the EVA by purging their bodies of nitrogen in a lower-pressure environment. Such a practice is common in order for the astronauts to avoid getting decompression sickness.", "Flight day 4 began for the astronauts at 15:47 UTC. During the first EVA of the mission, the astronauts of STS-116 brought the ISS one step closer to completion with the addition of the P5 truss segment. The EVA began at 20:31 UTC, with Curbeam and Fuglesang removing launch restraints from the P5 truss and Mission Specialist Joan Higginbotham making use of the station's robotic arm (the \"Canadarm2\") to move the truss segment to within inches of its new position on the P4 truss. The spacewalkers then guided Higginbotham with visual cues as the precise operation to finalize the attachment of the truss was completed. After the P5's attachment, Curbeam and Fuglesang finalized the installation with power, data and heater cable connections. They also replaced a faulty video camera attached to the S1 truss. Since they worked ahead of the time-line, the two astronauts were also able to complete some get-ahead tasks. At the end of the spacewalk, Curbeam congratulated the Nobel Prize winners, including scientist Dr. John C. Mather at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. Mather was honored for his work on the big-bang theory. Christer Fuglesang also held a short speech in Swedish, encouraging Swedes and others to aspire to become future astronauts. The EVA concluded at 03:07 UTC on the morning of 13 December, and lasted for 6 hours and 36 minutes in total. During the spacewalk, after taking a close look at imagery gathered on the first three days of the flight, mission managers determined that the shuttle's heat shield would support a safe return to Earth. They also decided a more detailed inspection that had been scheduled for later in the mission would not be necessary. Three more spacewalks, one of which was unplanned, were required to reconfigure and redistribute power on the station, so that the solar arrays installed during STS-115 could be used. The first step of reconfiguring the power took place Wednesday when the port solar array on the P6 truss was retracted, which allowed the activation and rotation of the Solar Alpha Rotary Joint on the P4. The rotary joint allows the solar arrays on the P4 to track the Sun. The astronauts were required to spend the night sleeping in protected areas in order to avoid radiation from a solar flare eruption.", "Flight day 5 began for the astronauts at 15:21 UTC. The most high-profile activity was the attempted retraction of the P6 port-side solar array. The process began at 18:28 UTC, but problems with the array folding due to 'kinks' and 'billows' led the controllers to redeploy the array (from about 40% retracted). There then followed a series of more than 40 commands to furl and unfurl the arrays in an effort to get them properly aligned and folded. At 00:50 UTC, the retraction efforts were abandoned for the day. The problems, which appear to have been caused by a loss of tension in the solar array guide wires, had still not been solved, although 14 of the 31 bays on the array had been retracted (leaving 17 bays extended). This was enough to leave the port side arrays in a safe position to commence the activation of the Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ) at 01:00 UTC, allowing the solar arrays on the P3/P4 truss to rotate to follow the sun.", "Flight day 6 began for the astronauts at 15:19 UTC. The day's primary activity, EVA No. 2, began rewiring work to bring the station's permanent electrical power systems into use. To allow this changeover, station controllers had to power down about half the systems on the ISS. The EVA started at 19:41 UTC with Bob Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang exiting the Quest airlock, 30 minutes early. EVA No. 2 was planned to activate channels 2 and 3 of the four-channel electrical system, and the work progressed smoothly. About two hours into the spacewalk the first current was flowing through the reconfigured system, using the power from the P4 solar arrays for the first time. The EVA was completed in exactly 5 hours, finishing at 00:41 UTC.", "Flight day 7 was a light work day for the crews of \"Discovery\" and the ISS after the previous days' activities. Spacewalkers Bob Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang enjoyed some R&R, while the rest of the crew performed cleanup and preparatory tasks for Flight day 8's planned EVA #3. The traditional joint photo session and joint news conference were held by the crews. During this event Swedish first time astronaut Christer Fuglesang was interviewed by Crown Princess Victoria and also set a 20-second Frisbee world record in space, broadcast live on Swedish TV4. In an attempt to free a stuck solar panel, Thomas Reiter exercised vigorously on a machine which is known to cause oscillations in the solar arrays; it was not successful. Mission controllers continued to look at other solutions to the solar panel folding problem so as to enable complete retraction, including an extended or additional EVA.", "Flight day 8 began for the astronauts at 14:48 UTC. Astronauts Bob Curbeam and 'Suni' Williams completed the rewiring work on the International Space Station. The EVA began at 19:25 UTC and proceeded normally. As an \"add-on task\" to the EVA, astronauts Curbeam and Williams also continued work on the retraction of a sticking solar array, enabling the retraction of another six sections of the P6 array. At the end of the EVA there were another 11 \"bays\", or 35% left to retract. Upon completion of the EVA, the astronauts returned to the ISS via the Quest airlock. Another significant event during the EVA was the loss of 'Suni' Williams' digital camera. At the post-EVA press conference it was suggested that a tether got snagged and caused the camera release button to break off allowing the camera to fall out of its holder. Images were lost but it was determined there was no need to retake them. Curbeam later said to the MCC: \"We've got the bracket and the tether. Looks like the screws [on the bracket] came loose, we have the screws and the bracket and the tether.\"", "Flight day 9 was mainly spent preparing for EVA #4. The space suits were prepared (adjusting sizes and replacing LiOH canisters) and the crew went through the new procedures which had been developed for attempting to enable the solar array retraction. Various tools were coated in kapton tape to protect the array from coming into direct contact with sharp metallic objects and to provide electrical insulation if they are used to manipulate the arrays during the EVA.", "Flight day 10 began for the astronauts at 14:17 UTC. Bob Curbeam and Christer Fuglesang embarked on an added EVA at 17:12 UTC to try to fully close the last eleven bays of the balky P6-port Solar Array Wing. The rapidly planned EVA was successfully completed after a 6-hour 38-minute spacewalk. At the end of EVA No. 4, Curbeam ranked fifth in total EVA time for U.S. astronauts and 14th overall.", "Flight day 11 began for the astronauts at approximately 14:47 UTC. The Expedition 14 and STS-116 crews posed for photos and then closed the hatches between the ISS and \"Discovery\". Undocking was complete at 22:10 UTC. Due to the extended mission for EVA No. 4, \"Discovery\" did not make a full circle to film and photograph ISS, but only flew slightly more than one-quarter of the way around (through ISS zenith) before its departure burn.", "Flight day 12 began for the astronauts at 12:48 UTC. They spent the day verifying the integrity of \"Discovery\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s heat shield and preparing for deorbit and landing on 22 December 2006 (Flight day 14). Because of the extended spaceflight, the shuttle was required to make a landing attempt on flight day 14 unless all three landing sites were \"no-go.\" Two satellites were also launched: MEPSI (Microelectromechanical System-Based PICOSAT Inspector) resembles a pair of tethered coffee-cups, and is being tested as a reconnaissance option for disabled satellites; RAFT (Radar Fence Transponder) is a pair of 5\" cubes built by the U.S. Naval Academy which will test space radar systems and also act as data relays for mobile ground communications.", "Flight day 13 began for the astronauts at 12:17 UTC. \"Discovery\"'s crew launched the ANDE (Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment) microsats for the Naval Research Laboratory, which were designed to measure the density and composition of the low Earth orbit atmosphere in order to help better predict the movements of objects in orbit, but one of the satellites failed to emerge from its launch canister. ANDE is currently transmitting data, and emerged from the canister approximately 30 minutes after its launch according to satellite tracking data.", "Flight day 14 began for the astronauts at 12:17 UTC. Preparations for landing were complete. High cross-winds precluded a landing at Edwards Air Force Base while clouds and showers were an issue at Kennedy Space Center Shuttle Landing Facility on the first orbit. That combination raised the possibility of the first landing at White Sands Space Harbor since STS-3 in 1982. Had landing taken place at White Sands, it could have taken as long as 60 days to return the orbiter to Kennedy Space Center. The first landing opportunity at Kennedy Space Center was abandoned due to unfavorable weather conditions. However, at 21:00 UTC coordinates were sent to the shuttle to re-attempt a landing at Kennedy along runway 15, as the first contingency landing attempt at Edwards had been called off due to high cross winds. The de-orbit burn for Kennedy occurred at 21:27 UTC, having been authorized at 21:23 UTC, and was finished at 21:31 UTC. Since the landing time coincided with the local sunset time 17:32 EST (22:32 UTC), the shuttle landing was not considered a night landing, as official rules for a night landing are sunset + 15 minutes; however the xenon runway lighting system was in use. \"Discovery\" touched down 30 seconds before the expected time. Landing time at Kennedy was at 17:32 EST (22:32 UTC).", "", "STS-301 was the designation given to the Contingency Shuttle Crew Support mission which would have been launched in the event Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\" had become disabled during STS-115. It was a modified version of the STS-116 mission, which would have involved the launch date being brought forward. If needed, it would have launched no earlier than 11 November 2006. The crew for this mission was a four-person subset of the full STS-116 crew:", "In the event that \"Discovery\" suffered irreparable damage but made it to Earth orbit during STS-116, the crew would have taken refuge at the ISS and waited for a Contingency Shuttle Crew Support mission to launch. The mission would have been named STS-317 and would have been flown by the Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\" no earlier than 21 February 2007. The crew for this rescue mission would have been a subset of the full STS-117 crew.", "A tradition for NASA spaceflights since the days of Gemini, mission crews are played a special musical track at the start of each day in space. Each track is specially chosen, often by their family, and usually has special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "At Oxford.", "Opposition to Henry VIII's annulment.", "Betrayal and death.", "Theological views.", "Printed works.", "Legacy.", "Impact on the English language.", "Controversy over new words and phrases.", "Impact on English bibles.", "Memorials.", "Liturgical commemoration.", "Tyndale's pronunciation.", "References.", "Sources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Tyndale was born around the year 1494 in Melksham Court, Stinchcombe, a village near Dursley, Gloucestershire. The Tyndale family also went by the name Hychyns (Hitchins), and it was as William Hychyns that Tyndale was enrolled at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. Tyndale's family had moved to Gloucestershire at some point in the 15th century, probably as a result of the Wars of the Roses. The family originated from Northumberland via East Anglia. Tyndale's brother Edward was receiver to the lands of Lord Berkeley, as attested to in a letter by Bishop Stokesley of London. Tyndale is recorded in two genealogies as having been the brother of Sir William Tyndale of Deane, Northumberland, and Hockwold, Norfolk, who was knighted at the marriage of Arthur, Prince of Wales to Catherine of Aragon. Tyndale's family was thus descended from Baron Adam de Tyndale, a tenant-in-chief of Henry I (see Tyndall). William Tyndale's niece Margaret Tyndale was married to Protestant martyr Rowland Taylor, burnt during the Marian Persecutions.", "Tyndale began a Bachelor of Arts degree at Magdalen Hall (later Hertford College) of Oxford University in 1506 and received his B.A. in 1512, the same year becoming a subdeacon. He was made Master of Arts in July 1515 and was held to be a man of virtuous disposition, leading an unblemished life. The M.A. allowed him to start studying theology, but the official course did not include the systematic study of Scripture. As Tyndale later complained: He was a gifted linguist and became fluent over the years in French, Greek, Hebrew, German, Italian, Latin, and Spanish, in addition to English. Between 1517 and 1521, he went to the University of Cambridge. Erasmus had been the leading teacher of Greek there from August 1511 to January 1512, but not during Tyndale's time at the university. Tyndale became chaplain at the home of Sir John Walsh at Little Sodbury and tutor to his children around 1521. His opinions proved controversial to fellow clergymen, and the next year he was summoned before John Bell, the Chancellor of the Diocese of Worcester, although no formal charges were laid at the time. After the meeting with Bell and other church leaders, Tyndale, according to John Foxe, had an argument with a \"learned but blasphemous clergyman\", who allegedly asserted: \"We had better be without God's laws than the Pope's.\", to which Tyndale responded: \"I defy the Pope, and all his laws; and if God spares my life, ere many years, I will cause the boy that driveth the plow to know more of the Scriptures than thou dost!\" Tyndale left for London in 1523 to seek permission to translate the Bible into English. He requested help from Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall, a well-known classicist who had praised Erasmus after working together with him on a Greek New Testament. The bishop, however, declined to extend his patronage, telling Tyndale that he had no room for him in his household. Tyndale preached and studied \"at his book\" in London for some time, relying on the help of cloth merchant Humphrey Monmouth. During this time, he lectured widely, including at St Dunstan-in-the-West in Fleet Street in London. In Europe Tyndale left England and landed on continental Europe, perhaps at Hamburg, in the spring of 1524, possibly travelling on to Wittenberg. There is an entry in the matriculation registers of the University of Wittenberg of the name \"Guillelmus Daltici ex Anglia\", and this has been taken to be a Latinisation of \"William Tyndale from England\". He began translating the New Testament at this time, possibly in Wittenberg, completing it in 1525 with assistance from Observant friar William Roy. In 1525, publication of the work by Peter Quentell in Cologne was interrupted by the impact of anti-Lutheranism. A full edition of the New Testament was produced in 1526 by printer Peter Schöffer in Worms, a free imperial city then in the process of adopting Lutheranism. More copies were soon printed in Antwerp. It was smuggled from continental Europe into England and Scotland. The translation was condemned in October 1526 by Bishop Tunstall, who issued warnings to booksellers and had copies burned in public. Marius notes that the \"spectacle of the scriptures being put to the torch... provoked controversy even amongst the faithful.\" Cardinal Wolsey condemned Tyndale as a heretic, first stated in open court in January 1529. From an entry in George Spalatin's Diary for 11 August 1526, Tyndale apparently remained at Worms for about a year. It is not clear exactly when he moved to Antwerp. The colophon to Tyndale's translation of Genesis and the title pages of several pamphlets from this time purported to have been printed by Hans Luft at Marburg, but this is a false address. Hans Luft, the printer of Luther's books, never had a printing press at Marburg. Following the hostile reception of his work by Tunstall, Wolsey and Thomas More in England, Tyndale retreated into hiding in Hamburg and continued working. He revised his New Testament and began translating the Old Testament and writing various treatises.", "In 1530, he wrote \"The Practyse of Prelates\", opposing Henry VIII's planned annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon in favour of Anne Boleyn, on the grounds that it was unscriptural and that it was a plot by Cardinal Wolsey to get Henry entangled in the papal courts of Pope Clement VII. The king's wrath was aimed at Tyndale. Henry asked Emperor Charles V to have the writer apprehended and returned to England under the terms of the Treaty of Cambrai; however, the Emperor responded that formal evidence was required before extradition. Tyndale developed his case in \"An Answer unto Sir Thomas More's Dialogue\".", "Eventually, Tyndale was betrayed by Henry Phillips to the imperial authorities, seized in Antwerp in 1535, and held in the castle of Vilvoorde (Filford) near Brussels. Some suspect that Phillips was hired by Bishop Stokesley to gain Tyndale's confidence and then betray him. He was tried on a charge of heresy in 1536 and was condemned to be burned to death, despite Thomas Cromwell's intercession on his behalf. Tyndale \"was strangled to death while tied at the stake, and then his dead body was burned\". His final words, spoken \"at the stake with a fervent zeal, and a loud voice\", were reported as \"Lord! Open the King of England's eyes.\" The traditional date of commemoration is 6 October, but records of Tyndale's imprisonment suggest that the actual date of his execution might have been some weeks earlier. Foxe gives 6 October as the date of commemoration (left-hand date column), but gives no date of death (right-hand date column). Biographer David Daniell states the date of death only as \"one of the first days of October 1536\". Within four years, four English translations of the Bible were published in England at the King's behest, including Henry's official Great Bible. All were based on Tyndale's work.", "Tyndale seems to have come out of the Lollard tradition, which was strong in Gloucestershire. Tyndale denounced the practice of prayer to saints. He also rejected the Roman Catholic view that the Scriptures could only be interpreted by approved clergy, famously defying the Pope by crying, \"I defie the Pope and all his lawes. If God spare my life, ere many yeares I wyl cause a boy that driveth the plough to know more of the Scripture, than he doust.\"", "Although best known for his translation of the Bible, Tyndale was also an active writer and translator. As well as his focus on the ways in which religion should be lived, he had a focus on political issues.", "", "In translating the Bible, Tyndale introduced new words into the English language; many were subsequently used in the King James Bible: Coinage of the word \"atonement\" (a concatenation of the words 'At One' to describe Christ's work of restoring a good relationship—a reconciliation—between God and people) is also sometimes ascribed to Tyndale. However, the word was probably in use by at least 1513, before Tyndale's translation. Similarly, sometimes Tyndale is said to have coined the term \"mercy seat.\" While it is true that Tyndale introduced the word into English, \"mercy seat\" is more accurately a translation of Martin Luther's German \"Gnadenstuhl\". As well as individual words, Tyndale also coined such familiar phrases as:", "The hierarchy of the Catholic Church did not approve of some of the words and phrases introduced by Tyndale, such as \"overseer\", where it would have been understood as \"bishop\", \"elder\" for \"priest\", and \"love\" rather than \"charity\". Tyndale, citing Erasmus, contended that the Greek New Testament did not support the traditional readings. More controversially, Tyndale translated the Greek \"ekklesia\" (), (literally \"called out ones\") as \"congregation\" rather than \"church\". It has been asserted this translation choice \"was a direct threat to the Church's ancient – but so Tyndale here made clear, non-scriptural – claim to be the body of Christ on earth. To change these words was to strip the Church hierarchy of its pretensions to be Christ's terrestrial representative, and to award this honor to individual worshippers who made up each congregation.\" Tyndale was accused of errors in translation. Thomas More commented that searching for errors in the Tyndale Bible was similar to searching for water in the sea, and charged Tyndale's translation of \"The Obedience of a Christian Man\" with having about a thousand false translations. Bishop Tunstall of London declared that there were upwards of 2,000 errors in Tyndale's Bible, having already in 1523 denied Tyndale the permission required under the Constitutions of Oxford (1409), which were still in force, to translate the Bible into English. In response to allegations of inaccuracies in his translation in the New Testament, Tyndale in the \"Prologue\" to his 1525 translation wrote that he never intentionally altered or misrepresented any of the Bible, but that he had sought to \"interpret the sense of the scripture and the meaning of the spirit.\" While translating, Tyndale followed Erasmus's (1522) Greek edition of the New Testament. In his preface to his 1534 New Testament (\"WT unto the Reader\"), he not only goes into some detail about the Greek tenses but also points out that there is often a Hebrew idiom underlying the Greek. The Tyndale Society adduces much further evidence to show that his translations were made directly from the original Hebrew and Greek sources he had at his disposal. For example, the Prolegomena in Mombert's \"William Tyndale's Five Books of Moses\" show that Tyndale's Pentateuch is a translation of the Hebrew original. His translation also drew on the Latin Vulgate and Luther's 1521 September Testament. Of the first (1526) edition of Tyndale's New Testament, only three copies survive. The only complete copy is part of the Bible Collection of Württembergische Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart. The copy of the British Library is almost complete, lacking only the title page and list of contents. Another rarity is Tyndale's Pentateuch, of which only nine remain.", "The translators of the Revised Standard Version in the 1940s noted that Tyndale's translation, including the 1537 Matthew Bible, inspired the translations that followed: The Great Bible of 1539; the Geneva Bible of 1560; the Bishops' Bible of 1568; the Douay-Rheims Bible of 1582–1609; and the King James Version of 1611, of which the RSV translators noted: \"It [the KJV] kept felicitous phrases and apt expressions, from whatever source, which had stood the test of public usage. It owed most, especially in the New Testament, to Tyndale\". Moynahan writes: \"A complete analysis of the Authorised Version, known down the generations as 'the AV' or 'the King James', was made in 1998. It shows that Tyndale's words account for 84% of the New Testament and for 75.8% of the Old Testament books that he translated.\" Joan Bridgman makes the comment in the \"Contemporary Review\" that, \"He [Tyndale] is the mainly unrecognised translator of the most influential book in the world. Although the Authorised King James Version is ostensibly the production of a learned committee of churchmen, it is mostly cribbed from Tyndale with some reworking of his translation.\" Many of the English versions since then have drawn inspiration from Tyndale, such as the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Bible, and the English Standard Version. Even the paraphrases like the Living Bible have been inspired by the same desire to make the Bible understandable to Tyndale's proverbial ploughboy. George Steiner in his book on translation \"After Babel\" refers to \"the influence of the genius of Tyndale, the greatest of English Bible translators\" (\"After Babel\" p. 366). He has also appeared as a character in two plays dealing with the King James Bible, Howard Brenton's \"Anne Boleyn\" (2010) and David Edgar's \"Written on the Heart\" (2011).", "A memorial to Tyndale stands in Vilvoorde, Flanders, where he was executed. It was erected in 1913 by Friends of the Trinitarian Bible Society of London and the Belgian Bible Society. There is also a small William Tyndale Museum in the town, attached to the Protestant church. A bronze statue by Sir Joseph Boehm commemorating the life and work of Tyndale was erected in Victoria Embankment Gardens on the Thames Embankment, London, in 1884. It shows his right hand on an open Bible, which is itself resting on an early printing press. The Tyndale Monument was built in 1866 on a hill above his supposed birthplace, North Nibley, Gloucestershire. A stained-glass window commemorating Tyndale was made in 1911 for the British and Foreign Bible Society by James Powell and Sons. In 1994, after the Society had moved their offices from London to Swindon, the window was reinstalled in the chapel of Hertford College in Oxford. Tyndale was at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, which became Hertford College in 1874. The window depicts a full-length portrait of Tyndale, a cameo of a printing shop in action, some words of Tyndale, the opening words of Genesis in Hebrew, the opening words of John's Gospel in Greek, and the names of other pioneering Bible translators. The portrait is based on the oil painting that hangs in the college's dining hall. A stained glass window by Arnold Robinson in Tyndale Baptist Church, Bristol, also commemorates the life of Tyndale. A number of colleges, schools and study centres have been named in his honour, including Tyndale House (Cambridge), Tyndale University (Toronto), the Tyndale-Carey Graduate School affiliated to the Bible College of New Zealand, William Tyndale College (Farmington Hills, Michigan), and Tyndale Theological Seminary (Shreveport, Louisiana, and Fort Worth, Texas), the independent Tyndale Theological Seminary in Badhoevedorp, near Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Tyndale Christian School in South Australia and Tyndale Park Christian School in New Zealand. An American Christian publishing house, also called Tyndale House, was named after Tyndale. A life-sized bronze statue of a seated William Tyndale at work on his translation by Lawrence Holofcener (2000) was placed in the Millennium Square, Bristol, United Kingdom. In 2008, vandals attacked the statue, which was taken away, repaired, and reinstalled. There is an Anglican communion setting in memoriam William Tyndale, \"The Tyndale Service,\" by David Mitchell.", "By tradition Tyndale's death is commemorated on 6 October. There are commemorations on this date in the church calendars of members of the Anglican Communion, initially as one of the \"days of optional devotion\" in the American Book of Common Prayer (1979), and a \"black-letter day\" in the Church of England's Alternative Service Book. The Common Worship that came into use in the Church of England in 2000 provides a collect proper to 6 October, beginning with the words: See the \"List of Anglican Church Calendars\". Tyndale is also honoured in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America as a translator and martyr the same day.", "Tyndale was writing at the beginning of the Early Modern English period. His pronunciation must have differed in its phonology from that of Shakespeare at the end of the period. In 2013 linguist David Crystal made a transcription and a sound recording of Tyndale's translation of the whole of Saint Matthew's Gospel in what he believes to be the pronunciation of the day, using the term \"original pronunciation\". The recording has been published by The British Library on two compact discs with an introductory essay by Crystal.", "", "Attribution:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Relocation to Tallinn.", "Stadiums.", "A. Le Coq Arena.", "Kadriorg Stadium.", "Players.", "First-team squad." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Levadia was founded on 22 October 1998, when Viktor Levada's Levadia Group OÜ became the official sponsor of Maardu based Esiliiga club Olümp, which subsequently changed its name to Levadia. The club won the 1998 Esiliiga and were promoted to the Meistriliiga. In January 1999, Sergei Ratnikov was appointed as manager. In 1999, Levadia became the first team to win the Meistriliiga, the Estonian Cup and the Estonian Supercup in the same year. Levadia managed to repeat their success by winning another treble in the following year. In the 2000–01 UEFA Champions League, Levadia defeated Total Network Solutions 2–6 on aggregate in the first qualifying round, but lost to Shakhtar Donetsk 2–9 on aggregate in the second qualifying round. Following the loss to Shakhtar Donetsk, Ratnikov was sacked. In 2001, Valeri Bondarenko was appointed as a manager. Levadia failed to defend their title, finishing the 2001 season in third place and in November 2001, Bondarenko was replaced by Pasi Rautiainen. Under Rautiainen, Levadia finished the 2002 Meistriliiga as runners-up, only two points behind champions Flora. After the season, Rautiainen resigned and was replaced by Franco Pancheri in January 2003. Pancheri coached Levadia for just 9 Meistriliiga matches, before he was sacked in June 2003. He was replaced by Tarmo Rüütli and Levadia finished the 2003 season in third place.", "In 2004, Levadia moved to Tallinn, while the club's previously Tallinn-based reserve team changed its name to Levadia II. Under Rüütli, Levadia won the league in the 2004 season, but failed to defend the title in 2005, finishing as runners-up. In the 2006–07 UEFA Cup qualifying rounds, Levadia defeated Haka and Twente, but lost to Newcastle United 1–3 on aggregate in the first round. Levadia won two more Meistriliiga titles in 2006 and 2007. In March 2008, Rüütli was hired by the Estonian Football Association to coach the Estonia national team and his assistant Igor Prins took over as manager. Under Prins, Levadia won two consecutive Meistriliiga titles in 2008 and 2009 and an Estonian Cup in 2010. In August 2010, Prins was sacked due to disagreements with the board and replaced by Levadia II manager Aleksandr Puštov. Levadia finished the 2010 season as runners-up. In July 2011, Puštov was sacked after disappointing results in the Meistriliiga and the Champions League and replaced by Sergei Hohlov-Simson. Levadia finished the 2011 season in fourth place, their lowest ever league placing since the club was promoted to the Meistriliiga. In December 2011, Marko Kristal was appointed as manager. The club won the 2011–12 Estonian Cup and finished the 2012 season as runners-up. Levadia won the Meistriliiga title in the 2013 season. The team defended their title in 2014, but finished the 2015 season as runners-up. In November 2015, it was announced that Sergei Ratnikov will return to Levadia after 15 years and replace Kristal as manager. Ratnikov's second tenure as Levadia's manager lasted until July 2016, when he was sacked following a 0–1 loss to Pärnu Linnameeskond. He was replaced by another returning manager, Igor Prins. Levadia finished the 2016 season as runners-up. Following another second-place finish in the 2017 season, Levadia and FCI Tallinn merged their first teams, becoming FCI Levadia, with FCI Tallinn's Aleksandar Rogić taking over as manager. On 15 September 2019, Rogić was sacked after disappointing results, with assistant coach Vladimir Vassiljev taking over as caretaker manager. In November 2019, former Estonia head coach and record cap holder Martin Reim was appointed as manager.", "", "The club's home ground is the 14,336-seat A. Le Coq Arena (known as Lilleküla Stadium prior to sponsorship). Opened in 2001 and expanded from 2016 to 2018, it is the largest football stadium in Estonia. The Lilleküla Football Complex also includes two grass surface pitches, two artificial turf pitches and an indoor hall. A. Le Coq Arena is located at Jalgpalli 21, Kesklinn, Tallinn. Levadia use Sportland Arena and Maarjamäe Stadium artificial turfs for training and home matches during winter and early spring months.", "From 2004 to 2018, Levadia played at Kadriorg Stadium. Built from 1922 to 1926 and renovated from 2000 to 2001, it is one of the oldest football stadiums in Estonia and used to be the home ground of the Estonia national team until the completion of A. Le Coq Arena in 2001.", "", "\"For season transfers, see List of Estonian football transfers summer 2019 and List of Estonian football transfers winter 2019–20.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "First ESF.", "Second ESF.", "Third ESF.", "Fourth ESF.", "Fifth ESF.", "Sixth ESF.", "Criticism.", "Criticism in relation to the fifth ESF (Malmö).", "Criticism in relation to anti-capitalist positions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The first forum was held in Florence in November 2002. The slogan was \"\"Against war, racism and neo-liberalism,\"\" with specific reference to US president George W. Bush's plan for regime change in Iraq. The Assembly of Social Movements held directly after the ESF launched a call for a Europe-wide day of action against the incipient Iraq War. The call was echoed by the Assembly of Social Movements held after the World Social Forum a few months later and eventually led to the \"largest protest event in human history\", the 15 February Global day of action against the war. Before its opening the ESF created a large political debate between different Tuscan local personages. The President of the Region, Claudio Martini, although criticised on some points by no-global activists, had been a supporter of the movement since the time of the Genoa Group of Eight Summit protest on one side and the right-wing Italian government on the other. People feared that the ESF could provoke riots and accidents such as those of the Genoa Group of Eight Summit protest, from 18 July to 22 July 2001. Florentine individuals, such as the controversial journalist Oriana Fallaci, intervened in the debate. Fallaci invited the people of Florence to shut up every shop and stay in their houses. She also compared the ESF to the nazi occupation of Florence. Other opponents of the ESF included the political scientist Giovanni Sartori, a liberal critic of Silvio Berlusconi's government but an admirer of the United States, and the filmmaker Franco Zeffirelli, whose right-wing political views were already well-known. Another group of intellectuals from various political strands defended the ESF and signed an appeal favourable to the meeting. Among these were the journalist Tiziano Terzani and the organizers of the \"professors' movement\" (a group of university professors that had organized both a demonstration and discussion groups against Berlusconi's policies). In fact, the European Social Forum, which occupied the historical Fortezza da Basso and other conference buildings with its 60.000 delegates, did not provoke any incidents. It ended with a huge demonstration against the war, which the organizers claimed included the participation of 1,000,000 people. The debate on peace and pacifism considered the most important debate ion the session, although the program of the Forum included a large spectrum of issues: (immigration, European Union's constitution, the Tobin Tax and many others). Gino Strada, president of \"Emergency\", the Italian association that helps civil victims of armed conflicts, and a leader of the pacifist movement, was one of the most popular orators. Some large NGOs such as Amnesty International joined the ESF, together with more radical groups such as ATTAC and the left-wing parliamentarians. At the end of the meeting, even pro-globalists such as the then president of the European Commission Romano Prodi showed sympathy for the moderation of the movement and for its pacifist stance. A network of volunteer translators, Babels, was set up to interpret the event into the various languages of the people attending.", "The second European Social Forum was held in Paris in November 2003. Organizers claim that over 50,000 people attended and that around 150,000 marched in the demonstration held on the last day. In France there has been some criticism of the organization for not being open enough. The participation of the French Socialist Party, the Parti Socialiste, also generated a lot of criticism, because the party was a proponents of market liberalization in the 1990s, but the most prominent group at the event was the Ligue Communiste Revolutionnaire. Some anarchist groups organised a rival event in the city at the same time, while a women's forum was held in the days preceding the social forum, in order to counteract the perceived under-representation of women at the first ESF. It is claimed that over 3,000 women attended.", "The third European Social Forum was held in London, mostly at Alexandra Palace but also with events throughout the Bloomsbury area of London on the 15–17 October 2004. The organisers claimed that approximately 25,000 people took part in 500 plenaries, seminars, workshops, and cultural events, which were addressed by over 2,500 speakers. Participants came from across the continent and even from beyond the boundaries of European Union. This forum showed a marked increased in participation from minority groups such as black, Asian, Muslim, and refugee networks. More women were represented on the speaker platforms than in previous forums. The forum also included for the first time a three-day cultural programme organised through open submission through the ESF website. Well known participants and speakers included Ahmed Ben Bella, the leader of the Algerian resistance to French rule, Dr Aleida Guevara, daughter of Che, George Galloway, a leading figure in the UK anti-war movement, and Dr Mustafa Barghouti from Palestine. Activist writers such as Susan George, John Pilger and George Monbiot were prominent, and Gerry Adams was one of many Irish figures speaking. The Forum opened with a rally in Southwark Cathedral. Unlike the Paris forum, in London there was initially no money provided to pay for events. Funding eventually came from the Greater London Authority and the Mayor's office (Ken Livingstone and his officers, many of whom are in Socialist Action), several Trade Unions such as NATFHE (the college lecturer's union), AMICUS (a largely technical and industrial union), the Transport and General Workers Union (T&G) and UNISON (the UK's largest public sector union), which provided funds, office space, subsidised tickets for unemployed and asylum seeker attendees and paid for some of the meeting space at Alexandra Palace. The British Socialist Workers Party, Globalise Resistance, the Tobin Tax Network and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament were central to bringing the event to London. Other groups, for instance the London Social Forum, felt that the main organizing approach was too top-down and instead set up \"horizontally\" organised fringe events. These were known as the 'autonomous' or 'beyond' ESF events. Participants ranged from non-governmental organisations, to political parties such as the Green Party, to unaligned anarchists and socialists. The Millennium Dome was turned into a giant hostel for over 5,000 participants to sleep in during the course of the event. Subhi al Mashadani, the leader of the Iraqi Federation of Trade Unions, was due to speak in a meeting on the Iraq war, but never got to speak. He was shouted down by some members of the audience who felt he was collaborating with the occupation and who surged towards the stage when he attempted to address the 2,000 strong audience. The ESF's security took no chances and dragged a furious Mashadani from the stage for his own protection. The \"End the Occupation\" session was stopped, a first in the history of the ESF. Later in the day an intervention was made by some of those who had been involved with the autonomous spaces during a meeting on anti-fascism. They intended to invade the stage during the speech of the Mayor of London Ken Livingstone (who opposed the invasion of Iraq in 2003 but is a member of the Labour Party which supported it). In fact, Ken Livingstone had already decided not to speak at the event. His decision has been attributed by the National Assembly Against Racism to threats from anarchists but the intervention went ahead. The SWP's Weyman Bennett, a steering member of Unite Against Fascism and chair of the meeting, claimed that he was assaulted by an anarchist. A banner was hung up stating \"Ken's Party - War Party\" and the stage was turned into an open-microphone event with speeches against the'vertical' organisation of the ESF, the war in Iraq, and recent attacks on freedom of speech by the FBI (such as taking Indymedia servers down with international articles). After the intervention, the originally planned meeting about anti-fascism went ahead but with a reduced audience. These events echoed the attempts by anarchists to attack French Socialist Party speakers in the Paris forum, an attack that was stopped by security. The end of the forum saw a massive international demonstration through central London and a rally at Trafalgar Square. However, the Metropolitan Police arrested a number of anarchists on their way to this event. Javier Ruis was arrested at the Rally itself. He subsequently claimed that the West Essex Zapatista were responsible for the threats against Ken Livingstone, claiming that this was an example of Neoist Invisible Theatre. The size of the rally was seen as a sign of its success as an event, though many European critics noted that all of the speakers were British and chosen by the British organisers. Estimations of the numbers present ranged from 70,000 to 100,000 people. Speakers called for an end to war, racism and privatisation. They advocated peace and social justice for Europe.", "The fourth European Social Forum was held in Athens, Greece on 4–7 May 2006. According to the organizers, more than 35,000 registered. The demonstration on 7 May, Saturday afternoon, was announced by the media to have a participation of 80,000 demonstrators, a record in Athens since the anti-war mobilisation on February 15, 2003.", "The fifth European Social Forum was held in Malmö, Sweden on 17–21 September 2008. Approximately 20,000 people were expected to participate in the forum.", "The sixth European Social Forum was held in Istanbul, Turkey, on 1–4 July 2010.", "As a major political event that brings together highly diverse social movements from across Europe, the ESF has been praised and criticized by various actors, both inside and outside the Forum. While outsiders, especially the mainstream media, tend to focus on \"scandalous\" singular events, groups, or persons and interpret them as representative for the ESF as a whole, insiders have mainly criticized various aspects of the ESF organizing process.", "In the demonstration after the European Social Forum 2008 in Malmö, controversial political figures such as Abdullah Öcalan and Fidel Castro were praised by some demonstrators. 300 of the demonstrators were masked, although it was forbidden. Some demonstrators attempted to break a bank window and threw bottles and stones. The liberal Swedish daily \"Sydsvenskan\" considered it \"disgusting\" that the ESF 2008 hosted a panel discussion on how ”imperialism and zionism” use list of terrorist organizations to weaken \"freedom movements, leftist organizations and solidarity groups\" in \"Palestina, Basque, Colombia, Greekland, Turkey, Belgium and Denmark\". These lists contain Basquean ETA, Colombian FARC, Kurdish PKK and previously also Palestinian PLO and PLFP. The seminar was organized by Mikael ”micro” Cromsjö, whose blogs host \"unholy alliances of right and left extremism\". According to the seminar summary, a secret elite alliance has been pursuing Global Order with a single money, government and army, for hundreds if not thousands of years.", "According to \"Sydsvenskan\", the countries that have permitted \"free trade and liberal politics\", \"have seen poverty and need decline, in some cases dramatically\". \"As the NGOs of rich countries oppose globalization by signs, slogans and stone storms in the name of poor countries, Africans and Asians call for more free trade, capitalism and globalization.\" According to a study by the \"respected Pew Research Center\" of 40,000 people, almost everywhere, particularly in Africa and Asia, a majority of people has a positive attitude on globalization\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Organization.", "Part I: Various scientific considerations.", "Part II: Principal rules of the Method.", "Part III: Morals and Maxims of conducting the Method.", "Part IV: Proof of God and the Soul.", "Part V: Physics, the heart, and the soul of man and animals.", "Part VI: Prerequisites for advancing the investigation of Nature.", "Influencing future science." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The book is divided into six parts, described in the author's preface as:", "Descartes begins by allowing himself some wit: A similar observation can be found in Hobbes: \"But this proveth rather that men are in that point equal, than unequal. For there is not ordinarily a greater sign of the equal distribution of anything than that every man is contented with his share,\" but also in Montaigne, whose formulation indicates that it was a common place at the time: \"Tis commonly said that the justest portion Nature has given us of her favors is that of sense; for there is no one who is not contented with his share.\" Descartes continues with a warning: Descartes describes his disappointment with his education: \"[A]s soon as I had finished the entire course of study...I found myself involved in so many doubts and errors, that I was convinced I had advanced no farther...than the discovery at every turn of my own ignorance.\" He notes his special delight with mathematics, and contrasts its strong foundations to \"the disquisitions of the ancient moralists [which are] towering and magnificent palaces with no better foundation than sand and mud.\"", "Descartes was in Germany, attracted thither by the wars in that country, and describes his intent by a \"building metaphor\" (see also: Neurath's boat). He observes that buildings, cities or nations that have been planned by a single hand are more elegant and commodious than those that have grown organically. He resolves not to build on old foundations, or to lean upon principles which, he had taken on faith in his youth. Descartes seeks to ascertain the true method by which to arrive at the knowledge of whatever lay within the compass of his powers; he presents four precepts:", "Descartes uses the analogy of rebuilding a house from secure foundations, and extends the analogy to the idea of needing a temporary abode while his own house is being rebuilt. The following three maxims were adopted by Descartes so that he could effectively function in the \"real world\" while experimenting with his method of radical doubt. They formed a rudimentary belief system from which to act before he developed a new system based on the truths he discovered using his method:", "Applying the method to itself, Descartes challenges his own reasoning and reason itself. But Descartes believes three things are not susceptible to doubt and the three support each other to form a stable foundation for the method. He cannot doubt that something has to be there to do the doubting (I think, therefore I am). The method of doubt cannot doubt reason as it is based on reason itself. By reason there exists a God, and God is the guarantor that reason is not misguided. Descartes supplies three different proofs for the existence of God, including what is now referred to as the ontological proof of the existence of God.", "Here he describes how in other writings he discusses the idea of laws of nature, of the sun and stars, the idea of the moon being the cause of ebb and flow, on gravitation, and going on to discuss light and fire. Describing his work on light, he states: His work on such physico-mechanical laws is, however, projected into a \"new world.\" A theoretical place God created Descartes does this \"to express my judgment regarding... [his subjects] with greater freedom, without being necessitated to adopt or refute the opinions of the learned\". He goes on to say that he \"was not, however, disposed, from these circumstances, to conclude that this world had been created in the manner I described; for it is much more likely that God made it at the first such as it was to be.\" Despite this admission, it seems that Descartes' project for understanding the world was that of re-creating creation—a cosmological project which aimed, through Descartes' particular brand of experimental method, to show not merely the possibility of such a system, but to suggest that this way of looking at the world—one with (as Descartes saw it) no assumptions about God or nature—provided the only basis upon which he could see knowledge progressing (as he states in Book II). Thus, in Descartes' work, we can see some of the fundamental assumptions of modern cosmology in evidence—the project of examing the historical construction of the universe through a set of quantitative laws describing interactions which would allow the ordered present to be constructed from a chaotic past. He goes on to the motion of the blood in the heart and arteries, endorsing the findings of \"a physician of England\" about the circulation of blood, referring to William Harvey and his work \"De motu cordis\" in a marginal note. But then he disagrees strongly about the function of the heart as a pump, ascribing the motive power of the circulation to heat rather than muscular contraction. He describes that these motions seem to be totally independent of what we think, and concludes that our bodies are separate from our souls. He does not seem to distinguish between mind, spirit and soul, which are identified as our faculty for rational thinking. Hence the term \"I think, therefore I am.\" All three of these words (particularly \"mind\" and \"soul\") can be identified by the single French term \"âme\".", "Descartes begins by noting, without directly referring to it, the recent trial of Galileo for heresy and the condemnation of heliocentrism; he explains that for these reasons he has been slow to publish. Secure on these foundation stones, Descartes shows the practical application of \"the Method\" in Mathematics and the Science.", "Skepticism had previously been discussed by philosophers such as Sextus Empiricus, Al-Ghazali, Francisco Sánchez and Michel de Montaigne. Descartes started his line of reasoning by doubting everything, so as to assess the world from a fresh perspective, clear of any preconceived notions or influences. This is summarized in the book's first precept to \"never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such\". This method of pro-foundational skepticism is considered to be the start of modern philosophy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Location.", "Climate.", "Geology.", "Flora.", "Fauna.", "Glaciers.", "Caves.", "Name.", "Summit cross.", "History.", "Alpinism.", "First ascent.", "Subsequent ascents.", "Normal routes.", "Jubilee Ridge (\"Jubiläumsgrat\").", "Accommodation.", "Tourism.", "Winter sports.", "Climbing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Zugspitze belongs to the Wetterstein range of the Northern Limestone Alps. The Austria–Germany border goes right over the mountain. There used to be a border checkpoint at the summit but, since Germany and Austria are now both part of the Schengen zone, the border crossing is no longer manned. The exact height of the Zugspitze was a matter of debate for quite a while. Given figures ranged from, but it is now generally accepted that the peak is above sea level as a result of a survey carried out by the Bavarian State Survey Office. The lounge at the new café is named \"2962\" for this reason.", "At (eastern peak) the Zugspitze is the highest mountain of the Zugspitze massif. This height is referenced to the Amsterdam Gauge and is given by the Bavarian State Office for Survey and Geoinformation. The same height is recorded against the Trieste Gauge used in Austria, which is 27 cm lower. Originally the Zugspitze had three peaks: the east, middle and west summits (\"Ost-, Mittel-\" and \"Westgipfel\"). The only one that has remained in its original form is the east summit, which is also the only one that lies entirely on", "The climate is tundra (Köppen: \"ET\"), maintaining the only glacier present in Germany, which has observed its reduction over the years. From a climatic perspective the Zugspitze lies in the temperate zone and its prevailing winds are Westerlies. As the first high orographic obstacle to these Westerlies in the Alps, the Zugspitze is particularly exposed to the weather. It is effectively the north barrier of the Alps (\"Nordstau der Alpen\"), against which moist air masses pile up and release heavy precipitation. At the same time the Zugspitze acts as a protective barrier for the Alpine ranges to the south. By contrast, Föhn weather conditions push in the other direction against the massif, affecting the region for about 60 days per year. These warm, dry air masses stream from south to north and can result in unusually high temperatures in winter. Nevertheless, frost dominates the picture on the Zugspitze with an average of 310 days per year. For the decades from 1961 to 1990 – designated by the World Meteorological Organization as the \"normal period\" – the average annual precipitation", "The geological strata composing the mountain are sedimentary rocks of the Mesozoic era, that were originally laid down on the seabed. The base of the mountain comprises muschelkalk beds; its upper layers are made of Wetterstein limestone. With steep rock walls up to 800 metres high, it is this Wetterstein limestone from the Upper Triassic that is mainly responsible for the rock faces, arêtes, pinnacles and the summit rocks of the mountain. Due to the", "The flora on the Zugspitze is not particularly diverse due to the soil conditions, nevertheless the vegetation, especially in the meadows of \"Schachen\", the \"Tieferen Wies\" near Ehrwald, and in the valleys of Höllental, Gaistal and Leutaschtal is especially colourful. The shaded and moist northern slopes of the massif like, for example, the Wettersteinwald, are some of the most species-rich environments on the Zugspitze. The mountain pine grows at elevations of up to 1,800 metres. The woods lower down consist mainly of spruce and fir, but honeysuckle, woodruff, poisonous herb paris, meadow-rue and speedwell also occur here. Dark columbine, alpine clematis, blue and yellow monkshood, stemless carline thistle, false aster, golden cinquefoil, round-leaved saxifrage, wall hawkweed, alpine calamint and alpine forget-me-not flower in the less densely wooded places, whilst cinquefoil, sticky sage, butterbur, alpenrose, Turk's cap lily and fly orchid thrive", "The rocks around the Zugspitze are a habitat for chamois, whilst marmots are widespread on the southern side of the massif. At the summit there are frequently alpine choughs, drawn there by people feeding them. Somewhat lower down the mountain there are mountain hare and the hazel dormouse. Alpine birds occurring on the Zugspitze include the golden eagle, rock ptarmigan, snow finch, alpine accentor and brambling. The crag martin which has given its name to the", "Three of Germany's five glaciers are found on the Zugspitze massif: the Höllentalferner the Southern and Northern Schneeferner. The Höllentalferner lies northeast of the Zugspitze in a cirque below the Jubilee Ridge (\"Jubiläumsgrat\") to the south and the Riffelwandspitzen peaks to the west and north. It has a northeast aspect. Its accumulation zone is formed by a depression, in which large quantities of avalanche snow collect. To the south the \"Jubiläumsgrat\" shields the glacier from direct sunshine. These conditions meant that the glacier only lost a relatively small area between 1981 and 2006. In recent times the Höllentalferner reached its greatest around 1820 with an area of 47 hectares. Thereafter its area reduced continually until the period between 1950 and 1981 when it grew again, by 3.1 hectares to 30.2 hectares. Since then the glacier has lost (as at 2006) an area of 5.5 hectares and now has an area of 24.7 hectares. In 2006 the glacier head was at 2,569 m and its lowest point at 2,203 metres. Southwest of the Zugspitze, between the \"Zugspitzeck\" and Schneefernerkopf, is the Northern Schneeferner which has an eastern aspect. With an area of 30.7 hectares (2006) it", "Below the \"Zugspitzplatt\" chemical weathering processes have created a large number of caves and abîmes in the Wetterstein limestone. In the 1930s the number of caves was estimated at 300. By 1955 62 caves were known to exist and by 1960 another 47 had been", "From the early 14th century, geographic names from the Wetterstein Mountains began to be recorded in treaties and on maps, and this trend intensified in the 15th century. In 1536 a border treaty dating to 1500 was refined in that its course was specified as running over a \"Schartten\" (\"wind gap\" or \"col\"). In the 17th century the reference to this landmark in the treaty was further clarified as \"\"now known as the Zugspüz\"\" (\"jetzt Zugspüz genant\"). The landmark referred to was a wind gap on the summit of the Zugspitze and is used time and again in other sources. During the Middle Ages \"Scharte\" was a common name for the Zugspitze. The Zugspitze was first mentioned by name in 1590. In a description of the border between the County of Werdenfels and Austria, it states that the same border runs \"\"from the Zugspitz and over", "Since 1851 there has been a summit cross on the top of Zugspitze. The driving force behind the erection of a cross on the summit was the priest, Christoph Ott. He was a keen meteorologist and whilst observing conditions from the Hoher Peißenberg mountain he saw the Zugspitze in the distance and was exercised by the fact that \"\"the greatest prince of the Bavarian mountains raised its head into the blue air towards heaven, bare and unadorned, waiting for the moment when patriotic fervour and courageous determination would see that his head too was crowned with dignity.\"\" As a result, he organised an expedition from 11 to 13 August 1851 with the goal of erecting a summit cross on the Zugspitze. Twenty eight bearers were led through the gorge of the Partnachklamm and the Reintal valley under the direction of forester, Karl Kiendl, up to the Zugspitze. The undertaking, which cost 610 Gulden and 37", "The first recorded ascent to the summit was accomplished by a team of land surveyors on 27 August 1820. The team was led by Lieutenant Josef Naus, who was accompanied by two men named Maier and G. Deutschl. However, local people had conquered the peak over 50 years earlier, according to a 1770 map discovered by the Alpenverein. In 1854, the northern part of the Zugspitze was given to Bavaria as a present by Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary Franz Joseph I as a marriage present to his wife Princess Elisabeth (\"Sissi\"). Since then the Zugspitze is the highest mountain of Bavaria and later of Germany. On 7 January 1882 the first successful winter assault on the Zugspitze was accomplished by F. Kilger, H. and J. Zametzer and H. Schwaiger. Pilot, Frank Hailer, caused a stir on 19 March 1922, when he landed a plane with skids on the Schneeferner glacier. On 29 April 1927 Ernst Udet succeeded in taking off from the Schneeferner with a glider; he landed at Lermoos after a 25-minute flight. The glider had been disassembled into individual parts and transported up the Zugspitze by cable car. In the winter of 1931/32, a post office was set up on the Zugspitze by the German Imperial Post Office or \"Reichspost\". It still exists today in the \"Sonnalpin\" restaurant and has the postal address: \"82475 Zugspitze\". In 1931, four years after the first glider flight, the first balloon took off from the Zugspitze In April 1933, the mountain was occupied by of 24 storm troopers, who hoisted a swastika flag on top the tower on the weather station. A", "", "There are several theories about the first ascent of the Zugspitze. The chronological table on an 18th-century map describes the route \"\"along the path to the Zugspitze\"\" (\"\"ybers blath uf Zugspitze\"\") and gives a realistic duration of 8.5 hours, so that it is reasonable to deduce that the summit had been climbed before 1820. The historian, Thomas Linder, believes that goatherds or hunters had at the very least penetrated to the area of the summit. It is also conceivable that smugglers used routes over the Zugspitze summit. As early as 1804 cartographic surveys had taken place in the area for the County of Werdenfels. There is speculation that, in the course of this work, the royal engineer and geographer, Alois von Coulon, had reached the summit. Since Coulon worked for the Topographical Bureau, it is unlikely that his ascent would not have been noted. The", "In 1823, Simon Resch and the sheep \"Toni\" became the first to reach the East Summit. Simon Resch was also led the second ascent of the East Summit on 18 September 1834 with his son, Johann, and the mountain guide, Johann Barth. Because Resch's first ascent had been doubted, this time a fire was lit on the summit. On the 27th the summit was climbed for a third time by royal forester's assistants, Franz Oberst and Schwepfinger, along with Johann Barth. Oberst erected a flagpole on the summit with a Bavarian flag that was visible from the valley. The first ascent from Austria took place in August 1837. The surveyors, Joseph Feuerstein and Joseph Sonnweber, climbed to the West Summit from Ehrwald and left behind a signal pole with their initials on it. The West Summit was conquered for the third time on 10 September 1843 by the shepherd Peter Pfeifer.", "The easiest of the normal routes runs through the Reintal valley and is that followed during the first ascent. At the same time it is also the longest climb. Its start point is the ski stadium () at Garmisch-Partenkirchen. The route runs through the gorge of the Partnachklamm and along the Partnach river to the Bock Hut (), where the Reintal begins. Above the Partnach, which has meanwhile sunk underground, the route runs up to the Reintalanger Hut (). From there the climb is", "One of the best-known ridge routes in the Eastern Alps is the Jubilee Ridge, which runs eastwards from the Zugspitze to the Hochblassen () and crosses the Inner (), Middle () and Outer Höllentalspitze () as well as the Vollkarspitze (). Along the way the route branches off towards \"Grießkarscharte\" () and to the Alpspitze (). Between 1909 and 1915 the ridge was partially secured with wire cables by the German Alpine Club section at Munich. Originally the route was called the Jubilee Way (\"Jubiläumsweg\"), but after a tragic rescue attempt in 1979 the rather erroneous and misleading term, which suggested it was just", "There are numerous mountain huts in the area of the Zugspitze. One base is the Höllentalanger Hut () in the Höllental valley with 88 mattress spaces. Accommodation in the Reintal is provided by the Reintalanger Hut () with 90 bedspaces and on the edge of the \"Zugspitzplatt\" by the Knorr Hut () with 108 bedspaces. The Knorr Hut was the first hut in the entire Wetterstein Mountains when it was built in 1855. All the huts are open from May to October depending on the weather. On the top of the Zugspitze are three more huts: the Wiener-Neustädter Hut, the Münchner Haus and the Schneefernerhaus. The first hut on the Zugspitze was the Wiener-Neustädter Hut (\"Wiener-Neustädter-Hütte\", ) built in 1884. It acts as a base for the \"klettersteig\" through the \"Österreichische Schneekar\" that was opened as far back as 1879. The hut is located on the western rim of the cirque and stand below the Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car. It is operated by the Austrian Tourist Club and offers overnighting for up to 34 mountaineers in the period from July to October. The winter room is designed to take 14 people and has no cooking or heating", "", "For those wishing to reach the summit under their own power, various hiking and ski trails can be followed to the top. Hiking to the top from the base takes between one and two", "At the Zugspitze's summit is the \"Münchner Haus\", a mountain hut (\"Alpenhütte\"), a facility built by the German Alpine Club (\"Deutscher Alpenverein\"). For more than a hundred years, the summit has also had a weather station, which nowadays also gathers data for the Global Atmosphere Watch. Climbing up the Zugspitze can involve several routes. The large difference in elevation between Garmisch-Partenkirchen and the summit is, making the climb a challenge even for trained mountaineers. On the German side, from Garmisch-Partenkirchen, climbers go either through the Höllental (\"Valley of Hell\") or the Reintal. The way through the Reintal is the easiest, but also the longest and takes 8 to 10 hours. This path goes through the Partnachklamm, a scenic gorge, then through" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Government.", "Geography.", "Demography.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Cultural references.", "Landmarks.", "Media.", "Public services.", "Transport.", "Education.", "Museums.", "Religion.", "Sport.", "Town twinning." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Reading may date back to the Roman occupation of Britain, possibly as a trading port for Calleva Atrebatum. However, the first clear evidence for Reading as a settlement dates from the 8th century, when the town came to be known as \"Readingum\". The name probably comes from the \"Readingas\", an Anglo-Saxon tribe whose name means \"Reada's People\" in Old English, or less probably the Celtic \"Rhydd-Inge\", meaning \"Ford over the River\". In late 870, an army of Danes invaded the kingdom of Wessex and set up camp at Reading. On 4 January 871, in the first Battle of Reading, King Ethelred and his brother Alfred the Great attempted unsuccessfully to breach the Danes' defences. The battle is described in the \"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle\", and that account provides the earliest known written record of the existence of Reading. The Danes remained in Reading until late in 871, when they retreated to their winter quarters in London. After the Battle of Hastings and the Norman conquest of England, William the Conqueror gave land in and around Reading to his foundation of Battle Abbey. In its 1086 Domesday Book listing, the town was explicitly described as a borough. The presence of six mills is recorded: four on land belonging to the king and two on the land given to Battle Abbey. Reading Abbey was founded in 1121 by Henry I, who is buried within the Abbey grounds. As part of his endowments, he gave the abbey his lands in Reading, along with land at Cholsey. It is not known how badly Reading was affected by the Black Death that swept through England in the 14th century, but it is known that the abbot of Reading Abbey, Henry of Appleford, was one of its victims in 1361, and that nearby Henley lost 60% of its population. The Abbey was largely destroyed in 1538 during Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries. The last abbot, Hugh Faringdon, was subsequently tried and convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered in front of the Abbey Church. By 1525, Reading was the largest town in Berkshire, and tax returns show that Reading was the 10th largest town in England when measured by taxable wealth. By 1611, it had a population of over 5000 and had grown rich on its trade in cloth, as instanced by the fortune made by local merchant John", "Local government for the town of Reading is principally provided by Reading Borough Council, a single level unitary authority without civil parishes. However some of the town's outer suburbs are in West Berkshire and Wokingham unitary authorities. These outer suburbs belong to civil parishes, in some cases with their own town status. Reading has elected at least one Member of Parliament to every Parliament since 1295. Historically, Reading was represented by the members for the Parliamentary Borough of Reading, and the parliamentary constituencies of Reading, Reading North, and Reading South. Since the 2010 general election, Reading has been divided between the parliamentary constituencies of Reading East, Reading West, Wokingham (which covers Shinfield, most of Earley and Lower Earley) and Maidenhead (which partly covers Woodley). The whole of the town is within the multi-member South East England European constituency. Reading is the site of venues for both the Crown Court, administering criminal justice, and the County Court, responsible for civil cases. Lesser matters are dealt with in a local magistrates' court. Reading has had some degree of local government autonomy since 1253, when the local merchant guild was granted a royal charter. Since then, the town has been run by a borough corporation, as a county borough, and as a district of Berkshire. The Borough of Reading became a unitary authority area in 1998, when Berkshire County Council was abolished under the Banham Review, and is now responsible for all aspects of local government within the borough. Prior to the 16th century, civic administration for the town of Reading was situated in the \"Yield Hall\", a guild hall situated by", "As the crow flies, Reading is due west of central London, southeast of Oxford, east of Bristol, and north of the English south coast. The centre of Reading is on a low ridge between the River Thames and River Kennet, close to their confluence, reflecting the town's history as a river port. Just above the confluence, the Kennet cuts through a narrow steep-sided gap in the hills forming the southern flank of the Thames flood plain. The absence of a flood plain on the Kennet in this defile enabled the development of wharves. As Reading has grown, its suburbs have spread: to the west between the two rivers into the foothills of the Berkshire Downs as far as Calcot, Tilehurst and Purley; to the south and south-east on the south side of the Kennet as far as Whitley Wood, Lower Earley and Woodley; and to the north of the Thames into the Chiltern Hills as far as Caversham Heights, Emmer Green and Caversham Park Village. Outside the central area, the floors of the valleys containing the two rivers remain largely unimproved floodplain. Apart from the M4 curving to the south there is only one road across the Kennet flood plain. All", "In the mid-2018 estimate, Reading had a population of 230,046 while the smaller administrative area covered by the Borough of Reading had inhabitants and a population density of. Meanwhile, the wider urban area had a population of 318,014 in the 2011 census, ranking ranked 23rd in the United Kingdom. This grew to an estimated 337,108", "Reading is an important commercial centre in the Thames Valley and Southern England. The town hosts the headquarters of several British companies and the UK offices of foreign multinationals, as well as being a major retail centre. Whilst located close enough to London to be sometimes regarded as part of the London commuter belt, Reading is a net inward destination for commuters. During the morning peak period, there are some 30,000 inward arrivals in the town, compared to 24,000 departures. Major companies Microsoft, Oracle and Hibu (formerly Yell Group) have their headquarters in Reading. The insurance company Prudential has an administration centre in the town. PepsiCo and Wrigley have offices. Reading has a significant historical involvement in the information technology industry, largely as a result of the early presence in the town of sites of International Computers Limited and Digital Equipment Corporation. Other technology companies with a significant presence in the town include", "Every year Reading hosts the Reading Festival, which has been running since 1971. The festival takes place on the Friday, Saturday and Sunday of the August bank holiday weekend and is the largest of its kind in the UK aside from the Glastonbury Festival. For some twenty years until 2006, Reading was also known for its WOMAD Festival until it moved to Charlton Park in Malmesbury, Wiltshire. The Reading Beer Festival was first held in 1994 and has now grown to one of the largest beer festivals in the UK. It is held at King's Meadow for the five days immediately preceding the May Day bank holiday every year. Reading also holds Reading Pride, an annual LGBT festival in Kings Meadow. The Frank Matcham-designed Royal County Theatre, built in 1895, was located on the south side of Friar Street. It burned down in 1937. Within the town hall is a 700-seat concert hall that houses a Father Willis organ. Reading theatre venues include The Hexagon and South Street Arts Centre. Amateur theatre venues in Reading include Progress Theatre, a self-governing, self-funding theatre group and registered charity founded in 1947 that operates and maintains its own 97-seat theatre. The demonym for a person from Reading is \"Redingensian\", giving the name of the local rugby team Redingensians, based in Sonning, and of former members of Reading School. An alternative demonym is \"Readingite\".", "Jane Austen attended Reading Ladies Boarding School, based in the Abbey Gateway, in 1784–1786. Mary Russell Mitford lived in Reading for a number of years and then spent the rest of her life just outside the town at Three Mile Cross and Swallowfield. The fictional \"Belford Regis\" of her eponymous novel, first published in 1835, is largely based on Reading. Described with topographical accuracy, it is still possible to follow the steps of the novel's characters in present-day Reading. Reading also appears in the works of Thomas Hardy where it is called 'Aldbrickham'. It features most heavily in", "The \"Maiwand Lion\" in Forbury Gardens, an unofficial symbol of Reading, commemorates the 328 officers of the Royal Berkshire Regiment who died in the Battle of Maiwand in 1880. There are a number of other works of public art in Reading. The Blade, a fourteen-storey building completed in 2009, is tall and can be seen from the", "Reading has a local newspaper, the \"Reading Chronicle\", published on Thursdays. The town's other local newspaper, the \"Reading Post\", ceased publication on paper in December 2014, in order to transition to an online only format under the title \"getreading\". As of 2018, \"getreading\" joined the InYourArea local news network. An online magazine, Alt Reading, publishes articles focusing on arts, entertainment and culture in Reading.", "Reading has over 100 parks and playgrounds, including of riverside paths. In the town centre is Forbury Gardens, a public park built on the site of the outer court of Reading Abbey. The largest public park in Reading is Prospect Park, previously an estate owned by Frances Kendrick but acquired by Reading Corporation in 1901. Reading has five Local nature reserves: Clayfield Copse in Caversham, with the other four McIlroy Park, Blundells Copse, Lousehill Copse and Round Copse all in Tilehurst The principal National Health Service (NHS) hospital in Reading is the Royal Berkshire Hospital, founded in 1839 and much enlarged and rebuilt since. A second major NHS general hospital, the Battle Hospital, closed in 2005. Berkshire Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust runs a NHS hospital, Prospect Park Hospital, which specialises in the provision of care for people with mental health and learning disabilities. Reading has three private hospitals: the Berkshire Independent Hospital in Coley Park, the Dunedin Hospital", "Reading's location in the Thames Valley to the west of London has made the town a significant element in the nation's transport system. The town grew up as a river port at the confluence of the Thames and the Kennet. Both of these rivers are navigable, and Caversham Lock, Blake's Lock, County Lock, Fobney Lock and Southcote Lock are all within the borough. Today, navigation is exclusively for purposes of leisure: private and hire boats dominate traffic, while scheduled boat services operate on the Thames from wharves on the Reading side of the river near Caversham Bridge. Reading was a major staging point on the old Bath Road (A4) from London to Avonmouth, near Bristol. This road still carries local traffic, but has now been replaced for long distance traffic by the M4 motorway, which closely skirts the borough and serves it with three junctions, J10-J12. Other main roads serving Reading include the A33, A327, A329, A4074 and A4155. Within Reading there is the Inner Distribution Road (IDR), a ring road for local traffic. The IDR is linked with the M4 by the A33 relief road. National Express Coaches run out of Mereoak Park and Ride, at Junction 11 of the M4. The Thames is crossed", "Reading School, founded in 1125, is the 16th oldest school in England. There are six other state secondary schools and 38 state primary schools within the borough, together with a number of private and independent schools and nurseries. Alfred Sutton Boys' School closed in the mid-1980s. Reading College has provided further education in Reading since 1955, with over 8,500 local learners on over 900 courses. The University of Reading was established in 1892 as an affiliate of Oxford University. It moved to its London Road Campus in 1904 and to its new Whiteknights Campus in 1947. It took over the Bulmershe College of Higher Education, a teacher training college, in 1989, becoming Bulmershe Court Campus. The Henley Management College, situated in Buckinghamshire and about from Reading, was taken over in 2008, becoming Greenlands Campus. The University of West London maintains a presence in the town for its higher education students, principally in nursing, but has now divested itself of its previous ownership of Reading College and its further education students. English language schools in Reading include Gateway Languages, the English Language Centre, ELC London Street and Eurospeak Language School.", "The Museum of Reading opened in 1883 in the town's municipal buildings. It contains galleries relating to the history of Reading and to the excavations of Calleva Atrebatum, together with a full-size replica of the Bayeux Tapestry, an art collection, and galleries relating to Huntley and Palmers. The Museum of English Rural Life, in East Reading, is a museum dedicated to recording the changing face", "Reading Minster, or the Minster Church of St Mary the Virgin as it is more properly known, is Reading's oldest ecclesiastical foundation, known to have been founded by the 9th century and possibly earlier. Although eclipsed in importance by the later Abbey, Reading Minster has regained its importance since the destruction of the Abbey. Reading Abbey was founded by Henry I in 1121. He was buried there, as were parts of his daughter Empress Matilda, William of Poitiers, Constance of York, and Princess Isabella of Cornwall, among others. The abbey was one of the pilgrimage centres of medieval England; it held over 230 relics including the hand of St. James. Today all that remains of the abbey are the inner rubble cores of the walls of many of the major buildings of the abbey, together with a much restored inner gateway and the intact hospitium. The medieval borough of Reading was served by three parish churches: Reading Minster, St Giles' Church, and St Laurence's Church. All are still in use by the Church of England. The Franciscan friars built a friary in the town in 1311. After the friars were expelled in 1538, the building was used as a hospital, a poorhouse, and a jail, before being restored as the Church of England parish church of Greyfriars Church in 1863. The Bishop of Reading is a suffragan bishop within the Church of England's Diocese of Oxford. The bishop is based in Reading, and is responsible for the archdeaconry of Berkshire. There are a total of 18 Church of England parish churches in Reading. St James's Church was built on a portion of the", "Reading is the home of Reading Football Club, an association football club nicknamed \"The Royals\", formed in 1871. Formerly based at Elm Park, the club plays at the 24,161 capacity Madejski Stadium, named after chairman Sir John Madejski, and which opened in 1998. After winning the 2005–06 Football League Championship with a record of 106 points, Reading spent two seasons in the Premier League before being relegated to The Championship. For the 2012–2013 season, the club again competed in the Premier League, after securing first place in the Championship in the 2011–2012 season, but were relegated back down to the Championship at season's end. Reading Town Football Club, formed in 1966, played at Scours Lane and were playing in the Hellenic League Premier Division but were dissolved in 2016, while fellow non-league football club Reading City Football Club now play at Scours Lane after moving from Palmer Park Stadium at the end of the 2015–16 season. Reading is a centre for rugby union in the area, with the Aviva Premiership team London Irish as tenants at the Madejski Stadium. Reading is also home to another three senior semi-professional rugby clubs: Reading Abbey RFC, Redingensians RFC and Reading RFC. The Reading Rockets are the town's professional basketball team. They compete in the second tier English Basketball League Division 1, though they have tried several times in recent years to move up to the top tier British Basketball League. They play home games at the Rivermead Leisure Complex, and are coached by Manuel Peña Garces. In 2016–17 the club", "Reading is twinned with: Reading is also a sister town of:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and meaning.", "Origins.", "Forms.", "Digital ethnography.", "Relational ethnography.", "Features of ethnographic research.", "As a method.", "Data collection methods.", "Differences across disciplines.", "Cultural and social anthropology.", "Ethnography And Health Care.", "Sociology.", "Communication studies.", "Other fields.", "Evaluating ethnography.", "Ethics.", "Ethnographic self." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The word 'ethnography' is derived from the Greek ἔθνος (\"ethnos\"), meaning \"a company, later a people, nation\" and -graphy, meaning \"writing\". Ethnographic studies focus on large cultural groups of people who interact over time. Ethnography is a set of qualitative methods that are used in social sciences that focus on the observation of social practices and interactions. Its aim is to observe a situation without imposing any deductive structure or framework upon it and to view everything as strange or unique. The field of anthropology originated from Europe and England designed in late 19th century. It spread its roots to the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. Some of the main contributors like E. B. Tylor (1832–1917) from Britain and Lewis H. Morgan (1818–1881), an American scientist, were considered as founders of cultural and social dimensions. Franz Boas (1858–1942), Bronislaw Malinowski (1884–1942), Ruth Benedict (1887–1948), and Margaret Mead (1901–1978), were a group of researchers from the United States who contributed the idea of cultural relativism to the literature. Boas's approach focused on the use of documents and informants, whereas Malinowski stated that a researcher should be engrossed with the work for long periods in the field and do a participant observation by living with the informant and experiencing their way of life. He gives the viewpoint of the native and this became the origin of field work and field methods.", "Gerhard Friedrich Müller developed the concept of ethnography as a separate discipline whilst participating in the Second Kamchatka Expedition (1733–43) as a professor of history and geography. Whilst involved in the expedition, he differentiated \"Völker-Beschreibung\" as a distinct area of study. This became known as \"ethnography,\" following the introduction of the Greek neologism \"ethnographia\" by Johann Friedrich Schöpperlin and the German variant by A. F. Thilo in 1767. August Ludwig von Schlözer and Christoph Wilhelm Jacob Gatterer of the University of Göttingen introduced the term into the academic discourse in an attempt to reform the contemporary understanding of world history. Herodotus, known as the Father of History, had significant works on the cultures of various peoples beyond the Hellenic realm such as the Scythians, which earned him the title \"philobarbarian\", and may be said to have produced the first works of ethnography.", "There are different forms of ethnography: confessional ethnography; life history; feminist ethnography etc. Two popular forms of ethnography are realist ethnography and critical ethnography. (Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design, 93) Realist ethnography is a traditional approach used by cultural anthropologists and sociologists (see subtle realism). Characterized by Van Maanen (1988), it reflects a particular instance taken by the researcher toward the individual being studied. It's an objective study of the situation. It's composed from a third person's perspective by getting the data from the members on the site. The ethnographer stays as omniscient correspondent of actualities out of sight. The realist reports information in a measured style ostensibly uncontaminated by individual predisposition, political objectives, and judgment. The analyst will give a detailed report of the everyday life of the individuals under study. The ethnographer also uses standard categories for cultural description (e.g., family life, communication network). The ethnographer produces the participant's views through closely edited quotations and has the final word on how the culture is to be interpreted and presented. (Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design, 93) Critical ethnography is a kind of ethnographic research in which the creators advocate for the liberation of groups which are marginalized in society. Critical researchers typically are politically minded people who look to take a stand of opposition to inequality and domination. For example, a critical ethnographer might study schools that provide privileges to certain types of students, or counseling practices that serve to overlook the needs of underrepresented groups. (Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design, 94). The important components of a critical ethnographer are to incorporate a value-laden introduction, empower people by giving them more authority, challenging the status quo, and addressing concerns about power and control. A critical ethnographer will study issues of power, empowerment, inequality, inequity, dominance, repression, hegemony, and victimization. (Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design, 94)", "Digital ethnography is also seen as virtual ethnography. This type of ethnography is not so typical as ethnography recorded by pen and pencil. Digital ethnography allows for a lot more opportunities to look at different cultures and societies. Traditional ethnography may use videos or images, but digital ethnography goes more in-depth. For example, digital ethnographers would use social media platforms such as Twitter or blogs so that people's interactions and behaviors can be studied.", "Most ethnographies take place in specific places where the observer can observe specific instances that relate to the topic involved. Relational Ethnography articulates studying fields rather than places or processes rather than processed people. Meaning that relational ethnography doesn't take an object nor a bounded group that is defined by its members shared social features nor a specific location that is delimited by the boundaries of a particular area. But rather the processes involving configurations of relations among different agents or institutions.", "According to Dewan (2018), the researcher is not looking for generalizing the findings; rather, they are considering it in reference to the context of the situation. In this regard, the best way to integrate ethnography in a quantitative research would be to use it to discover and uncover relationships and then use the resultant data to test and explain the empirical assumptions.", "The ethnographic method is different from other ways of conducting social science approach due to the following reasons:", "According to John Brewer, a leading social scientist, data collection methods are meant to capture the \"social meanings and ordinary activities\" of people (informants) in \"naturally occurring settings\" that are commonly referred to as \"the field.\" The goal is to collect data in such a way that the researcher imposes a minimal amount of personal bias in the data. Multiple methods of data collection may be employed to facilitate a relationship that allows for a more personal and in-depth portrait of the informants and their community. These can include participant observation, field notes, interviews, and surveys. Interviews are often taped and later transcribed, allowing the interview to proceed unimpaired of note-taking, but with all information available later for full analysis. Secondary research and document analysis are also used to provide insight into the research topic. In the past, kinship charts were commonly used to \"discover logical patterns and social structure in non-Western societies\". In the 21st century, anthropology focuses more on the study of people in urban settings and the use of kinship charts is seldom employed. In order to make the data collection and interpretation transparent, researchers creating ethnographies often attempt to be \"reflexive\". Reflexivity refers to the researcher's aim \"to explore the ways in which [the] researcher's involvement with a particular study influences, acts upon and informs such research\". Despite these attempts of reflexivity, no researcher can be totally unbiased. This factor has provided a basis to criticize ethnography. Traditionally, the ethnographer focuses attention on a community, selecting knowledgeable informants who know the activities of the community well. These informants are typically asked to identify other informants who represent the community, often using snowball or chain sampling. This process is often effective in revealing common cultural denominators connected to the topic being studied. Ethnography relies greatly on up-close, personal experience. Participation, rather than just observation, is one of the keys to this process. Ethnography is very useful in social research. Ybema \"et al.\" (2010) examine the ontological and epistemological presuppositions underlying ethnography. Ethnographic research can range from a realist perspective, in which behavior is observed, to a constructivist perspective where understanding is socially constructed by the researcher and subjects. Research can range from an objectivist account of fixed, observable behaviors to an interpretive narrative describing \"the interplay of individual agency and social structure.\" Critical theory researchers address \"issues of power within the researcher-researched relationships and the links between knowledge and power.\" Another form of data collection is that of the \"image.\" The image is the projection that an individual puts on an object or abstract idea. An image can be contained within the physical world through a particular individual's perspective, primarily based on that individual's past experiences. One example of an image is how an individual views a novel after completing it. The physical entity that is the novel contains a specific image in the perspective of the interpreting individual and can only be expressed by the individual in the terms of \"I can tell you what an image is by telling you what it feels like.\" The idea of an image relies on the imagination and has been seen to be utilized by children in a very spontaneous and natural manner. Effectively, the idea of the image is a primary tool for ethnographers to collect data. The image presents the perspective, experiences, and influences of an individual as a single entity and in consequence, the individual will always contain this image in the group under study.", "The ethnographic method is used across a range of different disciplines, primarily by anthropologists but also occasionally by sociologists. Cultural studies, Occupational Therapy, (European) ethnology, sociology, economics, social work, education, design, psychology, computer science, human factors and ergonomics, ethnomusicology, folkloristics, religious studies, geography, history, linguistics, communication studies, performance studies, advertising, accounting research, nursing, urban planning, usability, political science, social movement, and criminology are other fields which have made use of ethnography.", "Cultural anthropology and social anthropology were developed around ethnographic research and their canonical texts, which are mostly ethnographies: e.g. \"Argonauts of the Western Pacific\" (1922) by Bronisław Malinowski, \"Ethnologische Excursion in Johore\" (1875) by Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay, \"Coming of Age in Samoa\" (1928) by Margaret Mead, \"The Nuer\" (1940) by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, \"Naven\" (1936, 1958) by Gregory Bateson, or \"The Lele of the Kasai\" (1963) by Mary Douglas. Cultural and social anthropologists today place a high value on doing ethnographic research. The typical ethnography is a document written about a particular people, almost always based at least in part on emic views of where the culture begins and ends. Using language or community boundaries to bound the ethnography is common. Ethnographies are also sometimes called \"case studies.\" Ethnographers study and interpret culture, its universalities, and its variations through the ethnographic study based on fieldwork. An ethnography is a specific kind of written observational science which provides an account of a particular culture, society, or community. The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life. Ruth Fulton Benedict uses examples of Enthrotyhy in her serious of field work that began in 1922 of Serrano, of the Zuni in 1924, the Cochiti in 1925 and the Pina in 1926. All being people she wished to study for her anthropological data. Benedict's experiences with the Southwest Zuni pueblo is to be considered the basis of her formative fieldwork. The experience set the idea for her to produce her theory of \"culture is personality writ large\" (modell, 1988). By studying the culture between the different Pueblo and Plain Indians, She discovered the culture isomorphism that would be considered her personalized unique approach to the study of anthropology using ethnographic techniques. A typical ethnography attempts to be holistic and typically follows an outline to include a brief history of the culture in question, an analysis of the physical geography or terrain inhabited by the people under study, including climate, and often including what biological anthropologists call habitat. Folk notions of botany and zoology are presented as ethnobotany and ethnozoology alongside references from the formal sciences. Material culture, technology, and means of subsistence are usually treated next, as they are typically bound up in physical geography and include descriptions of infrastructure. Kinship and social structure (including age grading, peer groups, gender, voluntary associations, clans, moieties, and so forth, if they exist) are typically included. Languages spoken, dialects, and the history of language change are another group of standard topics. Practices of child rearing, acculturation, and emic views on personality and values usually follow after sections on social structure. Rites, rituals, and other evidence of religion have long been an interest and are sometimes central to ethnographies, especially when conducted in public where visiting anthropologists can see them. As ethnography developed, anthropologists grew more interested in less tangible aspects of culture, such as values, worldview and what Clifford Geertz termed the \"ethos\" of the culture. In his fieldwork, Geertz used elements of a phenomenological approach, tracing not just the doings of people, but the cultural elements themselves. For example, if within a group of people, winking was a communicative gesture, he sought to first determine what kinds of things a wink might mean (it might mean several things). Then, he sought to determine in what contexts winks were used, and whether, as one moved about a region, winks remained meaningful in the same way. In this way, cultural boundaries of communication could be explored, as opposed to using linguistic boundaries or notions about the residence. Geertz, while still following something of a traditional ethnographic outline, moved outside that outline to talk about \"webs\" instead of \"outlines\" of culture. Within cultural anthropology, there are several subgenres of ethnography. Beginning in the 1950s and early 1960s, anthropologists began writing \"bio-confessional\" ethnographies that intentionally exposed the nature of ethnographic research. Famous examples include \"Tristes Tropiques\" (1955) by Lévi-Strauss, \"The High Valley\" by Kenneth Read, and \"The Savage and the Innocent\" by David Maybury-Lewis, as well as the mildly fictionalized \"Return to Laughter\" by Elenore Smith Bowen (Laura Bohannan). Later \"reflexive\" ethnographies refined the technique to translate cultural differences by representing their effects on the ethnographer. Famous examples include \"Deep Play: Notes on a Balinese Cockfight\" by Clifford Geertz, \"Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco\" by Paul Rabinow, \"The Headman and I\" by Jean-Paul Dumont, and \"Tuhami\" by Vincent Crapanzano. In the 1980s, the rhetoric of ethnography was subjected to intense scrutiny within the discipline, under the general influence of literary theory and post-colonial/post-structuralist thought. \"Experimental\" ethnographies that reveal the ferment of the discipline include \"Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man\" by Michael Taussig, \"Debating Muslims\" by Michael F. J. Fischer and Mehdi Abedi, \"A Space on the Side of the Road\" by Kathleen Stewart, and \"Advocacy after Bhopal\" by Kim Fortun. This critical turn in sociocultural anthropology during the mid-1980s can be traced to the influence of the now classic (and often contested) text, \"Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography\", (1986) edited by James Clifford and George Marcus. \"Writing Culture\" helped bring changes to both anthropology and ethnography often described in terms of being 'postmodern,''reflexive,' 'literary,' 'deconstructive,' or 'poststructural' in nature, in that the text helped to highlight the various epistemic and political predicaments that many practitioners saw as plaguing ethnographic representations and practices. Where Geertz's and Turner's interpretive anthropology recognized subjects as creative actors who constructed their sociocultural worlds out of symbols, postmodernists attempted to draw attention to the privileged status of the ethnographers themselves. That is, the ethnographer cannot escape the personal viewpoint in creating an ethnographic account, thus making any claims of objective neutrality highly problematic, if not altogether impossible. In regards to this last point, \"Writing Culture\" became a focal point for looking at how ethnographers could describe different cultures and societies without denying the subjectivity of those individuals and groups being studied while simultaneously doing so without laying claim to absolute knowledge and objective authority. Along with the development of experimental forms such as 'dialogic anthropology,' 'narrative ethnography,' and 'literary ethnography', \"Writing Culture\" helped to encourage the development of 'collaborative ethnography.' This exploration of the relationship between writer, audience, and subject has become a central tenet of contemporary anthropological and ethnographic practice. In certain instances, active collaboration between the researcher(s) and subject(s) has helped blend the practice of collaboration in ethnographic fieldwork with the process of creating the ethnographic product resulting from the research.", "Studies have shown that ethnographies are tied into systems such as Health Care. Ethnographic health care studies have been done when it is necessary to monitor and look at behavior for people with illnesses. In other words, patients tend to rely on this type of research in order to know what specific behavior is correlated to illness. For example, certain types of patients who receive therapy need to be watched closely to see what results may come of the treatment. Ethnography is not just useful when looking at the patients, it is also very helpful to look at the organization of health care. In order to see how the system is executed, their must be studies done on those people who look at their behavior in order to get an idea of how efficient it really is. (Savage, 2000)", "Sociology is another field which prominently features ethnographies. Urban sociology, Atlanta University (now Clark-Atlanta University), and the Chicago School, in particular, are associated with ethnographic research, with some well-known early examples being \"The Philadelphia Negro\" (1899) by W. E. B. Du Bois, \"Street Corner Society\" by William Foote Whyte and \"Black Metropolis\" by St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Jr.. Major influences on this development were anthropologist Lloyd Warner, on the Chicago sociology faculty, and to Robert Park's experience as a journalist. Symbolic interactionism developed from the same tradition and yielded such sociological ethnographies as \"Shared Fantasy\" by Gary Alan Fine, which documents the early history of fantasy role-playing games. Other important ethnographies in sociology include Pierre Bourdieu's work in Algeria and France. Jaber F. Gubrium's series of organizational ethnographies focused on the everyday practices of illness, care, and recovery are notable. They include \"Living and Dying at Murray Manor,\" which describes the social worlds of a nursing home; \"Describing Care: Image and Practice in Rehabilitation,\" which documents the social organization of patient subjectivity in a physical rehabilitation hospital; \"Caretakers: Treating Emotionally Disturbed Children,\" which features the social construction of behavioral disorders in children; and \"Oldtimers and Alzheimer's: The Descriptive Organization of Senility,\" which describes how the Alzheimer's disease movement constructed a new subjectivity of senile dementia and how that is organized in a geriatric hospital. Another approach to ethnography in sociology comes in the form of institutional ethnography, developed by Dorothy E. Smith for studying the social relations which structure people's everyday lives. Other notable ethnographies include Paul Willis's \"Learning to Labour,\" on working class youth; the work of Elijah Anderson, Mitchell Duneier, and Loïc Wacquant on black America, and Lai Olurode's \"Glimpses of Madrasa From Africa\". But even though many sub-fields and theoretical perspectives within sociology use ethnographic methods, ethnography is not the \"sine qua non\" of the discipline, as it is in cultural anthropology.", "Beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, ethnographic research methods began to be widely used by communication scholars. As the purpose of ethnography is to describe and interpret the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group, Harris, (1968), also Agar (1980) note that ethnography is both a process and an outcome of the research. Studies such as Gerry Philipsen's analysis of cultural communication strategies in a blue-collar, working-class neighborhood on the south side of Chicago, \"Speaking 'Like a Man' in Teamsterville\", paved the way for the expansion of ethnographic research in the study of communication. Scholars of communication studies use ethnographic research methods to analyze communicative behaviors and phenomena. This is often characterized in the writing as attempts to understand taken-for-granted routines by which working definitions are socially produced. Ethnography as a method is a storied, careful, and systematic examination of the reality-generating mechanisms of everyday life (Coulon, 1995). Ethnographic work in communication studies seeks to explain \"how\" ordinary methods/practices/performances construct the ordinary actions used by ordinary people in the accomplishments of their identities. This often gives the perception of trying to answer the \"why\" and \"how come\" questions of human communication. Often this type of research results in a case study or field study such as an analysis of speech patterns at a protest rally, or the way firemen communicate during \"down time\" at a fire station. Like anthropology scholars, communication scholars often immerse themselves, and participate in and/or directly observe the particular social group being studied.", "The American anthropologist George Spindler was a pioneer in applying the ethnographic methodology to the classroom. Anthropologists such as Daniel Miller and Mary Douglas have used ethnographic data to answer academic questions about consumers and consumption. In this sense, Tony Salvador, Genevieve Bell, and Ken Anderson describe design ethnography as being \"a way of understanding the particulars of daily life in such a way as to increase the success probability of a new product or service or, more appropriately, to reduce the probability of failure specifically due to a lack of understanding of the basic behaviors and frameworks of consumers.\" Sociologist Sam Ladner argues in her book, that understanding consumers and their desires requires a shift in \"standpoint,\" one that only ethnography provides. The results are products and services that respond to consumers' unmet needs. Businesses, too, have found ethnographers helpful for understanding how people use products and services. By assessing user experience in a \"natural\" setting, ethnology yields insights into the practical applications of a product or service. It's one of the best ways to identify areas of friction and improve overall user experience. Companies make increasing use of ethnographic methods to understand consumers and consumption, or for new product development (such as video ethnography). The \"Ethnographic Praxis in Industry\" (EPIC) conference is evidence of this. Ethnographers' systematic and holistic approach to real-life experience is valued by product developers, who use the method to understand unstated desires or cultural practices that surround products. Where focus groups fail to inform marketers about what people really do, ethnography links what people say to what they do—avoiding the pitfalls that come from relying only on self-reported, focus-group data. Modern developments in computing power and AI have enabled higher efficiencies in ethnographic data collection via multimedia and computational analysis using machine learning.", "The ethnographic methodology is not usually evaluated in terms of philosophical standpoint (such as positivism and emotionalism). Ethnographic studies need to be evaluated in some manner. No consensus has been developed on evaluation standards, but Richardson (2000, p. 254) provides five criteria that ethnographers might find helpful. Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein's (1997) monograph, \"The New Language of Qualitative Method,\" discusses forms of ethnography in terms of their \"methods talk.\"", "Gary Alan Fine argues that the nature of ethnographic inquiry demands that researchers deviate from formal and idealistic rules or ethics that have come to be widely accepted in qualitative and quantitative approaches in research. Many of these ethical assumptions are rooted in positivist and post-positivist epistemologies that have adapted over time but are apparent and must be accounted for in all research paradigms. These ethical dilemmas are evident throughout the entire process of conducting ethnographies, including the design, implementation, and reporting of an ethnographic study. Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that \"each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know\". Fine is not necessarily casting blame at ethnographic researchers but tries to show that researchers often make idealized ethical claims and standards which are inherently based on partial truths and self-deceptions. Fine also acknowledges that many of these partial truths and self-deceptions are unavoidable. He maintains that \"illusions\" are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentially more caustic consequences. He claims, \"Ethnographers cannot help but lie, but in lying, we reveal truths that escape those who are not so bold\". Based on these assertions, Fine establishes three conceptual clusters in which ethnographic ethical dilemmas can be situated: \"Classic Virtues\", \"Technical Skills\", and \"Ethnographic Self\". Much debate surrounding the issue of ethics arose following revelations about how the ethnographer Napoleon Chagnon conducted his ethnographic fieldwork with the Yanomani people of South America. While there is no international standard on Ethnographic Ethics, many western anthropologists look to the American Anthropological Association for guidance when conducting ethnographic work. In 2009 the Association adopted a code of ethics, stating: Anthropologists have \"moral obligations as members of other groups, such as the family, religion, and community, as well as the profession\". The code of ethics notes that anthropologists are part of a wider scholarly and political network, as well as human and natural environment, which needs to be reported on respectfully. The code of ethics recognizes that sometimes very close and personal relationship can sometimes develop from doing ethnographic work. The Association acknowledges that the code is limited in scope; ethnographic work can sometimes be multidisciplinary, and anthropologists need to be familiar with ethics and perspectives of other disciplines as well. The eight-page code of ethics outlines ethical considerations for those conducting Research, Teaching, Application and Dissemination of Results, which are briefly outlined below.", "The following are commonly misconceived conceptions of ethnographers: According to Norman K. Denzin, ethnographers should consider the following seven principles when observing, recording, and sampling data:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Surfaces.", "Processes.", "Orbital process.", "Borders.", "Articulations.", "Development.", "Society and culture.", "Other animals.", "Non-mammalian vertebrates.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The \"malar surface\" is convex and perforated near its center by a small aperture, the zygomaticofacial foramen, for the passage of the zygomaticofacial nerve and vessels; below this foramen is a slight elevation, which gives origin to the zygomaticus muscle. The \"temporal surface\", directed posteriorly and medially, is concave, presenting medially a rough, triangular area, for articulation with the maxilla (articular surface), and laterally a smooth, concave surface, the upper part of which forms the anterior boundary of the temporal fossa, the lower a part of the infratemporal fossa. Near the center of this surface is the zygomaticotemporal foramen for the transmission of the zygomaticotemporal nerve. The \"orbital surface\" forms the lateral part and some of the inferior part of the bony orbit. The zygomatic nerve passes through the zygomatic-orbital foramen on this surface. The lateral palpebral ligament attaches to a small protuberance called the orbital tubercle.", "Each zygomatic bone is diamond-shaped and composed of three processes with similarly named associated bony articulations: frontal, temporal, and maxillary. Each process of the zygomatic bone forms important structures of the skull. The orbital surface of the frontal process of the zygomatic bone forms the anterior lateral orbital wall, with usually a small paired foramen, the zygomaticofacial foramen opening on its lateral surface. The temporal process of the zygomatic bone forms the zygomatic arch along with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone, with a paired zygomaticotemporal foramen present on the medial deep surface of the bone. The orbital surface of the maxillary process of the zygomatic bone forms a part of the infraorbital rim and a small part of the anterior part of the lateral orbital wall.", "The orbital process is a thick, strong plate, projecting backward and medialward from the orbital margin. Its \"antero-medial surface\" forms, by its junction with the orbital surface of the maxilla and with the great wing of the sphenoid, part of the floor and lateral wall of the orbit. On it are seen the orifices of two canals, the zygomatico-orbital foramina; one of these canals opens into the temporal fossa, the other on the malar surface of the bone; the former transmits the zygomaticotemporal, the latter the zygomaticofacial nerve. At the angle of junction of the sphenoidal and maxillary portions, a short, concave, non-articular part is generally seen; this forms the anterior boundary of the inferior orbital fissure: occasionally, this non-articular part is absent, the fissure then being completed by the junction of the maxilla and sphenoid, or by the interposition of a small sutural bone in the angular interval between them.", "The \"antero-superior\" or \"orbital\" border is smooth, concave, and forms a considerable part of the circumference of the orbit. The \"antero-inferior\" or \"maxillary\" border is rough, and bevelled at the expense of its inner table, to articulate with the maxilla; near the orbital margin it gives origin to the quadratus labii superioris. The \"postero-superior\" or \"temporal\" border, curved like an italic letter \"f,\" is continuous above with the commencement of the temporal line, and below with the upper border of the zygomatic arch; the temporal fascia is attached to it. The \"postero-inferior\" or \"zygomatic border\" affords attachment by its rough edge to the masseter.", "The zygomatic bone articulates with the frontal bone, sphenoid bone, and paired temporal bones, and maxillary bones.", "The zygomatic bone is generally described as ossifying from three centers—one for the malar and two for the orbital portion; these appear about the eighth week and fuse about the fifth month of fetal life. Mall describes it as being ossified from one center which appears just beneath and to the lateral side of the orbit. After birth, the bone is sometimes divided by a horizontal suture into an upper larger, and a lower smaller division. In some quadrumana the zygomatic bone consisted of two parts, an orbital and a malar.", "Even though the possession of this characteristic would cause the face to resemble the skull, pronounced zygomatic arches, commonly called \"high cheekbones\", are considered a beauty trait in males. Many depictions of Qin warriors in the Terracotta Army are depicted with \"broad foreheads, high cheekbones, large eyes, thick eyebrows, and stiff beards.\" For this reason some individuals undergo cheek augmentation, a form of cosmetic surgery.", "The zygomatic is homologous to the jugal bone of other tetrapods.", "In non-mammalian vertebrates, the zygomatic bone is referred to as the jugal bone, since these animals have no zygomatic arch. It is found in most reptiles, amphibians, and birds. It is connected to the quadratojugal and maxilla, as well as other bones, which may vary by species. This bone is considered key in the determination of general traits of the skull, as in the case of creatures, such as dinosaurs in paleontology, whose entire skull has not been found. In coelacanths and early tetrapods the bone is relatively large. Here, it is a plate-like bone forming the lower margin of the orbit and much of the side of the face. In ray-finned fishes it is reduced or absent, and the entire cheek region is generally small. The bone is also absent in living amphibians. With the exception of turtles, the jugal bone in reptiles forms a relatively narrow bar separating the orbit from the inferior temporal fenestra, of which it may also form the lower boundary. The bone is similarly reduced in birds. In mammals, it takes on broadly the form seen in humans, with the bar between the orbit and fenestra vanishing entirely, and only the lower boundary of the fenestra remaining, as the zygomatic arch.", "The term \"zygomatic\" derives from the Greek Ζυγόμα \"zygoma\" meaning \"yoke\". The zygomatic bone is occasionally referred to as the zygoma, but this term may also refer to the zygomatic arch." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Forms.", "Times and locations.", "Nonviolence or violence.", "Law by country.", "Brazil.", "Russia.", "Singapore.", "United Kingdom.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements. These may include: Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a larger campaign of nonviolent resistance, often also called civil resistance. Demonstrations are generally staged in public, but private demonstrations are certainly possible, especially if the demonstrators wish to influence the opinions of a small or very specific group of people. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible. Topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Particularly with controversial issues, sometimes groups of people opposed to the aims of a demonstration may themselves launch a counter-demonstration with the aim of opposing the demonstrators and presenting their view. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent. Government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the People's Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, the Soviet Union and Argentina, among other nations, have had government-organized demonstrations.", "Sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also frequently chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. For example, if a demonstration is targeted at issues relating to foreign nation, the demonstration may take place at a location associated with that nation, such as an embassy of the nation in question.", "Protest marches and demonstrations are a common nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence. However, the reasons for avoiding the use of violence may also derive, not from a general doctrine of nonviolence or pacifism, but from considerations relating to the particular situation that is faced, including its legal, cultural and power-political dimensions: this has been the case in many campaigns of civil resistance. Some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use non-lethal force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray, and tear gas against demonstrators in these situations. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of these weapons which can provoke, destabilize, or escalate a conflict. As a known tool to prevent the infiltration by agents provocateurs, the organizers of large or controversial assemblies may deploy and coordinate demonstration marshals, also called stewards.", "", "Freedom of assembly in Brazil is granted by art. 5th, item XVI, of the Constitution of Brazil (1988): Constitution of Brazil – Text in English.", "Freedom of assembly in the Russian Federation is granted by Art. 31 of the Constitution adopted in 1993: Citizens of the Russian Federation shall have the right to gather peacefully, without weapons, and to hold meetings, rallies, demonstrations, marches and pickets. Demonstrations and protests are further regulated by the Federal Law of the Russian Federation No.54-FZ \"\"On Meetings, Rallies, Demonstrations, Marches and Pickets\"\". If the assembly in public is expected to involve more than one participant, its organisers are obliged to notify executive or local self-government authorities of the upcoming event few days in advance in writing. However, legislation does not foresee an authorisation procedure, hence the authorities have no right to prohibit an assembly or change its place unless it threatens the security of participants or is planned to take place near hazardous facilities, important railways, viaducts, pipelines, high voltage electric power lines, prisons, courts, presidential residences or in the border control zone. The right to gather can also be restricted in close proximity of cultural and historical monuments.", "Public demonstrations are rare in Singapore, where it is illegal to hold cause-related events without a valid licence from the authorities. Such laws include the Public Entertainment and Meetings Act and the Public Order Act.", "Under the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 and the Terrorism Act 2006, there are areas designated as 'protected sites' where people are not allowed to go. Previously, these were military bases and nuclear power stations, but the law is changing to include other, generally political areas, such as Downing Street, the Palace of Westminster, and the headquarters of MI5 and MI6. Previously, trespassers to these areas could not be arrested if they had not committed another crime and agreed to be escorted out, but this will change following amendments to the law. Human rights groups fear the powers could hinder peaceful protest. Nick Clegg, the then Liberal Democrat home affairs spokesman, said: \"I am not aware of vast troops of trespassers wanting to invade MI5 or MI6, still less running the gauntlet of security checks in Whitehall and Westminster to make a point. It's a sledgehammer to crack a nut.\" Liberty, the civil liberties pressure group, said the measure was \"excessive\". One of the biggest demonstration in the UK was the people vote march, on 19 October 2019, with around 1 million demonstrators related to the Brexit.", "The First Amendment of the United States Constitution specifically allows the freedom of assembly as part of a measure to facilitate the redress of such grievances. \"Amendment I: Congress shall make no law... abridging... the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.\" A growing trend in the United States has been the implementation of \"free speech zones\", or fenced-in areas which are often far-removed from the event which is being protested; critics of free-speech zones argue that they go against the First Amendment of the United States Constitution by their very nature, and that they lessen the impact the demonstration might otherwise have had. In many areas it is required to get permission from the government to hold a demonstration." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Archaic dialect.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "According to historians, after the desolation of Polish lands by the Mongol invasion in 1241, the then Silesian Piast rulers of the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz decided to bring settlers from the West to the deserted and destroyed lands around the Silesian Foothills, to revive agriculture, industry and trade. The area was settled in the course of the German eastward colonization of Slavic lands. In this way, around 1250, a group of colonists from the area of former Flanders came to the region, specifically from Friesland, near Bruges and established the settlement Wilamowice. The settlement was first documented in 1325, in the Peter's Pence register as the parish Novovillamowicz (New-Wilamowice) in medieval Latin, among the Catholic parishes of Oświęcim diaconate, in the Diocese of Kraków. The place name is seen as a demarcation to the older settlement \"Antiquo-Willamowicz\" (Old-Wilamowice, today named Stara Wieś). In 1529, the two place names were recorded respectively in medieval Latin as \"Vilamovice Nova\" and \"Antiqua Vylamovicze\". In the course of history, the area has been part of several territorial border changes. Politically, both settlements—old and new, belonged to the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz, and the castellany gord of Oświęcim ceded from Lesser Poland around 1177 by duke Casimir II the Just to the duke of Opole—Mieszko I Tanglefoot, which in 1315 was formed in the process of the feudal fragmentation of Poland into the Duchy of Oświęcim, ruled by the local dukes of the Silesian Piast dynasty. In 1327, the Duchy of Oświęcim became a fiefdom of the Kingdom of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire. In the 15th century, Jan Długosz lists the settlement in the diocese of Krakow benefactors register \"Liber beneficiorum dioecesis Cracoviensis\" in Old Polish language \"Wylamowycze\", in allodial lordship of the nobleman Andreas of Wilamowic (aka Wilamowski) and the heirs Johannes and Nicolaus Wilamowski. From 1527, owners of the lordship mentioned include: the nobleman Jakob Saszowski of Gieraltowic and Wilamowic, and in 1533: the nobleman and chief judge of Oświęcim Nicolaus Saszowski of Gieraltowic (aka Gierałtowski), in 1633: Christopher Korycinski (castellan of Wojnicz), between 1707–1719 Władysław Morsztyn and his wife Helena née Kalinowska; to the end of the 19th century the owner Psarski sold his land and rights to residents, and from there on Wilamowice became a small rural town. In 1457, duke Jan IV of Oświęcim agreed to sell the Duchy of Oświęcim to the Polish Crown, and in the accompanying document issued on 21 February the settlement was mentioned in Old Polish language \"Wylamowycze\". It was not, however, until 1564, at the General sejm, that King Sigismund II Augustus issued privileges of incorporation, recognizing the Duchy of Oświęcim as part of the Polish Crown into the Silesian County of the Kraków Voivodeship. Since the 15th century, the names used in official chronicles were the German versions \"Wilmeshau\" and \"Wilmesdorf\" for both the new and old Wilamowice respectively. The place name was subject to several vernacular changes over the course of history, and since the 18th century the name \"Wilmesau\" in High German prevailed under the ruling Habsburg Monarchy; when in 1772, upon the First Partition of Poland, it became part of the Habsburg's Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a semi-autonomous protectorate of the Austrian Empire. After World War I and the dissolution of Austro-Hungarian monarchy, it became part of the newly independent nation of the Second Polish Republic. In 1939, after the joint Invasion of Poland by Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Free City of Danzig, the area was annexed by Germany (see Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany) in the Occupation of Poland. After the end of the Second World War, Polish territories seized by the Red Army as it advanced westward, were restored to the post-War Polish People's Republic.", "Due to endogamy and geographical isolation of the settlement in a Polish language region laying nearby the German linguistic enclave around Bielsko-Biala, Wilamowice formed an independent language or dialect (see: Wymysorys language) since the Late Medieval Period, which was in use in everyday life until the end of the Second World War. At the end of the War, whilst almost all Germans in the region were expelled (see Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II), in \"Wilmesau\"—the ancestral population were able to remain. The local language, however, was banned in the Polish People's Republic under the Soviet Occupation Forces and Soviet-backed communist regime, and the local population were partially Polonized. Although the language ban was lifted in 1956 during the \"Polish October\" revolution, attempts continued however to suppress the Wymysorys dialect from public life. Today, the Wymysorys dialect is still spoken by less than 70 native speaking residents—the elderly being the majority. The dialect is the result of the transformation of the Flemish language. According to the late professor, a Polish historian and expert of Germanic languages, including the Flemish language, described this dialect as a patchwork of ancient languages: Old Germanic, Old French, Celtic, Gaulish and Romansh, which later crystallized in Dutch or Flemish. The status of the Wilamowice ethnolect is controversial, because according to the traditional classification of all dialects it is broadly understood as a High German language, and should be considered a dialect of the German language. Nevertheless, the self-determination of its users as a separate group from the Germans and the existence of a literary Wymysorys language (or, to be more exact, micro-language) allows to assume that this ethnolect is a separate language.", "See twin towns of Gmina Wilamowice." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Topology.", "Frame format.", "Deployment.", "Standards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "FDDI provides a 100 Mbit/s optical standard for data transmission in local area network that can extend in range up to. Although FDDI logical topology is a ring-based token network, it did not use the IEEE 802.5 token ring protocol as its basis; instead, its protocol was derived from the IEEE 802.4 token bus \"timed token\" protocol. In addition to covering large geographical areas, FDDI local area networks can support thousands of users. FDDI offers both a Dual-Attached Station (DAS), counter-rotating token ring topology and a Single-Attached Station (SAS), token bus passing ring topology. FDDI, as a product of American National Standards Institute X3T9.5 (now X3T12), conforms to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model of functional layering using other protocols. The standards process started in the mid 1980s. FDDI-II, a version of FDDI described in 1989, added circuit-switched service capability to the network so that it could also handle voice and video signals. Work started to connect FDDI networks to synchronous optical networking (SONET) technology. A FDDI network contains two rings, one as a secondary backup in case the primary ring fails. The primary ring offers up to 100 Mbit/s capacity. When a network has no requirement for the secondary ring to do backup, it can also carry data, extending capacity to 200 Mbit/s. The single ring can extend the maximum distance; a dual ring can extend. FDDI had a larger maximum-frame size (4,352 bytes) than the standard Ethernet family, which only supports a maximum-frame size of 1,500 bytes, allowing better effective data rates in some cases.", "Designers normally constructed FDDI rings in a network topology such as a \"dual ring of trees\". A small number of devices, typically infrastructure devices such as routers and concentrators rather than host computers, were \"dual-attached\" to both rings. Host computers then connect as single-attached devices to the routers or concentrators. The dual ring in its most degenerate form simply collapses into a single device. Typically, a computer-room contained the whole dual ring, although some implementations deployed FDDI as a metropolitan area network. FDDI requires this network topology because the dual ring actually passes through each connected device and requires each such device to remain continuously operational. The standard actually allows for optical bypasses, but network engineers consider these unreliable and error-prone. Devices such as workstations and minicomputers that might not come under the control of the network managers are not suitable for connection to the dual ring. As an alternative to using a dual-attached connection, a workstation can obtain the same degree of resilience through a dual-homed connection made simultaneously to two separate devices in the same FDDI ring. One of the connections becomes active while the other one is automatically blocked. If the first connection fails, the backup link takes over with no perceptible delay.", "The FDDI data frame format is: Where PA is the preamble, SD is a start delimiter, FC is frame control, DA is the destination address, SA is the source address, PDU is the protocol data unit (or packet data unit), FCS is the frame check Sequence (or checksum), and ED/FS are the end delimiter and frame status. The Internet Engineering Task Force defined a standard for transmission of the Internet Protocol (which would be the protocol data unit in this case) over FDDI. It was first proposed in June 1989 and revised in 1990. Some aspects of the protocol were compatible with the IEEE 802.2 standard for logical link control. For example, the 48-bit MAC addresses that became popular with the Ethernet family. Thus other protocols such as the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) could be common as well.", "FDDI was considered an attractive campus backbone network technology in the early to mid 1990s since existing Ethernet networks only offered 10 Mbit/s data rates and token ring networks only offered 4 Mbit/s or 16 Mbit/s rates. Thus it was a relatively high-speed choice of that era. By 1994, vendors included Cisco Systems, National Semiconductor, Network Peripherals, SysKonnect (acquired by Marvell Technology Group), and 3Com. FDDI installations have largely been replaced by Ethernet deployments.", "FDDI standards included:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Park." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Transamerica building was commissioned by Transamerica CEO John (Jack) R. Beckett, with the claim that he wished to allow light in the street below. Built on the site of the historic Montgomery Block, it has a structural height of and has 48 floors of retail and office space. Construction began in 1969 and finished in 1972, and was overseen by San Francisco–based contractor Dinwiddie Construction, now Hathaway Dinwiddie Construction Company. Transamerica moved its headquarters to the new building from across the street, where it had been based in a flatiron-shaped building now occupied by the Church of Scientology of San Francisco. Although the tower is no longer Transamerica Corporation headquarters, it is still associated with the company and is depicted in the company's logo. The building is evocative of San Francisco and has become one of the many symbols of the city. Designed by architect William Pereira, it faced opposition during planning and construction and was sometimes referred to by detractors as \"Pereira's Prick\". John King of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" summed up the improved opinion of the building in 2009 as \"an architectural icon of the best sort – one that fits its location and gets better with age.\" King also wrote in 2011 that it is \"a uniquely memorable building, a triumph of the unexpected, unreal and engaging all at once.... It is a presence and a persona, snapping into different focus with every fresh angle, every shift in light.\" The Transamerica Pyramid was the tallest skyscraper west of Chicago when constructed, surpassing the then Bank of America Center, also in San Francisco. It was surpassed by the Aon Center, Los Angeles, in 1974. The building is thought to have been the intended target of a terrorist attack, involving the hijacking of airplanes as part of the Bojinka plot, which was foiled in 1995. In 1999, Transamerica was acquired by Dutch insurance company Aegon. When the non-insurance operations of Transamerica were later sold to GE Capital, Aegon retained ownership of the building as an investment. The Transamerica Pyramid was the tallest skyscraper in San Francisco from 1972 to 2017, when it was surpassed by the under-construction Salesforce Tower.", "The land use and zoning restrictions for the parcel limited the number of square feet of office that could be built upon the lot, which sits at the north boundary of the financial district. The building is a tall, four-sided pyramid with two \"wings\" to accommodate an elevator shaft on the east and a stairwell and a smoke tower on the west. The top of the building is the spire. There are four cameras pointed in the four cardinal directions at the top of this spire forming the \"Transamerica Virtual Observation Deck.\" Four monitors in the lobby, whose direction and zoom can be controlled by visitors, display the cameras' views 24 hours a day. An observation deck on the 27th floor was closed: the Pyramid's official website says that it was closed to the public in 2001, while the New York Times reported that it has been closed \"[s]ince the late 1990s\". It was replaced by the virtual observation deck a few years later. The video signal from the \"Transamericam\" was used for years by a local TV news station for live views of traffic and weather in downtown San Francisco. The top of the Transamerica Pyramid is covered with aluminum panels. During the Christmas holiday season, on Independence Day, and during the anniversary of 9/11, a brightly twinkling beacon called the \"Crown Jewel\" is lit at the top of the pyramid.", "At the base of the building is a half-acre private park designed by Tom Galli called Redwood Park. A number of redwood trees were transplanted to this park from the Santa Cruz Mountains when the tower was built. It is generally open to the public during the daytime. It features a fountain and pond designed by Anthony Gazzardo complete with jumping frog sculpture, a Glenna Goodacre bronze sculpture of children at play, a bronze plaque honoring two dogs, and benches and tables offering respite to workers and visitors alike." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Post-\"Titanic\" design changes.", "History.", "Conception.", "Rumoured name-change.", "Construction.", "Requisition.", "First service.", "Recalled.", "Last voyage.", "Explosion.", "Evacuation.", "Final moments.", "Rescue.", "Visualised as an ocean liner.", "Pipe organ.", "Wreck.", "Legacy.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The original dimensions of \"Britannic\" were similar to those of her sister ships, but her dimensions were altered whilst still on the building stocks after the \"Titanic\" disaster. With a gross tonnage of 48,158, she surpassed her sisters in terms of size (volume), but that did not make her the largest passenger ship in service at that time; the German SS \"Vaterland\" held this title with a significantly higher tonnage. The ship was propelled by a mixed system already tested on her sisters: two triple expansion steam engines powered the three-bladed outboard wing screws while a steam turbine used steam exhausted from the two reciprocating engines to power the central four-bladed screws giving a maximum speed of 23 knots.", "HMHS Britannic was in character and layout very similar to her sister ships however following the loss of \"Titanic\" and the subsequent inquiries, several design changes were made to the remaining \"Olympic\"-class liners. With \"Britannic\", these changes were made before launch. The final design allowed the ship to retain its signature features such as the iconic funnel layout, however, the changes included increasing the ship's beam to to allow for a double hull along the engine and boiler rooms, and raising six out of the 15 watertight bulkheads up to B Deck. Additionally, a higher rated turbine was added instead of the previous two vessels' ones, to make up for the increase in hull width. The central watertight compartments were enhanced, allowing the ship to stay afloat with six compartments flooded. A more obvious external change was the fitting of large crane-like davits, each powered by an electric motor and capable of launching six lifeboats which were stored on gantries; the ship was originally designed to have eight sets of gantry davits but only five", "", "In 1907, J. Bruce Ismay, director general of the White Star Line, and Lord Pirrie, chairman of the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast had decided to build a trio of ocean liners of unmatched size to compete with the Cunard Line's \"Lusitania\" and \"Mauretania\" not in terms of speed but in terms of luxury and safety. The names of the three vessels were decided at a later date and they showed the intention of the designer regarding", "Although the White Star Line and the Harland and Wolff shipyard always denied it, some sources claim that the ship was to be named \"Gigantic\". One source is a poster of the ship with the name \"Gigantic\" at the top. Other sources are November 1911 American newspapers stating the White Star order for \"Gigantic\" being placed. According to Simon Mills, owner of the \"Britannic\" wreck, a copy of the Harland and Wolff order book held by the", "The keel for \"Britannic\" was laid on 30 November 1911 at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, on the gantry slip previously occupied by the \"Olympic\", 13 months after the launch of that ship. The acquiring of the ship was planned to be at the beginning of 1914. Due to improvements introduced as a consequence of the \"Titanic\" disaster, \"Britannic\" was not launched until 26 February 1914, which was filmed along with the fitting of a funnel. Several speeches were given in front of the press, and a dinner was organised in honour of the launching. Fitting out began subsequently.", "The need for increased tonnage grew critical as naval operations extended to the Eastern Mediterranean. In May 1915, \"Britannic\" completed mooring trials of her engines, and was prepared for emergency entrance into service with as little as four weeks' notice. The same month also saw the first major loss of a civilian ocean liner when Cunard's was torpedoed near the Irish coast by. The following month, the Admiralty decided to use recently requisitioned passenger liners as troop transports in the Gallipoli Campaign (also called the Dardanelles service). The first to sail were Cunard's and. As the Gallipoli landings proved to be disastrous and the", "When declared fit for service on 12 December 1915 at Liverpool, \"Britannic\" was assigned a medical team consisting of 101 nurses, 336 non-commissioned officers and 52 commissioned officers as well as a crew of 675 persons. The chief engineer was Robert Flemming and the chief surgeon was John C. H. Beaumont. Both were accustomed to Olympic-class ships as both had served on the \"Olympic\". On 23 December, she left Liverpool to join the port of Mudros on the island of Lemnos on the Aegean Sea to bring back sick and wounded soldiers. She joined with", "The Admiralty recalled the \"Britannic\" back into serving as a hospital ship two months later on 26 August 1916, and the ship returned to the Mediterranean Sea for a fourth voyage on 24 September of that year. On 29 September on her way to Naples, she encountered a violent storm from which she emerged unscathed. She left on 9 October for Southampton. Then, she made a fifth trip, which was", "After completing five successful voyages to the Middle Eastern theatre and back to the United Kingdom transporting the sick and wounded, \"Britannic\" departed Southampton for Lemnos at 14:23 on 12 November 1916, her sixth voyage to the Mediterranean Sea. \"Britannic\" passed Gibraltar around midnight on 15 November and arrived at Naples on the morning of 17 November, for her usual coalling and water refuelling stop, completing the first stage of her mission. A storm kept the ship at Naples until Sunday afternoon, when Captain Bartlett decided to take advantage of a brief break in the weather and continue. The seas rose once again just as \"Britannic\" left the port. By next morning, the storms died and the ship passed the Strait of Messina without problems. Cape Matapan was rounded in the first hours of 21 November. By morning, \"Britannic\" was steaming at full speed into the Kea Channel, between Cape Sounion (the southernmost point of Attica, the prefecture that includes Athens) and the island of Kea. There were 1,066 people on board: 673 crew, 315 Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC), 77 nurses and the captain.", "At 08:12 on 21 November 1916, a loud explosion shook the ship. The cause, whether it was a torpedo from an enemy submarine or a mine, was not apparent. It would later be revealed that the mines were planted in the Kea Channel on 21 October 1916 by under the command of. The reaction in the dining room was immediate; doctors and nurses left instantly for their posts but not everybody reacted the same way, as further aft, the power of the explosion was less felt and many thought the ship had hit a smaller boat. Captain Bartlett and Chief Officer Hume were on the bridge at the time and the gravity of the situation was soon evident. The explosion was on the starboard side, between holds two and three. The force of the explosion damaged the watertight bulkhead between hold one and the forepeak. The first four watertight compartments were filling rapidly with water, the boiler-man's tunnel connecting the firemen's quarters in the bow with boiler room six was seriously damaged, and water was flowing into that", "On the bridge, Captain Bartlett was already considering efforts to save the ship, despite its increasingly dire condition. Only two minutes after the blast, boiler rooms five and six had to be evacuated. In about ten minutes, \"Britannic\" was roughly in the same condition \"Titanic\" had been in one hour after the collision with the iceberg. Fifteen minutes after the ship was struck, the open portholes on E Deck were underwater. With water also entering the ship's aft section from the bulkhead between boiler rooms four and five, \"Britannic\" quickly developed a serious list to starboard due to the weight of the water flooding into the starboard side. With the shores of the Greek island Kea to the right, Bartlett gave the order to navigate the ship towards the island in an attempt to beach the vessel. The effect of the ship's starboard list and the weight of the rudder made attempts to navigate the ship under its", "By 08:45, the list was so great that even the gantry davits were now inoperable. At this point, Bartlett concluded that the rate at which \"Britannic\" was sinking had slowed so he called a halt to the evacuation and ordered the engines restarted in the hope that he might still be able to beach the ship. At 09:00 Bartlett was informed that the rate of flooding had increased due to the ship's forward motion and that the flooding had reached D-deck. Realising that there was now no hope of reaching land in time, Bartlett gave the final order to stop the engines and sounded two final long blasts", "Compared to \"Titanic\", the rescue of \"Britannic\" was facilitated by three factors: the temperature was higher ( compared to for \"Titanic\"), more lifeboats were available (35 were launched and stayed afloat compared to \"Titanic\"s 20) and help was closer (arrived less than two hours after first distress call compared to three and a half hours for \"Titanic\".) The first to arrive on the scene were fishermen from Kea on their caïque, who picked many men from the water. At 10:00, sighted the first lifeboats and 10 minutes later stopped and picked up 339 survivors. Armed boarding steamer HMS \"Heroic\" had arrived some minutes earlier and picked up 494. Some 150 had made it to Korissia, Kea, where surviving doctors and nurses from \"Britannic\" were trying to save the injured, using aprons and pieces of lifebelts to make dressings. A little barren quayside served as their operating room. \"Scourge\" and \"Heroic\" had no deck space for more survivors, and they left for Piraeus signalling the presence of those left at Korissia. arrived at 11:45 and, after sweeping the area, anchored in the small port at 13:00 to offer medical assistance and take on board the remaining survivors. At 14:00 the light cruiser arrived. \"Foxhound\" departed for Piraeus at 14:15 while \"Foresight\"", "The plan of the \"Britannic\" showed that she was intended to be more luxurious than her sister ships in order to compete with, SS \"Vaterland\" and. Enough cabins were provided for passengers divided into three classes. The White Star Line anticipated a considerable change in its customer base. Thus, the quality of the Third Class (intended for migrants) was lowered when compared to that of her sisters, while the quality of the Second Class increased. In addition, the number of crews planned was increased from about 860 – 880 on the \"Olympic\" and \"Titanic\" to 950 on the \"Britannic\". The quality of the First Class was also improved. Children began to appear as part of the clientele needed to be satisfied, and thus a playroom for them was built on the boat deck. Similar to her two sister ships, the first class amenities included the Grand Staircase, but the \"Britannic\"'s amenities were more sumptuous, with worked balustrades, decorative panels and a pipe organ. The A Deck of the ship was devoted in its entirety to the First Class, being fitted with a salon, two veranda cafes, a smoking room and a reading room. The B Deck included a hair salon. The most important addition was that of individual bathrooms in almost every First Class cabin, which would have been a first on an ocean liner (on the \"Olympic\" and the \"Titanic\", most passengers had to use public bathrooms). These facilities were not installed because the ship was converted to a hospital ship and sank before she could enter transatlantic service, so the planned facilities were either cancelled, destroyed, reused on other vessels (like \"Olympic\"), or just never used.", "A Welte Philharmonic Organ was planned to be installed on board \"Britannic\" but because of the outbreak of war, the instrument never made its way to Belfast. In April 2007, the restorers of a Welte", "The wreck of HMHS \"Britannic\" is at in about of water. It was discovered on 3 December 1975 by Jacques Cousteau, who explored it. In filming the expedition, Cousteau also held conference on camera with several surviving personnel from the ship including Sheila MacBeth Mitchell, a survivor of the sinking. In 1976, Cousteau entered the wreck with his divers for the first time. He expressed the opinion that the ship had been sunk by a single torpedo, basing this opinion on the damage to her plates. The ship lies on her starboard side hiding the zone of impact with the mine. There is a huge hole just beneath the forward well deck. The bow is heavily deformed and attached to the rest of the hull only by some pieces of C-deck. This is the result of the massive explosion that destroyed the entire part of the keel between bulkheads two and three and, due to sinking in only of water, the bow hit the seabed before the entire length of the liner was completely submerged. Despite this, the crew's quarters in the forecastle were found to be in good shape with many details still visible. The holds were found empty. The forecastle machinery and the two cargo cranes in the forward well deck are well preserved. The foremast is bent and lies on the sea floor near the wreck with the crow's nest still attached on it. The bell was not found. Funnel #1 was found a few metres from the Boat Deck. The other three funnels were found in the debris field (located off the stern). Pieces of coal lie beside the wreck. The wreck of \"Britannic\" is in excellent condition, and the only signs of deterioration are the children's playroom and some of the captain's quarters, but the rest of the ship is in outstanding shape. The wreck lies in shallow enough water that scuba divers trained in technical diving can explore it, but it is listed as a British war grave and any expedition must be approved by both the British and Greek governments. In mid-1995, in an expedition filmed by \"NOVA\", Dr Robert Ballard, best known for having discovered the wrecks of in 1985, and the in 1989, visited the wreck, using advanced side-scan sonar. Images were obtained from remotely controlled vehicles, but the wreck was not penetrated. Ballard found all the ship's funnels in surprisingly good condition. Attempts to find mine anchors failed. In August 1996, the wreck of HMHS \"Britannic\" was bought by Simon Mills, who has written two books about the ship: \"Britannic – The Last Titan\" and \"Hostage To Fortune\". In", "Having her career cut short in wartime, having never entered commercial service, and having had few victims, \"Britannic\" did not experience the enthusiasm aroused upon the mention of her name, unlike that of her sister ship \"Titanic\". After having been long ignored by the public, she finally gained fame when her wreck was discovered. Her name was reused by White Star Line", "The sinking of the ship was dramatised in a 2000 television film called \"Britannic\" that featured Edward Atterton, Amanda Ryan, Jacqueline Bisset and John Rhys-Davies. The film was a fictional account featuring a German agent sabotaging the ship, because the \"Britannic\" was secretly carrying munitions. A BBC2 documentary, \"Titanic's Tragic Twin – the Britannic Disaster\", was broadcast on 5 December 2016; presented by Kate Humble and Andy Torbet, it used up-to-date underwater film of the wreck and spoke to relatives of survivors." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Africa flight.", "Final fate.", "Record.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The L 59 was a naval airship ordered to prepare for the resupply of \"Generalmajor\" Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck’s troops. On 4 November 1917, after a 29-hour flight from Friedrichshafen under the command of Hugo Eckener, the airship arrived at Yambol (Jamboli) in Bulgaria, the last available airbase before flying over two thousand miles across the Mediterranean and \"Entente\"-held Africa. At Jamboli \"Kapitänleutnant\" [Lieutenant Commander] Ludwig Bockholt, a regular German naval officer, met the zeppelin. He would be commander for the mission, code named \"China-Sache\", loosely translated as \"China Show\" or \"China Matter.\" Because it would be impossible to resupply the airship with hydrogen gas upon its arrival in Africa, it was decided that no return trip would be made. Instead, it was planned that every part of the ship be cannibalized for use by Lettow-Vorbeck's bush army. The outer envelope would be used for tents, muslin linings would become bandages, the duralumin framework would be used for wireless towers, and so on. In addition to its own structure, L 59 carried 15 tons of supplies. The cargo included machine guns plus spares and ammunition, food, medical supplies, a medical team and Iron Cross medals. L 59's two initial attempts at starting the journey were foiled by weather in the Mediterranean, but on 21 November 1917 her third departure was successful. The ship made good time over Adrianople, the Sea of Marmara and the coast of Asia Minor. However, due to electrical storms over Crete, her wireless aerial was wound in and so the ship failed to receive messages from the German admiralty. She crossed over the African coast at 05:15 on 22 November near Mersa Matruh and, flying via the Dakhla Oasis set a dog-leg course up the Nile. That afternoon, an engine malfunctioned when a reduction gear housing cracked; the loss of this powerplant eliminated the prospect of radio transmission, although wireless messages could be received. The next morning she nearly crashed when heat turbulence from the dunes below and subsequent cooling reduced the buoyancy of her gas. The crew also suffered from headaches, hallucinations and general fatigue in the mid-day heat and freezing cold at night. Despite these difficulties, L 59 continued on over Sudan, only to be turned back on 23 November, with the ship due west of Khartoum when she received an \"abort\" message. L 59's volunteer crew implored the commander to continue, but he ordered the ship turned back and returned to Bulgaria after averting another potential disaster due to loss of buoyancy over Asia Minor. She returned to base the morning of 25 November 1917, having traveled over in 95 hours, or nearly four days in the air. When she nosed into her shed at Jamboli, the Zeppelin had enough fuel remaining for another 64 hours flight. It was later claimed by Richard Meinertzhagen, the chief of British intelligence in the area based at Cairo, that the recall message reporting that Lettow-Vorbeck had surrendered was faked. The British, having broken the German naval wireless code, were aware of the flight and mission. East Africa's Royal Flying Corps (RFC) squadrons were alerted to watch for the approach of the ship. However, what turned the airship back was a signal relayed from Lettow-Vorbeck. The weak signal was amplified and forwarded by stations in friendly or neutral territories, and after some hours it reached the German naval command. The signal informed headquarters not that Lettow had surrendered, but that the Schutztruppe had been unable to hold the flatlands around Mahenge, the planned destination of the airship, and had been forced by British artillery to retreat into jagged mountains where the airship would have no chance of touching down without risking explosion. With no hope of a place to safely land and with every likelihood of her being destroyed or falling into enemy hands, the German command had no choice but to order a return. The recall signal was sent from the Admiralty station at Nauen. Despite its failure, \"the adventure of L 59 was heroic both in scale and spirit.\" Later a transcript of the radio message was reported to have been found in Germany's World War archives, as well as a Turko-German wireless intercept (marked 'Secret') preserved in the files of the British Public Records office.", "Since the airship was not expected to return from her Africa mission, no plans for any further missions had been made. Another African flight was out of the question, so the ship was then offered for flights to supply the Ottoman army of Enver Pasha in Arabia, or to search for mines off Constantinople, but nothing came of these proposals. After several reconnaissance flights and bombing missions, L 59 took off from Jamboli to attack the British naval base at Malta, proceeding across the Balkans to the Strait of Otranto. On the evening of 7 April 1918 the surfaced German submarine \"UB-53\" observed the airship approaching from astern. Her commanding officer, \"Oberleutnant zur See\" Robert Sprenger, reported that he watched her fly past at about 210 m (700 ft), so \"close in fact that the details of the gondola could be seen clearly.\" A few minutes later, Sprenger noted two bursts in the air, and shortly afterwards \"a gigantic flame enveloped the airship and it nosed down into the water.\" The airship's destruction was not claimed by either the British or the Italians; her loss was officially attributed to an accident. None of the 21 crew survived the crash.", "in 95 hours, is still the longest non-stop military flight in history, over a century after its flight.", "The airship and its long-distance resupply mission was featured in \"The Ghosts of Africa\", a 1980 historical novel by British-born Canadian novelist William Stevenson set during the East African Campaign. Polish pilot and novelist Janusz Meissner described this flight in his novel \"L59\". The protagonist of \"O Olho de Hertzog\", a 2010 novel by João Paulo Borges Coelho set in post-World War I Mozambique, arrives in Africa by jumping from the airship using a parachute. The Wilbur Smith novel \"Assegai\" has plot elements inspired by the airship's journey." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Scientific discipline.", "Scholars." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Compared to ethnography, the study of single groups through direct contact with the culture, ethnology takes the research that ethnographers have compiled and then compares and contrasts different cultures. The term \"ethnologia\" (\"ethnology\") is credited to Adam Franz Kollár (1718-1783) who used and defined it in his \"Historiae ivrisqve pvblici Regni Vngariae amoenitates\" published in Vienna in 1783. as: “the science of nations and peoples, or, that study of learned men in which they inquire into the origins, languages, customs, and institutions of various nations, and finally into the fatherland and ancient seats, in order to be able better to judge the nations and peoples in their own times.” Kollár's interest in linguistic and cultural diversity was aroused by the situation in his native multi-ethnic and multilingual Kingdom of Hungary and his roots among its Slovaks, and by the shifts that began to emerge after the gradual retreat of the Ottoman Empire in the more distant Balkans. Among the goals of ethnology have been the reconstruction of human history, and the formulation of cultural invariants, such as the incest taboo and culture change, and the formulation of generalizations about \"human nature\", a concept which has been criticized since the 19th century by various philosophers (Hegel, Marx, structuralism, etc.). In some parts of the world, ethnology has developed along independent paths of investigation and pedagogical doctrine, with \"cultural anthropology\" becoming dominant especially in the United States, and \"social anthropology\" in Great Britain. The distinction between the three terms is increasingly blurry. Ethnology has been considered an academic field since the late 18th century, especially in Europe and is sometimes conceived of as any comparative study of human groups. The 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occident (the Western world), such as the notion of the \"Other\". This term was used in conjunction with \"savages\", which was either seen as a brutal barbarian, or alternatively, as the \"noble savage\". Thus, civilization was opposed in a dualist manner to barbary, a classic opposition constitutive of the even more commonly shared ethnocentrism. The progress of ethnology, for example with Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear progress, or the pseudo-opposition between \"societies with histories\" and \"societies without histories\", judged too dependent on a limited view of history as constituted by accumulative growth. Lévi-Strauss often referred to Montaigne's essay on cannibalism as an early example of ethnology. Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a structural method, at discovering universal invariants in human society, chief among which he believed to be the incest taboo. However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th- and 20th-century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, and Deleuze. The French school of ethnology was particularly significant for the development of the discipline, since the early 1950s. Important figures in this movement have included Lévi-Strauss, Paul Rivet, Marcel Griaule, Germaine Dieterlen, and Jean Rouch.", "See: List of scholars of ethnology" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Nunsploitation.", "Home video and classification details." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Killer Nun\" (1978) was produced in Italy. It features Anita Ekberg as Sister Gertrude, who is recovering from the removal of a brain tumor, although her Mother Superior (Alida Valli) dismisses Sister Gertrude's fears about a rushed recovery. Unfortunately, soon enough, it becomes clear that Sister Gertrude's fears were legitimate, as the hapless nun spirals into psychosis and addiction to morphine and heroin at the geriatric hospital where she works. As well as initiating a lesbian affair with Sister Mathieu (Paola Morra), Sister Gertrude stomps on an elderly woman's dentures, reads gory hagiographic details of the lives of tortured saints to her hapless charges, goes into a nearby town, picks up a man at a bar, and has impersonal sex, then returns to the hospital and maneuvers to have concerned Dr Poirret (Massimo Serato) dismissed due to his age. A handsome new doctor, Dr. Patrick Roland (Joe Dallesandro), arrives and becomes suspicious of Sister Gertrude, after Sister Gertrude is accused of throwing an elderly man engaged in sex with a nurse out of a window, inflicts grueling calisthenics on elderly patients, and takes a patient's crutches, forcing him to crawl. Finally. the Mother Superior is convinced that she must do something about her aberrant behavior... but is Sister Gertrude really the perpetrator of murder, or is someone trying to frame her?", "\"Killer Nun\" (Suor Omicidi) was an example of the nunsploitation genre, which centres on aberrant secularised behaviour from religious women. Unlike other examples of the genre, usually set in medieval or Renaissance locations, \"Killer Nun\" is firmly set in the present day, and has no pretensions to social commentary or any remarks about the role of religious women within the Church or the larger society. In the United Kingdom, Mary Whitehouse denounced it as one of the \"video nasties\" subgenre of violent horror cinema, which'might' adversely affect human behaviour. Although it was originally on a 'DPP list' of 'objectionable' films in the United Kingdom, compiled by the Director of Public Prosecutions in 1983 as a result of the aforementioned moral panic and released with 13 seconds of cuts in 1993. Liberalised British film, video and DVD censorship policy meant that a DVD of the film was released in the UK during 2006 in its uncut form. The \"Time Out Film Guide\" describes this film as \"a dated blend of softcore sleaze, routine blood-letting and explicable coyness\" which \"stars an over-the-hill Ekberg.\" An \"excessive scenario\" nevertheless has \"quaint evasions.\" According to this review, \"lesbianism is hinted at but not shown!\" and \"scenes of Ekberg shooting up are filmed with her back to the camera.\" Nunsploitation theme of religiously enforced isolated celibacy and religious oppression is made by example of the head nuns; experiencing morphine induced fevered visions and addicted to said morphine, \"Sister Gertrude,\" Mother Superior says refusing to provide any help to Gertrude's increasingly requests for getting medical treatment is with oppression, \"it is a nun’s vocation to suffer.\"", "The film has been released on DVD in America by Blue Underground, in Germany by Koch Media and in the UK by Shameless Screen Entertainment. Arrow Video will release the movie on Blu-ray in the US and United Kingdom on October 15, 2019. Color: Color Sound Mix: Mono Certification: Germany:18 / Finland:K-18 / Norway:18 / UK:18 / West Germany:18 / Iceland:(Banned)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Outline.", "Overview.", "Gen I: Dual-core enhanced Pentium M.", "Core Solo.", "Core Duo.", "Gen II: dual core with 64-bit microarchitecture.", "Core 2 Solo.", "Core 2 Duo.", "Core 2 Quad.", "Core 2 Extreme.", "Nehalem microarchitecture (1st generation).", "Core i3.", "Core i5.", "Core i7.", "Sandy Bridge microarchitecture (2nd generation).", "Core i3.", "Core i5.", "Core i7.", "Ivy Bridge microarchitecture (3rd generation).", "Core i3.", "Haswell microarchitecture (4th generation).", "Broadwell microarchitecture (5th generation).", "Skylake microarchitecture (6th generation).", "Kaby Lake microarchitecture (7th generation).", "Features.", "List of Kaby Lake processors.", "High-end Desktop processors (X-Series).", "Coffee Lake microarchitecture (8th generation).", "Coffee Lake features.", "Desktop processors (S-Series).", "Amber Lake microarchitecture (8th generation).", "Whiskey Lake microarchitecture (8th generation).", "Cannon Lake microarchitecture (8th generation).", "Skylake Refresh (9th generation).", "High-end Desktop processors (X-Series).", "Coffee Lake Refresh (9th generation).", "Desktop processors (S-Series).", "Cascade Lake microarchitecture (10th generation).", "High-end Desktop processors (X-Series).", "Ice Lake microarchitecture (10th generation).", "Comet Lake microarchitecture (10th generation).", "Mobile processors (U-Series)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Although Intel Core is a brand that promises no internal consistency or continuity, the processors within this family have been, for the most part, broadly similar. The first products receiving this designation were the Core Solo and Core Duo Yonah processors for mobile from the Pentium M design tree, fabricated at 65 nm and brought to market in January 2006. These are substantially different in design than the rest of the Intel Core product group, having derived from the Pentium Pro lineage that predated Pentium 4. The first Intel Core desktop processor—and typical family member—came from the Conroe iteration, a 65 nm dual-core design fabricated brought to market in July 2006, based on the all-new Intel Core microarchitecture with substantial enhancements in micro-architectural efficiency and performance, outperforming Pentium 4 across the board (or near to it), while operating at drastically lower clock rates. Maintaining high instructions per cycle (IPC) on a deeply pipelined and resourced out-of-order execution engine has remained a constant fixture of the Intel Core product group ever since. The new substantial bump in microarchitecture came with the introduction of the 45 nm Bloomfield desktop processor in November 2008 on the Nehalem architecture, whose main advantage came from redesigned I/O and memory systems featuring the new Intel QuickPath Interconnect and an integrated memory controller supporting up to three channels of DDR3 memory. Subsequent performance improvements have tended toward making additions rather than profound changes, such as adding the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set extensions to Sandy Bridge, first released on 32 nm in January 2011. Time has also brought improved support for virtualization and a trend toward higher levels of system integration and management functionality (and along with that, increased performance) through the ongoing evolution of facilities such as Intel Active Management Technology. Since 2019, the Core brand has been based on four product lines, consisting of the entry level i3, the mainstream i5, the high-end i7, and the \"enthusiast\" i9.", "Clock speeds range from 1.2 GHz to 4.2 GHz. (Intel Core i7-7700K) (or 4.5 GHz via Intel Turbo Boost Technology)", "The original \"Core\" brand refers to Intel's 32-bit mobile dual-core x86 CPUs, which derived from the Pentium M branded processors. The processor family used an enhanced version of the Intel P6 microarchitecture. It emerged in parallel with the NetBurst microarchitecture (Intel P68) of the Pentium 4 brand, and was a precursor of the 64-bit Core microarchitecture of Core 2 branded CPUs. The Core brand had two branches: the \"Duo\" (dual-core) and \"Solo\" (Duo with one disabled core, which replaced the Pentium M brand of single-core mobile processor). Intel launched the Core brand on January 6, 2006 with the release of the 32-bit \"Yonah\" CPU Intel's first dual-core mobile (low-power) processor. Its dual-core layout closely resembled two interconnected Pentium M branded CPUs packaged as a single die (piece) silicon chip (IC). Hence, the 32-bit microarchitecture of Core branded CPUs contrary to its name had more in common with Pentium M branded CPUs than with the subsequent 64-bit Core microarchitecture of Core 2 branded CPUs. Despite a major rebranding effort by Intel starting January 2006, some companies continued to market computers with the Yonah core marked as Pentium M. The Core series is also the first Intel processor used as the main CPU in an Apple Macintosh computer. The Core Duo was the CPU for the first generation MacBook Pro, while the Core Solo appeared in Apple's Mac Mini line. Core Duo signified the beginning of Apple's shift to Intel processors across their entire line. In 2007, Intel began branding the Yonah core CPUs intended for mainstream \"mobile\" computers as Pentium Dual-Core, not to be confused with the \"desktop\" 64-bit Core microarchitecture CPUs also branded as Pentium Dual-Core. September 2007 and January 4, 2008, marked the discontinuation of a number of \"Core\" branded CPUs including several Core Solo, Core Duo, Celeron and one Core 2 Quad chip.", "Intel Core Solo (product code 80538) uses the same two-core die as the Core Duo, but features only one \"active\" core. Depending on demand, Intel may also simply disable one of the cores to sell the chip at the Core Solo price—this requires less effort than launching and maintaining a separate line of CPUs that physically only have one core. Intel had used the same strategy previously with the 486 CPU in which early 486SX CPUs were in fact manufactured as 486DX CPUs but with the FPU disabled.", "Intel Core Duo (product code 80539) consists of two cores on one die, a 2 MB L2 cache shared by both cores, and an arbiter bus that controls both L2 cache and FSB (front-side bus) access.", "The successor to Core is the mobile version of the Intel Core 2 line of processors using cores based upon the Intel Core microarchitecture, released on July 27, 2006. The release of the mobile version of Intel Core 2 marks the reunification of Intel's desktop and mobile product lines as Core 2 processors were released for desktops and notebooks, unlike the first Intel Core CPUs that were targeted only for notebooks (although some small form factor and all-in-one desktops, like the iMac and the Mac Mini, also used Core processors). Unlike the Intel Core, Intel Core 2 is a 64-bit processor, supporting Intel 64. Another difference between the original Core Duo and the new Core 2 Duo is an increase in the amount of Level 2 cache. The new Core 2 Duo has tripled the amount of on-board cache to 6 MB. Core 2 also introduced a quad-core performance variant to the single- and dual-core chips, branded Core 2 Quad, as well as an enthusiast variant, Core 2 Extreme. All three chips are manufactured at a 65 nm lithography, and in 2008, a 45 nm lithography and support Front Side Bus speeds ranging from 533 MHz to 1600 MHz. In addition, the 45 nm die shrink of the Core microarchitecture adds SSE4.1 support to all Core 2 microprocessors manufactured at a 45 nm lithography, therefore increasing the calculation rate of the processors.", "The Core 2 Solo, introduced in September 2007, is the successor to the Core Solo and is available only as an ultra-low-power mobile processor with 5.5 Watt thermal design power. The original U2xxx series \"Merom-L\" used a special version of the Merom chip with CPUID number 10661 (model 22, stepping A1) that only had a single core and was also used in some Celeron processors. The later SU3xxx are part of Intel's CULV range of processors in a smaller μFC-BGA 956 package but contain the same Penryn chip as the dual-core variants, with one of the cores disabled during manufacturing.", "The majority of the desktop and mobile Core 2 processor variants are Core 2 Duo with two processor cores on a single Merom, Conroe, Allendale, Penryn, or Wolfdale chip. These come in a wide range of performance and power consumption, starting with the relatively slow ultra-low-power Uxxxx (10 W) and low-power Lxxxx (17 W) versions, to the more performance oriented Pxxxx (25 W) and Txxxx (35 W) mobile versions and the Exxxx (65 W) desktop models. The mobile Core 2 Duo processors with an 'S' prefix in the name are produced in a smaller μFC-BGA 956 package, which allows building more compact laptops. Within each line, a higher number usually refers to a better performance, which depends largely on core and front-side bus clock frequency and amount of second level cache, which are model-specific. Core 2 Duo processors typically use the full L2 cache of 2, 3, 4, or 6 MB available in the specific stepping of the chip, while versions with the amount of cache reduced during manufacturing are sold for the low-end consumer market as Celeron or Pentium Dual-Core processors. Like those processors, some low-end Core 2 Duo models disable features such as Intel Virtualization Technology.", "Core 2 Quad processors are multi-chip modules consisting of two dies similar to those used in Core 2 Duo, forming a quad-core processor. This allows twice the performance of a dual-core processors at the same clock frequency in ideal conditions. Initially, all Core 2 Quad models were versions of Core 2 Duo desktop processors, Kentsfield derived from Conroe and Yorkfield from Wolfdale, but later Penryn-QC was added as a high-end version of the mobile dual-core Penryn. The Xeon 32xx and 33xx processors are mostly identical versions of the desktop Core 2 Quad processors and can be used interchangeably.", "Core 2 Extreme processors are enthusiast versions of Core 2 Duo and Core 2 Quad processors, usually with a higher clock frequency and an unlocked clock multiplier, which makes them especially attractive for overclocking. This is similar to earlier Pentium processors labeled as Extreme Edition. Core 2 Extreme processors were released at a much higher price than their regular version, often $999 or more.", "With the release of the Nehalem microarchitecture in November 2008, Intel introduced a new naming scheme for its Core processors. There are three variants, Core i3, Core i5 and Core i7, but the names no longer correspond to specific technical features like the number of cores. Instead, the brand is now divided from low-level (i3), through mid-range (i5) to high-end performance (i7), which correspond to three, four and five stars in Intel's Intel Processor Rating following on from the entry-level Celeron (one star) and Pentium (two stars) processors. Common features of all Nehalem based processors include an integrated DDR3 memory controller as well as QuickPath Interconnect or PCI Express and Direct Media Interface on the processor replacing the aging quad-pumped Front Side Bus used in all earlier Core processors. All these processors have 256 KB L2 cache per core, plus up to 12 MB shared L3 cache. Because of the new I/O interconnect, chipsets and mainboards from previous generations can no longer be used with Nehalem-based processors.", "Intel intended the Core i3 as the new low end of the performance processor line from Intel, following the retirement of the Core 2 brand. The first Core i3 processors were launched on January 7, 2010. The first Nehalem based Core i3 was Clarkdale-based, with an integrated GPU and two cores. The same processor is also available as Core i5 and Pentium, with slightly different configurations. The Core i3-3xxM processors are based on Arrandale, the mobile version of the Clarkdale desktop processor. They are similar to the Core i5-4xx series but running at lower clock speeds and without Turbo Boost. According to an Intel FAQ they do not support Error Correction Code (ECC) memory. According to motherboard manufacturer Supermicro, if a Core i3 processor is used with a server chipset platform such as Intel 3400/3420/3450, the CPU supports ECC with UDIMM. When asked, Intel confirmed that, although the Intel 5 series chipset supports non-ECC memory only with the Core i5 or i3 processors, using those processors on a motherboard with 3400 series chipsets it supports the ECC function of ECC memory. A limited number of motherboards by other companies also support ECC with Intel Core ix processors; the Asus P8B WS is an example, but it does not support ECC memory under Windows non-server operating systems.", "The first Core i5 using the Nehalem microarchitecture was introduced on September 8, 2009, as a mainstream variant of the earlier Core i7, the Lynnfield core. Lynnfield Core i5 processors have an 8 MB L3 cache, a DMI bus running at 2.5 GT/s and support for dual-channel DDR3-800/1066/1333 memory and have Hyper-threading disabled. The same processors with different sets of features (Hyper-threading and other clock frequencies) enabled are sold as Core i7-8xx and Xeon 3400-series processors, which should not be confused with high-end Core i7-9xx and Xeon 3500-series processors based on Bloomfield. A new feature called Turbo Boost Technology was introduced which maximizes speed for demanding applications, dynamically accelerating performance to match the workload. The Core i5-5xx mobile processors are named Arrandale and based on the 32 nm Westmere shrink of the Nehalem microarchitecture. Arrandale processors have integrated graphics capability but only two processor cores. They were released in January 2010, together with Core i7-6xx and Core i3-3xx processors based on the same chip. The L3 cache in Core i5-5xx processors is reduced to 3 MB, while the Core i5-6xx uses the full cache and the Core i3-3xx does not support for Turbo Boost. Clarkdale, the desktop version of Arrandale, is sold as Core i5-6xx, along with related Core i3 and Pentium brands. It has Hyper-Threading enabled and the full 4 MB L3 cache. According to Intel \"Core i5 desktop processors and desktop boards typically do not support ECC memory\", but information on limited ECC support in the Core i3 section also applies to Core i5 and i7.", "Intel Core i7 as an Intel brand name applies to several families of desktop and laptop 64-bit x86-64 processors using the Nehalem, Westmere, Sandy Bridge, Ivy Bridge, Haswell, Broadwell, Skylake, and Kaby Lake microarchitectures. The Core i7 brand targets the business and high-end consumer markets for both desktop and laptop computers, and is distinguished from the Core i3 (entry-level consumer), Core i5 (mainstream consumer), and Xeon (server and workstation) brands. Intel introduced the Core i7 name with the Nehalem-based Bloomfield Quad-core processor in late 2008. In 2009 new Core i7 models based on the Lynnfield (Nehalem-based) desktop quad-core processor and the Clarksfield (Nehalem-based) quad-core mobile were added, and models based on the Arrandale dual-core mobile processor (also Nehalem-based) were added in January 2010. The first six-core processor in the Core lineup is the Nehalem-based Gulftown, which was launched on March 16, 2010. Both the regular Core i7 and the \"Extreme Edition\" are advertised as five stars in the Intel Processor Rating. In each of the first three microarchitecture generations of the brand, Core i7 has family members using two distinct system-level architectures, and therefore two distinct sockets (for example, LGA 1156 and LGA 1366 with Nehalem). In each generation, the highest-performing Core i7 processors use the same socket and QPI-based architecture as the medium-end Xeon processors of that generation, while lower-performing Core i7 processors use the same socket and PCIe/DMI/FDI architecture as the Core i5. \"Core i7\" is a successor to the Intel Core 2 brand. Intel representatives stated that they intended the moniker \"Core i7\" to help consumers decide which processor to purchase as Intel releases newer Nehalem-based products in the future.", "In early 2011, Intel introduced a new microarchitecture named Sandy Bridge. This is the second generation of the Core processor microarchitecture. It kept all the existing brands from Nehalem, including Core i3/i5/i7, and introduced new model numbers. The initial set of Sandy Bridge processors includes dual- and quad-core variants, all of which use a single 32 nm die for both the CPU and integrated GPU cores, unlike the earlier microarchitectures. All Core i3/i5/i7 processors with the Sandy Bridge microarchitecture have a four-digit model number. With the mobile version, the thermal design power can no longer be determined from a one- or two-letter suffix but is encoded into the CPU number. Starting with Sandy Bridge, Intel no longer distinguishes the code names of the processor based on number of cores, socket or intended usage; they all use the same code name as the microarchitecture itself. Ivy Bridge is the codename for Intel's 22 nm die shrink of the Sandy Bridge microarchitecture based on tri-gate (\"3D\") transistors, introduced in April 2012.", "Released on January 20, 2011, the Core i3-2xxx line of desktop and mobile processors is a direct replacement of the 2010 \"Clarkdale\" Core i3-5xx and \"Arrandale\" Core i3-3xxM models, based on the new microarchitecture. While they require new sockets and chipsets, the user-visible features of the Core i3 are largely unchanged, including the lack of support for Turbo Boost and AES-NI. Unlike the Sandy Bridge-based Celeron and Pentium processors, the Core i3 line does support the new Advanced Vector Extensions. This particular processor is the entry-level processor of this new series of Intel processors.", "In January 2011, Intel released new quad-core Core i5 processors based on the \"Sandy Bridge\" microarchitecture at CES 2011. New dual-core mobile processors and desktop processors arrived in February 2011. The Core i5-2xxx line of desktop processors are mostly quad-core chips, with the exception of the dual-core Core i5-2390T, and include integrated graphics, combining the key features of the earlier Core i5-6xx and Core i5-7xx lines. The suffix after the four-digit model number designates unlocked multiplier (K), low-power (S) and ultra-low-power (T). The desktop CPUs now all have four non-SMT cores (like the i5-750), with the exception of the i5-2390T. The DMI bus runs at 5 GT/s. The mobile Core i5-2xxxM processors are all dual-core and hyper-threaded chips like the previous Core i5-5xxM series, and share most of the features with that product line.", "The Core i7 brand was the high-end for Intel's desktop and mobile processors, until the announcement of the i9 in 2017. Its Sandy Bridge models feature the largest amount of L3 cache and the highest clock frequency. Most of these models are very similar to their smaller Core i5 siblings. The quad-core mobile Core i7-2xxxQM/XM processors follow the previous \"Clarksfield\" Core i7-xxxQM/XM processors, but now also include integrated graphics.", "Ivy Bridge is the codename for a \"third generation\" line of processors based on the 22 nm manufacturing process developed by Intel. Mobile versions of the CPU were released on April 2012 following with desktop versions on September 2012.", "The Ivy Bridge-based Core-i3-3xxx line is a minor upgrade to 22 nm process technology and better graphics.", "Haswell is the fourth generation Core processor microarchitecture, and was released in 2013.", "Broadwell is the fifth generation Core processor microarchitecture, and was released by Intel on September 6, 2014, and began shipping in late 2014. It is the first to use a 14 nm chip. Additionally, mobile processors were launched in January 2015 and Desktop Core i5 and i7 processors were released in June 2015.", "Skylake is the sixth generation Core processor microarchitecture, and was launched in August 2015. Being the successor to the Broadwell line, it is a redesign using the same 14 nm manufacturing process technology; however the redesign has better CPU and GPU performance and reduced power consumption. Intel also disabled overclocking non -K processors.", "Kaby Lake is the seventh generation Core processor microarchitecture, and was launched in October 2016 (mobile chips) and January 2017 (desktop chips). With the latest generation of microarchitecture, Intel decided to produce Kaby Lake processors without using their \"tick–tock\" manufacturing and design model. Similar to Skylake, Kaby Lake processors are produced using a 14 nanometer manufacturing process technology.", "Built on an improved 14 nm process (14FF+), Kaby Lake features faster CPU clock speeds and Turbo frequencies. Beyond these process and clock speed changes, little of the CPU architecture has changed from Skylake, resulting in identical IPC. Kaby Lake features a new graphics architecture to improve performance in 3D graphics and 4K video playback. It adds native HDCP 2.2 support, along with fixed function decode of H.264, HEVC Main and Main10/10-bit, and VP9 10-bit and 8-bit video. Hardware encode is supported for H.264, HEVC Main10/10-bit, and VP9 8-bit video. VP9 10-bit encode is not supported in hardware. OpenCL 2.1 is now supported. Kaby Lake is the first Core architecture to support hyper-threading for the Pentium-branded desktop CPU SKU. Kaby Lake also features the first overclocking-enabled i3-branded CPU.", "Features common to desktop Kaby Lake CPUs:", "Kaby Lake-X processors are modified versions of Kaby Lake-S processors that fit into the LGA 2066 socket. However, they can't take advantage of the unique features of the platform.", "Coffee Lake is the eighth generation Intel Core micro-architecture and was launched in October 2017. For the first time in the ten-year history of Intel Core processors, the Coffee Lake generation features an increase in core counts across the desktop lineup of processors, a significant driver of improved performance versus previous generations despite similar per-clock performance.", "Coffee Lake features largely the same CPU core and performance per MHz as Skylake/Kaby Lake. Features specific to Coffee Lake include:", "<nowiki>*</nowiki> Processors Core i3-8100 and Core i3-8350K with stepping B0 actually belong to \"Kaby Lake-S\" family", "Amber Lake is a refinement over the low power Mobile Kaby Lake CPUs.", "Whiskey Lake is Intel's codename for the third 14 nm Skylake process-refinement, following Kaby Lake Refresh and Coffee Lake. Intel announced low power mobile Whiskey Lake CPUs availability on August 28, 2018. It has not yet been advertised whether this CPU architecture contains hardware mitigations for Meltdown/Spectre class vulnerabilities—various sources contain conflicting information. Unofficially it was announced that Whiskey Lake has hardware mitigations against Meltdown and L1TF while Spectre V2 requires software mitigations as well as microcode/firmware update.", "Cannon Lake (formerly Skymont) is Intel's codename for the 10-nanometer die shrink of the Kaby Lake microarchitecture. As a die shrink, Cannon Lake is a new process in Intel's \"process–architecture–optimization\" execution plan as the next step in semiconductor fabrication. Cannon Lake are the first mainstream CPUs to include the AVX-512 instruction set. In comparison to the previous generation AVX2 (AVX-256), the new generation AVX-512 most notably provides double the width of data registers and double the number of registers. These enhancements would allow for twice the number of floating point operations per register due to the increased width in addition to doubling the overall \"number\" of registers, resulting in theoretical performance improvements of up to four times the performance of AVX2. At CES 2018, Intel announced that they had started shipping mobile Cannon Lake CPUs at the end of 2017 and that they would ramp up production in 2018. No further details were disclosed.", "", "The 9th generation Skylake CPUs are updated versions of previous Skylake X-Series CPUs with clockspeed improvements.", "", "The 9th generation Coffee Lake CPUs were released in the fourth quarter of 2018. They include hardware mitigations against certain Meltdown/Spectre vulnerabilities. For the first time in Intel consumer CPU history, these CPUs support up to 128 GB RAM. \"\" Even though the F suffix CPUs lack an integrated GPU, Intel set the same price for these CPUs as their featureful counterparts. <nowiki>*</nowiki> various reviews show that the Core i9 9900K CPU may consume over 140 W under load. The Core i9 9900KS may consume even more.", "", "Cascade Lake X-Series CPUs are the 10th generation versions of the previous Skylake X-Series CPUs. They offer minor clockspeed improvements and a highly reduced price.", "Ice Lake is codename for Intel's 10th generation microarchitecture, representing an enhancement of the 'Architecture' of the preceding generation Kaby Lake/Cannon Lake processors (as specified in Intel's process–architecture–optimization execution plan). As the successor to Cannon Lake, Ice Lake uses Intel's newer 10 nm+ fabrication process. Ice Lake will be the first Intel CPU to feature in-silicon mitigations for the hardware vulnerabilities discovered in 2017, Meltdown and Spectre. These side-channel attacks exploit branch prediction's use of speculative execution. These exploits may cause the CPU to reveal cached private information which the exploiting process is not intended to be able to access as a form of timing attack.", "Comet Lake is Intel's codename for the fourth 14 nm Skylake process-refinement, following Whiskey Lake. Intel announced low power mobile Comet Lake CPUs availability on August 21, 2019.", "Pentium and Celeron CPUs lack AVX2 support." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Vocalisation.", "Adaptations to cold.", "Adaptations to pressure and low oxygen.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Conservation status.", "Behaviour.", "Predators.", "Courtship and breeding.", "Feeding.", "Relationship with humans.", "In zoos and aquariums.", "Penguin rescue, rehabilitation and release.", "Cultural references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Emperor penguins were described in 1844 by English zoologist George Robert Gray, who created the generic name from Ancient Greek word elements, ἀ-πτηνο-δύτης [a-ptēno-dytēs], \"without-wings-diver\". Its specific name is in honour of the German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster, who accompanied Captain James Cook on his second voyage and officially named five other penguin species. Forster may have been the first person to see the penguins in 1773–74, when he recorded a sighting of what he believed was the similar king penguin (\"A. patagonicus\") but given the location, may very well have been \"A. forsteri\". Together with the king penguin, the emperor penguin is one of two extant species in the genus \"Aptenodytes\". Fossil evidence of a third species—Ridgen's penguin (\"A. ridgeni\")—has been found in fossil records from the late Pliocene, about three million years ago, in New Zealand. Studies of penguin behaviour and genetics have proposed that the genus \"Aptenodytes\" is basal; in other words, that it split off from a branch which led to all other living penguin species. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests this split occurred around 40 million years ago.", "Adult emperor penguins are in length, including bill and tail. The weight ranges from and varies by sex, with males weighing more than females. It is the fifth heaviest living bird species, after only the larger varieties of ratite. The weight also varies by season, as both male and female penguins lose substantial mass while raising hatchlings and incubating their egg. A male emperor penguin must withstand the extreme Antarctic winter cold for more than two months while protecting his egg. He eats nothing during this time. Most male emperors will lose around while they wait for their eggs to hatch. The mean weight of males at the start of the breeding season is and that of females is. After the breeding season this drops to for both sexes. Like all penguin species, emperor penguins have streamlined bodies to minimize drag while swimming, and wings that are more like stiff, flat flippers. The tongue is equipped with rear-facing barbs to prevent prey from escaping when caught. Males and females are similar in size and colouration. The adult has deep black dorsal feathers, covering the head, chin, throat, back, dorsal part of the flippers, and tail. The black plumage is sharply delineated from the light-coloured plumage elsewhere. The underparts of the wings and belly are white, becoming pale yellow in the upper breast, while the ear patches are bright yellow. The upper mandible of the long bill is black, and the lower mandible can be pink, orange or lilac. In juveniles, the auricular patches, chin and throat are white, while its bill is black. Emperor penguin chicks are typically covered with silver-grey down and have black heads and white masks. A chick with all-white plumage was seen in 2001, but was not considered to be an albino as it did not have pink eyes. Chicks weigh around after hatching, and fledge when they reach about 50% of adult weight. The emperor penguin's dark plumage fades to brown from November until February (the Antarctic summer), before the yearly moult in January and February. Moulting is rapid in this species compared with other birds, taking only around 34 days. Emperor penguin feathers emerge from the skin after they have grown to a third of their total length, and before old feathers are lost, to help reduce heat loss. New feathers then push out the old ones before finishing their growth. The average yearly survival rate of an adult emperor penguin has been measured at 95.1%, with an average life expectancy of 19.9 years. The same researchers estimated that 1% of emperor penguins hatched could feasibly reach an age of 50 years. In contrast, only 19% of chicks survive their first year of life. Therefore, 80% of the emperor penguin population comprises adults five years and older.", "As the species has no fixed nest sites that individuals can use to locate their own partner or chick, emperor penguins must rely on vocal calls alone for identification. They use a complex set of calls that are critical to individual recognition between parents, offspring and mates, displaying the widest variation in individual calls of all penguins. Vocalizing emperor penguins use two frequency bands simultaneously. Chicks use a frequency-modulated whistle to beg for food and to contact parents.", "The emperor penguin breeds in the coldest environment of any bird species; air temperatures may reach, and wind speeds may reach. Water temperature is a frigid, which is much lower than the emperor penguin's average body temperature of. The species has adapted in several ways to counteract heat loss. Dense feathers provide 80–90% of its insulation and it has a layer of sub-dermal fat which may be up to thick before breeding. While the density of contour feathers is approximately 9 per square centimetre (58 per square inch), a combination of dense afterfeathers and down feathers (plumules) likely play a critical role for insulation. Muscles allow the feathers to be held erect on land, reducing heat loss by trapping a layer of air next to the skin. Conversely, the plumage is flattened in water, thus waterproofing the skin and the downy underlayer. Preening is vital in facilitating insulation and in keeping the plumage oily and water-repellent. The emperor penguin is able to thermoregulate (maintain its core body temperature) without altering its metabolism, over a wide range of temperatures. Known as the thermoneutral range, this extends from. Below this temperature range, its metabolic rate increases significantly, although an individual can maintain its core temperature from down to. Movement by swimming, walking, and shivering are three mechanisms for increasing metabolism; a fourth process involves an increase in the breakdown of fats by enzymes, which is induced by the hormone glucagon. At temperatures above, an emperor penguin may become agitated as its body temperature and metabolic rate rise to increase heat loss. Raising its wings and exposing the undersides increases the exposure of its body surface to the air by 16%, facilitating further heat loss.", "In addition to the cold, the emperor penguin encounters another stressful condition on deep dives—markedly increased pressure of up to 40 times that of the surface, which in most other terrestrial organisms would cause barotrauma. The bones of the penguin are solid rather than air-filled, which eliminates the risk of mechanical barotrauma. While diving, the emperor penguin's oxygen use is markedly reduced, as its heart rate is reduced to as low as 15–20 beats per minute and non-essential organs are shut down, thus facilitating longer dives. Its haemoglobin and myoglobin are able to bind and transport oxygen at low blood concentrations; this allows the bird to function with very low oxygen levels that would otherwise result in loss of consciousness.", "The emperor penguin has a circumpolar distribution in the Antarctic almost exclusively between the 66° and 77° south latitudes. It almost always breeds on stable pack ice near the coast and up to offshore. Breeding colonies are usually in areas where ice cliffs and icebergs provide some protection from the wind. Three land colonies have been reported: one (now disappeared) on a shingle spit at the Dion Islands on the Antarctic Peninsula, one on a headland at Taylor Glacier in Victoria Land, and most recently one at Amundsen Bay. Since 2009, a number of colonies have been reported on shelf ice rather than sea ice, in some cases moving to the shelf in years when sea ice forms late. The northernmost breeding population is on Snow Island, near the northern tip of the Peninsula. Individual vagrants have been seen on Heard Island, South Georgia, and occasionally in New Zealand. The total population was estimated in 2009 to be at around 595,000 adult birds, in 46 known colonies spread around the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic; around 35% of the known population lives north of the Antarctic Circle. Major breeding colonies were located at Cape Washington, Coulman Island in Victoria Land, Halley Bay, Cape Colbeck, and Dibble Glacier. Colonies are known to fluctuate over time, often breaking into \"suburbs\" which move apart from the parent group, and some have been known to disappear entirely. The Cape Crozier colony on the Ross Sea shrank drastically between the first visits by the \"Discovery\" Expedition in 1902–03 and the later visits by the \"Terra Nova\" Expedition in 1910–11; it was reduced to a few hundred birds, and may have come close to extinction due to changes in the position of the ice shelf. By the 1960s it had rebounded dramatically, but by 2009 was again reduced to a small population of around 300.", "In 2012 the emperor penguin was uplisted from a species of least concern to near threatened by the IUCN. Along with nine other species of penguin, it is currently under consideration for inclusion under the US Endangered Species Act. The primary causes for an increased risk of species endangerment are declining food availability, due to the effects of climate change and industrial fisheries on the crustacean and fish populations. Other reasons for the species's placement on the Endangered Species Act's list include disease, habitat destruction, and disturbance at breeding colonies by humans. Of particular concern is the impact of tourism. One study concluded that emperor penguin chicks in a crèche become more apprehensive following a helicopter approach to. Population declines of 50% in the Terre Adélie region have been observed due to an increased death rate among adult birds, especially males, during an abnormally prolonged warm period in the late 1970s, which resulted in reduced sea-ice coverage. On the other hand, egg hatching success rates declined when the sea-ice extent increased; chick deaths also increased; The species is therefore considered to be highly sensitive to climatic changes. In 2009, the Dion Islands colony, which had been extensively studied since 1948, was reported to have completely disappeared at some point over the previous decade, the fate of the birds unknown. This was the first confirmed loss of an entire colony. Beginning in September 2015, a strong El Niño, strong winds, and record low amounts of sea ice resulted in \"almost total breeding failure\" with the deaths of thousands of emperor chicks for three consecutive years within the Halley Bay colony, the second largest emperor penguin colony in the world. Researchers have attributed this loss to immigration of breeding penguins to the Dawson-Lambton colony south, in which a tenfold population increase was observed between 2016 and 2018. However, this increase is nowhere near the total number of breeding adults formerly at the Halley Bay colony. A Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution study in January 2009 found that emperor penguins could be pushed to the brink of extinction by the year 2100 due to global climate change. The study constructed a mathematical model to predict how the loss of sea ice from climate warming would affect a big colony of emperor penguins at Terre Adélie, Antarctica. The study forecasted an 87% decline in the colony's population, from three thousand breeding pairs in 2009 to four hundred breeding pairs in 2100. In June 2014 a study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution concluded that emperor penguins are at risk from global warming, which is melting the sea ice. This study predicted that by 2100 all 45 colonies of emperor penguins will be declining in numbers, mostly due to loss of habitat. Loss of ice reduces the supply of krill, which is a primary food for emperor penguins.", "The emperor penguin is a social animal in its nesting and its foraging behaviour; birds hunting together may coordinate their diving and surfacing. Individuals may be active day or night. A mature adult travels throughout most of the year between the breeding colony and ocean foraging areas; the species disperses into the oceans from January to March. The American physiologist Gerry Kooyman revolutionised the study of penguin foraging behaviour in 1971 when he published his results from attaching automatic dive-recording devices to emperor penguins. He found that the species reaches depths of, with dive periods of up to 18 minutes. Later research revealed a small female had dived to a depth of near McMurdo Sound. It is possible that emperor penguins can dive for even deeper and longer periods, as the accuracy of the recording devices is diminished at greater depths. Further study of one bird's diving behaviour revealed regular dives to in water around deep, and shallow dives of less than, interspersed with deep dives of more than in depths of. This was suggestive of feeding near or at the sea bottom. In 1994, a penguin from Auster rookery reached a depth of 564 m; entire this dive took him 21.8 min. Both male and female emperor penguins forage for food up to from colonies while collecting food to feed chicks, covering per individual per trip. A male returning to the sea after incubation heads directly out to areas of permanent open water, known as polynyas, around from the colony. An efficient swimmer, the emperor penguin exerts pressure with both its upward and downward strokes while swimming. The upward stroke works against buoyancy and helps maintain depth. Its average swimming speed is. On land, the emperor penguin alternates between walking with a wobbling gait and tobogganing—sliding over the ice on its belly, propelled by its feet and wing-like flippers. Like all penguins, it is flightless. The emperor penguin is a very powerful bird. In one case, a crew of six men, trying to capture a single male penguin for a zoo collection, were repeatedly tossed around and knocked over before all of the men had to collectively tackle the bird, which weighs about half as much as a man. As a defence against the cold, a colony of emperor penguins forms a compact huddle (also known as the turtle formation) ranging in size from ten to several hundred birds, with each bird leaning forward on a neighbour. As the wind chill is the least severe in the center of the colony, all the juveniles are usually huddled there. Those on the outside upwind tend to shuffle slowly around the edge of the formation and add themselves to its leeward edge, producing a slow churning action, and giving each bird a turn on the inside and on the outside.", "The emperor penguin's predators include birds and aquatic mammals. Southern giant petrels (\"Macronectes giganteus\") are the predominant land predator of chicks, responsible for over one-third of chick deaths in some colonies; they also scavenge dead penguins. The south polar skua (\"Stercorarius maccormicki\") mainly scavenges for dead chicks, as the live chicks are usually too large to be attacked by the time of its annual arrival in the colony. Occasionally, a parent may attempt to defend its chick from attack, although it may be more passive if the chick is weak or sickly. The only known predators thought to attack healthy adults, and who attack emperor penguins in the water, are both mammals. The first is the leopard seal (\"Hydrurga leptonyx\"), which takes adult birds and fledglings soon after they enter the water. Orcas (\"Orcinus orca\"), mostly take adult birds, although they will attack penguins of any age in or near water.", "Although Emperor penguins can breed at around three years of age, they generally don't begin breeding for another one to three years. The yearly reproductive cycle begins at the start of the Antarctic winter, in March and April, when all mature emperor penguins travel to colonial nesting areas, often walking inland from the edge of the pack ice. The start of travel appears to be triggered by decreasing day lengths; emperor penguins in captivity have been induced successfully into breeding by using artificial lighting systems mimicking seasonal Antarctic day lengths. The penguins start courtship in March or April, when the temperature can be as low as. A lone male gives an ecstatic display, where it stands still and places its head on its chest before inhaling and giving a courtship call for 1–2 seconds; it then moves around the colony and repeats the call. A male and female then stand face to face, with one extending its head and neck up and the other mirroring it; they both hold this posture for several minutes. Once in pairs, couples waddle around the colony together, with the female usually following the male. Before copulation, one bird bows deeply to its mate, its bill pointed close to the ground, and its mate then does the same. Contrary to popular belief, Emperor penguins do not mate for life; they are serially monogamous, having only one mate each year, and remaining faithful to that mate. However, fidelity between years is only around 15%. The narrow window of opportunity available for mating appears to be an influence, as there is a priority to mate and breed which usually precludes waiting for the previous year's partner to arrive at the colony. The female penguin lays one egg in May or early June; it is vaguely pear-shaped, pale greenish-white, and measures around. It represents just 2.3% of its mother's body weight, making it one of the smallest eggs relative to the maternal weight in any bird species. 15.7% of the weight of an emperor penguin egg is shell; like those of other penguin species, the shell is relatively thick, which helps minimize risk of breakage. After laying, the mother's food reserves are exhausted and she very carefully transfers the egg to the male, and then immediately returns to the sea for two months to feed. The transfer of the egg can be awkward and difficult, especially for first-time parents, and many couples drop or crack the egg in the process. When this happens, the chick inside is quickly lost, as the egg cannot withstand the sub-freezing temperatures on the icy ground for more than one to two minutes. When a couple loses an egg in this manner, their relationship is ended and both walk back to the sea. They will return to the colony next year to try mating again. After the female departs for the sea and the male takes charge of their egg, he spends the dark, stormy winter incubating the egg in his brood pouch, balancing it on the tops of his feet, for around 65-75 consecutive days until hatching. The emperor penguin is the only species where this behaviour is observed; in all other penguin species both parents take shifts incubating. By the time the egg hatches, the male will have fasted for around 120 days since arriving at the colony. To survive the cold and savage winds of up to, the males huddle together, taking turns in the middle of the huddle. They have also been observed with their backs to the wind to conserve body heat. In the four months of travel, courtship, and incubation, the male may lose as much as, from a total mass of. Hatching may take as long as two or three days to complete, as the shell of the egg is thick. Newly hatched chicks are semi-altricial, covered with only a thin layer of down and entirely dependent on their parents for food and warmth. The chick usually hatches before the mother's return, and the father feeds it a curd-like substance composed of 59% protein and 28% lipid, which is produced by a gland in his oesophagus. This ability to produce \"crop milk\" in birds is only found in pigeons, flamingos and male Emperor penguins. The father is able to produce this crop milk to temporarily sustain the chick for only about one week, until the mother returns from fishing at sea with food to properly feed the chick. If the mother penguin is delayed, the chick will die. The young chick is brooded in what is called the \"guard phase\", spending time balanced on its parent's feet and sheltered in the brood pouch. The female penguin returns at any time from hatching up to ten days afterwards, from mid-July to early August. She finds her mate among the hundreds of fathers by his vocal call and takes over caring for the chick, feeding it by regurgitating the partially digested fish, squid and krill that she has stored in her stomach. The male is often reluctant to surrender the chick he has been caring for to its mother, but he soon leaves to take his turn at sea, spending 3 to 4 weeks feeding there before returning. The parents then take turns, one brooding while the other forages at sea. If either parent is delayed or fails to return to the colony, the lone parent will return to the sea to feed, leaving the chick to die. Abandoned eggs do not hatch and orphaned chicks never survive. Female emperors who failed to find a mate to breed with, or have lost their own chick may attempt to adopt a stray chick or steal the chick of another female. The mother of the chick and neighboring females will fight to protect the chick or reclaim it, if it has been successfully stolen. These scuffles involving several birds often result in the chick being smothered or trampled to death. Chicks which have been adopted or stolen are quickly abandoned once again, as the female is unable to feed and care for the chick alone. The parentless chicks wander around the colony attempting to seek food and protection from other adults. They will even try to shelter themselves in an adult bird's brood pouch already occupied by their own chick. These stray chicks are brusquely driven away by the adults and their chicks. All orphaned chicks will rapidly become weaker and die of starvation, or freeze to death. About 45–50 days after hatching, the chicks form a crèche, huddling together for warmth and protection. During this time, both parents forage at sea and return periodically to feed their chicks. A crèche may comprise up to several thousand chicks densely packed together and is essential for surviving the low Antarctic temperatures. From early November, chicks begin moulting into juvenile plumage, which takes up to two months and is usually not completed by the time they leave the colony. Adults cease feeding them during this time. All birds make the considerably shorter trek to the sea in December and January. The birds spend the rest of the summer feeding there.", "The emperor penguin's diet consists mainly of fish, crustaceans and cephalopods, although its composition varies from population to population. Fish are usually the most important food source, and the Antarctic silverfish (\"Pleuragramma antarcticum\") makes up the bulk of the bird's diet. Other prey commonly recorded include other fish of the family Nototheniidae, the glacial squid (\"Psychroteuthis glacialis\"), and the hooked squid species \"Kondakovia longimana\", as well as Antarctic krill (\"Euphausia superba\"). The emperor penguin searches for prey in the open water of the Southern Ocean, in either ice-free areas of open water or tidal cracks in pack ice. One of its feeding strategies is to dive to around, where it can easily spot sympagic fish like the bald notothen (\"Pagothenia borchgrevinki\") swimming against the bottom surface of the sea-ice; it swims up to the bottom of the ice and catches the fish. It then dives again and repeats the sequence about half a dozen times before surfacing to breathe.", "", "Since the 1930s, there have been several attempts at keeping emperor penguins in captivity, but until the 1960s these attempts were unsuccessful, as knowledge of penguin keeping in general was limited and acquired by trial and error. The first to achieve a level of success was Aalborg Zoo where a chilled house was built especially for this Antarctic species. One individual lived for 20 years at the zoo and a chick was hatched there, but died shortly after. Today, the species is kept at just a few zoos and public aquariums in North America and Asia. Emperor penguins were first successfully bred at SeaWorld San Diego; more than 20 birds have hatched there since 1980. Considered a flagship species, 55 individuals were counted in captivity in North American zoos and aquaria in 1999. In China, the emperor penguin was first bred at Nanjing Underwater World in 2009, followed by Laohutan Ocean Park in Dalian in 2010. Since then it has been kept and bred at a few other facilities in China, and the only confirmed twin emperor penguins (the species normally lays just one egg) hatched at Sun Asia Ocean World in Dalian in 2017. In Japan, the species is housed at Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium and Wakayama Adventure World, with successful hatching at Wakayama.", "In June 2011, a juvenile emperor penguin was found on the beach at Peka Peka, north of Wellington in New Zealand. He had consumed of sand, which he had apparently mistaken for snow, as well as sticks and stones, and had to undergo a number of operations to remove these to save his life. Following recovery, on 4 September, the juvenile, named \"Happy Feet\" (after the 2006 film), was fitted with a tracking device and released into the Southern Ocean north of Campbell Island. However, 8 days later scientists lost contact with the bird, suggesting that the transmitter had fallen off (considered likely) or that he had been eaten by a predator (considered less likely).", "The species' unique life cycle in such a harsh environment has been described in print and visual media. Apsley Cherry-Garrard, the Antarctic explorer, wrote in 1922: \"Take it all in all, I do not believe anybody on Earth has a worse time than an emperor penguin\". Widely distributed in cinemas in 2005, the French documentary \"La Marche de l'empereur\", which was also released with the English title \"March of the Penguins\", told the story of the penguins' reproductive cycle. The subject has been covered for the small screen five times by the BBC and presenter David Attenborough: first in episode five of the 1993 series on the Antarctic \"Life in the Freezer\", again in the 2001 series \"The Blue Planet\", once again in the 2006 series \"Planet Earth\", in \"Frozen Planet\" in 2011 and a one-hour programme dedicated to the species in the 2018 series Dynasties. The computer-animated movie \"Happy Feet\" (2006) features emperor penguins as its primary characters, with one in particular that loves to dance; although a comedy, it too depicts their life cycle and promotes an underlying serious environmental message of threats from global warming and depletion of food sources by overfishing. The computer-animated movie \"Surf's Up\" (2007) features a surfing emperor penguin named Zeke \"Big-Z\" Topanga. More than 30 countries have depicted the bird on their stamps – Australia, Great Britain, Chile and France have each issued several. It has also been depicted on a 1962 10 franc stamp as part of an Antarctic expedition series. Canadian band The Tragically Hip composed the song \"Emperor Penguin\" for their 1998 album \"Phantom Power\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formation.", "Types.", "Hoar frost.", "Advection frost.", "Window frost.", "White frost.", "Rime.", "Black frost.", "Effect on plants.", "Damage.", "Protection methods.", "Frost-free areas.", "Personifications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "If a solid surface is chilled below the dew point of the surrounding humid air and the surface itself is colder than freezing, ice will form on it. If the water deposits as a liquid that then freezes, it forms a coating that may look glassy, opaque, or crystalline, depending on its type. Depending on context, that process also may be called atmospheric icing. The ice it produces differs in some ways from crystalline frost, which consists of spicules of ice that typically project from the solid surface on which they grow. The main difference between the ice coatings and frost spicules arises from the fact that the crystalline spicules grow directly from desublimation of water vapour from air, and desublimation is not a factor in icing of freezing surfaces. For desublimation to proceed the surface must be below the frost point of the air, meaning that it is sufficiently cold for ice to form without passing through the liquid phase. The air must be humid, but not sufficiently humid to permit the condensation of liquid water, or icing will result instead of desublimation. The size of the crystals depends largely on the temperature, the amount of water vapor available, and how long they have been growing undisturbed. As a rule, except in conditions where supercooled droplets are present in the air, frost will form only if the deposition surface is colder than the surrounding air. For instance frost may be observed around cracks in cold wooden sidewalks when humid air escapes from the warmer ground beneath. Other objects on which frost commonly forms are those with low specific heat or high thermal emissivity, such as blackened metals; hence the accumulation of frost on the heads of rusty nails. The apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights. Where static air settles above an area of ground in the absence of wind, the absorptivity and specific heat of the ground strongly influence the temperature that the trapped air attains.", "", "Hoar frost, also hoarfrost, radiation frost, or pruina, refers to white ice crystals deposited on the ground or loosely attached to exposed objects, such as wires or leaves. They form on cold, clear nights when conditions are such that heat radiates out to the open air faster than it can be replaced from nearby sources, such as wind or warm objects. Under suitable circumstances, objects cool to below the frost point of the surrounding air, well below the freezing point of water. Such freezing may be promoted by effects such as flood frost or frost pocket. These occur when ground-level radiation losses cool air until it flows downhill and accumulates in pockets of very cold air in valleys and hollows. Hoar frost may freeze in such low-lying cold air even when the air temperature a few feet above ground is well above freezing. The word \"hoar\" comes from an Old English adjective that means \"showing signs of old age\". In this context, it refers to the frost that makes trees and bushes look like white hair. Hoar frost may have different names depending on where it forms: When surface hoar covers sloping snowbanks, the layer of frost crystals may create an avalanche risk; when heavy layers of new snow cover the frosty surface, furry crystals standing out from the old snow hold off the falling flakes, forming a layer of voids that prevent the new snow layers from bonding strongly to the old snow beneath. Ideal conditions for hoarfrost to form on snow are cold clear nights, with very light, cold air currents conveying humidity at the right rate for growth of frost crystals. Wind that is too strong or warm destroys the furry crystals, and thereby may permit a stronger bond between the old and new snow layers. However, if the winds are strong enough and cold enough to lay the crystals flat and dry, carpeting the snow with cold, loose crystals without removing or destroying them or letting them warm up and become sticky, then the frost interface between the snow layers may still present an avalanche danger, because the texture of the frost crystals differs from the snow texture and the dry crystals will not stick to fresh snow. Such conditions still prevent a strong bond between the snow layers. In very low temperatures where fluffy surface hoar crystals form without subsequently being covered with snow, strong winds may break them off, forming a dust of ice particles and blowing them over the surface. The ice dust then may form yukimarimo, as has been observed in parts of Antarctica, in a process similar to the formation of dust bunnies and similar structures. Hoar frost and white frost also occurs in man-made environments such as in freezers or industrial cold storage facilities. If such cold spaces or the pipes serving them are not well insulated and are exposed to ambient humidity, the moisture will freeze instantly depending on the freezer temperature. The frost may coat pipes thickly, partly insulating them, but such inefficient insulation still is a source of heat loss.", "Advection frost (also called wind frost) refers to tiny ice spikes that form when very cold wind is blowing over tree branches, poles, and other surfaces. It looks like rimming on the edges of flowers and leaves and usually forms against the direction of the wind. It can occur at any hour, day or night.", "Window frost (also called fern frost or ice flowers) forms when a glass pane is exposed to very cold air on the outside and warmer, moderately moist air on the inside. If the pane is not a good insulator (for example, if it is a single pane window), water vapour condenses on the glass forming frost patterns. With very low temperatures outside, frost can appear on the bottom of the window even with double pane energy efficient windows because the air convection between two panes of glass ensures that the bottom part of the glazing unit is colder than the top part. On unheated motor vehicles the frost will usually form on the outside surface of the glass first. The glass surface influences the shape of crystals, so imperfections, scratches, or dust can modify the way ice nucleates. The patterns in window frost form a fractal with a fractal dimension greater than one but less than two. This is a consequence of the nucleation process being constrained to unfold in two dimensions, unlike a snowflake which is shaped by a similar process but forms in three dimensions and has a fractal dimension greater than two. If the indoor air is very humid, rather than moderately so, water will first condense in small droplets and then freeze into clear ice. Similar patterns of freezing may occur on other smooth vertical surfaces, but they seldom are as obvious or spectacular as on clear glass.", "White frost is a solid deposition of ice that forms directly from water vapour contained in air. White frost forms when there is a relative humidity above 90% and a temperature below −8 °C (18 °F) and it grows against the wind direction, since air arriving from windward has a higher humidity than leeward air, but the wind must not be strong or it damages the delicate icy structures as they begin to form. White frost resembles a heavy coating of hoar frost with big, interlocking crystals, usually needle-shaped.", "Rime is a type of ice deposition that occurs quickly, often under heavily humid and windy conditions. Technically speaking, it is not a type of frost, since usually supercooled water drops are involved, in contrast to the formation of hoar frost, in which water vapour desublimates slowly and directly. Ships travelling through Arctic seas may accumulate large quantities of rime on the rigging. Unlike hoar frost, which has a feathery appearance, rime generally has an icy, solid appearance.", "Black frost (or \"killing frost\") is not strictly speaking frost at all, because it is the condition seen in crops when the humidity is too low for frost to form, but the temperature falls so low that plant tissues freeze and die, becoming blackened, hence the term \"black frost\". Black frost often is called \"killing frost\" because white frost tends to be less cold, partly because the latent heat of freezing of the water reduces the temperature drop.", "", "Many plants can be damaged or killed by freezing temperatures or frost. This varies with the type of plant, the tissue exposed, and how low temperatures get: a \"light frost\" of will damage fewer types of plants than a \"hard frost\" below. Plants likely to be damaged even by a light frost include vines—such as beans, grapes, squashes, melons—along with nightshades such as tomatoes, eggplants and peppers. Plants that may tolerate (or even benefit) from frosts include: Even those plants that tolerate frost may be damaged once temperatures drop even lower (below ). Hardy perennials, such as \"Hosta\", become dormant after the first frosts and regrow when spring arrives. The entire visible plant may turn completely brown until the spring warmth, or may drop all of its leaves and flowers, leaving the stem and stalk only. Evergreen plants, such as pine trees, withstand frost although all or most growth stops. Frost crack is a bark defect caused by a combination of low temperatures and heat from the winter sun. Vegetation is not necessarily damaged when leaf temperatures drop below the freezing point of their cell contents. In the absence of a site nucleating the formation of ice crystals, the leaves remain in a supercooled liquid state, safely reaching temperatures of. However, once frost forms, the leaf cells may be damaged by sharp ice crystals. Hardening is the process by which a plant becomes tolerant to low temperatures. See also Cryobiology. Certain bacteria, notably \"Pseudomonas syringae\", are particularly effective at triggering frost formation, raising the nucleation temperature to about. Bacteria lacking ice nucleation-active proteins (ice-minus bacteria) result in greatly reduced frost damage.", "Typical measures to prevent frost or reduce its severity include one or more of: Such measures need to be applied with discretion, because they may do more harm than good; for example, spraying crops with water can cause damage if the plants become overburdened with ice. An effective low cost method for small crop farms and plant nurseries, exploits the latent heat of freezing. A pulsed irrigation timer delivers water through existing overhead sprinklers at a low volumes to combat frosts down to. If the water freezes it giving off its latent heat, preventing the temperature of the foliage from falling much below zero.", "Frost-free areas are found mainly in the tropics, where they cover almost all land except at altitudes above about near the equator and around in the semi-arid middle tropics, but also in areas with subtropical climates that have winters tempered by strong oceanic influences. The most poleward frost-free areas are the lower altitudes of the Azores, Île Amsterdam, Île Saint-Paul, and Tristan da Cunha. The only reliably frost-free areas in the contiguous United States are the Florida Keys and the coastal areas of the Channel Islands of California. The hardiness zones there are 11a and 11b.", "Frost is personified in Russian culture as Ded Moroz. Indigenous peoples of Russia such as the Mordvins have their own traditions of frost deities. English folklore tradition holds that Jack Frost, an elfish creature, is responsible for feathery patterns of frost found on windows on cold mornings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The waterway from Lake Ilmen upstream the Msta and the Tsna Rivers, followed by a portage to the Tvertsa and downstream to the Volga River existed from the medieval times, as is evident from a large amount of archeological sites in the area. The name of Vyshny Volochyok is derived from, which means portage. On January 12, 1703 Russian Tsar Peter the Great signed a decree which ordered a canal to be built instead of the portage. Prince Matvey Gagarin was appointed the supervisor of the construction, and Adriaan Houter, a Dutch water engineer from Amsterdam, was hired to perform the construction. The waterway was opened in 1706 and became the first waterway connecting the basins of the Neva and the Volga. The canal, known as the Gagarin Canal, and later as the Tveretsky Canal, was long and deep. However, the construction project contained a number of mistakes, and as a result the canal decayed and some point the navigation became impossible. In 1719, Mikhail Serdyukov volunteered to perform the reconstruction of the canal, and on June 26, 1719 the canal was transferred under his supervision. Serdyukov built the Vyshny Volochyok Reservoir, which has two outflows, one to Lake Mstino and eventually to the Msta, and another one to the Tvertsa. He also completely reconstructed canals and locks. In 1774, the canal and surrounding areas were bought out by the state from the heirs of Serdyukov. Over the 18th century, a number of dams were constructed on the tributaries of the Msta and the Tvertsa, in order to maintain a high level of water needed for navigation. In 1773 Jacob Sievers, then the governor of Novgorod Governorate, was appointed the supervisor of the waterway. Sievers performed a reconstruction of the system, adding two minor water reservoirs. In 1797, one more reconstruction was carried out. This resulted in the dramatic increase of the traffic. Whereas in the 1760s, up to 4000 ships were annually using the canal, after 1775 the amount grew to 55,000 per year. The heaviest traffic was between 1814 and 1849, and then it started to decline due to competition with other waterways and with the railway. In 1778, the Vyshny Volochyok Waterway was defined as a stretch between Tver and the Ladoga Canal. It was subdivided into three parts: One between Tver and Lake Mstino, one more between Lake Mstino and Novgorod, and the third one between Novgorod and the mouth of the Volkhov River. The headquarters of the system were located in Vyshny Volochyok, which was just granted town status in 1770." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and definitions.", "Relationship to violet.", "In art, history and fashion.", "In prehistory and the ancient world: Tyrian purple.", "China.", "Purple in the Byzantine Empire and Carolingian Europe.", "The Middle Ages and Renaissance.", "18th and 19th centuries.", "20th and 21st centuries.", "In science and nature.", "Optics.", "Pigments.", "Dyes.", "Anthocyanins.", "Purple mountains phenomenon.", "Mythology.", "Associations and symbolism.", "Royalty.", "Piety, faith, penitence, and theology.", "Vanity, extravagance, individualism.", "The artificial, materialism and beauty.", "Ambiguity and ambivalence.", "Mourning.", "In culture and society.", "Engineering.", "Sexuality.", "Business." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The modern English word \"purple\" comes from the Old English \"purpul,\" which derives from Latin \"purpura\", which, in turn, derives from the Greek (\"porphura\"), the name of the Tyrian purple dye manufactured in classical antiquity from a mucus secreted by the spiny dye-murex snail. The first recorded use of the word \"purple\" dates to the late 900s AD.", "Purple is closely associated with violet. In common usage, both refer to colors that are between red and blue in hue, with purples closer to red and violets closer to blue. Similarly, in the traditional painters' color wheel, purple and violet are both placed between red and blue, with purple is closer to red. In optics, violet is a spectral color: It refers to the color of any different single wavelength of light on the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum (between approximately 380 and 450 nanometers), whereas purple is the color of various combinations of red, blue, and violet light, some of which humans perceive as similar to violet. In humans, the L (red) cone in the eye is primarily sensitive to long wavelength light in the yellow-red region of the spectrum, but is also somewhat sensitive to the shorter wavelength violet light that primarily stimulates the S (blue) cone. As a result, when violet light strikes the eye, the S-cone is stimulated strongly and the L-cone is stimulated weakly. Accordingly, strong blue light mixed with weaker red light can mimic this pattern of stimulation, causing humans to perceive colors that the same hue as violet, but with lower saturation. Computer and television screens rely on this phenomenon. Because they use the RGB color model, they cannot produce violet light and instead substitute purple (a mixture red and blue light).", "", "Purple first appeared in prehistoric art during the Neolithic era. The artists of Pech Merle cave and other Neolithic sites in France used sticks of manganese and hematite powder to draw and paint animals and the outlines of their own hands on the walls of their caves. These works have been dated to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC. As early as the 15th century BC the citizens of Sidon and Tyre, two cities on the coast of Ancient Phoenicia, (present day Lebanon), were producing purple dye from a sea snail called the spiny dye-murex. Clothing colored with the Tyrian dye was mentioned in both the \"Iliad\" of Homer and the \"Aeneid\" of Virgil. The deep, rich purple dye made from this snail became known as Tyrian purple. The process of making the dye was long, difficult and expensive. Thousands of the tiny snails had to be found, their shells cracked, the snail removed. Mountains of empty shells have been found at the ancient sites of Sidon and Tyre. The snails were left to soak, then a tiny gland was removed and the juice extracted and put in a basin, which was placed in the sunlight. There, a remarkable transformation took place. In the sunlight the juice turned white, then yellow-green, then green, then violet, then a red which turned darker and darker. The process had to be stopped at exactly the right time to obtain the desired color, which could range from a bright crimson to a dark purple, the color of dried blood. Then either wool, linen or silk would be dyed. The exact hue varied between crimson and violet, but it was always rich, bright and lasting. Tyrian purple became the color of kings, nobles, priests and magistrates all around the Mediterranean. It was mentioned in the Old Testament; in the Book of Exodus, God instructs Moses to have the Israelites bring him an offering including cloth \"of blue, and purple, and scarlet,\" to be used in the curtains of the Tabernacle and the garments of priests. The term used for purple in the 4th-century Latin Vulgate version of the Bible passage is \"purpura\" or Tyrian purple. In the \"Iliad\" of Homer, the belt of Ajax is purple, and the tails of the horses of Trojan warriors are dipped in purple. In the \"Odyssey\", the blankets on the wedding bed of Odysseus are purple. In the poems of Sappho (6th century BC) she celebrates the skill of the dyers of the Greek kingdom of Lydia who made purple footwear, and in the play of Aeschylus (525–456 BC), Queen Clytemnestra welcomes back her husband Agamemnon by decorating the palace with purple carpets. In 950 BC, King Solomon was reported to have brought artisans from Tyre to provide purple fabrics to decorate the Temple of Jerusalem. Alexander the Great (when giving imperial audiences as the basileus of the Macedonian Empire), the basileus of the Seleucid Empire, and the kings of Ptolemaic Egypt all wore Tyrian purple. The Roman custom of wearing purple togas may have come from the Etruscans; an Etruscan tomb painting from the 4th century BC shows a nobleman wearing a deep purple and embroidered toga. In Ancient Rome, the \"Toga praetexta\" was an ordinary white toga with a broad purple stripe on its border. It was worn by freeborn Roman boys who had not yet come of age, curule magistrates, certain categories of priests, and a few other categories of citizens. The \"Toga picta\" was solid purple, embroidered with gold. During the Roman Republic, it was worn by generals in their triumphs, and by the Praetor Urbanus when he rode in the chariot of the gods into the circus at the Ludi Apollinares. During the Empire, the \"toga picta\" was worn by magistrates giving public gladiatorial games, and by the consuls, as well as by the emperor on special occasions. During the Roman Republic, when a triumph was held, the general being honored wore an entirely purple toga bordered in gold, and Roman Senators wore a toga with a purple stripe. However, during the Roman Empire, purple was more and more associated exclusively with the emperors and their officers. Suetonius claims that the early emperor Caligula had the King of Mauretania murdered for the splendour of his purple cloak, and that Nero forbade the use of certain purple dyes. In the late empire the sale of purple cloth became a state monopoly protected by the death penalty. Jesus Christ, in the hours leading up to his crucifixion, was dressed in purple (πορφύρα: \"porphura\") by the Roman garrison to mock his claim to be 'King of the Jews'. The actual color of Tyrian purple seems to have varied from a reddish to a bluish purple. According to the Roman writer Vitruvius, (1st century BC), the murex coming from northern waters, probably murex brandaris, produced a more bluish color than those of the south, probably murex trunculus. The most valued shades were said to be those closer to the color of dried blood, as seen in the mosaics of the robes of the Emperor Justinian in Ravenna. The chemical composition of the dye from the murex is close to that of the dye from indigo, and indigo was sometimes used to make a counterfeit Tyrian purple, a crime which was severely punished. What seems to have mattered about Tyrian purple was not its color, but its luster, richness, its resistance to weather and light, and its high price. In modern times, Tyrian purple has been recreated, at great expense. When the German chemist, Paul Friedander, tried to recreate Tyrian purple in 2008, he needed twelve thousand mollusks to create 1.4 ounces of dye, enough to color a handkerchief. In the year 2000, a gram of Tyrian purple made from ten thousand mollusks according to the original formula, cost two thousand euros.", "In ancient China, purple was obtained not through the Mediterranean mollusc, but purple gromwell. The dye obtained did not easily adhere to fabrics, making purple fabrics expensive. Purple became a fashionable color in the state of Qi (齊) because its ruler developed a preference for it. As a result, the price of a purple spoke of fabric was in excess of five times that of a plain spoke. His minister, Guan Zhong (管仲), eventually convinced him to relinquish this preference. Purple was regarded as a secondary color in ancient China. In classical times, secondary colors were not as highly prized as the five primary colors of the Chinese spectrum, and purple was used to allude to impropriety, compared to crimson, which was deemed a primary color and thus symbolized legitimacy. Nevertheless, by the 6th Century, purple was ranked above crimson. Several changes to the ranks of colors occurred after that time.", "Through the early Christian era, the rulers of the Byzantine Empire continued the use of purple as the imperial color, for diplomatic gifts, and even for imperial documents and the pages of the Bible. Gospel manuscripts were written in gold lettering on parchment that was colored Tyrian purple. Empresses gave birth in the Purple Chamber, and the emperors born there were known as \"born to the purple,\" to separate them from emperors who won or seized the title through political intrigue or military force. Bishops of the Byzantine church wore white robes with stripes of purple, while government officials wore squares of purple fabric to show their rank. In western Europe, the Emperor Charlemagne was crowned in 800 wearing a mantle of Tyrian purple, and was buried in 814 in a shroud of the same color, which still exists (see below). However, after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the color lost its imperial status. The great dye works of Constantinople were destroyed, and gradually scarlet, made with dye from the cochineal insect, became the royal color in Europe.", "In 1464, Pope Paul II decreed that cardinals should no longer wear Tyrian purple, and instead wear scarlet, from kermes and alum, since the dye from Byzantium was no longer available. Bishops and archbishops, of a lower status than cardinals, were assigned the color purple, but not the rich Tyrian purple. They wore cloth dyed first with the less expensive indigo blue, then overlaid with red made from kermes dye. While purple was worn less frequently by Medieval and Renaissance kings and princes, it was worn by the professors of many of Europe's new universities. Their robes were modeled after those of the clergy, and they often wore square violet or purple caps and robes, or black robes with purple trim. Purple robes were particularly worn by students of divinity. Purple and violet also played an important part in the religious paintings of the Renaissance. Angels and the Virgin Mary were often portrayed wearing purple or violet robes.", "In the 18th century, purple was still worn on occasion by Catherine the Great and other rulers, by bishops and, in lighter shades, by members of the aristocracy, but rarely by ordinary people, because of its high cost. But in the 19th century, that changed. In 1856, an eighteen-year-old British chemistry student named William Henry Perkin was trying to make a synthetic quinine. His experiments produced instead the first synthetic aniline dye, a purple shade called mauveine, shortened simply to mauve. It took its name from the mallow flower, which is the same color. The new color quickly became fashionable, particularly after Queen Victoria wore a silk gown dyed with mauveine to the Royal Exhibition of 1862. Prior to Perkin's discovery, mauve was a color which only the aristocracy and rich could afford to wear. Perkin developed an industrial process, built a factory, and produced the dye by the ton, so almost anyone could wear mauve. It was the first of a series of modern industrial dyes which completely transformed both the chemical industry and fashion. Purple was popular with the pre-Raphaelite painters in Britain, including Arthur Hughes, who loved bright colors and romantic scenes.", "At the turn of the century, purple was a favorite color of the Austrian painter Gustav Klimt, who flooded his pictures with sensual purples and violets. In the 20th century, purple retained its historic connection with royalty; George VI (1896–1952), wore purple in his official portrait, and it was prominent in every feature of the coronation of Elizabeth II in 1953, from the invitations to the stage design inside Westminster Abbey. But at the same time, it was becoming associated with social change; with the Women's Suffrage movement for the right to vote for women in the early decades of the century, with Feminism in the 1970s, and with the psychedelic drug culture of the 1960s. In the early 20th century, purple, green, and white were the colors of the Women's Suffrage movement, which fought to win the right to vote for women, finally succeeding with the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920. Later, in the 1970s, in a tribute to the Suffragettes, it became the color of the women's liberation movement. In the concentration camps of Nazi Germany, prisoners who were members of non-conformist religious groups, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, were required to wear a purple triangle. During the 1960s and early 1970s, it was also associated with counterculture, psychedelics, and musicians like Jimi Hendrix with his 1967 song \"Purple Haze\", or the English rock band of Deep Purple which formed in 1968. Later, in the 1980s, it was featured in the song and album \"Purple Rain\" (1984) by the American musician Prince. The Purple Rain Protest was a protest against apartheid that took place in Cape Town, South Africa on 2 September 1989, in which a police water cannon with purple dye sprayed thousands of demonstrators. This led to the slogan \"The Purple Shall Govern\". The violet or purple necktie became very popular at the end of the first decade of the 21st century, particularly among political and business leaders. It combined the assertiveness and confidence of a red necktie with the sense of peace and cooperation of a blue necktie, and it went well with the blue business suit worn by most national and corporate leaders.", "", "Purple, unlike violet, is not one of the colors of the visible spectrum. It was not one of the colors of the rainbow identified by Isaac Newton, and it does not have its own wavelength of light. For this reason, it is called a \"non-spectral color\". It exists in culture and art, but not, in the same way that violet does, in optics. It is simply a combination, in various proportions, of two primary colors, red and blue. In color theory, a \"purple\" is defined as any non-spectral color between violet and red (excluding violet and red themselves). The spectral colors violet and indigo are not purples according to color theory, but they are purples according to common English usage since they are perceived to be similar. In the traditional color wheel long used by painters, purple is usually placed between crimson and violet. In a slightly different variation, on the color wheel, it is placed between magenta and violet. This shade is sometimes called electric purple (See shades of purple). In the RGB color model, named for the colors red, green, and blue, used to create all the colors on a computer screen or television, the range of purples is created by mixing red and blue light of different intensities on a black screen. The standard HTML color purple is created by red and blue light of equal intensity, at a brightness that is halfway between full power and darkness. In color printing, purple is sometimes represented by the color magenta, or sometimes by mixing magenta with red or blue. It can also be created by mixing just red and blue alone, but in that case the purple is less bright, with lower saturation or intensity. A less bright purple can also be created with light or paint by adding a certain quantity of the third primary color (green for light or yellow for pigment). On a chromaticity diagram, the straight line connecting the extreme spectral colors (red and violet) is known as the line of purples (or 'purple boundary'); it represents one limit of human color perception. The color magenta used in the CMYK printing process is near the center of the line of purples, but most people associate the term \"purple\" with a somewhat bluer tone, such as is displayed by the color \"electric purple\" (a color also directly on the line of purples), shown below. Some common confusion exists concerning the color names \"purple\" and \"violet\". Purple is a mixture of red and blue light, whereas violet is a spectral color. On the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, violet is on the curved edge in the lower left, while purples are on the straight line connecting the extreme colors red and violet; this line is known as the line of purples, or the purple line.", "During the Middle Ages, artists usually made purple by combining red and blue pigments; most often blue azurite or lapis-lazuli with red ochre, cinnabar, or minium. They also combined lake colors made by mixing dye with powder; using woad or indigo dye for the blue, and dye made from cochineal for the red.", "The most famous purple dye in the ancient world was Tyrian purple, made from a type of sea snail called the murex, found around the Mediterranean. (See history section above). In western Polynesia, residents of the islands made a purple dye similar to Tyrian purple from the sea urchin. In Central America, the inhabitants made a dye from a different sea snail, the purpura, found on the coasts of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The Mayans used this color to dye fabric for religious ceremonies, while the Aztecs used it for paintings of ideograms, where it symbolized royalty. In the Middle Ages, those who worked with blue and black dyes belonged to separate guilds from those who worked with red and yellow dyes, and were often forbidden to dye any other colors than those of their own guild. Most purple fabric was made by the dyers who worked with red, and who used dye from madder or cochineal, so Medieval violet colors were inclined toward red. Orcein, or \"purple moss\", was another common purple dye. It was known to the ancient Greeks and Hebrews, and was made from a Mediterranean lichen called archil or dyer's moss (Roccella tinctoria), combined with an ammoniac, usually urine. Orcein began to achieve popularity again in the 19th century, when violet and purple became the color of demi-mourning, worn after a widow or widower had worn black for a certain time, before he or she returned to wearing ordinary colors. From the Middle Ages onward, purple and violet dyes for the clothing of common people were often made from the blackberry or other red fruit of the genus rubus, or from the mulberry. All of these dyes were more reddish than bluish, and faded easily with washing and exposure to sunlight. A popular new dye which arrived in Europe from the New World during the Renaissance was made from the wood of the logwood tree (H\"aematoxylum campechianum\"), which grew in Spanish Mexico. Depending on the different minerals added to the dye, it produced a blue, red, black or, with the addition of alum, a purple color, It made a good color, but, like earlier dyes, it did not resist sunlight or washing. In the 18th century, chemists in England, France and Germany began to create the first synthetic dyes. Two synthetic purple dyes were invented at about the same time. Cudbear is a dye extracted from orchil lichens that can be used to dye wool and silk, without the use of mordant. Cudbear was developed by Dr Cuthbert Gordon of Scotland: production began in 1758, The lichen is first boiled in a solution of ammonium carbonate. The mixture is then cooled and ammonia is added and the mixture is kept damp for 3–4 weeks. Then the lichen is dried and ground to powder. The manufacture details were carefully protected, with a ten-feet high wall being built around the manufacturing facility, and staff consisting of Highlanders sworn to secrecy. French purple was developed in France at about the same time. The lichen is extracted by urine or ammonia. Then the extract is acidified, the dissolved dye precipitates and is washed. Then it is dissolved in ammonia again, the solution is heated in air until it becomes purple, then it is precipitated with calcium chloride; the resulting dye was more solid and stable than other purples. Cobalt violet is a synthetic pigment that was invented in the second half of the 19th century, and is made by a similar process as cobalt blue, cerulean blue and cobalt green. It is the violet pigment most commonly used today by artists. Mauveine, also known as aniline purple and Perkin's mauve, was the first synthetic organic chemical dye, discovered serendipitously in 1856. Its chemical name is 3-amino-2,±9-dimethyl-5-phenyl-7-(p-tolylamino)phenazinium acetate. Fuchsine was another synthetic dye made shortly after mauveine. It produced a brilliant fuchsia color. In the 1950s, a new family of purple and violet synthetic organic pigments called quinacridone came onto the market. It had originally been discovered in 1896, but were not synthetized until 1936, and not manufactured until the 1950s. The colors in the group range from deep red to bluish purple in color, and have the molecular formula CHNO. They have strong resistance to sunlight and washing, and are widely used today in oil paints, water colors, and acrylics, as well as in automobile coatings and other industrial coatings.", "Certain grapes, eggplants, pansies and other fruits, vegetables and flowers may appear purple due to the presence of natural pigments called anthocyanins. These pigments are found in the leaves, roots, stems, vegetables, fruits and flowers of all plants. They aid photosynthesis by blocking harmful wavelengths of light that would damage the leaves. In flowers, the purple anthocyanins help attract insects who pollinate the flowers. Not all anthocyanins are purple; they vary in color from red to purple to blue, green, or yellow, depending upon the level of their pH.", "It has been observed that the greater the distance between a viewers eyes and mountains, the lighter and more blue or purple they will appear. This phenomenon, long recognized by Leonardo da Vinci and other painters, is called aerial perspective or atmospheric perspective. The more distant the mountains are, the less contrast the eye sees between the mountains and the sky. The bluish color is caused by an optical effect called Rayleigh scattering. The sunlit sky is blue because air scatters short-wavelength light more than longer wavelengths. Since blue light is at the short wavelength end of the visible spectrum, it is more strongly scattered in the atmosphere than long wavelength red light. The result is that the human eye perceives blue when looking toward parts of the sky other than the sun. At sunrise and sunset, the light is passing through the atmosphere at a lower angle, and traveling a greater distance through a larger volume of air. Much of the green and blue is scattered away, and more red light comes to the eye, creating the colors of the sunrise and sunset and making the mountains look purple. A Crayola crayon called Purple Mountains' Majesty (or Purple Mountain Majesty) is named after this natural phenomenon. It was first formulated in 1993.", "Julius Pollux, a Greek grammarian who lived in the second century AD, attributed the discovery of purple to the Phoenician god and guardian of the city of Tyre, Heracles. According to his account, while walking along the shore with the nymph Tyrus, the god's dog bit into a murex shell, causing his mouth to turn purple. The nymph subsequently requested that Heracles create a garment for her of that same color, with Heracles obliging her demands giving birth to Tyrian purple.", "", "In Europe, since the time that the Roman emperors wore a Tyrian purple (\"purpura\") toga praetexta, purple has been the color most associated with power and royalty. The British Royal Family and other European royalty still use it as a ceremonial color on special occasions. In Japan, purple is associated with the emperor and Japanese aristocracy.", "In the West, purple or violet is the color most associated with piety and religious faith. In AD 1464, shortly after the Muslim conquest of Constantinople, which terminated the supply of Tyrian purple to Roman Catholic Europe, Pope Paul II decreed that cardinals should henceforth wear scarlet instead of purple, the scarlet being dyed with expensive cochineal. Bishops were assigned the color amaranth, being a pale and pinkish purple made then from a less-expensive mixture of indigo and cochineal. In the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic liturgy, purple symbolizes penitence; Anglican and Catholic priests wear a purple stole when they hear confession and a purple stole and chasuble during Advent and Lent. Since the Second Vatican Council of 1962–5, priests may wear purple vestments, but may still wear black ones, when officiating at funerals. The \"Roman Missal\" permits black, purple (violet), or white vestments for the funeral Mass. White is worn when a child dies before the age of reason. Students and faculty of theology also wear purple academic dress for graduations and other university ceremonies. Purple is also often worn by senior pastors of Protestant churches and bishops of the Anglican Communion. The color purple is also associated with royalty in Christianity, being one of the three traditional offices of Jesus Christ, i. e. king, although such a symbolism was assumed from the earlier Roman association or at least also employed by the ancient Romans.", "In Europe and America, purple is the color most associated with vanity, extravagance, and individualism. Among the seven major sins, it represents vanity. It is a color which is used to attract attention.", "Purple is the color most often associated with the artificial and the unconventional. It is the major color that occurs the least frequently in nature, and was the first color to be synthesized.", "Purple is the color most associated with ambiguity. Like other colors made by combining two primary colors, it is seen as uncertain and equivocal.", "In Britain, purple is sometimes associated with mourning. In Victorian times, close relatives wore black for the first year following a death (\"deep mourning\"), and then replaced it with purple or dark green trimmed with black. This is rarely practised today.", "", "The color purple plays a significant role in the traditions of engineering schools across Canada. Purple is also the color of the Engineering Corp in the British Military.", "Purple is sometimes associated with the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community. It is the symbolic color worn on Spirit Day, a commemoration that began in 2010 to show support for young people who are bullied because of their sexual orientation. Purple is closely associated with bisexuality, largely in part to the bisexual pride flag which combines pink – representing homosexuality – and blue – representing heterosexuality – to create the bisexual purple. The purple hand is another symbol sometimes used by the LGBT community during parades and demonstrations.", "The British chocolate company Cadbury chose purple as it was Queen Victoria’s favourite color. The company trademarked the color purple for chocolates with registrations in 1995 and 2004. However, the validity of these trademarks is the matter of an ongoing legal dispute following objections by Nestlé." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "The battle.", "The Wrecks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The American-British-Dutch-Australian Command fleet were defeated at the first Battle of the Java Sea, on 27 February 1942, and its ships had been dispersed or sunk by the Japanese. The light cruiser and the heavy cruiser had retreated to Tanjong Priok, the port of the capital, Batavia, in the west of the island. They planned to withdraw via the Sunda Strait to Tjilatjap on the south of the island and departed on the evening of 28 February; but encountering the Japanese Western Invasion Force later that night in Bantam Bay, they were both sunk in the battle of Sunda Strait; in a related but separate action, the Dutch destroyer HNLMS \"Evertsen\" was also destroyed. The heavy cruiser —severely damaged in the first Battle of the Java Sea—had withdrawn to Surabaya in the east, escorted by the Dutch destroyer. There she was joined by, which arrived with the survivors from the destroyer. Also at Surabaya were the four U.S. destroyers of Destroyer Division 58 (DesDiv 58), which had also withdrawn there from the battle, and, which had been undergoing repairs. On 28 February, after nightfall, DesDiv 58 (,,, and ) departed for Australia via Surabaya's shallow eastern channel, and then exited the Java area by going south through the Bali Strait; after a brief encounter with Japanese destroyers they arrived safely at Fremantle on 4 March. After emergency repairs, \"Exeter\" also left for further repairs in Ceylon, leaving at dusk on 28 February, and escorted by \"Encounter\" and \"Pope\". \"Witte de With\" was unable to leave, due to mechanical trouble, and was later bombed and sunk at Surabaya on 2 March. As \"Exeter\" had too much draft for leaving the main anchorage at Surabaya via its southern (thence eastern) channel, she was forced to leave via the main north entrance with a decision having been made to exit the Java Sea via Sunda Strait to the west, which was thought to be still open; the morning of 1 March found the three Allied ships west-northwest of Bawean island, heading westwards. The ships were making, as much as \"Exeter\" could manage.", "At 04:00 on 1 March, ships were sighted to the west; being in no condition for a battle, \"Exeter\" and her two consorts changed course to the northwest to avoid contact. More ships were sighted at 07:50, bearing southwest; again, the Allied ships had to alter course to avoid them. At 09:35, two heavy cruisers were sighted approaching from the south; these were and of the Eastern Invasion Force with two destroyers, and under Admiral Takeo Takagi, whom they had met two days previously at the battle of the Java Sea. \"Exeter\" and the destroyers turned northeast and increased speed, but soon sighted more ships approaching from the northwest; this was Admiral Ibo Takahashi, with the heavy cruisers and and two destroyers, and. Closing in on either side of the fleeing Allied ships, the cruisers opened fire at 10:20 as they came in range. \"Encounter\" and \"Pope\" responded by making smoke, and later attempted a torpedo attack, while \"Exeter\" returned fire, but at 11:20 \"Exeter\" sustained a major hit in her boiler room, resulting in a loss of power and slowing her to. As the four Japanese cruisers closed in on \"Exeter\", \"Encounter\" and \"Pope\" were ordered to break contact and make for a nearby rain squall in an attempt to shake off pursuit. Struck by multiple shell hits, \"Exeter\" was brought to a standstill, and the destroyer \"Inazuma\" closed in for a torpedo attack, hitting \"Exeter\" with two torpedoes on her starboard side. \"Exeter\" sank at 11:40, approximately north-west of Bawean Island. The Japanese cruisers had by then already switched their attention to the fleeing destroyers; \"Encounter\" however had gallantly disobeyed her orders to escape and had previously turned back to lay a smoke screen to protect the immobilised \"Exeter\", and aid survivors, but had soon been immobilised herself by shell hits and set on fire.Lieutenant Commander Eric 'Rattler' Morgan, the destroyer's captain, ordered his ship scuttled to prevent her capture by the Japanese and she capsized and sank about 12:10. \"Pope\" continued to evade and was able to reach the rain squall and was lost to sight. The respite was short-lived, however; shortly after noon she was spotted by planes from the aircraft carrier, which was covering the Western Invasion Force; she was dive-bombed and sunk around 13:50. There were just over 800 survivors altogether; these were picked up and imprisoned by the Japanese, with 190 of them subsequently dying in captivity.", "The wrecks of HMS \"Exeter\" and HMS \"Encounter\" were discovered by explorers - who had been looking for the wrecks for five years - in February 2007 only several miles apart, 90 miles north-west of Bawean Island, 60 miles from Exeter's captain's (Oliver Gordon) estimated sinking position, at a depth of approximately 60 m (200 ft). The remains of the wreck of USS \"Pope\" was discovered in late 2008, but was found to have already been heavily salvaged. In November 2016, a diving expedition discovered that the wrecks of HMS \"Exeter\" and HMS \"Encounter\" were missing from the ocean floor. The Guardian newspaper subsequently reported that the wrecks of HMS \"Exeter\", HMS \"Encounter\", and part of HMS \"Electra\", as well as the submarine USS \"Perch\" were missing and presumed illegally scavenged. Commenting on their removal, one of the men involved in their original discovery is stunned at the magnitude of the salvaging that appears to have taken place." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Equipment.", "Guitars.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "As a child, Murray's family lived in poverty and were constantly moving to different areas of London, which meant that he was often bullied and involved in fights. By the time his family settled in Clapton in 1970, Murray joined a skinhead gang and \"had a violent couple of years of being out on the street.\" He developed an interest in rock music when he was 15 after hearing \"Voodoo Chile\" by Jimi Hendrix on the radio, about which he recalls, \"everything changed, just like that. Getting into rock music wasn't like a gradual process for me; it was completely sort of extreme, totally black and white. I heard 'Voodoo Chile' on the radio and I thought, 'Bloody hell! What is THAT? How do you do THAT?' And I started hanging around the rock music section of the record stores and buying albums, thinking about getting into the big time, wondering what that would be like.\" After \"hanging 'round record stores\" and acquiring several Hendrix and blues albums, Murray decided to take up the guitar. At 16, he formed his first band, a trio called \"Stone Free\", which also included Adrian Smith on vocals, who would also become a member of Iron Maiden in 1980. From there, Murray would answer ads in \"Melody Maker\" and regularly audition for different bands at the weekend, leading to short stints in Electric Gas, \"this sort of soft-rock, American-type band\", and The Secret, \"this sort of mad punk band\", with whom he would record a single \"The Young Ones\" under the alias \"Reggie Mental\", and a demo, \"Café De Dance\", in 1977. He auditioned for Iron Maiden in late 1976, eager to get back into \"a more sort of heavy rock-type vibe\". At the time the band already had two guitarists, Dave Sullivan and Terry Rance, who disapproved of Murray being permitted to audition, seeing it as a slight on their ability. The group's founder and bassist Steve Harris did not hesitate to choose Murray over Sullivan and Rance, later stating: \"When the others made it plain that it was either them or Dave Murray, there was no choice. There was no way I was gonna let Dave go. Not only was he a nice bloke, he was just the best guitarist I'd ever worked with. He still is.\" Unfortunately, after only a few months in the band, Murray was sacked following an argument with then vocalist Dennis Wilcock after a show at the Bridgehouse pub in Canning Town which led him to team up with Adrian Smith again in his band, Urchin. During his short tenure with this group, Murray recorded one single, entitled \"She's a Roller\", after which he was asked to rejoin Iron Maiden following Dennis Wilcock's departure. Murray managed to hold down a 9 to 5 job working as a storekeeper for the London Borough of Hackney, which he has stated was \"so I could sleep off the night before\", but was able to resign once the band signed with EMI in 1979. Murray's solo guitar style throughout his career has been mainly based on the legato technique, such as on \"The Trooper\", which he claims \"evolved naturally. I'd heard Jimi Hendrix using legato when I was growing up, and I liked that style of playing.\" He has also written songs for the band, though he is less prolific than other band members, usually forgoing lyric writing and instead concentrating on the musical elements of songwriting. He mainly co-writes songs with another member of Iron Maiden, \"Charlotte the Harlot\" (from 1980's \"Iron Maiden\") being to date the only composition for which he is credited as sole writer. Murray and Harris are the only members of Iron Maiden to have appeared on every one of the band's releases. Along with Adrian Smith, he appears at no. 9 on Gibson's list of the \"Top 10 Metal Guitarists of All Time\". Murray played with the jazz ensemble on Iron Maiden drummer Nicko McBrain's instructional video \"Rhythms of the Beast\".", "Murray used and endorsed Marshall amplifiers almost exclusively, other than on the \"Somewhere in Time\" (1986) and \"Seventh Son of a Seventh Son\" (1988) albums and their respective tours, when he instead used Gallien-Krueger amps, and Victory Amps during the recordings of The Book Of Souls, but again Marshalls on tour (JVM410h). He has used Fender Stratocaster guitars almost exclusively. His black 1957/63 (the body is from a '63; the neck from a '57) Stratocaster, previously owned by late Free guitarist Paul Kossoff, was used approximately between 1978 and 1990. It was used as a template by Fender to manufacture an Artist Signature model in 2009. The original now resides at his mother's home. \"I bought it in 1976,\" he said. \"I saw it advertised in \"Melody Maker\"... I got the serial number to check it was [Kossoff's] guitar. It cost quite a bit of money but I didn't care. I just sold everything I had so I could get it, and I used it from then on. It just felt like I was holding a piece of magic because he had used this guitar.\" In addition to Fender guitars, Murray has occasionally performed with various Dean, Gibson, Ibanez, ESP and Jackson electric models. During the Dance of Death World Tour 2003-4, Murray used a Gibson Hummingbird acoustic guitar for live performances of the song \"Journeyman\".", "As of 2015, his main guitar is a 2-tone sunburst Fender Californian Series Stratocaster with two Seymour Duncan Hot Rails pick-ups (bridge and neck positions), one Seymour Duncan JB Jr. pick-up (middle position) and a chrome Floyd Rose tremolo system. In 2015, Seymour Duncan announced the release of the official Dave Murray Loaded Pickguard set with demonstrator Danny Young performing the official video on the Seymour Duncan YouTube channel. On stage, Murray has also performed with a cream USA Floyd Rose Classic Stratocaster (with a 22-fret maple neck and same electronics and hardware as the sunburst model), a custom Stratocaster based on his aforementioned Paul Kossoff Fender, and a Gibson Flying V. In 2010, he began using a Gibson Les Paul Traditional model, featuring Seymour Duncan '59 and JB pickups in the neck and bridge positions respectively, which his guitar technician, Colin Price, states was originally brought in for Adrian Smith to try, but was then bought by Murray for practising on tour. In addition to this Les Paul, he primarily used a 2002 Les Paul Classic with a Seymour Duncan '59 and JB neck and bridge pickups for the recording of \"The Book of Souls\" (2015), as well as a sunburst Gibson Les Paul Axccess with the same pickup configuration and a Floyd Rose tremolo. In 2015, Fender announced a second Artist Signature model, based on his California Series Stratocaster. It retains all the specifications of his original guitar, has a compound radius fretboard and is made entirely in their Ensenada plant in Mexico.", "In his spare time, Murray (along with bandmate Nicko McBrain) is an avid golfer, as seen in the \"Rock in Rio\" DVD and \"\"; he revealed in 2002 that he tries to play \"a couple of rounds in each week\" and his handicap \"can be anywhere from 15 to 24.\" Murray and his wife Tamar have one daughter named Tasha (born 1991). When not on tour, Murray resides on the island of Maui, Hawaii." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background history.", "Industrial use.", "Types of crushers.", "Jaw crusher.", "Gyratory crusher.", "Cone crusher.", "Compound cone crusher.", "Symons cone crusher.", "Single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher.", "Multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusher.", "Impact crusher.", "Horizontal shaft impactor (HSI) / Hammermill.", "Vertical shaft impactor (VSI).", "Mineral sizers.", "Crusher Bucket.", "Technology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In industry, crushers are machines which use a metal surface to break or compress materials into small fractional chunks or denser masses. Throughout most of industrial history, the greater part of crushing and mining part of the process occurred under muscle power as the application of force concentrated in the tip of the miners pick or sledge hammer driven drill bit. Before explosives came into widespread use in bulk mining in the mid-nineteenth century, most initial ore crushing and sizing was by hand and hammers at the mine or by water powered trip hammers in the small charcoal fired smithies and iron works typical of the Renaissance through the early-to-middle industrial revolution. It was only after explosives, and later early powerful steam shovels produced large chunks of materials, chunks originally reduced by hammering in the mine before being loaded into sacks for a trip to the surface, chunks that were eventually also to lead to rails and mine railways transporting bulk aggregations that post-mine face crushing became widely necessary. The earliest of these were in the foundries, but as coal took hold the larger operations became the coal breakers that fueled industrial growth from the first decade of the 1600s to the replacement of breakers in the 1970s through the fuel needs of the present day. The gradual coming of that era and displacement of the cottage industry based economies was itself accelerated first by the utility of wrought and cast iron as a desired materials giving impetus to larger operations, then in the late-sixteenth century by the increasing scarcity of wood lands for charcoal production to make the newfangled window glass material that had become—along with the chimney—\" 'all the rage' \" among the growing middle-class and affluence of the sixteenth-and-seventeenth centuries;and as always, the charcoal needed to smelt metals, especially to produce ever larger amounts of brass and bronze, pig iron, cast iron and wrought iron demanded by the new consumer classes. Other metallurgical developments such as silver and gold mining mirrored the practices and developments of the bulk material handling methods and technologies feeding the burgeoning appetite for more and more iron and glass, both of which were rare in personal possessions until the 1700s. Things only became worse when the English figured out how to cast the more economical iron cannons (1547), following on their feat of becoming the armorers of the European continent's powers by having been leading producers brass and bronze guns, and eventually by various acts of Parliament, gradually banned or restricted the further cutting of trees for charcoal in larger and larger regions in the United Kingdom. In 1611, a consortium led by courtier Edward Zouch was granted a patent for the reverberatory furnace, a furnace using coal, not precious national timber reserves, which was immediately employed in glass making. An early politically connected and wealthy Robber Baron figure Sir Robert Mansell bought his way into the fledgling furnace company wrested control of it, and by 1615 managed to have James I issued a proclamation forbidding the use of wood to produce glass, giving his families extensive coal holdings a monopoly on both source and means of production for nearly half-a-century. Abraham Darby a century later relocated to Bristol where he had established a building brass and bronze industry by importing Dutch workers and using them to raid Dutch techniques. Both materials were considered superior to iron for cannon, and machines as they were better understood. But Darby would change the world in several key ways. Where the Dutch had failed in casting iron, one of Darby's apprentices, John Thomas succeeded in 1707 and as Burke put it: \"\"had given England the key to the Industrial Revolution\"\". At the time, mines and foundries were virtually all small enterprises except for the tin mines (driven by the price and utility of brass) and materials came out of the mines already hammered small by legions of miners who had to stuff their work into carry sacks for pack animal slinging. Concurrently, mines needed drained resulting in Savery and Newcomen's early steam driven pumping systems. The deeper the mines went, the larger the demand became for better pumps, the greater the demand for iron, the greater the need for coal, the greater the demand for each. Seeing ahead clearly, Darby, sold off his brass business interests and relocated to Coalbrookdale with its plentiful coal mines, water power and nearby ore supplies. Over that decade his foundries developed iron casting technologies and began to supplant other metals in many applications. He adapted Coking of his fuel by copying Brewers practices. In 1822 the pumping industries needs for larger cylinders met up with Darby's ability to melt sufficient quantities of pig iron to cast large inexpensive iron cylinders instead of costly brass ones, reducing the cost of cylinders by nine-tenths. With gunpowder being increasingly applied to mining, rock chunks from a mining face became much larger, and the blast dependent mining itself had become dependent upon an organized group, not just an individual swinging a pick. Economies of scale gradually infused industrial enterprises, while transport became a key bottleneck as the volume of moved materials continued to increase following demand. This spurred numerous canal projects, inspired laying first wooden, then iron protected rails using draft animals to pull loads in the emerging bulk goods transportation dependent economy. In the coal industry, which grew up hand in hand as the preferred fuel for smelting ores, crushing and preparation (cleaning) was performed for over a hundred years in coal breakers, massive noisy buildings full of conveyors, belt-powered trip-hammer crushing stages and giant metal grading/sorting grates. Like mine pumps, the internal conveyors and trip-hammers contained within these 7—11 story buildings.", "Mining operations use crushers, commonly classified by the degree to which they fragment the starting material, with primary and secondary crushers handling coarse materials, and tertiary and quaternary crushers reducing ore particles to finer gradations. Each crusher is designed to work with a certain maximum size of raw material, and often delivers its output to a screening machine which sorts and directs the product for further processing. Typically, crushing stages are followed by milling stages if the materials need to be further reduced. Additionally rockbreakers are typically located next to a crusher to reduce oversize material too large for a crusher. Crushers are used to reduce particle size enough so that the material can be processed into finer particles in a grinder. A typical processing line at a mine might consist of a crusher followed by a SAG mill followed by a ball mill. In this context, the SAG mill and ball mill are considered grinders rather than crushers. In operation, the raw material (of various sizes) is usually delivered to the primary crusher's hopper by dump trucks, excavators or wheeled front-end loaders. A feeder device such as an apron feeder, conveyor or vibrating grid controls the rate at which this material enters the crusher, and often contains a preliminary screening device which allows smaller material to bypass the crusher itself, thus improving efficiency. Primary crushing reduces the large pieces to a size which can be handled by the downstream machinery. Some crushers are mobile and can crush rocks as large as 1.5 meter (60 inches). Primarily used in-pit at the mine face these units are able to move with the large infeed machines (mainly shovels) to increase the tonnage produced. In a mobile road operation, these crushed rocks are directly combined with concrete and asphalt which are then deposited on to a road surface. This removes the need for hauling oversized material to a stationary crusher and then back to the road surface.", "The following table describes typical uses of commonly used crushers:", "A jaw crusher uses compressive force for breaking of particle. This mechanical pressure is achieved by the two jaws of the crusher of which one is fixed while the other reciprocates. A jaw or toggle crusher consists of a set of vertical jaws, one jaw is kept stationary and is called a fixed jaw while the other jaw called a swing jaw, moves back and forth relative to it, by a cam or pitman mechanism, acting like a class II lever or a nutcracker. The volume or cavity between the two jaws is called the crushing chamber. The movement of the swing jaw can be quite small, since complete crushing is not performed in one stroke. The inertia required to crush the material is provided by a flywheel that moves a shaft creating an eccentric motion that causes the closing of the gap. Jaw crushers are heavy duty machines and hence need to be robustly constructed. The outer frame is generally made of cast iron or steel. The jaws themselves are usually constructed from cast steel. They are fitted with replaceable liners which are made of manganese steel, or Ni-hard (a Ni-Cr alloyed cast iron). Jaw crushers are usually constructed in sections to ease the process transportation if they are to be taken underground for carrying out the operations. Jaw crushers are classified on the basis of the position of the pivoting of the swing jaw The Blake crusher was patented by Eli Whitney Blake in 1858. The Blake type jaw crusher has a fixed feed area and a variable discharge area. Blake crushers are of two types- single toggle and double toggle jaw crushers. In the single toggle jaw crushers, the swing jaw is suspended on the eccentric shaft which leads to a much more compact design than that of the double toggle jaw crusher. The swing jaw, suspended on the eccentric, undergoes two types of motion- swing motion towards the fixed jaw due to the action of toggle plate and vertical movement due the rotation of the eccentric. These two motions, when combined, lead to an elliptical jaw motion. This motion is useful as it assists in pushing the particles through the crushing chamber. This phenomenon leads to higher capacity of the single toggle jaw crushers but it also results in higher wear of the crushing jaws. These type of jaw crushers are preferred for the crushing of softer particles. In the double toggle jaw crushers, the oscillating motion of the swing jaw is caused by the vertical motion of the pitman. The pitman moves up and down. The swing jaw closes, i.e., it moves towards the fixed jaw when the pitman moves upward and opens during the downward motion of the pitman. This type is commonly used in mines due to its ability to crush tough and abrasive materials. In the Dodge type jaw crushers, the jaws are farther apart at the top than at the bottom, forming a tapered chute so that the material is crushed progressively smaller and smaller as it travels downward until it is small enough to escape from the bottom opening. The Dodge jaw crusher has a variable feed area and a fixed discharge area which leads to choking of the crusher and hence is used only for laboratory purposes and not for heavy duty operations.", "A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a concave surface and a conical head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese steel surfaces. The inner cone has a slight circular movement, but does not rotate; the movement is generated by an eccentric arrangement. As with the jaw crusher, material travels downward between the two surfaces being progressively crushed until it is small enough to fall out through the gap between the two surfaces. A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine or ore processing plant. Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by the gape and mantle diameter or by the size of the receiving opening. Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary crushing. The crushing action is caused by the closing of the gap between the mantle line (movable) mounted on the central vertical spindle and the concave liners (fixed) mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the spindle that causes the central vertical spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis. The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft suspended spindle type, meaning that the main shaft is suspended at the top and that the eccentric is mounted above the gear. The short-shaft design has superseded the long-shaft design in which the eccentric is mounted below the gear.", "With the rapid development of mining technology, the cone crusher can be divided into four types: compound cone crusher, spring cone crusher, hydraulic cone crusher and gyratory crusher. According to different models, the cone crusher is divided into VSC series cone crusher (compound cone crusher), Symons cone crusher, PY cone crusher, single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher, multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusher, gyratory crusher, etc. A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less steepness in the crushing chamber and more of a parallel zone between crushing zones. A cone crusher breaks rock by squeezing the rock between an eccentrically gyrating spindle, which is covered by a wear-resistant mantle, and the enclosing concave hopper, covered by a manganese concave or a bowl liner. As rock enters the top of the cone crusher, it becomes wedged and squeezed between the mantle and the bowl liner or concave. Large pieces of ore are broken once, and then fall to a lower position (because they are now smaller) where they are broken again. This process continues until the pieces are small enough to fall through the narrow opening at the bottom of the crusher. A cone crusher is suitable for crushing a variety of mid-hard and above mid-hard ores and rocks. It has the advantage of reliable construction, high productivity, better granularity and shape of finished products, easy adjustment and lower operational costs. The spring release system of a cone crusher acts an overload protection that allows tramp to pass through the crushing chamber without damage to the crusher.", "Compound cone crusher (VSC series cone crusher) can crush materials of over medium hardness. It is mainly used in mining, chemical industry, road and bridge construction, building, etc. As for VSC series cone crusher, there are four crushing cavities (coarse, medium, fine and superfine) to choose. Compared with the same type, VSC series cone crusher, whose combination of crushing frequency and eccentricity is the best, can make materials have higher comminution degree and higher yield. In addition, VSC series cone crusher's enhanced laminating crushing effect on material particles makes the cubic shape of crushed materials better, which increases the selling point.", "Symons cone crusher (spring cone crusher) can crush materials of above medium hardness. And it is widely used in metallurgy, building, hydropower, transportation, chemical industry, etc. When used with jaw crusher, it can be used as secondary, tertiary or quaternary crushing. Generally speaking, the standard type of Symons cone crusher is applied to medium crushing. The medium type is applied to fine crushing. The short head type is applied to coarse fine crushing. As casting steel technique is adopted, the machine has good rigidity and large high strength.", "Single cylinder hydraulic cone crusher is mainly composed of main frame, transmission device, eccentric shaft, bowl-shaped bearing, crushing cone, mantle, bowl liner, adjusting device, adjusting sleeve, hydraulic control system, hydraulic safety system, dust-proof ring, feed plate, etc. It is applied to cement mill, mining, building construction, road &bridge construction, railway construction and metallurgy and some other industries.", "Multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusher is mainly composed of main frame, eccentric shaft, crushing cone, mantle, bowl liner, adjusting device, dust ring, transmission device, bowl-shaped bearing, adjusting sleeve, hydraulic control system, hydraulic safety system, etc. The electric motor of the cone crusher drives the eccentric shaft to make periodic swing movement under the shaft axis, and consequently surface of mantle approaches and leaves the surface of bowl liner now and then, so that the material is crushed due to squeezing and grinding inside the crushing chamber. The safety cylinder of the machine can ensure safety as well as lift supporting sleeve and static cone by a hydraulic system and automatically remove the blocks in the crushing chamber when the machine is suddenly stuffy. Thus the maintenance rate is greatly reduced and production efficiency is greatly improved as it can remove blocks without disassembling the machine.", "Impact crushers involve the use of impact rather than pressure to crush material. The material is contained within a cage, with openings on the bottom, end, or side of the desired size to allow pulverized material to escape. There are two types of impact crushers: horizontal shaft impactor and vertical shaft impactor.", "The HSI crushers break rock by impacting the rock with hammers that are fixed upon the outer edge of a spinning rotor. HSI machines are sold in stationary, trailer mounted and crawler mounted configurations. HSI's are used in recycling, hard rock and soft materials. In earlier years the practical use of HSI crushers is limited to soft materials and non abrasive materials, such as limestone, phosphate, gypsum, weathered shales, however improvements in metallurgy have changed the application of these machines.", "VSI crushers use a different approach involving a high speed rotor with wear resistant tips and a crushing chamber designed to 'throw' the rock against. The VSI crushers utilize velocity rather than surface force as the predominant force to break rock. In its natural state, rock has a jagged and uneven surface. Applying surface force (pressure) results in unpredictable and typically non-cubical resulting particles. Utilizing velocity rather than surface force allows the breaking force to be applied evenly both across the surface of the rock as well as through the mass of the rock. Rock, regardless of size, has natural fissures (faults) throughout its structure. As rock is 'thrown' by a VSI rotor against a solid anvil, it fractures and breaks along these fissures. Final particle size can be controlled by 1) the velocity at which the rock is thrown against the anvil and 2) the distance between the end of the rotor and the impact point on the anvil. The product resulting from VSI crushing is generally of a consistent cubical shape such as that required by modern Superpave highway asphalt applications. Using this method also allows materials with much higher abrasiveness to be crushed than is capable with an HSI and most other crushing methods. VSI crushers generally utilize a high speed spinning rotor at the center of the crushing chamber and an outer impact surface of either abrasive resistant metal anvils or crushed rock. Utilizing cast metal surfaces 'anvils' is traditionally referred to as a \"shoe and anvil VSI\". Utilizing crushed rock on the outer walls of the crusher for new rock to be crushed against is traditionally referred to as \"rock on rock VSI\". VSI crushers can be used in static plant set-up or in mobile tracked equipment.", "Mineral sizers are a variety of \"roll crushers\" which use two rotors with large teeth, on small diameter shafts, driven at a low speed by a direct high torque drive system. This design produces three major principles which all interact when breaking materials using sizer technology. The unique principles are the three-stage breaking action, the rotating screen effect, and the deep scroll tooth pattern. The three-stage breaking action: initially, the material is gripped by the leading faces of opposed rotor teeth. These subject the rock to multiple point loading, inducing stress into the material to exploit any natural weaknesses. At the second stage, material is broken in tension by being subjected to a three-point loading, applied between the front tooth faces on one rotor, and rear tooth faces on the other rotor. Any lumps of material that still remain oversize, are broken as the rotors chop through the fixed teeth of the breaker bar, thereby achieving a three dimensional controlled product size. The rotating screen effect: The interlaced toothed rotor design allows free flowing undersize material to pass through the continuously changing gaps generated by the relatively slow moving shafts. The deep scroll tooth pattern: The deep scroll conveys the larger material to one end of the machine and helps to spread the feed across the full length of the rotors. This feature can also be used to reject oversize material from the machine.", "A crusher bucket is an attachment for hydraulic excavators. Its way of working consists on a bucket with two crushing jaws inside, one of them is fixed and the other one moves back and forth relative to it, as in a jaw crusher. They are manufactured with a high inertia power train, circular jaw movement and an antiestagnation plate, which prevents large shredding pieces from getting stuck in the bucket's mouth, not allowing them to enter the crushing jaws. They have also the crushing jaws placed in a cross position. This position together with its circular motion gives these crusher buckets the faculty of grinding wet material.", "For the most part advances in crusher design have moved slowly. Jaw crushers have remained virtually unchanged for sixty years. More reliability and higher production have been added to basic cone crusher designs that have also remained largely unchanged. Increases in rotating speed have provided the largest variation. For instance, a 48-inch (120 cm) cone crusher manufactured in 1960 may be able to produce 170 tons/h of crushed rock, whereas the same size crusher manufactured today may produce 300 tons/h. These production improvements come from speed increases and better crushing chamber designs. The largest advance in cone crusher reliability has been seen in the use of hydraulics to protect crushers from being damaged when uncrushable objects enter the crushing chamber. Foreign objects, such as steel, can cause extensive damage to a cone crusher, and additional costs in lost production. The advance of hydraulic relief systems has greatly reduced downtime and improved the life of these machines." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Towards the Hungarian Conquest.", "Reign.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Family." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Árpád was the son of Álmos who is mentioned as the first head of the confederation of the Magyar tribes by all Hungarian chronicles. His mother's name and family are unknown. According to historian Gyula Kristó, Árpád was born around 845. His name derived from the Hungarian word for barley, \"árpa\", which is of Turkic origin. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (r. 913–959) states that the Hungarians \"had never at any time had any other prince\" before Árpád, which is in sharp contrast to the Hungarian chronicles' report of the position of Árpád's father. In Porphyrogenitus's narration, the Khazar khagan initiated the centralization of the command of the Hungarian tribes in order to strengthen his own suzerainty over them. The khagan initially wanted to appoint a chieftain named Levedi to lead the Hungarians. However, Levedi did not accept this offer and suggested that either Álmos or Árpád should be promoted instead of him. The khagan approached the Hungarians with this new proposal. They preferred Árpád to his father, because he was \"greatly admired for wisdom and counsel and valour, and capable of this rule\". Thereafter, Árpád was made \"prince according to the custom... of the Chazars, by lifting him upon a shield.\" Constantine Porphyrogenitus refers to Árpád as \"great prince of Turkey\" (referring to Hungary) (). The reliability of the Byzantine emperor's report of Árpád's election is debated by modern historians: for instance, Victor Spinei states that it is \"rather vague and scarcely credible\", but András Róna-Tas writes that its core is reliable. The latter historian adds that Árpád's election was promoted by Álmos, who forced Levedi to renounce his position as \"kende\". Accordingly, in Róna-Tas's view, Árpád succeeded Levedi as sacred ruler, or \"kende\", which enabled his father to preserve his own position as the actual leader of the Hungarians, or \"gyula\".", "The earliest reliable source of Árpád's life is an early 10th-century document, the \"Continuation of the Chronicle by George the Monk\". It narrates that the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise (r. 886–912) sent his envoy Nicetas Sclerus to the Hungarians in 894 or 895 \"to give presents\" and incite them against the Bulgarian Empire. Sclerus met with their two leaders, Árpád and Kurszán, at the Lower Danube. Sclerus's mission succeeded: a Hungarian army soon crossed the Danube on Byzantine ships against Bulgaria. An interpolation in Porphyrogenitus's text suggests that the invading Hungarians were under the command of Árpád's son, Liüntika. The positions held by Árpád and Kurszán at the time of their negotiations with Sclerus are debated by historians. Spinei wrote that Árpád was the \"gyula\", and Kurszán was the \"kende\". In contrast, Kristó said that Kurszán was the \"gyula\" and Árpád represented his father, Álmos \"kende\". The Hungarian army defeated the Bulgarians, but the latter hired the Pechenegs against them. The Bulgarians and Pechenegs simultaneously invaded the Hungarians' territories in the western regions of the Pontic steppes in 895 or 896. The destruction of their dwelling places by the Pechenegs forced the Hungarians to leave for a new homeland across the Carpathian Mountains towards the Pannonian Plain. The \"Illuminated Chronicle\" says that Árpád's father Álmos \"could not enter Pannonia, for he was killed in Erdelw\" or Transylvania. Engel, Kristó and Molnár, who accept the reliability of this report, wrote that Álmos's death was a ritual murder, similar to the sacrifice of the Khazar khagans in case of a disaster affecting their people. In contrast with them, Róna-Tas states that even if the report on Álmos's murder \"reflects true event, the only possible explanation would be that Árpád or someone in his entourage\" killed the aged prince. Spinei rejects the \"Illuminated Chronicle\"'s report on Álmos's murder in Transylvania, because the last mention of Álmos in the contrasting narration of the \"Gesta Hungarorum\" is connected to a siege of Ungvár (Uzhhorod, Ukraine) by the Hungarians. The latter chronicle says that Álmos appointed Árpád \"as leader and master\" of the Hungarians on this occasion.", "Árpád's name \"is completely unknown\" to all sources written in East Francia, which was one of the main powers of the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. These sources, including the \"Annales Alamannici\" and the \"Annales Eisnidlenses\", only mention another Hungarian leader, Kurszán. According to Kristó and other historians, these sources suggest that Kurszán must have been the \"gyula\" commanding the Hungarian forces, while Árpád succeeded his murdered father as the sacred \"kende\". Proposing a contrasting theory, the Romanian historian Curta wrote that Kurszán was the \"kende\" and Árpád \"gyula\" only succeeded him when Kurszán was murdered by Bavarians in 902 or 904. In contrast to nearly contemporaneous sources, Hungarian chronicles written centuries after the eventsfor instance, the \"Gesta Hungarorum\" and the \"Illuminated Chronicle\"emphasize Árpád's pre-eminent role in the conquest of the Carpathian Basin. The \"Gesta Hungarorum\" also highlights Árpád's military skills and his generosity. This chronicle also emphasizes that Tétény, one of the heads of the seven Hungarian tribes, acquired \"the land of Transylvania for himself and his posterity\" only after Árpád had authorized him to conquer it. The \"Gesta Hungarorum\" says that Árpád took \"an oath of the leading men and warriors of Hungary,\" and \"had his son, Prince Zoltán elevated\" to prince in his life. However, the reliability of this report and the list of the grand princes in the \"Gesta Hungarorum\" is dubious. For instance, it ignores Fajsz, who ruled when Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was completing his \"De Administrando Imperio\" around 950.", "The date of Árpád's death is debated. The \"Gesta Hungarorum\" states that he died in 907. However, Kristó wrote that he actually died in 900 or later because the \"Gesta\" says 903 is the starting date of the Hungarian \"land-taking\" instead of its actual date around 895. If the \"Gesta\"'s report on his funeral is reliable, Árpád was buried \"at the head of a small river that flows through a stone culvert to the city of King Attila\" where a village, Fehéregyháza, developed near Buda a century later.", "The Hungarians arrived in their new homeland within the Carpathians under Árpád. Árpád is the principal actor in the \"Gesta Hungarorum\", which attributes \"almost all memorable events\" of the \"Hungarian land-taking\" to him. Furthermore, until the extinction of the male line of his dynasty in 1301, Hungary was ruled by \"a single line of princes\", all descending from Árpád. Árpád is known among Hungarians as \"honalapító\" or the \"founder of our homeland\".", "Porphyrogenitus says Árpád \"had four sons: first, \"Tarkatzous\"; second, \"Ielech\"; third, \"Ioutotzas\"; fourth, \"Zaltas\"\". However, he also refers to one \"\"Liuntikas\", son of\" Árpád; Kristó wrote that Liuntikas (Liüntika) was an alternative name of Tarkatzous (Tarhos). The name and family of the mother of Árpád's sons are unknown. The following is a family tree presenting Árpád's ancestors and his descendants to the end of the 10th century: \"*Liüntika and Tarkatzus are supposed to have been identical.\"<br>\"**The father of Tas was one of Árpád's four or five sons, but his name is unknown.\"<br>\"***All later grand princes and kings of Hungary descended from Taksony.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Current state." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Tihvinskaya water system started at the Rybinsk wharf on the river Volga. The waterway went along the Volga (32 km), then on Mologa River (175 km). From the Mologa the waterway turned aside at Chagodoshcha and extended 179 km along the rivers Chagodoshcha and Gorun. After 33 km, it followed the river Sominka (32 km), lake Somin, and the Volchyna river (10 km). Between the upper Volchyna river and Lake Elgino the 6 km Tikhvin canal was built. Then the path ran on lake Elgino, the Tikhvinka River (159 km), and on the river Says. Then the route goes through the Says canal (10 km), and Ladoga Canal, and finally through the Neva River (58 km). The Tihvinskaya system ends at the pier near the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg. The Total length of the waterway was 902 km.", "In the 18th century, construction of the Tikhvinskaia water system was raised several times on the agenda, but each time it was delayed due to lack of money in the treasury. In the summer of 1797, because of the severe drought, ships could not pass through the Vyshny Volochyok Waterway. Again, the question arose about the construction of the Tikhvin system. On January 1, 1802 Alexander I approved a draft of the water system General Devolant that would have built 17 locks and 10 of the sluice, and the channel between the lakes and the Swan Krupin.", "Today, the Tihvinskaya water system has fallen into decline. All the gates are destroyed. The water level in Tikhvinka river fell more than 5 meters. Tikhvinka is heavily polluted with household waste. Numerous monuments of architecture, located on the banks of the Tikhvinka and its tributaries are in dilapidated condition." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Clinical and laboratory uses.", "Purification strategies.", "Usage note." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The serum of convalescent patients successfully recovering (or already recovered) from an infectious disease can be used as a biopharmaceutical in the treatment of other people with that disease, because the antibodies generated by the successful recovery are potent fighters of the pathogen. Such \"convalescent serum\" (antiserum) is a form of immunotherapy. Serum is also used in protein electrophoresis, due to the lack of fibrinogen which can cause false results. Fetal bovine serum (FBS) is rich in growth factors and is frequently added to growth media used for eukaryotic cell culture. A combination of FBS and the cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor was originally used to maintain embryonic stem cells, but concerns about batch-to-batch variations in FBS have led to the development of serum substitutes.", "Blood serum and plasma are some of the largest sources of biomarkers, whether for diagnostics or therapeutics. Its vast dynamic range, further complicated by the presence of lipids, salts, and post-translational modifications, as well multiple mechanisms of degradation, presents challenges in analytical reproducibility, sensitivity, resolution, and potential efficacy. For analysis of biomarkers in blood serum samples, it is possible to do a pre-separation by free-flow electrophoresis that usually consists of a depletion of serum albumin protein. This method enables greater penetration of the proteome via separation of a wide variety of charged or chargeable analytes, ranging from small molecules to cells.", "Like many other mass nouns, the word \"serum\" can be pluralized when used in certain senses. To speak of multiple serum specimens from multiple people (each with a unique population of antibodies), physicians sometimes speak of sera (the Latin plural, as opposed to \"serums\")." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Directorial credit dispute.", "Release.", "Reviews." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jack Beauregard (Henry Fonda) is an aging gunslinger who wants to retire peacefully to Europe. Three gunmen attempt to ambush him in a barbershop. After he has shot all three in quick succession, the barber's son asks his father if there is anyone in the world faster than Beauregard, to which the barber replies, \"Faster than him? Nobody!\" Beauregard pauses on his way to watch a down-and-out (Terence Hill) catching fish. He continues on to an old goldmine, only to find his friend Red has just been shot by a gang. He lies there dying. Beauregard asks Red about the whereabouts of a certain \"Nevada\", but Red only manages to disclose Nevada's village before dying. At a horse relay station, the down-and-out is asked by three men to deliver a basket to someone inside, who turns out to be Beauregard. The bum talks to Beauregard, revealing his detailed knowledge of Beauregard's feats, then throws the basket outside. A bomb hidden inside explodes. The bum identifies himself as \"Nobody\". He idolizes Beauregard and wants him to end his career in style by taking on all 150 of the Wild Bunch single-handed. The bandits are using a worthless goldmine to launder their stolen gold. Sullivan, the mine owner fronting for them, thinks Beauregard is out to kill him, and is trying to get him first. The leader of the Wild Bunch tells Sullivan not to give away their operation. At Nevada's village, Beauregard finds Nobody already there. He reveals that the Nevada Kid, Beauregard's brother, is dead. Again Nobody challenges him to face the Wild Bunch. Again Beauregard declines. Nobody arrives at a town. After showing his skill with a gun, he is hired by Sullivan to kill Beauregard. Instead, he helps Beauregard to do away with Sullivan's men. In a reveling mistake, Nobody fires 7 shots (4 at Beauregard's hat, one at the rope holding-up the barn door and one at Sullivan's shooter). Then the Wild Bunch ride into town to collect sticks of dynamite, stashing them in their saddlebags. Later, an old man tells Beauregard that he was bought out of a worthless gold mine by his partners Nevada and Red, only to have the mine produce much gold afterwards. Beauregard hurries off to the mine and catches Sullivan loading sacks of gold powder. Sullivan offers Beauregard Nevada's share, but Beauregard tells him he could not care less about his brother, and just takes two sacks, as well as $500 to pay for his passage to Europe. He then leaves to catch a train to New Orleans. A train is being loaded at a station with bars of gold, guarded by soldiers, when Nobody steals the train. Beauregard is waiting down the line when the Wild Bunch charge towards him across a featureless plain. Nobody arrives with the train, but refuses to rescue Beauregard until he \"makes his name in the history books\". Remembering the mirrored conchas on the gang’s dynamite-filled saddlebags, Beauregard aims at them. One by one, they explode, blowing up most of the charging gang until Nobody lets him board the train. In New Orleans, Beauregard and Nobody finally face off in the street, with a photographer and many spectators on hand. Nobody is the faster, and Beauregard falls to the ground. A sign is put up reading \"Jack Beauregard 1848–1899 Nobody was faster on the draw”. What's left of the Wild Bunch see it and switch their search to the anonymous Nobody. Later, Nobody walks by the ship (named Sundowner) that was to take Beauregard to Europe. However, it is revealed that Beauregard is in his cabin aboard, writing Nobody an affectionate farewell and leaving him to survive in his own playful and unheroic way.", "Shooting for \"My Name Is Nobody\" started on April 30, 1973. It was one of the few films related to Sergio Leone where 80% of the outdoor scenes were actually shot in the United States. The film was shot in nine weeks. Filming took place at Acoma Pueblo, the ghost town of Cabezon, the mission of San Esteban Del Rey in New Mexico and in the chalk dunes at White Sands. Leone predominantly stayed at home for the shoot and went to join the crew for five days in New Orleans. Leone replaced director Tonino Valerii, who was suffering from an ear infection, for one day on the set. Tensions rose on set between cinematographer Armando Nannuzzi and Valerii. Fonda was being told how to pick up money off the ground and was told two different ways to pick up between Valerii and Nannuzzi. Their relationship became more intense, with Nannuzzi eventually leaving the film.", "When the film began shooting in Spain in Almeria and Guadix, Valerii had a new cinematographer Giuseppe Ruzzolini and Sergio Salvati. Salvati worked as a cameraman uncredited for the sequences of the duel among mirrors and Nobody's meeting with Sullivan in the gambling room. A new problem arose on set when costumes for Henry Fonda vanished, leading to production stopping for nine days. This led to paying a high penalty to keep Fonda for a few days or postpone shooting until he was free again. Leone proposed to Valerii that they either cut 30 or 40 pages from the script or create a second unit to finish the film. Leone offered to take the second unit shots, which Valerii accepted. Claudio Mancini warned Valerii, stating that Leone would take credit for the film when they go back to Rome if he let him shoot anything. Valerii took over scenes involving Henry Fonda and the action sequences in the desert, while Leone directed the saloon scene with Terence Hill showing his gunslinger skills and parts of the sequences in the village festival, and the public urinal scene which was not in the original script. Assumptions range between how much Leone contributed to the film. Christopher Frayling noted that \"the most likely scenario is that Leone helped out on a duel, then took over second-unit work on 'the battle', and then directed the opening scenes and the carnival section of the film.\" John Landis, who has claimed to be an extra in the film, said that \"We shot for a couple of weeks, among hundreds of extras on horseback, attacking and firing wildly. Fonda and Hill kept us all at bay. [...] Leone directed that battle on horseback.\" Neil Summers who played Squirrel stated that Leone \"directed most of the scenes I was in [...] [Leone] worked slowly and was constantly trying new angles with his camera and new innovative shots with his actors.\" Valerii himself stated that \"scenes filmed by Leone are: Terence Hill getting drunk in the saloon (but not the close-ups of that shattering glasses, I shot those myself; and also the footage of the betting, with Piero Lulli taking the money, is mine); the part of the sequence at the fair which starts from the moment where Nobody steals the apple from the boy, to the episode of the pies thrown at the negroes' faces; the digression in the public urinal, [...] and several close-ups of Nobody who, while Beauregard fights the Wild Bunch, takes note of the body count as if they were points at a game, another addition on the part of Leone, who thought it was a funny idea.\" Screenwriter Ernesto Gastaldi confirmed Valerii's comments stating that \"Tonino shot the whole film, absolutely ON HIS OWN\" and that Leone \"organized a second unit crew and shot a couple of sequences, which in my opinion are the weakest in the film: the urinal, stretched in an abnormal way, and the glass contest in the saloon. Nothing else.\" Sergio Donati expanded on this, stating that some photographers were sent over by the press office, and asked Leone, who was on set for a single day, to sit behind camera in a director's pose with Valerii's permission. Donati stated that \"inevitably, from that moment on, everyone, in and outside the movie business started saying \"Yeah, actually the real director of the film was Leone, who saved it from the disaster of an incapable director\". Leone's own discussion following the film's release often contradicted itself.", "Prior to its release in Italy, \"My Name Is Nobody\" was released in West Germany and France on December 13 and 14 respectively. Italian audiences got to see it starting 21 December 1973, where it was distributed by Titanus. The film grossed over 3.6 billion lire and was the third highest-grossing film in Italy of the year, behind Salvatore Samperi's \"Malicious\" (5.5 billion lire) and Dino Risi's \"Sessomatto\". In the United States, it was cut to 111 minutes and \"nearly flopped\" according to Italian film historian Roberto Curti. In 2015, a novelization of the film by Michael R. Hudson was published in the United States by Raven Head Press as part of a series of adaptations of several of Gastaldi's scripts, including \"The Horrible Dr. Hichcock\" and \"The Case of the Bloody Iris\".", "Contemporary reviews are positive. \"The New York Times\" gave it a positive review, saying it was \"very entertaining\" and that it \"...is the kind of Western that only an immensely appreciative and witty Italian film maker could make.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional description.", "Geography.", "History.", "Language.", "Government.", "Calendar.", "Inspiration.", "A calque upon England.", "Homely names.", "Childhood experience.", "Adaptations.", "Film.", "Games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Tolkien took considerable trouble over the exact details of the Shire. Little of his carefully-crafted fictional geography, history, calendar, and constitution appeared in \"The Hobbit\" or \"The Lord of the Rings\", though additional details were given in the Appendices of later editions. The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey comments that all the same, they provided the \"depth\", the feeling in the reader's mind that this was a real and complex place, a quality that Tolkien believed essential to a successful fantasy.", "In Tolkien's fiction, the Shire is described as a small but beautiful, idyllic and fruitful land, beloved by its hobbit inhabitants. They had agriculture but were not industrialized. The landscape included downland and woods like the English countryside. The Shire was fully inland; most hobbits feared the Sea. The Shire measured 40 leagues (193 km, 120 miles)) east to west and 50 leagues (241 km, 150 miles) from north to south, with an area of some : roughly that of the English Midlands. The main and oldest part of the Shire was bordered to the east by the Brandywine River, on the north by uplands rising to the Hills of Evendim, on the west by the Far Downs, and on the south by marshland. It expanded to the east into Buckland between the Brandywine and the Old Forest, and (much later) to the west into the Westmarch between the Far Downs and the Tower Hills. The Shire was subdivided into four Farthings (\"fourth-ings\", \"quarterings\"), as Iceland once was; similarly, Yorkshire was historically divided into three \"ridings\". The Three-Farthing Stone marked the approximate centre of the Shire. It was inspired by the Four Shire Stone near Moreton-in-Marsh, where once four counties met, but since 1931 only three do. Within the Farthings there are unofficial clan homelands: the Tooks nearly all live in or near Tuckborough in Tookland's Green Hill Country. Buckland, named for the Brandybuck family, across the Brandywine River to the east of the Shire, and the Westmarch, between the Far Downs and the Tower Hills to the west, were given to the hobbits as the East and West Marches of the Shire by King Elessar after the War of the Ring.", "The Shire was first settled by hobbits in the year 1601 of the Third Age (Year 1 in Shire Reckoning); they were led by the brothers Marcho and Blanco. The hobbits from the vale of Anduin had migrated west over the perilous Misty Mountains, living in the wilds of Eriador before moving to the Shire. After the fall of Arnor, the Shire remained a self-governing realm; the Shire-folk chose a Thain to hold the king's powers. The first Thains were the heads of the Oldbuck clan. When the Oldbucks settled Buckland, the position of Thain was peacefully transferred to the Took clan. The Shire was covertly protected by Rangers of the North, who watched the borders and kept out intruders. Generally the only strangers entering the Shire were Dwarves travelling on the Great Road from their mines in the Blue Mountains, and occasional Elves on their way to the Grey Havens. In the hobbits defeated an invasion of Orcs at the Battle of Greenfields; in the Fell Winter of -12, white wolves from Forodwaith invaded the Shire across the frozen Brandywine river. In -60, thousands of hobbits perished in the Long Winter and the famine that followed. The protagonists of \"The Hobbit\" and \"Lord of the Rings\", Bilbo and Frodo Baggins, lived at Bag End, a luxurious \"smial\" or hobbit-burrow, dug into The Hill on the north side of the town of Hobbiton in the Westfarthing. In Bilbo Baggins left the Shire on the quest recounted in \"The Hobbit\". He returned the following year, secretly bearing a magic ring. This turned out to be the One Ring. The Shire was invaded by four Ringwraiths in search of the Ring. While Frodo, Sam, Merry, and Pippin were away on the quest to destroy the Ring, the Shire was taken over by Saruman through his underling Lotho Sackville-Baggins. They ran the Shire in a parody of a modern state, complete with armed ruffians, destruction of trees and handsome old buildings, and ugly industrialisation. The Shire was liberated with the help of Frodo and his companions on their return at the Battle of Bywater (the final battle of the War of the Ring). The trees of the Shire were restored with soil from Galadriel's garden in Lothlórien (a gift to Sam). The year was considered by the inhabitants of the Shire to be the most productive and prosperous year in their history.", "The hobbits of the Shire spoke Middle-earth's Westron or Common Speech. Tolkien however rendered their language as modern English in \"The Hobbit\" and in \"Lord of the Rings\", just as he had used Old Norse names for the Dwarves. To resolve this linguistic puzzle, he created the fiction that the languages of parts of Middle-earth were \"translated\" into different European languages, inventing the language of the Riders of Rohan, Rohirric, to be \"translated\" again as the Mercian dialect of Old English which he knew well. This set up a relationship something like ancestry between Rohan and the Shire.", "The Shire had little in the way of government. The Mayor of Michel Delving was the chief official and was treated in practice as the Mayor of the Shire. There was a \"Message Service\" for post, and the 12 \"Shirriffs\" (three for each Farthing) of the \"Watch\" for police; their chief duties were rounding up stray livestock. These were supplemented by a varying number of \"Bounders\", an unofficial border force. At the time of \"The Lord of the Rings\", there were many more Bounders than usual, one of the few signs for the hobbits of that troubled time. The heads of major families exerted authority over their own areas. The Master of Buckland, hereditary head of the Brandybuck clan, ruled Buckland and had some authority over the Marish, just across the Brandywine River. Similarly, the head of the Took clan, often called \"The Took\", ruled the ancestral Took dwelling of Great Smials, the village of Tuckborough, and the area of \"The Tookland\". He held the office of Thain.", "Tolkien devised the \"Shire calendar\" or \"Shire Reckoning\" supposedly used by the Shire's hobbits on Bede's medieval calendar. In his fiction, it was created in Rhovanion hundreds of years before the Shire was founded. When hobbits migrated into Eriador, they took up the Kings' Reckoning, but maintained their old names of the months. In the \"King's Reckoning\", the year began on the winter solstice. After migrating further to the Shire, the hobbits created the \"Shire Reckoning\", in which Year 1 corresponded to the foundation of the Shire in the year 1601 of the Third Age by Marcho and Blanco. The Shire's calendar year has 12 months, each of 30 days. Five non-month days are added to create a 365-day year. The two \"Yuledays\" signify the turn of the year, so each year begins on 2 Yule. The \"Lithedays\" are the three non-month days at midsummer, 1 Lithe, Mid-year's Day, and 2 Lithe. In leap years (every fourth year except centennial years) an \"Overlithe\" day is added after Mid-year's Day. There are seven days in the Shire week. The first day of the week is \"Sterday\" and the last is \"Highday\". The Mid-year's Day and, when present, \"Overlithe\" have no weekday assignments. This causes every day to have the same weekday designation from year to year, instead of changing as in the Gregorian calendar. For the names of the months, Tolkien reconstructed Anglo-Saxon names, his take on what the English would be if it had not adopted Latin names for the months such as January and February. In \"The Hobbit\" and \"The Lord of the Rings\", the names of months and week-days are given in modern equivalents, so \"Afteryule\" is called \"January\" and \"Sterday\" is called \"Saturday\".", "", "Shippey writes that not only is the Shire reminiscent of England: Tolkien carefully constructed the Shire as an element-by-element calque upon England. There are other connections; Tolkien equated the latitude of Hobbiton with that of Oxford. The Shire corresponds roughly to the West Midlands region of England in the remote past, extending to Worcestershire (where Tolkien grew up), forming in Shippey's words a \"cultural unit with deep roots in history\". The name of the Northamptonshire village of Farthinghoe triggered the idea of dividing the Shire into Farthings. Tolkien said that pipe-weed \"flourishes only in warm sheltered places like Longbottom;\" in the seventeenth century, the Evesham area of Worcestershire was well known for its tobacco.", "Tolkien made the Shire feel homely and English in a variety of ways, from names such as Bagshot Row and the Mill to country pubs with familiar names such as \"The Green Dragon\" in Bywater, \"The Ivy Bush\" near Hobbiton on the Bywater Road, and \"The Golden Perch\" in Stock, famous for its fine beer. Michael Stanton comments in the \"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia\" that the Shire is based partly on Tolkien's childhood at Sarehole, partly on English village life in general with, in Tolkien's words, \"gardens, trees, and unmechanized farmland\". The Shire's capital, Michel Delving, embodies a philological pun: the name sounds much like that of an English country town, but means \"Much Digging\" of hobbit-holes, from Old English \"micel\", \"great\" and \"delfan\", \"to dig\".", "The industrialization of the Shire was based on Tolkien's childhood experience of the blighting of the Worcestershire countryside by the spread of heavy industry as the city of Birmingham grew. \"The Scouring of the Shire\", involving a rebellion of the hobbits and the restoration of the pre-industrial Shire, can be read as containing an element of wish-fulfilment on his part, complete with Merry's magic horn to rouse the inhabitants to action.", "", "The Shire makes an appearance in both the 1977 \"The Hobbit\" and the 1978 \"The Lord of the Rings\" animated films. In Peter Jackson's \"The Lord of the Rings\" motion picture trilogy, the Shire appeared in both \"\" and \"\". The Shire scenes were shot at a location in Matamata, New Zealand. Following the shooting, the area was returned to its natural state, but even without the set from the movie the area became a prime tourist location. Because of bad weather, 18 of 37 hobbit-holes could not immediately be bulldozed; before work could restart, they were attracting over 12,000 tourists per year to Ian Alexander's farm, where Hobbiton and Bag End had been situated. Jackson revisited the Shire for his films \"\" and \"\". The Shire scenes were shot at the same location in Matamata, New Zealand.", "In the 2006 real-time strategy game \"\", the Shire appears as both a level in the evil campaign where the player invades in control of a goblin army, and as a map in the game's multiplayer skirmish mode. In the 2007 MMORPG \"The Lord of the Rings Online\", the Shire appears almost in its entirety as one of the major regions of the game. The shire is inhabited by hundreds of non-player characters, and the player can get involved in hundreds of quests. The only portions of the original map by Christopher Tolkien that are missing from the game are some parts of the West Farthing and the majority of the South Farthing. A portion of the North Farthing also falls within the in-game region of Evendim for game play purposes. In the 2009 action game \"\", the Shire appears as one of the game's battlegrounds during the evil campaign, where it is razed by the forces of Mordor. Games Workshop also produced a supplement in 2004 for \"The Lord of the Rings\" Strategy Battle Game entitled \"The Scouring of the Shire\". This supplement contained rules for a large number of miniatures that depicted the Shire after the War of the Ring had concluded." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Anatomy and physiology.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behavior and life history.", "Foraging and predation.", "Reproductive behavior.", "Birth and parenting.", "Communication.", "Intelligence.", "Human relations.", "Cultural depictions.", "In captivity.", "Hunting.", "Conservation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The German naturalist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger was the first to recognize the pinnipeds as a distinct taxonomic unit; in 1811 he gave the name Pinnipedia to both a family and an order. American zoologist Joel Asaph Allen reviewed the world's pinnipeds in an 1880 monograph, \"History of North American pinnipeds, a monograph of the walruses, sea-lions, sea-bears and seals of North America\". In this publication, he traced the history of names, gave keys to families and genera, described North American species and provided synopses of species in other parts of the world. In 1989, Annalisa Berta and colleagues proposed the unranked clade Pinnipedimorpha to contain the fossil genus \"Enaliarctos\" and modern seals as a sister group. Pinnipeds belong to the order Carnivora and the suborder Caniformia (known as dog-like carnivorans). Pinnipedia was historically considered its own suborder under Carnivora. Of the three extant families, the Otariidae and Odobenidae are grouped in the superfamily Otarioidea, while the Phocidae belong to the superfamily Phocoidea. Otariids are also known as eared seals due to the presence of pinnae. These animals rely on their well-developed fore-flippers to propel themselves through the water. They can also turn their hind-flippers forward and \"walk\" on land. The anterior end of an otariid's frontal bones extends between the nasal bones, and the supraorbital foramen is large and flat horizontally. The supraspinatous fossas are divided by a \"secondary spine\" and the bronchi are divided anteriorly. Otariids consist of two types: sea lions and fur seals. Sea lions are distinguished by their rounder snouts and shorter, rougher pelage, while fur seals have more pointed snouts, longer fore-flippers and thicker fur coats that include an undercoat and guard hairs. The former also tend to be larger than the latter. Five genera and seven species (one now extinct) of sea lion are known to exist, while two genera and nine species of fur seal exist. While sea lions and fur seals have historically been considered separate subfamilies (Otariinae and Arctocephalinae respectively), a 2001 genetic study found that the northern fur seal is more closely related to several sea lion species. This is supported by a 2006 molecular study that also found that the Australian sea lion and New Zealand sea lion are more closely related to \"Arctocephalus\" than to other sea lions. Odobenidae consists of only one living member: the modern walrus. This animal is easily distinguished from other extant pinnipeds by its larger size (exceeded only by the elephant seals), nearly hairless skin and long upper canines, known as tusks. Like otariids, walruses are capable of turning their hind-flippers forward and can walk on land. When moving in water, the walrus relies on its hind-flippers for locomotion, while its fore-flippers are used for steering. In addition, the walrus lacks external ear flaps. Walruses have pterygoid bones that are broad and thick, frontal bones that are V-shaped at the anterior end and calcaneuses with pronounced tuberosity in the middle. Phocids are known as true or \"earless\" seals. These animals lack external ear flaps and are incapable of turning their hind-flippers forward, which makes them more cumbersome on land. In water, true seals swim by moving their hind-flippers and lower body from side to side. Phocids have thickened mastoids, enlarged entotympanic bones, everted pelvic bones and massive ankle bones. They also lack supraorbital processes on the frontal and have underdeveloped calcaneal tubers. A 2006 molecular study supports the division of phocids into two monophyletic subfamilies: Monachinae, which consists of \"Mirounga\", Monachini and Lobodontini; and Phocinae, which includes \"Pusa\", \"Phoca\", \"Halichoerus\", \"Histriophoca\", \"Pagophilus\", \"Erignathus\" and \"Cystophora\". In a 2012 review of pinniped taxonomy, Berta and Morgan Churchill suggested that, based on morphological and genetic criteria, there are 33 extant species and 29 subspecies of pinnipeds, although five of the latter lack sufficient support to be conclusively considered subspecies. They recommend that the genus \"Arctocephalus\" be limited to \"Arctocephalus pusillus\", and they resurrected the name \"Arctophoca\" for several species and subspecies formerly placed in \"Arctocephalus\". More than 50 fossil species have been described.", "Pinnipeds have streamlined, spindle-shaped bodies with reduced or non-existent external ear flaps, rounded heads, flexible necks, limbs modified into flippers, and small tails. Pinniped skulls have large eye orbits, short snouts and a constricted interorbital region. They are unique among carnivorans in that their orbital walls are significantly shaped by the maxilla and are not limited by certain facial bones. Compared to other carnivorans, their teeth tend to be fewer in number (especially incisors and back molars), are pointed and cone-shaped, and lack carnassials. The walrus has unique upper canines that are elongated into tusks. The mammary glands and genitals of pinnipeds can retract into the body. Pinnipeds range in size from the and Baikal seal to the and southern elephant seal. Overall, they tend to be larger than other carnivorans; the southern elephant seal is the largest carnivoran. Several species have male-biased sexual dimorphism that correlates with the degree of polygyny in a species: highly polygynous species like elephant seals are extremely sexually dimorphic, while less polygynous species have males and females that are closer in size. In lobodontine seals, females are slightly larger than males. Males of sexually dimorphic species also tend to have secondary sex characteristics, such as the prominent proboscis of elephant seals, the inflatable red nasal membrane of hooded seals and the thick necks and manes of otariids. Despite a correlation between size dimorphism and the degree of polygyny, some evidence suggests that size differences between the sexes originated due to ecological differences and prior to the development of polygyny. Almost all pinnipeds have fur coats, the exception being the walrus, which is only sparsely covered. Even some fully furred species (particularly sea lions) are less haired than most land mammals. In species that live on ice, young pups have thicker coats than adults. The individual hairs on the coat, known collectively as lanugo, can trap heat from sunlight and keep the pup warm. Pinnipeds are typically countershaded, and are darker colored dorsally and lighter colored ventrally, which serves to eliminate shadows caused by light shining over the ocean water. The pure white fur of harp seal pups conceals them in their Arctic environment. Some species, such as ribbon seals, ringed seals and leopard seals, have patterns of contrasting light and dark coloration. All fully furred species molt; phocids molt once a year, while otariids gradually molt all year. Seals have a layer of subcutaneous fat known as blubber that is particularly thick in phocids and walruses. Blubber serves both to keep the animals warm and to provide energy and nourishment when they are fasting. It can constitute as much as 50% of a pinniped's body weight. Pups are born with only a thin layer of blubber, but some species compensate for this with thick lanugos. Pinnipeds have a simple stomach that is similar in structure to terrestrial carnivores. Most species have neither a cecum nor a clear demarcation between the small and large intestines; the large intestine is comparatively short and only slightly wider than the small intestine. Small intestine lengths range from 8 times (California sea lion) to 25 times (elephant seal) the body length. The length of the intestine may be an adaptation to frequent deep diving, as the increased volume of the digestive tract serves as an extended storage compartment for partially digested food during submersion. Pinnipeds do not have an appendix. As in most marine mammals, the kidneys are divided into small lobes and can effectively absorb water and filter out excess salt.", "Living pinnipeds mainly inhabit polar and subpolar regions, particularly the North Atlantic, the North Pacific and the Southern Ocean. They are entirely absent from Indomalayan waters. Monk seals and some otariids live in tropical and subtropical waters. Seals usually require cool, nutrient-rich waters with temperatures lower than. Even those that live in warm or tropical climates live in areas that become cold and nutrient rich due to current patterns. Only monk seals live in waters that are not typically cool or rich in nutrients. The Caspian seal and Baikal seal are found in large landlocked bodies of water (the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal respectively). As a whole, pinnipeds can be found in", "Pinnipeds have an amphibious lifestyle; they spend most of their lives in the water, but haul out to mate, raise young, molt, rest, thermoregulate or escape from aquatic predators. Several species are known to migrate vast distances, particularly in response to extreme environmental changes, like El Niño or changes in ice cover. Elephant seals stay at sea 8–10 months a year and migrate between breeding and molting sites. The northern elephant seal has one of the longest recorded migration distances for a mammal, at. Phocids tend to migrate more than otariids. Traveling seals may use various features of their environment to reach their destination including geomagnetic fields, water and wind currents, the position of the sun and moon and the taste and temperature of the water. Pinnipeds may dive during foraging or to avoid predators. When foraging, Weddell seals typically dive for less than 15 minutes to depths of around but can dive for as long as 73 minutes and to depths of up to. Northern elephant seals commonly dive for as long as 20 minutes. They can also dive and for as long as 62 minutes. The dives of otariids tend to be shorter and less deep. They typically last 5–7 minutes with average depths to. However, the New Zealand sea lion has been recorded diving to a maximum of and a duration of 12 minutes. Walruses do not often dive very deep, as they feed in shallow water. Pinnipeds have lifespans averaging 25–30 years. Females usually live longer, as males tend to fight and often die before reaching maturity. The longest recorded lifespans include 43 years for a wild female ringed seal and 46 years for a wild female grey seal. The age at which a pinniped sexually matures can vary from 2–12 years depending on the species. Females typically mature earlier than males.", "All pinnipeds are carnivorous and predatory. As a whole, they mostly feed on fish and cephalopods, followed by crustaceans and bivalves, and then zooplankton and endothermic (\"warm-blooded\") prey like sea birds. While most species are generalist and opportunistic feeders, a few are specialists. Examples include the crabeater seal, which primarily eats krill, the ringed seal, which eats mainly crustaceans, the Ross seal and southern elephant seal, which specialize on squid, and the bearded seal and walrus, which feed on clams and other bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Pinnipeds may hunt solitarily or cooperatively. The former behavior is typical when hunting non-schooling fish, slow-moving or immobile invertebrates or endothermic prey. Solitary foraging species usually exploit coastal waters, bays and rivers. An exception to this is the northern elephant", "The mating system of pinnipeds varies from extreme polygyny to serial monogamy. Of the 33 species, 20 breed on land, and the remaining 13 breed on ice. Species that breed on land are usually polygynous, as females gather in large aggregations and males are able to mate with them as well as defend them from rivals. Polygynous species include elephant seals, grey seals and most otariids. Land-breeding pinnipeds tend to mate on islands where there are fewer terrestrial predators. Few islands are favorable for breeding, and those that are tend to be crowded. Since the land they breed on is fixed, females return to the same sites for many years. The males arrive earlier in the season and wait for them. The males stay on land and try to mate with as many females as they can; some of them will even fast. If a male leaves the beach to feed, he will likely lose mating opportunities and his dominance. Polygynous species also tend to be", "With the exception of the walrus, which has five- to six-year-long inter-birth intervals, female pinnipeds enter estrous shortly after they give birth. All species go through delayed implantation, wherein the embryo remains in suspended development for weeks or months before it is implanted in the uterus. Delayed implantation postpones the birth of young until the female hauls-out on land or until conditions for birthing are favorable. Gestation in seals (including delayed implantation) typically lasts a year. For most species, birthing takes place", "Pinnipeds can produce a number of vocalizations such as barks, grunts, rasps, rattles, growls, creaks, warbles, trills, chirps, chugs, clicks and whistles. While most vocals are audible to the human ear, a captive leopard seal was recorded making ultrasonic calls underwater. In addition, the vocals of northern elephant seals may produce infrasonic vibrations. Vocals are produced both in air and underwater. Otariids are more vocal on land, while phocids are more vocal in water. Antarctic seals are more vocal on land or ice than Arctic seals due to a lack of terrestrial and pagophilic predators like the polar bear. Male vocals are usually of lower frequencies than those of the females. Vocalizations are particularly important during the breeding seasons. Dominant male elephant seals advertise their status and threaten rivals with \"clap-threats\" and loud drum-like calls that may be modified by the proboscis. Male otariids have strong barks, growls, roars and \"whickers\". Male walruses are known to produce distinctive gong-like calls when attempting to attract females. They can also create somewhat musical sounds with their inflated throats. The Weddell seal has perhaps the most elaborate vocal repertoire", "In a match-to-sample task study, a single California sea lion was able to demonstrate an understanding of symmetry, transitivity and equivalence; a second seal was unable to complete the tasks. They demonstrate the ability to understand simple syntax and commands when taught an artificial sign language, though they only rarely used the signs semantically or logically. In 2011, a captive California sea lion named Ronan was recorded bobbing its head", "", "Various human cultures have for millennia depicted pinnipeds. The anthropologist, A. Asbjørn Jøn, has analysed beliefs of the Celts of Orkney and Hebrides who believed in selkies—seals that could change into humans and walk on land. Seals are also of great importance in the culture of the Inuit. In Inuit mythology, the goddess Sedna rules over the sea and marine animals. She is depicted as a mermaid,", "Pinnipeds can be found in facilities around the world, as their large size and playfulness make them popular attractions. Seals have been kept in captivity since at least Ancient Rome and their trainability was noticed by Pliny the Elder. Zoologist Georges Cuvier noted during the 19th century that wild seals show considerable fondness for humans and stated that they are second only to some monkeys among wild animals in their easily tamability. Francis Galton noted in his landmark paper on domestication that seals were a spectacular example of an animal that would most likely never be domesticated despite their friendliness and desire for comfort due to the fact that they serve no practical use for humans. Some modern exhibits have rocky backgrounds with artificial haul-out sites and a pool, while others have pens with small rocky, elevated shelters where the animals can dive into their pools. More elaborate exhibits contain deep pools that can", "Humans have hunted seals since the Stone Age. Originally, seals were hit with clubs during haul-out. Eventually, seal hunters used harpoons to spear the animals from boats out at sea, and hooks for killing pups on ice or land. They were also trapped in nets. The use of firearms in seal hunting during the modern era drastically increased the number of killings. Pinnipeds are typically hunted for their meat and blubber. The skins of fur seals and phocids are made into coats, and the tusks of walruses continue to be used for carvings or as ornaments. There is a distinction between the subsistence hunting of seals by indigenous peoples of the Arctic and commercial hunting: subsistence hunters typically use seal products for themselves and depend on them for survival. National and international authorities have given special treatment to aboriginal hunters since their methods of killing are seen as less destructive and wasteful. This distinction is being questioned as indigenous people are using more modern weaponry and mechanized transport to hunt with, and are selling seal products in the marketplace. Some anthropologists argue that the term \"subsistence\" should also apply to these cash-based exchanges as long as they take place within local production and consumption. More than 100,000 phocids (especially ringed seals) as well as around 10,000 walruses are harvested annually by native hunters. Commercial sealing was historically just as important an industry as whaling. Exploited species included harp seals, hooded seals, Caspian seals, elephant seals, walruses and all species of fur seal. The scale of seal harvesting", "As of 2019, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recognizes 36 pinniped species. With the Japanese sea lion and the Caribbean monk seal recently extinct, ten more are considered at risk, as they are ranked \"Endangered\" (Hawaiian monk seal, Mediterranean monk seal, Galápagos fur seal, Australian sea lion, New Zealand sea lion, Caspian seal, and Galápagos sea lion) or \"Vulnerable\" (northern fur seal, hooded seal, and walrus). Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of recent and ongoing climate change, particularly declines in sea ice. There has been some debate over the cause of the decline of Steller sea lions in Alaska since the 1970s. Some species have become so numerous that they conflict with local people. In the United States, pinnipeds are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA). Since that year, California sea lion populations have risen to 250,000. These animals began exploiting more man-made environments, like docks, for haul-out sites. Many docks are not designed to withstand the weight of several resting sea lions. Wildlife managers have used various methods to control the animals, and some city officials have redesigned docks so they can" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Club career.", "Stuttgart.", "Arsenal.", "Barcelona.", "Krylia Sovetov Samara.", "Return to BATE Borisov.", "Konyaspor.", "Gençlerbirliği.", "International career.", "Miscellaneous.", "Personal life.", "Honours and achievements.", "Club.", "Individual." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Hleb grew up in Minsk. His mother was a builder, while his father drove petrol tankers. His father had volunteered to help demolish houses in Ukraine made uninhabitable as the result of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Hleb believes this exposure to radiation caused his father's ill health. Before getting involved with football, Hleb was a keen swimmer and gymnast. His younger brother Vyacheslav is also a footballer.", "Hleb developed playing football on the concrete pitches of Dinamo Minsk school. At the age of 17, he signed for BATE Borisov, a Belarusian Premier League team from Barysaw.", "Spotted by scouts, Alexander and his younger brother Vyacheslav were signed in 2000 by German Bundesliga side VfB Stuttgart for approximately €150,000. He made his Bundesliga debut on 5 September 2000 in an away match at 1. FC Kaiserslautern, coming on as a substitute for the last 20 minutes. Despite only making six league appearances in his first season with Stuttgart, Hleb became a regular at the club in his second season there and went on to establish himself as an important player for the team. In 2002, he was voted Belarusian Footballer of the Year. In 2002–03, Stuttgart finished as runners-up in the Bundesliga and enjoyed a UEFA Champions League victory over Manchester United and Hleb had become established as the team's playmaker. After team manager Felix Magath left to join Bayern Munich in the summer of 2004, however, Stuttgart were not as successful under new coach Matthias Sammer, having finished the 2004–05 season in fifth place. Nevertheless, Hleb was on top of the assist chart in his last season in the Bundesliga.", "In June 2005, Hleb joined English side Arsenal for a sum which had the potential to reach €15 million, on a four-year contract. Arsène Wenger used Hleb at many different midfield positions, but he mainly played on the right wing for Arsenal. His competitive debut was made in August 2005 against Chelsea in the 2005 FA Community Shield, and then he made his league debut as a substitute against Newcastle United. Soon after, Hleb sustained a knee injury while on international duty with Belarus and was out for several months, returning to the first team squad in December, and played 60 minutes in Arsenal's final UEFA Champions League group stage match against Ajax on 7 December. By January 2006, Hleb had established himself as a first choice player and scored his first goal for Arsenal in a 7–0 win over Middlesbrough. In May, Hleb became the first ever Belarusian footballer to play in the Champions League final. He ended the season with 40 appearances and three goals. Despite a hamstring injury, Hleb made 48 appearances in the 2006–07 season and scored three goals. In 2007–08, he was moved from the right wing and played behind Robin van Persie as a withdrawn striker. When strikers Emmanuel Adebayor and Eduardo recovered from injuries Arsène Wenger reverted to a 4–4–2 formation and Hleb returned to playing on the wing. His season was cut short after he was banned for three games by the FA after he was charged with violent conduct in an incident with Graeme Murty of Reading during their 2–0 win. Hleb admitted his offence, ending his season. Hleb was always a popular figure at Arsenal, and the fans reciprocated the effort he brought to the team by inventing a song to the tune of Johnnie Allan's Rubber Dolly, \"Alexander Hleb, Alexander Hleb, He's good at football, Alexander Hleb\".", "On 16 July 2008, a medical examination was held for the player at FC Barcelona, with his transfer completed later that day for a fee of €15 million plus an additional €2 million if Barcelona won the La Liga title in 2008–09 or 2009–10 (which they did in 2008–09, bringing his total fee to €17 million). Hleb signed a four-year contract with a buy-out clause of €90 million. In March 2009, after featuring irregularly for the team – starting only five games in La Liga – Hleb admitted that he would readily accept an offer from Bayern Munich, if such an opportunity arose in the summer. He said, \"I am right in the best years of my career and I do not want to spend those years on bench. Bayern Munich is a special club, their interest in me is a delightful honour. Bayern is among the best teams in the world.\" Hleb went on to win the 2008–09 treble with Barcelona in his first season with the club. Hleb featured briefly in the Copa del Rey final but did not play when Barcelona went on to beat Manchester United 2–0 in the Champions League final. At the end of the season, Hleb turned down the opportunity to join, on loan, eventual 2009–10 treble winners Internazionale, and chose to join former club, VfB Stuttgart, on loan. In July 2009, Hleb returned to VfB Stuttgart on a one-year loan. Hleb played 55 minutes in the first game of the 2009–10 Bundesliga season, away to VfL Wolfsburg, a match Stuttgart lost 2–0. Then, after playing in Stuttgart's 4–2 victory over SC Freiburg, Hleb scored his first goal for Stuttgart, during a Champions League qualifier against Timișoara in a 2–0 away win for the German side. On 31 August 2010, Hleb returned to England by signing a season-long loan deal with Premier League club Birmingham City. An ankle injury sustained on international duty delayed his debut until 18 September, when he played 83 minutes in a 3–1 defeat at West Bromwich Albion. Three days later, he opened the scoring as Birmingham beat Milton Keynes Dons 3–1 in the League Cup. Injury disrupted his season, forcing him to miss Birmingham's victory over Arsenal in the League Cup final. Towards the end of the season, he ruled out a return to the club once his loan expired, suggesting that their style of football was not to his taste, although he wanted to remain in the Premier League, ideally at Arsenal. On 31 August 2011, Hleb was loaned out to VfL Wolfsburg. Again, injury disrupted his stay at Wolfsburg, making only one start and three appearances as a substitute. The club confirmed he would leave at the scheduled end of the loan on 31 December 2011.", "After Hleb's contract with Barcelona was cancelled by mutual consent during the January 2012 transfer window, he signed for Russian Premier League club Krylia Sovetov Samara until the end of the season.", "On 26 July 2012, Hleb signed a contract with BATE Borisov and won the 2012 Belarusian Premier League in his return season. Hleb stated before BATE's 3–1 win against Bayern Munich that he expected the great performances of his team in the Champions League could help him to earn a move abroad, with the player wanting a move to a Bundesliga club. However, he remained playing for BATE in the 2013 season.", "On 4 January 2014, Hleb signed a contract with Torku Konyaspor in the Turkish Süper Lig for one-and-a-half years, with an option to extend the contract for an additional year.", "In February 2015, Hleb left Konyaspor for Süper Lig rivals Gençlerbirliği.", "Hleb won over 20 caps for the Belarus under-21 side. He made his full international debut as a substitute in a 1–0 defeat against Wales in 2001. He scored on his second international start in a 5–2 victory over Hungary in April 2002. He scored a goal in the finals of the 2002 LG Cup, thanks to which Belarus won the tournament. In November 2006, former Belarusian captain Sergei Gurenko launched a vicious criticism on Hleb for not working hard in national team settings. Hleb, however, rejected any suggestion that he was a \"prima donna\". In August 2007, new national team manager Bernd Stange made him team captain despite the criticism. On 22 August, Hleb wore the captain's armband for the first time in a 2–1 win against Israel.He was part of the team at the victorious friendly Malta International Football Tournament in 2008", "Hleb was called \"\"Zauberlehrling\"\" or \"Sorcerer's Apprentice\" for his silky skills and dazzling tricks in Germany when he played in the Bundesliga.", "In 2003, Hleb was involved in a car crash in Minsk, after which a passenger in the other car died in hospital. Hleb was cleared of any responsibility for the accident. While playing for Arsenal, Hleb lived in Hampstead, North London. In a 2009 interview with \"The Guardian\" newspaper, Hleb confessed that the biggest regret of his life was leaving Arsenal for Barcelona. Hleb was married to Anastasia Kosenkova, ex-singer of the Belarusian pop group Topless, from 2008 until 2014. In summer 2016, he married Sviatlana. His first child, a daughter, was born in December of that year. Sviatlana's daughter from a previous marriage lives with the couple.", "", "BATE Borisov VfB Stuttgart Arsenal Barcelona Birmingham City", "Awards" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and implementation.", "Functionality.", "Examples.", "JDBC drivers.", "Types." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Sun Microsystems released JDBC as part of Java Development Kit (JDK) 1.1 on February 19, 1997. Since then it has been part of the Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE). The JDBC classes are contained in the Java package and. Starting with version 3.1, JDBC has been developed under the Java Community Process. JSR 54 specifies JDBC 3.0 (included in J2SE 1.4), JSR 114 specifies the JDBC Rowset additions, and JSR 221 is the specification of JDBC 4.0 (included in Java SE 6). JDBC 4.1, is specified by a maintenance release 1 of JSR 221 and is included in Java SE 7. JDBC 4.2, is specified by a maintenance release 2 of JSR 221 and is included in Java SE 8. The latest version, JDBC 4.3, is specified by a maintenance release 3 of JSR 221 and is included in Java SE 9.", "JDBC ('Java Database Connectivity') allows multiple implementations to exist and be used by the same application. The API provides a mechanism for dynamically loading the correct Java packages and registering them with the JDBC Driver Manager. The Driver Manager is used as a connection factory for creating JDBC connections. JDBC connections support creating and executing statements. These may be update statements such as SQL's CREATE, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE, or they may be query statements such as SELECT. Additionally, stored procedures may be invoked through a JDBC connection. JDBC represents statements using one of the following classes: Update statements such as INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE return an update count that indicates how many rows were affected in the database. These statements do not return any other information. Query statements return a JDBC row result set. The row result set is used to walk over the result set. Individual columns in a row are retrieved either by name or by column number. There may be any number of rows in the result set. The row result set has metadata that describes the names of the columns and their types. There is an extension to the basic JDBC API in the. JDBC connections are often managed via a connection pool rather than obtained directly from the driver.", "When a Java application needs a database connection, one of the codice_1 methods is used to create a JDBC connection. The URL used is dependent upon the particular database and JDBC driver. It will always begin with the \"jdbc:\" protocol, but the rest is up to the particular vendor. Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection( try { } finally { Starting from Java SE 7 you can use Java's try-with-resources statement to make the above code simpler: try (Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection( } // the VM will take care of closing the connection Once a connection is established, a statement can be created. try (Statement stmt = conn.createStatement()) { Note that Connections, Statements, and ResultSets often tie up operating system resources such as sockets or file descriptors. In the case of Connections to remote database servers, further resources are tied up on the server, e.g., cursors for currently open ResultSets. It is vital to codice_2 any JDBC object as soon as it has played its part; garbage collection should not be relied upon. The above try-with-resources construct is a code pattern that obviates this. Data is retrieved from the database using a database query mechanism. The example below shows creating a statement and executing a query. try (Statement stmt = conn.createStatement(); An example of a codice_3 query, using codice_4 and class from first example. try (PreparedStatement ps = } // try If a database operation fails, JDBC raises an. There is typically very little one can do to recover from such an error, apart from logging it with as much detail as possible. It is recommended that the SQLException be translated into an application domain exception (an unchecked one) that eventually results in a transaction rollback and a notification to the user. An example of a database transaction: boolean autoCommitDefault = conn.getAutoCommit(); try { } catch (Throwable e) { } finally { For an example of a codice_5 (to call stored procedures in the database), see the documentation. import java.sql.Connection; import java.sql.DriverManager; import java.sql.Statement; public class Mydb1 {", "JDBC drivers are client-side adapters (installed on the client machine, not on the server) that convert requests from Java programs to a protocol that the DBMS can understand.", "Commercial and free drivers provide connectivity to most relational-database servers. These drivers fall into one of the following types: Note also a type called an internal JDBC driver - a driver embedded with JRE in Java-enabled SQL databases. It is used for Java stored procedures. This does not fit into the classification scheme above, although it would likely resemble either a type 2 or type 4 driver (depending on whether the database itself is implemented in Java or not). An example of this is the KPRB (Kernel Program Bundled) driver supplied with Oracle RDBMS. \"jdbc:default:connection\" offers a relatively standard way of making such a connection (at least the Oracle database and Apache Derby support it). However, in the case of an internal JDBC driver, the JDBC client actually runs as part of the database being accessed, and so can access data directly rather than through network protocols." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Early Nazi persecutions.", "Expulsion of Polish Jews in Germany.", "Shooting of vom Rath.", "Pogrom.", "Death of vom Rath.", "Riots.", "Aftermath.", "Responses to \"Kristallnacht\".", "From the Germans.", "From the global community.", "\"Kristallnacht\" as a turning point.", "Modern references.", "References.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the 1920s, most German Jews were fully integrated into German society as German citizens. They served in the German army and navy and contributed to every field of German business, science and culture. Conditions for German Jews began to change after the appointment of Adolf Hitler (the Austrian-born leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party) as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, and the Enabling Act (implemented 23 March 1933) which enabled the assumption of power by Hitler after the Reichstag fire of 27 February 1933. From its inception, Hitler's régime moved quickly to introduce anti-Jewish policies. Nazi propaganda alienated 500,000 Jews in Germany, who accounted for only 0.86% of the overall population, and framed them as an enemy responsible for Germany's defeat in the First World War and for its subsequent economic disasters, such as the 1920s hyperinflation and Wall Street Crash Great Depression. Beginning in 1933, the German government enacted a series of anti-Jewish laws restricting the rights of German Jews to earn a living, to enjoy full citizenship and to gain education, including the \"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service\" of 7 April 1933, which forbade Jews to work in the civil service. The subsequent 1935 Nuremberg Laws stripped German Jews of their citizenship and prohibited Jews from marrying non-Jewish Germans. These laws resulted in the exclusion and alienation of Jews from German social and political life. Many sought asylum abroad; hundreds of thousands emigrated, but as Chaim Weizmann wrote in 1936, \"The world seemed to be divided into two parts—those places where the Jews could not live and those where they could not enter.\" The international Évian Conference on 6 July 1938 addressed the issue of Jewish and Gypsy immigration to other countries. By the time the conference took place, more than 250,000 Jews had fled Germany and Austria, which had been annexed by Germany in March 1938; more than 300,000 German and Austrian Jews continued to seek refuge and asylum from oppression. As the number of Jews and Gypsies wanting to leave increased, the restrictions against them grew, with many countries tightening their rules for admission. By 1938, Germany \"had entered a new radical phase in anti-Semitic activity\". Some historians believe that the Nazi government had been contemplating a planned outbreak of violence against the Jews and were waiting for an appropriate provocation; there is evidence of this planning dating back to 1937. In a 1997 interview, the German historian Hans Mommsen claimed that a major motive for the pogrom was the desire of the \"Gauleiters\" of the NSDAP to seize Jewish property and businesses. Mommsen stated: The need for money by the party organization stemmed from the fact that Franz Xaver Schwarz, the party treasurer, kept the local and regional organizations of the party short of money. In the fall of 1938, the increased pressure on Jewish property nourished the party's ambition, especially since Hjalmar Schacht had been ousted as \"Reich\" minister for economics. This, however, was only one aspect of the origin of the November 1938 pogrom. The Polish government threatened to extradite all Jews who were Polish citizens but would stay in Germany, thus creating a burden of responsibility on the German side. The immediate reaction by the Gestapo was to push the Polish Jews—16,000 persons—over the borderline, but this measure failed due to the stubbornness of the Polish customs officers. The loss of prestige as a result of this abortive operation called for some sort of compensation. Thus, the overreaction to Herschel Grynszpan's attempt against the diplomat Ernst vom Rath came into being and led to the November pogrom. The background of the pogrom was signified by a sharp cleavage of interests between the different agencies of party and state. While the Nazi party was interested in improving its financial strength on the regional and local level by taking over Jewish property, Hermann Göring, in charge of the Four-Year Plan, hoped to acquire access to foreign currency in order to pay for the import of needed raw material. Heydrich and Himmler were interested in fostering Jewish emigration. The Zionist leadership in the British Mandate of Palestine wrote in February 1938 that according to \"a very reliable private source—one which can be traced back to the highest echelons of the SS leadership\", there was \"an intention to carry out a genuine and dramatic pogrom in Germany on a large scale in the near future\".", "In August 1938, German authorities announced that residence permits for foreigners were being canceled and would have to be renewed. This included German-born Jews of foreign citizenship. Poland stated that it would renounce citizenship rights of Polish Jews living abroad for at least five years after the end of October, effectively making them stateless. In the so-called \"Polenaktion\", more than 12,000 Polish Jews, among them the philosopher and theologian Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel, and future literary critic Marcel Reich-Ranicki were expelled from Germany on 28 October 1938, on Hitler's orders. They were ordered to leave their homes in a single night and were allowed only one suitcase per person to carry their belongings. As the Jews were taken away, their remaining possessions were seized as loot both by Nazi authorities and by neighbors. The deportees were taken from their homes to railway stations and were put on trains to the Polish border, where Polish border guards sent them back into Germany. This stalemate continued for days in the pouring rain, with the Jews marching without food or shelter between the borders. Four thousand were granted entry into Poland, but the remaining 8,000 were forced to stay at the border. They waited there in harsh conditions to be allowed to enter Poland. A British newspaper told its readers that hundreds \"are reported to be lying about, penniless and deserted, in little villages along the frontier near where they had been driven out by the Gestapo and left.\" Conditions in the refugee camps \"were so bad that some actually tried to escape back into Germany and were shot\", recalled a British woman who was sent to help those who had been expelled.", "Among those expelled was the family of Sendel and Riva Grynszpan, Polish Jews who had emigrated to Germany in 1911 and settled in Hanover, Germany. At the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961, Sendel Grynszpan recounted the events of their deportation from Hanover on the night of 27 October 1938: \"Then they took us in police trucks, in prisoners' lorries, about 20 men in each truck, and they took us to the railway station. The streets were full of people shouting: \"Juden Raus! Auf Nach Palästina!\"\" (\"Jews out, out to Palestine!\"). Their seventeen-year-old son Herschel was living in Paris with an uncle. Herschel received a postcard from his family from the Polish border, describing the family's expulsion: \"No one told us what was up, but we realized this was going to be the end... We haven't a penny. Could you send us something?\" He received the postcard on 3 November 1938. On the morning of Monday, 7 November 1938, he purchased a revolver and a box of bullets, then went to the German embassy and asked to see an embassy official. After he was taken to the office of Ernst vom Rath, Grynszpan fired five bullets at Vom Rath, two of which hit him in the abdomen. Vom Rath was a professional diplomat with the Foreign Office who expressed anti-Nazi sympathies, largely based on the Nazis' treatment of the Jews, and was under Gestapo investigation for being politically unreliable. Grynszpan made no attempt to escape the French police and freely confessed to the shooting. In his pocket, he carried a postcard to his parents with the message, \"May God forgive me... I must protest so that the whole world hears my protest, and that I will do.\" It is widely assumed that the assassination was politically motivated, but historian Hans-Jürgen Döscher says the shooting may have been the result of a homosexual love affair gone wrong. Grynszpan and vom Rath had become intimate after they met in Le Boeuf sur le Toit, which was a popular meeting place for gay men at the time. The next day, the German government retaliated, barring Jewish children from German state elementary schools, indefinitely suspending Jewish cultural activities, and putting a halt to the publication of Jewish newspapers and magazines, including the three national German Jewish newspapers. A newspaper in Britain described the last move, which cut off the Jewish populace from their leaders, as \"intended to disrupt the Jewish community and rob it of the last frail ties which hold it together.\" Their rights as citizens had been stripped. One of the first legal measures issued was an order by Heinrich Himmler, commander of all German police, forbidding Jews to possess any weapons whatsoever and imposing a penalty of twenty years' confinement in a concentration camp upon every Jew found in possession of a weapon hereafter.", "", "Ernst Vom Rath died of his wounds on 9 November 1938. Word of his death reached Hitler that evening while he was with several key members of the Nazi party at a dinner commemorating the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. After intense discussions, Hitler left the assembly abruptly without giving his usual address. Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels delivered the speech, in his place, and said that \"the Führer has decided that... demonstrations should not be prepared or organized by the party, but insofar as they erupt spontaneously, they are not to be hampered.\" The chief party judge Walter Buch later stated that the message was clear; with these words, Goebbels had commanded the party leaders to organize a pogrom. Some leading party officials disagreed with Goebbels' actions, fearing the diplomatic crisis it would provoke. Heinrich Himmler wrote, \"I suppose that it is Goebbels's megalomania...and stupidity which is responsible for starting this operation now, in a particularly difficult diplomatic situation.\" The Israeli historian Saul Friedländer believes that Goebbels had personal reasons for wanting to bring about \"Kristallnacht\". Goebbels had recently suffered humiliation for the ineffectiveness of his propaganda campaign during the Sudeten crisis, and was in some disgrace over an affair with a Czech actress, Lída Baarová. Goebbels needed a chance to improve his standing in the eyes of Hitler. At 1:20 am on 10 November 1938, Reinhard Heydrich sent an urgent secret telegram to the \"Sicherheitspolizei\" (Security Police; SiPo) and the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA), containing instructions regarding the riots. This included guidelines for the protection of foreigners and non-Jewish businesses and property. Police were instructed not to interfere with the riots unless the guidelines were violated. Police were also instructed to seize Jewish archives from synagogues and community offices, and to arrest and detain \"healthy male Jews, who are not too old\", for eventual transfer to (labor) concentration camps.", "Müller, in a message to SA and SS commanders, stated the \"most extreme measures\" were to be taken against Jewish people. The SA and Hitler Youth shattered the windows of about 7,500 Jewish stores and businesses, hence the appellation \"Kristallnacht\" (Crystal Night), and looted their goods. Jewish homes were ransacked all throughout Germany. Although violence against Jews had not been explicitly condoned by the authorities, there were cases of Jews being beaten or assaulted. Following the violence, police departments recorded a large number of suicides and rapes. The rioters destroyed 267 synagogues throughout Germany, Austria, and the Sudetenland. Over 1400 synagogues and prayer rooms, many Jewish cemeteries, more than 7,000 Jewish shops, and 29 department stores were damaged, and in many cases destroyed. More than 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps; primarily Dachau, Buchenwald, and Sachsenhausen. The synagogues, some centuries old, were also victims of considerable violence and vandalism, with the tactics the Stormtroops practiced on these and other sacred sites described as \"approaching the ghoulish\" by the United States Consul in Leipzig. Tombstones were uprooted and graves violated. Fires were lit, and prayer books, scrolls, artwork and philosophy texts were thrown upon them, and precious buildings were either burned or smashed until unrecognizable. Eric Lucas recalls the destruction of the synagogue that a tiny Jewish community had constructed in a small village only twelve years earlier: After this, the Jewish community was fined 1 billion Reichsmarks (equivalent to billion €). In addition, it cost 40 million marks to repair the windows. The \"Daily Telegraph\" correspondent, Hugh Greene, wrote of events in Berlin: Many Berliners were however deeply ashamed of the pogrom, and some took great personal risks to offer help. The son of a US consular official heard the janitor of his block cry: \"They must have emptied the insane asylums and penitentiaries to find people who'd do things like that!\" Tucson News TV channel briefly reported on a 2008 remembrance meeting at a local Jewish congregation. According to eyewitness Esther Harris: \"They ripped up the belongings, the books, knocked over furniture, shouted obscenities\". Historian Gerhard Weinberg is quoted as saying: Houses of worship burned down, vandalized, in every community in the country where people either participate or watch.", "Former German Kaiser Wilhelm II commented \"For the first time, I am ashamed to be German.\" Göring, who was in favor of expropriating the Jews rather than destroying Jewish property as had happened in the pogrom, complained directly to \"Sicherheitspolizei\" Chief Heydrich immediately after the events: \"I'd rather you had done in two-hundred Jews than destroy so many valuable assets!\" (\"\"Mir wäre lieber gewesen, ihr hättet 200 Juden erschlagen und hättet nicht solche Werte vernichtet!\"\"). Göring met with other members of the Nazi leadership on 12 November to plan the next steps after the riot, setting the stage for formal government action. In the transcript of the meeting, Göring said, I have received a letter written on the Führer's orders requesting that the Jewish question be now, once and for all, coordinated and solved one way or another... I should not want to leave any doubt, gentlemen, as to the aim of today's meeting. We have not come together merely to talk again, but to make decisions, and I implore competent agencies to take all measures for the elimination of the Jew from the German economy, and to submit them to me. The persecution and economic damage inflicted upon German Jews continued after the pogrom, even as their places of business were ransacked. They were forced to pay \"Judenvermögensabgabe\", a collective fine of one billion marks for the murder of vom Rath (equal to roughly $US 5.5 billion in today's currency), which was levied by the compulsory acquisition of 20% of all Jewish property by the state. Six million Reichsmarks of insurance payments for property damage due to the Jewish community were to be paid to the government instead as \"damages to the German Nation\". The number of emigrating Jews surged, as those who were able to left the country. In the ten months following \"Kristallnacht\", more than 115,000 Jews emigrated from the Reich. The majority went to other European countries, the U.S. and Mandatory Palestine, and at least 14,000 made it to Shanghai, China. As part of government policy, the Nazis seized houses, shops, and other property the émigrés left behind. Many of the destroyed remains of Jewish property plundered during Kristallnacht were dumped near Brandenburg. In October 2008, this dumpsite was discovered by Yaron Svoray, an investigative journalist. The site, the size of four Association football fields, contained an extensive array of personal and ceremonial items looted during the riots against Jewish property and places of worship on the night of 9 November 1938. It is believed the goods were brought by rail to the outskirts of the village and dumped on designated land. Among the items found were glass bottles engraved with the Star of David, mezuzot, painted window sills, and the armrests of chairs found in synagogues, in addition to an ornamental swastika.", "", "The reaction of non-Jewish Germans to \"Kristallnacht\" was varied. Many spectators gathered on the scenes, most of them in silence. The local fire departments confined themselves to prevent the flames from spreading to neighboring buildings. In Berlin, police Lieutenant Otto Bellgardt barred SA troopers from setting the New Synagogue on fire, earning his superior officer a verbal reprimand from the commissioner. The British historian Martin Gilbert believes that \"many non-Jews resented the round-up\", his opinion being supported by German witness Dr. Arthur Flehinger who recalls seeing \"people crying while watching from behind their curtains\". Rolf Dessauers recalls how a neighbor came forward and restored a portrait of Paul Ehrlich that had been \"slashed to ribbons\" by the \"Sturmabteilung\". \"He wanted it to be known that not all Germans supported Kristallnacht.\" The extent of the damage done on Kristallnacht was so great that many Germans are said to have expressed their disapproval of it, and to have described it as senseless. In an article released for publication on the evening of 11 November, Goebbels ascribed the events of \"Kristallnacht\" to the \"healthy instincts\" of the German people. He went on to explain: \"The German people are anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race.\" Less than 24 hours after Kristallnacht, Adolf Hitler made a one-hour long speech in front of a group of journalists where he completely ignored the recent events on everyone's mind. According to Eugene Davidson the reason for this was that Hitler wished to avoid being directly connected to an event that he was aware that many of those present condemned, regardless of Goebbels's unconvincing explanation that Kristallnacht was caused by popular wrath. Goebbels met the foreign press in the afternoon of 11 November and said that the burning of synagogues and damage to Jewish owned property had been \"spontaneous manifestations of indignation against the murder of Herr Vom Rath by the young Jew Grynsban [sic]\" In 1938, just after Kristallnacht, the psychologist Michael Müller-Claudius interviewed 41 randomly selected Nazi Party members on their attitudes towards racial persecution. Of the interviewed party-members 63% expressed extreme indignation against it, while only 5% expressed approval of racial persecution, the rest being noncommittal. A study conducted in 1933 had then shown that 33% of Nazi Party members held no racial prejudice while 13% supported persecution. Sarah Ann Gordon sees two possible reasons for this difference. First, by 1938 large numbers of Germans had joined the Nazi Party for pragmatic reasons rather than ideology thus diluting the percentage of rabid antisemites; second, the Kristallnacht could have caused party members to reject antisemitism that had been acceptable to them in abstract terms but which they could not support when they saw it concretely enacted. During the events of Kristallnacht, several Gauleiter and deputy Gauleiters had refused orders to enact the Kristallnacht, and many leaders of the SA and of the Hitler Youth also openly refused party orders, while expressing disgust. Some Nazis helped Jews during the Kristallnacht. As it was aware that the German public did not support the Kristallnacht, the propaganda ministry directed the German press to portray opponents of racial persecution as disloyal. The press was also under orders to downplay the Kristallnacht, describing general events at the local level only, with prohibition against depictions of individual events. In 1939 this was extended to a prohibition on reporting any anti-Jewish measures. The U.S. ambassador to Germany reported: To the consternation of the Nazis, the Kristallnacht affected public opinion counter to their desires, the peak of opposition against the Nazi racial policies was reached just then, when according to almost all accounts the vast majority of Germans rejected the violence perpetrated against the Jews. Verbal complaints grew rapidly in numbers, and for example, the Duesseldorf branch of the Gestapo reported a sharp decline in anti-Semitic attitudes among the population. There are many indications of Protestant and Catholic disapproval of racial persecution; for example, anti-Nazi Protestants adopted the Barmen Declaration in 1934, and the Catholic church had already distributed Pastoral letters critical of Nazi racial ideology, and the Nazi regime expected to encounter organised resistance from it following Kristallnacht. The Catholic leadership however, just as the various Protestant churches, refrained from responding with organised action. While individual Catholics and Protestants took action, the churches as a whole chose silence publicly. Nevertheless, individuals continued to show courage, for example, a Parson paid the medical bills of a Jewish cancer patient and was sentenced to a large fine and several months in prison in 1941, Reformed Church pastor Paul Schneider placed a Nazi sympathizer under church discipline and he was subsequently sent to Buchenwald where he was murdered. A Catholic nun was sentenced to death in 1945 for helping Jews. A Protestant parson spoke out in 1943 and was sent to Dachau concentration camp where he died after a few days. Martin Sasse, Nazi Party member and bishop of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Thuringia, leading member of the Nazi German Christians, one of the schismatic factions of German Protestantism, published a compendium of Martin Luther's writings shortly after the \"Kristallnacht\"; Sasse \"applauded the burning of the synagogues\" and the coincidence of the day, writing in the introduction, \"On 10 November 1938, on Luther's birthday, the synagogues are burning in Germany.\" The German people, he urged, ought to heed these words \"of the greatest anti-Semite of his time, the warner of his people against the Jews.\" Diarmaid MacCulloch argued that Luther's 1543 pamphlet, \"On the Jews and Their Lies\" was a \"blueprint\" for the \"Kristallnacht\".", "\"Kristallnacht\" sparked international outrage. According to Volker Ullrich, \"...a line had been crossed: Germany had left the community of civilised nations.\" It discredited pro-Nazi movements in Europe and North America, leading to an eventual decline in their support. Many newspapers condemned \"Kristallnacht\", with some of them comparing it to the murderous pogroms incited by Imperial Russia during the 1880s. The United States recalled its ambassador (but it did not break off diplomatic relations) while other governments severed diplomatic relations with Germany in protest. The British government approved the Kindertransport program for refugee children. As such, \"Kristallnacht\" also marked a turning point in relations between Nazi Germany and the rest of the world. The brutality of the pogrom, and the Nazi government's deliberate policy of encouraging the violence once it had begun, laid bare the repressive nature and widespread anti-Semitism entrenched in Germany. World opinion thus turned sharply against the Nazi regime, with some politicians calling for war. The private protest against the Germans following \"Kristallnacht\" was held on 6 December 1938. William Cooper, an Aboriginal Australian, led a delegation of the Australian Aboriginal League on a march through Melbourne to the German Consulate to deliver a petition which condemned the \"cruel persecution of the Jewish people by the Nazi government of Germany\". German officials refused to accept the tendered document. After the Kristallnacht, Salvador Allende, Gabriel González Videla, Marmaduke Grove, Florencio Durán and other members of the Congress of Chile sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler denouncing the persecution of Jews. A more personal response, in 1939, was the oratorio \"A Child of Our Time\" by the English composer Michael Tippett.", "\"Kristallnacht\" changed the nature of the Nazi persecution of Jews from economic, political, and social to physical with beatings, incarceration, and murder; the event is often referred to as the beginning of the Holocaust. In this view, it is described not only as a pogrom but also a critical stage within a process where each step becomes the seed of the next. An account cited that Hitler's green light for \"Kristallnacht\" was made with the belief that it would help him realize his ambition of getting rid of the Jews in Germany. Prior to this large-scale and organized violence against the Jews, the Nazi's primary objective was to eject them from Germany, leaving their wealth behind. In the words of historian Max Rein in 1988, \"Kristallnacht came...and everything was changed.\" While November 1938 predated the overt articulation of \"the Final Solution\", it foreshadowed the genocide to come. Around the time of \"Kristallnacht\", the SS newspaper \"Das Schwarze Korps\" called for a \"destruction by swords and flames.\" At a conference on the day after the pogrom, Hermann Göring said: \"The Jewish problem will reach its solution if, in anytime soon, we will be drawn into war beyond our border—then it is obvious that we will have to manage a final account with the Jews.\" \"Kristallnacht\" was also instrumental in changing global opinion. In the United States, for instance, it was this specific incident that came to symbolize Nazism and was the reason the Nazis became associated with evil.", "Many decades later, association with the \"Kristallnacht\" anniversary was cited as the main reason against choosing 9 November \"(Schicksalstag)\", the day the Berlin Wall came down in 1989, as the new German national holiday; a different day was chosen (3 October 1990, German reunification). The avant-garde guitarist Gary Lucas's 1988 composition \"Verklärte Kristallnacht\", which juxtaposes what would become the Israeli national anthem ten years after \"Kristallnacht\", \"Hatikvah\", with phrases from the German national anthem \"Deutschland Über Alles\" amid wild electronic shrieks and noise, is intended to be a sonic representation of the horrors of \"Kristallnacht\". It was premiered at the 1988 Berlin Jazz Festival and received rave reviews. (The title is a reference to Arnold Schoenberg's 1899 work \"Verklärte Nacht\" that presaged his pioneering work on atonal music; Schoenberg was an Austrian Jew who would move to the United States to escape the Nazis). In 1989, Al Gore, then a senator from Tennessee and later Vice President of the United States, wrote of an \"ecological Kristallnacht\" in the New York Times. He opined that events then taking place, such as deforestation and ozone depletion, prefigured a greater environmental catastrophe in the way Kristallnacht prefigured the Holocaust. \"Kristallnacht\" was the inspiration for the 1993 album \"Kristallnacht\" by the composer John Zorn. The German power metal band Masterplan's debut album, \"Masterplan\" (2003), features an anti-Nazi song entitled \"Crystal Night\" as the fourth track. The German band BAP published a song titled \"Kristallnaach\" in their Cologne dialect, dealing with the emotions engendered by the \"Kristallnacht\". \"Kristallnacht\" was the inspiration for the 1988 composition \"Mayn Yngele\" by the composer Frederic Rzewski, of which he says: \"I began writing this piece in November 1988, on the 50th anniversary of the Kristallnacht... My piece is a reflection on that vanished part of Jewish tradition which so strongly colors, by its absence, the culture of our time\". \"Kristallnacht\" was invoked as a reference point on 16 July 2018 by a former Watergate Prosecutor, Jill Wine-Banks, during an MSNBC segment. Her argument was that President Trump's joint press conference with Russian President Vladimir Putin was a performance that would live in infamy much like the attack on Pearl Harbor and \"Kristallnacht\". \"Kristallnacht\" has been referenced both explicitly and implicitly in countless cases of vandalism of Jewish property including the toppling of gravestones in a Jewish cemetery in suburban St. Louis, Missouri, and the two 2017 vandalisms of the New England Holocaust Memorial, as the memorial's founder Steve Ross discusses in his book, \"From Broken Glass: My Story of Finding Hope in Hitler's Death Camps to Inspire a New Generation\". The Sri Lankan Finance Minister Mangala Samaraweera also used the term to describe the violence in 2019 against Muslims by Sinhalese nationalists.", "Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Norse and Norman period.", "Later Middle Ages and early modern period.", "Governors of Scilly.", "Geography.", "Tidal influx.", "Climate.", "Geology.", "Government.", "National government.", "Local government.", "Flags.", "Emergency services.", "Education.", "Economy.", "Historical context.", "Tourism.", "Ornithology.", "Employment.", "Taxation.", "Transport.", "Tenure.", "Culture.", "People.", "Sport.", "Media.", "Novels.", "Songs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The islands may correspond to the Cassiterides ('Tin Isles') believed by some to have been visited by the Phoenicians and mentioned by the Greeks. However, the archipelago itself does not contain much tin. The isles were off the coast of the Brittonic Celtic kingdom of Dumnonia and later its offshoot, Kernow (Cornwall), and may have been a part of these polities until their conquest by the English in the 10th century AD. It is likely that until relatively recent times the islands were much larger and perhaps joined together into one island named Ennor. Rising sea levels flooded the central plain", "In 995, Olaf Tryggvason became King Olaf I of Norway. Born 960, Olaf had raided various European cities and fought in several wars. In 986 he met a Christian seer on the Isles of Scilly. He was probably a follower of Priscillian and part of the tiny Christian community that was exiled here from Spain by Emperor Maximus for Priscillianism. In Snorri Sturluson's Royal Sagas of Norway, it is stated that this seer told him: Thou wilt become a renowned king, and do", "At the turn of the 14th century, the Abbot and convent of Tavistock Abbey petitioned the king, stat[ing] that they hold certain isles in the sea between Cornwall and Ireland, of which the largest is called Scilly, to which ships come passing between France, Normandy, Spain, Bayonne, Gascony, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and Cornwall: and, because they feel that in the event of a war breaking out between the kings of England and France, or between any of the other places mentioned, they would not have enough power to do justice to these sailors, they ask that they might exchange these islands", "An early governor of Scilly was Thomas Godolphin, whose son Francis received a lease on the Isles in 1568. They were styled \"Governors of Scilly\" and the Godolphins and their Osborne relatives held this position until 1834. In 1834 Augustus John Smith acquired", "The Isles of Scilly form an archipelago of five inhabited islands (six if Gugh is counted separately from St. Agnes) and numerous other small rocky islets (around 140 in total) lying off Land's End. The islands' position produces a place of great contrast; the ameliorating effect of the sea, greatly influenced by the North Atlantic Current, means they rarely have frost or snow, which allows local farmers to grow flowers well ahead of those in mainland Britain. The chief agricultural product is cut flowers, mostly daffodils. Exposure to Atlantic winds also means that spectacular winter gales lash the islands from time to time. This is reflected in the landscape, most clearly seen on Tresco where the lush Abbey Gardens on the sheltered southern end of the island contrast with the low heather and bare rock sculpted by the wind on the exposed northern end. Natural England has designated the Isles of Scilly as National Character Area 158. As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose sea thrift (\"Armeria maritima\") as the \"county flower\" of the islands. This table provides an overview of the most important islands: In 1975 the islands were designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The designation covers the entire archipelago, including the uninhabited islands and rocks, and is the smallest such area in the UK. The islands of Annet and Samson have large terneries and the islands are well populated by seals. The Isles of Scilly are the only British haunt of the lesser white-toothed shrew (\"Crocidura suaveolens\"), where it is known locally as a \"\"teak\"\" or \"\"teke\"\". The islands are famous among birdwatchers for their ability to attract rare birds from all corners of the globe. The peak time of year for this is generally in October when it is not unusual for several of the rarest birds in Europe to share this archipelago. One reason for the success of these islands in producing rarities is the extensive coverage these islands get from birdwatchers, but archipelagos are often favoured by rare birds which like to make landfall and eat there before continuing their journeys and often arrive on far-flung islands first.", "The tidal range at the Isles of Scilly is high for an open sea location; the maximum for St. Mary's is. Additionally, the inter-island waters are mostly shallow, which at spring tides allows for dry land walking between several of the islands. Many of the northern islands can be reached from Tresco, including Bryher, Samson and", "The Isles of Scilly features an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification \"Cfb\"). The average annual temperature is, by far the warmest place in the British Isles. Winters are, by far, the warmest in the country due to the moderating effects of the ocean, and despite being on exactly the same latitude as Winnipeg in Canada, snow and frost are extremely", "All the islands of Scilly are all composed of granite rock of Early Permian age, an", "", "Politically, the islands are part of England, one of the four countries", "Historically, the Isles of Scilly were administered as one of the hundreds of Cornwall, although the Cornwall quarter sessions had limited jurisdiction there. For judicial purposes, shrievalty purposes, and lieutenancy purposes, the Isles of Scilly are \"deemed to form part of the county of Cornwall\". The archipelago is part of the Duchy of Cornwall – the duchy owns the freehold of most of the land on the islands and the duke exercises certain formal rights and privileges across the territory, as he does in Cornwall proper.", "Two flags are used to represent Scilly: An adapted version of the old Board of Ordnance flag has also", "The Isles of Scilly form part of the Devon and Cornwall Police force area. There is a police station in Hugh Town. The Cornwall Air Ambulance helicopter provides cover to the islands. The islands", "Education is available on the islands up to age 16. There is one school, the Five Islands Academy, which provides primary schooling at sites on St Agnes, St Mary's, St Martin's and Tresco, and secondary schooling at a site on St Mary's. Secondary students from outside St Mary's live at a school", "", "Since the mid-18th century the Scillonian economy has relied on trade with the mainland and beyond as a means of sustaining its population. Over the years the nature of this trade has varied, due to wider economic and political factors that have seen the rise", "Today, tourism is estimated to account for 85 percent of the islands' income. The islands have been successful in attracting this investment due to their special environment, favourable summer climate, relaxed culture, efficient co-ordination of tourism providers and good transport links by sea and air to the mainland, uncommon in scale to similar-sized island communities. The majority of visitors stay on St Mary's, which has a concentration of holiday accommodation and other amenities. Of the other inhabited islands, Tresco is run as a timeshare resort, and is consequently the most obviously tourist-oriented. Bryher and St", "Because of its position, Scilly is the first landing for many migrant birds, including extreme rarities from North America and Siberia. Scilly is situated far into the Atlantic Ocean, so many American vagrant birds will make first European landfall in the archipelago. Scilly is responsible for many firsts for Britain, and is particularly good at producing vagrant American passerines. If an extremely rare bird turns up, the island will see a significant increase in numbers of birders. This type of birding, chasing after rare birds, is called \"twitching\". The islands are home to ornithologist Will Wagstaff.", "The predominance of tourism means that \"tourism is by far the main sector throughout each of the individual islands, in terms of employment... [and] this is much greater than other remote and rural areas in the United Kingdom\". Tourism accounts for approximately 63% of all employment. Businesses dependent on tourism, with the exception of a few hotels, tend to be small enterprises typically employing fewer than four people; many of these are", "The islands were not subject to income tax", "St Mary's is the only island with a significant road network and the only island with public highways; in 2005 there were 619 registered vehicles on the island. The island also has taxis and a tour bus. Vehicles on the islands are exempt from annual MOT tests. Roads and streets across Scilly have very few signs or markings, and route numbers (of the three A roads on St Mary's) are not marked at all. There are locally operated inter-island tripper boat services run from St Mary's, St Martin's, St Agnes and Bryher. Many local residents have their own vessels for visiting neighbouring islands. By sea, the Isles of Scilly Steamship Company provides a passenger and cargo service from Penzance to St Mary's, which is currently operated by the \"Scillonian III\" passenger", "The freehold land of the islands is the property of the Duchy of Cornwall (except for Hugh Town on St Mary's, which was sold to the inhabitants in 1949). The duchy also holds as duchy property, part of the duchy's landholding. All the uninhabited islands, islets and rocks and much of the untenanted land on the inhabited islands is managed by the Isles of Scilly Wildlife Trust, which leases these lands from the Duchy for the rent of one daffodil per year. The trust currently has four full-time salaried staff and 12 trustees, who are all residents of the Isles. The full trust board is responsible for policy whilst a management team is responsible for day-to-day administration. Its small income and the small number of staff have led to the trust adopting a policy of recruiting volunteers to help it carry out its extensive work programme. While volunteers of all ages are welcome, most are young people who are studying for qualifications in related fields, such as conservation and land management. Limited housing availability is a contentious yet critical", "", "According to the 2001 UK census, 97% of the population of the islands are white British, with nearly 93% of the inhabitants born in the islands, in mainland Cornwall or elsewhere in England. Since EU enlargement in 2004, a number of central", "One continuing legacy of the isles' past is gig racing, wherein fast rowing boats (\"gigs\") with crews of six (or in one case, seven) race between the main islands. Gig racing has been said to derive from the race to collect salvage from shipwrecks on the rocks around Scilly, but the race was actually to deliver a pilot onto incoming vessels, to guide them through the hazardous reefs and shallows. (The boats are correctly termed \"pilot gigs\"). The World Pilot Gig Championships are held annually over the May Day bank holiday weekend. The event originally involved crews from the Islands and a few crews from Cornwall, but in the intervening years the number of gigs attending has increased, with crews coming from all over the South-West and as far", "The islands are served by Halangy Down radio and television transmitter north of Telegraph at, on St Mary's, which is a relay of the main transmitter at Redruth (Cornwall) and broadcasts BBC Radio 1, 2, 3, 4 and BBC Radio Cornwall and the range of Freeview television and BBC radio channels known as 'Freeview Light'. Radio Scilly, a community radio station, was launched in September 2007. There is no local newspaper; \"Scilly Now & Then\" is a free community magazine produced eight times a year and is available to mainland subscribers, while \"The Scillonian\" is published twice yearly and reports matters of local interest. There is an active news forum on the news and information websites scillytoday.com and thisisscilly.com. Internet access is available across the", "The heroine of Walter Besant's novel \"Armorel of Lyonesse\" came from Samson, and about half the action of the novel takes place in the Isles of Scilly. The events of Nevil Shute's novel \"Marazan\" occur, in part, around these islands. Five children's books written by Michael Morpurgo, \"Why the Whales Came\", \"The Sleeping Sword\", \"The Wreck of the Zanzibar\", \"Arthur, High King of Britain\" and \"Listen to", "Scilly is mentioned in the traditional British naval song \"Spanish Ladies\". Scilly is mentioned in the song" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Versions 1–1.6 (Illustrator 88).", "Versions 2–6.", "Versions 7–10.", "Versions CS–CS6.", "Version CC.", "Branding.", "Compatibility.", "Tools." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Development of Adobe Illustrator for the Apple Macintosh began in 1985 (shipping in January 1987) as a commercialization of Adobe's in-house font development software and PostScript file format. Adobe Illustrator is the companion product of Adobe Photoshop. Photoshop is primarily geared toward digital photo manipulation and photorealistic styles of computer illustration, while Illustrator provides results in the typesetting and logo graphic areas of design. Early magazine advertisements (featured in graphic design trade magazines such as \"Communication Arts\") referred to the product as \"the Adobe Illustrator\". Illustrator 88, the product name for version 1.7, was released in 1988 and introduced many new tools and features. \"Byte\" in 1989 listed Illustrator 88 as among the \"Distinction\" winners of the Byte Awards, stating that with it Adobe had \"pulled ahead\" of previously industry-dominant competitor Aldus FreeHand. Early versions of the software did not support working in preview mode and users needed to have two windows open on their desktop in order to have a live preview of their work. One window to show the work in progress, the other window to show a preview of the work in progress.", "Although during its first decade Adobe developed Illustrator primarily for Macintosh, it sporadically supported other platforms. In the early 1990s, Adobe released versions of Illustrator for NeXT, Silicon Graphics, and Sun Solaris platforms, but they were discontinued due to poor market acceptance. The first version of Illustrator for Windows, version 2.0, was released in early 1989 and flopped. The next Windows version, version 4.0, was widely criticized as being too similar to Illustrator 1.1 instead of the Macintosh 3.0 version, and certainly not the equal of Windows' most popular illustration package CorelDRAW. (Note that there were no versions 2.0 or 4.0 for the Macintosh—although, the second release for the Mac was titled Illustrator 88—the year of its release. And there was no version 6 for Windows.) Version 4 was, however, the first version of Illustrator to support editing in preview mode, which did not appear in a Macintosh version until 5.0 in 1993. Version 6 was the last truly Macintosh version of Illustrator. The interface changed radically with the following version to bring consistency between Mac and windows computer platforms. The changes remained until CS6 when some small steps were taken to restore the app to a slightly more Mac-like interface.", "With the introduction of Illustrator 7 in 1997, Adobe made critical changes in the user interface with regard to path editing (and also to converge on the same user interface as Adobe Photoshop), and many users opted not to upgrade. Illustrator also began to support TrueType, effectively ending the \"font wars\" between PostScript Type 1 and TrueType. Like Photoshop, Illustrator also began supporting plug-ins, greatly and quickly extending its abilities. With true user interface parity between Macintosh and Windows versions starting with 7.0, designers could finally standardize on Illustrator. Corel did port CorelDRAW 6.0 to the Macintosh in late 1996, but it was received as too little, too late. Designers tended to prefer Illustrator, Drawcord, or FreeHand, based on which software they learned first. As an example, there are capabilities in FreeHand still not available in Illustrator (higher scaling percentages, advanced find-and-replace feature, selective round-corner editing, export/print selected objects only, etc.). Famously, Aldus did a comparison matrix between its own FreeHand, Illustrator and Draw, and Draw's one \"win\" was that it came with three different clip art views of the human pancreas. Adobe bought Aldus in 1994 for Page Maker. As part of the transaction, the Federal Trade Commission issued a complaint of Adobe Systems on October 18, 1994, ordering a divestiture of FreeHand to \"remedy the lessening of competition resulting from the acquisition\" because of Adobe's Illustrator software. As a result, Macromedia acquired Free Hand in 1995 from its original developer, Altsys, and continued its development through 2004. The difference in strengths between Photoshop and Illustrator became clear with the rise of the Internet, Illustrator was enhanced to support Web publishing, rasterization previewing, PDF, and SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics.) Adobe was an early developer of SVG for the web and Illustrator exported SVG files via the SVG File Format plugin. Using the Adobe SVG Viewer (ASV), introduced in 2000, allowed users to view SVG images in most major browsers until it was discontinued in 2009. Native support for SVG was not complete in all major browsers until Internet Explorer 9 in 2011. Illustrator Version 9 included a tracing feature, similar to that within Adobe's discontinued product Streamline. Illustrator version 10 was released by Adobe in November 2001.", "Illustrator CS (aka version 11), released by Adobe for Mac and Windows in October 2003, was the first version to include 3-dimensional capabilities allowing users to extrude or revolve shapes to create simple 3D objects. Illustrator CS2 (version 12), released by Adobe in April 2005, was available for both the Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows operating systems. It was the last version for the Mac which did not run natively on Intel processors. Among the new features included in Illustrator CS2 were Live Trace, Live Paint, a control palette and custom workspace. Live Trace allows for the conversion of bitmap imagery into vector art and improved upon the previous tracing abilities. Live Paint allows users more flexibility in applying color to objects, specifically those that overlap. In the same year as the CS2 release, Adobe Systems announced an agreement to acquire Macromedia in a stock swap valued at about $3.4 billion and it integrated the companies' operations, networks, and customer-care organizations shortly thereafter. Adobe now owned Freehand along with the entire Macromedia product line and in 2007, Adobe announced that it would discontinue development and updates to the Freehand program. Instead, Adobe would provide tools and support to ease the transition to Illustrator. Illustrator CS3 included interface updates to the Control Bar, the ability to align individual points, multiple Crop Areas, the Color Guide panel and the Live Color feature among others. CS3 was released on March 27, 2007. CS4 was released in October 2008. It features a variety of improvements to old tools along with the introduction of a few brand-new tools acquired from FreeHand. The ability to create multiple art boards is one of CS4's main additions from Freehand. The art boards allow you to create multiple versions of a piece of work within a single document. Other tools include the Blob Brush, which allows multiple overlapping vector brush strokes to easily merge or join, and a revamped gradient tool allowing for more in-depth color manipulation as well as transparency in gradients. CS5 was released in April 2010. Along with a number of enhancements to existing functionality, Illustrator CS5's new features include a Perspective Grid tool taken from FreeHand, a Bristle Brush (for more natural and painterly looking strokes) and a comprehensive update to strokes, referred to by Adobe as \"Beautiful Strokes\". Version CS6 was the 16th generation of Adobe Illustrator. Adobe added many more features and several bug fixes such as a new user interface, layer panels, RGB codes, and color ramp to increase performance. CS6 was released on April 23, 2012.", "Along with Creative Cloud (the result of Adobe's shift on its release strategy), Illustrator CC was released. This version (the 17th) was the first to be only sold in a subscription-based service model, in line with the other software in the formerly called Creative Suite. As part of Creative Cloud, this version brought improvements in that subject such as color, font and program settings syncing, saving documents to the cloud, and integration with Behance (a creative collaborative network), as well as other features such as a new touch-compatible type tool, images in brushes, CSS extraction, and files packaging.", "Starting with version 1.0, Adobe chose to license an image of Sandro Botticelli's \"The Birth of Venus\" from the Bettmann Archive and use the portion containing Venus' face as Illustrator's branding image. John Warnock desired a Renaissance image to evoke his vision of PostScript as a new Renaissance in publishing, and Adobe employee Luanne Seymour Cohen, who was responsible for the early marketing material, found Venus' flowing tresses a perfect vehicle for demonstrating Illustrator's strength in tracing smooth curves over bitmap source images. Over the years the rendition of this image on Illustrator's splash screen and packaging became more stylized to reflect features added in each version. The image of Venus was replaced (albeit still accessible via easter egg) in Illustrator CS (11.0) and CS2 (12.0) by a stylized flower to conform to the Creative Suite's nature imagery. In CS3, Adobe changed the suite branding once again, to simple colored blocks with two-letter abbreviations, resembling a periodic table of elements. Illustrator was represented by the letters Ai in white against an orange background (oranges and yellows were prominent color schemes in Illustrator branding going back as far as version 4.0). The CS4 icon is almost identical, except for a slight alteration to the font and the color which is dark gray. The CS5 icon is also virtually the same, except that this time the logo is like a box, along with all the other CS5 product logos, with the \"Ai\" bright yellow. CS6 changed it a bit to a brown square with a yellow border and yellow lettering, and in CC 2014 the colors were upgraded to a sharper tone and thinner borders.", "Compatibility with Inkscape: Inkscape's native format is SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics), which is supported by Adobe Illustrator, but the two implementations are not 100% compatible. Inkscape also exports to PS, EPS and PDF, formats which Illustrator can recognize.", "A sidebar that appears at the left of the screen with a variety of tools to select, create, and manipulate objects or artworks in Illustrator. These tools can be selected as following: drawing, typing, painting, reshaping, slicing and cutting, symbolism, moving and zooming, and graph. Some tools have a small triangle at the bottom right of the toolbox icon. A small triangle has the option to view or expand some hidden tools by hold down the mouse button on the triangle. Some examples of basic tools in illustrator are selection tools, paintbrush tools, pen tools, pencil tools e.g. Selection tools are used to the layout, adjust, and organize the artwork by selecting, positioning, and stacking object accurately. Moreover, selection tools can group, lock or hide, and measure objects. Paintbrush tools can be used to modify the appearance of the artwork. There are different types of brushes: calligraphic, scatter, art, pattern, and bristle. Pen tools create straight and curved lines for the artwork and they can add anchor points to paths and delete from paths. Pencil tools allow the user to draw and edit freehand lines." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Climate.", "Culture.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name is derived from the Lithuanian hydronym Alytupis. In other languages the names of the town include Polish: \"Olita\", German: \"Aliten\", Russian: Олита \"Olita\", Belarusian: Аліта \"Alita\", Yiddish: אליטע \"Alite\".", "The first historical record of Alytus dates back to 1377, when it was mentioned in the Chronicles of Wigand of Marburg under the name of \"Aliten\". According to the chronicle the spot was occupied by a small, wooden fortress guarding the Lithuanian frontier with the Teutonic Order. The fort and the surrounding village gradually grew, despite being frequently a target of raids of both the Lithuanians and the Teutons. The Treaty of Lake Melno left the town on the Teutonic side of the border, but it was retaken soon afterwards. On 15 June 1581 Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Stefan Batory granted the town the city rights based on the Magdeburg Law. The event is celebrated as the \"Alytus Day\". Until the Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth the town was a part of the Trakai Voivodeship of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and a notable center of commerce on the Nemunas River, serving as the main route for export goods from Lithuania proper. The town was also important as the place where one of the royal economic offices was located. In the third partition of Poland and Lithuania, in 1795, the town was divided between the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. During the Napoleonic Wars, following the Treaty of Tilsit, the western part was ceded to the Duchy of Warsaw. After the Congress of Vienna it became part of the duchy's successor state, the Kingdom of Poland. Although the state was tied with a personal union with Russia, both parts of the town remained completely separate until the January Uprising of 1863. After that date, the autonomy of Poland was liquidated, but both parts of the town remained governed separately. In the late 19th century the town was incorporated into a chain of Russian fortified garrisons along the border with East Prussia. It was tied with the rest of the world by a railway and a new road. In addition, the tsarist authorities constructed several barracks and an Orthodox church (in modern times converted to a Catholic church). However, despite the fortification effort by the Russians, during World War I the Central Powers managed to capture the town intact, without any major skirmish. In 1915 the town was incorporated into the so-called Ober Ost and both parts were once again united into a single administrative entity for the first time since 1795. Following the end of World War I the area remained contested by newly independent Poland and Lithuania, with the actual control held by the German army stationed in the area. When the Germans withdrew in early 1919, the town was seized by the Red Army. On 12 February 1919, the town became a battlefield for the first skirmish between the Russians and the Lithuanian forces, which eventually took control over it. Since then the town has been a part of the Republic of Lithuania. Following the invasion of Poland a large prisoner of war camp for Polish soldiers was established in the city. Following the German occupation of the city in 1941, the camp was converted into a prison camp for Soviet soldiers (Stalag 343). In the nearby forest of Vidzgiris the Nazis murdered approximately 60,000 people, mostly Jews from nearby towns in Lithuania. In 2015 a HVDC back-to-back station for the realization of a power interconnection between Poland and Lithuania ( LitPol) was inaugurated west of Alytus. The facility built by ABB has a transmission capacity of 500 MW at a voltage of ±70 kV.", "Alytus has a humid continental climate with quite large seasonal differences.", "\"Alytaus Naujienos\" is a local newspaper in Alytus. Alytus hosted the Art Strike Biennial between 18 and 24 August 2009 in response to Vilnius becoming European Capital of Culture for 2009. This included a demonstration and a three sided football match. The universal indoor Alytus Arena hosted the Eurobasket 2011 Group C matches in Alytus. In 2010 Alytus was awarded the Honourable Plate of the European Council. Alytus has a museum dedicated to veterans of both the Afghan wars. In Alytus, several Bonsai exhibitions were held with participants from European and other countries, such as Japan and the United States. Alytus has hosted an annual Tomato tasting since 2007. Participants offer a wide variety of tomatoes and discuss the various factors which help produce a rich crop of the fruit. Alytus has an industrial company named Snaigė, which manufactures refrigerators.", "Alytus is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Standard pronunciation.", "Vowels.", "Consonants.", "Stops.", "Fricatives.", "Sonorants.", "Stress and pitch.", "Phonotactics.", "Sample.", "Orthographic version." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "There is no uniform nationwide spoken Standard Swedish. Instead there are several regional standard varieties (acrolects or prestige dialects), i.e. the most intelligible or prestigious forms of spoken Swedish, each within its area. The differences in the phonology of the various forms of prestigious Central Swedish can be considerable, although as a rule less marked than between localized dialects, including differences in prosody, vowel quality and assimilation. The differences between the various regional dialects may be compared with those of General American, Australian English and British Received Pronunciation. In Sweden, the Central Swedish varieties often go under the name of \"rikssvenska\" ('National Swedish'). \"Finlandssvenska\" is another notable variety, with a slightly different phonology.", "Swedish has 9 vowels that, as in many other Germanic languages, exist in pairs of long and short versions. The length covaries with the quality of the vowels, as shown in the table below (long vowels in the first column, short in the second), with short variants being more centered and lax. The length is generally viewed as the primary distinction, with quality being secondary. No short vowels appear in open stressed syllables. The front vowels appear in rounded-unrounded pairs. Rounded vowels have two types of rounding: Type of rounding is the primary way of distinguishing from, especially in Central Standard Swedish. , (in stressed syllables), (with a few exceptions) and are lowered to,, and, respectively, when preceding. The low allophones are becoming unmarked in younger speakers of Stockholm Swedish, so that \"läsa\" ('to read') and \"köpa\" ('to buy') are pronounced and instead of standard and. These speakers often also pronounce pre-rhotic and even lower, i.e. and. This is especially true for the long allophone. Also, the allophone is sometimes difficult to distinguish from the long. In some pronunciations, traditionally characteristic of the varieties spoken around Gothenburg and in Östergötland, but today more common e.g. in Stockholm and especially in younger speakers, and merge, most commonly into (especially before and the retroflex consonants). Words like \"fördömande\" ('judging', pronounced in Standard Swedish) and \"fördummande\" ('dumbing', pronounced in Standard Swedish) are then often pronounced similarly or identically, as. In Central Standard Swedish, unstressed is slightly retracted, but is still a front vowel rather than central. However, the latter pronunciation is commonly found in Southern Swedish. Therefore, \"begå\" 'to commit' is pronounced in Central Standard Swedish and in Southern Swedish. Before, southerners may use a back vowel. In Central Standard Swedish, a true schwa is commonly found as a vocalic release of word-final lenis stops, as in e.g. \"bädd\" 'bed'. In many central and eastern areas (including Stockholm), the contrast between short and is lost, except before when the subtle vowel distinction between the words \"herre\"'master' and \"märr\"'mare' is kept. The loss of this contrast has the effect that \"hetta\" ('heat') and \"hätta\" ('cap') are pronounced the same. In Central Standard Swedish, long is weakly rounded. The rounding is stronger in Gothenburg and weaker in most North Swedish dialects. One of the varieties of is made with a constriction that is more forward than is usual. Peter Ladefoged and Ian Maddieson describe this vowel as being pronounced \"by slightly lowering the body of the tongue while simultaneously raising the blade of the tongue (...) Acoustically this pronunciation is characterized by having a very high F3, and an F2 which is lower than that in.\" They suggest that this may be the usual Stockholm pronunciation of. There is some variation in the interpretations of vowel length's phonemicity., for example, treats vowel quantity as its own separate phoneme (a \"prosodeme\") so that long and short vowels are allophones of a single vowel phoneme. Patterns of diphthongs of long vowels occur in three major dialect groups. In Central Standard Swedish, the high vowels,, and are realized as narrow closing diphthongs with fully close ending points:. According to Engstrand, the second element is so close as to become a palatal or bilabial fricative:. Elsewhere in the article, the broad transcription is used. In Central Standard Swedish,, and are often realized as centering diphthongs, and. In Southern Swedish dialects, particularly in Scania and Blekinge, the diphthongs are preceded by a rising of the tongue from a central position so that and are realized as and respectively. A third type of distinctive diphthongs occur in the dialects of Gotland. The pattern of diphthongs is more complex than those of southern and eastern Sweden;, and tend to rise while and fall;,, and are not diphthongized at all.", "The table below shows the Swedish consonant phonemes in spoken Standard Swedish.", "Initial fortis stops () are aspirated in stressed position, but unaspirated when preceded by within the same morpheme. Hence \"ko\" ('cow') is, but \"sko\" ('shoe') becomes. Compare English ('cool') vs ('school'). In Finland Swedish, aspiration does not occur and initial lenis stops are usually voiced throughout. Word-medial lenis stops are sometimes voiceless in Finland, a likely influence from Finnish. Preaspiration of medial and final fortis stops, including the devoicing of preceding sonorants is common, though its length and normativity varies from dialect to dialect, being optional (and idiolectal) in Central Standard Swedish but obligatory in, for example, the Swedish dialects of Gräsö, Vemdalen and Arjeplog. In Gräsö, preaspiration is blocked in certain environments (such as an following the fortis consonant or a morpheme boundary between the vowel and the consonant), while it is a general feature of fortis medial consonants in Central Standard Swedish. When not preaspirated, medial and final fortis stops are simply unaspirated. In clusters of fortis stops, the second \"presonorant\" stop is unaspirated and the former patterns with other medial final stops (that is, it is either unaspirated or is preaspirated). The phonetic attributes of preaspiration also vary. In the Swedish of Stockholm, preaspiration is often realized as a fricative subject to the character of surrounding vowels or consonants so that it may be labial, velar, or dental; it may also surface as extra length of the preceding vowel. In the province of Härjedalen, though, it resembles or. The duration of preaspiration is highest in the dialects of Vemdalen and Arjeplog. Helgason notes that preaspiration is longer after short vowels, in lexically stressed syllables, as well as in pre-pausal position.", "is dental in Central Standard Swedish, but retracted alveolar in Blekinge, Bohuslän, Halland and Scania. The Swedish fricatives and are often considered to be the most difficult aspects of Swedish pronunciation for foreign students. The combination of occasionally similar and rather unusual sounds as well as the large variety of partly overlapping allophones of often presents difficulties for non-natives in telling the two apart. The existence of a third sibilant in the form of tends to confuse matters even more, and in some cases realizations that are labiodental can also be confused with. In Finland Swedish, is an affricate: or. The Swedish phoneme (the \"sje-sound\" or voiceless postalveolar-velar fricative) and its alleged coarticulation is a difficult and complex issue debated amongst phoneticians. Though the acoustic properties of its allophones are fairly similar, the realizations can vary considerably according to geography, social status, age, gender as well as social context and are notoriously difficult to describe and transcribe accurately. Most common are various \"sh\"-like sounds, with occurring mainly in northern Sweden and in Finland. A voiceless uvular fricative,, can sometimes be used in the varieties influenced by major immigrant languages like Arabic and Kurdish. The different realizations can be divided roughly into the following categories:", "has distinct variations in Standard Swedish. The realization as an alveolar trill occurs among most speakers only in contexts where emphatic stress is used. In Central Swedish, it is often pronounced as a fricative (transcribed as ) or approximant (transcribed as ), which is especially frequent in weakly articulated positions such as word-finally and somewhat less frequent in stressed syllable onsets, in particular after other consonants. It may also be an apico-alveolar tap. One of the most distinct features of the southern varieties is the uvular realization of, which may be a trill, a fricative or an approximant. In Finland, is usually an apical trill, and may be an approximant postvocalically. In most varieties of Swedish that use an alveolar (in particular, the central and northern forms), the combination of with dental consonants () produces retroflex consonant realizations, a recursive sandhi process called \"retroflexion\". Thus, ('map') is realized as, ('north') as, ('Vänern') as, and ('fresh') as. The combination of and, does not uniformly cause retroflexion, so that it may also be pronounced with two separate consonants, and even, occasionally in a few words and expressions, as a mere. Thus \"sorl\" ('murmur') may be pronounced, but also. In Gothenburg and neighbouring areas (such as Mölndal and Kungälv) the retroflex consonants are substituted by alveolar ones, with their effects still remaining. For example: is not, is, not. However,, unlike what many other Swedes believe, is not but, i.e. is, not. As the adjacent table shows, this process is not limited by word boundaries, though there is still some sensitivity to the type of boundary between the and the dental in that retroflexion is less likely with boundaries higher up in the prosodic hierarchy. In the southern varieties, which use a uvular, retroflex realizations do not occur. For example, ('map') is realized as, etc. A double sequence usually will not trigger retroflexion so that \"spärrnät\" ('anti-sub net') is pronounced. The process of retroflexion is not limited to just one dental, and e.g. \"först\" is pronounced. Retroflexion also does not usually occur in Finland. Variations of are not as common, though some phonetic variation exists, such as a retroflex flap that exists as an allophone in proximity to a labial or velar consonant (e.g. \"glad\" ('glad')) or after most long vowels. In casual speech, the nasals tend to assimilate to the place of articulation of a following obstruent so that, for example, \"han kom\" ('he came') is pronounced.", "As in English, there are many Swedish word pairs that are differentiated by stress: Stressed syllables differentiate two tones, often described as pitch accents, or \"tonal word accents\" by Scandinavian linguists. They are called acute and grave accent, tone/accent 1 and tone/accent 2, or Single Tone and Double Tone. The actual realizations of these two tones varies from dialect to dialect. In the central Swedish dialect of Stockholm, accent 1 is an LHL contour and accent 2 is an HLHL contour (with the second peak in the second syllable). Generally, the grave accent is characterized by a later timing of the intonational pitch rise as compared with the acute accent; the so-called two-peaked dialects (such as Central and Western Swedish) also have another, earlier pitch peak in the grave accent, hence the term \"two-peaked\". The phonemicity of this tonal system is demonstrated in the nearly 300 pairs of two-syllable words differentiated only by their use of either grave or acute accent. Outside of these pairs, the main tendency for tone is that the acute accent appears in monosyllables (since the grave accent cannot appear in monosyllabic words) while the grave accent appears in polysyllabic words. Polysyllabic forms resulting from declension or derivation also tend to have a grave accent except when it is the definite article that is added. This tonal distinction has been present in Scandinavian dialects at least since Old Norse though a greater number of polysyllables now have an acute accent. These are mostly words that were monosyllabic in Old Norse, but have subsequently become disyllabic, as have many loanwords. For example, Old Norse \"kømr\" ('comes') has become \"kommer\" in Swedish (with an acute accent). The distinction can be shown with the minimal pair \"anden\" 'the duck' (tone 1) and \"anden\" 'the spirit' (tone 2). In Central Swedish, this is a high, slightly falling tone followed by a low tone; that is, a single drop from high to low pitch spread over two syllables. In Central Swedish, a mid falling tone followed by a high falling tone; that is, a double falling tone. The exact realization of the tones also depends on the syllable's position in an utterance. For instance, at the beginning of an utterance, the acute accent may have a rising rather than slightly falling pitch on the first syllable. Also, these are word tones that are spread across the syllables of the word. In trisyllabic words with the grave accent, the second fall in pitch is distributed across the second and third syllables: The position of the tone is dependent upon stress: The first stressed syllable has a high or falling tone, as does the following syllable(s) in grave-accented words. In most Finland-Swedish varieties, however, the distinction between grave and acute accent is missing. A reasonably complete list of uncontroversial so-called minimal pairs can be seen below. The two words in each pair are distinguished solely by having different tone (acute vs. grave). In those cases where both words are nouns it would have been possible to list the genitive forms of the words as well, thereby creating another word pair, but this has been avoided. A few word pairs where one of the words is a plural form with the suffix -or have been included. This is due to the fact that many Swedish-speakers in all parts of Sweden pronounce the suffix -or the same way as -er. Note that \"karaten/karaten\" is the only pair with more than two syllables (although we would get a second one if we used the definite forms of the pair \"perser/pärser\", i.e. \"perserna/pärserna\"). The word pair \"länder\" (=countries, plural of \"land\") and \"länder\" (=loins, plural of \"länd\") could have been included, but this one is controversial. For those speakers who have grave accent in the plural of \"länd\", the definite plural forms will also constitute a three-syllable minimal pair: \"länderna\" (acute accent, =the countries) vs. \"länderna\" (grave accent, =the loins). Although examples with more than two syllables are very few in Standard Swedish, it is possible to find other three-syllable pairs in regional dialects, such as Värmländska: \"hunnera\" (acute, =the Huns) vs. \"hunnera\" (grave, =the dogs), \"ändera/ännera\" (acute, =the ducks) vs. \"ändera/ännera\" (grave, =the ends), etc. Prosody in Swedish often varies substantially between different dialects including the spoken varieties of Standard Swedish. As in most languages, stress can be applied to emphasize certain words in a sentence. To some degree prosody may indicate questions, although less so than in English.", "At a minimum, a stressed syllable must consist of either a long vowel or a short vowel and a long consonant. Like many other Germanic languages, Swedish has a tendency for closed syllables with a relatively large number of consonant clusters in initial as well as final position. Though not as complex as that of most Slavic languages, examples of up to 7 consecutive consonants can occur when adding Swedish inflections to some foreign loanwords or names, and especially when combined with the tendency of Swedish to make long compound nouns. The syllable structure of Swedish can therefore be described with the following formula: This means that a Swedish one-syllable morpheme can have up to three consonants preceding the vowel that forms the nucleus of the syllable, and three consonants following it. Examples: \"skrämts\" (verb'scare' past participle, passive voice) or \"sprängts\" (verb 'explode' past participle, passive voice). All but one of the consonant phonemes,, can occur at the beginning of a morpheme, though there are only 6 possible three-consonant combinations, all of which begin with, and a total of 31 initial two-consonant combinations. All consonants except for and can occur finally, and the total number of possible final two-consonant clusters is 62. In some cases this can result in near-unpronounceable combinations, such as in \"västkustskt\", consisting of \"västkust\" ('west coast') with the adjective suffix \"-sk\" and the neuter suffix \"-t\". Central Standard Swedish and most other Swedish dialects feature a rare \"complementary quantity\" feature wherein a phonologically short consonant follows a long vowel and a long consonant follows a short vowel; this is true only for stressed syllables and all segments are short in unstressed syllables. This arose from the historical shift away from a system with a four-way contrast (that is,,, and were all possible) inherited from Proto-Germanic to a three-way one (, and ), and finally the present two-way one; certain Swedish dialects have not undergone these shifts and exhibit one of the other two phonotactic systems instead. In literature on Swedish phonology, there are a number of ways to transcribe complementary relationship, including: With the conventional assumption that medial long consonants are ambisyllabic (that is, \"penna\" ('pen'), is syllabified as ), all stressed syllables are thus \"heavy\". In unstressed syllables, the distinction is lost between and or between. With each successive post-stress syllable, the number of contrasting vowels decreases gradually with distance from the point of stress; at three syllables from stress, only and occur.", "The sample text is a reading of The North Wind and the Sun. The transcriptions are based on the section on Swedish found in \"The Handbook on the International Phonetic Association\". The broad transcription is phonemic while the narrow is phonetic.", "Nordanvinden och solen tvistade en gång om vem av dem som var starkast. Just då kom en vandrare vägen fram insvept i en varm kappa. De kom då överens om att den som först kunde få vandraren att ta av sig kappan, han skulle anses vara starkare än den andra. Då blåste nordanvinden så hårt han nånsin kunde, men ju hårdare han blåste desto tätare svepte vandraren kappan om sig, och till slut gav nordanvinden upp försöket. Då lät solen sina strålar skina helt varmt och genast tog vandraren av sig kappan och så var nordanvinden tvungen att erkänna att solen var den starkaste av de två." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history (1990–2000).", "New stadium and a new era (2001–2009).", "Recent history (2010–present).", "Crest and colours.", "Stadium.", "Players.", "First-team squad.", "Retired numbers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Flora was founded on 10 March 1990 by Aivar Pohlak as an effort to revive Estonian football during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The team was mainly based on players from Lõvid youth team. Flora finished their first season in last place and were relegated. The situation changed after the formation of the Meistriliiga in 1992. After 52 years of foreign occupation, Estonian clubs could once again play for the Estonian League Championship title. Flora finished the inaugural season of the Meistriliiga in fourth place. After the first season, the league was reformed to run from Autumn to Spring. Flora finished the 1992–93 season as runners-up. In 1993, Roman Ubakivi was appointed as manager. One round before the end of the 1993–94 season, Tevalte, who led the Meistriliiga table at the time, was controversially disqualified over allegations of match fixing. The season ended with Flora and Norma both on equal 36 points. Flora won the championship play-off match 5–2 and was awarded their first league title. The club made their European debut in the 1994–95 UEFA Cup, losing to Odense 0–6 on aggregate in the preliminary round. Flora managed to defend the league title in the 1994–95 season and won the 1994–95 Estonian Cup, defeating Lantana-Marlekor 2–0 in the final. In January 1996, Teitur Thordarson replaced Ubakivi as manager. Disappointing start in the 1995–96 season left the team in second place. Flora finished the 1996–97 season as runners-up once again. In the 1997–98 season, the club won their first league title under Thordarson. Subsequently, the league format was changed and Flora managed win another title in the same calendar year. Flora made their debut in the UEFA Champions League for the first time in the 1998–99 season, narrowly losing to Steaua București 4–5 on aggregate in the first qualifying round. The club added another Estonian Cup trophy after defeating Lantana 3–2 in the finals. Since 1999, Meistriliiga adopted the current league format with the season running from Spring to Autumn within a single calendar year. The 1999 season was unsuccessful as Flora placed third. In 2000, Tarmo Rüütli was appointed as manager. Under Rüütli, Flora finished the 2000 season as runners-up, behind Levadia who won the title without a single loss.", "In 2001, a new era began for Flora as the club moved to the new A. Le Coq Arena and Rüütli was replaced by Arno Pijpers. Under Pijpers, Flora won three consecutive Meistriliiga titles in 2001, 2002 and 2003. In the 2003 season, Flora won the league without losing a single league match, extending their unbeaten run from the previous season to 37, while Tor Henning Hamre scored a record 39 goals in a season. Pijpers left Flora in September 2004, before the end of the 2004 season, and was replaced by Janno Kivisild. The team failed to defend the league title for another season, finishing in third place. The 2005 season was unsuccessful as Flora placed fourth, 26 points behind the league champions TVMK. This was the first time Flora didn't win a Meistriliiga medal since 1992. After the disappointing season, Kivisild was replaced by Pasi Rautiainen. In the 2006–07 UEFA Cup, Flora defeated Lyn Oslo 1–1 on aggregate on away goals in the first qualifying round, before losing to Brøndby 0–4 on aggregate in the second qualifying round. The club finished the 2006 season in third place and placed second in the 2007 season. In 2007, Flora also suffered their biggest margin of defeat in the Meistriliiga thus far, losing 0–6 to TVMK. Flora finished the 2008 season as runners-up, behind Levadia once again, despite amassing 91 points and scoring 113 goals. Tarmo Rüütli returned to Flora for the 2009 season, but failed to lead the club to winning the league, placing fourth. Flora were more successful in the Estonian Cup, winning the trophy in 2008 and 2009.", "In 2010, Rüütli was replaced by the former Flora player and Estonia national team record cap holder Martin Reim. Under Reim, rejuvenated Flora ended the reign of Levadia who had won the four previous Meistriliiga titles and won the league in the 2010 season. Flora successfully defended their title in the 2011 season and won the 2010–11 Estonian Cup, defeating Narva Trans 2–0 in the final. Flora finished the 2012 season in third place, behind the champions Nõmme Kalju and Levadia. After the season, Reim left the club and was replaced Marko Lelov in December 2012. Lelov won the 2012–13 Estonian Cup, but was sacked in July 2013 after disappointing results in the league. He was replaced by Norbert Hurt, initially as a caretaker, with position being made permanent later. Flora finished the 2013 season in fourth place and placed third in 2014. In 2015, Flora celebrated their 25th anniversary by winning their 10th league title in the 34th round of the season. The club also won the 2015–16 Estonian Cup, defeating Sillamäe Kalev 3–0 in extra time in the final. In May 2016, Aivar Pohlak resigned from the club's presidency and was succeeded by his son Pelle Pohlak. In the first qualifying round of the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League, Flora lost to Lincoln Red Imps 2–3 on aggregate, after which Hurt resigned and was replaced by Argo Arbeiter. Flora finished the disappointing 2016 season in fourth place. Arbeiter was sacked and in January 2017, Arno Pijpers to take over as manager. In the 2017 season, Flora won their 11th Meistriliiga title. In December 2017, it was announced that Pijpers will not continue as manager and Jürgen Henn was appointed in his place in January 2018. Under Henn, Flora won the 2019 Meistriliiga title.", "Flora crest features the Greco-Roman goddess Flora, after whom the club is named. The club's colours are green and white, symbolizing growth, purity and honesty.", "The club's home ground is the 14,336-seat A. Le Coq Arena (known as Lilleküla Stadium prior to sponsorship). Opened in 2001 and expanded from 2016 to 2018, it is the largest football stadium in Estonia. The Lilleküla Football Complex also includes two grass surface pitches, two artificial turf pitches and an indoor hall. A. Le Coq Arena is located at Jalgpalli 21, Kesklinn, Tallinn. Flora use Sportland Arena artificial turf, located next to A. Le Coq Arena, for training and home matches during winter and early spring months.", "", "\"For season transfers, see List of Estonian football transfers summer 2019 and List of Estonian football transfers winter 2019–20.\"", "12 – Club supporters (the 12th Man)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Accommodations.", "Engineering.", "Career.", "SS \"Celtic\" collision.", "\"Czarowitz\" collision.", "Later career.", "Demise." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The \"Britannic\" and her sister \"Germanic\" were both built to carry a total of 1,720 passengers in two classes when fully booked, 220 Saloon Class Passengers (Title of First Class at that time) and 1,500 Steerage Passengers. As the ships were virtually larger versions of the \"Oceanic\" class ships built in the previous years, their accommodations were very similar, with some variances to give each ship its own character. \"Britannic\"s saloon accommodations, consisting of a large, spacious dining saloon and a large number of two- and four-berth cabins were located in the centre of the ship on the main deck, being the upper of the two decks enclosed within the hull above the waterline. The steerage accommodations were located on the two lower decks and consisted of large dormitory-style cabins capable of sleeping up to 20 passengers lined against the hull, with an open space running along the centre line of the ship where passengers could congregate. These accommodations were divided into two main sections at either end of the ship, berths for single men in the bow and berths for single women, married couples and families in the stern.", "Although \"Britannic\" was rigged as a four masted barque, she was the first White Star ship to sport two funnels. She was powered by inverted compound reciprocating engines, supplied by Messrs Maudslay, Sons & Field of Lambeth. \"Britannic\"s hull was subdivided into eight watertight compartments by nine watertight bulkheads. As built the \"Britannic\" incorporated a novel system which allowed the single propeller to be raised and lowered while still connected to its shaft and without stopping the engine. This was achieved with a flexible coupling and an elongated aperture in the ship's sternpost. This feature was an attempt to overcome the disadvantage of long-hulled single-screw liners, which pitched in heavy seas. In bad weather the stern could rise enough to lift the propeller partially out of the water, reducing thrust and causing unpleasant vibration. The \"Britannic's\" adjustable propeller was angled below the horizontal when in the lowest position, to ensure the entire propeller remained submerged. In shallow water the shaft could be raised to the horizontal or slightly upwards to reduce the ship's draught and prevent a blade striking the seabed. With the propeller fully raised the entire propeller hub and one blade could be accessed without placing the ship in dry dock—it was hoped this would reduce the cost and time required to change any broken propeller blades. The shaft was raised and lowered by a small auxiliar steam engine in the ship's stern, operating rods connected to a bearing collar on the propeller shaft via a worm drive reduction gear. The system proved reliable and effective at its purpose of keeping the propeller submerged in heavy weather but when set at certain angles the flexible coupling caused heavy vibration and the equipment required significantly more maintenance than a standard drive system. It also reduced the efficiency of the propeller in calm weather unless the angle was adjusted to be perfectly parallel to the line of the hull, making \"Britannic\" slower than her conventionally-built sistership, the \"Germanic\". In 1875, after less than a year in service, \"Britannic\" was taken out of service to be refitted with the same propeller arrangement as her sister - this work required not only removing the propeller mechanism and installing a new drive shaft but also fitting a new bed for the main engine to change its alignment. Once the ship was back in service her performance matched that of the \"Germanic\", allowing the ship to make its own attempts at the Blue Riband.", "On 25 June 1874 she made her maiden voyage, from Liverpool to New York. In the autumn of 1876, she captured the westbound Blue Riband and a month later set the eastbound record as well, becoming the only White Star ship ever to hold both records simultaneously. She lost the westbound record to her sister, \"Germanic\", in April 1877 and the eastbound one to the Guion Line's \"Arizona\" in July 1879. On 4 July 1881 \"Britannic\" ran aground in fog at Kilmore, County Wexford, Ireland, and remained stuck for two days. All the passengers were safely landed at Waterford. \"Britannic\" sprang a leak in her engine room after being re-floated and was beached at Wexford Bay. She had to be patched up and pumped before returning to Liverpool for repairs.", "On 19 May 1887, at about 5:25pm, the White Star liner SS \"Celtic\" collided with \"Britannic\" in thick fog about east of Sandy Hook, New Jersey. \"Celtic\", with 870 passengers, had been steaming westbound for New York City, while \"Britannic\", carrying 450 passengers, was on the second day of her eastward journey to Liverpool. The two ships collided at almost right angles, with \"Celtic\" burying her prow in the aft port side of \"Britannic\". \"Celtic\" rebounded and hit two more times, before sliding past behind \"Britannic\". Six steerage passengers were killed outright on board \"Britannic\" and another six were later found to be missing, having been washed overboard. There were no deaths on board \"Celtic\". Both ships were badly damaged, but \"Britannic\" more so, having a large hole below her waterline. Fearing that she would founder, the passengers on board began to panic and rushed the lifeboats. \"Britannic's\" captain, Hugh Hamilton Perry, pistol in hand, was able to restore some semblance of order, and the boats were filled with women and children, although a few men forced their way on board. After the lifeboats had launched, it was realized that \"Britannic\" would be able to stay afloat, and the lifeboats within hailing distance were recalled. The rest made their way over to \"Celtic\". The two ships remained together through the night and the next morning were joined by the Wilson Line's \"Marengo\" and \"British Queen\" of the Inman Line, and the four slowly made their way into New York Harbor. \"Britannic\" was repaired at New York and was out of service for nearly a month. Two-and-a-half-year-old Eleanor Roosevelt was on board the \"Britannic\" at the time of the collision, with her father Elliott, mother Anna and aunt Tissie. Eleanor was lowered into a lifeboat, screaming and protesting. She and her parents were taken to the \"Celtic\" and eventually returned to New York. Eleanor raised a huge protest at the prospect of going back on board a ship to continue the family's trip to Europe. Her parents went on to Europe, leaving the little girl with a maternal aunt. Eleanor had a lifelong fear of water and ships as a result of this incident.", "On 2 January 1890, \"Britannic\" collided with \"Czarowitz\"—a British brigantine bound from Fowey, Cornwall, England, to Runcorn, Cheshire, England, with a cargo of china clay—in the Crosby Channel as \"Czarowitz\" was about to enter the River Mersey. \"Czarowitz\" sank.", "\"Britannic\" continued on the Liverpool–New York run. On one journey in August 1891, the 17-year-old ship recorded her fastest-ever crossing from New York to Queenstown, making the journey in 7 days, 6 hours, and 52 min. In August 1899 \"Britannic\" was requisitioned by the Royal Navy and converted for use as a troopship to transport soldiers to the Second Boer War in South Africa, becoming known as HMT (Hired Military Transport) #62. During this period, under the command of Bertram Fox Hayes, \"Britannic\" transported 37,000 troops to and from the conflict over three years. In November 1900 \"Britannic\" sailed to Australia with a Guard of Honour to represent Great Britain at the inauguration of the Australian Commonwealth. She took part in the fleet review at Sydney Harbour to mark the occasion.", "Following the end of the war in October 1902, \"Britannic\" was released from government service and returned to White Star who sent her to her builders in Belfast for a survey, with the intention that she might be refurbished and modernised for further use. The builders report in 1903 concluded that it would not be cost effective to bring the 29 year old ship up to modern standards, instead, she was sold for scrap for £11,500, and on 11 August 1903 she left Belfast under tow to Hamburg, Germany, where she was broken up." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Civil servant.", "United Nations Secretary-General.", "First term: Cuban Missile Crisis and War in Congo.", "Second term: Arab–Israeli conflict and Vietnam War.", "Retirement.", "Death and legacy.", "Personal life.", "Awards, honors, and memorials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Thant, the eldest of four sons, was born in Pantanaw, colonial Burma, to a moderately wealthy family of landowners and rice merchants. His father Po Hnit, who had been educated in Calcutta, was the only person in the town who could communicate well in English. He was a founding member of the Burma Research Society and had helped establish \"The Sun\" (\"Thuriya\") newspaper in Rangoon. Although his family members were ethnic Bamars and devout Buddhists, Thant's father, according to Thant Myint-U (U Thant's grandson), had distant ancestors who were \"people from both India and China, Buddhists and Muslims, as well as Shans and Mons\". He hoped that all his four sons would each earn a degree. His other sons, Khant, Thaung, and Tin Maung went on to become politicians and scholars. Po Hnit had collected a personal library of various American and British books and cultivated a reading habit among his children. As a result Thant became an avid reader and his school friends nicknamed him \"The Philosopher\". Apart from reading, he enjoyed various sports including hiking, swimming and playing chinlone. He went to the National High School in Pantanaw. At the age of eleven Thant participated in strikes against the University Act of 1920. He dreamed of becoming a journalist and surprised the family by writing an article for the \"Union of Burma Boy Scouts\" magazine. When Thant was fourteen, his father died and a series of inheritance disputes forced Thant's mother, Nan Thaung, and her four children into difficult financial times. After the death of his father, Thant believed he would not be able to complete a four-year degree and instead worked for a two-year teaching certificate at Rangoon University in 1926. As the eldest son he had to fulfill his filial duties and responsibilities to the family. At university, Thant, together with Nu, the future Prime Minister of Burma, studied history under D. G. E. Hall. Nu was told by a distant mutual relative to take care of Thant and the two soon became close friends. Thant was elected joint secretary of the University Philosophical Association and secretary of the Literary and Debating Society. In Rangoon, Thant met J.S. Furnivall, the founder of The Burma Book Club and \"The World of Books\" magazine, to which Thant regularly contributed. Promising a good post, Furnivall urged Thant to complete four-year university course and join Civil Service but Thant refused. After earning the certificate, he returned to Pantanaw to teach at the National High School as a senior teacher in 1928. He contacted Furnivall and Nu regularly, writing articles and participating in \"The World of Books\" translation competitions. In 1931, Thant won first place in All Burma Teachership Examination and became the school's headmaster by the age of twenty-five. Urged by Thant, his friend Nu took the local superintendent of schools position. Thant regularly contributed to several newspapers and magazines under the pen name \"Thilawa\" and translated a number of books, including one on the League of Nations. His major influences were Sir Stafford Cripps, Sun Yat-sen and Mahatma Gandhi. In the days of tense political climate in Burma, Thant stood moderate grounds between fervent nationalists and British loyalists.", "During the World War II, the Japanese occupied Burma from 1942 to 1945. They brought Thant to Rangoon to lead the Educational Reorganizing Committee. However, Thant did not have any real power, and returned to Pantanaw. When the Japanese ordered making Japanese compulsory in Pantanaw high schools, Thant defied the orders and cooperated with the growing anti-Japanese resistance. In 1948, Burma gained independence from the United Kingdom. Nu became the prime minister of the newly independent Burma and appointed Thant as director of broadcasting in 1948. By then, civil war had broken out. The Karen insurgency began and Thant risked his life to go to Karen camps to negotiate for peace. The negotiations broke down, and in 1949 the advancing insurgents burned his hometown, including his house. The insurgents pushed the front to within four miles of the capital Rangoon before they were beaten back. In the following year, Thant was appointed secretary to the government of Burma in the Ministry of Information. From 1951 to 1957, Thant was secretary to the prime minister, writing speeches for U Nu, arranging his foreign travel, and meeting foreign visitors. During this entire period, he was U Nu's closest confidant and advisor. He also took part in a number of international conferences and was the secretary of the 1955 Bandung Conference in Indonesia, which gave birth to the Non-Aligned Movement. From 1957 to 1961, he was Burma's permanent representative to the United Nations and became actively involved in negotiations over Algerian independence. In 1961, Thant was named Chairman of the UN Congo Commission. The Burmese government awarded him the title \"Maha Thray Sithu\" as a commander in the order of Pyidaungsu Sithu.", "In September 1961, United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld was killed in a plane crash \"en route\" to Congo. The Security Council hurriedly searched for a new Secretary-General, but over the next few weeks it was in a deadlock, with the United States and the Soviet Union unable to agree on any candidate proposed by other members. The superpowers backed down when representatives from smaller nations and the Non-Aligned Movement proposed Thant to fill Hammarskjöld's unexpired term. On 3 November 1961, Thant was unanimously appointed as acting Secretary-General by the General Assembly, on the recommendation of the Security Council in Resolution 168. On 30 November 1961, the General Assembly unanimously appointed him secretary-general for a term of office ending on 3 November 1966. During his first term, he was widely credited for his role in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis and for ending the civil war in the Congo. He also said that he wanted to ease tensions between major powers while serving at the UN.", "In less than one year in office, Thant faced a critical challenge to defuse the Cuban Missile Crisis, the moment when the world came closest to a nuclear war. On 20 October 1962, two days before public announcements were made, U.S President John F. Kennedy showed Thant U-2 aerial reconnaissance photographs of Soviet missile installations in Cuba. The President then ordered a naval \"quarantine\" to remove all offensive weapons from Soviet ships bound for Cuba. Meanwhile, Soviet ships were approaching the quarantine zone. To avoid a naval confrontation, Thant proposed that the U.S should make non-invasion guarantees in exchange for missile withdrawal from the Soviet Union. Soviet Premier Khrushchev welcomed the proposal, which formed the basis of further negotiations. Khrushchev further agreed to suspend missile shipments while the negotiations were ongoing. However, on 27 October 1962, a U-2 plane was shot down over Cuba, deepening the crisis. Kennedy was under intense pressure to invade from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Executive Committee (ExComm). Kennedy hoped Thant would play the role of mediator and subsequently replied to ExComm and the Joint Chiefs, \"On the other hand we have U Thant, and we don't want to sink a ship...right in the middle of when U Thant is supposedly arranging for the Russians to stay out.\" Negotiations continued. The U.S agreed to dismantle missiles in Turkey and guaranteed never to invade Cuba in exchange for removal of Soviet missiles in Cuba. Thant flew to Cuba and discussed with Fidel Castro allowing UN missile inspectors and the return of the body of the downed U-2 pilot. Castro, furious that the Soviets had agreed to remove missiles without his knowledge, categorically rejected any UN inspectors, although he did return the pilot's body. The inspection was done at sea by US reconnaissance aircraft and warships. The crisis was resolved and a war between superpowers was averted. Although a manifest pacifist and a devout Buddhist, Thant did not hesitate to use force when required. During the Congo Civil War in 1962, Katangan secessionists led by Moise Tshombe repeatedly attacked UN Operation in the Congo forces (ONUC). In December 1962, after ONUC suffered a sustained four-day attack in Katanga, Thant ordered the \"Operation Grandslam\" to gain \"complete freedom of movement for ONUC all over Katanga.\" The operation proved to be decisive and ended the secessionist insurgency once and for all. By January 1963, the secessionist capital Elizabethville was under full UN control. In his speech at the Columbia University Thant expressed expectation of completion of the United Nations Operation in the Congo in mid 1964. For his role in defusing the Cuban crisis and other peacekeeping efforts, the Norwegian Permanent Representative of the United Nations informed Thant that he would be awarded the 1965 Nobel Peace prize. He humbly replied, \"Is not the Secretary-General merely doing his job when he works for peace?\" On the other hand, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee lobbied heavily against giving Thant the prize which was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to Thant. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to Thant. Outraged, Thant's undersecretary and Nobel Prize laureate Ralph Bunche called Gunnar Jahn's decision \"gross injustice to U Thant.\" On Christmas Eve 1963, intercommunal clashes broke out in Cyprus. Turkish Cypriots withdrew into their enclaves, leaving the central government wholly under Greek Cypriot control. A \"peace-making force\" established under British command was unable to put an end to the fighting, and a conference on Cyprus held in London in January 1964 ended in disagreement. On 4 March 1964, amid the danger of broader hostilities, the Security Council unanimously authorized Thant to establish a UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), with a limited three-month mandate to prevent the recurrence of fighting and to restore order. The Council further asked the secretary-general to appoint a mediator to seek a peaceful settlement of the Cyprus problem. Thant appointed Galo Plaza Lasso as mediator but when his report was rejected by Turkey in March 1965, Plaza resigned and the function of mediator lapsed. In April 1964, Thant accepted the Holy See's designation of itself as a permanent observer. There appeared to be no involvement of the General Assembly or the UN Security Council in the decision.", "Thant was re-appointed secretary-general of the United Nations by the General Assembly on 2 December 1966, on the unanimous recommendation of the Security Council. His term of office continued until 31 December 1971, when he retired. During his time in office he oversaw the entry into the UN of dozens of new Asian and African states, and was a firm opponent of apartheid in South Africa. He also established many of the UN's development and environmental agencies, funds and programmes, including the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the UN University, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), and the UN Environmental Programme. The Six-Day War between Arab countries and Israel, the Prague Spring and subsequent Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Indo–Pakistani War of 1971 leading to the birth of Bangladesh all took place during his tenure as secretary-general. He was criticized in the US and Israel for agreeing to pull UNEF troops out of the Sinai in 1967 in response to a request from Egyptian president Nasser. The Permanent Representative of Egypt had informed Thant that the Egyptian government had decided to terminate UNEF's presence in the Sinai and the Gaza Strip, and requested steps that would withdraw the force as soon as possible, which Thant was obligated to accept. The UN afterwards stated, \"Because Israel refused to accept UNEF on its territory, the Force had to be deployed only on the Egyptian side of the border, and thus its functioning was entirely contingent upon the consent of Egypt as the host country. Once that consent was withdrawn, its operation could no longer be maintained.\" Thant, by flying to Cairo in a last-minute peace effort, tried to persuade Nasser not to go to war with Israel. In Israel, his abrupt unilateral withdrawal of UNEF without any diplomatic process or wider consultation was regarded as a violation of United Nations assurances and commitments given to Israel in 1957, on the basis of which Israel had withdrawn from Sinai and Gaza at that time, and it \"thereafter inspired Israel's refusal to place her vital interests again in United Nations hands\". The Cyprus crisis resurfaced in November 1967, but Turkey's threatened military intervention was averted, largely as a result of US opposition. Negotiations conducted by Cyrus Vance for the US and José Rolz-Bennett on behalf of the secretary-general led to a settlement. Intercommunal talks began in June 1968, through the good offices of the secretary-general, as part of the settlement. The talks bogged down, but Thant proposed a formula for their reactivation under the auspices of his special representative, B.F. Osorio-Tafall, and they were resumed in 1972, after Thant had left office. Thant's once good relationship with the US government deteriorated rapidly when he publicly criticized American conduct of the Vietnam War. His secret attempts at direct peace talks between Washington and Hanoi were eventually rejected by the Johnson Administration. In 1971, the participation of the People's Republic of China in the United Nations, which was a long-standing problem, was realized. Thant sent a message to the Chinese government asking China to send a delegation.", "On 23 January 1971, Thant categorically announced that he would \"under no circumstances\" be available for a third term as secretary-general. The UN Security Council was deadlocked for many weeks in the search for a successor before finally settling – on 21 December 1971 – on Kurt Waldheim. The date was Waldheim's 53rd birthday, and just ten days before Thant's second term was to end. Unlike his two predecessors, Thant retired after ten years on speaking terms with all the big powers. In 1961, when he was first appointed, the Soviet Union tried to insist on a \"troika\" formula of three secretaries-general, one representing each Cold War bloc, to maintain equality in the United Nations between the superpowers. By 1966, when Thant was reappointed, all the big powers, in a unanimous vote of the Security Council, affirmed the importance of the secretary-generalship and his good offices, a clear tribute to Thant's work. In his farewell address to the United Nations General Assembly, Secretary-General Thant stated that he felt a \"great sense of relief bordering on liberation\" on relinquishing the \"burdens of office\". In an editorial published around 27 December 1971, praising Thant, \"The New York Times\" stated that \"the wise counsel of this dedicated man of peace will still be needed after his retirement\". The editorial was titled \"The Liberation of U Thant\". After his retirement, Thant was appointed a senior fellow of the Adlai Stevenson Institute of International Affairs. He spent the last years of his life writing and advocating the development of a true global community and other general themes he had tried to promote while he was secretary-general. While serving as secretary-general, Thant lived in Riverdale, Bronx, on a estate near 232nd Street, between Palisade and Douglas Avenues.", "Thant died of lung cancer in New York on 25 November 1974. By that time, Burma was ruled by a military junta which refused him any honours. The then Burmese president Ne Win was envious of Thant's international stature and the respect that was accorded him by the Burmese populace. Ne Win also resented Thant's close links with the democratic government of U Nu which Ne Win had overthrown in a coup d'état on 2 March 1962. However, Thant's grandson, Thant Myint-U, wrote in the book \"The River of Lost Footsteps: Histories of Burma\" that intense animosity between Thant and Ne Win went back only to 1969, when Ne Win believed Thant was conniving with Nu after Nu denounced Ne Win at a press corp meeting at the UN headquarters. Ne Win told his men to consider Thant as an enemy of the state, despite Thant denouncing Nu's action as inappropriate. Regardless of the reasons, Ne Win ordered that Thant be buried without any official involvement or ceremony. From the United Nations headquarters in New York where he was laid in state, Thant's body was flown back to Rangoon, but no guard of honour or high-ranking officials were on hand at the airport when the coffin arrived except for U Aung Tun, deputy minister of education, who was subsequently dismissed from office. On the day of Thant's funeral on 5 December 1974, tens of thousands of people lined the streets of Rangoon to pay their last respects. Thant's coffin was displayed at Rangoon's Kyaikasan race course for a few hours before the scheduled burial. The coffin of Thant was then snatched by a group of students just before it was scheduled to leave for burial in an ordinary Rangoon cemetery. The student demonstrators buried Thant on the former grounds of the Rangoon University Students Union (RUSU), which Ne Win had dynamited and destroyed on 8 July 1962. During the period of 5–11 December, the student demonstrators also built a temporary mausoleum for Thant on the grounds of the RUSU and gave anti-government speeches. In the early morning hours of 12 December 1974, government troops stormed the campus, killed some of the students guarding the makeshift mausoleum, removed Thant's coffin, and reburied it in Kandawmin Garden Mausolea near the Shwedagon Pagoda, where it has continued to lie. Upon hearing of the storming of the Rangoon University campus and the forcible removal of Thant's coffin, many people rioted in the streets of Rangoon. Martial law was declared in Rangoon and the surrounding metropolitan areas. What has come to be known as the U Thant crisis—the student-led protests over the shabby treatment of Thant by the Ne Win government—was crushed by the Burmese government. Thant's memoirs, \"View from the UN\", were posthumously published, initially by Doubleday in 1978. In April 2012, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon paid his respects at U Thant's mausoleum during a visit to Yangon.", "Thant had three brothers: Khant, Thaung, and Tin Maung. He was married to Daw Thein Tin. They had two sons, but lost both; Maung Bo died in infancy, and Tin Maung Thant fell from a bus during a visit to Yangon. Tin Maung Thant's funeral procession, which was attended by dignitaries, was grander than that of the state funeral of Commodore Than Pe, a member of the 17-man Revolutionary Council and minister of health and education. Thant was survived by a daughter, an adopted son, five grandchildren, and five great-grandchildren (three girls and two boys). His only grandson, Thant Myint-U, is a historian and a former senior official in the UN's Department of Political Affairs and the author of \"The River of Lost Footsteps\", in part a biography of Thant. During his tenure as Secretary-General, Thant followed UFO reports with some interest; in 1967, he arranged for American atmospheric physicist James E. McDonald to speak before the UN's Outer Space Affairs Group regarding UFOs.", "Thant was generally reluctant to receive prizes and honors due to his own humility as well as publicity associated with them. He declined Burma's second highest honor awarded to him by U Nu's government in 1961. When he was informed that the 1965 Nobel Prize would instead go to UNICEF due to Chairman Gunnar Jahn's veto, Thant, according to Walter Dorn, \"recorded his pleasure\". However, he did accept the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in 1965, the Gandhi Peace Award in 1972, United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights in 1973 and more than two dozen honorary degrees. Thant received honorary degrees (LL.D) from Carleton University, Williams College, Princeton University, Mount Holyoke College, Harvard University, Dartmouth College, University of California at Berkeley, University of Denver, Swarthmore College, New York University, Moscow University, Queen's University, Colby College, Yale University, University of Windsor, Hamilton College, Fordham University, Manhattan College, University of Michigan, Delhi University, University of Leeds, Louvain University, University of Alberta, Boston University, Rutgers University, University of Dublin (Trinity College), Laval University, Columbia University, the University of the Philippines Diliman, and Syracuse University. He also received the Doctor of Divinity from The First Universal Church; Doctor of International Law from Florida International University; Doctor of Laws from University of Hartford; Doctor of Civil Laws degree, honoris causa from Colgate University; Doctor of Humane Letters from Duke University. In his memory, Sri Chinmoy, the leader of the UN Meditation Group founded by Thant, established the U Thant Peace Award which acknowledges and honors individuals or organizations for distinguished accomplishments toward the attainment of world peace. The meditation team also named a tiny island in the East River opposite the headquarters of the United Nations U Thant Island. The road Jalan U-Thant (U-Thant Road) and the township Taman U-Thant in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia are also named in his honor. In December 2013, in an effort spearheaded by his daughter Aye Aye Thant and his grandson Thant Myint-U, Thant's house in Yangon was being converted into a museum which would feature his photos, works and personal belongings. In October 2013, the building of an U Thant library near his Pantanaw house was underway." ] }