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Petri net | null | A Petri net, also known as a place/transition (PT) net, is one of several mathematical modeling languages for the description of distributed systems. It is a class of discrete event dynamic system. A Petri net is a directed bipartite graph, in which the nodes represent transitions (i.e. events that may occur, represented by bars) and places (i.e. conditions, represented by circles). The directed arcs describe which places are pre- and/or postconditions for which transitions (signified by arrows). Some sources state that Petri nets were invented in August 1939 by Carl Adam Petri—at the age of 13—for the purpose of describing chemical processes. | null | [
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"title": [
"Petri net basics.",
"Formal definition and basic terminology.",
"Syntax.",
"Execution semantics.",
"Variations on the definition.",
"Formulation in terms of vectors and matrices.",
"Mathematical properties of Petri nets.",
"Reachability.",
"Liveness.",
"Boundedness.",
"Discrete, continuous, and hybrid Petri nets.",
"Extensions.",
"Restrictions.",
"Work flow nets.",
"Other models of concurrency."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"A Petri net consists of \"places\", \"transitions\", and \"arcs\". Arcs run from a place to a transition or vice versa, never between places or between transitions. The places from which an arc runs to a transition are called the \"input places\" of the transition; the places to which arcs run from a transition are called the \"output places\" of the transition. Graphically, places in a Petri net may contain a discrete number of marks called \"tokens\". Any distribution of tokens over the places will represent a configuration of the net called a \"marking\". In an abstract sense relating to a Petri net diagram, a transition of a Petri net may \"fire\" if it is \"enabled\", i.e. there are sufficient tokens in all of its input places; when the transition fires, it consumes the required input tokens, and creates tokens in its output places. A firing is atomic, i.e. a single non-interruptible step. Unless an \"execution policy\" is defined, the execution of Petri nets is nondeterministic: when multiple transitions are enabled at the same time, they will fire in any order. Since firing is nondeterministic, and multiple tokens may be present anywhere in the net (even in the same place), Petri nets are well suited for modeling the concurrent behavior of distributed systems.",
"Petri nets are state-transition systems that extend a class of nets called elementary nets. Definition 1. A \"net\" is a triple formula_1 where: Definition 2. Given a net \"N\" = (\"P\", \"T\", \"F\"), a \"configuration\" is a set \"C\" so that \"C\" ⊆ \"P\". Definition 3. An \"elementary net\" is a net of the form \"EN\" = (\"N\", \"C\") where: Definition 4. A \"Petri net\" is a net of the form \"PN\" = (\"N\", \"M\", \"W\"), which extends the elementary net so that: If a Petri net is equivalent to an elementary net, then \"Z\" can be the countable set {0,1} and those elements in \"P\" that map to 1 under \"M\" form a configuration. Similarly, if a Petri net is not an elementary net, then the multiset \"M\" can be interpreted as representing a non-singleton set of configurations. In this respect, \"M\" extends the concept of configuration for elementary nets to Petri nets. In the diagram of a Petri net (see top figure right), places are conventionally depicted with circles, transitions with long narrow rectangles and arcs as one-way arrows that show connections of places to transitions or transitions to places. If the diagram were of an elementary net, then those places in a configuration would be conventionally depicted as circles, where each circle encompasses a single dot called a \"token\". In the given diagram of a Petri net (see right), the place circles may encompass more than one token to show the number of times a place appears in a configuration. The configuration of tokens distributed over an entire Petri net diagram is called a \"marking\". In the top figure (see right), the place \"p\" is an input place of transition \"t\"; whereas, the place \"p\" is an output place to the same transition. Let \"PN\" (top figure) be a Petri net with a marking configured \"M\", and \"PN\" (bottom figure) be a Petri net with a marking configured \"M\". The configuration of \"PN\" \"enables\" transition \"t\" through the property that all input places have sufficient number of tokens (shown in the figures as dots) \"equal to or greater\" than the multiplicities on their respective arcs to \"t\". Once and only once a transition is enabled will the transition fire. In this example, the \"firing\" of transition \"t\" generates a map that has the marking configured \"M\" in the image of \"M\" and results in Petri net \"PN\", seen in the bottom figure. In the diagram, the firing rule for a transition can be characterised by subtracting a number of tokens from its input places equal to the multiplicity of the respective input arcs and accumulating a new number of tokens at the output places equal to the multiplicity of the respective output arcs. Remark 1. The precise meaning of \"equal to or greater\" will depend on the precise algebraic properties of addition being applied on \"Z\" in the firing rule, where subtle variations on the algebraic properties can lead to other classes of Petri nets; for example, algebraic Petri nets. The following formal definition is loosely based on. Many alternative definitions exist.",
"A Petri net graph (called \"Petri net\" by some, but see below) is a 3-tuple formula_5, where The \"flow relation\" is the set of arcs: formula_7. In many textbooks, arcs can only have multiplicity 1. These texts often define Petri nets using \"F\" instead of \"W\". When using this convention, a Petri net graph is a bipartite multigraph formula_8 with node partitions \"S\" and \"T\". The \"preset\" of a transition \"t\" is the set of its \"input places\": formula_9; its \"postset\" is the set of its \"output places\": formula_10. Definitions of pre- and postsets of places are analogous. A \"marking\" of a Petri net (graph) is a multiset of its places, i.e., a mapping formula_11. We say the marking assigns to each place a number of \"tokens\". A Petri net (called \"marked Petri net\" by some, see above) is a 4-tuple formula_12, where",
"In words: We are generally interested in what may happen when transitions may continually fire in arbitrary order. We say that a marking \"is reachable from\" a marking \"in one step\" if formula_18; we say that it \"is reachable from \" if formula_19, where formula_20 is the reflexive transitive closure of formula_21; that is, if it is reachable in 0 or more steps. For a (marked) Petri net formula_22, we are interested in the firings that can be performed starting with the initial marking formula_14. Its set of \"reachable markings\" is the set formula_24 The \"reachability graph\" of is the transition relation formula_21 restricted to its reachable markings formula_26. It is the state space of the net. A \"firing sequence\" for a Petri net with graph and initial marking formula_14 is a sequence of transitions formula_28 such that formula_29. The set of firing sequences is denoted as formula_30.",
"As already remarked, a common variation is to disallow arc multiplicities and replace the bag of arcs \"W\" with a simple set, called the \"flow relation\", formula_31. This doesn't limit expressive power as both can represent each other. Another common variation, e.g. in, Desel and Juhás (2001), is to allow \"capacities\" to be defined on places. This is discussed under \"extensions\" below.",
"The markings of a Petri net formula_12 can be regarded as vectors of nonnegative integers of length formula_33. Its transition relation can be described as a pair of formula_33 by formula_35 matrices: Then their difference can be used to describe the reachable markings in terms of matrix multiplication, as follows. For any sequence of transitions, write formula_41 for the vector that maps every transition to its number of occurrences in. Then, we have Note that it must be required that is a firing sequence; allowing arbitrary sequences of transitions will generally produce a larger set. formula_43 formula_44",
"One thing that makes Petri nets interesting is that they provide a balance between modeling power and analyzability: many things one would like to know about concurrent systems can be automatically determined for Petri nets, although some of those things are very expensive to determine in the general case. Several subclasses of Petri nets have been studied that can still model interesting classes of concurrent systems, while these problems become easier. An overview of such decision problems, with decidability and complexity results for Petri nets and some subclasses, can be found in Esparza and Nielsen (1995).",
"The reachability problem for Petri nets is to decide, given a Petri net \"N\" and a marking \"M\", whether formula_45. Clearly, this is a matter of walking the reachability graph defined above, until either we reach the requested marking or we know it can no longer be found. This is harder than it may seem at first: the reachability graph is generally infinite, and it is not easy to determine when it is safe to stop. In fact, this problem was shown to be EXPSPACE-hard years before it was shown to be decidable at all (Mayr, 1981). Papers continue to be published on how to do it efficiently. In 2018, Czerwinski et al. improved the lower bound and showed that the problem is not ELEMENTARY. While reachability seems to be a good tool to find erroneous states, for practical problems the constructed graph usually has far too many states to calculate. To alleviate this problem, linear temporal logic is usually used in conjunction with the tableau method to prove that such states cannot be reached. Linear temporal logic uses the semi-decision technique to find if indeed a state can be reached, by finding a set of necessary conditions for the state to be reached then proving that those conditions cannot be satisfied.",
"Petri nets can be described as having different degrees of liveness formula_46. A Petri net formula_47 is called formula_48-live if and only if all of its transitions are formula_48-live, where a transition is Note that these are increasingly stringent requirements: formula_60-liveness implies formula_61-liveness, for formula_62. These definitions are in accordance with Murata's overview, which additionally uses formula_63\"-live\" as a term for \"dead\".",
"A place in a Petri net is called \"k-bounded\" if it does not contain more than \"k\" tokens in all reachable markings, including the initial marking; it is said to be \"safe\" if it is 1-bounded; it is \"bounded\" if it is \"k-bounded\" for some \"k\". A (marked) Petri net is called \"k\"-bounded, \"safe\", or \"bounded\" when all of its places are. A Petri net (graph) is called \"(structurally) bounded\" if it is bounded for every possible initial marking. Note that a Petri net is bounded if and only if its reachability graph is finite. Boundedness is decidable by looking at covering, by constructing the Karp–Miller Tree. It can be useful to explicitly impose a bound on places in a given net. This can be used to model limited system resources. Some definitions of Petri nets explicitly allow this as a syntactic feature. Formally, \"Petri nets with place capacities\" can be defined as tuples formula_64, where formula_12 is a Petri net, formula_66 an assignment of capacities to (some or all) places, and the transition relation is the usual one restricted to the markings in which each place with a capacity has at most that many tokens. For example, if in the net \"N\", both places are assigned capacity 2, we obtain a Petri net with place capacities, say \"N2\"; its reachability graph is displayed on the right. Alternatively, places can be made bounded by extending the net. To be exact, a place can be made \"k\"-bounded by adding a \"counter-place\" with flow opposite to that of the place, and adding tokens to make the total in both places \"k\".",
"As well as for discrete events, there are Petri nets for continuous and hybrid discrete-continuous processes that are useful in discrete, continuous and hybrid control theory, and related to discrete, continuous and hybrid automata.",
"There are many extensions to Petri nets. Some of them are completely backwards-compatible (e.g. coloured Petri nets) with the original Petri net, some add properties that cannot be modelled in the original Petri net formalism (e.g. timed Petri nets). Although backwards-compatible models do not extend the computational power of Petri nets, they may have more succinct representations and may be more convenient for modeling. Extensions that cannot be transformed into Petri nets are sometimes very powerful, but usually lack the full range of mathematical tools available to analyse ordinary Petri nets. The term high-level Petri net is used for many Petri net formalisms that extend the basic P/T net formalism; this includes coloured Petri nets, hierarchical Petri nets such as Nets within Nets, and all other extensions sketched in this section. The term is also used specifically for the type of coloured nets supported by CPN Tools. A short list of possible extensions: There are many more extensions to Petri nets, however, it is important to keep in mind, that as the complexity of the net increases in terms of extended properties, the harder it is to use standard tools to evaluate certain properties of the net. For this reason, it is a good idea to use the most simple net type possible for a given modelling task.",
"Instead of extending the Petri net formalism, we can also look at restricting it, and look at particular types of Petri nets, obtained by restricting the syntax in a particular way. Ordinary Petri nets are the nets where all arc weights are 1. Restricting further, the following types of ordinary Petri nets are commonly used and studied:",
"Workflow nets (WF-nets) are a subclass of Petri nets intending to model the workflow of process activities. The WF-net transitions are assigned to tasks or activities, and places are assigned to the pre/post conditions. The WF-nets have additional structural and operational requirements, mainly the addition of a single input (source) place with no previous transitions, and output place (sink) with no following transitions. Accordingly, start and termination markings can be defined that represent the process status. WF-nets have the soundness property, indicating that a process with a start marking of \"k\" tokens in its source place, can reach the termination state marking with \"k\" tokens in its sink place (defined as \"k\"-sound WF-net). Additionally, all the transitions in the process could fire (i.e., for each transition there is a reachable state in which the transition is enabled). A general sound (G-sound) WF-net is defined as being \"k\"-sound for every \"k\" > 0. A directed path in the Petri net is defined as the sequence of nodes (places and transitions) linked by the directed arcs. An elementary path includes every node in the sequence only once. A well-handled Petri net is a net in which there are no fully distinct elementary paths between a place and a transition (or transition and a place), i.e., if there are two paths between the pair of nodes then these paths share a node. An acyclic well-handled WF-net is sound (G-sound). Extended WF-net is a Petri net that is composed of a WF-net with additional transition t (feedback transition). The sink place is connected as the input place of transition t and the source place as its output place. Firing of the transition causes iteration of the process (Note: the extended WF-net is not a WF-net). WRI (Well-handled with Regular Iteration) WF-net, is an extended acyclic well-handled WF-net. WRI-WF-net can be built as composition of nets, i.e., replacing a transition within a WRI-WF-net with a subnet which is a WRI-WF-net. The result is also WRI-WF-net. WRI-WF-nets are G-sound, therefore by using only WRI-WF-net building blocks, one can get WF-nets that are G-sound by construction. The Design structure matrix (DSM) can model process relations, and be utilized for process planning. The DSM-nets are realization of DSM-based plans into workflow processes by Petri nets, and are equivalent to WRI-WF-nets. The DSM-net construction process ensures the soundness property of the resulting net.",
"Other ways of modelling concurrent computation have been proposed, including process algebra, the actor model, and trace theory. Different models provide tradeoffs of concepts such as compositionality, modularity, and locality. An approach to relating some of these models of concurrency is proposed in the chapter by Winskel and Nielsen."
]
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] | null | null | en-train-1361964 | en-train-1361964 | 1361964 | {
"title": [
"Introduction.",
"Domain structure for.me.",
"Sunrise, land rush, and open registration periods.",
".me domain statistics.",
"Known hacks.",
"Premium domains.",
"Trademark disputes.",
".cg.yu."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Montenegro declared its independence from Serbia and Montenegro on 3 June 2006, after a majority of Montenegrins supported independence in a national referendum. As a part of that country, constituently, Montenegro had unofficially been using the.cg.yu second-level domain; Montenegrin Authorities used.mn.yu subdomain, while the.cs top-level domain (TLD) had been assigned to Serbia and Montenegro in 2003 following the breakup of Yugoslavia, but remained unused. Montenegro was assigned the ISO 3166-1 two-letter code \"ME\", which was allocated by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in September 2006 (most other possible abbreviations of Montenegro (MO, MN, MT, MG and MR) and its Montenegrin name Crna Gora (CG) having already been taken). In September 2007, ICANN delegated the.me domain to the Government of Montenegro, with the former.yu domain to be operated temporarily by the.rs domain registry (Serbian National Register of Internet Domain Names) until its eventual abolition on or before 30 September 2009. Delegation of root name servers was approved by IANA, establishing.me. The \".me\" domain became active on 24 September 2007, and a \"Public Invitation for selection of the Agent for domain registration under the national Internet domain of Montenegro\" was posted on 14 November. doMEn d.o.o., as a Montenegro-based joint venture whose partners are Afilias, GoDaddy.com, and ME-net d.o.o., was selected as the new registry operator. On 6 May 2008, the General Sunrise period for the.me registry began for all eligible trademark holders worldwide, and on 16 July 2008, registration was made available to everyone for all.me domains at various registrars.",
"The domain.me was assigned to Montenegro as a country code after it became an independent nation in June 2006. However, the Montenegro government decided.me would be operated as a generic name after considering the potential worldwide appeal for the domain. Third-level registrations are available to Montenegrin citizens and companies in the following zones:",
"On 6 May 2008, the.me registry opened the sunrise period for all eligible trademark holders anywhere in the world. Throughout June and July 2008, multiple land rush applications were received, which resulted in more than 2,500 land rush auctions that were held during July and August 2008. Go Live was opened on 17 July 2008 when registrations were made available for all unreserved.me domains via various registrars. During the.me land rush auction period, more than US$2,000,000 was generated with names like insure.me and sync.me going to the highest bidder. At the beginning of August 2008, 100,000.me domain names were registered. Sources say part of the worldwide appeal for the.me domain is the marketing aspect. In 2008 in terms of the number of Web pages indexed by Google among all TLDs,.me sites have enjoyed the fastest growth with more than 50% a month. In the same year,.me topped its potential rivals.mobi and.asia in Alexa Internet top one million websites with 341.me sites versus 233.mobi sites and 86.asia sites. Extra potential of.me is revealed considering the fact that.mobi was launched two years before.me and.asia four months before.me. By the middle of February 2009, 200,000.me domain names were registered. On 15 May 2009, the number of registered.me domain names rose to 250,000. In less than a year.me became more popular than.asia,.jobs,.coop,.aero,.int,.mil,.museum,.name,.pro,.tel,.travel, and 200 other country code top-level domains.",
"By 2010, over 320,000.me domains had been purchased, making it the fastest-selling top-level domain in history. By March 30, 2016 the.ME domain space had reached over one million domain registrations.",
"Most.me domain names were purchased as domain hacks in English and, to a lesser extent, Dutch; 71% of names were applied for by applicants in the United States. Because of the possibility of owning pure verb and noun combinations, their prices have stayed high: during the sunrise period, insure.me went for $68,005, and judge.me sold for $8000 in 2011. .me has been used as an abbreviation for Middle East, Maine, and the accusative case of \"ja\" (\"I\" in South Slavic languages). Other examples of domain hacks include deviantArt (fav.me), WordPress (wp.me), the \"Despicable Me\" website, and MeetMe.",
"Me subdomain names must be between 3 and 63 characters in length, but a few exceptions have been granted, mainly for URL shortening purposes. Examples of shortened domain names include: Yahoo! was using me.me for its project Yahoo! Meme, but the domain name was taken back by the.me registry when the company closed down the portal.",
"In 2008 three trademark cases were filed with the World Intellectual Property Organization Arbitration and Mediation Center. All three domain names (creditmutuel.me, porsche.me, and exxonmobil.me) were transferred to the complainants.",
"Prior to the introduction of.me, the most used domain in Montenegro was the second-level domain.cg.yu under.yu, the Internet domain name of Montenegrin Internet service provider T-Crnogorski Telekom, which was allowed to such organisations. The acronym \"CG\" was used because of the native name for Montenegro, Crna Gora. When.yu TLD was phased out, all e-mail addresses ending with @cg.yu were replaced with @t-com.me, and the Web sites moved, variously, mostly under.me."
]
} |
Joseph-Louis Lagrange | null | Joseph-Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Luigi Lagrangia or Giuseppe Ludovico De la Grange Tournier; 25 January 1736 – 10 April 1813), also reported as Giuseppe Luigi Lagrange or Lagrangia, was an Italian mathematician and astronomer, later naturalized French. He made significant contributions to the fields of analysis, number theory, and both classical and celestial mechanics. | null | [
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"title": [
"Scientific contribution.",
"Biography.",
"Early years.",
"Variational calculus.",
"\"Miscellanea Taurinensia\".",
"Berlin.",
"Paris.",
"Units of measurement.",
"École Normale.",
"École Polytechnique.",
"Late years.",
"Work in Berlin.",
"Lagrangian mechanics.",
"Algebra.",
"Number theory.",
"Other mathematical work.",
"Astronomy.",
"Fundamental Treatise by Lagrange.",
"Work in France.",
"Differential calculus and calculus of variations.",
"Infinitesimals.",
"Number theory.",
"Celestial mechanics.",
"Prizes and distinctions.",
"References.",
"Sources."
],
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"content": [
"Lagrange was one of the creators of the calculus of variations, deriving the Euler–Lagrange equations for extrema of functionals. He extended the method to include possible constraints, arriving at the method of Lagrange multipliers. Lagrange invented the method of solving differential equations known as variation of parameters, applied differential calculus to the theory of probabilities and worked on solutions for algebraic equations. He proved that every natural number is a sum of four squares. His treatise \"Theorie des fonctions analytiques\" laid some of the foundations of group theory, anticipating Galois. In calculus, Lagrange developed a novel approach to interpolation and Taylor series. He studied the three-body problem for the Earth, Sun and Moon (1764) and the movement of Jupiter's satellites (1766), and in 1772 found the special-case solutions to this problem that yield what are now known as Lagrangian points. Lagrange is best known for transforming Newtonian mechanics into a branch of analysis, Lagrangian mechanics, and presented the mechanical \"principles\" as simple results of the variational calculus.",
"",
"Born as \"Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia\", Lagrange was of Italian and French descent. His paternal great-grandfather was a French army officer who had moved to Turin, the \"de facto\" capital of the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia at Lagrange's time, and married an Italian; so did his grandfather and his father. His mother was from the countryside of Turin. He was raised as a Roman Catholic (but later on became an agnostic). His father, who had charge of the king's military chest and was Treasurer of the Office of Public Works and Fortifications in Turin, should have maintained a good social position and wealth, but before his son grew up he had lost most of his property in speculations. A career as a lawyer was planned out for Lagrange by his father, and certainly Lagrange seems to have accepted this willingly. He studied at the University of Turin and his favourite subject was classical Latin. At first he had no great enthusiasm for mathematics, finding Greek geometry rather dull. It was not until he was seventeen that he showed any taste for mathematics – his interest in the subject being first excited by a paper by Edmond Halley which he came across by accident. Alone and unaided he threw himself into mathematical studies; at the end of a year's incessant toil he was already an accomplished mathematician. Charles Emmanuel III appointed Lagrange to serve as the \"Sostituto del Maestro di Matematica\" (mathematics assistant professor) at the Royal Military Academy of the Theory and Practice of Artillery in 1755, where he taught courses in calculus and mechanics to support the Piedmontese army's early adoption of the ballistics theories of Benjamin Robins and Leonhard Euler. In that capacity, Lagrange was the first to teach calculus in an engineering school. According to, the academy's military commander and famous artillery theorist, Lagrange unfortunately proved to be a problematic professor with his oblivious teaching style, abstract reasoning, and impatience with artillery and fortification-engineering applications. In this Academy one of his students was François Daviet.",
"Lagrange is one of the founders of the calculus of variations. Starting in 1754, he worked on the problem of the tautochrone, discovering a method of maximizing and minimizing functionals in a way similar to finding extrema of functions. Lagrange wrote several letters to Leonhard Euler between 1754 and 1756 describing his results. He outlined his \"δ-algorithm\", leading to the Euler–Lagrange equations of variational calculus and considerably simplifying Euler's earlier analysis. Lagrange also applied his ideas to problems of classical mechanics, generalising the results of Euler and Maupertuis. Euler was very impressed with Lagrange's results. It has been stated that \"with characteristic courtesy he withheld a paper he had previously written, which covered some of the same ground, in order that the young Italian might have time to complete his work, and claim the undisputed invention of the new calculus\"; however, this chivalric view has been disputed. Lagrange published his method in two memoirs of the Turin Society in 1762 and 1773.",
"In 1758, with the aid of his pupils (mainly with Daviet), Lagrange established a society, which was subsequently incorporated as the Turin Academy of Sciences, and most of his early writings are to be found in the five volumes of its transactions, usually known as the \"Miscellanea Taurinensia\". Many of these are elaborate papers. The first volume contains a paper on the theory of the propagation of sound; in this he indicates a mistake made by Newton, obtains the general differential equation for the motion, and integrates it for motion in a straight line. This volume also contains the complete solution of the problem of a string vibrating transversely; in this paper he points out a lack of generality in the solutions previously given by Brook Taylor, D'Alembert, and Euler, and arrives at the conclusion that the form of the curve at any time \"t\" is given by the equation formula_1. The article concludes with a masterly discussion of echoes, beats, and compound sounds. Other articles in this volume are on recurring series, probabilities, and the calculus of variations. The second volume contains a long paper embodying the results of several papers in the first volume on the theory and notation of the calculus of variations; and he illustrates its use by deducing the principle of least action, and by solutions of various problems in dynamics. The third volume includes the solution of several dynamical problems by means of the calculus of variations; some papers on the integral calculus; a solution of Fermat's problem mentioned above: given an integer \"n\" which is not a perfect square, to find a number \"x\" such that \"x\"\"n\" + 1 is a perfect square; and the general differential equations of motion for three bodies moving under their mutual attractions. The next work he produced was in 1764 on the libration of the Moon, and an explanation as to why the same face was always turned to the earth, a problem which he treated by the aid of virtual work. His solution is especially interesting as containing the germ of the idea of generalised equations of motion, equations which he first formally proved in 1780.",
"Already by 1756, Euler and Maupertuis, seeing his mathematical talent, tried to persuade him to come to Berlin, but Lagrange shyly refused the offer. In 1765, d'Alembert interceded on Lagrange's behalf with Frederick of Prussia and by letter, asked him to leave Turin for a considerably more prestigious position in Berlin. He again turned down the offer, responding that In 1766, after Euler left Berlin for Saint Petersburg, Frederick himself wrote to Lagrange expressing the wish of \"the greatest king in Europe\" to have \"the greatest mathematician in Europe\" resident at his court. Lagrange was finally persuaded and he spent the next twenty years in Prussia, where he produced a long series of papers published in the Berlin and Turin transactions, and composed his monumental work, the \"Mécanique analytique\". In 1767, he married his cousin Vittoria Conti. Lagrange was a favourite of the king, who frequently lectured him on the advantages of perfect regularity of life. The lesson was accepted, and Lagrange studied his mind and body as though they were machines, and experimented to find the exact amount of work which he could do before exhaustion. Every night he set himself a definite task for the next day, and on completing any branch of a subject he wrote a short analysis to see what points in the demonstrations or in the subject-matter were capable of improvement. He carefully planned his papers before writing them, usually without a single erasure or correction. Nonetheless, during his years in Berlin, Lagrange's health was rather poor, and that of his wife Vittoria was even worse. She died in 1783 after years of illness and Lagrange was very depressed. In 1786, Frederick II died, and the climate of Berlin became difficult for Lagrange.",
"In 1786, following Frederick's death, Lagrange received similar invitations from states including Spain and Naples, and he accepted the offer of Louis XVI to move to Paris. In France he was received with every mark of distinction and special apartments in the Louvre were prepared for his reception, and he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences, which later became part of the Institut de France (1795). At the beginning of his residence in Paris he was seized with an attack of melancholy, and even the printed copy of his \"Mécanique\" on which he had worked for a quarter of a century lay for more than two years unopened on his desk. Curiosity as to the results of the French revolution first stirred him out of his lethargy, a curiosity which soon turned to alarm as the revolution developed. It was about the same time, 1792, that the unaccountable sadness of his life and his timidity moved the compassion of 24-year-old Renée-Françoise-Adélaïde Le Monnier, daughter of his friend, the astronomer Pierre Charles Le Monnier. She insisted on marrying him, and proved a devoted wife to whom he became warmly attached. In September 1793, the Reign of Terror began. Under intervention of Antoine Lavoisier, who himself was by then already thrown out of the Academy along with many other scholars, Lagrange was specifically exempted by name in the decree of October 1793 that ordered all foreigners to leave France. On 4 May 1794, Lavoisier and 27 other tax farmers were arrested and sentenced to death and guillotined on the afternoon after the trial. Lagrange said on the death of Lavoisier: Though Lagrange had been preparing to escape from France while there was yet time, he was never in any danger; different revolutionary governments (and at a later time, Napoleon) loaded him with honours and distinctions. This luckiness or safety may to some extent be due to his life attitude he expressed many years before: \"\"I believe that, in general, one of the first principles of every wise man is to conform strictly to the laws of the country in which he is living, even when they are unreasonable\"\". A striking testimony to the respect in which he was held was shown in 1796 when the French commissary in Italy was ordered to attend in full state on Lagrange's father, and tender the congratulations of the republic on the achievements of his son, who \"had done honor to all mankind by his genius, and whom it was the special glory of Piedmont to have produced.\" It may be added that Napoleon, when he attained power, warmly encouraged scientific studies in France, and was a liberal benefactor of them. Appointed senator in 1799, he was the first signer of the Sénatus-consulte which in 1802 annexed his fatherland Piedmont to France. He acquired French citizenship in consequence. The French claimed he was a French mathematician, but the Italians continued to claim him as Italian.\"",
"Lagrange was involved in the development metric system of measurement in the 1790s. He was offered the presidency of the Commission for the reform of weights and measures (\"la Commission des Poids et Mesures\") when he was preparing to escape. After Lavoisier's death in 1794, it was largely Lagrange who influenced the choice of the metre and kilogram units with decimal subdivision, by the commission of 1799. Lagrange was also one of the founding members of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1795.",
"In 1795, Lagrange was appointed to a mathematical chair at the newly established École Normale, which enjoyed only a brief existence of four months. His lectures there were quite elementary, and contain nothing of any special importance, but they were published because the professors had to \"pledge themselves to the representatives of the people and to each other neither to read nor to repeat from memory,\" and the discourses were ordered to be taken down in shorthand to enable the deputies to see how the professors acquitted themselves.",
"In 1794, Lagrange was appointed professor of the École Polytechnique; and his lectures there, described by mathematicians who had the good fortune to be able to attend them, were almost perfect both in form and matter. Beginning with the merest elements, he led his hearers on until, almost unknown to themselves, they were themselves extending the bounds of the subject: above all he impressed on his pupils the advantage of always using general methods expressed in a symmetrical notation. But Lagrange does not seem to have been a successful teacher. Fourier, who attended his lectures in 1795, wrote:",
"In 1810, Lagrange commenced a thorough revision of the \"Mécanique analytique\", but he was able to complete only about two-thirds of it before his death at Paris in 1813, in 128 rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré. Napoleon honoured him with the Grand Croix of the Ordre Impérial de la Réunion just two days before he died. He was buried that same year in the Panthéon in Paris. The inscription on his tomb reads in translation:JOSEPH LOUIS LAGRANGE. Senator. Count of the Empire. Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of the Reunion. Member of the Institute and the Bureau of Longitude. Born in Turin on 25 January 1736. Died in Paris on 10 April 1813.",
"Lagrange was extremely active scientifically during twenty years he spent in Berlin. Not only did he produce his \"Mécanique analytique\", but he contributed between one and two hundred papers to the Academy of Turin, the Berlin Academy, and the French Academy. Some of these are really treatises, and all without exception are of a high order of excellence. Except for a short time when he was ill he produced on average about one paper a month. Of these, note the following as amongst the most important. First, his contributions to the fourth and fifth volumes, 1766–1773, of the \"Miscellanea Taurinensia\"; of which the most important was the one in 1771, in which he discussed how numerous astronomical observations should be combined so as to give the most probable result. And later, his contributions to the first two volumes, 1784–1785, of the transactions of the Turin Academy; to the first of which he contributed a paper on the pressure exerted by fluids in motion, and to the second an article on integration by infinite series, and the kind of problems for which it is suitable. Most of the papers sent to Paris were on astronomical questions, and among these including his paper on the Jovian system in 1766, his essay on the problem of three bodies in 1772, his work on the secular equation of the Moon in 1773, and his treatise on cometary perturbations in 1778. These were all written on subjects proposed by the Académie française, and in each case the prize was awarded to him.",
"Between 1772 and 1788, Lagrange re-formulated Classical/Newtonian mechanics to simplify formulas and ease calculations. These mechanics are called Lagrangian mechanics.",
"The greater number of his papers during this time were, however, contributed to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. Several of them deal with questions in algebra.",
"Several of his early papers also deal with questions of number theory.",
"There are also numerous articles on various points of analytical geometry. In two of them, written rather later, in 1792 and 1793, he reduced the equations of the quadrics (or conicoids) to their canonical forms. During the years from 1772 to 1785, he contributed a long series of papers which created the science of partial differential equations. A large part of these results were collected in the second edition of Euler's integral calculus which was published in 1794.",
"Lastly, there are numerous papers on problems in astronomy. Of these the most important are the following:",
"Over and above these various papers he composed his fundamental treatise, the \"Mécanique analytique\". In this opera, he lays down the law of virtual work, and from that one fundamental principle, by the aid of the calculus of variations, deduces the whole of mechanics, both of solids and fluids. The object of the book is to show that the subject is implicitly included in a single principle, and to give general formulae from which any particular result can be obtained. The method of generalised co-ordinates by which he obtained this result is perhaps the most brilliant result of his analysis. Instead of following the motion of each individual part of a material system, as D'Alembert and Euler had done, he showed that, if we determine its configuration by a sufficient number of variables \"x\", called generalized coordinates, whose number is the same as that of the degrees of freedom possessed by the system, then the kinetic and potential energies of the system can be expressed in terms of those variables, and the differential equations of motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. For example, in dynamics of a rigid system he replaces the consideration of the particular problem by the general equation, which is now usually written in the form where \"T\" represents the kinetic energy and \"V\" represents the potential energy of the system. He then presented what we now know as the method of Lagrange multipliers—though this is not the first time that method was published—as a means to solve this equation. Amongst other minor theorems here given it may suffice to mention the proposition that the kinetic energy imparted by the given impulses to a material system under given constraints is a maximum, and the principle of least action. All the analysis is so elegant that Sir William Rowan Hamilton said the work could be described only as a scientific poem. Lagrange remarked that mechanics was really a branch of pure mathematics analogous to a geometry of four dimensions, namely, the time and the three coordinates of the point in space; and it is said that he prided himself that from the beginning to the end of the work there was not a single diagram. At first no printer could be found who would publish the book; but Legendre at last persuaded a Paris firm to undertake it, and it was issued under the supervision of Laplace, Cousin, Legendre (editor) and Condorcet in 1788.",
"",
"Lagrange's lectures on the differential calculus at École Polytechnique form the basis of his treatise \"Théorie des fonctions analytiques\", which was published in 1797. This work is the extension of an idea contained in a paper he had sent to the Berlin papers in 1772, and its object is to substitute for the differential calculus a group of theorems based on the development of algebraic functions in series, relying in particular on the principle of the generality of algebra. A somewhat similar method had been previously used by John Landen in the \"Residual Analysis\", published in London in 1758. Lagrange believed that he could thus get rid of those difficulties, connected with the use of infinitely large and infinitely small quantities, to which philosophers objected in the usual treatment of the differential calculus. The book is divided into three parts: of these, the first treats of the general theory of functions, and gives an algebraic proof of Taylor's theorem, the validity of which is, however, open to question; the second deals with applications to geometry; and the third with applications to mechanics. Another treatise on the same lines was his \"Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions\", issued in 1804, with the second edition in 1806. It is in this book that Lagrange formulated his celebrated method of Lagrange multipliers, in the context of problems of variational calculus with integral constraints. These works devoted to differential calculus and calculus of variations may be considered as the starting point for the researches of Cauchy, Jacobi, and Weierstrass.",
"At a later period Lagrange fully embraced the use of infinitesimals in preference to founding the differential calculus on the study of algebraic forms; and in the preface to the second edition of the \"Mécanique Analytique\", which was issued in 1811, he justifies the employment of infinitesimals, and concludes by saying that:",
"His \"Résolution des équations numériques\", published in 1798, was also the fruit of his lectures at École Polytechnique. There he gives the method of approximating to the real roots of an equation by means of continued fractions, and enunciates several other theorems. In a note at the end he shows how Fermat's little theorem, that is where \"p\" is a prime and \"a\" is prime to \"p\", may be applied to give the complete algebraic solution of any binomial equation. He also here explains how the equation whose roots are the squares of the differences of the roots of the original equation may be used so as to give considerable information as to the position and nature of those roots.",
"The theory of the planetary motions had formed the subject of some of the most remarkable of Lagrange's Berlin papers. In 1806 the subject was reopened by Poisson, who, in a paper read before the French Academy, showed that Lagrange's formulae led to certain limits for the stability of the orbits. Lagrange, who was present, now discussed the whole subject afresh, and in a letter communicated to the Academy in 1808 explained how, by the variation of arbitrary constants, the periodical and secular inequalities of any system of mutually interacting bodies could be determined.",
"Euler proposed Lagrange for election to the Berlin Academy and he was elected on 2 September 1756. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1790, a Fellow of the Royal Society and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1806. In 1808, Napoleon made Lagrange a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour and a Count of the Empire. He was awarded the Grand Croix of the Ordre Impérial de la Réunion in 1813, a week before his death in Paris. Lagrange was awarded the 1764 prize of the French Academy of Sciences for his memoir on the libration of the Moon. In 1766 the Academy proposed a problem of the motion of the satellites of Jupiter, and the prize again was awarded to Lagrange. He also shared or won the prizes of 1772, 1774, and 1778. Lagrange is one of the 72 prominent French scientists who were commemorated on plaques at the first stage of the Eiffel Tower when it first opened. \"Rue Lagrange\" in the 5th Arrondissement in Paris is named after him. In Turin, the street where the house of his birth still stands is named \"via Lagrange\". The lunar crater Lagrange and the asteroid 1006 Lagrangea also bear his name.",
"",
"The initial version of this article was taken from the public domain resource \"A Short Account of the History of Mathematics\" (4th edition, 1908) by W. W. Rouse Ball."
]
} |
Gas pycnometer | null | A gas pycnometer is a laboratory device used for measuring the density—or, more accurately, the volume—of solids, be they regularly shaped, porous or non-porous, monolithic, powdered, granular or in some way comminuted, employing some method of gas displacement and the volume:pressure relationship known as Boyle's Law. A gas pycnometer is also sometimes referred to as a helium pycnometer. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1742249 | en-train-1742249 | 1742249 | {
"title": [
"Types of gas pycnometer.",
"Gas expansion pycnometer.",
"Variable volume pycnometer.",
"Practical use.",
"Volume vs density.",
"Applications."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"Gas expansion pycnometer is also known as constant volume gas pycnometer. The simplest type of gas pycnometer (due to its relative lack of moving parts) consists of two chambers, one (with a removable gas-tight lid) to hold the sample and a second chamber of fixed, known (via calibration) internal volume – referred to as the reference volume or added volume. The device additionally comprises a valve to admit a gas under pressure to one of the chambers, a pressure measuring device – usually a transducer – connected to the first chamber, a valved pathway connecting the two chambers, and a valved vent from the second of the chambers. In practice the sample may occupy either chamber, that is gas pycnometers can be constructed such that the sample chamber is pressurized first, or such that it is the reference chamber that starts at the higher pressure. Various design parameters have been analyzed by Tamari. The working equation of a gas pycnometer wherein the sample chamber is pressurized first is as follows: where \"V\" is the sample volume, \"V\" is the volume of the empty sample chamber (known from a prior calibration step), \"V\" is the volume of the reference volume (again known from a prior calibration step), \"P\" is the first pressure (i.e. in the sample chamber only) and \"P\" is the second (lower) pressure after expansion of the gas into the combined volumes of sample chamber and reference chamber. Derivation of the \"working equation\" and a schematic illustration of such a gas expansion pycnometer is given by Lowell \"et al.\".",
"Variable volume pycnometer (or gas comparison pycnometer) consists of either a single or two variable volume chambers. The sample cell volume can be at different types and size, like G-DenPyc 2900 technology specified, the volume can be 0.1ml up to 500ml. The volume of the chamber(s) can be varied by either a fixed amount by a simple mechanical piston of fixed travel, or continuously and gradually by means of a graduated piston. Resulting changes in pressure can be read by means of a transducer, or nullified by adjustment of a third ancillary, graduated variable-volume chamber. This type of pycnometer is commercially obsolete; in 2006 ASTM withdrew its standard test method D2856 for the open-cell content of rigid cellular plastics by the air pycnometer, which relied upon the use of a variable volume pycnometer, and was replaced by test method D6226 which describes a gas expansion pycnometer.",
"",
"While pycnometers (of any type) are recognized as density measuring devices they are in fact devices for measuring volume only. Density is merely calculated as the ratio of mass to volume; mass being invariably measured on a discrete device, usually by weighing. The volume measured in a gas pycnometer is that amount of three-dimensional space which is inaccessible to the gas used, i.e. that volume within the sample chamber from which the gas is excluded. Therefore, the volume measured considering the finest scale of surface roughness will depend on the atomic or molecular size of the gas. Helium therefore is most often prescribed as the measurement gas, not only is it of small size, it is also inert and the most ideal gas. Closed pores, i.e. those that do not communicate with the surface of the solid, are included in the measured volume. Helium may however demonstrate some measurable permeability through low density solids (polymers and cellulosic materials predominantly) thus interfering with the measurement of solid volume. In such cases larger molecule gases such as nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride are beneficial. Adsorption of the measuring gas should be avoided, as should excessive vapor pressure from moisture or other liquids present in the otherwise solid sample.",
"Gas pycnometers are used extensively for characterizing a wide variety of solids such as heterogeneous catalysts, carbons, metal powders, soils, ceramics, active pharmaceutical ingredients (API's) and excipients, petroleum coke, cement and other construction materials, cenospheres/glass microballoons and solid foams."
]
} |
Domica Cave | null | The Domica cave is situated on the south-western border of the "Silicka planina Plateau" south-east of Plesivec in the Rožňava District of the Košice Region in southern Slovakia and in combination with the Baradla cave represents the most significant section of the "Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst" cross-border cave network that continues into the (Aggtelek National Park) in Hungary. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1620313 | en-train-1620313 | 1620313 | {
"title": [
"Exploration.",
"Description.",
"Human occupation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The site belongs to a complex variety of formations that include 712 caves, many of which were well known among the local population for centuries. Bartholomeides, a priest from Ochtiná documented his first systematic excursions into the \"Certova diera Cave\" in 1801. His conclusions that a number of local caves are simply parts of a bigger entity were corroborated by the explorer I.Vass, who surveyed the Baradla cave in 1821. E.Nyari took up archaeological work in 1881 and suggested a connection of the \"Certova diera\" and \"Baradla Cave\" as did K. Siegmenth in 1891. Only the extensive work of Jan Majko in 1926 confirmed the interconnection of several local caves and lead to the discovery of the Domica cave on October 3, 1926. J. Majko penetrated from its bottom through a 15 m deep abyss into large underground spaces in 1926 where plenty of archaeological discoveries were made later.",
"The Domica Cave is situated in the Slovak karst and consists of light limestone of the Middle Triassic. The passages were shaped by the waters of an underground river, called \"Styx\". Speleothem decoration is omnipresent and very impressive, including cascades of stalactite lakes, variously shaped stalactites domed temples and notably bat guano, that had diffused into sinter crusts accounts for unique forms and textures of surface decoration. Karst processes have over tens of millions of years created diverse structures and habitats that date back to the Late Cretaceous. Subsequent periods of temperate, glacial, subtropical and tropical climatic conditions excellently demonstrate karst formation under varying conditions. Biologists, geologists and paleontologists are confronted with a rich set of various conditions, that affect sedimentation, evolution and fossilization in a geological time frame.",
"Jaroslav Böhm directed excavations during the 1930s. Human presence has been documented dating back to the Paleolithic. The cave had presumably been a casual refuge for the oldest Neolithic inhabitants of Eastern Slovakia. However, the cave has been frequented by Neolithic humans of the Bükk culture, who might even have manufactured their distinct thin-walled pottery inside the cave. The original entrance of the Domica Cave was blocked by debris after Paleo-humans had abandoned it and the cave became inaccessible. Post holes from dwelling objects and fireplaces were discovered in several places of the cave. More than 200 reconstructed containers from sherds as well as a terrace-dug slope in a fine-grained loam on the Styx bank with imprints of stone axes are evidences of ceramics manufacture in the cave. Irons, awls, arrows, the oldest comb in Europe, ring, decorated cylinder bracelet and fishhook represent the peak of Neolithic processing of bones. Also pendants from shells and animal teeth were preserved."
]
} |
BSC Young Boys | null | BSC Young Boys are a Swiss sports club based in Bern, Switzerland. The first team has won 13 Swiss league championships and six Swiss Cups. In 1957, YB was named the Swiss team of the year. YB is one of the most successful Swiss football clubs internationally, and reached the semi-finals of the European Cup in the 1958–59 season. The club's colours are yellow of a golden shade and black. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"1902–1925: The early years.",
"1925–1951: New name and new stadium.",
"1951–1964: The golden years under Coach Albert Sing.",
"1964–1984: Descent to a normal club.",
"1984–1991: The Mandziara Era.",
"1991–2001: Down and up.",
"2001–2005: In the Neufeldstadion.",
"2005–present: In the Stade de Suisse Wankdorf Bern.",
"Stadium."
],
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"1",
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"",
"The club was founded in 1898. Its name was intended to mimic that of the Basel-based club Old Boys. YB began to be successful very early on. Against Lausanne they celebrated a surprising 2–2 draw and on 26 October 1902 a 7–0 victory over Fortuna Basel. In these years YB also came out from the shadow of FC Bern. YB beat their city rivals away 3–1 and on 8 March 1903 5–0 at home. YB won the championship of the Central League and were invited to play in the finals of the Swiss championship. On 22 March was the first final against FC Zürich. YB played, among others, the two Schwab brothers, and they beat Zurich 3–1. On 29 March YB faced the West champion FC Neuchâtel. The guests from Neuchâtel were the clear favorites, because the Bern club had lost to them one month before 1–4. This caused Neuchâtel to make the error of underestimating the Young Boys. The Neuchâtel defense completely broke apart when the YB striker Walter Frey found the net shortly after halftime to post a 1–0 lead. The game ended with a one-sided 5–0 result, and YB after only five years of existence had won their first Swiss football championship. After having trained for the early years on the Schwellenmätteli, below the Kirchenfeld bridge, YB played from the year 1904 at Spitalacker-Platz. In subsequent seasons the Young Boys did not win the championship but were always in the top three in the regional group. It took six years for YB to achieve further successes. In 1909, the Berners defeated FC Winterthur in Basel in the finals 1–0. The next year, the Young Boys won the championship finals against FC Aarau 3–1 and against Servette Geneva 2–1. Again in 1911, Servette Geneva and FC Zürich could not prevent YB's fourth championship overall and third in a row. It was the first title hat trick in the history of the Swiss Football Association. YB was also in 1910 and the two following years the champion of the \"Anglo-cup\", the predecessor of today's Swisscom Cup. At the time, the fans spoke of a time all opponents dreaded, the \"YB Quarter Hour\" 15 minutes before the end of the game. The players sustained their efforts throughout the 90 minutes so effectively that the opponents began to run down after about 75 minutes. An example is the 1910 finals between the YB and Aarau, where until the 80th minute the score stood at 1–1. Similarly, in the game against Servette in the final round in 1911, up through the 72nd minute the game was a 1–1 draw, but three goals in the last 18 minutes turned the result decisively for YB to clinch the title hat trick. In 1913, the English football instructor Reynold Williams became the first coach of the club. Shortly thereafter, World War I erupted, and Spitalacker-Platz was converted to a potato field. YB arranged to rent facilities at Kirchfeld for 1,400 francs per year. The military also made space available at the barracks for the team's use. Despite these hardships, the club won Swiss league championship again in 1920. After the war, the team again played on the Spitalacker-Platz. However, the ground no longer suited the requirements of the Young Boys, so they searched for alternatives. They found space at the northeastern border of the city at the Wankdorffeld, and construction was initiated.",
"In 1925, the association's name was changed from FC Young Boys to Berner Sport Club Young Boys. This year was also the last game on the old Spitalacker-platz. In October, the new Wankdorf Stadium by the architects Scherler & Berger was opened with a tournament. It was attended by the Old Boys from Basel, Servette Geneva, and the Young Boys. The new sports complex included a main grandstand with 1,200 covered seats, a restaurant, changing rooms, a training hall and a training ground. In total, the new stadium held 22,000 spectators, including covered standing room for 5,000. YB now had a large and modern stadium, which intensified the rivalry with FC Bern, because the older association continued to play at the small and outdated Neufeldplatz. The two clubs went so far as to negotiate a contract, facilitated by Central President Schlegel, to prevent discord. In 1929, YB once again progressed to the final round of the Swiss championship. The first game, on a Sunday, pitted Urania Geneva Sport against YB, the second a week later Grasshoppers against Urania GC, and on the third Sunday in the final YB–GC. The first game in Geneva ended with a 0–0 draw, which satisfied the Bernese. When the Grasshoppers beat Geneva in Zurich 3–0, the chances for YB to win the title decreased tremendously. In the third game, the guests from Zürich needed only a draw to win the championship for the third time in a row. For this final on 30 June, Young Boys deployed replacement goalkeeper Erich Jung in the offensive midfield position due to player shortages. Striker Johan Baumgartner also scored a goal and YB prevented the championship hat trick with a 2–0 win. On 10 February 1930, the club purchased an additional strip of land from the community, having noted that the stadium was too small, increasing the entire area of the Wankdorf stadium ground to 35,585 square metres. The 1930 Young Boys became the first to celebrate a Swiss Cup championship. The Swiss Cup had been initiated only five years earlier following the discontinuation of the Anglo Cup at the First World War. With 30,000 spectators crowding Wankdorf YB beat FC Aarau 1–0. In the following 15 years, YB won neither a league title nor a cup championship. During this time, Wankdorf continued to expand. The capacity of the stadium increased by building an extension to 42,000 spectators, costing the association an additional 300,000 francs. Furthermore, another training field was added. Towards the end of the 1930s, the world economic crisis started and Swiss football felt the effects. The attendance figures fell steadily, and the Sportplatz Spitalacker could no longer meet its financial obligations. After the outbreak of World War II, the club considered selling the stadium. However, through a debt-reduction and the help of the city of Bern in 1943, the finances of the club were rehabilitated. At that point, the stadium group changed its name to \"Verein Fussball-Stadion Wankdorf\". During World War II, the Bernese succeeded but could not claim a title. Only in 1945, at the end of the war, came the next success: YB won the second Cup against FC St. Gallen with a 2–0 victory at Espenmoos. Two seasons later, the Bernese were relegated to the National League B. It would be three seasons until they returned to the highest league where they would then remain for over 50 years.",
"In 1951, Norbert Eric Jones was replaced after only one year as the manager by the previously unknown Albert Sing. At that time, no one anticipated the successful years YB would experience under the German coach. Sing acted initially as a player-coach before he decided to become a trainer only. During his tenure YB experienced its most successful period. The team was reinforced by high-level transfers such as Eugene \"Geni\" Meier. Considerable success during this period was also attributed to the goalkeeper Walter Eich, who was one of the best in the history of the Young Boys. Later, the team consisted of top players like Heinz Schneite and Ernst Wechselberger. For the 1954 FIFA World Cup, the capacity of the Wankdorf stadium was increased from around 30,000 to more than 60,000 seats. In the spring of 1953, Young Boys again advanced to the Cup. YB met Grasshoppers Zürich in the final pairing, and the clubs drew 1–1. Five weeks later, the teams met in a replay, which went to the Bernese 3–1. In the summer of that year, YB was invited to tour North America. The team played there against some American teams, Liverpool (1–1), and the Republic of Ireland national team (a 4–1 win for YB). YB produced impressive results overseas for Swiss football and was enthusiastically received by thousands upon its return to Bern. From 1957 and 1960, YB were Swiss champions four times in a row. During this time, YB became one of the more successful teams in European football and was superior to all Swiss opponents. 1958 brought yet another Cup when YB defeated Grasshoppers in a final replay, 4–1. Young Boys also achieved success in European competition. At its first appearance in the European Cup, it were politically disadvantaged, however: the Bernese drew the Vasas Budapest, the Hungarian club of the Interior Ministry. Some Swiss politicians demanded that no Swiss sports club should have contacts with the Hungarian football club, especially in Bern, the capital. Servette FC made its Charmilles Stadium available for one game, and 20,000 spectators supported YB in Geneva during a 1–1 draw against the Hungarians. In the return match, however, Young Boys fell 1–2. The following year, Young Boys' opponents in the European Cup were once again from Hungary, this time MTK Budapest. YB won the leg in the Nep Stadium 2–1. 26 November 1958 saw the European premiere in Wankdorf; 28,000 spectators celebrated the Young Boys' 4–1 victory. In the second round, YB met the East German champions SC Wismut Chemnitz and the Wankdorf was filled with 32,000 spectators. The teams drew 2–2 after a 2–0 lead for the Young Boys. A week later, the teams met in the GDR. The game ended 0–0, which at that time required a deciding game. This took place on 1 April 1959 in the Amsterdam Olympic Stadium before 35,000 spectators, and YB won 2–1. Thus, Young Boys qualified for the European Cup semi-finals. Their opponents in the semi-finals were Stade de Reims. The game of games in the history of the yellow-and-black took place on 15 April 1959, a rainy Wednesday. Sixty-thousand spectators packed into Wankdorf, but the crowd may have exceeded the official count. After an impressive performance, YB won 1–0 on a Geni Meier goal in the 13th minute. The game was a legend in Bern. Stade de Reims received the Bernese in the return match at the Parc des Princes, Paris, where the Frenchmen won 3–0 to reach the final. No other Swiss team besides FC Zürich has since found as much success in an international competition as Young Boys did in this season. In 1960, YB played internationally once again, meeting Eintracht Frankfurt in the first round, where Frankfurt won 4–1 before 36,000 spectators. In the return match at Frankfurt's Waldstadion, YB managed a 1–1 draw. In 1961, the team first travelled to Ireland to meet Limerick, where YB won with an impressive 5–0 showing, then again 4–2 in front of 22,000 spectators at Wankdorf in the return leg. In the second round, YB met Hamburger SV (and its star striker Uwe Seeler) in what was the first European Cup game in that team's history. Forty-five thousand spectators were at the game in the Wankdorf, where Hamburg stunned YB with a 5–0 victory. In Hamburg, the Bernese improved upon their previous performance, earning a 3–3 draw before 40,000 spectators in the Volksparkstadion. It would be the last appearance in Europe for YB for a long time. After four league titles, a European Cup run and many successes, Young Boys traveled 31 days through the Far East, in five weeks having visited ten countries and played several friendly matches against Asian teams. Albert Sing left BSC Young Boys in 1964 and is still the most successful coach in the history of the club.",
"The successor to Albert Sing had large shoes to fill; average performance was no longer acceptable to the discriminating Bernese supporters. Heinz Bigler and Hans Grütter took over the training until Hans Merkle ultimately succeeded Sing. Merkle had the misfortune to be measured against the championships of his predecessor. Although Geni Meier, Ernst Wechselberger and other players from the championship years continued to play, it mattered little. Merkle was a hard coach of the German school, however, and was able to keep YB in the top half of the table, with finishes of second, fifth, and seventh. The mixture of old and young players did not provide the results the Bernese sought, however. Otto Messerli, then a junior in the first team squad who in later years would be captain of the Young Boys, described the situation: \"There were many good ideas, but FC Basel and FC Zürich remained unattainable for us.\" This was also no different for the Merkle successors Skiba, Schneiter und Eich, Brülls, Peters and Linder: The Young Boys reached big games on occasion (such as the Cup final against Basel that brought 52,000 spectators to the Wankdorf), but over the long term their performance was unspectacular. Still, some YB players rose to national recognition. The Dutchman Bert Theunissen replaced Meier and Wechselberger in 1964 as \"gunner\" and he became Swiss scoring champion before he left YB. A good replacement for him was found, however: the Bernese bought Dieter Brenninger from Bayern Munich. Another new transfer, Walter \"Wale\" Mueller, played between 1967 and 1972 for YB, and was a dreaded striker for opposing defenders. In the late 1960s and '70s, the Bernese met with little success. As YB were runners-up in the 1974–75 season, they finally returned to European competition. In the first round of the UEFA Cup, the club faced Hamburger SV once again. In the first leg before 17,000 spectators in the Wankdorf, the two teams played to a 0–0 draw. HSV won at home in its Volksparkstadion (4–2), and Young Boys were bounced from the competition early. The Young Boys' side for these games included Jakob Brechbühl and Karl Odermatt among others. It took until 1977 before YB would again win a title. Under coach Kurt Linder, the Cup was brought to Bern for the fifth time. Thanks to this title, YB qualified for the preliminary round of the European Cup Winners' Cup. The Bernese faced a daunting challenge in the form of the Rangers of Glasgow. At Ibrox Park, YB played strongly, only losing 0–1. The return game in front of 17,000 spectators at Wankdorf ended 2–2, and Rangers advanced. The Young Boys again underwent a change of coaches when René Hüssy replaced Linder. 1979 again saw YB (as losing cup finalists) in the European Cup Winners' Cup. On 19 September 1979, only 6,700 spectators came to Wankdorf to see the game against Steaua București, which ended 2–2. Before this game, YB had lost three consecutive championship games, which may have contributed to the lack of fans. The goals were scored by Stoica, Zwygart, Iordănescu and Schönenberger. Two weeks later, Young Boys lost in Bucharest, 0–6.",
"Turbulent times continued in the Wankdorf. After many coaching changes, in 1984 Alexander Mandziara was hired as manager. The quiet Pole with a German passport played offensive football and was known for hard training sessions. In his first years, Young Boys reached only ninth place. In the next season, 1985–86, not all went for YB but the team still managed to finish the preliminary round in fifth. During the winter break, the Swede Robert Prytz joined the YB midfield as a playmaker alongside Georges Bregy, and YB achieved an incomparable return round. The point advantage of the leaders Neuchâtel Xamax slowly melted round by round. On 24 May 1986, the showdown came in Neuchâtel Maladière before a crowd of 21,500 including visiting YB spectators. Young Boys came away with a 4–1 result. Lars Lunde, Danish scoring champion, and Dario Zuffi each connected twice and YB after 26 years finished in championship position. In the first round of the European championship, the Bernese drew Real Madrid, whose ranks included top stars Hugo Sánchez and Emilio Butragueño. Thirty-two thousand spectators descended on Wankdorf, despite torrential rain, for the match on 17 September 1986. Urs Bamert headed in a goal to provide the 1–0 margin of victory against the guests from Spain. For the return leg, 75,000 spectators occupied the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid. Until the 75th minute, the advantage stood at only 1–0 for the home side. But the 2–0 by Jorge Valdano broke the defense of the Young Boys, and Real Madrid went on to win 5–0. In 1987, YB won the Cup for the sixth time. In the finals, it defeated Servette FC 4–2 in a replay. In the first round of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, Young Boys traveled to Dunajská Streda, Czechoslovakia, where the Czechs won 2–1. Before 8,100 spectators, YB prevailed in Bern 3–1 and qualified for the second round. In the round of 16, the Bernese visited FC Den Haag, where it lost 1–2. In the return match in Bern, only 6,400 spectators braved the icy chill of the Wankdorf. A 1–0 YB victory was enough to progress into the quarter-finals. The next opponent was again from the Netherlands, this time Ajax of Amsterdam. Temperatures of −6 on 9 March 1988 caused Wankdorf to be rather sparsely occupied with only 7,686 spectators. Ajax won the game 1–0. The return leg in Amsterdam before 30,000 spectators saw the Bernese lose again 1–0 to fall out of the competition.",
"A highlight of the 1990s was the Cup finale against FC Sion in 1991. The Wankdorf was packed with 50,000 spectators, with both teams contributing to the atmosphere. At halftime, the Bernese led 2–0, but Sion shot back in the second half with three goals to win the Cup. In 1993, YB qualified for the UEFA Cup and met Celtic in the first round. Only 7,300 spectators came to the stadium for the home leg, and the game ended 0–0. Young Boys fell in Celtic Park in Glasgow before 21,500 spectators in extra time, 1–0, with André Baumann netting an own goal in the 105th minute. In the mid-1990s, the former football powerhouse increasingly experienced problems. Young Boys developed financial difficulties and in 1997 – for the first time since the 1946–47 season – YB was relegated to the National League B (today's Challenge League). New Swedish coaches Roland Andersson and Thomas Sjöberg helped the club recover, placing first and earning promotion again, with Robert Schober and Admir Smajic taking over on the bench. The following NLA season began with a surprise victory over the reigning champion Grasshoppers. Many defeats, however, forced the Young Boys back into the relegation play-offs. The economic and sporting emergency ended in the dismissal of coach Claude Ryf. The BSC Young Boys organization stood very close to bankruptcy and few thought it still possible to salvage YB. A Lucerne investment company saved the club from ruin, although by 1999 the debt was over 1.7 million Swiss francs (~€1.08 million). Almost the entire squad left the capital and YB competed with the shell of a team the next season. The result was disastrous: third-last place after the 1999 qualification/descent round. The possibility of further relegation to the 1st League (third tier) threatened. Marco Schällibaum took over as manager and brought in reinforcements, which had a positive impact and enabled the club to stay up. On 17 December 1999, the BSC Young Boys AG was established with capital of CHF 500,000 (~€320,000). The AG took over the operations of the first time and increased the share capital. The remaining operation remains under the previous organization. The next championship was contested with a more powerful team with new players such as Harutyun Vardanyan and Gürkan Sermeter. YB won victory after victory in the autumn and inspired the loyal fans with attractive offensive football. The team earned the top place in the table and participation in the promotion playoffs, ultimately returning to the top division. New enthusiasm developed in Bern, and the attendance figures rose significantly. The first game of the 2001–02 season was the final game in old Wankdorf stadium. YB drew FC Lugano 1–1 before 22,200 spectators, and the last goal for the Bernese in the old Wankdorf was tallied by Reto Burri.",
"Young Boys played at the Neufeldstadion at the north end of town until the new, multi-functional Stade de Suisse Wankdorf Bern was opened in 2005. In the autumn of 2001, with a 1–3 home defeat against Grasshoppers, a series of 25 home games without defeat came to an end. However, with a 1–0 victory in the last game against FC St. Gallen on 9 December 2001, Young Boys qualified for the final round for the first time in seven years. The start of the final round was very promising. YB played exciting football and contended for a place in an international competition but ultimately finished in seventh position. The team also reached the semi-finals of the Swiss Cup before falling in a penalty shootout to FC Basel. In 2002, YB finished the qualifying round in seventh and the final round in fourth place, earning the Young Boys an entry in an international competition (the UEFA Cup) for the first time in ten years. This season also saw Stéphane Chapuisat move to the club. Chapuisat is considered one of the best strikers in Swiss history. In 2003, the league was completely reformed, including the names and sizes of the two highest leagues. For the 2003–04 season, Hans-Peter Zaugg was named as the new head coach. The played in the first \"Super League\", taking second place. As a result, the team qualified for the 2004–05 Champions League, where they fell to Red Star Belgrade 5–2 on aggregate. The domestic season 2004–05 found them finishing in fourth place.",
"In the summer of 2005, YB was able to begin using the newly built Wankdorfstadion, the Stade de Suisse, after several years of construction. Only a few months later Gernot Rohr signed as a coach. Although team maintained a defensive football strategy, the club succeeded with him at its head, advancing to the Cup final, but losing on a penalty shoot-out to Sion. The first season at the Stade de Suisse Wankdorf, YB finished in third place, qualifying for the UEFA Cup. The Bernese defeated Mika of Armenia 4–1 on aggregate in the first qualifying round to set up a very attractive matchup with French giants Marseille, but narrowly lost the tie on away goals with draws 3–3 at home and 0–0 away. Coach Gernot Rohr was succeeded by Martin Andermatt. The debut of Andermatt was promising, as YB defeated their canton rivals Thun 5–1 to open 2006–07 league play. The team finished the season in fourth place, once again returning to the UEFA Cup. On 14 April 2007, the club president Peter Mast announced that he would resign his position at the end of the season, although he immediately joined the board of directors. His post as president was assumed by Thomas Grimm on 17 April 2007. Incidentally, in this season, with an average of 15,517 spectators in the championship, the club celebrated its highest attendance average in club history. Also at the end of the 2006–07 season, the club switched outfitters from GEMS to Puma. Young Boys finished runners-up in the 2009–10 season, finishing three points behind champions Basel despite losing only one match at home all season. It entered Champions League qualification and defeated Fenerbahçe to set up a meeting with Tottenham Hotspur in the play-off round. YB went out to a 3–0 lead in the opening leg at Stade de Suisse on Tuesday 17 August, but had to hold on for a 3–2 win, then, fell 4–0 at White Hart Lane eight nights later and went out of the competition. Following its defeat, Young Boys was dropped to the Europa League group stage. The Bernese club qualified for the knockout stage of the tournament as runners-up of its group, behind group leaders VfB Stuttgart and at the expense of Getafe and Odense. In the Round of 32, the club faced Zenit Saint Petersburg, defeating its Russian opponents at home in the first leg (2–1), but suffering elimination after the second leg, losing 3–1 in their visit at Saint Petersburg. In the 2010–11 season, the club finished third in the league, which qualified YB to the UEFA Europa League for the next season. The following season was similar for the Yellow-Blacks, finishing third once again in the league. In the same season, YB failed to reach the Europa League group stage after being eliminated by Braga 2–2 on aggregate on the away goals rule (0–0 in Braga; 2–2 in Bern). On 28 April 2018, following a 2–1 home win over Luzern, Young Boys were confirmed as 2017–18 Swiss Super League champions, their first league title in 32 years. On 28 August 2018, Young Boys qualified to UEFA Champions League Group stage for the first time in their history, after defeating Dinamo Zagreb with a 3–2 aggregate score in play-off round.",
"Since 2005, Young Boys plays its home matches at the Stade de Suisse Wankdorf. The stadium seats 31,783 spectators and is the second largest football stadium in Switzerland, after St. Jakob-Park. Since 1925, Young Boys had played in the historic Wankdorf Stadium located on the same spot. Security concerns lead to the need of a modern all-seater stadium in the new millennium. As various factors like building regulations or labour law make it impossible to sustainably finance a modern football stadium in Switzerland, the reconstructed Stade de Suisse Wankdorf has been built on top of a new shopping mall called Wankdorf Center together with schools, homes, a fitness center, several gyms, some restaurants and a parking facility with over 700 places by which the new stadium is cross-financed. All modern Swiss football stadiums have been built together with a shopping mall and other cross-financing facilities for that same reason. The total construction cost of the project was 350 million francs which was at the time more than any other building in Switzerland. The building and the club BSC Young Boys are both owned by businessman Hans-Ueli Rihs who together with his late brother Andy has financed Young Boys since taking ownership at the beginning of the millennium. The name arises from the fact that the Stade de Suisse ought to act as a National Stadium. As one of the few stadiums with artificial turf, however, national team matches are rarely held there. The artificial pitch allows Young Boys to hold daily training sessions in the same place as Young Boys doesn't have a training center. For UEFA Euro 2008, a natural grass field was laid as three group stage matches took place. The stadium is also the largest stadium-integrated solar power plant in the world. On the roof of the Stade de Suisse are enough solar cells to generate 700,000 kWh. This requires approximately 300,000 square meters of panels i.e. 30 hectares. The electricity powers the stadium and some houses around the Wankdorf area. The stadium is near a highway interchange and only a few minutes' drive from the main railway station in Bern and only a few minutes' walk from the Wankdorf station. There is a bus and tram stop located in front of the stadium."
]
} |
Lüshunkou District | null | Lüshunkou District (also Lyushunkou District; ) is a district of Dalian, in Liaoning province, China. Also formerly called Lüshun City () or literally Lüshun Port (), it was formerly known as both Port Arthur (; ) and Ryojun (). The district's area is and its permanent population is 324,773. | null | [
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"title": [
"Geography.",
"Earlier history.",
"Late-19th century colonial era.",
"Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905).",
"The Battle of Port Arthur.",
"After World War II.",
"Administrative divisions.",
"Today.",
"Old and new names of main facilities."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Central Dalian is some farther up the coast, sprawling around the narrowest neck of the Liaodong Peninsula (), whereas Lüshun occupies its southern tip. (See Landsat Map below Zoomed – Lüshun City surrounds the lake-like structure clearly visible near the peninsular tip—the lake-like feature is the inner natural harbour of the port, a very well-sheltered and fortifiable harbour to 19th century eyes.) Clearly seen on the map (above right) are the Liaodong Peninsula and its relation to Korea, the Yellow Sea () to its southeast, the Korea Bay () to its due east, and the Bohai Sea (or Gulf) () to its west. Beijing is almost directly (due west-northwest) across the Bo Hai Gulf from the port city.",
"Surrounded by ocean on three sides, this strategic seaport was originally known to the Chinese as Lüshun. It took its English name, Port Arthur, from a British Royal Navy Lieutenant named William C. Arthur who surveyed the harbor in the gunboat HMS \"Algerine\" in August 1860, during the Second Opium War. At that time Lüshun was an unfortified fishing village.",
"In the late 1880s, the German company Krupp was contracted by the Chinese government to build a series of fortifications around Port Arthur. Reportedly, this was after local contractors had \"made an extensive bungle of the job\". Port Arthur first came into international prominence during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). Following Japan's defeat of Chinese troops at Pyongyang in Korea in September 1894, the Japanese First and Second Armies converged on the Liaodong Peninsula by land and sea. Japanese war planners, ambitious for control of the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur and also cognizant of that port's strategic position controlling the northern Yellow Sea routes and the passage to Tianjin, were determined to seize it. Following only token resistance during the day and night of November 20–21, 1894, Japanese troops entered the city on the morning of November 21. Several Western newspaper correspondents present at the time related the widespread massacre of Chinese inhabitants of the city by the victorious Japanese troops, apparently in response to the murderous treatment the Chinese had shown Japanese prisoners of war at Pyongyang and elsewhere. Foremost among the correspondents was James Creelman of the \"New York World\". Though at least one American correspondent present completely contradicted Creelman's account, there is \"little doubt\" that the Japanese troops \"indiscriminately killed\" thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians, and the story of a Japanese massacre soon spread among the Western public, damaging Japan's public image and the movement in the United States to renegotiate the unequal treaties between that country and Japan. The event came to be known as the Port Arthur massacre. An account of a US sailor who visited the port in the weeks prior to the attack commented that the Chinese soldiers were \"ridiculous\". They lacked any semblance of military bearing, their dress was unkempt and untidy, and they wandered about the place with little in the way of direction or smartness associated with professional soldiers. He stated that at the time, the garrison numbered approximately 20,000 soldiers, but from his estimation, it should have had between 30,000 and 40,000 men stationed there. He opined that the Japanese could have taken the port with one third of its force, but that against disciplined soldiers, the place should have been impenetrable. Japan went on to occupy Port Arthur and to seize control of the whole Liaodong Peninsula as spoils of war. As part of the terms of the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki concluding the war, Japan was granted the Liaodong Peninsula but had to cede the territory when threatened jointly with war by France, Germany and Russia in what is called the Triple Intervention of 1895. This was seen as a great humiliation in Japan. Two years later, Russia coerced a lease of the Liaodong Peninsula from China and gained railroad right-of-way to join the Liaodong Peninsula to the Chinese Eastern Railway with a line running from Port Arthur and nearby Dalny (Dalian) to the Chinese city of Harbin (see Kwantung Leased Territory), and systematically began to fortify the town and harbor at Port Arthur. This railway from Port Arthur to Harbin became a southern branch of the Chinese Eastern Railway (not to be confused with the South Manchurian Railway, the name of a company that undertook its management during the later Japanese period after 1905). Tsar Nicholas II believed this acquisition of a Pacific port would enhance Russian security, and extend its economic influence. He was also falsely informed that the British were considering seizing the port. All this was an additional goad to an already seething Japan. It was a hard lesson in international geopolitics Japan would not soon forget. The Russian town of Dalny (Dalien/Dalian) was undeveloped in this era prior to 1898 when the Russian Tsar Nicholas II founded the town of Dalny (sometimes Dalney). In 1902, the Russian viceroy de-emphasized Dalny (building a palace and cultural edifices instead at Port Arthur), except as a commercial port while continuing the development of manufacturing.",
"Ten years later, Port Arthur again played a central role in war in China. After the Boxer Rebellion (1900–01) had been extinguished by an international coalition of troops, Russia refused to withdraw its reinforcements from Manchuria and instead began to fortify and garrison the entire route along the Southern Manchurian Railway. With this development, Japan proposed the two powers meet and discuss their respective roles in eastern Manchuria, as the area was considered being in their respective spheres of influence. Talks were conducted between 1902 and 1904. While numerous proposals and agreement papers were generated between the two powers, Russia continued the de facto annexation of territory through fortification and garrison, if not \"de jure\"; while employing stalling tactics in its negotiations. In the end, with over two years of intensive bilateral negotiations having gotten nowhere in clarifying each country's rights, prerogatives, and interests in inner Manchuria, Japan declared war on Russia in February 1904.",
"The Battle of Port Arthur, the opening battle of the Russo-Japanese War, was fought in the heavily fortified harbor of the town of Port Arthur/Lüshun on 9 February 1904 when the Japanese attacked at night with torpedoes, followed by a brief daylight skirmish by major surface combatants. By the end of July 1904, the Japanese army had pushed down the Liaodong peninsula and was at the outer defenses of Port Arthur. The fact that Japanese forces had closed to within artillery range of the harbor in early August 1904 led directly to the naval Battle of the Yellow Sea which solidified Japan's command of the sea, where her fleets continued to blockade the harbor. Virtually all the battles of the war until July 1904 were strategic battles for territorial gain or position leading to the investment and siege of the port city. The port eventually fell 2 January 1905 after a long train of battles on land and sea during which the Japanese occupied the whole of the Korean Peninsula, split the Russian Army, devastated the Russian Fleet, and cut off the source of supplies on the railway from Harbin, culminating in the bloody battle known as the Siege of Port Arthur (June–January; some sources place the siege start in late July, a technical difference due to definitions).",
"The Japanese-controlled Ryojun City had 40 districts. The Chinese Lüshun City was established on November 25, 1945 to replace Ryojun. The city was a subdivision of a larger Lüda City and contained 40 villages in 3 districts: Dazhong (), Wenhua (), and Guangming (). In January 1946, Wenhua was merged into Dazhong, and the 40 villages were reduced to 23 communes (). In January 1948, the remaining two districts were merged into one: Shinei (), with 12 communes. On January 7, 1960, Lüshun City was renamed Lüshunkou District, still under Lüda. In 1981, Lüda was renamed Dalian, with Lüshunkou remaining a constituent district. In 1985, 7 of Lüshunkou's 9 townships were upgraded to towns.",
"Lüshunkou District administers 9 subdistricts; all of the former towns were either abolished, merged or converted into subdistricts themselves.",
"The district's southern half along Lüshun South Road, central Lüshun and the Naval Port zone continue to be off-limits to foreigners, although Lüshunkou District is thoroughly modernized. World Peace Park opened on the western coast of Lüshun, on the Bohai Sea, and is a new sightseeing spot. North of the Park were established the Lüshun Development Zone, and Lüshun New Port (on Yangtou Bay) where the railroad ferry across the Yellow Sea to Yantai is being planned. The universities in downtown Dalian are being relocated to Lüshunkou. Dalian Jiaotong University (formerly Dalian Railroad University) moved its Software School to the area near the new port, and Dalian University of Foreign Languages and Dalian Medical University relocated their main campuses to the eastern slope of Baiying Mountain, on Lüshun South Road. Dalian Fisheries University is in the process of moving its English and Japanese language schools to Daheishi, on Lüshun North Road. From late 2006, Sinorail has operated Bohai Train Ferry between Lüshun, Dalian, and Yantai, Shandong.",
"The historic and modern names, translated into English, of landmark facilities in Lüshun are as follows: Source: \"Lüshun under Russian Rule\" (in Japanese; Lüshun Library, 1936), as quoted in \"Lüshun under Russian Rule\" (Abridged)\" in \"Journal Commemorating the 95th Anniversary of Lüshun Institute of Technology\" (in Japanese; Tokyo, 2006)."
]
} |
University of Bolton Stadium | null | The University of Bolton Stadium in Horwich, Greater Manchester, England, is the home ground of Bolton Wanderers F.C. Opening in 1997, it was named the Reebok Stadium, after club sponsors Reebok. In 2014, Bolton Wanderers signed a naming rights deal with Italian sportswear company Macron. It was renamed the University of Bolton Stadium in 2018. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2026214 | en-train-2026214 | 2026214 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Other events.",
"Rugby League.",
"Challenge Cup.",
"Bolton Wanderers Free School.",
"Attendances.",
"Record attendances.",
"Transport.",
"Nat Lofthouse Statue."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"University of Bolton Stadium is an all-seater stadium with a capacity of almost 29,000 and was completed in 1997, replacing the club's old ground, Burnden Park. Burnden Park, which at its peak had held up to 60,000 spectators, was becoming increasingly dilapidated by the 1980s, and a section of terracing was sold off for redevelopment as a supermarket to help pay off the club's rising debts. Bolton Wanderers had dropped into the Third Division in 1983 and later spent a season in the Fourth Division. In January 1990, the Taylor Report required all clubs in the first and second tiers of the English league to have an all-seater stadium by the 1994-95 season. Bolton were still in the Third Division at this stage, but were aiming for promotion - which was finally achieved in 1993. By this stage, the club's owners had decided to relocate to a new all-seater stadium away from Burnden Park, and by 1995 had identified a location at Horwich as the preferred site of a new stadium. The lead consultant/architect of the project was Lobb Sports, while local firm Bradshaw Gass & Hope acted as planning supervisors and quantity surveyors, the contractor was Birse Construction, and Deakin Callard & Partners provided structural engineering services. The value of the contract was £25 million (US$42.1 million). The stadium is noted for its distinct gabled architecture, first pioneered by the John Smith's Stadium. The stadium was opened in 1997 by John Prescott, a Labour Party politician who was the Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the time. The stadium consists of four stands: The Carrs Pasties (North) Stand at one end; the South Stand (Franking Sense and also the away end) at the other end; the West Stand at one side of the pitch; and the Nat Lofthouse (east) Stand at the other side. When the stadium was named after long-time team sponsor Reebok in 1997, fans considered the title impersonal and believed that too much emphasis was being placed on financial considerations. This opposition considerably lessened after the stadium was built, as fans grew accustomed to the name and were bolstered by Reebok's status as a local company. The Macron title was applied in July 2014 after the Bolton Wanderers club finalised a partnership with the large Italian sportswear brand. In April 2014, long-serving club chairman Phil Gartside stated that he was \"proud\" to be associated with Macron and had \"been very impressed with their [Macron's] passion for football\". A four-year duration was negotiated for the Macron deal and the club had the option to extend at completion. When the deal with Macron came to an end in August 2018 the stadium was again renamed, this time as the University of Bolton Stadium.",
"The stadium has hosted concerts by Oasis, Pink, Elton John, Coldplay, The Killers, Little Mix and Rod Stewart. The stadium also hosted the UK Open Darts Championship, boxing matches with local boxer Amir Khan and in 2011 Premiership rugby union, when Sale Sharks lost to London Irish. It will also host group matches and the quarter-final of the Rugby League World Cup in 2021. The venue's Premier Suite is home to the UK's leading amateur mixed martial arts event, Full Contact Contender. In August 2019, the stadium hosted a campaign rally by Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn.",
"The stadium has also hosted six rugby league matches.",
"In 2018, the stadium hosted the first ever double-header semi-finals of the Challenge Cup, repeated in 2019.",
"In 2014, the club established Bolton Wanderers Free School at the stadium. It was a sixth form centre offering sports and related courses for 16- to 19-year-olds, and utilised the facilities of the stadium for most of its teaching and learning. However, this closed in 2017 due to low pupil numbers which made it 'not financially viable'.",
"",
"Record attendance: 28,353 v Leicester City, 28 December 2003 Lowest attendance for a competitive match: 1,540 v Everton U23s, 30 August 2016 Football League Trophy, Northern Group Stage, Game One Lowest Premier League attendance: 17,014 v Derby County, 2 January 2008 Record UEFA Cup attendance: 26,163 v Atlético Madrid, 14 February 2008 Last 32 1st leg Record FA Cup attendance: 23,523 v Arsenal, 12 March 2005 quarter finals Record League Cup Attendance: 18,037 v Tottenham Hotspur, 27 October 2004 3rd round",
"The stadium's West Stand lies about 200 metres from Horwich Parkway railway station. The station lies between Lostock and Blackrod on the Manchester to Preston Line. Football specials operate to and from this station on matchdays. Bus services are laid on by the club from across the borough when the Wanderers are at home. On non-matchdays Horwich Parkway is served by three services an hour in each direction, operated by Northern or TransPennine Express. Numerous routes serve bus stops near or at the ground, operated by Arriva North West and First Greater Manchester.",
"Bolton Wanderers unveiled a bronze statue of their most famous player, Nat Lofthouse, prior to a game against Queens Park Rangers on 24 August 2013. The statue, which cost £100,000 due to the generosity of public donations and sponsors, is situated near to the south-west corner of the stadium and was officially revealed by club owner Eddie Davies in a special ceremony. Club chaplain Phil Mason, chairman Phil Gartside and the son of Nat Lofthouse – Jeff Lofthouse, also took part in the ceremony as did sculptor Sean Hedges-Quinn. Hedges-Quinn had taken 18 months overall to complete the project having worked successfully on the statues such as that of Bob Stokoe at The Stadium of Light, Ted Bates at St Mary's Stadium and Sir Bobby Robson and Alf Ramsey at Portman Road."
]
} |
Sibiu | null | Sibiu (,,, ) is a city in Transylvania, a historical region of Romania. Located some north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Cibin River, a tributary of the river Olt. Now the capital of the Sibiu County, between 1692 and 1791 and 1849–65 Sibiu was also the capital of the Principality of Transylvania. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2040441 | en-train-2040441 | 2040441 | {
"title": [
"Name.",
"History.",
"Geography.",
"Climate.",
"Tourism.",
"Main sights.",
"Culture.",
"Museums and parks.",
"Events.",
"European Cultural Capital.",
"Administration.",
"City districts.",
"Demographics.",
"Population by religious denomination.",
"Economy.",
"Transport.",
"Air.",
"Road.",
"Rail.",
"Cycling.",
"Health.",
"Education.",
"Sports.",
"International relations.",
"Twin towns.",
"Consulates."
],
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"content": [
"The Romanian name Sibiu derives from the city's Latin name of \"Cibinium\", which is also the source of the Cibin river's name. An archaic version of the name is \"Sibiiu\", while an obsolete folk name is \"Sâghii\", also spelled \"Sîghii\". In German, it is called \"Hermannstadt\" (\"Hermann's city\"), while in the local Transylvanian Saxon dialect, it is known as \"Härmeschtat\". Its Hungarian name is \"Nagyszeben\" (\"Big/Greater Sibiu\"), or colloquially, \"Szeben\". In Yiddish, it is called סעבען \"Seben\" or הערמאנשטאט \"Hermanshtat\". A number of other languages also have their own variants of the city's name, like Czech \"Sibiň\", Polish \"Sybin\", Serbo-Croatian \"Sibinj\" and the proposed Esperanto name of \"Sibio\".",
"Sibiu was initially a Daco-Roman city called \"Cedonia.\" The town was refounded by Saxon (German) settlers brought there by king Géza II of Hungary. They came from territories of the Holy Roman Empire and Kingdom of France (nowadays parts of Germany, France and the Benelux countries) and arrived at around 1147. The first references to the area were \"Cibinium\" and \"Cipin\" from 1191 when Pope Celestine III confirmed the existence of the free prepositure of the Saxons in Transylvania, having its headquarters in Sibiu. The city also used the names \"Prepositus Cibiniensis\" (1192-1196) and \"Prepositus Scibiniensis\" (1211). In 1223, it was renamed to \"Villa Hermanni\", either in honor of archbishop Hermann II of Cologne or after a man who is believed to have founded the city, Hermann of Nuremberg. The actual German name of \"Hermannstadt\" (\"Hermann's city\") dates from 1366, while an earlier form, \"Hermannsdorf\" (\"Hermann's village\") was recorded in 1321. In the 14th century, it was already an important trade centre. In 1376, the craftsmen were divided in 19 guilds. Sibiu became the most important ethnic German city among the seven cities that gave Transylvania its German name \"Siebenbürgen\" (literally \"seven citadels\"). It was home to the Universitas Saxorum (Community of the Saxons), a network of pedagogues, ministers, intellectuals, city officials, and councilmen of the German community forging an ordered legal corpus and political system in Transylvania since the 1400s. In 1699, after the Ottomans withdrew to their base of power in Hungary and Transylvania, the town became capital of Principality of Transylvania (since 1570 the principality was mostly under suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, however often had a dual vassalage). During the 18th and 19th centuries, the city became the second- and later the first-most important centre of Transylvanian Romanian ethnics. The first Romanian-owned bank had its headquarters here (The \"Albina\" Bank), as did the ASTRA (Transylvanian Association for Romanian Literature and Romanian's People Culture). After the Romanian Orthodox Church was granted status in the Austrian Empire from the 1860s onwards, Sibiu became the Metropolitan seat, and the city is still regarded as the third-most important centre of the Romanian Orthodox Church. Between the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and 1867 (the year of the \"Ausgleich\"), Sibiu was the meeting-place of the Transylvanian Diet, which had taken its most representative form after the Empire agreed to extend voting rights in the region. After World War I, when Austria-Hungary was dissolved, Sibiu became part of Romania; the majority of its population was still ethnic German (until 1941) and counted a large Romanian community, as well as a smaller Hungarian one. Starting from the 1950s and until after 1990, most of the city's ethnic Germans emigrated to Germany and Austria. Among the roughly 2,000 who have remained is Klaus Johannis, the President of Romania.",
"Sibiu is situated near the geographical center of Romania at. Set in the Cibin Depression, the city is about 20 km from the Făgăraș Mountains, 12 km from the Cibin Mountains, and about 15 km from the Lotru Mountains, which border the depression in its southwestern section. The northern and eastern limits of Sibiu are formed by the Târnavelor Plateau, which descends to the Cibin Valley through Gușteriței Hill. The Cibin river as well as some smaller streams runs through Sibiu. The geographical position of Sibiu makes it one of the most important transportation hubs in Romania with important roads and railway lines passing through it.",
"Sibiu's climate is humid continental (Köppen: \"Dfb\"), although considering the original isotherm, it borders a humid subtropical type (\"Cfa\"), with average temperatures of. The average rainfall is, and there are about 120 days of hard frost annually.",
"In 2007, Sibiu was the European Capital of Culture (together with Luxembourg). This was the most important cultural event that has ever happened in the city, and a great number of tourists came, both domestic and foreign. The city of Sibiu and its surroundings are one of the most visited areas in Romania. It holds one of the best preserved historical sites in the country, many of its medieval fortifications having been kept in excellent state. Its old center has begun the process for becoming a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004. Sibiu and its surrounding area have many significant museums, with 12 institutions housing art collections, paintings, and exhibits in decorative arts, archeology, anthropology, history, industrial archeology and history of technology and natural sciences. The city also lies close to the Făgăraș Mountains – a popular trekking destination, close to the Păltiniș and Arena Platos ski resorts – both winter holiday destinations, and it is at the heart of the former Saxon communities in Transylvania renowned for its fortified churches. Since 2007, a traditional Christmas market has been held in Sibiu. The first of its kind in Romania, it is inspired by Viennese Christmas markets, being a project developed by the Social Attaché of the Austrian Embassy in Romania, dr.h.c. Barbara Schöfnagel It was held in the \"Lesser Square\" (Piața Mică) with 38 small stalls, a small stage and an area dedicated to children, having several mechanical attractions installed there. Since 2008 the market is held in the \"Grand Square\" and grew to a number of about 70 stalls, a bigger stage was set up, where Christmas carols concerts are held. An ice skating rink and a children's workshop are also attractions which have been added in the following years. It was the first Christmas Market in Romania, but soon other Christmas markets emerged across the country. In 2013, the Sibiu Christmas markets was included in the \"15 Of the Most Beautiful Christmas Markets in Europe\" In 2019 Sibiu will host the European Gastronomical capital, by encouraging the local producers and local businesses in the field of food production and culinary culture, traditional gourmet workshops in the villages of the region, promoting peasant farms and gastronomic circuits, or developing public programs to support small producers in gastronomy and of the hospitality industry in the Sibiu region.",
"Much of the city's aspect is due to its position, easily defensible, but allowing horizontal development. The old city of Sibiu lies on the right bank of the Cibin River, on a hill situated at about 200 m from the river. It consists of two distinct entities: the \"Upper Town\" and the \"Lower Town\". Traditionally, the Upper Town was the wealthier part and commercial outlet, while the Lower Town served as the manufacturing area. The Lower Town (German: \"Unterstadt\", Romanian: \"Orașul de jos\") comprises the area between the river and the hill, and it developed around the earliest fortifications. The streets are long and quite wide for medieval city standards, with small city squares at places. The architecture is rather rustic: typically two-storey houses with tall roofs and gates opening passages to inner courts. Most of the exterior fortifications were lost to industrial development and modern urban planning in the mid-late 19th century; only four towers still exist. A building associated with newer urbanism of the period is the \"Independența\" Highschool. This area has the oldest church in the city – in fact the first mention of the city itself is the reconfirmation of the local provostship as \"praepositum Cibiniensem\" – that was the religious center of the Saxons until the 15th century. Whilst the Church between the Fir trees dates back to 1778. The Upper Town (German: \"Oberstadt\", Romanian: \"Orașul de sus\") is organised around three city squares and a set of streets along the line of the hill. As the main area for burgher activities, the area contains most points of interest in the city. Grand Square (German: \"Großer Ring\", Romanian: \"Piața Mare\" ) is, as its name suggests, the largest square of the city, and has been the center of the city since the 15th century. At 142 meters long and 93 meters wide, it is one of the largest ones in Transylvania. Brukenthal Palace, one of the most important Baroque monuments in Romania, lies on the north-western corner of the square. It was erected between 1777 and 1787 as the main residence for the Governor of Transylvania Samuel von Brukenthal. It houses the main part of the \"National Brukenthal Museum\", opened in 1817, making it one of the oldest museums in the world. Next to the palace is the \"Blue House\" or \"Moringer House\", an 18th-century Baroque house bearing the old coat of arms of Sibiu on its façade. On the north side is the Jesuit Church, along with its dependencies, the former residence of the Jesuits in Sibiu. Also on the north side, at the beginning of the 20th century an \"Art Nouveau\" building was constructed on the west part, now it houses the mayor's office. Next to the Jesuit Church on the north side is the Council Tower, the city's symbol. This former fortification tower from the 13th century has been successively rebuilt over the years. The building nearby used to be the City Council's meeting place; beneath it lies an access way between the \"Grand Square\" and the \"Lesser Square\". On the south and east sides are two- or three-storey houses, having tall attics with small windows known as the \"city's eyes\". Most of these houses are dated 15th to 19th centuries, and most of them are Renaissance or Baroque in style. Lesser Square (\"Small Square\", German: \"Kleiner Ring\") as its name implies, is a smaller square situated in the northern part of the Upper Town. After the 2007 rehabilitation there has been an increase in the number of small businesses such as pubs and restaurants in this area. The square is connected to the other two squares and to other streets by small, narrow passages. The main access from the Lower City is through Ocnei Street, which divides the square in two. The street passes under the Bridge of Lies – the first bridge in Romania to have been cast in iron (1859). To the right of the bridge is another symbol of the city, \"The House of the Arts\", a 14th-century arched building formerly belonging to the Butchers' Guild. On the left side of the bridge is the \"Luxemburg House\", a Baroque four-storey building. Huet Square is the third of the three main squares of Sibiu. Its most notable feature is the Evangelical Lutheran Cathedral in its center. It is the place where the earliest fortifications have been built in the late 12th century or early 13th century. The buildings around this square are mainly Gothic. On the west side lies the Brukenthal Highschool, in place of a former 14th-century school. The Fortifications of Sibiu made the city one of the most important fortified cities in Central Europe. Multiple rings were built around the city, most of them out of clay bricks. The south-eastern fortifications are the best kept, and all three parallel lines are still visible. The first is an exterior earth mound, the second is a 10-meter-tall red brick wall, and the third line comprises towers linked by another 10-meter-tall wall. All structures are connected via a labyrinth of tunnels and passageways, designed to ensure transport between the city and lines of defense. In the 16th century more modern elements were added to the fortifications, mainly leaf-shaped bastions. Two of these survived to this day, as the \"Haller Bastion\" (all the way down Coposu Boulevard) and \"Soldisch Bastion\". The Passage of the Stairs, leads down to the lower section of Sibiu. It descends along some fortifications under the support arches. It is one of several passages linking the two sides of the old city.",
"Sibiu is one of Romania's most culturally lively cities. It has 2 theatres and a philharmonic orchestra along with other smaller private theatrical venues and a theatre studio housed by the Performing Arts and Acting section of Lucian Blaga University, where students hold monthly representations. The Radu Stanca National Theatre is one of the leading Romanian theatres. With origins dating back to 1787, it attracts some of the best-known Romanian directors, such as Gábor Tompa and Silviu Purcărete. It has both a Romanian-language and a German-language section, and presents an average of five shows a week. The Gong Theatre is specialised in puppetry, mime and non-conventional shows for children and teenagers. It also presents shows in both Romanian and German. The State Philharmonic of Sibiu presents weekly classical music concerts, and educational concerts for children and teenagers. The concerts take place in the newly restored Thalia Hall, a concert and theatre hall dating from 1787, situated along the old city fortifications. Weekly organ concerts are organised at the Evangelical Cathedral during summers, and thematic concerts are presented by the Faculty of Theology choir at the Orthodox Cathedral. The Sibiu International Theatre Festival is an annual festival of performing arts. Since 2016, it is the largest performance arts festival in the world.",
"Sibiu's museums are organised around two entities: the Brukenthal National Museum and the ASTRA National Museum Complex. The Brukenthal Museum consists of an Art Gallery and an Old Books Library located inside the Brukenthal Palace, a History Museum located in the old town hall building, a Pharmacy Museum located in one of the first apothecary shops in Europe, dating from the 16th century, a Natural History Museum and a Museum of Arms and Hunting Trophies. The ASTRA National Museum Complex focuses on ethnography, and consists of a Traditional Folk Civilisation Museum, a 96-hectare open-air museum located in Dumbrava Forest south of Sibiu, a Universal Ethnography Museum, a Museum of Transylvanian Civilisation and a Museum of Saxon Ethnography and Folk Art. Also planned is a Museum of the Culture and Civilisation of the Romany People. The Dumbrava Sibiului Natural Park stretches over 960 hectares and it is situated 4 km away from the center of the city in the southwest direction along the road towards Răşinari. Also, here you can find the Zoological Garden and Ethnography Museum. There is a Steam Locomotives Museum close to the railway station, sheltering around 40 locomotives, two of which are functional. The first park in the city was The Promenade, later called \"The Disabled Promenade.\" established in 1791, today part of Parcul Cetății (Citadel Park). Current arrangement of the park, including the space between the walls, dates from 1928. The Sub Arini Park, established between 1857 and 1859 based on plans of military engineer Michael Seyfried, is one of the biggest and best-maintained parks in Romania. There are other green spaces in the city center, the best known being Astra Park, established in 1879. Other parks: Tineretului Park, Reconstrucției Park, Corneliu Coposu Park, Petöfi Sándor Park, Piața Cluj Park, Ștrand Park, Cristianului Park, Țițeica Park, Vasile Aaron Park, Lira Park. The distribution of green space is good compared to other Romanian cities.",
"Several festivals are organised yearly in Sibiu, the most prestigious of them being the Sibiu International Theatre Festival, organized each spring at the end of May. Medieval Festival organized every year in August, reviving the medieval spirit of Transylvania. The Artmania Festival is held every Summer since 2006 and as of 2008 the Rockin' Transilvania Festival is also held in Sibiu. The oldest Jazz Festival in Romania is organized here, as well as the \"Carl Filtsch\" festival for young classical piano players, the \"Astra Film\" documentary film festival, the Transylvania calling Festival a Multi Cultural 6 day Open Air Music festival! 26–31 July 2007, a medieval arts festival and many more smaller cultural events. Feeric Fashion Week is also hosted here. Sibiu was awarded by IGCAT (International Institute of Gastronomy, Culture, Arts and Tourism) to be part of the European Regions of Gastronomy program, event that will promote in 2019 the region's culinary heritage, multi-ethnic traditions and multi-cultural community.",
"The designation as a European Cultural Capital for 2007, owed greatly to the excellent collaboration with Luxembourg, but also to what many regard as a miraculous social rebirth taking place in the city during the last years. The Cultural Capital status was expected to bring about an abrupt increase in quantity and quality of cultural events in 2007.",
"The city government is headed by a mayor. Since 2014, the office is held by Astrid Fodor from the Democratic Forum of Germans in Romania (FDGR), who replaced Klaus Iohannis, the latter having become the 5th president of Romania. Iohannis, a Transylvanian Saxon, was mayor from 2000 to 2014, despite ethnic Germans nowadays making up less than 2% of Sibiu's population. Decisions are approved and discussed by the local government (\"consiliu local\") made up of 27 elected councillors. Sibiu is the capital of the Sibiu County.",
"Sibiu is divided into the following districts: Some of them were villages annexed by the city as it grew, others were built as the city developed and increased its surface. The ASTRA National Museum Complex and the Zoo, located in the south, also fall within city limits. The Păltiniș ski resort, located 35 kilometres to the south, is also administered by Sibiu.",
"As of 2011 census data, Sibiu has a population of 147,245, a decrease from the figure recorded at the 2002 census, making it the 14th-largest city in Romania. The ethnic breakdown was as follows: A 2017 estimate placed the population at 169,316, a 14.98 percent increase since 2011. This increase brings Sibiu's population close to the numbers observed in 1992 when the highest population was recorded.",
"Today, most of the population is Romanian Orthodox. Protestants and Roman Catholics represent about 5% of the population.",
"Sibiu is an important economic hub for Romania, with a high rate of foreign investments. It is also an important hub for the manufacturing of automotive components and houses factories belonging to ThyssenKrupp Bilstein-Compa, Takata Corporation, Continental Automotive Systems, Marquardt Group and NTN-SNR ball bearings. Other local industries are machine components, textiles, agro-industry, and electrical components (Siemens). The city also contains Romania's second-largest stock exchange, the Sibiu Stock Exchange which is set to merge with the Bucharest Stock Exchange in 2018. The main industrial activities of Sibiu take place in two industrial zones located on the outskirts of the city: A commercial zone located in the Șelimbăr commune plays an important role in the economy of Sibiu. It houses a mall and other large retailers. Another factor that plays an important role in the economy of the city is tourism, which has been increasing at a steady rate since 2007.",
"Sibiu is well served in terms of transport and infrastructure. In 2010 a city bypass was opened, significantly reducing the road traffic inside the city. Tursib is the city's internal transportation system operator.",
"Sibiu International Airport is one of the most modern international airports in Romania, with direct connections to Germany, Austria, United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, France, Belgium, Denmark, Switzerland, and Israel.",
"Sibiu is an important node in the European road network, being on two different European routes (E68 and E81). At a national level, Sibiu is located on three different main national roads, DN1, DN7 and DN14. The Romanian Motorway A1 will link the city with Pitești and the Romanian western border, near Arad. From the remaining 332 km of motorway towards the border with Hungary Nadlac, a total of 276 km is completed and the last 56 km are currently under construction, while the timeline for the segment towards Pitești is targeted for completion for the year 2025 (construction will start no sooner than 2019). Sibiu' s ring road as part of A1 motorway was completed on 1 December 2010. Sibiu is also an important hub for the international bus links with the biggest passenger transporter in Romania, Atlassib, based here. Transport companies are also providing coach connections from Sibiu to a large number of locations in Romania.",
"Sibiu is situated on the CFR-Romanian Railways Main Line 200 (Brasov – Făgăraș – Sibiu – Simeria – Arad – Romanian Western Border) and on Line 206 (Sibiu – Mediaș). The city is served by five rail stations: the Main Station (Gara Mare), the Little Station (\"Gara Micǎ\"), Turnișor, Sibiu Triaj, Halta Ateliere Zonă. It has an important diesel-powered locomotives depot and a freight terminal. Numerous Inter City trains (nicknamed Blue Arrows) connect Sibiu to other major cities in Romania: Cluj-Napoca, Brașov, Craiova, Timișoara and Bucharest.",
"Over the last six years, Sibiu has enjoyed a revival of cycling. The bicycle way in the city span for 43 kilometers. Bicycle rentals have offered a boost for the local economy with several small rental centers and a bigger rental center that is administered by the I'Velo Bike Sharing group.",
"Sibiu is one of the important medical centers of Romania, housing many important medical facilities: The city also houses one of the largest private hospitals in the country, Polisano.",
"Sibiu is an important centre of higher education, with over 23,000 students in four public and private higher institutions. The Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu was founded in 1990, with five faculties: Engineering and Sciences; Language Sciences; History and Law; Medicine; Food and Textile Processing Technology. Nowadays, there are 10 faculties and departments. Sibiu also houses the Nicolae Bălcescu Land Forces Academy and the Military Foreign Language Center as well as two private universities, \"Romanian-German University\" and \"Alma Mater University\". In Sibiu there are 20 educational institutions on the secondary level, the most important of which are:",
"The city houses a football stadium, a multi-functional arena building (Sala Transilvania), a rugby court, a municipal pool and several private tennis courts. Also, several sports international competitions are taking place every year: Sibiu Cycling Tour (in July), Red Bull Romaniacs Hard Enduro Rallye (around July), Sibiu Open (formerly held in September), Sibiu Rally (currently held in October). Football Sibiu has had a long football tradition, starting in 1913 with the founding of Șoimii Sibiu, which was the launchpad of Ilie Oană's career, who later became a star of FC Petrolul Ploiești. Later came Societatea Gimnastică Sibiu, a sport club of Sibiu's Transylvanian Saxon community, which's best performance was reaching the Divizia A final in the 1930-31 season. The best ever football team from Sibiu, based on performances, was Inter Sibiu, which had finished 4th after the 1990-91 season and had won the Balkans Cup during the same season. During the 21st century, the city has been represented by FC Sibiu and Voința Sibiu (of which only the latter has reached Liga I). Currently, FC Hermannstadt is the only major football team representing Sibiu. Basketball CSU Sibiu, one of the best Romanian basketball teams at the moment, represents Sibiu in the top tier of Romanian basketball, Liga Națională. Handball The city's handball team is called CSM Sibiu. Additionally, the nearby town of Cisnădie has a women's team in the first league, CS Măgura. Rugby Volleyball Speed Skating",
"",
"Sibiu has twinning agreements with:",
"The following countries have consulates in Sibiu:"
]
} |
Parallel (geometry) | null | In geometry, parallel lines are lines in a plane which do not meet; that is, two straight lines in a plane that do not intersect at any point are said to be parallel. Colloquially, curves that do not touch each other or intersect and keep a fixed minimum distance are said to be parallel. A line and a plane, or two planes, in three-dimensional Euclidean space that do not share a point are also said to be parallel. However, two lines in three-dimensional space which do not meet must be in a common plane to be considered parallel; otherwise they are called skew lines. Parallel planes are planes in the same three-dimensional space that never meet. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2318592 | en-train-2318592 | 2318592 | {
"title": [
"Symbol.",
"Euclidean parallelism.",
"Two lines in a plane.",
"Conditions for parallelism.",
"History.",
"Construction.",
"Distance between two parallel lines.",
"Two lines in three-dimensional space.",
"A line and a plane.",
"Two planes.",
"Extension to non-Euclidean geometry.",
"Hyperbolic geometry.",
"Spherical or elliptic geometry.",
"Reflexive variant."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The parallel symbol is formula_1. For example, formula_2 indicates that line \"AB\" is parallel to line \"CD\". In the Unicode character set, the \"parallel\" and \"not parallel\" signs have codepoints U+2225 (∥) and U+2226 (∦), respectively. In addition, U+22D5 (⋕) represents the relation \"equal and parallel to\".",
"",
"",
"Given parallel straight lines \"l\" and \"m\" in Euclidean space, the following properties are equivalent: Since these are equivalent properties, any one of them could be taken as the definition of parallel lines in Euclidean space, but the first and third properties involve measurement, and so, are \"more complicated\" than the second. Thus, the second property is the one usually chosen as the defining property of parallel lines in Euclidean geometry. The other properties are then consequences of Euclid's Parallel Postulate. Another property that also involves measurement is that lines parallel to each other have the same gradient (slope).",
"The definition of parallel lines as a pair of straight lines in a plane which do not meet appears as Definition 23 in Book I of Euclid's Elements. Alternative definitions were discussed by other Greeks, often as part of an attempt to prove the parallel postulate. Proclus attributes a definition of parallel lines as equidistant lines to Posidonius and quotes Geminus in a similar vein. Simplicius also mentions Posidonius' definition as well as its modification by the philosopher Aganis. At the end of the nineteenth century, in England, Euclid's Elements was still the standard textbook in secondary schools. The traditional treatment of geometry was being pressured to change by the new developments in projective geometry and non-Euclidean geometry, so several new textbooks for the teaching of geometry were written at this time. A major difference between these reform texts, both between themselves and between them and Euclid, is the treatment of parallel lines. These reform texts were not without their critics and one of them, Charles Dodgson (a.k.a. Lewis Carroll), wrote a play, \"Euclid and His Modern Rivals\", in which these texts are lambasted. One of the early reform textbooks was James Maurice Wilson's \"Elementary Geometry\" of 1868. Wilson based his definition of parallel lines on the primitive notion of \"direction\". According to Wilhelm Killing the idea may be traced back to Leibniz. Wilson, without defining direction since it is a primitive, uses the term in other definitions such as his sixth definition, \"Two straight lines that meet one another have different directions, and the difference of their directions is the \"angle\" between them.\" In definition 15 he introduces parallel lines in this way; \"Straight lines which have the \"same direction\", but are not parts of the same straight line, are called \"parallel lines\".\" Augustus De Morgan reviewed this text and declared it a failure, primarily on the basis of this definition and the way Wilson used it to prove things about parallel lines. Dodgson also devotes a large section of his play (Act II, Scene VI § 1) to denouncing Wilson's treatment of parallels. Wilson edited this concept out of the third and higher editions of his text. Other properties, proposed by other reformers, used as replacements for the definition of parallel lines, did not fare much better. The main difficulty, as pointed out by Dodgson, was that to use them in this way required additional axioms to be added to the system. The equidistant line definition of Posidonius, expounded by Francis Cuthbertson in his 1874 text \"Euclidean Geometry\" suffers from the problem that the points that are found at a fixed given distance on one side of a straight line must be shown to form a straight line. This can not be proved and must be assumed to be true. The corresponding angles formed by a transversal property, used by W. D. Cooley in his 1860 text, \"The Elements of Geometry, simplified and explained\" requires a proof of the fact that if one transversal meets a pair of lines in congruent corresponding angles then all transversals must do so. Again, a new axiom is needed to justify this statement.",
"The three properties above lead to three different methods of construction of parallel lines.",
"Because parallel lines in a Euclidean plane are equidistant there is a unique distance between the two parallel lines. Given the equations of two non-vertical, non-horizontal parallel lines, the distance between the two lines can be found by locating two points (one on each line) that lie on a common perpendicular to the parallel lines and calculating the distance between them. Since the lines have slope \"m\", a common perpendicular would have slope −1/\"m\" and we can take the line with equation \"y\" = −\"x\"/\"m\" as a common perpendicular. Solve the linear systems and to get the coordinates of the points. The solutions to the linear systems are the points and These formulas still give the correct point coordinates even if the parallel lines are horizontal (i.e., \"m\" = 0). The distance between the points is which reduces to When the lines are given by the general form of the equation of a line (horizontal and vertical lines are included): their distance can be expressed as",
"Two lines in the same three-dimensional space that do not intersect need not be parallel. Only if they are in a common plane are they called parallel; otherwise they are called skew lines. Two distinct lines \"l\" and \"m\" in three-dimensional space are parallel if and only if the distance from a point \"P\" on line \"m\" to the nearest point on line \"l\" is independent of the location of \"P\" on line \"m\". This never holds for skew lines.",
"A line \"m\" and a plane \"q\" in three-dimensional space, the line not lying in that plane, are parallel if and only if they do not intersect. Equivalently, they are parallel if and only if the distance from a point \"P\" on line \"m\" to the nearest point in plane \"q\" is independent of the location of \"P\" on line \"m\".",
"Similar to the fact that parallel lines must be located in the same plane, parallel planes must be situated in the same three-dimensional space and contain no point in common. Two distinct planes \"q\" and \"r\" are parallel if and only if the distance from a point \"P\" in plane \"q\" to the nearest point in plane \"r\" is independent of the location of \"P\" in plane \"q\". This will never hold if the two planes are not in the same three-dimensional space.",
"In non-Euclidean geometry, it is more common to talk about geodesics than (straight) lines. A geodesic is the shortest path between two points in a given geometry. In physics this may be interpreted as the path that a particle follows if no force is applied to it. In non-Euclidean geometry (elliptic or hyperbolic geometry) the three Euclidean properties mentioned above are not equivalent and only the second one,(Line m is in the same plane as line l but does not intersect l ) since it involves no measurements is useful in non-Euclidean geometries. In general geometry the three properties above give three different types of curves, equidistant curves, parallel geodesics and geodesics sharing a common perpendicular, respectively.",
"While in Euclidean geometry two geodesics can either intersect or be parallel, in hyperbolic geometry, there are three possibilities. Two geodesics belonging to the same plane can either be: In the literature \"ultra parallel\" geodesics are often called \"non-intersecting\". \"Geodesics intersecting at infinity\" are called \"limiting parallel\". As in the illustration through a point \"a\" not on line \"l\" there are two limiting parallel lines, one for each direction ideal point of line l. They separate the lines intersecting line l and those that are ultra parallel to line \"l\". Ultra parallel lines have single common perpendicular (ultraparallel theorem), and diverge on both sides of this common perpendicular.",
"In spherical geometry, all geodesics are great circles. Great circles divide the sphere in two equal hemispheres and all great circles intersect each other. Thus, there are no parallel geodesics to a given geodesic, as all geodesics intersect. Equidistant curves on the sphere are called parallels of latitude analogous to the latitude lines on a globe. Parallels of latitude can be generated by the intersection of the sphere with a plane parallel to a plane through the center of the sphere.",
"If \"l, m, n\" are three distinct lines, then formula_14 In this case, parallelism is a transitive relation. However, in case \"l\" = \"n\", the superimposed lines are \"not\" considered parallel in Euclidean geometry. The binary relation between parallel lines is evidently a symmetric relation. According to Euclid's tenets, parallelism is \"not\" a reflexive relation and thus \"fails\" to be an equivalence relation. Nevertheless, in affine geometry a pencil of parallel lines is taken as an equivalence class in the set of lines where parallelism is an equivalence relation. To this end, Emil Artin (1957) adopted a definition of parallelism where two lines are parallel if they have all or none of their points in common. Then a line \"is\" parallel to itself so that the reflexive and transitive properties belong to this type of parallelism, creating an equivalence relation on the set of lines. In the study of incidence geometry, this variant of parallelism is used in the affine plane."
]
} |
(You Drive Me) Crazy | null | "(You Drive Me) Crazy" is a pop song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her debut studio album, "...Baby One More Time" (1999). Written and produced by Max Martin, Per Magnusson and David Kreuger with additional writing by Jörgen Elofsson and remix by Martin and Rami Yacoub, it was released as the album's third single on August 21, 1999 by Jive Records. It was featured on the soundtrack of the 1999 teen romantic comedy film "Drive Me Crazy". The song garnered positive reviews from music critics, some of whom praised its simple formula and noted similarities to Spears' debut single, "...Baby One More Time". | null | [
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"title": [
"Background.",
"Composition.",
"Critical reception.",
"Chart performance.",
"Music video.",
"Live performances and covers.",
"Credits and personnel."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Before recording her debut album, Spears had originally envisioned it in style of \"Sheryl Crow music, but younger [and] more adult contemporary\". However, the singer agreed with her label's appointment of producers, who had the objective to target a teenage audience at the time. She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden, where half of the album was recorded in May 1998, with producers Max Martin, Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub, among others. \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" was written by Jörgen Elofsson, while song production and additional songwriting was done by Martin, Per Magnusson and David Kreuger. Spears recorded the vocals for the song in March 1998, at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. It was also mixed at Cheiron Studios by Martin. Esbjörn Öhrwall and Johan Carlberg played the guitar, while bass guitar was done by Thomas Lindberg. Keyboards and programming was done by Kreuger, and additional keyboards by Magnusson. Background vocals were provided by Jeanette Söderholm, Martin, Yacoub and THE FANCHOIR, formed by Chatrin Nyström, Jeanette Stenhammar, Johanna Stenhammar, Charlotte Björkman and Therese Ancker. In May 1999, Martin and Spears went to the Battery Studios in New York City, New York, to re-record the vocals of the track, due to the fact that a remixed version called \"The Stop! Remix\" was going to be included on the original motion picture soundtrack of the film \"Drive Me Crazy\" (1999). \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" was released as a remix package as the third single from \"...Baby One More Time\" on August 23, 1999.",
"\"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" is a pop song. The song's composition follows a simple formula and infuses drums, guitar, and edgy synthesized instruments, including a recurring cowbell, and having a roughly similar sound to Spears' debut single \"...Baby One More Time\" (1999). According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" is composed in the key of C minor and runs through a moderately slow dance beat infused metronome of 101 beats per minute. Spears' vocals were deemed as heavily processed when compared to the ones of her previous single, \"Sometimes\". Her vocal range spans over an octave, from the low-key of G to the high-note of D. The song's primary chord progression is Cm–A-G (vi-IV-III), with a few deviations.",
"The song garnered positive reviews from music critics. Kyle Anderson for MTV considered \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" as \"a similar-sounding anthem [to '...Baby One More Time'] with some streamlined rock guitar taking center stage (there's even a solo). It's catchy enough\". Spence D. of IGN considered \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" a \"[Max] Martin's glossy grown-up pop\" song, while Caryn Ganz of \"Rolling Stone\" called \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" a \"further hit\" from \"...Baby One More Time\", along with \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" and \"Sometimes\". Music critic Walt Mueller wrote \"When Spears starts to sing on this one, she sounds a lot like Janet Jackson\". Christy Lemire of the Associated Press noted that the song and \"Stronger\" are \"so lamely feel-good\" tracks that they \"could have been the theme song to a 'Karate Kid' sequel\". Evan Sawdey of \"PopMatters\" called it a \"lightly dorky\" song, and Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic deemed it as a \"fluffy dance-pop at its best\". In a list compiled by Sara Anderson of AOL Radio, \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" was ranked ninth in a list of Spears' best songs. During the 2001 BMI Pop Awards, \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" was honored with the award of Most Performed BMI Song. While reviewing \"...Baby One More Time\" on its 20th anniversary, \"Billboard\"s Chuck Arnold felt that \"sparkling with the Midas touch of Max Martin, 'Crazy' perfectly captures the crazy giddiness of young love -- the kind that keeps you up all night\". The staff from \"Entertainment Weekly\" placed it at number 22 on their ranking of Spears's songs and wrote: \"highlighted by her overpronunciation of “you”, bell rings, and a backup choir that turns the chorus into a massive singalong. ['(You Drive Me) Crazy'] captures Spears at full force, with a robust vocal performance and an ab-emphasizing choreographed dance, remembered best through its music video\". \"Bustle\"s Alex Kritelis Reilly preferred the Stop! remix over the original album version. Nayer Nissim, from \"Pink News\", deemed it \"another perfect bit of late '90s pop. Very nearly as catchy as her debut\". Shannon Barbour from \"Cosmopolitan\" opined that it was \"not her best song, but it's insanely addictive\". Nicholas Hautman, from \"Us Weekly\", deemed it the singer's ninth greatest single and said: \"This quasi-dorky dance track can be easily summed up using just three words: pure ear candy\". For Digital Spy's Alim Kheraj the most notable thing was the song's prominent use of cowbells; \"backed up by rock guitars and flawless Max Martin production, Britney sounds confident, her vocals clear and powerful\". On 2019, the staff of \"Billboard\" ranked the \"Stop! Remix\" as the 39th greatest song of 1999; Nolan Feeney said that although it was \"hardly unrecognizable\", Spears' re-recorded vocals, the song's new intro and \"her headline 'Stop!' interjection in the reimagined bridge made it something truly worth losing your mind over\".",
"\"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" was a commercial success. The song peaked at number two on the European Hot 100 Singles, being held off the top spot by R. Kelly's \"If I Could Turn Back the Hands of Time\". In the United Kingdom, it was Spears' third consecutive single to reach a top five position. The track debuted and peaked at number five on the chart issue dated October 2, 1999, and stayed on the chart for a total of eleven weeks. It was eventually certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), for shipments over 200,000 units. According to the Official Charts Company, \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" is Spears' seventh best-selling single in the United Kingdom, with sales over 275,000 physical units. The song peaked at number two in France and number four in Germany, being certified Gold in both countries for shipping over 250,000 units. It also peaked at number one in Belgium (Wallonia), finishing the year of 1999 as the 17th best-selling single. \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" was also able to peak inside the top five in Belgium (Flanders), Finland, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland, while reaching top ten positions in Denmark and Italy. Later in 2012, the song managed to peak at number 65 in Czech Republic due to high airplay. In the United States, \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" peaked at number ten on \"Billboard\" Hot 100 on the chart issue dated November 13, 1999, and became Spears' second single to peak inside the top ten in the country. On the same week, it peaked at number four on the Pop Songs component chart. On the chart compiled by \"RPM\" magazine, the song peaked at number three in Canada. However, on the Canadian Hot 100 compiled by Nielsen Soundscan, it peaked at number 13. The latter revealed that \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" was the 44th best-selling single of 1999 in the country. The track peaked at number five in New Zealand, but failed to reach the top ten in Australia, where it peaked at number 12 on the chart issue dated November 12, 1999. However, the single was later certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and was one of the best-selling singles of 2000 in the country. \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" performed poorly in Japan, where it peaked at number 80, and stayed on the chart for two weeks only. Despite the low sales, it is Spears' 12th best-selling CD release in the country.",
"The song's accompanying music video (which uses the Stop! Remix) was directed by Nigel Dick and filmed on June 14 and 15, 1999 at the AES Power Station in Redondo Beach, California. Spears conceptualized the video's treatment, and explained during an interview with MTV in 1999 that \"it would be cool to be in a club, and we're dorky waitresses, and we break out and start dancing.\" At the time, Spears expected that the video would take her \"to the next level\". To promote the film \"Drive Me Crazy\", actors Adrian Grenier and Melissa Joan Hart were invited to make cameo appearances in the video, since the song had been included on the film's soundtrack, however, Grenier did not want to participate. Dick commented on the issue, saying, \"I was given instructions to ring him up and make sure he appeared in the video. I said, 'You know what, Adrian, I just think it would be great for your career, and Britney's a great girl and she's fun to work with.' Eventually he came around.\" Dick also revealed that he was impressed by the singer's work ethic, adding that she \"came to the set completely rehearsed.\" The music video premiered on MTV's \"Making the Video\" special that aired on July 18, 1999. Due to Hart's appearance in the music video, parts of it were featured in the credits of the Season 4 premiere of \"Sabrina the Teenage Witch\", an episode that guest starred Spears. The video opens with Spears as a waitress of a dance club. She then goes with other waitresses to their dressing room, where they finish their make-up and change costumes. Spears, now wearing a green sparkly outfit, goes through the corridor to the dance floor with her friends, and starts to perform a high-profile choreography, including a chair dance sequence referencing Janet Jackson's \"Miss You Much\" video, which Spears also referenced in live performances of the song on the \"Crazy 2K Tour\". Scenes of Spears singing in front of a shining orange sign with the word \"CRAZY\" are also seen throughout the video. On August 24, 1999, the music video debuted at number four on \"Total Request Live\". It is the longest running by a female artist on \"TRL\", staying on the top ten for seventy-three days. The video was nominated on the category of Best Dance Video on the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards; it lost, however, to Jennifer Lopez's \"Waiting for Tonight\" (1999). An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears first compilation album \"\" (2004). Jennifer Vineyard of MTV commented, \"the alternate audio gives the feel of Spears singing the song as a round, where the beat is in sync but one layer of her vocals is just slightly ahead of the other.\"",
"Britney performed the song for the very first time at her \"The Hair Zone Mall Tour\" (promotional mini tour) in New York City, USA on July 1, 1998. As part of promotion for \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\"s release as a single, Spears performed it at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards and at the 1999 Billboard Music Awards. It was also performed on five concert tours, the first being the...Baby One More Time Tour (1999). The show began with a dance introduction by Spears' dancers among smoke effects. She appeared shortly after at the top of the staircase wearing a hot pink vinyl tube top and white vinyl pants with pink knee patches. During the 2000 leg of the tour, entitled Crazy 2k Tour, Spears changed the opening sequence of the show; the show started with a skit in which the dancers came out of lockers and stayed in the stage until a bell rang. They all sat until a female teacher voice started calling their names. After the teacher called Spears, she emerged at the top of the staircase in a cloud of smoke, wearing a top and white stretch pants, to perform a short dance mix of \"...Baby One More Time\". She then entered one of the lockers and appeared in another one on the opposite side of the stage to perform \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\", which included a chair dance sequence referencing Janet Jackson's \"Miss You Much\" music video that ended with Spears saying \"Is that the end?\", quoting Jackson's phrase from the video. The song was once again performed in a dance-oriented form on the Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour (2000), while in 2001's Dream Within a Dream Tour, the performance featured Spears being captured by her dancers. \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" was also performed on The Onyx Hotel Tour (2004). For the tour, the song was remixed with elements of latin percussion. \"Crazy\" would not be performed by Spears for another nine years until it was included on the setlist of her Las Vegas residency show. In 2002, British nu metal band SugarComa covered \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" and included it on their album \"Becoming Something Else\", American musician Richard Cheese also covered the song in 2003 and included it on his album \"Tuxicity\". American pop band Selena Gomez & the Scene performed a homage to Spears during their 2011 We Own the Night Tour. They performed \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" along with a medley of hits that included \"...Baby One More Time\", \"Oops!... I Did It Again\", \"I'm a Slave 4 U\", \"Toxic\" and \"Hold It Against Me\", mixed similar to the Chris Cox Megamix included in \"Greatest Hits: My Prerogative\". In the 2012 \"Glee\" episode \"Britney 2.0\", the characters of Marley Rose and Jake Puckerman performed a medley of the track with Aerosmith's \"Crazy\" (1993).",
"Credits for \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\" are taken from the single's liner notes. Technical Personnel"
]
} |
Tricity, Poland | null | Tricity, or Tri-City ( [],, }) is a metropolitan area in Poland consisting of three cities in Pomerania: Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot, as well as minor towns in their vicinity. They are situated adjacent to one another, in a row on the coast of Gdańsk Bay, Baltic Sea, in Eastern or Gdansk Pomerania often erroneously referred to as Pomerelia in the English language (Pomeranian Voivodeship), northern Poland. The Tricity metropolitan area has a population of over 1 million people. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-57229 | en-train-57229 | 57229 | {
"title": [
"Economy.",
"Population.",
"Education.",
"Entertainment.",
"Climate.",
"Sport.",
"Transport.",
"Rail.",
"Local Rail.",
"Intercity Rail.",
"Airport.",
"Ferries.",
"Buses.",
"Foreign representatives."
],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"Nearly 35% of taxpayers from Tricity are in the middle and high taxable income groups (average for Poland 10%). Approximately 12% of Tricity taxpayers are in the highest taxable income group (Polish average 3%).",
"The total population of the 3 cities comprising Tricity (Gdańsk + Gdynia + Sopot): The Tricity metropolitan area also includes Wejherowo, Reda, Rumia, Pruszcz Gdański and several other communities. The total population in 2006 was 1,100,500, in an area of 1580.69 km2. The Tricity continuous urban area includes following cities: According to official EU publication the population of Larger Urban Zone of Tricity is 1 098 379.",
"The Tricity is an important center of education. Some of the universities in the Tricity:",
"Cinemas: Theatres: Opera house and Philharmonic Museums and art galleries",
"Tricity has a temperate climate with warm summers and cold winters that can be very severe. Rain is possible all year round. Summer is the best time to visit when temperatures range from 70 °F to 90 °F (20 °C to 30 °C), but evenings can be cool enough to require a sweater. Winters are wet, cold and grey.",
"Tricity has a number of professional teams, which compete in basketball, volleyball, speedway, handball, rugby union and football. The most known football clubs, contesting the Tricity Derby, are Lechia Gdańsk and Arka Gdynia, both of which also possess highly successful rugby teams (RC Arka and RC Lechia. There is a third top-flight Polish rugby team Ogniwo Sopot, making the Tricity Poland's rugby capital. The third football club is Bałtyk Gdynia. Wybrzeże Gdańsk are the Tricity's speedway team, formerly a multi-sports club, now its only other remaining section is the reactivated handball team, former 10 times men's Polish champions. Asseco Gdynia and Trefl Sopot are the two men's professional basketball teams, while Lotos Gdynia are their female counterparts.",
"The Tricity has a well-developed public transport system. Development of the Tricity was smoothed by the construction of the city train (SKM) 1951, binding the whole area from Tczew by Gdańsk, Sopot 1953, Gdynia 1956, Reda, Rumia to Wejherowo 1957. The backbone of the Tricity is the inner highway. It starts in Gdańsk and goes through Sopot, Gdynia, Rumia and Reda to Wejherowo. It consists of 2-4 lanes in each direction. In 1975 the dual carriageway Tricity Beltway (Obwodnica Trójmiejska) was constructed. It starts in the vicinity of Pruszcz Gdański and goes through the western districts of Gdańsk to Gdynia-Chylonia. There is a plan to build a new line of Szybka Kolej Miejska to connect the Baltic Arena with Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport.",
"",
"The Tricity area is served by the SKM rail network (known in Polish as or \"Szybka Kolej Miejska\" or \"Fast Urban Railway\") which operates many routes in the area, acting partly as a commuter rail connecting the outer-lying towns and villages of the area with each other and the central cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot, and partly as a sort of metro or light rail service in the urban core centred around the three main cities, with frequencies ranging from every 6 minutes during peak time on the main common section between Gdańsk and Gdynia to 30 minutes at the farthest ends. The local rail network has had a unifying effect on the urban area since it began service in 1951, creating a frequent and reliable service that connects the various settlements of the region. In 2015, the Pomorska Kolej Metropolitalna (PKM, Pomeranian Metropolitan Railway) opened, connecting the centrally located Gdańsk Wrzeszcz with Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport. The 19.5 km line also provides connections to the SKM network at its northern and southern termini.",
"The area is well connected to the rest of the Pomerania region, as well as Poland and the rest of Europe. The Przewozy Regionalne network provides a regional rail service connecting the cities and towns of the Pomerania. Gdańsk Główny and Gdynia Glowna serve as major rail hubs for the area, with these stations and several others offering inter-city services to cities around Poland and in other countries, operated by Polish State Railways under the PKP Intercity branding. Most of the stations that are served by regional and inter-city rail are also part of the above-mentioned SKM network.",
"Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport is one of the three main international Polish airports. Its position is associated with a well-developed network of domestic and international transport connections provided in response to the growing demand for business and tourist travel. The Gdańsk Airport is located a mere 10 km from the centre of Gdańsk, about the same distance from the centre of Sopot and 23 km from the centre of Gdynia. The continually expanding road system which connects the airport with the city centres allows drivers to cover the distances in about 15–20 minutes. The close vicinity of the Tri-city by-pass and junctions with state motorways nos. 1, 6 and 7 facilitates access from areas outside the Tri-city. The convenient location of the airport makes it easy for travellers and cargo carriers to transfer from air to road, and also to the railway network and seaports. Gdańsk Lech Walesa Airport has its own railway siding which can be used for handling large lots of cargo dispatched by air. The efficient Gdańsk Airport operates even the biggest planes and allows thousands of tourists to visit the Pomerania province every day. Just in front of the main entrance to the passenger terminal, the visitors can find a bus that will take them to the city centre. They may also choose to take a taxi that will take them wherever they want to go in the area of the Tri-City for a relatively small price. Getting airport by bus Airplanes connections with GDN:",
"Ferryboats connections with Gdynia, Sopot, Gdańsk:",
"The variety and a number of connections make the travel around the Tri-City and surrounding areas very easy. One of the most popular means of transport in the Pomerania province is the public bus. There is a great number of bus lines and they cover every district of the three cities of the metropolis. In Gdynia, except normal buses, there are also Trolleybuses.",
"Gdańsk: Gdynia: Sopot:"
]
} |
Gdynia | null | Gdynia (, ; ;, 1939-1945 "Gotenhafen") is a city in northern Poland. Located on Gdańsk Bay on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, it is the second largest city in Pomeranian Voivodeship after Gdańsk and a major seaport. Gdynia has a population of c. 246,000, which makes it the twelfth-largest city in Poland. It is part of a conurbation with the spa town of Sopot, the city of Gdańsk and suburban communities, which together form a metropolitan area called the Tricity ("Trójmiasto"), with a population of over 1,000,000 people. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Construction of the seaport.",
"Construction of the city.",
"Gdynia during World War II (1939–1945).",
"After World War II.",
"Geography.",
"Climate.",
"Districts.",
"Sights and tourist attractions.",
"Culture.",
"Cultural references.",
"Sports.",
"Economy and infrastructure.",
"Transport.",
"Port of Gdynia.",
"Airport.",
"Road transport.",
"Railways.",
"Education.",
"International relations."
],
"section_level": [
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"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
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"content": [
"The area of the later city of Gdynia shared its history with Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania); in prehistoric times it was the center of Oksywie culture; it was later populated by Slavs with some Baltic Prussian influences.",
"The decision to build a major seaport at Gdynia village was made by the Polish government in winter 1920, in the midst of the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1920). The authorities and seaport workers of the Free City of Danzig felt Poland's economic rights in the city were being misappropriated to help fight the war. German dockworkers went on strike, refusing to unload shipments of military supplies sent from the West to aid the Polish army, and Poland realized the need for a port city it was in complete control of, economically and politically. Construction of Gdynia seaport started in 1921 but, because of financial difficulties, it was conducted slowly and with interruptions. It was accelerated after the Sejm (Polish parliament) passed the \"Gdynia Seaport Construction Act\" on 23 September 1922. By 1923 a 550-metre pier, of a wooden tide breaker, and a small harbour had been constructed. Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia as a temporary military port and fishers' shelter took place on 23 April 1923. The first major seagoing ship arrived on 13 August 1923. To speed up the construction works, the Polish government in November 1924 signed a contract with the French-Polish Consortium for Gdynia Seaport Construction. By the end of 1925, they had built a small seven-metre-deep harbour, the south pier, part of the north pier, a railway, and had ordered the trans-shipment equipment. The works were going more slowly than expected, however. They accelerated only after May 1926, because of an increase in Polish exports by sea, economic prosperity, the outbreak of the German–Polish trade war which reverted most Polish international trade to sea routes, and thanks to the personal engagement of Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, Polish Minister of Industry and Trade (also responsible for the construction of Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy). By the end of 1930 docks, piers, breakwaters, and many auxiliary and industrial installations were constructed (such as depots, trans-shipment equipment, and a rice processing factory) or started (such as a large cold store). Trans-shipments rose from 10,000 tons (1924) to 2,923,000 tons (1929). At this time Gdynia was the only transit and special seaport designed for coal exports. In the years 1931–1939 Gdynia harbour was further extended to become a universal seaport. In 1938 Gdynia was the largest and most modern seaport on the Baltic Sea, as well as the tenth biggest in Europe. The trans-shipments rose to 8.7 million tons, which was 46% of Polish foreign trade. In 1938 the Gdynia shipyard started to build its first full-sea ship, the \"Olza\".",
"The city was constructed later than the seaport. In 1925 a special committee was inaugurated to build the city; city expansion plans were designed and city rights were granted in 1926, and tax privileges were granted for investors in 1927. The city started to grow significantly after 1928. A new railway station and the Post Office were completed. The State railways extended their lines, built bridges and also constructed a group of houses for their employees. Within a few years houses were built along some of road leading northward from the Free City of Danzig to Gdynia and beyond. Public institutions and private employers helped their staffs to build houses. In 1933 a plan of development providing for a population of 250,000 was worked out by a special commission appointed by a government committee, in collaboration with the municipal authorities. By 1939 the population had grown to over 120,000.",
"The city and seaport were occupied in September 1939 by German troops and renamed \"Gotenhafen\" after the Goths, an ancient Germanic tribe, who had lived in the area. Some 50,000 Polish citizens, who after 1920 had been brought into the area by the Polish government after the decision to enlarge the harbour was made, were expelled to the General Government. Kashubians who were suspected to support the Polish cause, particularly those with higher education, were arrested and executed. The main place of execution was Piaśnica (Groß Plaßnitz), where about 12,000 were executed. The German gauleiter Albert Forster considered Kashubians of \"low value\" and did not support any attempts to create a Kashubian nationality. Some Kashubians organized anti-Nazi resistance groups, \"Gryf Kaszubski\" (later \"Gryf Pomorski\"), and the exiled \"Zwiazek Pomorski\" in Great Britain. The harbour was transformed into a German naval base. The shipyard was expanded in 1940 and became a branch of the Kiel shipyard (\"Deutsche Werke Kiel A.G.\"). Gotenhafen became an important base, due to its being relatively distant from the war theater, and many German large ships—battleships and heavy cruisers—were anchored there. During 1942, Dr Joseph Goebbels authorized relocation of to Gotenhafen Harbour as a stand-in for during filming of the German-produced movie \"Titanic\", directed by Herbert Selpin. The city was also the location of the Nazi \"Gotenhafen\" subcamp of the Stutthof concentration camp. The seaport and the shipyard both witnessed several air raids by the Allies from 1943 onwards, but suffered little damage. Gotenhafen was used during winter 1944–45 to evacuate German troops and refugees trapped by the Red Army. Some of the ships were hit by torpedoes from Soviet submarines in the Baltic Sea on the route west. The ship sank, taking about 9,400 people with her – the worst loss of life in a single sinking in maritime history. The seaport area was largely destroyed by withdrawing German troops and millions of encircled refugees in 1945 being bombarded by the Soviet military (90% of the buildings and equipment were destroyed) and the harbour entrance was blocked by the German battleship that had been brought to Gotenhafen for major repairs.",
"On March 28, 1945, Gotenhafen was captured by the Soviets and assigned to Polish Gdańsk Voivodeship, who again renamed it Gdynia. In the Polish 1970 protests, worker demonstrations took place at Gdynia Shipyard. Workers were fired upon by the police. The fallen (e.g. Brunon Drywa) became symbolized by a fictitious worker Janek Wiśniewski, commemorated in a song by Mieczysław Cholewa, \"Pieśń o Janku z Gdyni\". One of Gdynia's important streets is named after Janek Wiśniewski. The same person was portrayed by Andrzej Wajda in his movie \"Man of Iron\" as Mateusz Birkut. On December 4, 1999, a storm destroyed a huge crane in a shipyard, which was able to lift 900 tons.",
"",
"The climate of Gdynia is an oceanic climate owing to its position of the Baltic Sea, which moderates the temperatures, compared to the interior of Poland. The climate is cool throughout the year and there is a somewhat uniform precipitation throughout the year. Typical of Northern Europe, there is little sunshine during the year.",
"Gdynia is divided into smaller divisions: \"dzielnicas\" and \"osiedles\". Gdynia's \"dzielnicas\" include: Babie Doły, Chwarzno-Wiczlino, Chylonia, Cisowa, Dąbrowa, Działki Leśne, Grabówek, Kamienna Góra, Karwiny, Leszczynki, Mały Kack, Obłuże, Oksywie, Orłowo, Pogórze, Pustki Cisowskie-Demptowo, Redłowo, Śródmieście, Wielki Kack, Witomino-Leśniczówka, Witomino-Radiostacja, Wzgórze Św. Maksymiliana \"Osiedles\": Bernadowo, Brzozowa Góra, Chwarzno, Dąbrówka, Demptowo, Dębowa Góra, Fikakowo, Gołębiewo, Kacze Buki, Kolibki, Kolonia Chwaszczyno, Kolonia Rybacka, Krykulec, Marszewo, Międzytorze, Niemotowo, Osada Kolejowa, Osada Rybacka, Osiedle Bernadowo, Port, Pustki Cisowskie, Tasza, Wiczlino, Wielka Rola, Witomino, Wysoka, Zielenisz.",
"Gdynia is a relatively modern city. Its architecture includes the 13th century St. Michael the Archangel's Church in Oksywie, the oldest building in Gdynia, and the 17th century neo-Gothic manor house located on Folwarczna Street in Orłowo. The city also holds many examples of early 20th-century architecture, especially monumentalism and early functionalism, and modernism. A good example of modernism is PLO building situated at 10 Lutego Street. The surrounding hills and the coastline attract many nature lovers. A leisure pier and a cliff-like coastline in Kępa Redłowska, as well as the surrounding Nature Reserve, are also popular locations. In the harbour, there are two anchored museum ships, the destroyer and the tall ship frigate \"Dar Pomorza\". A -long promenade leads from the marina in the city center, to the beach in Redłowo. Most of Gdynia can be seen from Kamienna Góra ( asl) or the viewing point near Chwaszczyno. There are also two viewing towers, one at Góra Donas, the other at Kolibki.",
"Gdynia hosts the Gdynia Film Festival, the main Polish film festival. The International Random Film Festival was hosted in Gdynia in November 2014. Since 2003 Gdynia has been hosting the Open'er Festival, one of the biggest contemporary music festivals in Europe. The festival welcomes many foreign hip-hop, rock and electronic music artists every year. The lineup for 2015 was Mumford and Sons, Of Monsters and Men, The Prodigy, The Vaccines and many more. Another important summer event in Gdynia is the Viva Beach Party, which is a large two-day techno party made on Gdynia's Public Beach and a summer-welcoming concerts CudaWianki. Gdynia also hosts events for the annual Gdańsk Shakespeare Festival. In the summer of 2014 Gdynia hosted Red Bull Air Race World Championship.",
"In 2008, Gdynia made it onto the \"Monopoly Here and Now World Edition\" board after being voted by fans through the Internet. Gdynia occupies the space traditionally held by Mediterranean Avenue, being the lowest voted city to make it onto the Monopoly Here and Now board, but also the smallest city to make it in the game. All of the other cities are large and widely known ones, the second smallest being Riga. The unexpected success of Gdynia can be attributed to a mobilization of the town's population to vote for it on the Internet. An abandoned factory district in Gdynia was the scene for the survival series \"Man vs Wild\", season 6, episode 12. The host, Bear Grylls, manages to escape the district after blowing up a door and crawling through miles of sewer. Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the supervillain in the James Bond novels, was born in Gdynia on May 28, 1908, according to \"Thunderball\". Gdynia is sometimes called \"Polish Roswell\" due to the alleged UFO crash on January 21, 1959.",
"<nowiki> </nowiki>Sport teams",
"Notable companies that have their headquarters or regional offices in Gdynia: Former:",
"",
"In 2007, 364,202 passengers, 17,025,000 tons of cargo and containers passed through the port. Regular car ferry service operates between Gdynia and Karlskrona, Sweden.",
"The conurbation's main airport, Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport, lays approximately south-west of central Gdynia, and has connections to approximately 55 destinations. It is the third largest airport in Poland. A second General Aviation terminal was scheduled to be opened by May 2012, which will increase the airport's capacity to 5mln passengers per year. Another local airport, (Gdynia-Kosakowo Airport) is situated partly in the village of Kosakowo, just to the north of the city, and partly in Gdynia. This has been a military airport since the World War II, but it has been decided in 2006 that the airport will be used to serve civilians. Work was well in progress and was due to be ready for 2012 when the project collapsed following a February 2014 EU decision regarding Gdynia city funding as constituting unfair competition to Gdańsk airport. In March 2014, the airport management company filed for bankruptcy, this being formally announced in May that year. The fate of some PLN 100 million of public funds from Gdynia remain unaccounted for with documents not being released, despite repeated requests for such from residents to the city president, Wojciech Szczurek.",
"Trasa Kwiatkowskiego links Port of Gdynia and the city with Obwodnica Trójmiejska, and therefore A1 motorway. National road 6 connects Tricity with Słupsk, Koszalin and Szczecin agglomeration.",
"The principal station in Gdynia is Gdynia Główna railway station, and Gdynia has five other railway stations. Local services are provided by the 'Fast Urban Railway,' Szybka Kolej Miejska (Tricity) operating frequent trains covering the Tricity area including Gdańsk, Sopot and Gdynia. Long distance trains from Warsaw via Gdańsk terminate at Gdynia, and there are direct trains to Szczecin, Poznań, Katowice, Lublin and other major cities. In 2011-2015 the Warsaw-Gdańsk-Gdynia route is undergoing a major upgrading costing $3 billion, partly funded by the European Investment Bank, including track replacement, realignment of curves and relocation of sections of track to allow speeds up to, modernization of stations, and installation of the most modern ETCS signalling system, which is to be completed in June 2015. In December 2014 new Alstom Pendolino high-speed trains were put into service between Gdynia, Warsaw and Kraków reducing rail travel times to Gdynia by 2 hours.",
"There are currently 8 universities and institutions of higher education based in Gdynia. Many students from Gdynia attend also universities located in the Tricity.",
"Gdynia is twinned with:"
]
} |
MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year | null | The MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year is the most prestigious competitive-award and final award handed out at the annual MTV Video Music Awards. It was first awarded in and presented to The Cars for the video "You Might Think". The current holder is Taylor Swift for the video "You Need to Calm Down". | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1804088 | en-train-1804088 | 1804088 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Winners and nominees."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Eminem is the most nominated artist in this category with 6 nominations, he is also the only artist to be nominated in the category consecutively for 4 years. The only multiple winners of this award are Eminem (\"The Real Slim Shady\" and \"Without Me\"), Rihanna (\"Umbrella\" and \"We Found Love\"), Beyoncé (\"Single Ladies\" and \"Formation\"), and Taylor Swift (\"Bad Blood\" and \"You Need to Calm Down\"). David Lee Roth (1985), U2 (1988), and Lady Gaga (2010) are the only performers to have two Video of the Year nominations in one night, with Gaga being the only to take home the award for her video \"Bad Romance\". The most nominated group in this category is U2, with four nominated videos, and no wins. En Vogue is the first female group to be nominated in this category. Missy Elliott is the only female rapper to be nominated in the category twice, with one win. Only two artists have won Video of the Year and been honored with the Video Vanguard Award in the same night; Peter Gabriel in 1987 with \"Sledgehammer\" and Justin Timberlake in 2013 with \"Mirrors\". Kendrick Lamar and Taylor Swift are the only performers to have won the award for a video they co-directed: Lamar for \"Humble\" in 2017 and Swift for \"You Need to Calm Down\" in 2019. As the other general categories, the public is able to vote for the winner via MTV's website since 2009. American acts have won the award more than any other nationality, though award-winning videos have also been performed by musicians originating from the United Kingdom three times, from Barbados twice and from Australia, Canada, and Ireland once. Rock, R&B, acid jazz, pop, and hip-hop performers are among the winners.",
"Winners are listed first and highlighted in bold. Notes:"
]
} |
Psychiatry | null | Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various maladaptations related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions. See glossary of psychiatry. | null | [
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"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Theory and focus.",
"Scope of practice.",
"Ethics.",
"Approaches.",
"Practitioners.",
"As a career choice.",
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"Inpatient treatment.",
"Outpatient treatment.",
"History.",
"Controversy and criticism."
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"content": [
"The term \"psychiatry\" was first coined by the German physician Johann Christian Reil in 1808 and literally means the'medical treatment of the soul'",
"Psychiatry refers to a field of medicine focused specifically on the mind, aiming to study, prevent, and treat mental disorders in humans. It has been described as an intermediary between the world from a social context and the world from the perspective of those who are mentally ill. People who specialize in psychiatry often differ from most other mental health professionals and physicians in that they must be familiar with both the social and biological sciences. The discipline studies the operations of different organs and body systems as classified by the patient's subjective experiences and the objective physiology of the patient. Psychiatry treats mental disorders, which are conventionally divided into three very general categories: mental illnesses, severe learning disabilities, and personality disorders. While the focus of psychiatry has changed little over time, the diagnostic and treatment processes have evolved dramatically and continue to do so. Since the late 20th century, the field of psychiatry has continued to become more biological and less conceptually isolated from other medical fields.",
"Though the medical specialty of psychiatry uses research in the field of neuroscience, psychology, medicine, biology, biochemistry, and pharmacology, it has generally been considered a middle ground between neurology and psychology. Because psychiatry and neurology are deeply intertwined medical specialties, all certification for both specialties and for their subspecialties is offered by a single board, the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, one",
"The World Psychiatric Association issues an ethical code to govern the conduct of psychiatrists (like other purveyors of professional ethics). The psychiatric code of ethics, first set forth through the Declaration of Hawaii in 1977 has been expanded through a 1983 Vienna update and in the broader Madrid Declaration in 1996. The code was further revised during the organization's general assemblies in 1999, 2002, 2005,",
"Psychiatric illnesses can be conceptualised in a number of different ways. The biomedical approach examines signs and symptoms and compares them with diagnostic criteria. Mental illness can be assessed, conversely, through a narrative which tries to incorporate symptoms into a meaningful life history and to frame them as responses to external conditions. Both approaches are important in the field of psychiatry but have not sufficiently reconciled to settle controversy over either the selection of a psychiatric paradigm or the specification of psychopathology. The notion of a \"biopsychosocial model\" is often used to underline the multifactorial nature of clinical impairment. In this notion the word \"model\" is not used in a strictly scientific way though. Alternatively, a \"biocognitive model\" acknowledges the physiological basis for the mind's existence",
"All physicians can diagnose mental disorders and prescribe treatments utilizing principles of psychiatry. Psychiatrists are trained physicians who specialize in psychiatry and are certified to treat mental illness. They may treat outpatients, inpatients, or both; they may practice as solo practitioners or as members of groups; they may be self-employed, be",
"Psychiatry was not a popular career choice among medical students, even though medical school placements are rated favorably. This has resulted in a significant shortage of psychiatrists in the United States and elsewhere. Strategies to address this shortfall have included the use of short 'taster' placements early",
"The field of psychiatry has many subspecialties that require additional training and certification by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN). Such subspecialties include: Additional psychiatry subspecialties, for which ABPN does not offer certification, include: Addiction psychiatry focuses on evaluation and treatment of individuals with alcohol, drug, or other substance-related disorders, and of individuals with dual diagnosis of substance-related and other psychiatric disorders. Biological psychiatry is an approach to psychiatry that aims to understand mental disorders in terms of the biological function of the nervous system. Child and adolescent psychiatry is the branch of psychiatry that specializes in work with children, teenagers, and their families. Community psychiatry is an approach that reflects an inclusive public health perspective and is practiced in community mental health services. Cross-cultural psychiatry is a branch of psychiatry concerned with the cultural and ethnic context of mental disorder and psychiatric services. Emergency psychiatry is the clinical application of psychiatry in",
"Psychiatric research is, by its very nature, interdisciplinary; combining social, biological and psychological perspectives in attempt to understand the nature and treatment of mental disorders. Clinical and research psychiatrists study basic and",
"",
"Psychiatric diagnoses take place in a wide variety of settings and are performed by many different health professionals. Therefore, the diagnostic procedure may vary greatly based upon these factors. Typically, though, a psychiatric diagnosis utilizes a differential diagnosis procedure where a mental status examination and physical examination is conducted, with pathological, psychopathological or psychosocial",
"Three main diagnostic manuals used to classify mental health conditions are in use today. The ICD-10 is produced and published by the World Health Organization, includes a section on psychiatric conditions, and is used worldwide. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, produced and published by the American Psychiatric Association, is primarily focused on mental health conditions and is the main classification tool in the United States. It is currently in its fifth revised edition and is also used worldwide. The Chinese Society of Psychiatry has also produced a diagnostic manual, the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders. The stated intention of diagnostic manuals is typically to develop replicable and clinically useful categories and criteria, to facilitate consensus and agreed upon standards, whilst being atheoretical as regards etiology. However, the categories are nevertheless based on particular psychiatric theories and",
"",
"Individuals with mental health conditions are commonly referred to as \"patients\" but may also be called \"clients\", \"consumers\", or \"service recipients\". They may come under the care of a psychiatric physician or other psychiatric practitioners by various paths, the two most common being self- or referral by a primary care physician. Alternatively, a person may be referred by hospital medical staff, by court order, involuntary commitment, or, in the UK and Australia, by sectioning under a mental health law. Persons who undergo a psychiatric assessment are evaluated by a psychiatrist for their mental and physical condition. This usually involves interviewing the person and often obtaining information from other sources such as other health and social care professionals, relatives, associates, law enforcement personnel, emergency medical personnel, and psychiatric rating scales. A mental status examination is carried out, and a physical examination is usually performed",
"Psychiatric treatments have changed over the past several decades. In the past, psychiatric patients were often hospitalized for six months or more, with some cases involving hospitalization for many years. Average inpatient psychiatric treatment stay has decreased significantly since the 1960s, a trend known as deinstitutionalization. Today in most countries, people receiving psychiatric treatment are more likely to be seen as outpatients. If hospitalization is required, the average hospital stay is around one to two weeks, with only a small number receiving long-term hospitalization..",
"Outpatient treatment involves periodic visits to a psychiatrist for consultation in his or her office, or at a community-based outpatient clinic. Initial appointments, at which the psychiatrist conducts a psychiatric assessment or evaluation of the patient, are typically 45 to 75 minutes in length. Follow-up appointments are generally shorter in duration, i.e., 15 to 30 minutes, with a focus on making medication adjustments, reviewing potential medication interactions, considering the impact of other medical disorders on the patient's mental and emotional functioning, and counseling patients regarding changes they might make to facilitate healing and remission of symptoms (e.g., exercise, cognitive therapy techniques, sleep hygiene—to name just a few). The frequency with which a psychiatrist sees people in treatment varies widely, from once a week to twice a",
"The earliest known texts on mental disorders are from ancient India and include the Ayurvedic text, Charaka Samhita. The first hospitals for curing mental illness were established in India during the 3rd century BCE. The Greeks also created early manuscripts about mental disorders. In the 4th century BCE, Hippocrates theorized that physiological abnormalities may be the root of mental disorders. In 4th to 5th Century B.C. Greece, Hippocrates wrote that he visited Democritus and found him in his garden cutting open animals. Democritus explained that he was attempting to discover the cause of madness and melancholy. Hippocrates praised his work. Democritus had with him a book on madness and melancholy. During the 5th century BCE, mental disorders, especially those with psychotic traits, were considered supernatural in origin, a view which existed throughout ancient Greece and Rome, as well as Egyptian regions. Religious leaders often turned to versions of exorcism to treat mental disorders often utilizing methods that many consider to be cruel or barbaric methods. Trepanning was one of these methods used throughout history. The Islamic Golden Age fostered early studies in Islamic psychology and psychiatry, with many scholars writing about mental disorders. The Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, also known as \"Rhazes\", wrote texts about psychiatric conditions in the 9th century. As chief physician of a hospital in Baghdad, he was also the director of one of the first psychiatric wards in the world. Two of his works in particular, \"El-Mansuri\" and \"Al-Hawi\", provide descriptions and treatments for mental illnesses. Abu Zayd al-Balkhi, was a Persian polymath during the 9th and 10th centuries and one of the first to classify neurotic disorders. He pioneered cognitive therapy in order to treat each of these classified neurotic disorders. He classified neurosis into four emotional disorders: fear and anxiety, anger and aggression, sadness and depression, and obsession. Al-Balkhi further classified three types of depression: normal depression or sadness (\"huzn\"), endogenous depression originating from within the body, and reactive clinical depression originating from outside the body. The first bimaristan was founded in Baghdad in the 9th century, and several others of increasing complexity were created throughout the Arab world in the following centuries. Some of the bimaristans contained wards dedicated to the care of mentally ill patients, most of whom suffered from debilitating illnesses or exhibited violence. Specialist hospitals such as Bethlem Royal Hospital in London were built in medieval Europe from the 13th century to treat mental disorders, but were used only as custodial institutions and did not provide any type of treatment. The beginning of psychiatry as a medical specialty is dated to the middle of the nineteenth century, although its germination can be traced to the late eighteenth century. In the late 17th century, privately run asylums for the insane began to proliferate and expand in size. In 1713 the Bethel Hospital Norwich was opened, the first purpose-built asylum in England. In 1656, Louis XIV of France created a public system of hospitals for those suffering from mental disorders, but as in England, no real treatment was applied. During the Enlightenment attitudes towards the mentally ill began to change. It",
"Controversy has often surrounded psychiatry, with scholars producing critiques. It has been argued that psychiatry: is too influenced by ideas from medicine, causing it to misunderstand the nature of mental distress; that its use of drugs is in part due lobbying by drug companies resulting in distortion of research; that the concept of \"mental illness\" is often used to label and control those with beliefs and behaviours that the majority of people disagree with; and that it confuses disorders of the mind with disorders of the brain that can be treated with drugs. Critique of psychiatry from within the field comes from the critical psychiatry group in the UK. The term \"anti-psychiatry\" was coined by psychiatrist David Cooper in 1967 and was later made popular by Thomas Szasz. The basic premise of the anti-psychiatry movement is that psychiatrists attempt to classify \"normal\" people as \"deviant;\" psychiatric treatments are ultimately more damaging than helpful to patients; and psychiatry's history involves (what may now be seen as) dangerous treatments, such as the frontal lobectomy (commonly called, a lobotomy). Several former patient groups have been formed often referring to themselves as \"survivors.\" In 1973, the Rosenhan experiment was conducted to determine the validity of psychiatric diagnosis. Volunteers feigned hallucinations to enter psychiatric hospitals, and acted normally afterwards. They were diagnosed with psychiatric disorders and were given antipsychotic drugs. The study was conducted by psychologist David Rosenhan, a Stanford University professor, and published by the journal \"Science\" under the title \"On being sane in insane places\". The Church of Scientology strongly opposes psychiatry. Through a self-described \"humanitarian effort\" the Church of Scientology created a in Los Angeles, CA (USA) which purports to show the evolution of the \"evils\" of psychiatry and psychology over time. A Scientology-related organization, the Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR), is entirely devoted to criticism of psychiatry. Others have questioned the veracity of information the Church of Scientology provides to the public within the Industry of Death Museum exhibits."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-344335 | en-train-344335 | 344335 | {
"title": [
"Background.",
"Crew and key Mission Control personnel.",
"Crew.",
"Mission Control.",
"Planning and training.",
"Hardware.",
"Spacecraft.",
"Launch vehicle.",
"Space suits.",
"Lunar Roving Vehicle.",
"Particles and Fields Subsatellite.",
"Mission highlights.",
"Launch and outbound trip.",
"Lunar orbit and landing.",
"Lunar surface.",
"Stand-up EVA and first EVA.",
"Second and third EVAs.",
"Command module activities.",
"Return to Earth.",
"Assessment.",
"Controversies.",
"Mission insignia.",
"Visibility from space.",
"External links."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In 1962, NASA contracted for fifteen Saturn V rockets to achieve the Apollo program's goal of a crewed landing on the Moon by 1970; at the time no one knew how many missions this would require. Since success was obtained in 1969 with the sixth SaturnV on Apollo 11, nine rockets remained available for a hoped-for total of ten landings. These plans included a heavier, extended version of the Apollo spacecraft to be used",
"",
"Scott was born in 1932 in San Antonio, Texas, and had graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1954. Serving in the Air Force, Scott had received two advanced degrees from MIT in 1962 before being selected as one of the third group of astronauts the following year. He flew in Gemini 8 in 1966 alongside Neil Armstrong and as command module pilot of Apollo 9 in 1969. Worden was born in 1932 in Jackson, Michigan, and like his commander, had attended West Point (class of 1955) and served in the Air Force. Worden earned two master's degrees in engineering from the University of Michigan in 1963. Irwin had been born in 1930 in Pittsburgh, and had attended the United States Naval Academy,",
"The flight directors for Apollo 15 were as follows: During a mission the capsule communicators (CAPCOMs), always fellow astronauts, were",
"Schmitt and other scientist-astronauts advocated for a greater place for science on the early Apollo missions. They were often met with disinterest from other astronauts, or found science displaced by higher priorities. Schmitt realized that what was needed was an expert teacher who could fire the astronauts' enthusiasm, and contacted Caltech geologist Lee Silver, whom Schmitt introduced to Apollo 13's commander, Jim Lovell, and to its lunar module pilot, Fred Haise, then in training for their mission. Lovell and Haise were willing to go on a field expedition with Silver, and geology became a significant part of their training. Geologist Farouk El-Baz trained the prime crew's command module pilot, Ken Mattingly to inform his planned observations from lunar orbit. The crew's newly-acquired skills mostly went unused, due to the explosion that damaged the Apollo 13 spacecraft, and caused an abort of the mission. Apollo 14's CMP, Stuart Roosa, was enthusiastic about geology, but the mission commander, Shepard, less so. Already familiar with the spacecraft as the backup crew for Apollo 12, Scott, Worden and Irwin could devote more of their training time as prime crew for Apollo 15 to geology and sampling techniques. Scott was determined that his crew bring back the maximum amount of scientific data possible, and met with Silver in April 1970 to begin planning the geological training. Schmitt's assignment as Apollo 15's backup LMP made him an insider, and allowed him to spark competition between the prime and backup crews. The cancellation of two Apollo missions in September 1970 transformed Apollo 15 into a J mission, with a longer stay on the lunar surface, and the first Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). This change was welcomed by Scott, who according to David West Reynolds in his account of the Apollo program, was \"something more than a hotshot pilot. Scott had the spirit of a true explorer\", one determined to get the most from the J mission. The additional need for communications, including from planned experiments and the rover, required the near-rebuilding of the Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in",
"",
"Apollo 15 used command and service module CSM-112, which was given the call sign \"Endeavour\", named after HMS \"Endeavour\", and lunar module LM-10, call sign \"Falcon\", named after the United States Air Force Academy mascot. Scott explained the choice of the name \"Endeavour\" on the grounds that its captain, James Cook had commanded the first purely scientific sea voyage, and Apollo 15 was the first lunar landing mission on which there was a heavy emphasis on science. Apollo 15 took with it a small piece of wood from Cook's ship while \"Falcon\" carried two falcon feathers to the Moon in recognition of the crew's service in the Air Force. Technicians at the Kennedy Space Center had some problems with the instruments in the service module's scientific instrument module (SIM) bay. Some instruments were late in arriving,",
"The Saturn V that launched Apollo 15 was designated SA-510, the tenth flight-ready model of the rocket. As the payload of the rocket was greater, changes were made to the rocket and to its launch trajectory. It was launched in a more southerly direction (80–100 degrees azimuth) than previous missions, and the Earth parking orbit was lowered to. These two changes meant more could be launched. The propellant reserves were reduced and the number of",
"The Apollo 15 astronauts wore redesigned space suits. On all previous Apollo flights, including the non-lunar flights, the commander and lunar module pilot had worn suits with the life support, liquid cooling, and communications connections in two parallel rows of three. On Apollo 15, the new suits, dubbed the \"A7LB\", had the connectors situated in triangular pairs. This new arrangement, along with the relocation of the entry zipper (which went in an up-down motion on the old suits), to run diagonally from the right shoulder",
"A vehicle that could operate on the surface of the Moon had been considered by NASA since the early 1960s. An early version was called MOLAB, which had a closed cabin and would have massed about ; some scaled-down prototypes were tested in Arizona. As it became clear NASA would not soon establish a lunar base, such a large vehicle seemed unnecessary. Still, a rover would enhance the J missions, which were to concentrate on science, though its mass was limited to about and it was not then clear that so light a vehicle could be useful. NASA did not decide to proceed with a rover until May 1969, as Apollo 10, the dress rehearsal for the Moon landing, made its way home from lunar orbit. Boeing got",
"The Apollo 15 Particles and Fields Subsatellite (PFS-1) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the SIM bay just before the mission left orbit to return to Earth. Its main objectives were to study the plasma, particle, and magnetic field environment of the Moon and map the lunar gravity field. Specifically, it measured plasma and energetic particle intensities",
"",
"Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, at 9:34 AM EDT from the Kennedy Space Center at Merritt Island, Florida. The time of launch was at the very start of the two-hour, 37 minute launch window, which would allow Apollo 15 to arrive at the Moon with the proper lighting conditions at Hadley Rille; had the mission been postponed beyond another window on July 27, it could not have been rescheduled until late August. The astronauts had been wakened five and a quarter hours before launch by Slayton, and after breakfast and suiting up, had been taken to Pad 39A, launch site of all seven attempts at crewed lunar landing, and entered the spacecraft about three hours before launch. There were no unplanned delays in the countdown. At 000:11:36 into the mission, the S-IVB engine shut down,",
"On Apollo 11 and 12, the lunar module decoupled from the CSM and descended to a much lower orbit from which the lunar landing attempt commenced; to save fuel in an increasingly heavy lander, beginning with Apollo 14, the SPS in the service module made that burn, known as descent orbit insertion (DOI), with the lunar module still attached to the CSM. The initial orbit Apollo 15 was in had its apocynthion, or high point, over the landing site at Hadley; a burn at the opposite point in the orbit was performed, with the result that Hadley would now be under the craft's pericynthion, or low point. The DOI burn was performed at 082:39:49.09 and took 24.53 seconds; the result was an orbit with apocynthion of and pericynthion of. Overnight between July 29 and 30,",
"",
"With \"Falcon\" due to remain on the lunar surface for almost three days, Scott deemed it important to maintain the circadian rhythm they were used to, and as they had landed in the late afternoon, Houston time, the two astronauts were to sleep before going onto the surface. But the time schedule allowed Scott to open the lander's top hatch (usually used for docking) and spend a half hour looking at their surroundings, describing them, and taking photographs. Lee Silver had taught him the importance of going to a high place to survey a new field site, and the top",
"The rover's front steering, inoperative during the first EVA, worked during the second and third ones. The target of the second EVA, on August 1, was the slope of Mons Hadley Delta, where the pair sampled boulders and craters along the Apennine Front. They spent an hour at Spur crater, during which the astronauts secured what came to be one of the more famous lunar samples, #15415, more commonly known as the \"Genesis Rock\". This rock, an anorthosite, is believed to be part of the early lunar crust—the hope of finding such a specimen had been one reason the Hadley area had been chosen. Once back at the landing site, Scott continued to try to drill holes for experiments at the ALSEP site, with which he had struggled the day before. After conducting soil-mechanics experiments and raising the U.S. flag, Scott and Irwin returned to the LM. EVA2 lasted 7hours and 12 minutes. Although Scott had eventually been successful at drilling the holes, he and Irwin had been unable to retrieve a core sample, and this was an early order of business during EVA 3, their third and final moonwalk. Time that could have been devoted to geology ticked away as Scott and Irwin attempted to pull it out. Once it had been retrieved, more time passed as they attempted to break the core into pieces for transport to Earth. Hampered by an incorrectly-mounted vise on the rover, they eventually gave up on this—the core would be transported home with one segment longer than planned. Scott wondered if the core was",
"After the departure of \"Falcon\", Worden in \"Endeavour\" executed a burn to take the CSM to a higher orbit. While \"Falcon\" was on the Moon, the mission effectively split, Worden and the CSM being assigned their own CAPCOM and flight support team. Worden got busy with the tasks that were to occupy him for much of the time he spent in space alone: photography and operating the instruments in the SIM bay. The door to the SIM bay had been explosively jettisoned during the translunar coast. Filling previously-unused",
"\"Falcon\" lifted off the Moon at 17:11:22 GMT on August2 after 66 hours and 55 minutes on the lunar surface. Docking with the CSM took place just under two hours later. After the astronauts transferred samples and other items from the LM to the CSM, the LM was sealed off, jettisoned, and intentionally crashed into the lunar surface, an impact registered by the seismometers left by Apollo 12, 14 and 15. The jettison proved difficult because of problems getting airtight seals, requiring a delay in discarding the LM. After the jettison, Slayton came on the loop to recommend the astronauts take sleeping pills, or at least that Scott and Irwin do so. Scott as mission commander refused to allow it, feeling there was no need. During the EVAs, the doctors had noticed irregularities in both Scott's and Irwin's heartbeats, but the crew were not informed during the flight. Irwin had heart problems after retiring as an astronaut and died in 1991 of a heart attack; Scott felt that he as commander should have been",
"The mission objectives for Apollo 15 were to \"perform selenological inspection, survey, and sampling of materials and surface features in a pre-selected area of the Hadley-Appenine region. Emplace and activate surface experiments. Evaluate the capability of the Apollo equipment to provide extended lunar surface stay time, increased extravehicular operations, and surface mobility. [and] Conduct inflight experiments and photographic tasks from lunar orbit.\" It achieved all those objectives. The mission also completed a long list of other tasks, including experiments. One",
"Despite the successful mission, the careers of the crew were tarnished by a deal they had made before the flight to carry postal covers to the Moon in exchange for about $7,000 each, which they planned to set aside for their children. Walter Eiermann, who had many professional and social contacts with NASA employees and the astronaut corps, served as intermediary between the astronauts and a West German stamp dealer, Hermann Sieger, and Scott carried about 400 covers onto the spacecraft; they were subsequently transferred into \"Falcon\" and remained inside the lander during the astronauts' activities on the surface of the Moon. After the return to Earth, 100 of the covers were given to Eiermann, who passed them on to Sieger, receiving a commission. No permission had been received from Slayton to carry the covers, as required. The 100 covers were put on sale to Sieger's customers in late 1971 at a price of about $1,500",
"The Apollo 15 mission patch carries Air Force motifs, a nod to the crew's service there, just as the Apollo 12 all-Navy crew's patch had featured a sailing ship. The circular patch features stylized red, white and blue birds flying over Hadley Rille. Immediately behind the birds, a line of craters form the Roman numeral XV. The Roman numerals were hidden in emphasized outlines of some craters after NASA insisted that the mission number be displayed in Arabic numerals. The artwork is",
"The halo area of the Apollo 15 landing site, created by the LM's exhaust plume, was observed by a camera aboard the Japanese lunar orbiter SELENE and confirmed by comparative analysis of",
"NASA reports Multimedia"
]
} |
1936 Summer Olympics | null | The 1936 Summer Olympics (German: "Olympische Sommerspiele 1936"), officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad (German: "Spiele der XI. Olympiade"), was an international multi-sport event held in 1936 in Berlin, Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games over Barcelona, Spain, on 26 April 1931, at the 29th IOC Session in Barcelona. It marked the second and most recent time the International Olympic Committee gathered to vote in a city that was bidding to host those Games. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1959862 | en-train-1959862 | 1959862 | {
"title": [
"Host city selection.",
"Organization.",
"Torch relay.",
"Broadcasting.",
"Olympic village.",
"Venues.",
"Games.",
"Opening ceremony.",
"Events.",
"Medal count.",
"Notable achievements.",
"Participating nations.",
"Controversies.",
"Political aspects.",
"Antisemitism.",
"Boycott debate.",
"France.",
"Spain.",
"Soviet Union.",
"Turkey.",
"United States."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
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"3",
"3"
],
"content": [
"At the 28th IOC Session, held in 1930, in Berlin, 14 cities announced their intention to bid to host the 1936 Summer Olympic Games. The bidding for these Olympic Games was the first to be contested by IOC members casting votes for their own favorite host cities. The vote occurred in 1931, at the 29th IOC Session held in Barcelona that year. The vote was held days after the declaration of the Second Spanish Republic and during the final years of the Weimar Republic. This was two years before Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany, in 1933. By the time of the 1931 IOC Session, only Barcelona and Berlin were left in contention for the delegate vote. Rome withdrew on the eve of the vote. How other candidates withdrew is unclear, as is the seriousness of intent behind all of the listed candidate cities. The other cities who announced an intention to hold the games, but which withdrew from the race, were Alexandria, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Cologne, Dublin, Frankfurt, Helsinki, Lausanne, Montevideo, Nuremberg, Rio de Janeiro, and Rome. Helsinki, Rome, Barcelona and Rio de Janeiro would go on to host the Olympic Games in 1952, 1960, 1992 and 2016, respectively. The selection procedure marked the second and final time that the International Olympic Committee would gather to vote in a city which was bidding to host those Games. The only other time this occurred was at the inaugural IOC Session in Paris, France, on 24 April 1894. Then, Athens and Paris were chosen to host the 1896 and 1900 Games, respectively. The city of Barcelona held a multi-sport festival at the same time as the 1931 IOC Session. This included a football match between Spain and the Irish Free State, which was watched by 70,000 spectators. The political uncertainty around the declaration of the Second Spanish Republic, which had happened days before the IOC Session, was likely to have been a greater factor in the decision taken by delegates regarding the host city for 1936. Berlin prevailed. After the Nazis took control of Germany, and began instituting antisemitic policies, the IOC held private discussions among its delegates about changing the decision to hold the Games in Berlin. However, Hitler's regime gave assurances that Jewish athletes would be allowed to compete on a German Olympic team. One year before the games, the American Olympic Association suggested to change the venue to Rome; they saw Rome as a good replacement because Rome was originally selected to hold the 1908 Summer Olympics.",
"Hans von Tschammer und Osten, as \"Reichssportführer\" (i.e., head of the Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen (DRL), the Reich Sports Office), played a major role in the structure and organisation of the Olympics. He promoted the idea that the use of sports would harden the German spirit and instill unity among German youth. At the same time he also believed that sports was a \"way to weed out the weak, Jewish, and other undesirables\". Von Tschammer trusted the details of the organisation of the games to Theodor Lewald and Carl Diem, the former president and secretary of the \"Deutscher Reichsausschuss für Leibesübungen\", the forerunner of the Reich Sports Office. Among Diem's ideas for the Berlin Games was the introduction of the Olympic torch relay between Greece and the host nation.",
"The 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay was the first of its kind, following on from the reintroduction of the Olympic Flame at the 1928 Games. It pioneered the modern convention of moving the flame via a relay system from Greece to the Olympic venue. Leni Riefenstahl filmed the relay for the 1938 film \"Olympia\".",
"The games were the first to have live television coverage. The German Post Office, using equipment from Telefunken, broadcast over 70 hours of coverage to special viewing rooms throughout Berlin and Potsdam and a few private TV sets, transmitting from the Paul Nipkow TV Station. They used three different types of TV cameras, so blackouts would occur when changing from one type to another.",
"The 1936 Olympic village was located at Elstal in Wustermark (at ), on the western edge of Berlin. The site, which is from the centre of the city, consisted of one and two-floor dormitories, a large dining hall, \"Dining Hall of the Nations\", a swimming facility, gymnasium, track, and other training facilities. Its layout was designed and construction overseen by appointed village commander \"Hauptmann\" Wolfgang Fürstner beginning in 1934. Less than two months before the start of the Olympic Games, Fürstner was abruptly demoted to vice-commander, and replaced by \"Oberstleutnant\" Werner von Gilsa, commander of the Berlin Guard-Regiment. The official reason for the replacement was that Fürstner had not acted \"with the necessary energy\" to prevent damage to the site as 370,000 visitors passed through it between 1 May and 15 June. However, this was just a cover story to explain the sudden demotion of the half-Jewish officer. The 1935 Nuremberg Laws, passed during the period Fürstner was overseeing the Olympic Village, had classified him as a Jew, and as such, the career officer was to be expelled from the \"Wehrmacht\". Two days after the conclusion of the Berlin Olympics, vice-commander Fürstner had been removed from active \"Wehrmacht\" duty, and committed suicide because he realised he had no future under the Nazis. After the completion of the Olympic Games, the village was repurposed for the \"Wehrmacht\" into the Olympic Döberitz Hospital (), and Army Infantry School (), and was used as such through the Second World War. In 1945 it was taken over by the Soviet Union and became a military camp of the union occupation forces. Late 20th-century efforts were made to restore parts of the former village, but little progress was made. More recently, the vast majority of the land of the Olympic village has been managed by the DKB Foundation, with more success; efforts are being made to restore the site into a living museum. The dormitory building used by Jesse Owens, Weissen House, has been fully restored, with the gymnasium and swimming hall partially restored. Seasonally, tours are given daily to small groups and students. The site remains relatively unknown even in Germany, but some tournaments are held at the site in an effort to boost knowledge of the venues. An effort aimed at 2018 completion is underway to make the village a mixed residential and historical property.",
"Twenty-two venues were used for the 1936 Summer Olympics. Many were located in the Reich Sportsfeld complex. Sailing was held in the Bay of Kiel, which would serve as the sailing venue for the 1972 Summer Olympics held in Munich. The Olympic Stadium would later be part of two FIFA World Cups and then host an IAAF World Championships in Athletics along with undergoing a renovation in the early 2000s to give new life to the stadium. Avus Motor Road (AVUS) was started in 1907, but was not completed until 1921 due to World War I. The track was rebuilt for the 1936 Games. AVUS continued being used after World War II though mainly in Formula 2 racing. The German Grand Prix was last held at the track in 1959. Dismantling of the track first took place in 1968 to make way for a traffic crossing for touring cars that raced there until 1998. BSV 92 Field was first constructed in 1910 for use in football, handball, athletics, and tennis. The Reich Sports Field, which consisted of the Olympic Stadium, the Dietrich Ecekrt Open-Air Theatre, the Olympic Swimming Stadium, Mayfield, the Hockey Stadiums, the Tennis Courts, and the Haus des Deutschen Sports, was planned for the aborted 1916 Summer Olympics, but was not completed until 1934. Mayfield was the last venue completed prior to the 1936 Games in April 1936. Deutschland Hall was opened in 1935. Mommenstadion opened in 1930. Basketball was held outdoors at the request of the International Basketball Federation (FIBA). The tennis courts were used, which turned to mud during heavy rain at the final. The K-1 1000 m canoeing final was also affected by heavy rain at Grünau that included thunder and lightning. During World War II, Deutschlandhalle suffered heavy aerial bombing damage. After the second world war, the hall was reconstructed and expansion has continued. The Deutschlandhalle in Berlin, where the boxing, weightlifting, and wrestling events took place, was used as venue, but was increasingly closed for repairs, last in 2009 when it was close for repairs, It was demolished in December 2011. the Mommsenstadion was renovated in 1987 and was still in use in 2010. The Olympic Stadium was used as an underground bunker in World War II as the war went against Nazi Germany's favor. The British reopened the Stadium in 1946 and parts of the stadium were rebuilt by the late 1950s. As a host venue for the 1974 FIFA World Cup, the stadium had its roof partially covered on the North and South Stands. British occupation of the stadium ended in 1994. Restoration was approved in 1998 with a contractor being found to do the work in 2000. This restoration ran from 2000 to 2004. The modernized Stadium reopened in 2004, with a capacity of 74,228 people. The seating has been changed greatly, especially the sections that were reserved for German and international political leaders. The stadium now plays host to Hertha BSC (1963–present), and is expected to remain the home of the team for years to come. For the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the venue was where the final took place between Italy and France. Three years later, the venue hosted the World Athletics Championships.",
"",
"The opening ceremony was held at the Berlin Olympic Stadium on 1 August 1936. A flyover by the German airship \"Hindenburg\" flying the Olympic flag behind it was featured early in the opening ceremonies. After the arrival of Hitler and his entourage, the parade of nations proceeded, each nation with its own unique costume. As the birthplace of the Olympics, Greece entered the stadium first. The host nation, Germany, entered last. Some nations' athletes purposefully gave the Nazi salute as they passed Hitler. Others gave the Olympic salute (a similar one, given with the same arm), or a different gesture entirely, such as hats-over-hearts, as the United States and China did. All nations lowered their flags as they passed the Führer, save the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and the Commonwealth of the Philippines. (The United States doing this was explained later as an army regulation.) Writer Thomas Wolfe, who was there, described the opening as an \"almost religious event, the crowd screaming, swaying in unison and begging for Hitler. There was something scary about it; his cult of personality.\" After a speech by the president of the German Olympic Committee, the games were officially declared open by Adolf Hitler who quoted (in German): \"I proclaim open the Olympic Games of Berlin, celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the modern era.\" Hitler opened the games from his own box, on top of others. Writer David Wallechinsky has commented on the event, saying, \"This was his event, he wanted to be glorified.\" Although the Olympic flame was first introduced in the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, this was the first instance of the torch relay. The Nazis invented the concept of the torch run from ancient Olympia to the host city. Thus as swimmer Iris Cummings Critchell later related, \"once the athletes were all in place, the torch bearer ran in through the tunnel to go around the stadium\". A young man chosen for this task ran up the steps all the way up to the top of the stadium there to light a cauldron which would start this eternal flame that would burn through the duration of the games. But in spite of all the pomp and ceremony, and the glorification of Hitler, all did not go according to plan, and there was a rather humorous aspect in the opening ceremony. U.S. distance runner Louis Zamperini, one of the athletes present, related it on camera:",
"129 events in 25 disciplines, comprising 19 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1936. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Basketball and handball made their debut at the Olympics, both as outdoor sports. Handball did not appear again on the program until the next German summer Olympic games in Munich in 1972. Demonstration sports were Art, Baseball, Gliding, Wushu and Kabaddi.",
"The ten nations that won most medals at the 1936 Games.",
"Germany had a successful year in the equestrian events, winning individual and team gold in all three disciplines, as well as individual silver in dressage. In the cycling match sprint finals, the German Toni Merkens fouled Arie van Vliet of the Netherlands. Instead of being disqualified, he was fined 100 RM and kept his gold. German gymnasts Konrad Frey and Alfred Schwarzmann both won three gold medals. American Jesse Owens won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events. His German competitor Luz Long offered Owens advice after he almost failed to qualify in the long jump and was posthumously awarded the Pierre de Coubertin medal for sportsmanship. Mack Robinson, brother of Jackie Robinson, won the 200-meter sprint silver medal behind Owens by 0.4 seconds. Although he did not win a medal, future American war hero Louis Zamperini, lagging behind in the 5,000-meter final, made up ground by clocking a 56-second final lap. This effort caught the attention of German leader Adolf Hitler who personally commended Zamperini on his speed. In one of the most dramatic 800-meter races in history, American John Woodruff won gold after slowing to jogging speed in the middle of the final in order to free himself from being boxed in. Glenn Edgar Morris, a farm boy from Colorado, won gold in the decathlon. Rower Jack Beresford won his fifth Olympic medal in the sport, and his third gold medal. The U.S. eight-man rowing team from the University of Washington won the gold medal, coming from behind to defeat the Germans and Italians with Hitler in attendance. Jack Lovelock of New Zealand won the 1500 m gold medal, coming through a strong field to win in world record time of 3:47.8. In the marathon, the ethnic Koreans Sohn Kee-chung and Nam Sung-yong won one gold and one bronze medal; as Korea was annexed by Japan at the time, they were running for Japan. India won the gold medal in the field hockey event once again (they won the gold in all Olympics from 1928 to 1956), defeating Germany 8–1 in the final. However, Indians were officially considered Indo-Aryans by the Germans so there was no controversy regarding the victory. Rie Mastenbroek of the Netherlands won three gold medals and a silver in swimming. Estonia's Kristjan Palusalu won gold medals in both Men's heavyweight Wrestling styles, marking the last time Estonia competed as an independent nation in the Olympics until 1992. After winning the middleweight class, the Egyptian weightlifter Khadr El Touni continued to compete for another 45 minutes, finally exceeding the total of the German silver medalist by 35 kg. The 20-year-old El Touni lifted a total of 387.5 kg, crushing two German world champions and breaking the then-Olympic and world records, while the German lifted 352.5 kg. Furthermore, El Touni had lifted 15 kg more than the light-heavyweight gold medalist, a feat only El Touni has accomplished. El Touni's new world records stood for 13 years. Fascinated by El Touni's performance, Adolf Hitler rushed down to greet this human miracle. Prior to the competition, Hitler was said to have been sure that Rudolf Ismayr and Adolf Wagner would embarrass all other opponents. Hitler was so impressed by El Touni's domination in the middleweight class that he ordered a street named after him in Berlin's Olympic village. The Egyptian held the No. 1 position on the IWF list of history's 50 greatest weightlifters for 60 years, until the 1996 Games in Atlanta where Turkey's Naim Süleymanoğlu surpassed him to top the list. Italy's football team continued their dominance under head coach Vittorio Pozzo, winning the gold medal in these Olympics between their two consecutive World Cup victories (1934 and 1938). Much like the successes of German athletes, this triumph was claimed by supporters of Benito Mussolini's regime as a vindication of the superiority of the fascist system. Austria won the silver; a controversial win after Hitler called for a rematch of the quarterfinals match to discount Peru's 4–2 win over Austria. The Peruvian national Olympic team refused to play the match again and withdrew from the games. In the quarter-finals of the football tournament, Peru beat Austria 4–2 in extra-time. Peru rallied from a two-goal deficit in the final 15 minutes of normal time. During extra-time, Peruvian fans allegedly ran onto the field and attacked an Austrian player. In the chaos, Peru scored twice and won, 4–2. However, Austria protested and the International Olympic Committee ordered a replay without any spectators. The Peruvian government refused and their entire Olympic squad left in protest as did Colombia. A remarkable story from the track and field competition was the gold medal won by the US women's 4 × 100 m relay team. The German team were the heavy favourites, but dropped the baton at one hand-off. Of notable interest on the US team was Betty Robinson. She was the first woman ever awarded an Olympic gold medal for track and field, winning the women's 100 m event at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1931, Robinson was involved in a plane crash, and was severely injured. Her body was discovered in the wreckage and it was wrongly thought that she was dead. She was placed in the trunk of a car and taken to an undertaker, where it was discovered that she was not dead, but in a coma. She awoke from the coma seven months later, although it was another six months before she could get out of a wheelchair, and two years before she could walk normally again. Due to the length of her recovery, she had to miss participating in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, in her home country.",
"A total of 49 nations attended the Berlin Olympics, up from 37 in 1932. Five nations made their first official Olympic appearance at these Games: Afghanistan, Bermuda, Bolivia, Costa Rica and Liechtenstein.",
"Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler saw the Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy. The official Nazi party paper, the \"Völkischer Beobachter\", wrote in the strongest terms that Jewish people and Black people should not be allowed to participate in the Games. However, when threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, he relented and allowed Black people and Jewish people to participate, and added one token participant to the German team—a German woman, Helene Mayer, who had a Jewish father. At the same time, the party removed signs stating \"Jews not wanted\" and similar slogans from the city's main tourist attractions. In an attempt to \"clean up\" the host city, the German Ministry of the Interior authorized the chief of police to arrest all Romani and keep them in a \"special camp\", the Berlin-Marzahn concentration camp.",
"United States Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage became a main supporter of the Games being held in Germany, arguing that \"politics has no place in sport\", despite having initial doubts. French Olympians gave a Roman salute at the opening ceremony: known as the \"salut de Joinville\" per the battalion, the Olympic salute was part of the Olympic traditions since the 1924 games. However, due to the different context this action was mistaken by the crowd for a support to fascism (the Olympic salute was discarded after 1946). Although Haiti attended only the opening ceremony, an interesting vexillological fact was noticed: its flag and the flag of Liechtenstein were coincidentally identical, and this was not discovered until then. The following year, a crown was added to Liechtenstein's to distinguish one flag from the other. Marty Glickman and Sam Stoller were originally slated to compete in the American 4x100 relay team but were replaced by Jesse Owens and Ralph Metcalfe prior to the start of the race. There were speculations that their Jewish heritage contributed to the decision \"not to embarrass the German hosts\"; however, given that African-Americans were also heavily disliked by the Nazis, Glickman and Stoller's replacement with black American athletes Owens and Metcalfe does not support this theory. Others just say that Owens and Metcalfe were in a better physical condition, and that was the main reason behind the replacement. In 1937, Hollywood released the film \"Charlie Chan at the Olympics\". The plot concerned members of the Berlin police force helping the Chinese detective apprehend a group of spies (of unnamed nationality) trying to steal a new aerial guidance system. Despite pertaining to the Berlin Olympics, actual Games' footage used by the filmmakers was edited to remove any Nazi symbols. After the Olympics, Jewish participation in German sports was further limited, and persecution of Jews started to become ever more lethal. The Olympic Games had provided a nine-month period of relative calmness.",
"The German Olympic committee, in accordance with Nazi directives, virtually barred Germans who were Jewish or Roma or had such an ancestry from participating in the Games (Helene Mayer, who had one Jewish parent, was the only German Jew to compete at the Berlin Games). This decision meant exclusion for many of the country's top athletes such as shotputter and discus thrower Lilli Henoch, who was a four-time world record holder and 10-time German national champion, and Gretel Bergmann who was suspended from the German team just days after she set a record of 1.60 meters in the high jump. Individual Jewish athletes from a number of countries chose to boycott the Berlin Olympics, including South African Sid Kiel, and Americans Milton Green and Norman Cahners. In the United States, the American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee supported a boycott.",
"Prior to and during the Games, there was considerable debate outside Germany over whether the competition should be allowed or discontinued. Berlin had been selected by the IOC as the host city in 1931, but after Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, observers in many countries began to question the morality of going ahead with an Olympic Games hosted by the Nazi regime. A number of brief campaigns to boycott or relocate the Games emerged in the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, and the United States. Exiled German political opponents of Hitler's regime also campaigned against the Berlin Olympics through pro-Communist newspapers such as the \"Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung\". The protests were ultimately unsuccessful; forty-nine teams from around the world participated in the 1936 Games, the largest number of participating nations of any Olympics to that point.",
"Fencer Albert Wolff qualified for the French Olympic Team but boycotted the 1936 Summer Olympics, withdrawing from France's national team on principle because he was a Jew. He said: \"I cannot participate in anything sponsored by Adolf Hitler, even for France.\"",
"The Spanish government led by the newly elected left-wing Popular Front boycotted the Games and organized the People's Olympiad as a parallel event in Barcelona. Some 6,000 athletes from 49 countries registered. However, the People's Olympiad was aborted because of the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War just one day before the event was due to start.",
"The Soviet Union had not participated in international sporting events since the 1920 Olympics. The Soviet government was not invited to the 1920 Games, with the Russian Civil War still raging, and they did not participate in the 1924 Olympics and forward on ideological grounds. Instead, through the auspices of the Red Sport International, it had participated in a left-wing workers' alternative, the Spartakiad, since 1928. The USSR had intended to attend the People's Olympiad in Barcelona until it was cancelled; the Soviets did attend the Spartakiad-sponsored 1937 Workers' Summer Olympiad in Antwerp, Belgium. The Soviet Union started competing in the Olympics in 1952, when Soviet leaders realized that they can use the event to fulfil their political and ideological agenda.",
"Halet Çambel and Suat Fetgeri Așani, the first Turkish and Muslim women athletes to participate in the Olympics (fencing), refused an offer by their guide to be formally introduced to Adolf Hitler, saying they would not shake hands with him due to his approach to Jews, as stated by Ms. Çambel in a \"Milliyet\" newspaper interview in 2000.",
"Traditionally, the United States sent one of the largest teams to the Olympics, and there was a considerable debate over whether the nation should participate in the 1936 Games. Those involved in the debate on whether to boycott the Olympics included Ernest Lee Jahncke, Judge Jeremiah Mahoney, and future IOC President Avery Brundage. Some within the United States considered requesting a boycott of the Games, as to participate in the festivity might be considered a sign of support for the Nazi regime and its antisemitic policies. However, others such as Brundage (see below) argued that the Olympic Games should not reflect political views, but rather should be strictly a contest of the greatest athletes. Avery Brundage, then of the United States Olympic Committee, opposed the boycott, stating that Jewish athletes were being treated fairly and that the Games should continue. Brundage asserted that politics played no role in sports, and that they should never be entwined. Brundage also believed that there was a \"Jewish-Communist conspiracy\" that existed to keep the United States from competing in the Olympic Games. Somewhat ironically, Brundage would be later accused of being a Soviet dupe for his controversial stance on the Soviet sports system that allowed them to circumvent the amateur rules. On the subject of Jewish discrimination, he stated, \"The very foundation of the modern Olympic revival will be undermined if individual countries are allowed to restrict participation by reason of class, creed, or race.\" During a fact-finding trip that Brundage went on to Germany in 1934 to ascertain whether German Jews were being treated fairly, Brundage found no discrimination when he interviewed Jews and his Nazi handlers translated for him, and Brundage commiserated with his hosts that he belonged to a sports club in Chicago that did not allow Jews entry, either. Unlike Brundage, Jeremiah Mahoney supported a boycott of the Games. Mahoney, the president of the Amateur Athletic Union, led newspaper editors and anti-Nazi groups to protest against American participation in the Berlin Olympics. He contested that racial discrimination was a violation of Olympic rules and that participation in the Games was tantamount to support for the Third Reich. Most African-American newspapers supported participation in the Olympics. The Philadelphia \"Tribune\" and the \"Chicago Defender\" both agreed that black victories would undermine Nazi views of Aryan supremacy and spark renewed African-American pride. American Jewish organizations, meanwhile, largely opposed the Olympics. The American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee staged rallies and supported the boycott of German goods to show their disdain for American participation. The JLC organized the World Labor Athletic Carnival, held on 15 and 16 August at New York's Randall's Island, to protest the holding of the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany. Eventually, Brundage won the debate, convincing the Amateur Athletic Union to close a vote in favor of sending an American team to the Berlin Olympics. Mahoney's efforts to incite a boycott of the Olympic games in the United States failed. US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his administration did not become involved in the debate due to a tradition of allowing the US Olympic Committee to operate independently of government influence. However, several American diplomats including William E. Dodd, the American ambassador to Berlin, and George Messersmith, head of the US legation in Vienna, deplored the US Olympic Committee's decision to participate in the games."
]
} |
Fibonacci | null | Fibonacci (,, ; – ), also known as Leonardo Bonacci, Leonardo of Pisa, or Leonardo Bigollo Pisano ('Leonardo the Traveller from Pisa'), was an Italian mathematician from the Republic of Pisa, considered to be "the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages". | null | [
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"title": [
"Biography.",
"\"Liber Abaci\".",
"Fibonacci sequence.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Fibonacci was born around 1170 to Guglielmo, an Italian merchant and customs official. Guglielmo directed a trading post in Bugia, Algeria. Fibonacci travelled with him as a young boy, and it was in Bugia that he learned about the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. Fibonacci travelled around the Mediterranean coast, meeting with many merchants and learning about their systems of doing arithmetic. He soon realised the many advantages of the Hindu-Arabic system, which, unlike the Roman numerals used at the time, allowed easy calculation using a place-value system. In 1202, he completed the \"Liber Abaci\" (\"Book of Abacus\" or \"The Book of Calculation\"), which popularized Hindu–Arabic numerals in Europe. Fibonacci was a guest of Emperor Frederick II, who enjoyed mathematics and science. In 1240, the Republic of Pisa honored Fibonacci (referred to as Leonardo Bigollo) by granting him a salary in a decree that recognized him for the services that he had given to the city as an advisor on matters of accounting and instruction to citizens. Fibonacci is thought to have died between 1240 and 1250, in Pisa.",
"In the \"Liber Abaci\" (1202), Fibonacci introduced the so-called \"modus Indorum\" (method of the Indians), today known as the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. The manuscript book advocated numeration with the digits 0–9 and place value. The book showed the practical use and value of the new Hindu-Arabic numeral system by applying the numerals to commercial bookkeeping, converting weights and measures, calculation of interest, money-changing, and other applications. The book was well-received throughout educated Europe and had a profound impact on European thought. The original 1202 manuscript is not known to exist. In a 1228 copy of the manuscript, the first section introduces the Hindu-Arabic numeral system and compares the system with other systems, such as Roman numerals, and methods to convert the other numeral systems into Hindu-Arabic numerals. Replacing the Roman numeral system, its ancient Egyptian multiplication method, and using an abacus for calculations, with a Hindu-Arabic numeral system was an advance in making business calculations easier and faster, which assisted the growth of banking and accounting in Europe. The second section explains the uses of Hindu-Arabic numerals in business, for example converting different currencies, and calculating profit and interest, which were important to the growing banking industry. The book also discusses irrational numbers and prime numbers.",
"\"Liber Abaci\" posed and solved a problem involving the growth of a population of rabbits based on idealized assumptions. The solution, generation by generation, was a sequence of numbers later known as Fibonacci numbers. Although Fibonacci's \"Liber Abaci\" contains the earliest known description of the sequence outside of India, the sequence had been described by Indian mathematicians as early as the sixth century. In the Fibonacci sequence, each number is the sum of the previous two numbers. Fibonacci omitted the \"0\" included today and began the sequence with 1, 1, 2,.... He carried the calculation up to the thirteenth place, the value 233, though another manuscript carries it to the next place, the value 377. Fibonacci did not speak about the golden ratio as the limit of the ratio of consecutive numbers in this sequence.",
"In the 19th century, a statue of Fibonacci was set in Pisa. Today it is located in the western gallery of the Camposanto, historical cemetery on the Piazza dei Miracoli. There are many mathematical concepts named after Fibonacci because of a connection to the Fibonacci numbers. Examples include the Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity, the Fibonacci search technique, and the Pisano period. Beyond mathematics, namesakes of Fibonacci include the asteroid 6765 Fibonacci and the art rock band The Fibonaccis."
]
} |
Jim Courier | null | James “Jim” Spencer Courier (born August 17, 1970) is an American former world No. 1 professional tennis player. For 15 years, he has been a commentator on the Australian Open for the host broadcaster, the Seven Network, and now the Nine Network. He is also an analyst for Tennis Channel. During his career, he won four Grand Slam singles titles, two at the French Open and two at the Australian Open. He holds the record for being the youngest man to have reached the finals of all four Grand Slam singles tournaments, at the age of 22 years and 11 months. He also won five Masters 1000 series titles. Until Novak Djokovic in 2016, Courier was the last man to win both the Australian and French Open titles in the same calendar year. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-386803 | en-train-386803 | 386803 | {
"title": [
"Tennis career.",
"After retirement from top-level tennis.",
"Head-to-head.",
"Champions Series titles.",
"External links."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Courier was raised in Dade City, Florida, and though he excelled at youth sports in general, after a certain point it became clear that tennis was where his true talent lay. As a junior player in the 1980s, Courier attended the Nick Bollettieri Tennis Academy and won the prestigious Orange Bowl in 1986 and 1987 (the first to win back-to-back titles since Björn Borg), as well as the French Open junior doubles title in 1987. Courier turned professional in 1988 and made his Grand Slam breakthrough at the 1991 French Open when he defeated Stefan Edberg and Michael Stich to reach his first Grand Slam final. In the final he defeated his former Bollettieri Academy roommate Andre Agassi in five sets to win his first Slam. He made the quarterfinals of Wimbledon before losing to eventual champion Stich. At the US Open he defeated defending champion Pete Sampras in the quarterfinals and then Jimmy Connors in the semifinals, before losing the final to Edberg. 1992 saw Courier defeat Edberg to win the Australian Open, and he celebrated by jumping into the nearby Yarra River. He then followed this result by defeating future Grand Slam champions Thomas Muster, Goran Ivanišević, Agassi and Petr Korda to successfully defend his French Open title. Afterward, Courier charmed the Parisian crowd by delivering a victory speech in French. Courier also enjoyed a 25-match winning streak during the season. In February of that year, following the San Francisco tournament, he became the tenth player to reach the world no. 1 ranking since the ranking system was implemented in 1973, and the first American since John McEnroe; he finished 1992 as the world no. 1 ranked player. Courier also was a member of the US team that won the 1992 Davis Cup. In 1992 he was the top-seeded player at the Olympics in Barcelona, where he lost in the third round to eventual gold medalist Marc Rosset from Switzerland. In 1993, Courier again won the Australian Open, defeating Edberg in the final for the second consecutive year, and jumped into the Yarra a second time, but it was to be his last such celebration after contracting a stomach bug from the muddy and polluted river. He reached his third consecutive French Open final, which he lost to Sergi Bruguera in five sets. He also reached the 1993 Wimbledon final, defeating Edberg in the semifinals, and lost to Sampras in four sets. By reaching the Wimbledon final, Courier had reached the finals of all four Grand Slams at the age of 22, a record which still stands in men's singles. Courier also became the first player since Rod Laver to reach the finals of the Australian, French and Wimbledon in the same season; the feat was not matched until 2006 by Roger Federer. Courier again was part of the US team that won the 1995 Davis Cup. Courier captured a total of 23 singles titles and 6 doubles titles during his career. He spent a total of 58 weeks ranked as the World No. 1 in 1992 and 1993. He reached the finals of all four major championships during his career, a feat accomplished by only seven other players in the Open Era. Courier retired from the ATP tour in 2000. He was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2005.",
"Since his retirement as a top-level player, Courier has served as a tennis analyst and commentator for the Tennis Channel, USA Network, NBC Sports, TNT, ITV, Sky Sports and the Seven and Nine Network. Since 2005 Courier has headed the commentary for the host broadcaster of the Australian Open, which was Seven from 2005 to 2018 and Nine since 2019. Courier calls many centre court men's singles matches for the network and often conducts the post match on-court interviews with the winning player. He has also provided special comments on the network's Wimbledon coverage since 2013. Courier started working with the British channel ITV for the French Open in 2012. In 2015, Courier worked with the British channel Sky Sports for their US Open coverage. The Jim Courier Club House now stands on the grounds of the Dade City Little League complex in John S. Burks Memorial Park in Dade City, Florida. Courier is an alumnus of that Little League program. In 2004, Courier founded InsideOut Sport & Entertainment, a New York-based event production company that owns and operates the Champions Series, Legendary Nights exhibitions as well as private corporate events. He also founded Courier's Kids, a non-profit organization that supports tennis programs in the inner city of St. Petersburg, Florida. Courier currently competes on the Champions Series and in various charity exhibition matches. Jim Courier married Susanna Lingman in 2010. On October 27, 2010, Courier was named captain of the United States Davis Cup team, replacing Patrick McEnroe. Courier stepped down from the role after the 2018 semi final defeat to Croatia. Courier had led his country with a 10-8 record and two semi final appearances during his captaincy. In August 2019 Jim was working for Prime Video UK for their exclusive coverage of the US Open Tennis Championships.",
"Courier has the following head-to-head records against the listed opponents (No. 1 ranked players in boldface):",
"NOTE: In Champions Series tournaments, there are only two sets. A tiebreaker to ten is held instead of a third set.",
""
]
} |
Pete Sampras | null | Petros "Pete" Sampras (born August 12, 1971) is an American former professional tennis player. His professional career began in 1988 and ended at the 2002 US Open, which he won, defeating rival Andre Agassi in the final. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-835315 | en-train-835315 | 835315 | {
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Professional career.",
"1988: Turning professional.",
"1989: First Grand Slam match wins.",
"1990: First major title at the U.S. Open.",
"1991: Year-end Championship title.",
"1992: First Masters title.",
"1993: Wimbledon and US Open titles, world No. 1.",
"1994: Australian Open and Wimbledon title.",
"1995: Wimbledon and US Open titles, world No. 1.",
"1996: US Open title and only Wimbledon loss in an 8-year period.",
"1997: Australian Open and Wimbledon titles.",
"1998: Wimbledon title.",
"1999: Sixth Wimbledon title and loss of No. 1 ranking.",
"2000: 13 majors and return to No. 1.",
"2001: No singles title and drop in ranking.",
"2002: 14th major and retirement.",
"Career summary.",
"Post-retirement activity.",
"Rivalries.",
"Sampras vs. Agassi.",
"Sampras vs. Rafter.",
"Playing style.",
"Equipment.",
"Personal life.",
"Legacy.",
"Other awards."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"2",
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"Petros Sampras was born in Washington, D.C., the third child of Soterios \"Sammy\" and Georgia (née Vroustouris) Sampras. His mother emigrated from Sparta, Greece, and his father was born in the United States to a Greek father, Costas \"Gus\" Sampras and a Jewish mother, Sarah Steinberg. He attended regular services of the Greek Orthodox Church on Sundays. At the age of 3, he discovered a tennis racket in the basement of his home and spent hours hitting balls against the wall. In 1978, the Sampras family moved to Palos",
"",
"Sampras turned professional in 1988, at the age of 16, and finished the year ranked world No. 97 after starting the year at No. 893. His first professional match was a loss to Sammy Giammalva, Jr. at the February Ebel U.S. Pro Indoor in Philadelphia. However, just one week later, at the Lipton International Players Championships in Miami, Sampras defeated two top-40 players, before",
"The following year, Sampras slightly improved his ranking to a year-ending No. 81. He lost in the first round of the 1989 Australian Open to Christian Saceanu and, at that year's French Open, won a Grand Slam singles match for the first time in his career; in the second",
"He lost to Wilander in the quarterfinals of the tournament in Sydney. At the Australian Open, Sampras upset twelfth-ranked Mayotte in the first round before losing to thirteenth-ranked Yannick Noah in the fourth round in four sets. His first professional singles title came in February at the Ebel U.S. Pro Indoor in Philadelphia, where he defeated sixth-ranked Andre Agassi, eighth-ranked Mayotte, and eighteenth-ranked Andrés Gómez in the final. This title elevated his ranking into the top 20 for the first time. Sampras finished 1990 at No. 5, having started the year ranked No. 61 just prior to the start of the Australian Open. Sampras did not play in the 1990 French Open and again lost in the first",
"In 1991, Sampras captured the first of his five career titles at the year-end Tennis Masters Cup. Upon entering the US Open as the defending champion that year, he caused",
"In 1992, Sampras reached the quarterfinals of the French Open for the first of three consecutive years, made it to the Wimbledon semifinals, and was the runner-up at the US Open to Stefan Edberg. Sampras later stated that his loss in the US Open final that year was a \"wake-up call\" and",
"Sampras reached the semifinals of the Australian Open in early 1993, losing again to Stefan Edberg and matching the previous year's quarterfinal performance at the French Open. In April 1993, Sampras attained the No. 1 ranking for the first time. His rise to the top of the rankings was controversial because he",
"Sampras won the first of two Australian Open titles in 1994, defeating American Todd Martin in the final. He then",
"In 1995, Sampras battled with co-patriot Andre Agassi for the world No. 1 ranking. Sampras experienced one of the most emotional matches of his career, when he played Courier in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open. Sampras' longtime coach and close friend, Tim Gullikson, had mysteriously collapsed during the tournament and was forced to return to the United States. Gullikson was later diagnosed with brain cancer, to which he",
"In the year's first major, the Australian Open, the top-seeded Sampras lost to the unseeded Mark Philippoussis 6-4, 7-6, 7-6 in the tournament's third round. Sampras had what would end up being his best run ever at that year's French Open, losing in a semifinal match to the eventual winner, Yevgeny Kafelnikov, 7-6, 6-0, 6-2. In the eight Wimbledons inclusive between 1993 and 2000, 1996 was the only",
"Sampras won his second Australian Open title in January, defeating Carlos Moyá in the final. In July, he won Wimbledon for the fourth time, defeating Cédric Pioline in the final. Sampras also won singles titles in San Jose, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Munich, and Paris, and the ATP Tour World Championships in Hanover, Germany. He became",
"In 1998, Sampras's No. 1 ranking was challenged by Chilean player Marcelo Ríos. Sampras failed to defend his Australian Open title, losing in the quarterfinals to Karol Kučera, and won Wimbledon only after a hard-fought five-set victory over Goran Ivanišević. Sampras lost in the final of the Cincinnati",
"The year started with a withdrawal from the Australian Open and Sampras failed to win a title during the early part of the season. However, he then went on a 24-match winning streak, including the Stella Artois Championships, Wimbledon (equaling Roy Emerson's record of 12 Grand Slam singles titles), Los Angeles, and Cincinnati (a rematch of last year's final with Patrick Rafter). Sampras' victory over Andre Agassi in the Wimbledon final is often cited as one of the greatest performances in a Wimbledon final. Despite this, he",
"Sampras reached the semifinals of the Australian Open in early 2000, falling to the eventual champion Agassi in a five-set match. He won the Ericsson Open for the third time in March. After getting knocked out in the first round at the French Open, he won his seventh and final title at Wimbledon, battling through tendinitis in his right shin and a painful back injury in the process equalling the then all time gentleman's singles title record of William Renshaw. In the final, Sampras was",
"Sampras' 31-match Wimbledon win streak ended in a five set loss to Roger Federer, aged 19, in the fourth round; this was the only time the two tennis legends ever played an",
"In 2002, Sampras suffered an early exit from Wimbledon, losing in the second round to No. 145 fast-court specialist George Bastl of Switzerland. After that loss, Sampras asked his former coach Paul Annacone to return and coach through the US Open. Sampras had a relatively poor summer leading up to the US Open, losing at Cincinnati to No. 70-ranked Wayne Arthurs in the second round, and then being eliminated at the opening round at Long Island by No. 85. Paul-Henri Mathieu. At the US Open, Sampras was seeded 17th. Greg Rusedski, whom Sampras had defeated in a long five-set third round match at the US Open, said that Sampras was \"a step and a half slower\" and predicted",
"Sampras is widely regarded as one of the greatest tennis players of all time. Sampras won 64 top-level singles titles (including 14 Grand Slam titles, 11 Super 9/ATP Masters Series/ATP World Tour Masters 1000 titles and five Tennis Masters Cup titles) and two doubles titles. He was ranked the world No. 1 for a total of 286 weeks (the second most of all-time after Roger Federer's 310 weeks) and was year-end No. 1 for an ATP record six consecutive years from 1993 through 1998. Sampras was known for his natural attacking serve-and-volley game, all-round game, and strong competitive instinct. Sampras's best surface was undoubtedly the fast-playing grass courts, Sampras won seven Wimbledon Gentleman's Singles titles (1993–95, 1997–2000), broken only by a loss in the 1996 quarterfinals to eventual winner Richard Krajicek. Sampras's seven Wimbledon Gentleman's Singles titles, tied with William Renshaw, has only been surpassed by Roger Federer who won a record eighth Gentleman's Singles title in 2017. Sampras is lauded by many tennis analysts as one",
"On April 6, 2006, three and a half years after his retirement, Sampras resurfaced and played his first exhibition match in River Oaks, Houston, Texas, against 23-year-old Robby Ginepri. Ginepri won the match in two sets. Sampras later announced that he would be playing in World Team Tennis events. 2007 saw Sampras announcing that he would play in a few events on the Outback Champions Series, a group of tournaments for former ATP players who have met certain criteria during their careers. Sampras won his first two events on tour, defeating Todd Martin in both finals (one of which included Sampras's first trip to his ancestral homeland, Greece). Many observers noted that despite his lengthy layoff from competitive tournaments, Sampras still possessed many of the previous skills he had displayed while on the ATP tour, with commentator John McEnroe going as far as to say that Sampras would be worthy of a top five seeding at Wimbledon were he to enter the tournament. On November 20, 2007, Sampras lost the first of three exhibition matches in Asia against Roger Federer in Seoul, Korea. Two days later in Kuala Lumpur, Sampras again lost",
"",
"The rivalry has been called the greatest of the generation of players competing in the 90's, as they were the most successful players of that decade, and had a contrasting playing style, with both Sampras and Agassi being respectively considered the greatest server and the greatest serve returner of their eras. Sampras won 20 of the 34 matches he played against Agassi. The 1990 US Open was their first meeting in a Grand Slam tournament final. Agassi was favored because he was ranked",
"Sampras won 12 of the 16 matches he played against Patrick Rafter, including eight of their first nine, and their final four meetings. In 1997, Rafter won the US Open, a tournament that many expected Sampras to win, having won in 1995 and 1996. The win catapulted Rafter to the year-end no. 2 rankings behind Sampras. Seven-time Grand Slam champion John McEnroe believed Rafter to be a \"one-slam wonder\", since it was only his second career ATP title. Up to that point, Sampras was 5-1 against Rafter, and defeated Rafter three times in fall 1997 to solidify his No. 1 ATP ranking. \"We're not the best of mates,\" Rafter said of Sampras after 1997 Davis Cup semifinals, \"I wouldn't go out for a beer with him, put it that way. I don't know what the story is. There's",
"Sampras was an all-court player who would often serve and volley. Possessing an all-around skill, in the early years of his career, when not serving, his strategy was to be offensive from the baseline, put opponents in a defensive position, and finish points at the net. In his later years, he became even more offensive and would either employ a chip-and-charge strategy or try to hit an offensive shot on the return and follow his return to the net. He had an accurate and powerful first serve, one of the best of all time. He had great disguise on both his first and second serves, and his second serve was nearly as powerful as his first. He was known for producing aces on critical points, even with his second serves. Sampras was able to hit winners from both his forehand and backhand from all over the court. He was able to catch attacks wide to his forehand using his speed and hitting a forehand shot on the run. When successfully executed, he won many points outright or put opponents immediately on the defensive, due to the considerable pace and flat nature of the shot. This style did not help him on clay courts, according to some critics.",
"Sampras used one racket type, the Wilson Pro Staff Original, for his entire professional career—a racket first introduced in 1983. He played with Babolat natural gut, with all his rackets re-strung before each match (used or not) at 75 lbs tension (more or less, depending on conditions). His rackets had weight added to bring them close to 400 g, but the frame proper was a production model manufactured at a Wilson factory on the Caribbean island of St. Vincent. The handles were custom-built. Post-retirement, Sampras has used a slightly modified Pro Staff Tour",
"Sampras's mother was born in Greece and his father was born in the United States to a Greek father and Jewish mother. His older sister, Stella Sampras Webster, is the women's tennis head coach at UCLA, and his younger sister, Marion, is a teacher in Los Angeles. His older brother, Gus, has been tournament director at the Scottsdale ATP event. In 2007 he",
"Due to his achievements, Sampras is regarded by many as one of the greatest tennis players in the history of the",
"Summary of professional awards."
]
} |
Max August Zorn | null | Max August Zorn (; June 6, 1906 – March 9, 1993) was a German mathematician. He was an algebraist, group theorist, and numerical analyst. He is best known for Zorn's lemma, a method used in set theory that is applicable to a wide range of mathematical constructs such as vector spaces, ordered sets and the like. Zorn's lemma was first postulated by Kazimierz Kuratowski in 1922, and then independently by Zorn in 1935. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-513128 | en-train-513128 | 513128 | {
"title": [
"Life and career.",
"Family."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Zorn was born in Krefeld, Germany. He attended the University of Hamburg. He received his Ph.D. in April 1930 for a thesis on alternative algebras. He published his findings in \"Abhandlungen aus dem Mathematischen Seminar der Universität Hamburg\". Zorn showed that split-octonions could be represented by a mixed-style of matrices called Zorn's vector-matrix algebra. Max Zorn was appointed as an assistant at the University of Halle. However, he did not have the opportunity to work there for long since he was forced to leave Germany in 1933 because of the Nazi policies. According to grandson Eric, \"[Max] spoke with a raspy, airy voice most of his life. Few people knew why, because he only told the story after significant prodding, but he talked that way because pro-Hitler thugs who objected to his politics, had battered his throat in a 1933 street fight.\" Zorn emigrated to the U.S. and was appointed a Sterling Fellow at Yale University. While at Yale, Zorn wrote his paper \"A Remark on Method in Transfinite Algebra\" that stated his Maximum Principle, later called Zorn's lemma. It requires a set that contains the union of any chain of subsets to have one chain not contained in any other, called the maximal element. He illustrated the principle with applications in ring theory and field extensions. Zorn's lemma is an alternative expression of the axiom of choice, and thus a subject of interest in axiomatic set theory. In 1936 he moved to UCLA and remained until 1946. While at UCLA Zorn revisited his study of alternative rings and proved the existence of the nilradical of certain alternative rings. According to Angus E. Taylor, Max was his most stimulating colleague at UCLA. In 1946 Zorn became a professor at Indiana University where he taught until retiring in 1971. He was thesis advisor for Israel Nathan Herstein. Zorn died in Bloomington, Indiana, United States, in March 1993, of congestive heart failure, according to his obituary in \"The New York Times\".",
"Max Zorn married Alice Schlottau and they had one son, Jens, and one daughter, Liz. Jens (born June 19, 1931) is an emeritus professor of physics at the University of Michigan and an accomplished sculptor. Max Zorn's grandson Eric Zorn is a columnist for the \"Chicago Tribune\"."
]
} |
Google AdSense | null | Google AdSense is a program run by Google through which website publishers in the Google Network of content sites serve text, images, video, or interactive media advertisements that are targeted to the site content and audience. These advertisements are administered, sorted, and maintained by Google. They can generate revenue on either a per-click or per-impression basis. Google beta-tested a cost-per-action service, but discontinued it in October 2008 in favor of a DoubleClick offering (also owned by Google). In Q1 2014, Google earned US$3.4 billion ($13.6 billion annualized), or 22% of total revenue, through Google AdSense. AdSense is a participant in the AdChoices program, so AdSense ads typically include the triangle-shaped AdChoices icon. This program also operates on HTTP cookies. Over 11.1 million websites use AdSense. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-267438 | en-train-267438 | 267438 | {
"title": [
"Overview.",
"History.",
"Types.",
"Content.",
"Search.",
"Video.",
"Link units.",
"Discontinued types.",
"Mobile content.",
"Domains.",
"Feeds.",
"Reception."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Google uses its technology to serve advertisements based on website content, the user's geographical location, and other factors. Those wanting to advertise with Google's targeted advertisement system may enroll through Google Ads. AdSense has become one of the most popular programs specializing in creating and placing banner and responsive ads on website and blogs. Responsive ads adjust themselves based upon user's device size. These advertisements are less intrusive and the content of the advertisements is often relevant to the website. Many websites use AdSense to make revenue from their web content (website, online videos, online audio content, etc.), and it is the most popular advertising network. AdSense has proved particularly useful for generating advertising revenue for small websites that do not have sufficient resources or other major sources of revenue. To display contextually relevant advertisements on a website, webmasters place a brief Javascript code on the website's pages. Websites that are content-rich have been very successful with this advertising program, as noted in a number of publisher case studies on the AdSense website. Google has removed the policy of limiting AdSense ads to three ads per page. Now, Adsense publishers can place several AdSense ads on a page given there is sufficient content on a webpage. According to Google guidelines on ensuring proper ad placement, advertising and promotional material should not exceed page content. Some webmasters put significant effort into maximizing their AdSense income. They do this mainly by following best practices: The source of all AdSense income is the Ads program, which in turn has a complex pricing model based on a Vickrey second price auction. AdSense requires an advertiser to submit a sealed bid (i.e., a bid not observable by competitors). Additionally, for any given click received, advertisers only pay one bid increment above the second-highest bid. Google currently shares 68% of revenue generated by AdSense with content network partners, and 51% of revenue generated by AdSense with AdSense for Search partners. On June 18, 2015, Google announced rebranding of AdSense with a new logo.",
"Google launched its AdSense program, originally named content targeting advertising in March 2003. The AdSense name was originally used by Applied Semantics, a competitive offering to AdSense. The name was adopted by Google after Google acquired Applied Semantics in April 2003. Some advertisers complained that AdSense yielded worse results than Google Ads, since it served ads that related contextually to the content on a web page and that content was less likely to be related to a user's commercial desires than search results. For example, someone browsing a blog dedicated to flowers was less likely to be interested in ordering flowers than someone searching for terms related to flowers. As a result, in 2004 Google allowed its advertisers to opt out of the AdSense network. Paul Buchheit, the founder of Gmail, had the idea to run ads within Google's e-mail service. But he and others say it was Susan Wojcicki, with the backing of Sergey Brin, who organized the team that adapted that idea into an enormously successful product. By early 2005 AdSense accounted for an estimated 15 percent of Google's total revenues. In 2009, Google AdSense announced that it would now be offering new features, including the ability to \"enable multiple networks to display ads\". In February 2010, Google AdSense started using search history in contextual matching to offer more relevant ads. On January 21, 2014, Google AdSense launched Direct Campaigns, a tool where publishers may directly sell ads. This feature was retired on February 10, 2015.",
"",
"The content-based advertisements can be targeted for users with certain interest or contexts. The targeting can be CPC (cost per click) or CPM (cost per thousand impressions) based, the only significant difference in CPC and CPM is that with CPC targeting, earnings are based on clicks while CPM earnings recently are actually based not just per views/impression but on a larger scale, per thousand impression, therefore driving it from the market, which makes CPC ads more common. There are various ad sizes available for content ads. The ads can be simple text, image, animated image, flash video, video, or rich media ads. At most ad sizes, users can change whether to show both text and multimedia ads or just one of them., a grey arrow appears beneath AdSense text ads for easier identification. Google made a policy update regarding the number of ads per page, the three ads per page limit has been removed.",
"AdSense for search allows publishers to display ads relating to search terms on their site and receive 51% of the revenue generated from those ads. AdSense custom search ads can be displayed either alongside the results from an AdSense Custom Search Engine or alongside internal search results through the use of Custom Search Ads. Custom Search Ads are only available to \"white-listed\" publishers. Although the revenue share from AdSense for Search (51%) is lower than from AdSense for Content (68%) higher returns can be achieved due to the potential for higher Click Through Rates.",
"AdSense for video allows publishers with video content (e.g., video hosting websites) to generate revenue using ad placements from Google's extensive advertising network. The publisher is able to decide what type of ads are shown with their video inventory. Formats available include linear video ads (pre-roll or post-roll), overlay ads that display AdSense text and display ads over the video content, and the TrueView format. Publishers can also display companion ads - display ads that run alongside video content outside the player. AdSense for video is for publishers running video content within a player and not for YouTube publishers.",
"Link units are closely targeted to the interests of your users. Because users directly interact with the ad unit, they may be more interested in the ads they eventually see. AdSense publishers are paid for clicks on the ads that are linked from link unit topics, not for clicks on the initial topics themselves. The ads on the linked page are pay-per-click Google ads similar to those shown in regular AdSense ad units. Link Units",
"",
"AdSense for mobile content allowed publishers to generate earnings from their mobile websites using targeted Google advertisements. Just like AdSense for content, Google matches advertisements to the content of a website — in this case, a mobile website. Instead of traditional JavaScript code, technologies such as Java and Objective-C are used. As of February 2012, AdSense for Mobile Content was rolled into the core AdSense for Content offering to better reflect the lessening separation between desktop and mobile content.",
"AdSense for domains allows advertisements to be placed on domain names that have not been developed. This offers domain name owners a way to monetize (make money from) domain names that are otherwise dormant or not in use. AdSense for domains is currently being offered to all AdSense publishers, but it wasn't always available to all. On December 12, 2008, \"TechCrunch\" reported that AdSense for Domains is available for all US publishers. On February 22, 2012, Google announced that it was shutting down its Hosted AdSense for Domains program.",
"In May 2005, Google announced a limited-participation beta version of AdSense for Feeds, a version of AdSense that runs on RSS and Atom feeds that have more than 100 active subscribers. According to the Official Google Blog, \"advertisers have their ads placed in the most appropriate feed articles; publishers are paid for their original content; readers see relevant advertising—and in the long run, more quality feeds to choose from.\" AdSense for Feeds works by inserting images into a feed. When the image is displayed by a RSS reader or Web browser, Google writes the advertising content into the image that it returns. The advertisement content is chosen based on the content of the feed surrounding the image. When the user clicks the image, he or she is redirected to the advertiser's website in the same way as regular AdSense advertisements. AdSense for Feeds remained in its beta state until August 15, 2008, when it became available to all AdSense users. On December 3, 2012, Google discontinued AdSense For Feeds program.",
"Some webmasters create websites tailored to lure searchers from Google and other engines onto their AdSense website to make money from clicks. Such websites often contain nothing but a large amount of interconnected, automated content (e.g., a directory with content from the Open Directory Project, or \"scraper\" websites relying on RSS feeds for content). Possibly the most popular form of such \"AdSense farms\" are splogs (spam blogs), which are poorly written content centered around known high-paying keywords. Many of these websites reuse content from other websites, such as Wikipedia, to attract visitors. These and related approaches are considered to be search engine spam and can be reported to Google. A Made for AdSense (MFA) website or webpage has little or no content, but is filled with advertisements so that users have no choice but to click on advertisements. Such pages were tolerated in the past, but due to complaints, Google now disables such accounts. There have also been reports of Trojan horses engineered to produce counterfeit Google advertisements that are formatted looking like legitimate ones. The Trojan uploads itself onto an unsuspecting user's computer through a webpage and then replaces the original advertisements with its own set of malicious advertisements. In May 2014, Hagens Berman law firm filed a national class-action lawsuit against Google, claiming the company unlawfully denies payments to thousands of website owners and operators who place ads on their sites sold through Google AdWords. There were numerous complaints in online discussion forums about a difference in treatment for publishers from China and India, namely that sites from those locations are required to be active for six months before being eligible for AdSense. Due to alleged concerns about click fraud, Google AdSense has been criticized by some search engine optimization firms as a large source of what Google calls \"invalid clicks\", in which one company clicks on a rival's search engine advertisements to drive up the other company's costs. The payment terms for webmasters have also been criticized. Google withholds payment until an account reaches US$100, Google came under fire when the official Google AdSense Blog showcased the French video website Imineo.com. This website violated Google's AdSense Program Policies by displaying AdSense alongside sexually explicit material. Typically, websites displaying AdSense have been banned from showing such content. Using both AdSense and Google Ads may cause a website to pay Google a commission when the website advertises itself. In some cases, AdSense displays inappropriate or offensive ads. For example, in a news story about a terrorist attack in India, an advert was generated for a (presumably non-existent) educational qualification in terrorism. AdSense uses tracking cookies that are viewed by some users as a threat to privacy. AdSense terms of service require that sites using AdSense explain the use of these cookies in their privacy policy."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-2414804 | en-train-2414804 | 2414804 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Western world.",
"Classical Antiquity.",
"Middle Ages.",
"Ancient East Asia.",
"Ancient India.",
"Islamic world.",
"Persia.",
"Operation.",
"Milling corn.",
"Overshot and pitchback mills.",
"Tide mills.",
"Current status."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"There are two basic types of watermills, one powered by a vertical-waterwheel via a gear mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal-waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further divided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and reverse shot waterwheel mills.",
"",
"The Greeks invented the two main components of watermills, the waterwheel and toothed gearing, and used, along with the Romans, undershot, overshot and breastshot waterwheel mills. The earliest evidence of a water-driven wheel appears in the technical treatises \"Pneumatica\" and \"Parasceuastica\" of the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (ca. 280−220 BC). The British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis has shown that those portions of Philo of Byzantium's mechanical treatise which describe water wheels and which have been previously regarded as later Arabic interpolations, actually date back to the Greek 3rd century BC original. The sakia gear is, already fully developed, for the first time attested in a 2nd century BC Hellenistic wall painting in Ptolemaic Egypt. Lewis assigns the date of the invention of the horizontal-wheeled mill to the Greek colony of Byzantium in the first half of the 3rd century BC, and that of the vertical-wheeled mill to Ptolemaic Alexandria around 240 BC. The Greek geographer Strabon reports in his \"Geography\" a water-powered grain-mill to have existed near the palace of king Mithradates VI Eupator at Cabira, Asia Minor, before 71 BC. The Roman engineer Vitruvius has the first technical description of a watermill, dated to 40/10 BC; the device is fitted with an undershot wheel and power is transmitted via a gearing mechanism. He also seems to indicate the existence of water-powered kneading machines. The Greek epigrammatist Antipater of Thessalonica tells of an advanced overshot wheel mill around 20 BC/10 AD. He praised for its use in grinding grain and the reduction of human labour: The Roman encyclopedist Pliny mentions in his \"Naturalis Historia\" of around 70 AD water-powered trip hammers operating in the greater part of Italy. There is evidence of a fulling mill in 73/4 AD in Antioch, Roman Syria. The 2nd century AD multiple mill complex of Barbegal in southern France has been described as \"the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world\". It featured 16 overshot waterwheels to power an equal number of flour mills. The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for the 12,500 inhabitants occupying the town of Arelate at that time. A similar mill complex existed on the Janiculum hill, whose supply of flour for Rome's population was judged by emperor Aurelian important enough to be included in the Aurelian walls in the late 3rd century. A breastshot wheel mill dating to the late 2nd century AD was excavated at Les Martres-de-Veyre, France. The 3rd century AD Hierapolis water-powered stone sawmill is the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism. Further sawmills, also powered by crank and connecting rod mechanisms, are archaeologically attested for the 6th century AD water-powered stone sawmills at Gerasa and Ephesus. Literary references to water-powered marble saws in what is now Germany can be found in Ausonius 4th century AD poem Mosella. They also seem to be indicated about the same time by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia, demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the Roman Empire. The earliest turbine mill was found in Chemtou and Testour, Roman North Africa, dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. A possible water-powered furnace has been identified at Marseille, France. Mills were commonly used for grinding grain into flour (attested by Pliny the Elder), but industrial uses as fulling and sawing marble were also applied. The Romans used both fixed and floating water wheels and introduced water power to other provinces of the Roman Empire. So-called 'Greek Mills' used water wheels with a horizontal wheel (and vertical shaft). A \"Roman Mill\" features a vertical wheel (on a horizontal shaft). Greek style mills are the older and simpler of the two designs, but only operate well with high water velocities and with small diameter millstones. Roman style mills are more complicated as they require gears to transmit the power from a shaft with a horizontal axis to one with a vertical axis. Although to date only a few dozen Roman mills are archaeologically traced, the widespread use of aqueducts in the period suggests that many remain to be discovered. Recent excavations in Roman London, for example, have uncovered what appears to be a tide mill together with a possible sequence of mills worked by an aqueduct running along the side of the River Fleet. In 537 AD, ship mills were ingeniously used by the East Roman general Belisarius, when the besieging Goths cut off the water supply for those mills. These floating mills had a wheel that was attached to a boat moored in a fast flowing river.",
"The surviving evidence for watermills sharply increases with the emergence of documentary genres such as monastic charters, Christian hagiography and Germanic legal codes. These were more inclined to address watermilling, a mostly rural work process, than the ancient urban-centered literary class had been. By Carolingian times, references to watermills had become \"innumerable\" in Frankish records. The Domesday Book, compliled in 1086, records 5,624 watermills in England alone. Later research estimates a less conservative number of 6,082 that should be considered a minimum as the northern reaches of England were never properly recorded. In 1300, this number had risen to between 10,000 and 15,000. By the early 7th century, watermills were also well established in Ireland. A century later they began to spread across the former Roman Rhine and Danube frontier into the other parts of Germany. Ship mills and tide mills, both of which yet unattested for the ancient period, were introduced in the 6th century. In recent years, a number of new archaeological finds has consecutively pushed back the date of the earliest tide mills, all of which were discovered on the Irish coast: A 6th century vertical-wheeled tide mill was located at Killoteran near Waterford. A twin flume horizontal-wheeled tide mill dating to c. 630 was excavated on Little Island. Alongside it, another tide mill was found which was powered by a vertical undershot wheel. The Nendrum Monastery mill from 787 was situated on an island in Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland. Its millstones are 830mm in diameter and the horizontal wheel is estimated to have developed 7/8HP at its peak. Remains of an earlier mill dated at 619 were also found at the site. In a 2005 survey the scholar Adam Lucas identified the following first appearances of various industrial mill types in Western Europe. Noticeable is the preeminent role of France in the introduction of new innovative uses of waterpower. However, he has drawn attention to the dearth of studies of the subject in several other countries.",
"The waterwheel was found in China from 30 AD onwards, when it was used to power trip hammers, the bellows in smelting iron, and in one case, to mechanically rotate an armillary sphere for astronomical observation (see Zhang Heng). Although the British chemist and sinologist Joseph Needham speculates that the water-powered millstone could have existed in Han China by the 1st century AD, there is no sufficient literary evidence for it until the 5th century AD. In 488 AD, the mathematician and engineer Zu Chongzhi had a watermill erected which was inspected by Emperor Wu of Southern Qi (r. 482–493 AD). The engineer Yang Su of the Sui Dynasty (581–618 AD) was said to operate hundreds of them by the beginning of the 6th century. A source written in 612 AD mentions Buddhist monks arguing over the revenues gained from watermills. The Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) 'Ordinances of the Department of Waterways' written in 737 AD stated that watermills should not interrupt riverine transport and in some cases were restricted to use in certain seasons of the year. From other Tang-era sources of the 8th century, it is known that these ordinances were taken very seriously, as the government demolished many watermills owned by great families, merchants, and Buddhist abbeys that failed to acknowledge ordinances or meet government regulations. A eunuch serving Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756 AD) owned a watermill by 748 AD which employed five waterwheels that ground 300 bushels of wheat a day. By 610 or 670 AD, the watermill was introduced to Japan via Korean Peninsula. It also became known in Tibet by at least 641 AD.",
"According to Greek historical tradition, India received water-mills from the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD when a certain Metrodoros introduced \"water-mills and baths, unknown among them [the Brahmans] till then\".",
"Engineers under the Caliphates adopted watermill technology from former provinces of the Byzantine Empire, having been applied for centuries in those provinces prior to the Muslim conquests, including modern-day Syria, Jordan, Israel, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Spain (see List of ancient watermills). The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled watermills were both in widespread use by the 9th century. A variety of industrial watermills were used in the Islamic world, including gristmills, hullers, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and tide mills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial watermills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. Muslim and Middle Eastern Christian engineers also used crankshafts and water turbines, gears in watermills and water-raising machines, and dams as a source of water, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Fulling mills, and steel mills may have spread from Al-Andalus to Christian Spain in the 12th century. Industrial watermills were also employed in large factory complexes built in al-Andalus between the 11th and 13th centuries. The engineers of the Islamic world used several solutions to achieve the maximum output from a watermill. One solution was to mount them to piers of bridges to take advantage of the increased flow. Another solution was the shipmill, a type of watermill powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of ships moored in midstream. This technique was employed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in 10th-century Iraq, where large shipmills made of teak and iron could produce 10 tons of flour from corn every day for the granary in Baghdad.",
"More than 300 watermills were at work in Iran till 1960. Now only a few are still working. One of the famous ones is the water mill of Askzar and the water mill of the Yazd city, still producing flour.",
"Typically, water is diverted from a river or impoundment or mill pond to a turbine or water wheel, along a channel or pipe (variously known as a flume, head race, mill race, leat, leet, lade (Scots) or penstock). The force of the water's movement drives the blades of a wheel or turbine, which in turn rotates an axle that drives the mill's other machinery. Water leaving the wheel or turbine is drained through a tail race, but this channel may also be the head race of yet another wheel, turbine or mill. The passage of water is controlled by sluice gates that allow maintenance and some measure of flood control; large mill complexes may have dozens of sluices controlling complicated interconnected races that feed multiple buildings and industrial processes. Watermills can be divided into two kinds, one with a horizontal water wheel on a vertical axle, and the other with a vertical wheel on a horizontal axle. The oldest of these were horizontal mills in which the force of the water, striking a simple paddle wheel set horizontally in line with the flow turned a runner stone balanced on the rynd which is atop a shaft leading directly up from the wheel. The bedstone does not turn. The problem with this type of mill arose from the lack of gearing; the speed of the water directly set the maximum speed of the runner stone which, in turn, set the rate of milling. Most watermills in Britain and the United States of America had a vertical waterwheel, one of four kinds: undershot, breast-shot, overshot and pitchback wheels. This vertical produced rotary motion around a horizontal axis, which could be used (with cams) to lift hammers in a forge, fulling stocks in a fulling mill and so on.",
"However, in corn mills rotation about a vertical axis was required to drive its stones. The horizontal rotation was converted into the vertical rotation by means of gearing, which also enabled the runner stones to turn faster than the waterwheel. The usual arrangement in British and American corn mills has been for the waterwheel to turn a horizontal shaft on which is also mounted a large pit wheel. This meshes with the wallower, mounted on a vertical shaft, which turns the (larger) great spur wheel (mounted on the same shaft). This large face wheel, set with pegs, in turn, turned a smaller wheel (such as a lantern gear) known as a stone nut, which was attached to the shaft that drove the runner stone. The number of runner stones that could be turned depended directly upon the supply of water available. As waterwheel technology improved mills became more efficient, and by the 19th century, it was common for the great spur wheel to drive several stone nuts, so that a single water wheel could drive as many as four stones. Each step in the process increased the gear ratio which increased the maximum speed of the runner stone. Adjusting the sluice gate and thus the flow of the water past the main wheel allowed the miller to compensate for seasonal variations in the water supply. Finer speed adjustment was made during the milling process by \"tentering\", that is, adjusting the gap between the stones according to the water flow, the type of grain being milled, and the grade of flour required. In many mills (including the earliest) the great spur wheel turned only one stone, but there might be several mills under one roof. The earliest illustration of a single waterwheel driving more than one set of stones was drawn by Henry Beighton in 1723 and published in 1744 by J. T. Desaguliers.",
"The overshot wheel was a later innovation in waterwheels and was around two and a half times more efficient than the undershot. The undershot wheel, in which the main water wheel is simply set into the flow of the mill race, suffers from an inherent inefficiency stemming from the fact that the wheel itself, entering the water behind the main thrust of the flow driving the wheel, followed by the lift of the wheel out of the water ahead of the main thrust, actually impedes its own operation. The overshot wheel solves this problem by bringing the water flow to the top of the wheel. The water fills buckets built into the wheel, rather than the simple paddle wheel design of undershot wheels. As the buckets fill, the weight of the water starts to turn the wheel. The water spills out of the bucket on the down side into a spillway leading back to river. Since the wheel itself is set above the spillway, the water never impedes the speed of the wheel. The impulse of the water on the wheel is also harnessed in addition to the weight of the water once in the buckets. Overshot wheels require the construction of a dam on the river above the mill and a more elaborate millpond, sluice gate, mill race and spillway or tailrace. An inherent problem in the overshot mill is that it reverses the rotation of the wheel. If a miller wishes to convert a breastshot mill to an overshot wheel all the machinery in the mill has to be rebuilt to take account of the change in rotation. An alternative solution was the pitchback or backshot wheel. A launder was placed at the end of the flume on the headrace, this turned the direction of the water without much loss of energy, and the direction of rotation was maintained. Daniels Mill near Bewdley, Worcestershire is an example of a flour mill that originally used a breastshot wheel, but was converted to use a pitchback wheel. Today it operates as a breastshot mill. Larger water wheels (usually overshot steel wheels) transmit the power from a toothed annular ring that is mounted near the outer edge of the wheel. This drives the machinery using a spur gear mounted on a shaft rather than taking power from the central axle. However, the basic mode of operation remains the same; gravity drives machinery through the motion of flowing water. Toward the end of the 19th century, the invention of the Pelton wheel encouraged some mill owners to replace over- and undershot wheels with Pelton wheel turbines driven through penstocks.",
"A different type of watermill is the tide mill. This mill might be of any kind, undershot, overshot or horizontal but it does not employ a river for its power source. Instead a mole or causeway is built across the mouth of a small bay. At low tide, gates in the mole are opened allowing the bay to fill with the incoming tide. At high tide the gates are closed, trapping the water inside. At a certain point a sluice gate in the mole can be opened allowing the draining water to drive a mill wheel or wheels. This is particularly effective in places where the tidal differential is very great, such as the Bay of Fundy in Canada where the tides can rise fifty feet, or the now derelict village of Tide Mills, East Sussex. The last two examples in the United Kingdom which are restored to working conditions can be visited at Eling, Hampshire and at Woodbridge, Suffolk. \"Run of the river\" schemes do not divert water at all and usually involve undershot wheels the mills are mostly on the banks of sizeable rivers or fast flowing streams. Other watermills were set beneath large bridges where the flow of water between the stanchions was faster. At one point London bridge had so many water wheels beneath it that bargemen complained that passage through the bridge was impaired.",
"By the early 20th century, availability of cheap electrical energy made the watermill obsolete in developed countries although some smaller rural mills continued to operate commercially later throughout the century. A few historic mills such as the Water Mill, Newlin Mill and Yates Mill in the US and The Darley Mill Centre in the UK still operate for demonstration purposes. Small-scale commercial production is carried out in the UK at Daniels Mill, Little Salkeld Mill and Redbournbury Mill. Some old mills are being upgraded with modern hydropower technology, such as those worked on by the South Somerset Hydropower Group in the UK. In some developing countries, watermills are still widely used for processing grain. For example, there are thought to be 25,000 operating in Nepal, and 200,000 in India. Many of these are still of the traditional style, but some have been upgraded by replacing wooden parts with better-designed metal ones to improve the efficiency. For example, the Centre for Rural Technology in Nepal upgraded 2,400 mills between 2003 and 2007."
]
} |
Roger Moore | null | Sir Roger George Moore (14 October 192723 May 2017) was an English actor best known for playing British secret agent James Bond in seven feature films from 1973 to 1985, beginning with "Live and Let Die". His most notable television role was playing the main character, Simon Templar, in the British television series "The Saint" from 1962 to 1969. He also had roles in some American television shows and films in the late 1950s and early 1960s, including replacing James Garner and portraying Beau Maverick in the "Maverick" series in 1960–1961. Moore starred with Tony Curtis in "The Persuaders" television series in 1971 to 1972, and had roles in several theatrical films in the 1970s and 1980s. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"Early work (1945–1953).",
"MGM and \"Ivanhoe\" (1954–1959).",
"Warner Bros. (1959–1961).",
"\"The Saint\" (1962–1969).",
"Post-\"Saint\" films and \"The Persuaders!\" (1969–1972).",
"James Bond era (1973–1985).",
"\"Live and Let Die\" (1973).",
"\"The Man with the Golden Gun\" (1974) and \"The Spy Who Loved Me\" (1977).",
"\"Moonraker\" (1979).",
"\"For Your Eyes Only\" (1981) and \"Octopussy\" (1983).",
"\"A View to a Kill\" (1985).",
"Post-James Bond career (1986–2017).",
"Humanitarian work.",
"Personal life.",
"Doorn Van Steyn.",
"Dorothy Squires.",
"Luisa Mattioli.",
"Kristina \"Kiki\" Tholstrup.",
"Political alignment.",
"Tax exile.",
"Health.",
"Death.",
"Royal circles.",
"Awards and legacy.",
"Publications."
],
"section_level": [
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"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
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"content": [
"Roger Moore was born on 14 October 1927 in Stockwell, London. He was the only child of George Alfred Moore (1904-1997), a policeman (PC168E based in Bow Street, London), and Lillian \"Lily\" (Pope; 1904-1986). His mother was born in Calcutta, India, to an English family. He attended Battersea Grammar School, but was evacuated to Holsworthy in Devon during the Second World War, and attended Launceston College in Cornwall. He was further educated at Dr Challoner's Grammar School in Amersham, Buckinghamshire. Moore was apprenticed to an animation studio, but was fired after he made a mistake with some animation cels. When his father investigated a robbery at the",
"",
"Moore had some early uncredited appearances in \"Perfect Strangers\", \"Caesar and Cleopatra\" (both 1945), \"Gaiety George\", \"Piccadilly Incident\" (both 1946), and \"Trottie True\" (1949) appearing alongside an uncredited Christopher Lee (both actors being cast by Brian Desmond Hurst as stage-door Johnnies). In his book \"Last Man Standing: Tales from Tinseltown\", Moore states that his first television appearance was on 27 March 1949 in \"The Governess\" by Patrick Hamilton, a live broadcast (as usual in that era), in which he played the minor part of",
"In March 1954, MGM signed Moore to a long-term contract. He started his MGM contract with a small role in \"The Last Time I Saw Paris\" (1954), flirting with Elizabeth Taylor. He appeared in \"Interrupted Melody\", a biographical movie about opera singer Marjorie Lawrence's recovery from polio, in which he was billed third under Glenn Ford and Eleanor Parker as Lawrence's brother Cyril. That same year, he played a supporting role in the swashbuckler \"The King's Thief\" starring Ann Blyth, Edmund Purdom, David Niven and George Sanders. In the 1956 film \"Diane\", Moore was billed third again, this time under Lana Turner and Pedro Armendariz, in a 16th-century period piece set in France with Moore playing Prince Henri, the future king. Moore was released from his MGM contract after two years following the film's critical and commercial failure. In his own words, \"At MGM, RGM [Roger George Moore] was NBG [no bloody good].\"",
"After that, he spent a few years mainly doing one-shot parts in television series, including an episode of \"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\" in 1959 titled \"The Avon Emeralds\". He signed another long-term contract to a studio, this time to Warner Bros. In 1959, he took the lead role in \"The Miracle\", a version of the play \"Das Mirakel\" for Warner Bros. showcasing Carroll Baker as a nun. The part had been turned down by Dirk Bogarde. That same year, Moore was directed by Arthur Hiller in \"The Angry Young Man\", an episode of the television series \"The Third Man\" starring Michael Rennie as criminal mastermind Harry Lime,",
"Lew Grade cast Moore as Simon Templar in a new adaptation of \"The Saint\", based on the novels by Leslie Charteris. Moore said in an interview in 1963 that he wanted to buy the rights to Leslie Charteris's character and the trademarks. The television series was broadcast by ITV in the UK between 1962 and 1969, and its overseas success made Moore a household name. After",
"He made two films immediately after the series ended: \"Crossplot\" (1969), a lightweight'spy caper' movie, and the more challenging \"The Man Who Haunted Himself\" (1970). Directed by Basil Dearden, it gave Moore the opportunity to demonstrate greater versatility than the role of Simon Templar had allowed. In 2004, Moore said of \"The Man Who Haunted Himself\": \"It was one of the few times I was allowed to act... Many say my best role was in \"The Man Who Haunted Himself\". Being a modest actor, I won't disagree.\" Lew Grade lured Moore to star alongside Tony Curtis in \"The Persuaders!\". The show featured the adventures of two millionaire playboys across Europe. Moore was paid the then-unheard-of sum of £1 million for a single series, making him the highest-paid television actor in the world. Lew Grade claimed in his autobiography \"Still Dancing\", that Moore and",
"",
"Due to his commitment to several television shows, in particular \"The Saint\", Roger Moore was unavailable for the James Bond films for a considerable time. His participation in \"The Saint\" was as actor, producer, and director, and he also became involved in developing the series \"The Persuaders!\". In 1964, he made a guest appearance as James Bond in the comedy series \"Mainly Millicent\". Moore stated in his autobiography \"My Word Is My Bond\" (2008) that he had neither been approached to play the character in \"Dr. No\", nor did he feel that he had ever been considered. Only after Sean Connery had declared in 1966 that he would not play Bond",
"Moore made his second Bond movie, \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" (1974), which was a hit, though less successful than \"Live and Let Die\". It featured Christopher Lee as the main antagonist. Also appearing are Britt Ekland, Herve Villechaize, and Maud Adams. He then made a comedy \"That Lucky Touch\" (1975) which was a box office disaster. Moore made an Italian-shot action film \"Street People\" (1976), then went back to South Africa for another Klinger-Hunt movie from a Wilbur Smith novel, \"Shout at the Devil\" (1976), which was successful in Britain, though less so in the US. Lee Marvin was a main cast member. Ian Holm was also featured, as well as Barbara Parkins. Moore returned for a third outing as Bond in \"The Spy Who Loved Me\"",
"With the success of his fourth outing as Bond, \"Moonraker\" (1979), Moore followed it with an action film \"North Sea Hijack\" (1980) where Moore played a very un-Bond-like hero, opposite Anthony Perkins. The film was a box-office disappointment. Better received was \"The Sea Wolves\" (1980), another World War Two adventure which reunited many of the crew from \"The Wild Geese\" including Euan Lloyd and McLaglen. It was based on the true story of a March 1943 event",
"Moore returned for his fifth outing as Bond in \"For Your Eyes Only\" (1981). Following this film, he expressed a desire to leave the role, and other actors were screen tested including James Brolin, but Moore was eventually enticed back for \"Octopussy\" (1983). The circumstances around \"Octopussy\"'s release were highly unusual in that another James Bond movie was being released",
"Moore starred in his final Bond film, \"A View to a Kill\" (1985). Moore was the oldest actor to have played Bond – he was 45 in \"Live and Let Die\", and 58 when he announced his retirement on 3 December 1985, having played the part for over 12 years. With 7 films Moore currently holds the record for playing Bond the most number of times in the Eon series but is tied with Sean Connery in number of times playing the",
"Moore did not act on screen for five years after he stopped playing Bond; in 1990, he appeared in several films and in the writer-director Michael Feeney Callan's television series \"My Riviera\" and starred in the film \"Bed & Breakfast\" which was shot in 1989; and also had a large role in the 1996 film \"The Quest\"; in 1997, he starred as the Chief in \"Spice World\". At the age of 73, he played a flamboyant homosexual man in \"Boat Trip\" (2002) with Cuba Gooding Jr. The British satirical puppet show \"Spitting Image\" had a sketch in which their latex likeness of Moore, when asked to display emotions by an offscreen director, did nothing but raise an eyebrow; Moore himself stated that he thought the sketch was funny and took it in good humour. Indeed, he had always embraced the \"eyebrows\" gag wholeheartedly, and quipped that he \"only had three expressions as Bond: right eyebrow raised, left eyebrow raised, and eyebrows crossed when grabbed by Jaws\". \"Spitting Image\" continued the joke, featuring a Bond film spoof, \"The Man with the Wooden Delivery\", with Moore's puppet receiving orders from Margaret Thatcher to kill Mikhail Gorbachev. Other comedy shows at that",
"Moore's friend Audrey Hepburn had impressed him with her work for UNICEF, and consequently he became a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in 1991. His character, Simon Templar, made a pitch for UNICEF near the end of \"The Revolution Racket\", airing 5 Nov 1964. He was the voice",
"",
"In 1946, aged 18, Moore married a fellow RADA student, the actress and ice skater Doorn Van Steyn (born Lucy Woodard), who was six years his",
"In 1952, Moore met the Welsh singer Dorothy Squires, who was 12 years his senior, and Van Steyn and Moore divorced the following year. Squires and Moore were married in New York. They lived in Bexley, Kent, after their wedding. They moved to the United States in 1954 to develop their careers, but tension developed in their marriage due to their age difference and Moore's infatuation with starlet Dorothy Provine, and they moved back to the United Kingdom in 1961. Squires suffered a series of miscarriages during their marriage, and Moore later said the outcome of their marriage might",
"In 1961, while filming \"The Rape of the Sabine Women\" in Italy, Moore left Squires for the Italian actress Luisa Mattioli. Squires refused to accept their separation, and sued Moore for loss of conjugal rights, but Moore refused the court's order to return to Squires in 28 days. Squires also smashed windows at a house in France where Moore and Mattioli were living, and unsuccessfully sued actor Kenneth More for libel, as More had introduced Moore and Mattioli at a charity event as \"Mr",
"Moore and Mattioli separated in 1993 after Moore developed feelings for a Swedish-born Danish socialite, Kristina \"Kiki\" Tholstrup. Moore later described his prostate cancer diagnosis in 1993 as \"life-changing\", which led him to reassess his life and marriage. Mattioli and Tholstrup had long been friends, but Mattioli was scathing of her in the book she subsequently wrote about her relationship with Moore, \"Nothing Lasts Forever\", describing how she felt betrayed by Tholstrup and discarded by Moore. Moore remained silent on his divorce from Mattioli, later saying that he did not wish to hurt his children by \"engaging in a war of words\". Moore's children refused to speak to",
"On politics, Moore stated he was a conservative and thought that conservatism is the way to run a country. The BBC listed Moore prior to the 2001 UK general election as a celebrity backer of the Conservative Party. In 2011,",
"Moore became a tax exile from the United Kingdom in 1978, originally to Switzerland, and divided his year between his three homes: an apartment in Monte Carlo, Monaco; a chalet in Crans-Montana, Switzerland; and a home in the south of France. Moore became a resident of Monaco, having been appointed a Goodwill Ambassador of Monaco by Prince Albert II for his efforts in internationally promoting and publicising the principality. Moore was scathing of the Russian population in Monaco, saying, \"I'm afraid we're overstuffed with Russians. All the restaurant",
"Moore had a series of diseases during his childhood, including chickenpox, measles, mumps, double pneumonia and jaundice. He had an infection of his foreskin at the age of eight and underwent a circumcision, and had his appendix, tonsils, and adenoids removed. Moore was a long-term sufferer of kidney stones and as a result was briefly hospitalised during the making of \"Live",
"Moore's family announced his death in Switzerland, on 23 May 2017",
"Moore had friendships with some of Denmark's royal family; Prince Joachim and his then-wife Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg invited Moore and his wife Kiki to attend the christening of their youngest son, Prince Felix. In 2004 he attended the Wedding of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark, and Mary Donaldson. On 24 May 2008, Moore and his wife attended the wedding of Prince Joachim to his French fiancée Marie Cavallier.",
"Moore was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1999 New Year Honours and was promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the 2003 Birthday Honours for charitable services, especially UNICEF and latterly Kiwanis International, which had dominated his public life for more than a decade. On being knighted, Moore said that the citation \"meant far more to me than if I had got it for acting... I was proud because I received it on behalf of UNICEF as a whole and for all it has achieved over the years\". On 11 October 2007, three days before he turned 80, Moore was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his",
"Moore's book about the filming of \"Live and Let Die\", based on his diaries, titled \"Roger Moore as James Bond: Roger Moore's Own Account of Filming Live and Let Die\", was published in London in 1973, by Pan Books. The book includes an acknowledgment to Sean Connery, with whom Moore was friends for many years: \"I would also like to thank Sean Connery – \"with\" whom it would not have been possible.\" Moore's autobiography \"My Word is My Bond\" () was published by Collins in the US, in November 2008 and by Michael O'Mara Books Ltd in the UK, on 2 October 2008 (). On 16 October 2012, \"Bond on Bond\" was published to tie in with the 50th anniversary of the James Bond films. The book, with many pictures, is based on Moore's own memories, thoughts, and anecdotes about all things 007, with some of the profits of the book going to UNICEF."
]
} |
Luis Carrero Blanco | null | Luis Carrero Blanco (4 March 1904 – 20 December 1973) was a Spanish Navy officer and politician, who served as Prime Minister of Spain from June 1973 until his assassination in December of that year. He participated in the two major Spanish conflicts of the Interwar period: the Rif War in Morocco, and later the Spanish Civil War, in which he supported the Nationalist side. | null | [
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"title": [
"Life.",
"Early life.",
"Civil war.",
"Political career.",
"Death.",
"Reprisal.",
"Funeral and burial.",
"Political views.",
"Ideology and positions.",
"Works."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Luis Carrero Blanco was born on 4 March 1904 in the coastal town of Santoña, Cantabria to Camilo Carrero Gutiérrez (1879-1936), a lieutenant colonel in the Army stationed in nearby Santander, and Ángeles Blanco Abascal (1885-1910) a local woman. He had his early schooling at the Colegio Manzanedo in Santoña and in 1918, at the age of 14, he followed the family military tradition by enlisting at the Spanish Naval Academy in San Fernando. By 18, he had already achieved the rank of lieutenant, serving aboard the dreadnought \"Alfonso XIII\" and participated in the Rif War from 1924–1926. In 1926, he decided to specialise in submarine warfare, and served as lieutenant commander on the \"B-2\" and as commander on the \"B-5\". In 1929, he married María del Carmen Pichot y Villa (1909–1984) with whom he had five children.",
"At the outset of the Spanish Civil War, Carrero Blanco was a naval instructor teaching Submarine Tactics at the Naval Warfare College in Madrid. As a military man of conservative views he knew that he was marked; his brother José had already been detained and subsequently executed and his father died on the day of his arrest. Like many people who found themselves on the wrong side, he sought refuge first in the Mexican embassy and later that of France, from where he was able to cross the border from San Sebastián into France and re-enter on the Nationalist side in June 1937. Carrero Blanco then served in the Nationalist navy first as corvette captain aboard the destroyer \"Huesca\" and later the submarine \"General Sanjurjo\". Following the Nationalist victory and subsequent establishment of \"Generalísimo\" Franco as \"Caudillo\" of Spain, Carrero Blanco was appointed Chief of Naval Operations in August 1939.",
"Carrero Blanco was made Vice-Admiral in 1963 and Admiral in 1966. He was Deputy Prime Minister from 1967 to 1973. By that time, Franco even if he was still then the Head of State and concurrent Prime Minister, had already delegated the day-to-day running of the government over to Carrero Blanco himself owing to the former's old age and illness. And the latter excelled on this regard, in terms of carrying Franco's policies and in directing the ministries towards that direction. His zenith came on 8 June 1973, when being named the Prime Minister of Spain and made a top deputy to Franco, who remained as Head of State with some substantial powers in compliance with the Organic Law of the State ratified in 1967 which separated the posts of the Head of State and Prime Minister. It seemed as though it was only a matter of time before he would succeed the ailing Franco.",
"Six months after being named prime minister, Carrero Blanco was assassinated on 20 December 1973 in Madrid by four members of an ETA cell, who carried out a bombing near San Francisco de Borja Church on Calle de Serrano while he returned from daily mass in a Dodge 3700. In a collective interview justifying the attack, the ETA bombers said: In his first speech to the Cortes on 12 February 1974, Carrero Blanco's successor as prime minister Carlos Arias Navarro, promised liberalizing reforms including the right to form political associations. Though he was denounced by falangists, the transition had begun.",
"One of the members of the cell who had assassinated Carrero Blanco was himself assassinated by a car bomb in southern France on 21 December 1978 by a special team organized within the Navy. This group included a member of the Higher Centre of Defence Information secret service, another from the Naval Intelligence Service and the other belonged to the Defence High Command. In addition, it received assistance from a number of right-wing paramilitary groups through Jean-Pierre Cherid (OAS), José María Boccardo (Argentine Anticommunist Alliance) and Mario Ricci (\"Avanguardia Nazionale)\". Argala, the codename by which the ETA member was known, was the only one who could identify the source who had handed Carrero Blanco's schedule and itinerary over to ETA. According to \"Leonidas\", a former member of the Spanish Army who participated in the bombing against Argala, \"The explosives came from a US base. I don't remember exactly if it was from Torrejón or Rota, but I do know that the Americans did not know what they would be used for. It was a personal favour for Pedro el Marino\" (Pedro Martínez) who provided the explosives. Argala's assassination was claimed by the Spanish Basque Battalion. However, according to \"Leonidas\", \"BVE, ATE\" (Anti-Terrorismo ETA) or \"Triple A\" are only labels of convenience that are used by the same group.",
"Carrero Blanco's funeral, which would be one Franco's last public appearances, was held the following day at the Basilica of Saint Francis the Great, Madrid and he was buried at Mingorrubio Cemetery in the neighbouring municipality of El Pardo.",
"He himself was a monarchist. Devoted to the Roman Catholic Church, he was close to Opus Dei. In 1951, he was closely involved in the production of the film \"Dawn of America\", a patriotic work portraying Christopher Columbus' discovery of the Americas. Carrero Blanco worked on the screenplay of the film, which was strongly supported by the government for its nationalist theme.",
"Carrero did not clearly belong to any family within the regime; his ultimate identification was with the work of the Dictator; as such, he can be considered a pure Francoist. Antonio Elorza described as most distinct features of his ideology the ideas of counter-revolution, anticommunism and satanization of masonry, all according to a conspirative vision of history, in line with a \"degraded augustinianism\". Also known to have dropped antisemite diatribes, by the time of 1941 he saw the state of affairs of a world in war as follows: \"Spain, paladin of the Faith in Christ, is again (acting) against the true enemy: Judaism. (...). Because the world, even if it does not look like it, lives in a permanent war of religious type; it is the struggle of Christianism against Judaism. War to the death, as the fight of good against evil should be.\" Carrero, who held paternalist views when assessing the Spanish presence in Africa, was refractory towards the acceptance of the decolonisation process. As he declared that the Western Sahara \"had not ever been controlled by the Moroccan Empire\", he defended that the territory was \"as Spanish as the province of Cuenca is\". Openly germanophile in his articles written for the \"Mundo\" magazine during the first part of World War II, after the turn in the conflict against the Axis Powers in 1943, he modulated his hostile discourse towards the Allied Powers in those pieces; finally, after the defeat of the Axis, he had wholly replaced the message attacking the liberal democracies by a merely anti-soviet one. A defender of the idea that the victory of the Francoist side in the Civil War had happened \"\"despite\"\" an alleged international conspiration against the former, years later, in the 1950s, he insisted again: \"this is precisely the Spanish problem, Spain want to implement the Good, and the forces of Evil, unleashed upon the world, try to prevent her from doing it\". He was reportedly among the endorsers of the so-called \"\"Proyecto Islero\"\", an alleged secret plan to develop a nuclear weapon for Spain. Regarding the future of a post-Franco Spain, Carrero, along López Rodó, envisaged and promoted the idea of an authoritarian monarchy guaranteeing the continuity of Francoism.",
"Carrero Blanco wrote a number of books on the Spanish navy and Spanish naval military history, as well as political treatises on Communism and Freemasonry (under the pseudonym Juan de la Cosa)."
]
} |
Cultural monument (Czech Republic) | null | The cultural monuments of the Czech Republic (Czech: "kulturní památka") are protected properties (both real and movable properties) designated by the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic. Cultural monuments that constitute the most important part of the Czech cultural heritage may be declared national cultural monuments (Czech: "národní kulturní památka") by a regulation of the Government of the Czech Republic. Government may also proclaim a territory, whose character and environment is determined by a group of immovable cultural monuments or archaeological finds, as a whole, as a monument reservation. Ministry of Culture may proclaim a territory of a settlement with a smaller number of cultural monuments, historical environment or part of a landscape area that display significant cultural values as a monument zone. | null | [
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"title": [
"Proclaiming Objects as Cultural Monuments.",
"Cancelling of Proclamation of an Object as a Cultural Monument.",
"1991.",
"1992.",
"1995.",
"Administration.",
"Central List.",
"Monument reservations.",
"Monument zones.",
"Funding.",
"Funding Programs.",
"\"Architectural Heritage Conservation Program\".",
"\"Emergency program\".",
"\"Program of regeneration of urban conservation areas and zones\".",
"\"Program of care for village conservation areas and zones and for landscape conservation zones\".",
"\"Program of restoration of movable cultural monuments\".",
"\"Support for the restoration of cultural monuments through municipalities with extended powers\".",
"\"UNESCO Monuments Support Program\".",
"\"Cultural activities in monument conservation Program\".",
"Classification."
],
"section_level": [
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"1",
"2",
"3",
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"2"
],
"content": [
"The criteria for declaring an object a cultural monument, as well as the rules of their protection and management are defined in Act 20/1987 Coll., on State Heritage Preservation. The criteria include objects that are an \"important record of historical development, way of life and environment of society from the most ancient times to the present day, as a display of creative skills and work of humankind from the various fields of human activities, for their revolutionary, historic, artistic, scientific and technical values, [or] that have a direct relation to important personalities and historic events\".",
"Unless a national cultural monument is involved, the Ministry of Culture may, on extremely serious grounds, cancel the proclamation of an object as a cultural monument at the request of the owner or of an organization which demonstrates a legal interest in the cancelling of the cultural monument status or at its own initiative. Following the Velvet Revolution the national cultural monument designation was removed from the commemorative sites of the workers' movement, however some of these buildings are still protected as cultural monuments.",
"The protection was canceled by the Government Decree No. 112/1991 Coll. for these monuments: In May 1991 the status was also removed from the Monument to Soviet Tank Crews in Prague.",
"By the government decree No. 404/1992 Coll. cultural monument status was withdrawn from Tábor historical center at the request of the city authorities because the designation prevented the property restitution in the city. At same time the existing cultural monuments of the Old Town Hall (NKP no. 122) and Kotnov Castle with the Bechyně Gate (NKP no. 123) were promoted to the national cultural monuments.",
"Protection was repealed by Government Decree No. 262/1995 Coll. for these monuments:",
"The Ministry of Culture is the central body of the state administration for cultural monuments. The National Heritage Institute (\"Czech:\" NPÚ) is the biggest state-funded organisation under the Culture Ministry of the Czech Republic. Under the current laws it is entrusted with a number of expert tasks related to the state heritage conservation. The institute manages all the state-owned monuments. As of 2019 there are over a hundred castles, chateaux and other monuments under the NPÚ management. It also maintains the Central List of Cultural Monuments of the Czech Republic and the Tentative List of cultural monuments which the Czech republic intends to consider for nomination for the World Heritage List. The institute is also required to provide free advice on the conservation, maintenance and renovation of the monuments, and provide expert supervision during their restoration and renovation. The Ministry has also established a monument inspectorate as its specialized supervisory body in the area of state monument care. The main mission of the monument inspectorate is to exercise central supervision over compliance with this Act 20/1987 and with regulations issued for its implementation. Each municipality manages cultural monuments within its territory. Municipalities with extended powers then carry out delegated state administration in the area of monument preservation, especially state building supervision during the monument restoration; they oversee the compliance with the law.",
"Central List of Cultural Monuments of the Czech Republic contains both the immovable and movable objects. One index number identifies both a single item (for example a building, a painting) or a set of buildings or items (for example castle grounds, chateau furniture). Thus, the number of cultural monuments on the list (currently almost 89,000 entries) does not reflect the actual count of the protected objects - in reality there are more than two millions individual pieces, many of them recorded under the same index number. There are almost 40 thousand immovable objects like historical buildings, archaeological sites, industrial monuments, folk architecture. The movable objects include works of art, valuable handicrafts, historical library collections and original furnishings of castles and chateaux and sacral buildings. There are hundreds of thousands of such items, almost 49 thousand items are protected as cultural monuments. Unlike the immovable monuments data on movable monuments are not publicly accessible due to theft and personal data protection.",
"Areas with sets of immovable cultural monuments preserved in the original historical environment or sites with archaeological finds can be declared as conservation areas. These are mainly the historical town or village centers. The Government of the Czech Republic defines them by government decree. In the Czech Republic there are urban, village and archaeological monument reservations.",
"The monument zone can be a city or part of it or a part of a landscape unit, which show significant cultural values. In the Czech Republic there are urban, village and landscape monument zones. All are proclaimed by the Ministry of Culture.",
"The owner of a cultural monument needs to care for its conservation, to keep it in good condition and to protect it at his/her own expense. The owner is entitled for free professional advice when providing care for the monument. Since repairing a monument usually requires a specific approach like the use of traditional materials and technologies which may prove costly, the owner has an option to apply for various grants offered by some institutions in the Czech republic, namely by the Ministry of Culture, or for funding available through the European Structural Funds. Financial support is also offered directly by some regional authorities, however the programs differ from region to region.",
"The Ministry of Culture may provide a contribution to the restoration of a cultural monument from the state budget if there is an extraordinary social interest in preserving the cultural monument (for example, if the monument is one of its kind, or if the monument is in a state of disrepair not caused by its owner or if the monument is included in one of the specialized contribution programs offered by the Ministry of Culture). The grant recipients can be individuals, municipalities and legal entities established by them, churches, nonprofit organizations, legal entities, regions. Every year the Ministry publishes an evaluation report for six of the programs listed below. The report shows the total CZK amount allocated to the 14 regions of the Czech republic broken up by the recipient type and the monument type.",
"The program provides contributions to the restoration of the most valuable pieces of the architectural heritage (for example, castles, chateaux, monasteries, historical gardens, churches). In 2018 the Church received the bulk of the contributions.",
"The program provides contributions to ensure the most urgent repairs of the immovable cultural monuments. In 2018 the Church received the bulk of the contributions.",
"This program provides contributions to the restoration of cultural monuments located in the most valuable parts of historic cities declared as conservation areas or zones. In 2018 municipalities received the bulk of the contributions.",
"This program provides contributions to the restoration of cultural monuments located in rural monument reserves and in rural and landscape conservation zones (for example the folk architecture monuments). In 2018 individuals received the bulk of the contributions.",
"This program provides contributions to the restoration of movable cultural monuments, in particular important works of fine art or handicrafts placed in buildings open to the public for cultural, educational or religious purposes (e.g. paintings and sculptures in churches). In 2018 the Church received the bulk of the contributions.",
"It was founded in 2008 to allow funding where other programs of the Ministry of Culture do not apply. The funds in the Program are intended for the preservation and restoration of immovable cultural monuments that are located outside the historical reserves and zones, are not national cultural monuments and are not owned by the Czech Republic. In 2018 the Church received the bulk of the contributions.",
"The UNESCO Support Program was created in 2008. Its main objective is to meet the Czech Republic's obligations arising from the adoption of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The purpose of the program is to support the upkeep of the Czech monuments registered on the World Heritage List.",
"It allows financial support of publicly beneficial projects submitted by associations, whose activities help to protect the immovable and movable heritage fund in the Czech Republic and who contribute to the popularization of its care.",
"There are many different ways how to classify the monuments. Two of the most common are the classification by type according to Jaroslav Herout and the one listed in the Czech Tourism Atlas."
]
} |
Entablature | null | An entablature (; nativization of Italian, from "in" and "table") is the superstructure of moldings and bands which lies horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of classical architecture, and are commonly divided into the architrave (the supporting member immediately above; equivalent to the lintel in post and lintel construction), the frieze (an unmolded strip that may or may not be ornamented), and the cornice (the projecting member below the pediment). The Greek and Roman temples are believed to be based on wooden structures, the design transition from wooden to stone structures being called petrification. | null | [
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"title": [
"Overview.",
"Doric.",
"Ionic.",
"Corinthian.",
"Non-classical architecture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The structure of an entablature varies with the orders of architecture. In each order, the proportions of the subdivisions (architrave, frieze, cornice) are defined by the proportions of the column. In Roman and Renaissance interpretations, it is usually approximately a quarter of the height of the column. Variants of entablature that do not fit these models are usually derived from them.",
"In the pure classical Doric order entablature is simple. The architrave, the lowest band, is split, from bottom to top, into the guttae, the regulae, and the taenia. The frieze is dominated by the triglyphs, vertically channelled tablets, separated by metopes, which may or may not be decorated. The triglyphs sit on top of the taenia, a flat, thin, horizontal protrusion, and are finished at the bottom by decoration (often ornate) of 'drops' called guttae, which belong to the top of the architrave. The top of the triglyphs meet the protrusion of the cornice from the entablature. The underside of this protrusion is decorated with mutules, tablets that are typically finished with guttae. The cornice is split into the soffit, the corona, and the cymatium. The soffit is simply the exposed underside. The corona and the cymatium are the principal parts of the cornice.",
"The Ionic order of entablature adds the fascia in the architrave, which are flat horizontal protrusions, and the dentils under the cornice, which are tooth-like rectangular block moldings.",
"The Corinthian order adds a far more ornate cornice, divided, from bottom to top, into the cyma reversa, the dentils, the ovolo, the modillions, the fascia, and the cyma recta. The modillions are ornate brackets, similar in use to dentils, but often in the shape of acanthus leaves. The frieze is sometimes omitted—for example, on the portico of the caryatides of the Erechtheum—and probably did not exist as a structure in the temple of Diana at Ephesus. Neither is it found in the Lycian tombs, which are reproductions in the rock of timber structures based on early Ionian work. The entablature is essentially an evolution of the primitive lintel, which spans two posts, supporting the ends of the roof rafters.",
"The entablature together with the system of classical columns occurs rarely outside classical architecture. It is often used to complete the upper portion of a wall where columns are not present, and in the case of pilasters (flattened columns or projecting from a wall) or detached or engaged columns it is sometimes profiled around them. The use of the entablature, irrespective of columns, appeared after the Renaissance."
]
} |
Mars Climate Orbiter | null | The Mars Climate Orbiter (formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter) was a robotic space probe launched by NASA on December 11, 1998 to study the Martian climate, Martian atmosphere, and surface changes and to act as the communications relay in the Mars Surveyor '98 program for Mars Polar Lander. However, on September 23, 1999, communication with the spacecraft was lost as the spacecraft went into orbital insertion, due to ground-based computer software which produced output in non-SI units of pound-force seconds (lbf·s) instead of the SI units of newton-seconds (N·s) specified in the contract between NASA and Lockheed. The spacecraft encountered Mars on a trajectory that brought it too close to the planet, and it was either destroyed in the atmosphere or re-entered heliocentric space after leaving Mars' atmosphere. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-19297 | en-train-19297 | 19297 | {
"title": [
"Mission background.",
"History.",
"Spacecraft design.",
"Scientific instruments.",
"Mission profile.",
"Launch and trajectory.",
"Encounter with Mars.",
"Cause of failure."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"After the loss of Mars Observer and the onset of the rising costs associated with the future International Space Station, NASA began seeking less expensive, smaller probes for scientific interplanetary missions. In 1994, the Panel on Small Spacecraft Technology was established to set guidelines for future miniature spacecraft. The panel determined that the new line of miniature spacecraft should be under with highly focused instrumentation. In 1995, a new Mars Surveyor program began as a set of missions designed with limited objectives, low costs, and frequent launches. The first mission in the new program was Mars Global Surveyor, launched in 1996 to map Mars and provide geologic data using instruments intended for Mars Observer. Following Mars Global Surveyor, \"Mars Climate Orbiter\" carried two instruments, one originally intended for Mars Observer, to study the climate and weather of Mars. The primary science objectives of the mission included:",
"The \"Mars Climate Orbiter\" bus measured tall, wide and deep. The internal structure was largely constructed with graphite composite/aluminum honeycomb supports, a design found in many commercial airplanes. With the exception of the scientific instruments, battery and main engine, the spacecraft included dual redundancy on the most important systems. The spacecraft was 3-axis stabilized and included eight hydrazine monopropellant thrusters \"(four thrusters to perform trajectory corrections; four thrusters to control attitude)\". Orientation of the spacecraft was determined by a star tracker, two Sun sensors and two inertial measurement units. Orientation was controlled by firing the thrusters or using three reaction wheels. To perform the Mars orbital insertion maneuver, the spacecraft also included a LEROS 1B main engine rocket, providing of thrust by burning hydrazine fuel with nitrogen tetroxide (NTO) oxidizer. The spacecraft included a high-gain antenna to transceive data with the Deep Space Network over the x-band. The radio transponder designed for the Cassini–Huygens mission was used as a cost-saving measure. It also included a two-way UHF radio frequency system to relay communications with Mars Polar Lander upon an expected landing on December 3, 1999. The space probe was powered with a 3-panel solar array, providing an average of at Mars. Deployed, the solar array measured in length. Power was stored in 12-cell, 16-amp-hour Nickel hydrogen batteries. The batteries were intended to be recharged when the solar array received sunlight and power the spacecraft as it passed into the shadow of Mars. When entering into orbit around Mars, the solar array was to be utilized in the aerobraking maneuver, to slow the spacecraft until a circular orbit was achieved. The design was largely adapted from guidelines from the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative outlined in the book, \"Technology for Small Spacecraft\". In an effort to simplify previous implementations of computers on spacecraft, \"Mars Climate Orbiter\" featured a single computer using an IBM RAD6000 processor capable of, and operations. Data storage was to be maintained on 128 MB of random-access memory (RAM) and 18 MB of flash memory. The flash memory was intended to be used for highly important data, including triplicate copies of the flight system software. The cost of the mission was $327.6 million total for the orbiter and lander, comprising $193.1 million for spacecraft development, $91.7 million for launching it, and $42.8 million for mission operations.",
"The Pressure Modulated Infrared Radiometer (PMIRR) uses narrow-band radiometric channels and two pressure modulation cells to measure atmospheric and surface emissions in the thermal infrared and a visible channel to measure dust particles and condensates in the atmosphere and on the surface at varying longitudes and seasons. Its principal investigator was Daniel McCleese at JPL/CALTECH. Similar objectives were later achieved with \"Mars Climate Sounder\" on board \"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\". Its objectives: The Mars Color Imager (MARCI) is a two-camera (medium-angle/wide-angle) imaging system designed to obtain pictures of the Martian surface and atmosphere. Under proper conditions, resolutions up to are possible. The principal investigator on this project was Michael Malin at Malin Space Science Systems and the project was reincorporated on \"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\". Its objectives:",
"",
"The \"Mars Climate Orbiter\" probe was launched on December 11, 1998 at 18:45:51 UTC by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from Space Launch Complex 17A at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida, aboard a Delta II 7425 launch vehicle. The complete burn sequence lasted 42 minutes bringing the spacecraft into a Hohmann transfer orbit, sending the probe into a 9.5 months, trajectory. At launch, \"Mars Climate Orbiter\" weighed including propellant.",
"\"Mars Climate Orbiter\" began the planned orbital insertion maneuver on September 23, 1999 at 09:00:46 UTC. \"Mars Climate Orbiter\" went out of radio contact when the spacecraft passed behind Mars at 09:04:52 UTC, 49 seconds earlier than expected, and communication was never reestablished. Due to complications arising from human error, the spacecraft encountered Mars at a lower than anticipated altitude and it was either destroyed in the atmosphere or re-entered heliocentric space after leaving Mars' atmosphere. \"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter\" has since completed most of the intended objectives for this mission.",
"On November 10, 1999, the \"Mars Climate Orbiter\" Mishap Investigation Board released a Phase I report, detailing the suspected issues encountered with the loss of the spacecraft. Previously, on September 8, 1999, Trajectory Correction Maneuver-4 (TCM-4) was computed and then executed on September 15, 1999. It was intended to place the spacecraft at an optimal position for an orbital insertion maneuver that would bring the spacecraft around Mars at an altitude of on September 23, 1999. However, during the week between TCM-4 and the orbital insertion maneuver, the navigation team indicated the altitude may be much lower than intended at. Twenty-four hours prior to orbital insertion, calculations placed the orbiter at an altitude of ; is the minimum altitude that \"Mars Climate Orbiter\" was thought to be capable of surviving during this maneuver. Post-failure calculations showed that the spacecraft was on a trajectory that would have taken the orbiter within of the surface, where the spacecraft likely skipped violently on the uppermost atmosphere and was either destroyed in the atmosphere or re-entered heliocentric space. The primary cause of this discrepancy was that one piece of ground software supplied by Lockheed Martin produced results in a United States customary unit, contrary to its Software Interface Specification (SIS), while a second system, supplied by NASA, expected those results to be in SI units, in accordance with the SIS. Specifically, software that calculated the total impulse produced by thruster firings produced results in pound-force seconds. The trajectory calculation software then used these results – expected to be in newton seconds (incorrect by a factor of 4.45) – to update the predicted position of the spacecraft. Still, NASA does not place the responsibility on Lockheed for the mission loss; instead, various officials at NASA have stated that NASA itself was at fault for failing to make the appropriate checks and tests that would have caught the discrepancy. The discrepancy between calculated and measured position, resulting in the discrepancy between desired and actual orbit insertion altitude, had been noticed earlier by at least two navigators, whose concerns were dismissed because they \"did not follow the rules about filling out [the] form to document their concerns\". A meeting of trajectory software engineers, trajectory software operators (navigators), propulsion engineers, and managers was convened to consider the possibility of executing Trajectory Correction Maneuver-5, which was in the schedule. Attendees of the meeting recall an agreement to conduct TCM-5, but it was ultimately not done."
]
} |
Maurice René Fréchet | null | Maurice René Fréchet (; 2 September 1878 – 4 June 1973) was a French mathematician. He made major contributions to the topology of point sets and introduced the entire concept of metric spaces. He also made several important contributions to the field of statistics and probability, as well as calculus. His dissertation opened the entire field of functionals on metric spaces and introduced the notion of compactness. Independently of Riesz, he discovered the representation theorem in the space of Lebesgue square integrable functions. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-38771 | en-train-38771 | 38771 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Early life.",
"Middle life.",
"First World War.",
"After the war.",
"Main works.",
"Family.",
"External links."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"He was born to a Protestant family in Maligny, Yonne to Jacques and Zoé Fréchet. At the time of his birth, his father was a director of a Protestant orphanage in Maligny and was later in his youth appointed a head of a Protestant school. However, the newly established Third Republic was not sympathetic to religious education and so the laws were enacted requiring all education to be secular. As a result, his father lost his job. To generate some income his mother set up a boarding house for foreigners in Paris. His father was able later to obtain another teaching position within the secular system – it was not a job of a headship, however, and the family could not expect as high standards as they might have otherwise. Maurice attended the secondary school Lycée Buffon in Paris where he was taught mathematics by Jacques Hadamard. Hadamard recognised the potential of young Maurice and decided to tutor him on an individual basis. After Hadamard moved to the University of Bordeaux in 1894, Hadamard continuously wrote to Fréchet, setting him mathematical problems and harshly criticising his errors. Much later Fréchet admitted that the problems caused him to live in a continual fear of not being able to solve some of them, even though he was very grateful for the special relationship with Hadamard he was privileged to enjoy. After completing high-school Fréchet was required to enroll in the military service. This is the time when he was deciding whether to study mathematics or physics – he chose mathematics out of dislike of chemistry classes he would have had to take otherwise. Thus in 1900 he enrolled to École Normale Supérieure to study mathematics. He started publishing quite early, having published four papers in 1903. He also published some of his early papers in the American Mathematical Society due to his contact with American mathematicians in Paris—particularly Edwin Wilson.",
"Fréchet served at many different institutions during his academic career. From 1907–1908 he served as a professor of mathematics at the Lycée in Besançon, then moved in 1908 to the Lycée in Nantes to stay there for a year. After that he served at the University of Poitiers between 1910–1919. He married in 1908 to Suzanne Carrive (1881–1945) and had four children: Hélène, Henri, Denise and Alain.",
"Fréchet was planning to spend a year in the United States at the University of Illinois but his plan was disrupted when the First World War broke out in 1914. He was mobilised on 4 August the same year. Because of his diverse language skills, gained when his mother ran the establishment for foreigners, he served as an interpreter for the British Army. However, this was not a safe job; he spent two and a half years very near to or at the front. French egalitarian ideals caused many academics to be mobilised. They served in the trenches and many of them were lost during the war. It is remarkable that during his service in the war, he still managed to produce cutting edge mathematical papers frequently, despite having little time to devote to mathematics.",
"After the end of the war, Fréchet was chosen to go to Strasbourg to help with the reestablishment of the university. He served as a professor of higher analysis and Director of the Mathematics Institute. Despite being burdened with administrative work, he was again able to produce a large amount of high quality research. In 1928 Fréchet decided to move back to Paris, thanks to encouragement from Borel, who was then Chair in the Calculus of Probabilities and Mathematical Physics at the Sorbonne. Fréchet briefly held a position of lecturer at the Sorbonne's Rockefeller Foundation and from 1928 was a Professor (without a Chair). Fréchet was promoted to tenured Chair of General Mathematics in 1933 and to Chair of Differential and Integral Calculus in 1935. In 1941 Fréchet succeeded Borel as Chair in the Calculus of Probabilities and Mathematical Physics, a position Fréchet held until he retired in 1949. From 1928 to 1935 Fréchet was also put in charge of lectures at the École Normale Supérieure; in this latter capacity Fréchet was able to direct a significant number of young mathematicians toward research in probability, including Doeblin, Fortet, Loeve, and Ville. Despite his major achievements, Fréchet was not overly appreciated in France. As an illustration, while being nominated numerous times, he was not elected a member of the Academy of Sciences until the age of 78. In 1929 he became foreign member of the Polish Academy of Science and Arts and in 1950 foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Fréchet was an Esperantist, publishing some papers and articles in that constructed language. He also served as president of the \"Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista\" (\"International Scientific Esperantist Association\") from 1950–53.",
"His first major work was his outstanding 1906 PhD thesis \"Sur quelques points du calcul fonctionnel\", on the calculus of functionals. Here Fréchet introduced the concept of a metric space, although the name is due to Hausdorff. Fréchet's level of abstraction is similar to that in group theory, proving theorems within a carefully chosen axiomatic system which can then be applied to a large array of particular cases. Here is a list of his most important works, in chronological order: Fréchet also developed ideas from the article \"Deux types fondamentaux de distribution statistique\" (1938; an English translation \"The Two Fundamental Types of Statistical Distribution\") of Czech geographer, demographer and statistician Jaromír Korčák. Fréchet is sometimes credited with the introduction of what is now known as the Cramér–Rao bound, but Fréchet's 1940s lecture notes on the topic appear to have been lost.",
"In 1908 he married Suzanne Carrive.",
""
]
} |
Crane (rail) | null | A railroad crane (North America: crane car or wrecker; UK: breakdown crane) is a type of crane used on a railroad for one of three primary purposes: freight handling in goods yards, permanent way (PW) maintenance, and accident recovery work. Although the design differs according to the type of work, the basic configuration is similar in all cases: a rotating crane body is mounted on a sturdy chassis fitted with flanged wheels. The body supports the jib (UK; North America: boom) and provides all the lifting and operating mechanisms; on larger cranes, an operator's cabin is usually provided. The chassis is fitted with buffing (UK) and/or coupling gear to allow the crane to be moved by a locomotive, although many are also self-propelled to allow limited movement about a work site. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-733854 | en-train-733854 | 733854 | {
"title": [
"Usage.",
"Goods yard cranes.",
"Maintenance cranes.",
"Breakdown cranes.",
"Construction.",
"History.",
"Preservation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Railroad cranes are usually designed specifically for one of three purposes:",
"Usually the smallest of the railroad cranes, goods yard cranes were used in the larger goods yards to provide lifting capability in areas away from the ground-mounted goods cranes normally provided in such yards. They were often small enough to be operated by hand, and were not normally self-propelled, instead requiring the use of a shunting engine to move them into position. Once cheap road-going mobile cranes were available, these superseded the rail-mounted variety due to their greater flexibility and mobility.",
"The most varied forms of crane are used for maintenance work. General purpose cranes may be used for installing signalling equipment or pointwork, for example, while more specialised types are used for track laying.",
"The largest cranes are used for accident recovery work, usually forming part of a breakdown train that includes staff accommodation and recovery equipment. These are large enough to lift derailed rolling stock back onto the track, although two or more cranes may be required to safely recover a locomotive. In North American terminology, a 'breakdown crane' is often referred to as a 'wrecker' and the train of which it is a part is referred to as a 'wreck train'. The members of the crew that recovers the wrecked car(s) or locomotive(s) are referred to as 'wreckers'.",
"A railroad crane generally resembles a conventional fixed-location crane except that the platform the crane sits on is a heavy-duty reinforced flat car. Directly underneath the center of gravity for the crane is a pivot point that allows the crane to swivel around 360°; in this way the crane can locate its boom over the worksite no matter what its location is along the track. The trucks on the car under the crane will often include traction motors so that the crane is able to move itself along the track, and possibly tow additional cars. Larger cranes may be provided with outriggers to provide additional stability when lifting. Sleepers (ties) are often carried on the idler car to put under the outriggers to spread the weight applied to the trackbed. Breakdown cranes (sometimes called wrecking cranes or 'big hooks') were necessary to every railroad to recover derailed rolling stock and locomotives, while also assisting with bridge building and yard construction.",
"In the early days of the railways, locomotives and rolling stock were small enough to be re-railed manually using jacks and tackle, but as they became bigger and heavier this method became inadequate. Enter into this the steam crane and cable winch. Appearing about 1890, the cranes (the proper rail terminology is “Derrick”) increased in size, commensurate with the rise of steel Pullman cars, so by 1910 steam cranes reached their peak of development (on the railroad). Many of these 1910-era cranes were so useful and powerful, that they remained in service until the 1980s. The combination of a quick-firing steam boiler, heavy steam winch, and cable hook could little be improved upon, and thus remained in service. Also, steam engines did not mind being parked for months, with a little care, and were ready to go to work when needed. In the 1980s, big, hydraulic controlled diesel cranes appeared. Also, these cranes had the ability to travel on the highway so as to better able to get to the scene of an accident. They are much more mobile, and are able to manoeuvre around an accident scene, better than a crane only limited to rail access. In the United States the advent of contractors to cleanup and re-rail a line to productive status came in around the late 1970s and early 1980s. The use of caterpillar tractor mounted sidebooms (pipelayers) enabled the contractors to mobilize around a site without having the need for crane mats and multiple lifting locations. In the 1990s a new generation of railway cranes was developed. While the conventional diesel hydraulic road cranes were adopted with some small trolleys to move on the rail track, the new generation had a professional high speed railway chassis for up to. The superstructure is also diesel hydraulic with telescopic boom and counterweight and designed to the railway's specific needs. These cranes can travel with suspended loads and keep levelled even on an elevated track, due to the automatic cant compensation. It is possible to work on one outrigger only, work with boom in horizontal position under bridges or under the overhead wires. Capacities are as high as 200 tonnes. It makes this new generation useful for maintenance work and switch and crossing renewal, as well as recovery work.",
"Most heritage railways in the UK have one or more preserved railway cranes, either just as historic exhibits, or as fully functioning examples assisting with the operation of the railway. Although not normally required for re-railing activities, they are exceptionally useful for track relaying and the restoration of locomotives and rolling stock, and help to avoid expenditure on outside contractors. Three cranes of various sizes are preserved at the Western Pacific Railroad Museum at Portola, California. They are all cranes once owned by the Western Pacific Railroad and two of them, a small, self-propelled Burro Crane and a large, 200-ton capacity Industrial Brownhoist crane, are maintained in operable condition. All Japanese railway cranes had already retired. Road cranes are used for re-railing and maintenance works. Type \"so-30\" railway crane for accident recovery is preserved at Otaru synthesis museum. Type \"so-80\" railway crane for accident recovery is preserved at Sakuma railpark. Type \"so-300\" railway crane for bridge construction is preserved at Usuitouge tetsudo bunkamura. Several breakdown cranes are preserved in the various Australian states. Examples preserved in New South Wales as X10 Class and include 1048 a 30T steam crane built by Cowans Sheldon, preserved at Rothbury. 1050 a 50T steam crane built by Craven Bros, preserved at Dorrigo. 1055 a 35T steam crane converted to diesel built by Ransome & Rapier, preserved at Canberra. 1060 a 120T steam crane converted to diesel built by Krupp Ardelt, preserved at Dorrigo. 1073 a 70T steam crane built by Craven Bros converted to diesel, preserved Richmond Main. 1080 a 50T steam crane built by Industrial Brownhoist, preserved Junee. 1081 a 50T steam crane built by Industrial Brownhoist, preserved Dorrigo."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1743478 | en-train-1743478 | 1743478 | {
"title": [
"Basic structure.",
"History.",
"Reimplementations.",
"Bibliographic information file.",
"Entry types.",
"Field types.",
"Style files.",
"See also."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
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Jan Rypka | null | Jan Rypka, PhDr., Dr.Sc. (28 May 1886 in Kroměříž – 29 December 1968 in Prague) was a prominent Czech orientalist, translator, professor of Iranology and Turkology at Charles University, Prague. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Return From Constantinople.",
"The Oriental Institute.",
"Works."
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"Rypka's father owned a small business. As a child he was given the \"Arabian Nights\". He described the book's effect on his life as breathing \"mysterious forces there.\" After completing his schooling he enrolled at the University of Vienna. He graduated in Oriental studies. Then in 1910 he obtained a Doctor of Philosophy in Islamic languages. After graduation Rypka set up a small business of translating Oriental texts. However, he soon left the business because he found a better job, even if not so closely related to his orientalist background, as he was appointed at the Viennese court and university printing office. Rypka moved to Prague following the establishment of the independent Czechoslovak state. There he devoted himself fully to Oriental studies. He also joined the civil service for a short time. In April 1921, he found work as a librarian. That same summer, he was granted a sabbatical leave to travel to Constantinople. Rypka stayed in Constantinople for nearly a year and a half. In that ancient city he found ample opportunities to know and understand the Orient close up, an experience he put in the book he wrote about his stay in Turkey.",
"Rypka once again began work at the Ministry of Education after returning from Constantinople. He began working on Turkish poetry, analyzing the works of such poets as Sabit and Bâkî. Beginning in the 1930s, Rypka moved his focus to Persian poetry. The central figure in his research was the Persian poet Nizami. Another of his key subjects was the medieval poet Ferdowsi. In the fall of 1934 Rypka was invited by the Iranian government to attend the celebrations of the 1000th anniversary of Ferdous' birth. He ended up spending a full year in Iran, doing academic research. He wrote about his year in Iran in the popular book \"Iranian Pilgrim\".",
"Rypka was the driving force behind the establishment of the Oriental Institute, of which he was one of the earliest members. He contributed to the institute's development, contributing not only as a journalist but as an adviser and patron in its incipient stages. He is even credited with naming the institute's archives, the Archive Oriental.",
"In 1939 Rypka was appointed dean of the Faculty of Arts of the Charles University in Prague. During his tenure, he focused the research on Persian poets, notably Labbibi and Farrochi. His biggest achievement was the work on the history of Persian and Tajik literature, which was published in 1956. The work won critical acclaim from fellow professionals and was translated into many languages."
]
} |
The Day of the Triffids | null | The Day of the Triffids is a 1951 post-apocalyptic novel by the English science fiction author John Wyndham. After most people in the world are blinded by an apparent meteor shower, an aggressive species of plant starts killing people. Although Wyndham had already published other novels using other pen name combinations drawn from his real name, this was the first novel published as "John Wyndham". | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1817565 | en-train-1817565 | 1817565 | {
"title": [
"Summary.",
"Publication history.",
"Influences.",
"Critical reception.",
"Cultural impact.",
"Sequels."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The protagonist is Bill Masen, a biologist who has made his living working with triffids—tall, venomous, carnivorous plants capable of locomotion. Due to his background, Masen suspects they were bioengineered in the U.S.S.R. and accidentally released into the wild. Because of the excellent industrial quality of an oil produced by and obtained from the triffids, the result is triffid cultivation around the world. The narrative begins with Bill Masen in hospital, his eyes bandaged after having been splashed with triffid poison from a stinger. During his convalescence he is told of an unexpected green meteor shower. The next morning, he learns that the light from the unusual display has rendered any who watched it blind (later in the book, Masen speculates that the \"meteor shower\" may have been orbiting satellite weapons, triggered accidentally). After unbandaging his eyes he finds the hospital in chaos, with staff and patients without sight. He wanders through a chaotic London full of blind inhabitants and slowly becomes enamoured of wealthy novelist Josella Playton, whom he rescues after discovering her being forcibly used as a guide by a blind man. Intrigued by a single light on top of the Senate House in an otherwise darkened London, Bill and Josella discover a group of sighted survivors led by a man named Beadley, who plans to establish a colony in the countryside. They decide to join the group. The polygamy implicit in Beadley's scheme appalls some group members, especially the religious Miss Durrant—but before this schism can be dealt with, a man named Wilfred Coker stages a fire at the university and kidnaps a number of sighted individuals, including Bill and Josella. They are each chained to a blind person and assigned to lead a squadron of the blind, collecting food and other supplies, all the while beset by escaped triffids and rival scavengers. Soon Masen's followers begin to fall sick and die of an unknown disease. When he wakes one morning to find the survivors have left him, he returns to the University Tower to seek Josella but his only lead is an address left behind by Beadley's group. Joined by a repentant Coker, Masen drives to the address, a country estate called Tynsham in Wiltshire. He finds part of the Beadley group, now led by Miss Durrant, who eventually tells him that Beadley went to Beaminster, in Dorset, a few days before he arrived. There has been no sign of Josella. Masen and Coker decide to follow Beadley to Dorset. They find small groups of blind and sighted people along the way but no trace of Beadley. Eventually they decide to separate, Coker returning to help at Tynsham, while Masen heads for the Sussex Downs after remembering a remark Josella made about friends she had there. En route, Masen rescues a young sighted girl named Susan, whom he finds trapped alone at home, while her young brother lies dead in the garden, killed by a triffid. He buries the boy and takes Susan with him. A few days later, during a night of heavy rain, they see a faint light in the distance. Upon reaching it, they discover Josella and her friends. They attempt to establish a self-sufficient colony in Sussex with some success but they are constantly under threat from the triffids, which mass around the fenced exterior. Several years pass, until one day a representative of Beadley's faction lands a helicopter in their yard and reports that his group has established a colony on the Isle of Wight. Durrant's talk of Beaminster was a deliberate attempt to throw Masen off on his journey to find Beadley. While Bill and the others are reluctant to leave their own settlement, the group decide to see the summer out in Sussex before moving to the Isle of Wight. Their plans are hurried by the arrival of the militaristic representatives of a new despotic and self-appointed government, who arrive in an armoured car. Masen recognises the leader as a ruthless young man he had encountered on a scavenging expedition in London and whom he had watched cold-bloodedly execute one of his own party who had fallen ill. The latter plans to give Masen a large number of blind people to care for, and use on the farm as slave labour; he will also take Susan as hostage. Feigning agreement, Masen's group throw a party, during which they encourage the visitors to get drunk. Creeping out of the house whilst the visitors are fast asleep, they disable the armoured car by pouring honey into the fuel tank and drive through the gates, leaving them open for the triffids to pour in. The novel ends with Masen's group on the Isle of Wight, determined one day to destroy the triffids and reclaim their world.",
"In the United States, Doubleday & Company holds the 1951 copyright. A condensed version of the book also was serialized in \"Collier's\" magazine in January and February 1951. An unabridged paperback edition was published in the late 1960s, in arrangement with Doubleday, under the Crest Book imprint of Fawcett Publications World Library.",
"Wyndham frequently acknowledged the influence of H. G. Wells' \"The War of the Worlds\" (1897) on \"The Day of the Triffids\". The triffids are related, in some editions of the novel, to brief mention of the theories of the Soviet agronomist and would-be biologist Trofim Lysenko, who eventually was thoroughly debunked. \"In the days when information was still exchanged Russia had reported some successes. Later, however, a cleavage of methods and views had caused biology there, under a man called Lysenko, to take a different course\" (Chapter 2). Lysenkoism at the time of the novel's creation was still being defended by some prominent international Stalinists. During the Blitz, Wyndham was a firewatcher and later member of the Home Guard. He witnessed the destruction of London from the rooftops of Bloomsbury. He described many scenes and incidents, including the uncanny silence of London on a Sunday morning after a heavy bombardment, in letters to his long-term partner Grace Wilson. These found their way into \"The Day of the Triffids\".",
"The book has been praised by other science fiction writers. Karl Edward Wagner cited \"The Day of the Triffids\" as one of the thirteen best science-fiction horror novels. Arthur C. Clarke called it an \"immortal story\". Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas praised it, saying \"rarely have the details of [the] collapse been treated with such detailed plausibility and human immediacy, and never has the collapse been attributed to such an unusual and terrifying source\". Forrest J Ackerman wrote in \"Astounding Science Fiction\" that \"Triffids\" \"is extraordinarily well carried out, with the exception of a somewhat anticlimactic if perhaps inevitable conclusion\". Brian Aldiss coined the disparaging phrase cosy catastrophe to describe the subgenre of post-war apocalyptic fiction in which society is destroyed save for a handful of survivors, who are able to enjoy a relatively comfortable existence. He singled out \"The Day of the Triffids\" as an example and described \"Triffids\" as \"totally devoid of ideas\". However, this is a view that has been refuted by more recent critics. Margaret Atwood wrote: \"one might as well call World War II—of which Wyndham was a veteran—a “cozy” war because not everyone died in it.\" John Clute commented that the book was regularly chosen for school syllabuses as it was \"safe\". Robert M. Philmus called it derivative of better books by H. G. Wells. Groff Conklin, reviewing the novel's first publication, characterised it as \"a good run-of-the-mill affair\" and \"pleasant reading... provided you aren't out hunting science fiction masterpieces\".",
"According to director Danny Boyle, the opening hospital sequence of \"The Day of the Triffids\" inspired Alex Garland to write the screenplay for \"28 Days Later\" (2002). The short story \"How to Make a Triffid\" by Kelly Lagor includes discussions of the possible genetic pathways that could be manipulated to engineer the triffids.",
"Simon Clark wrote a sequel, \"The Night of the Triffids\" (2001), set 25 years after Wyndham's book. Big Finish Productions adapted it as an audio play in 2014. The dramatisation featuring Sam Troughton was later broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra in June 2016. In 2020 English SF/Fantasy author John Whitbourn published a sequel, \"The Age of the Triffids\". Set in the Isle of Wight ‘Colony’ in the lead-up to the Millennium, it details the rallying of survivors from across Britain for one last attempt to defeat the triffid threat. For copyright reasons the book is not for sale outside Canada and New Zealand."
]
} |
Sergei Rachmaninoff | null | Sergei Vasilyevich Rachmaninoff ( ; ; 28 March 1943) was a Russian composer, virtuoso pianist, and conductor of the late Romantic period. The influence of Tchaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, Balakirev, Mussorgsky, and other Russian composers is seen in his early works, later giving way to a personal style notable for song-like melodicism, expressiveness and rich orchestral colors. | null | [
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"title": [
"Biography.",
"Ancestry and early years, 1873–1885.",
"Moscow Conservatory and first compositions, 1885–1894.",
"Symphony No. 1, depression, and conducting debut, 1894–1900.",
"Recovery, emergence, and conducting, 1900–1906.",
"Move to Dresden and first US tour, 1906–1917.",
"Leaving Russia, immigration to the US, and concert pianist, 1917–1925.",
"Touring, final compositions, and Villa Senar, 1926–1942.",
"Illness, move to California, and death, 1942–43.",
"Works.",
"Pianism.",
"Technique.",
"Tone.",
"Memory.",
"Interpretations.",
"Speculations about Marfan syndrome and acromegaly.",
"Recordings.",
"Phonograph.",
"Piano rolls.",
"Films about Rachmaninoff.",
"Use of Rachmaninoff's music in films."
],
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"2",
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"2",
"2",
"1",
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"content": [
"",
"Rachmaninoff was born into a family of the Russian aristocracy in the Russian Empire. The family name can be traced back to the 1400s when Yelena, the daughter of Stephen IV of Moldavia, married the eldest son of Ivan III Vasilyevich, Grand Prince of Moscow. A son named Vasily was nicknamed \"Rachmanin\", meaning \"lazy\" in Old Russian. Rachmaninoff's family had strong musical and military leanings. His paternal grandfather, Arkady Alexandrovich, was a musician who had taken lessons from Irish composer John Field. His father, Vasily Arkadyevich Rachmaninoff (1841–1916), was an army",
"In the autumn of 1885, Rachmaninoff moved in with Zverev and stayed for almost four years, during which he befriended fellow pupil Alexander Scriabin. After two years of tuition, the fifteen year old Rachmaninoff was awarded a Rubinstein scholarship, and graduated from the lower division of the Conservatory to become a pupil of Siloti in advanced piano, Sergei Taneyev in counterpoint, and Anton Arensky in free composition. In 1889, a rift formed between Rachmaninoff and Zverev, now his adviser, after Zverev turned down the composer's request for assistance in renting a piano and greater privacy to compose. Zverev, who believed composition was a waste for talented pianists, refused to speak to Rachmaninoff for some time and organised for him to live with his uncle and aunt Satin and their family in Moscow. Rachmaninoff then found his first romance",
"Rachmaninoff entered a decline following Tchaikovsky's death. He lacked the inspiration to compose, and the management of the Grand Theatre had lost interest in showcasing \"Aleko\" and dropped it from the program. To earn more money, Rachmaninoff returned to giving piano lessons, and in late 1895 agreed to a three-month tour across Russia with a program shared by Italian violinist Teresina Tua. The tour was not enjoyable for the composer and he quit before it ended, thus sacrificing his performance fees. In a more desperate plea for money, Rachmaninoff pawned his gold watch given to him by Zverev. In September 1895, before the tour started, Rachmaninoff completed his Symphony No. 1 (Op.",
"By 1900, Rachmaninoff had become so self-critical that, despite numerous attempts, composing had become near impossible. His aunt then suggested professional help, having received successful treatment from a family friend, physician and amateur musician Nikolai Dahl, to which Rachmaninoff agreed without resistance. Between January and April 1900, Rachmaninoff underwent hypnotherapy and psychotherapy sessions with Dahl on a daily basis, specifically structured to improve his sleep patterns, mood, and appetite and reignite his desire to compose. That summer, Rachmaninoff felt that \"new musical ideas began to stir\" and successfully resumed composition. His first fully completed work,",
"Increasingly unhappy with the political turmoil in Russia and in need of seclusion from his lively social life to be able to compose, Rachmaninoff with his family left Moscow for Dresden, Germany, in November 1906. The city had become a favourite of both Rachmaninoff and Natalia, presenting them with a more vibrant musical atmosphere and favourable opportunities. The family stayed in Dresden until 1909, only returning to Russia for their summer breaks at Ivanovka. During a visit to Leipzig, he entered an art gallery which housed \"The Isle of the Dead\" by Arnold Böcklin. The painting served as the inspiration for Rachmaninoff's orchestral work of the same name, Op. 29. Despite occasional periods of depression, apathy, and little faith in any of his work, Rachmaninoff started on his Symphony No. 2 (Op. 27) in 1906, twelve years after the disastrous premiere of his first. While writing",
"On the day the February 1917 Revolution began in Saint Petersburg, Rachmaninoff performed a piano recital in Moscow in aid of wounded Russian soldiers who had fought in the war. This was followed two months later with a visit to Ivanovka, where he found the house in chaos after a group of Social Revolutionary Party members seized it as their own communal property. Despite having invested most of his earnings on the estate Rachmaninoff left after three weeks, vowing never to return. It was soon confiscated by the communist authorities and became derelict. Following an August break with his family in the more peaceful Crimea, he performed at nearby Yalta on 5 September, which was to be his final concert in Russia. On his return to Moscow, the political tension surrounding the October Revolution found the composer keeping his family safe indoors as often as possible and being involved in a collective at his apartment building, attending committee meetings and carrying out civil guard duties at night. He completed revisions to his Piano Concerto No. 1 among gunshots and",
"Demanding tour schedules caused Rachmaninoff's composition output to slow significantly; between his arrival to the US in 1918 and his death, he completed just six compositions barring some revisions to previous works and piano transcriptions for his concert repertoire. The composer later admitted that by leaving Russia, \"I left behind my desire to compose: losing my country, I lost myself also\". In 1926, after concentrating on touring for the past eight years, he took a year's break from performing and completed the first two of the last of his six pieces, the Piano Concerto No. 4, which he had started in 1917, and \"Three Russian Songs\" which he dedicated to Leopold Stokowski. Rachmaninoff sought the company of fellow Russian musicians and befriended pianist Vladimir Horowitz in 1928. The men remained supportive of each other's work, each making a point of attending concerts given by the other. Horowitz remained a champion of Rachmaninoff's solo works and his Piano Concerto No. 3, about which Rachmaninoff remarked publicly after",
"In early 1942, Rachmaninoff was advised by his doctor to relocate to a warmer climate to improve his health after suffering from sclerosis, lumbago, neuralgia, high blood pressure, and headaches. After completing his final studio recording sessions during this time in February, a move to Long Island fell through after the composer and his wife expressed a greater interest in California, and initially settled in a leased home on Tower Road in Beverly Hills in May. In June they purchased a home at 610 North Elm Drive in Beverly Hills, living close to Horowitz who would often visit and perform piano duets with Rachmaninoff. Later in 1942, Rachmaninoff invited Igor Stravinsky to dinner, the two sharing",
"Rachmaninoff wrote five works for piano and orchestra: four concertos— in F-sharp minor, Op. 1 (1891, revised 1917), in C minor, Op. 18 (1900–01), in D minor, Op. 30 (1909), and in G minor, Op. 40 (1926, revised 1928 and 1941)—plus the \"Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini\". Of the concertos, the Second and Third are the most popular. Rachmaninoff also composed a number of works for orchestra alone. The three symphonies: in D minor, Op. 13 (1895), in E minor, Op. 27 (1907), and in A minor, Op. 44 (1935–36). Widely spaced chronologically, the symphonies represent three distinct phases in his compositional development. The Second has been the most popular of the three since its first performance. Other orchestral works include \"The Rock\" (Op. 7), \"Caprice bohémien\" (Op. 12), \"The Isle of the Dead\" (Op. 29), and the \"Symphonic Dances\" (Op. 45). Works for piano solo include 24 Preludes traversing all 24 major and minor keys; Prelude in C-sharp minor (Op. 3, ) from \"Morceaux de fantaisie\" (Op. 3); ten preludes in Op. 23; and thirteen in Op. 32. Especially difficult are the two sets of \"Études-Tableaux\", Op. 33 and 39, which are very demanding \"study pictures\". Stylistically, Op. 33 hearkens back to the preludes, while Op. 39 shows the influences of Scriabin and Prokofiev. There are also the \"Six moments musicaux\" (Op. 16), the \"Variations on a Theme of Chopin\" (Op. 22), and the \"Variations on a Theme of Corelli\" (Op. 42). He wrote two piano sonatas, both of which are large scale and virtuosic in their technical demands. Rachmaninoff also composed works for two pianos, four hands, including two Suites (the first subtitled \"Fantasie-Tableaux\"), a version of the \"Symphonic Dances\" (Op. 45), and an arrangement of the C-sharp minor Prelude, as well as a \"Russian Rhapsody\", and he arranged his First Symphony (below) for piano four hands. Both these works were published posthumously. Rachmaninoff wrote two major a cappella choral works—the \"Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom\" and the \"All-Night Vigil\" (also known as the \"Vespers\"). It was the fifth movement of \"All-Night Vigil\" that Rachmaninoff requested to have sung at his funeral. Other choral works include a choral symphony, \"The Bells\"; the cantata \"Spring\"; the \"Three Russian Songs\"; and an early \"Concerto for Choir\" (a cappella). He completed three one-act operas: \"Aleko\" (1892), \"The Miserly Knight\" (1903), and \"Francesca da Rimini\" (1904). He started three others, notably \"Monna Vanna\", based on a work by Maurice Maeterlinck; copyright in this had been extended to the composer Février, and, though the restriction did not pertain to Russia, Rachmaninoff dropped the project after completing Act I in piano vocal score in 1908; this act was orchestrated in 1984 by Igor Buketoff and performed in the U.S. \"Aleko\" is regularly performed and has been recorded complete at least eight times, and filmed. \"The Miserly Knight\" adheres to Pushkin's \"little tragedy\". \"Francesca da Rimini\" exists somewhat in the shadow of the opera of the same name by Riccardo Zandonai. His chamber music includes two piano trios, both of which are named \"Trio Elégiaque\" (the second of which is a memorial tribute to Tchaikovsky), and a Cello Sonata. He also composed many songs for voice and piano, to texts by A. N. Tolstoy, Pushkin, Goethe, Shelley, Hugo and Chekhov, among others. Among his most popular songs is the wordless \"Vocalise\".",
"",
"Rachmaninoff ranked among the finest pianists of his time, along with Leopold Godowsky, Ignaz Friedman, Moriz Rosenthal, Josef Lhévinne, Ferruccio Busoni, and Josef Hofmann, and he was famed for possessing a clean and virtuosic technique. His playing was marked by precision, rhythmic drive, notable use of staccato and the ability to maintain clarity when playing works with complex textures. Rachmaninoff applied these qualities in music by Chopin, including the B-flat minor Piano Sonata. Rachmaninoff's repertoire, excepting his own works, consisted mainly of standard 19th century virtuoso works plus music by Bach, Beethoven, Borodin, Debussy, Grieg, Liszt, Mendelssohn, Mozart, Schubert, Schumann and Tchaikovsky. Rachmaninoff possessed extremely large hands, with which he could easily maneuver through the most complex chordal",
"From those barely moving fingers came an unforced, bronzelike sonority and an accuracy bordering on infallibility. Arthur Rubinstein wrote: He had the secret of the golden, living tone which comes from the heart... I was always under the spell of his glorious and inimitable tone which could make me forget my uneasiness about his too rapidly fleeting fingers and his exaggerated \"rubatos\". There was always the irresistible sensuous charm, not unlike Kreisler's. Coupled to this tone was a",
"Rachmaninoff also possessed an uncanny memory—one that would help put him in good stead when he had to learn the standard piano repertoire as a 45-year-old exile. He could hear a piece of music, even a symphony, then play it back the next day, the next year, or a decade after that.",
"Regardless of the music, Rachmaninoff always planned his performances carefully. He based his interpretations on the theory that each piece of music has a \"culminating point.\" Regardless of where that point was or at which dynamic within that piece, the performer had to know how to approach it with absolute calculation and precision; otherwise, the whole construction of the piece could crumble and the piece could become disjointed. This was a practice he learned from Russian bass Feodor Chaliapin, a staunch friend. Paradoxically, Rachmaninoff often sounded like he was improvising, though he actually was not. While his interpretations were mosaics of tiny details, when those mosaics came together in performance, they might, according to the tempo of the piece being played, fly past at great speed, giving the impression of instant thought. One advantage Rachmaninoff had",
"Along with his musical gifts, Rachmaninoff possessed physical gifts that may have placed him in good stead as a pianist. These gifts included exceptional height and extremely large hands with a gigantic finger stretch (he could play the chord C E G C G with his left hand). This and Rachmaninoff's slender frame, long limbs, narrow head, prominent ears, and thin nose suggest that he may have had Marfan syndrome, a hereditary disorder of the connective tissue. This syndrome would have accounted for several minor ailments",
"",
"Many of Rachmaninoff's recordings are acknowledged classics. In 1919, Rachmaninoff recorded a selection of piano pieces for Edison Records on their \"Diamond Disc\" records, as they claimed the best audio fidelity in piano recording. Thomas Edison, who was quite deaf, did not care for Rachmaninoff's playing, or for classical music in general, and referred to him as a \"pounder\" at their initial meeting. However, staff at the Edison recording studio in New York City asked Edison to reconsider his dismissive position, resulting in a limited contract for ten released sides. Rachmaninoff recorded on a Lauter concert grand piano, one of the few the company made. He felt his performances varied in quality and requested final approval prior to a commercial release. Edison agreed, but still issued multiple takes, an unusual practice which was standard at Edison Records, where strict company policy demanded three good takes of each piece in case of damage or wear to the masters. Rachmaninoff and Edison Records were pleased with the released discs and wished to record more, but Edison refused, saying the ten sides were",
"Rachmaninoff was also involved in various ways with music on piano rolls. Several manufacturers, and in particular the Aeolian Company, had published his compositions on perforated music rolls from about 1900 onwards. His sister-in-law, Sofia Satina, remembered him at the family estate at Ivanovka, pedalling gleefully through a set of rolls of his Second Piano Concerto, apparently acquired from a German source, most probably the Aeolian Company's Berlin subsidiary, the Choralion Company. Aeolian in London created a set of three rolls of this concerto in 1909, which remained",
"A film biography of Rachmaninoff titled \"Vetka sireni\" (\"Branch of Lilacs\") and directed by Pavel Lungin was produced in Russia",
"David Lean's 1945 film \"Brief Encounter\" uses excerpts from Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2, which recur throughout the film, played by pianist Eileen Joyce. Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2 was featured in Billy Wilder's 1955 film \"The Seven Year Itch\", starring Tom Ewell and Marilyn Monroe. The piece was played as an accompaniment to a fantasy seduction scene between the main characters. Terrence Malick's 2013 film \"To the Wonder\" features \"Isle of the Dead\". Jeannot Szwarc's 1980 film \"Somewhere In Time\" features \"Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini\", Op. 43, Variation XVIII. In the 1993 film \"Groundhog Day (film)\", Phil Connors (\"Bill Murray\") learns to play \"Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini\" on piano. The 1996 film \"Shine\" features Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 3. The 2011 film \"Limitless\" features Rachmaninoff's Prelude in C-sharp minor, Op. 3, No. 2."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1741334 | en-train-1741334 | 1741334 | {
"title": [
"Flavorings.",
"Clear cola.",
"Health effects."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"The primary modern flavoring ingredients in a cola drink are citrus oils (from orange, lime, and lemon peels), cinnamon, vanilla, and an acidic flavorant. Manufacturers of cola drinks add trace flavorings to create distinctively different tastes for each brand. Trace flavorings may include a wide variety of ingredients, such as spices like nutmeg or coriander, but the base flavorings that most people identify with a cola taste remain citrus, vanilla and cinnamon. Acidity is often provided by phosphoric acid, sometimes accompanied by citric or other isolated acids. Coca-Cola's recipe is maintained as a corporate trade secret. A variety of different sweeteners may be added to cola, often partly dependent on local agricultural policy. High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is predominantly used in the United States and Canada due to the lower cost of government-subsidized corn. In Europe, however, HFCS is subject to production quotas designed to encourage the production of sugar; sugar is thus typically used to sweeten sodas. In addition, stevia or an artificial sweetener may be used; \"sugar-free\" or \"diet\" colas typically contain artificial sweeteners only.",
"In the 1940s, Coca-Cola produced White Coke at the request of Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov. Clear colas were again produced during the Clear Craze of the early 1990s. Brands included Crystal Pepsi, Tab Clear, and 7 Up Ice Cola. Crystal Pepsi has been repeatedly reintroduced in the 2010s. In Denmark, a popular clear cola was made by the Cooperative FDB in 1976. It was especially known for being the \"Hippie Cola\" because of the focus of the harmful effects the color additive could have on children and the boycott of multinational brands. It was inspired by a campaign on harmful additives in Denmark by the Environmental-Organisation NOAH, an independent Danish division of Friends of the Earth. This was followed up with a variety of sodas without artificial coloring. Today many organic colas are available in Denmark, but, for nostalgic reasons, clear cola has still maintained its popularity to a certain degree. In June 2018, Coca-Cola introduced Coca-Cola Clear in Japan.",
"A 2007 study found that consumption of colas, both those with natural sweetening and those with artificial sweetening, was associated with increased risk of chronic kidney disease. The phosphoric acid used in colas was thought to be a possible cause. Studies indicate \"soda and sweetened drinks are the main source of calories in [the] American diet\", so most nutritionists advise that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed excessively, particularly to young children whose soft drink consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet. Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamin C, riboflavin, and vitamin A. The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of caffeine, which can cause physical dependence (caffeine dependence). A link has been shown between long-term regular cola intake and osteoporosis in older women (but not men). This was thought to be due to the presence of phosphoric acid, and the risk for women was found to be greater for sugared and caffeinated colas than diet and decaffeinated variants, with a higher intake of cola correlating with lower bone density. Many soft drinks are sweetened mostly or entirely with high-fructose corn syrup, rather than sugar. Some nutritionists caution against consumption of corn syrup because it may aggravate obesity and type-2 diabetes more than cane sugar."
]
} |
Joseph de Maistre | null | Joseph-Marie, comte de Maistre (; 1 April 1753 – 26 February 1821) was a Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer and diplomat who advocated social hierarchy and monarchy in the period immediately following the French Revolution. Despite his close personal and intellectual ties with France, Maistre was throughout his life a subject of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which he served as a member of the Savoy Senate (1787–1792), ambassador to Russia (1803–1817) and minister of state to the court in Turin (1817–1821). | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2240487 | en-train-2240487 | 2240487 | {
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Political and moral philosophy.",
"Repute and influence."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Maistre was born in 1753 at Chambéry, Duchy of Savoy, at that time part of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia which was ruled by the House of Savoy. His family was of French and Italian origin. His grandfather André (Andrea) Maistre, whose parents Francesco and Margarita Maistre (née Dalmassi) originated in the County of Nice, had been a draper and councilman in Nice (then under the rule of the House of Savoy) and his father François-Xavier, who moved to Chambéry in 1740, became a magistrate and senator, eventually receiving the title of count from the King of Piedmont-Sardinia. His mother's family, whose surname was Desmotz, were from Rumilly. His younger brother Xavier, who became an army officer, was a popular writer of fiction. Maistre was probably educated by the Jesuits. After the Revolution, he became an ardent defender of the Jesuits, increasingly associating the spirit of the Revolution with the Jesuits' traditional enemies, the Jansenists. After completing his training in the law at the University of Turin in 1774, he followed in his father's footsteps by becoming a Senator in 1787. A member of the progressive Scottish Rite Masonic lodge at Chambéry from 1774 to 1790, Maistre originally favoured political reform in France, supporting the efforts of the magistrates in the Parlements to force King Louis XVI to convene the Estates General. As a landowner in France, Maistre was eligible to join that body and there is some evidence that he contemplated that possibility. However, Maistre was alarmed by the decision of the States-General to combine aristocracy, clergy and commoners into a single legislative body which became the National Constituent Assembly. After the passing of the August Decrees on 4 August 1789, he decisively turned against the course of political events in France. Maistre fled Chambéry when it was taken by a French revolutionary army in 1792, but he was unable to find a position in the royal court in Turin and returned the following year. Deciding that he could not support the French-controlled regime, Maistre departed again, this time for Lausanne, Switzerland, where he discussed politics and theology at the salon of Madame de Staël, and began his career as a counter-revolutionary writer, with works such as \"Lettres d'un Royaliste Savoisien\" (\"Letters from a Savoyard Royalist\", 1793), \"Discours à Mme. la Marquise Costa de Beauregard, sur la Vie et la Mort de son Fils\" (\"Discourse to the Marchioness Costa de Beauregard, on the Life and Death of her Son\", 1794) and \"Cinq paradoxes à la Marquise de Nav...\" (\"Five Paradoxes for the Marchioness of Nav...\", 1795). From Lausanne, Maistre went to Venice and then to Cagliari, where the King of Piedmont-Sardinia held the court and the government of the kingdom after French armies took Turin in 1798. Maistre's relations with the court at Cagliari were not always easy. In 1802, he was sent to Saint Petersburg in Russia as ambassador to Tsar Alexander I. His diplomatic responsibilities were few and he became a well-loved fixture in aristocratic circles, converting some of his friends to Roman Catholicism and writing his most influential works on political philosophy. Maistre's observations on Russian life, contained in his diplomatic memoirs and in his personal correspondence, were among Leo Tolstoy's sources for his novel \"War and Peace\". After the defeat of Napoleon and the restoration of the House of Savoy's dominion over Piedmont and Savoy under the terms of the Congress of Vienna, Maistre returned in 1817 to Turin and served there as magistrate and minister of state until his death. He died on 26 February 1821 and is buried in the Jesuit Church of the Holy Martyrs (\"Chiesa dei Santi Martiri\").",
"In \"Considérations sur la France\" (\"Considerations on France\", 1797), Maistre claimed that France has a divine mission as the principal instrument of good and evil on Earth. He interpreted the Revolution of 1789 as a providential event in which the monarchy, the aristocracy and the \"Ancien Régime\" in general, instead of directing the influence of French civilization to the benefit of mankind, had promoted the atheistic doctrines of the 18th-century philosophers. He claimed that the crimes of the Reign of Terror were the logical consequence of Enlightened thought as well as its divinely-decreed punishment. In his short book \"Essai sur le Principe Générateur des Constitutions Politiques et des Autres Institutions Humaines\" (\"Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions and other Human Institutions\", 1809), Maistre argued that constitutions are not the product of human reason, but rather come from God, who slowly brings them to maturity. After the appearance in 1816 of his French translation of Plutarch's treatise \"On the Delay of Divine Justice in the Punishment of the Guilty\", Maistre published in 1819 \"Du Pape\" (\"On the Pope\"), the most complete exposition of his authoritarian conception of politics. According to Maistre, any attempt to justify government on rational grounds will only lead to unresolvable arguments about the legitimacy and expediency of any existing government and that this in turn will lead to violence and chaos. As a result, Maistre argued that the legitimacy of government must be based on compelling, but non-rational grounds which its subjects must not be allowed to question. Maistre went on to argue that authority in politics should derive from religion and that in Europe this religious authority must ultimately lie with the Pope. What was novel in Maistre's writings was not his enthusiastic defense of monarchical and religious authority \"per se\", but rather his arguments concerning the practical need for ultimate authority to lie with an individual capable of decisive action as well as his analysis of the social foundations of that authority's legitimacy. In his own words which he addressed to a group of aristocratic French émigrés, \"you ought to know how to be royalists. Before, this was an instinct, but today it is a science. You must love the sovereign as you love order, with all the forces of intelligence\". Maistre's analysis of the problem of authority and its legitimacy foreshadows some of the concerns of early sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Henri de Saint-Simon. In addition to his voluminous correspondence, Maistre left two books that were published posthumously. \"Soirées de St. Pétersbourg\" (\"St Petersburg Dialogues\", 1821) is a theodicy in the form of a Platonic dialogue in which Maistre argues that evil exists because of its place in the divine plan, according to which the blood sacrifice of innocents returns men to God via the expiation of the sins of the guilty. Maistre sees this as a law of human history as indubitable as it is mysterious. \"Examen de la Philosophie de Bacon\", (\"An Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon\", 1836) is a critique of the thought of Francis Bacon, whom Maistre considers to be the fountainhead of the destructive Enlightened thought.",
"Together with the Anglo-Irish statesman and philosopher Edmund Burke, Maistre is commonly regarded as one of the founders of European conservatism, but since the 19th century Maistre's authoritarian, \"throne-and-altar\" conception of conservatism declined in influence in comparison with the more liberal conservatism of Burke. However, Maistre's skills as a writer and polemicist ensured that he continues to be read. For instance, Matthew Arnold, an influential 19th-century critic, wrote as follows while comparing Maistre's style with his Irish counterpart: Joseph de Maistre is another of those men whose word, like that of Burke, has vitality. In imaginative power he is altogether inferior to Burke. On the other hand his thought moves in closer order than Burke's, more rapidly, more directly; he has fewer superfluities. Burke is a great writer, but Joseph de Maistre's use of the French language is more powerful, more thoroughly satisfactory, than Burke's use of the English. It is masterly; it shows us to perfection of what that admirable instrument, the French language, is capable. The \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" of 1910 describes his writing style as \"strong, lively, picturesque\" and that his \"animation and good humour temper his dogmatic tone. He possesses a wonderful facility in exposition, precision of doctrine, breadth of learning, and dialectical power\". Although a political opponent, Alphonse de Lamartine admired the splendour of his prose, stating: Émile Faguet described Maistre as \"a fierce absolutist, a furious theocrat, an intransigent legitimist, apostle of a monstrous trinity composed of pope, king and hangman, always and everywhere the champion of the hardest, narrowest and most inflexible dogmatism, a dark figure out of the Middle Ages, part learned doctor, part inquisitor, part executioner\". Amongst those who admired him was the poet Charles Baudelaire, who described himself a disciple of the Savoyard counter-revolutionary, claiming that he had taught him how to think. George Saintsbury called him \"unquestionably one of the greatest thinkers and writers of the eighteenth century\". Maistre also exerted a powerful influence on the Spanish political thinker Juan Donoso Cortés and later on the French antisemitic monarchist Charles Maurras and his counter-revolutionary political movement \"Action Française\". According to Carolina Armenteros, Maistre's writings influenced not only conservative political thinkers, but also the utopian socialists. Early sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Henri de Saint-Simon explicitly acknowledged the influence of Maistre on their own thinking about the sources of social cohesion and political authority."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-453007 | en-train-453007 | 453007 | {
"title": [
"Usage.",
"Issues.",
"Dual booting DOS and Windows 9x.",
"OS/2 / Windows NT."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The directives in this file configure DOS for use with devices and applications in the system. The CONFIG.SYS directives also set up the memory managers in the system. After processing the CONFIG.SYS file, DOS proceeds to load and execute the command shell specified in the SHELL line of CONFIG.SYS, or COMMAND.COM if there is no such line. The command shell in turn is responsible for processing the AUTOEXEC.BAT file. CONFIG.SYS is composed mostly of name=value directives which look like variable assignments. In fact, these will either define some tunable parameters often resulting in reservation of memory, or load files, mostly device drivers and TSRs, into memory. In DOS, CONFIG.SYS is located in the root directory of the drive from which the system was booted. The filename is also used by (DCP), an MS-DOS derivative by the former East-German VEB Robotron. Some versions of DOS will probe for alternative filenames taking precedence over the default CONFIG.SYS filename if they exist: While older versions of Concurrent DOS 3.2 to 4.1 did not support CONFIG.SYS files at all, later versions of Concurrent DOS 386 and Concurrent DOS XM, as well as Multiuser DOS, System Manager and REAL/32 will probe for CCONFIG.SYS (with \"C\" derived from \"Concurrent\") instead of CONFIG.SYS. Some versions of Multiuser DOS use a filename of CCONFIG.INI instead, whereas REAL/32 is known to look for MCONFIG.SYS. These operating systems support many additional and different configuration settings (like INIT_INSTALL) not known under MS-DOS/PC DOS, but they are stored in the binary repository named CCONFIG.BIN rather than in CCONFIG.INI. Both files are typically modified through a configuration utility named CONFIG.EXE only. Under DR DOS 3.31, PalmDOS 1.0, Novell DOS 7, OpenDOS 7.01, and DR-DOS 7.02 and higher, a file named DCONFIG.SYS (with \"D\" derived from \"DR DOS\"), if present, will take precedence over CONFIG.SYS. Since DR DOS 6.0 this was used in conjunction with disk compression software, where the original boot drive C: would become drive D: after loading the compression driver (and the \"D\" in the file name came in handy as well), but it is commonly used to help maintain multiple configuration files in multi-boot scenarios. In addition to this, OpenDOS 7.01 and DR-OpenDOS 7.02 will look for a file named ODCONFIG.SYS, whereas some issues of DR-DOS 7.02 and higher will instead also look for DRCONFIG.SYS. Further, under DR DOS 6.0 and higher, the codice_1 command can be used to change the default file extensions. For example, with codice_2 the written Volume Boot Record would look for a renamed and modified IBMBIO.703 system file (instead of the default IBMBIO.COM) and the IBMBIO.703 would look for IBMDOS.703 and [D]CONFIG.703 (instead of IBMDOS.COM and [D]CONFIG.SYS), so that multiple parallel sets of files can coexist in the same root directory and be selected via a boot-loader like LOADER, supplied with Multiuser DOS and DR-DOS 7.02/7.03. The SHELL directive is enhanced to provide means to specify alternative AUTOEXEC.BAT files via /P[:filename.ext] and in this specific scenario, COMMAND.COM will accept file extensions other than \"codice_3\" as well (both features are also supported by 4DOS). Under DR DOS 6.0 and higher, the CONFIG.SYS directive CHAIN=filespec can be used to continue processing in the named file, which does not necessarily need to reside in the root directory of the boot drive. DR-DOS 7.02 and higher optionally support an additional parameter as in CHAIN=filespec,label to jump to a specific :label in the given file. DR-DOS 7.03 and higher support a new codice_4 parameter in order to copy the corresponding CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files alongside with the system files. FreeDOS implements a similar feature with its FDCONFIG.SYS configuration file. RxDOS 7.24 and higher use RXCONFIG.SYS instead. PTS-DOS uses CONFIG.PTS. Both CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT can be found included in the root folder of Windows 95, and Windows 98 boot drives, as they are based on DOS. Typically, these files are left empty, with no content, as they are not strictly required to run Windows programs from these versions. Windows ME does not even parse the CONFIG.SYS file during the Windows boot process, loading those settings from the Windows Registry instead: Under FlexOS, CONFIG.SYS is a binary file defining the resource managers and device drivers loaded.",
"The system can still boot if these files are missing or corrupted. However, these two files are essential for the complete bootup process to occur with the DOS operating system. They contain information that is used to customize the operating system for personal use. They also contain the requirements of different software application packages. A DOS system would require troubleshooting if either of these files became damaged or corrupted. If CONFIG.SYS does not contain a SHELL directive (or the file is corrupt or missing), DOS typically searches for COMMAND.COM in the root directory of the boot drive. If this is not found, versions of DOS before 6.0 will not start up. MS-DOS 6.0/PC DOS 6.1 and Novell DOS 7 and higher will instead display a prompt to enter the path and filename of a command processor. This recovery prompt is also displayed when the primary command processor is aborted due to faults or if it is exited deliberately. (In the case of COMMAND.COM, the internal codice_7 command is disabled only when the shell was started with codice_8.) This also provides limited means to replace the shell at runtime without having to reboot the system. Since the MS-DOS 7.0 and higher COMMAND.COM executable is incompatible with DR-DOS, but typically resides in the root of drive C: in dual-boot scenarios with DR-DOS, DR-DOS 7.02 and higher no longer allow to bypass SHELL directives in (+)// \"skip\"/\"trace\"/\"step\" modes. (Some later issues added (+) to reinvoke the former \"skip\" behaviour in order to allow recovery from problems with invalid SHELL arguments as well.) Also, if no SHELL directive could be found when skipping CONFIG.SYS processing via (+) (and also with (+)/, when the default file extension has been changed with codice_9), the user is prompted to enter a valid shell file name \"before\" trying to load COMMAND.COM from the root. Pressing without specifying a file will assume the former default. Depending on the version, the size of the CONFIG.SYS file is limited to a few kilobytes under MS-DOS/PC DOS (up to 64 KB in most recent versions), whereas the file's size is unlimited under DR-DOS. This is because the former operating systems (since DOS 3.0) will compile the file into some tokenized in-memory representation before they sort and regroup the directives to be processed in a specific order (with device drivers always being loaded before TSRs), whereas DR-DOS interprets the file and executes most directives line-by-line, thereby giving full control over the load order of drivers and TSRs via DEVICE and INSTALL (for example to solve load order conflicts or to load a program debugger before a device driver to be debugged) and allowing to adapt the user interaction and change the flow through the file based on conditions like processor types installed, any type of keys pressed, load or input errors occurring, or return codes given by loaded software. This becomes particularly useful since INSTALL can also be used to run non-resident software under DR-DOS, so that temporary external programs can be integrated into the CONFIG.SYS control flow. In MS-DOS/PC DOS 2.0 through 4.01, the length of the SHELL line was limited to 31 characters, whereas up to 128 characters are possible in later versions. DR-DOS even accepts up to 255 characters. CONFIG.SYS directives do not accept long filenames.",
"When installing Windows 95 over a preexisting DOS/Windows install, CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT are renamed to CONFIG.DOS and AUTOEXEC.DOS. This is intended to ease dual booting between Windows 9x and DOS. When booting into DOS, they are temporarily renamed CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT. Backups of the Windows 95 versions are made as CONFIG.W40 and AUTOEXEC.W40 files. When Caldera DR-DOS 7.02/7.03 is installed on a system already containing Windows 95, Windows' CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT retain those names. DR-DOS' startup files are installed as DCONFIG.SYS (a name already used in earlier versions of DR DOS) and AUTODOS7.BAT.",
"OS/2 uses the CONFIG.SYS file extensively for setting up its configuration, drivers and environment before the graphical part of the system loads. In the OS/2 subsystem of Windows NT, what appeared as CONFIG.SYS to OS/2 programs was actually stored in the registry. There are many undocumented or poorly documented CONFIG.SYS directives used by OS/2."
]
} |
Long Beach, California | null | Long Beach is a city in the U.S. state of California located within the Los Angeles metropolitan area. It is the 43rd most populous city in the United States with a population of 462,257 in 2010. A charter city, Long Beach is the 7th most populous city in California. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Origins.",
"Post Incorporation.",
"Geography.",
"Neighborhoods.",
"Climate.",
"Environment.",
"Pollution.",
"Ecology.",
"Demographics.",
"2010.",
"2000.",
"Economy.",
"Top employers.",
"Retail.",
"Culture.",
"Art.",
"Music.",
"Theater.",
"Cultural events.",
"Sites of interest.",
"Sports.",
"Grand Prix of Long Beach.",
"Long Beach Marathon.",
"Baseball.",
"Basketball.",
"Sailing.",
"Water skiing.",
"Surfing.",
"Rugby union.",
"College sports.",
"Archery.",
"2028 Summer Olympics.",
"Government.",
"Municipal.",
"Federal and state representation.",
"Infrastructure.",
"Police department.",
"Restrictions on registered sex offenders.",
"Fire department.",
"Education.",
"Primary and secondary schools.",
"Public schools.",
"Colleges and universities.",
"Transportation.",
"Ports and freight.",
"Public transportation.",
"Airports.",
"Freeways and highways.",
"Bicycles and pedestrians.",
"Modal characteristics.",
"Media.",
"Movies and television.",
"Online News.",
"Print.",
"Radio.",
"Sister cities."
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"content": [
"",
"Indigenous people have lived in coastal Southern California for over 10,000 years, and several successive cultures have inhabited the present-day area of Long Beach. By the 16th-century arrival of Spanish explorers, the dominant group was the Tongva people. They had at least three major settlements within the present-day city. \"Tevaaxa'anga\" was an inland settlement near the Los Angeles River, while \"Ahwaanga\" and \"Povuu'nga\" were coastal villages. Along with other Tongva villages, they were forced to relocate in the mid-19th century due to missionization, political change, and a drastic drop in population from exposure to European diseases. In 1784, the Spanish Empire's King Carlos III granted Rancho Los Nietos to Spanish soldier Manuel Nieto. The Rancho Los Cerritos and Rancho Los Alamitos were divided from this territory. The boundary between the two ranchos ran through the center of Signal Hill on a southwest to northeast diagonal. A portion of western Long Beach was originally part of the Rancho San Pedro. Its boundaries were in dispute for years, due to flooding changing the Los Angeles River boundary between Rancho San Pedro and Rancho Los Nietos. In 1843, Jonathan Temple bought Rancho",
"The town grew as a seaside resort with light agricultural uses. The Pike was the most famous beachside amusement zone on the West Coast from 1902 until 1969; it offered bathers food, games and rides, such at the \"Sky Wheel\" dual Ferris wheel and \"Cyclone Racer\" roller coaster. Gradually the oil industry, Navy shipyard and facilities and port became the mainstays of the city. In the 1950s it was referred to as \"Iowa by the sea,\" due to a large influx of people from that and other Midwestern states. Huge picnics for migrants from each state were a popular annual event in Long Beach until the 1960s. Another Bixby cousin, John W. Bixby, was influential in the city. After first working for his cousins at Los Cerritos, J.W. Bixby leased land at Rancho Los Alamitos. He put together a group: banker I.W. Hellman, Lewellyn and",
"Long Beach is located at 33° 47' North, 118° 10' West, about south of downtown Los Angeles. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and (2.22%) is water. Long Beach completely surrounds the city of Signal Hill.",
"Long Beach is composed of many different neighborhoods. Some neighborhoods",
"Long Beach has a Mediterranean-type climate, with semi-arid climate characteristics. In general, the city features hot summers and mild to warm winters with occasional rainfall. Days in Long Beach are mostly sunny, as in Southern California in general. Temperatures recorded at the weather station at the Long Beach Airport, inland from the ocean, range more greatly than those along the immediate coast. During the summer months, low clouds and fog occur frequently, developing overnight and blanketing the area on many mornings. This fog usually clears by the afternoon,",
"",
"Long Beach suffers from some of the worst air pollution in the entire United States. Most of the city is in proximity to the twin ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, and the prevailing westerly-to-west-south-westerly winds bring a large portion of the twin ports' air pollution directly into Long Beach before dispersing it northward then eastward. Heavy pollution sources at the ports include the ships themselves, which burn high-sulfur, high-soot-producing bunker fuel to maintain internal electrical power while docked, as well as heavy diesel pollution from drayage trucks at the ports, and short-haul tractor-trailer trucks ferrying cargo from the ports to inland warehousing, rail yards, and shipping centers. Long-term average levels of toxic air pollutants (and the corresponding carcinogenic risk they create) can be two to three times higher in and around Long Beach, and in downwind areas to the east, than in other parts of the Los Angeles metropolitan area, such as the Westside, San Fernando Valley, or San Gabriel Valley. While overall regional pollution in the Los Angeles metropolitan area has declined in the last decade, pollution levels",
"The area that is now Long Beach historically included several ecological communities, with coastal scrub dominating. A handful of the native plants of the region can still be found in the city. These include California buckwheat (\"Eriogonum fasciculatum\"), California sagebrush (\"Artemisia californica\"), and California poppy (\"Eschscholzia californica\"). Some stands of coast live oak (\"Quercus agrifolia\") still remain in the El Dorado Nature Center. California fan palm (\"Washingtonia filifera\"), a plant that is native further inland, was introduced to the city as a garden ornamental and is now naturalized. Some indigenous species of birds, mammals, and other wildlife have adapted to development. Since the arrival of Europeans, many alien species have become naturalized in the area. Introduced plants include yellow mustard, eucalyptus, wild radish, and tumbleweed. Such plants now far outnumber the indigenous plants and spread rapidly in the city's vacant lots and oil fields. The city and its residents have initiatives underway to",
"",
"The 2010 United States Census reported that Long Beach had a population of 462,257. The population density was 9,191.3 people per square mile (3,548.8/km). The racial makeup of Long Beach was 213,066 (46.1%) White, 62,603 (13.5%) Black or African American, 3,458 (0.7%) Native American, 59,496 (12.9%) Asian (4.5% Filipino, 3.9% Cambodian, 0.9% Vietnamese, 0.6% Chinese, 0.6% Japanese, 0.4% Indian, 0.4% Korean, 0.2% Thai, 0.1% Laotian, 0.1% Hmong), 5,253 (1.1%) Pacific Islander (0.8% Samoan, 0.1% Guamanian, 0.1% Tongan), 93,930 (20.3%) from other races, and 24,451 (5.3%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 188,412 persons (40.8%). 32.9% of the city's population was of Mexican heritage. Non-Hispanic Whites were 29.4% of the population in 2010, down from 86.2% in 1970. The ethnic Cambodian population of approximately 20,000 is the largest outside of Asia. The Census reported 453,980 people (98.2% of the population) lived in households, 5,321 (1.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 2,956 (0.6%) were institutionalized. There were 163,531 households, out of which 58,073 (35.5%) had children under the age",
"As of the census of 2000, there were 461,522 people, 163,088 households, and 99,646 families residing in the city. The population density was 9,149.8 inhabitants per square mile (3,532.8/km). There were 171,632 housing units at an average density of 3,402.6 per square mile (1,313.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 45.2% White, 14.9% Black or African American (U.S. Census), 0.8% Native American, 12.1% Asian, 1.2% Pacific Islander, 20.6% from other races, and 5.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 35.8% of the population. The city has changed since the 1950s, when its population was predominantly European-American and the city was nicknamed \"Iowa by the Sea\" or \"Iowa under Palm Trees\" as",
"The economic base has changed over the years. Oil extraction created a boom and Long Beach was a Navy town for many years before the base closed. The aerospace industry played an important role. Douglas Aircraft Company (later McDonnell Douglas and now part of Boeing) had plants at the Long Beach Airport where they built aircraft for World War II, and later built DC-8s, DC-9s, DC-10s, and MD-11s. Boeing built the Boeing 717 until 2006 and the C-17 Globemaster III strategic airlifter plant is scheduled to close. Even after greatly reducing the number of local employees in recent years, Boeing is still the largest private employer in the city. Polar Air Cargo, an international cargo airline, was formerly based in Long Beach. TABC, Inc., a part of Toyota, makes a variety of car parts, including steering columns and catalytic converters, in Long Beach. Epson America, Inc. the U.S. affiliate of Japan-based Seiko Epson Corporation, is headquartered in Long Beach. Pioneer Electronics, the U.S. affiliate of Japan-based Pioneer Corporation, is also headquartered in Long Beach along with SCAN Health Plan, a non-profit \"Medicare Advantage\" HMO for seniors. Molina Healthcare, Inc., a Medicaid management healthcare program, is headquartered in Long Beach. The real estate company HCP is based in Long Beach. Jesse James' West Coast Choppers custom motorcycle shop was in Long Beach, and much of the \"Monster Garage\" cable TV show was shot in Long Beach. Long Beach Green Business Association is an organization working to create economic growth through the promotion of green business and promoting a buy local program for Long Beach.",
"Trade valued annually at more than $140 billion moves through Long Beach, making it the second busiest seaport in the United States.",
"Los Altos Center is the only mall anchored by major department stores within city limits, while Lakewood Center mall is adjacent to Long Beach. Until the 1950s, Long Beach was the major retail hub between Los Angeles and Santa",
"",
"The Long Beach Museum of Art, sited in the historic Elizabeth Milbank Anderson residence, is owned by the City of Long Beach, and operated by the Long Beach Museum of Art Foundation. Long Beach also features the Museum of Latin American Art, founded in 1996 by Dr. Robert Gumbiner. It is the only museum in the western United States that exclusively features modern and contemporary Latin American art. Long Beach's newest museum is The Pacific Island Ethnic Art Museum (PieAM). This museum was a project of Robert Gumbiner at the time of his death. The museum opened October 15, 2010. In 1965, Long Beach State hosted the first International Sculpture Symposium to be held in the United States",
"The Bob Cole Conservatory of Music, the recently renamed school of music at CSULB, presents a wide variety of classical, jazz, and world music concerts each year. The Conservatory is part of CSULB's renowned College of the Arts. The Long Beach Symphony plays numerous classical and pop music concerts throughout the year. The symphony plays at the Terrace Theater in the Long Beach Convention and Entertainment Center. Long Beach Opera, founded in 1979, is the oldest professional opera company serving the Los Angeles and Orange County regions. It presents performances of standard and non-standard opera repertoire at various locations, including the Terrace Theater and Center Theater of the Long Beach Convention and Entertainment Center and the Richard and Karen Carpenter Performing Arts Center at CSULB. Long Beach Community Concert Association is a 49-year-old volunteer organization that provides quality musical entertainment appealing to seniors and others, four Sunday afternoons a year at the Carpenter Performing Arts Center at CSULB. LBCCA also has an outreach program",
"Long Beach has several resident professional and semi-professional theater companies. Musical Theatre West, one of the largest regional theatrical producers in Southern California, performs at the Carpenter Performing Arts Center on the campus of CSU Long Beach. International City Theatre produces plays and musicals at the Beverly O'Neill Theatre (part of the Long Beach Convention and Entertainment Center). The Long Beach Playhouse, in continuous operation for over 75 years, has shows running",
"In October, Long Beach State hosts the CSULB Wide Screen Film Festival, at the Carpenter Performing Arts Center. The festival started in 1992 as a showcase for movies shot in the widescreen format, but has since been transformed into an artist-in-residence event. A major video and film artist (such as former CSULB student Steven Spielberg) screens and discusses their own work as well as the ten productions that most influenced their cinematic vision. The \"Naples Island Christmas Parade\" has been held since 1946, and passes through the canals of Naples and around",
"The RMS \"Queen Mary\" is a 1936 Art Deco ocean liner permanently docked at Long Beach. Roughly longer than the RMS \"Titanic\", the former Cunard Liner is famous for being the fastest in the world from 1936 to 1952, for its distinctive art deco design and for its use during World War II as a troop transport. It was purchased by the City of Long Beach in 1967 for conversion to a hotel and maritime museum. The nonprofit Aquarium of the Pacific is on a site on Rainbow Harbor in Long Beach, across the water from the Long Beach Convention Center, Shoreline Village, and the Queen Mary Hotel and Attraction. The Long Beach Department of Parks, Recreation and Marine received a Gold Medal award from the National Recreation and Park Association in 2002, 2003,",
"",
"The Grand Prix of Long Beach in April is the single largest event in Long Beach. It started in 1975 as a Formula 5000 race on the streets of downtown, and became a Formula One race, the United States Grand Prix West, the following year. From 1984 to 2008 it was a Champ Car event, and is now an IndyCar race. During the same weekend as the Grand",
"The Long Beach Marathon is run every year in October throughout the City of Long Beach. The annual event includes a variety of races including a Kids Fun Run, a Bike Tour, 5K, Half Marathon and",
"The Long Beach State 49ers baseball team has been playing since 1954. They play at",
"Long Beach was the home of the American Basketball Association team Long Beach Chiefs during the 1962/1963 season. They played in the newly opened Long Beach Arena. The minor league American Basketball Association team, the Long Beach Jam, played in the Walter",
"Since its inception in August 1964, the Congressional Cup has grown into one of the major international sailing events. Now held in April, it is the only grade 1 match race regatta held in the",
"In July, there is the annual Catalina Ski Race, which starts from Long Beach Harbor and goes to",
"Although California's surfing scene is said to have gotten its start in Long Beach when in 1911 two surfers returned from Hawaii and the city hosted the first National Surfing and Paddleboard Championships in 1938, surfing is now uncommon in",
"The Belmont Shore rugby team plays in the US Rugby",
"Long Beach State's team mascot are the 49ers. The school has participated in national championships in women's volleyball (5), men's volleyball (1), track and field (1), men's tennis (1; Division II), swimming (1; Division II), women's badminton (2), and women's field hockey (1). The school also has regularly appeared in NCAA tournaments in men's baseball, men's softball, men's basketball, women's basketball, men's golf, women's tennis, men's water polo, and women's water polo. Their cheer team were national champions in 2003, 2004 and 2006. The D1 roller hockey team were the 2011 national champions after defeating Lindenwood University. The other college-level sports team in the city is Long Beach City College. The school has appeared in national championships in men's gymnastics (6), football (5), women's soccer (3), and men's doubles and singles tennis (1 each). They have also had state championships in numerous sports, including 2006–7 championships in men's and women's water polo.",
"The archery field in El Dorado Regional Park was the site for the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics archery competition. CSU Long Beach has one of the few remaining university varsity archery teams in California.",
"Multiple sports will be held in Long Beach during the",
"",
"Long Beach is a California charter city, and is governed by nine City Council members, who are elected by district, and the Mayor, who is elected at-large since a citywide initiative passed in 1988. The City Attorney, City Auditor, and City Prosecutor are also elected positions. The city is supported by a budget of $2.3 billion, and has more than 5,500 employees. Long Beach was first incorporated in 1888 with 59 buildings and a new school. Nine years later, dissatisfaction with prohibition and high taxes led to an abortive and short-lived disincorporation.",
"In the California State Senate, Long Beach is split between,, and. In the California",
"",
"The Long Beach Police Department provides law enforcement for the City of Long Beach.",
"On March 18, 2008, Long Beach became the first city in California to heavily restrict residency and visitation rights for California registered sex offenders. Triggered by a local protest of a multi-apartment dwelling which tenanted several paroled registered sex offenders, and fueled by local radio hosts John Kobylt and Ken Chiampou of KFI's John and Ken show, city council members voted 7–0 to enact 18 ordinances, of which the most restrictive prohibits residency by all registered sex offenders, whether they are on parole or not, within of any child care",
"The Long Beach Fire Department (LBFD), ISO Class 1, provides fire protection and emergency",
"",
"",
"Long Beach Unified School District serves most of the City of Long Beach. Other school districts that serve sections of Long Beach include:",
"Long Beach, California has two public institutions dedicated to higher education: California State University, Long Beach and Long Beach City College. Founded in 1949, California State University, Long Beach is a comprehensive public university in the tree-filled Los Altos neighborhood. Long Beach State is three miles away from the",
"",
"As of 2005, the Port of Long Beach was the second busiest seaport in the United States and the tenth busiest in the world, shipping some 66 million metric tons of cargo worth $95 billion in 2001. The port serves shipping between the United States and the Pacific Rim. The combined operations of the Port of Long Beach and the Port of Los Angeles are the busiest in the USA. Rail",
"Long Beach Transit provides local public transportation services within Long Beach, Lakewood, and Signal Hill. Long Beach Transit regularly operates 38 bus routes. Most regular service bus routes begin or end at the Long Beach Transit Mall in downtown Long Beach. Long Beach Transit also operates the Passport shuttle within downtown Long Beach. The free shuttle carries passengers to the Aquarium of the Pacific, Pine Avenue, Shoreline Village, the Long Beach Convention Center, the Queen Mary, Catalina Landing, various hotels, and other points of interest. During the summer, Long",
"Long Beach Airport serves the Long Beach, South Bay and northern Orange County areas. It is the West Coast hub for JetBlue Airways. It is also the site of a major Boeing (formerly Douglas, then McDonnell Douglas) aircraft production",
"Several freeways run through Long Beach, connecting it with the greater Los Angeles and Orange County areas. The San Diego Freeway (I-405) bisects the northern and southern portions of the city and takes commuters northwest or southeast to the Golden State/Santa Ana Freeways (I-5). The San Diego Freeway also provides regional access to Long Beach Airport, which is on the north side of the freeway near Signal Hill. The Long Beach Freeway (I-710) runs north-south on the city's western border, with its southern terminus adjacent to the Port of Long Beach on Terminal Island at the intersection of the Terminal Island Freeway (SR 103) and State Route 47. The Long Beach Freeway is the major spur route serving Long Beach from downtown Los Angeles, with its",
"The city of Long Beach has five major Class 1 bike paths (separate off-road bike paths) within its boundaries, encompassing over. The city also has many Class 2 (painted lanes on roadway) and Class 3 paths (connecting bike routes with shared use of road with cars). A 2019 study by Walk Score ranked Long Beach the tenth most walkable of over 100 cities around the world. The Shoreline Pedestrian Bikepath runs along the ocean from Shoreline Village to Belmont Shore. The southern terminus",
"According to the 2016 American Community Survey, 73.6 percent of working residents of Long Beach commuted by driving alone, 10.2 percent carpooled, 6.2 percent used public transportation, and 3.4 percent walked. About 2 percent commuted by all other means of",
"",
"Balboa Amusement Producing Company, also known as Balboa Studios, was at Sixth Street and Alamitos Avenue; they used on Signal Hill for outdoor locations. Silent film stars who lived in Long Beach included Fatty Arbuckle and Theda Bara. The 1917 film \"Cleopatra\", starring Theda Bara, was shot at the Dominguez Slough just west of Long Beach, and Moses parted the Red Sea for Cecil B. DeMille's 1923 version of \"The Ten Commandments\" on the flat seashore of Seal Beach, southeast of Long Beach. Long Beach was the famous location of Paramount newsreel footage of the 1933 Long Beach earthquake, out-takes from the W.C. Fields 1933 featurette \"International House\" was possibly the first earthquake to be captured",
"Long Beach has a number of online news outlets, including",
"Long Beach's daily newspaper is the \"Long Beach Press-Telegram\", which is distributed throughout most of the Gateway Cities and South Bay areas of southwest Los Angeles County. The \"Press-Telegram\" is owned by Digital First Media and is part of the Los Angeles Newspaper Group, which has several newspapers in the Southern California area which share resources and reporters. On September 30, 1933, the \"Press-Telegram\" published what David Dayen called \"One of the more influential letters to the editor in American history\": Francis Townsend's letter outlining the Townsend Plan, a proposal that sparked a national campaign which influenced the establishment of the Roosevelt administration's Social Security system. California State University, Long Beach also has a student newspaper published four times a week during the fall and spring semesters, the \"Daily Forty-Niner\". Long Beach also gets distribution of the daily \"Los Angeles Times\" and \"La Opinión\" newspapers,",
"Long Beach is part of the Los Angeles DMA radio and television markets. Although a few radio stations have had studios in Long Beach over the years, including the 1980s alternative music and later hard rock station",
"As of June 2016, Long Beach's sister cities are:"
]
} |
Biometrics | null | Biometrics is the technical term for body measurements and calculations. It refers to metrics related to human characteristics. Biometrics authentication (or realistic authentication) is used in computer science as a form of identification and access control. It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-972643 | en-train-972643 | 972643 | {
"title": [
"Biometric functionality.",
"Multimodal biometric system.",
"Performance.",
"History.",
"Adaptive biometric systems.",
"Recent advances in emerging biometrics.",
"Operator signatures.",
"Proposed requirement for certain public networks.",
"Animal biometrics.",
"Video.",
"Issues and concerns.",
"Surveillance humanitarianism in times of crisis.",
"Human dignity.",
"Privacy and discrimination.",
"Danger to owners of secured items.",
"Presentation attacks.",
"Cancelable biometrics.",
"Soft biometrics.",
"International sharing of biometric data.",
"Likelihood of full governmental disclosure.",
"Countries applying biometrics.",
"India's national ID program."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Many different aspects of human physiology, chemistry or behavior can be used for biometric authentication. The selection of a particular biometric for use in a specific application involves a weighting of several factors. Jain \"et al.\" (1999) identified seven such factors to be used when assessing the suitability of any trait for use in biometric authentication. Proper biometric use is very application dependent. Certain biometrics will be better than others based on the required levels of convenience and security. No single biometric will meet all the requirements of every possible application. The block diagram illustrates the two basic modes of a biometric system. First, in verification (or authentication) mode the system performs a one-to-one comparison of a captured biometric with a specific template stored in a biometric database in order to verify the individual is the person they claim to be. Three steps are involved in the verification of a person. In the first step, reference models for all the users are generated and stored in the model database. In the second step, some samples are matched with reference models to generate the genuine and impostor scores and calculate the threshold. The third step is the testing step. This process may use a smart card, username or ID number (e.g. PIN) to indicate which template should be used for comparison. 'Positive recognition' is a common use of the verification mode, \"where the aim is to prevent multiple people from using the same identity\". Second, in identification mode the system performs a one-to-many comparison against a biometric database in an attempt to establish the identity of an unknown individual. The system will succeed in identifying the individual if the comparison of the biometric sample to a template in the database falls within a previously set threshold. Identification mode can be used either for 'positive recognition' (so that the user does not have to provide any information about the template to be used) or for 'negative recognition' of the person \"where the system establishes whether the person is who she (implicitly or explicitly) denies to be\". The latter function can only be achieved through biometrics since other methods of personal recognition such as passwords, PINs or keys are ineffective. The first time an individual uses a biometric system is called \"enrollment\". During enrollment, biometric information from an individual is captured and stored. In subsequent uses, biometric information is detected and compared with the information stored at the time of enrollment. Note that it is crucial that storage and retrieval of such systems themselves be secure if the biometric system is to be robust. Biometric data is stored and processed with database servers, encrypted tokens, or physical tokens, while more secure devices will use on-device storage of biometric templates. This type of storage ensures identity authentication without the transference of any sensitive biometric information over the internet to a different server or location. The first block (sensor) is the interface between the real world and the system; it has to acquire all the necessary data. Most of the times it is an image acquisition system, but it can change according to the characteristics desired. The second block performs all the necessary pre-processing: it has to remove artifacts from the sensor, to enhance the input (e.g. removing background noise), to use some kind of normalization, etc. In the third block, necessary features are extracted. This step is an important step as the correct features need to be extracted in an optimal way. A vector of numbers or an image with particular properties is used to create a \"template\". A template is a synthesis of the relevant characteristics extracted from the source. Elements of the biometric measurement that are not used in the comparison algorithm are discarded in the template to reduce the filesize and to protect the identity of the enrollee. However, depending on the scope of the biometric system, original biometric image sources may be retained such as the PIV-cards used in the Federal Information Processing Standard Personal Identity Verification (PIV) of Federal Employees and Contractors (FIPS 201). During the enrollment phase, the template is simply stored somewhere (on a card or within a database or both). During the matching phase, the obtained template is passed to a matcher that compares it with other existing templates, estimating the distance between them using any algorithm (e.g. Hamming distance). The matching program will analyze the template with the input. This will then be output for a specified use or purpose (e.g. entrance in a restricted area), though it is a fear that the use of biometric data may face mission creep. Selection of biometrics in any practical application depending upon the characteristic measurements and user requirements. In selecting a particular biometric, factors to consider include, performance, social acceptability, ease of circumvention and/or spoofing, robustness, population coverage, size of equipment needed and identity theft deterrence. The selection of a biometric is based on user requirements and considers sensor and device availability, computational time and reliability, cost, sensor size, and power consumption.",
"Multimodal biometric systems use multiple sensors or biometrics to overcome the limitations of unimodal biometric systems. For instance iris recognition systems can be compromised by aging irises and electronic fingerprint recognition can be worsened by worn-out or cut fingerprints. While unimodal biometric systems are limited by the integrity of their identifier, it is unlikely that several unimodal systems will suffer from identical limitations. Multimodal biometric systems can obtain sets of information from the same marker (i.e., multiple images of an iris, or scans of the same finger) or information from different biometrics (requiring fingerprint scans and, using voice recognition, a spoken passcode). Multimodal biometric systems can fuse these unimodal systems sequentially, simultaneously, a combination thereof, or in series, which refer to sequential, parallel, hierarchical and serial integration modes, respectively. Fusion of the biometrics information can occur at different stages of a recognition system. In case of feature level fusion, the data itself or the features extracted from multiple biometrics are fused. Matching-score level fusion consolidates the scores generated by multiple classifiers pertaining to different modalities. Finally, in case of decision level fusion the final results of multiple classifiers are combined via techniques such as majority voting. Feature level fusion is believed to be more effective than the other levels of fusion because the feature set contains richer information about the input biometric data than the matching score or the output decision of a classifier. Therefore, fusion at the feature level is expected to provide better recognition results. Spoof attacks consist in submitting fake biometric traits to biometric systems, and are a major threat that can curtail their security. Multi-modal biometric systems are commonly believed to be intrinsically more robust to spoof attacks, but recent studies have shown that they can be evaded by spoofing even a single biometric trait.",
"The following are used as performance metrics for biometric systems:",
"An early cataloguing of fingerprints dates back to 1881 when Juan Vucetich started a collection of fingerprints of criminals in Argentina. Josh Ellenbogen and Nitzan Lebovic argued that Biometrics originated in the identification systems of criminal activity developed by Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914) and by Francis Galton's theory of fingerprints and physiognomy. According to Lebovic, Galton's work \"led to the application of mathematical models to fingerprints, phrenology, and facial characteristics\", as part of \"absolute identification\" and \"a key to both inclusion and exclusion\" of populations. Accordingly, \"the biometric system is the absolute political weapon of our era\" and a form of \"soft control\". The theoretician David Lyon showed that during the past two decades biometric systems have penetrated the civilian market, and blurred the lines between governmental forms of control and private corporate control. Kelly A. Gates identified 9/11 as the turning point for the cultural language of our present: \"in the language of cultural studies, the aftermath of 9/11 was a moment of articulation, where objects or events that have no necessary connection come together and a new discourse formation is established: automated facial recognition as a homeland security technology.\"",
"Adaptive biometric systems aim to auto-update the templates or model to the intra-class variation of the operational data. The two-fold advantages of these systems are solving the problem of limited training data and tracking the temporal variations of the input data through adaptation. Recently, adaptive biometrics have received a significant attention from the research community. This research direction is expected to gain momentum because of their key promulgated advantages. First, with an adaptive biometric system, one no longer needs to collect a large number of biometric samples during the enrollment process. Second, it is no longer necessary to enrol again or retrain the system from scratch in order to cope with the changing environment. This convenience can significantly reduce the cost of maintaining a biometric system. Despite these advantages, there are several open issues involved with these systems. For mis-classification error (false acceptance) by the biometric system, cause adaptation using impostor sample. However, continuous research efforts are directed to resolve the open issues associated to the field of adaptive biometrics. More information about adaptive biometric systems can be found in the critical review by Rattani \"et al.\"",
"In recent times, biometrics based on brain (electroencephalogram) and heart (electrocardiogram) signals have emerged. The research group at University of Kent led by Ramaswamy Palaniappan has shown that people have certain distinct brain and heart patterns that are specific for each individual. Another example is finger vein recognition, using pattern-recognition techniques, based on images of human vascular patterns. The advantage of such 'futuristic' technology is that it is more fraud resistant compared to conventional biometrics like fingerprints. However, such technology is generally more cumbersome and still has issues such as lower accuracy and poor reproducibility over time. This new generation of biometrical systems is called biometrics of intent and it aims to scan \"intent\". The technology will analyze physiological features such as eye movement, body temperature, breathing etc. and predict dangerous behaviour or hostile intent before it materializes into action. On the portability side of biometric products, more and more vendors are embracing significantly miniaturized biometric authentication systems (BAS) thereby driving elaborate cost savings, especially for large-scale deployments.",
"An operator signature is a biometric mode where the manner in which a person using a device or complex system is recorded as a verification template. One potential use for this type of biometric signature is to distinguish among remote users of telerobotic surgery systems that utilize public networks for communication.",
"John Michael (Mike) McConnell, a former vice admiral in the United States Navy, a former Director of U.S. National Intelligence, and Senior Vice President of Booz Allen Hamilton promoted the development of a future capability to require biometric authentication to access certain public networks in his keynote speech at the 2009 Biometric Consortium Conference. A basic premise in the above proposal is that the person that has uniquely authenticated themselves using biometrics with the computer is in fact also the agent performing potentially malicious actions from that computer. However, if control of the computer has been subverted, for example in which the computer is part of a botnet controlled by a hacker, then knowledge of the identity of the user at the terminal does not materially improve network security or aid law enforcement activities. Recently, another approach to biometric security was developed, this method scans the entire body of prospects to guarantee a better identification of this prospect. This method is not globally accepted because it is very complex and prospects are concerned about their privacy.",
"Rather than tags or tattoos, biometric techniques may be used to identify individual animals: zebra stripes, blood vessel patterns in rodent ears, muzzle prints, bat wing patterns, primate facial recognition and koala spots have all been tried.",
"Videos have become a pronounced way of identifying information. There are features in videos that look at how intense certain parts of a frame are compared to others which help with identification.",
"",
"Biometrics are employed by many aid programs in times of crisis in order to prevent fraud and ensure that resources are properly available to those in need. Humanitarian efforts are motivated by promoting the welfare of individuals in need, however the use of biometrics as a form of surveillance humanitarianism can create conflict due to varying interests of the groups involved in the particular situation. Disputes over the use of biometrics between aid programs and party officials stalls the distribution of resources to people that need help the most. In July of 2019, the United Nations World Food Program and Houthi Rebels were involved in a large dispute over the use of biometrics to ensure resources are provided to the hundreds of thousands of civilians in Yemen whose lives are threatened. The refusal to cooperate with the interests of the United Nations World Food Program resulted in the suspension of food aid to the Yemen population. The use of biometrics may provide aid programs with valuable information, however its potential solutions may not be best suited for chaotic times of crisis. Conflicts that are caused by deep-rooted political problems, in which the implementation of biometrics may not provide a long-term solution.",
"Biometrics have been considered also instrumental to the development of state authority (to put it in Foucauldian terms, of discipline and biopower). By turning the human subject into a collection of biometric parameters, biometrics would dehumanize the person, infringe bodily integrity, and, ultimately, offend human dignity. In a well-known case, Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben refused to enter the United States in protest at the United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator (US-VISIT) program's requirement for visitors to be fingerprinted and photographed. Agamben argued that gathering of biometric data is a form of bio-political tattooing, akin to the tattooing of Jews during the Holocaust. According to Agamben, biometrics turn the human persona into a bare body. Agamben refers to the two words used by Ancient Greeks for indicating \"life\", \"zoe\", which is the life common to animals and humans, just life; and \"bios\", which is life in the human context, with meanings and purposes. Agamben envisages the reduction to bare bodies for the whole humanity. For him, a new bio-political relationship between citizens and the state is turning citizens into pure biological life (\"zoe\") depriving them from their humanity (\"bios\"); and biometrics would herald this new world. In Dark Matters: On the Surveillance of Blackness, surveillance scholar Simone Browne formulates a similar critique as Agamben, citing a recent study relating to biometrics R&D that found that the gender classification system being researched \"is inclined to classify Africans as males and Mongoloids as females.\" Consequently, Browne argues that the conception of an objective biometric technology is difficult if such systems are subjectively designed, and are vulnerable to cause errors as described in the study above. The stark expansion of biometric technologies in both the public and private sector magnifies this concern. The increasing commodification of biometrics by the private sector adds to this danger of loss of human value. Indeed, corporations value the biometric characteristics more than the individuals value them. Browne goes on to suggest that modern society should incorporate a \"biometric consciousness\" that \"entails informed public debate around these technologies and their application, and accountability by the state and the private sector, where the ownership of and access to one's own body data and other intellectual property that is generated from one's body data must be understood as a right.\" Other scholars have emphasized, however, that the globalized world is confronted with a huge mass of people with weak or absent civil identities. Most developing countries have weak and unreliable documents and the poorer people in these countries do not have even those unreliable documents. Without certified personal identities, there is no certainty of right, no civil liberty. One can claim her rights, including the right to refuse to be identified, only if she is an identifiable subject, if she has a public identity. In such a sense, biometrics could play a pivotal role in supporting and promoting respect for human dignity and fundamental rights. The biometrics of intent poses further risks. In his paper in Harvard International Review, Prof Nayef Al-Rodhan cautions about the high risks of miscalculations, wrongful accusations and infringements of civil liberties. Critics in the US have also signalled a conflict with the 4th Amendment.",
"It is possible that data obtained during biometric enrollment may be used in ways for which the enrolled individual has not consented. For example, most biometric features could disclose physiological and/or pathological medical conditions (e.g., some fingerprint patterns are related to chromosomal diseases, iris patterns could reveal genetic sex, hand vein patterns could reveal vascular diseases, most behavioral biometrics could reveal neurological diseases, etc.). Moreover, second generation biometrics, notably behavioral and electro-physiologic biometrics (e.g., based on electrocardiography, electroencephalography, electromyography), could be also used for emotion detection. There are three categories of privacy concerns:",
"When thieves cannot get access to secure properties, there is a chance that the thieves will stalk and assault the property owner to gain access. If the item is secured with a biometric device, the damage to the owner could be irreversible, and potentially cost more than the secured property. For example, in 2005, Malaysian car thieves cut off the finger of a Mercedes-Benz S-Class owner when attempting to steal the car.",
"In the context of biometric systems, presentation attacks may also be called \"spoofing attacks\". As per the recent ISO/IEC 30107 standard, presentation attacks are defined as \"presentation to the biometric capture subsystem with the goal of interfering with the operation of the biometric system\". These attacks can be either impersonation or obfuscation attacks. Impersonation attacks try to gain access by pretending to be someone else. Obfuscation attacks may, for example, try to evade face detection and face recognition systems. Recently several methods have been proposed to counteract presentation attacks. Today's sophisticated biometric systems use \"liveness\" elements to detect spoofs (a.k.a. fake images), and some fingerprint scanners have pulse detectors. Automated detection of a presentation attack is called a \"presentation attack detection\" (PAD).",
"One advantage of passwords over biometrics is that they can be re-issued. If a token or a password is lost or stolen, it can be cancelled and replaced by a newer version. This is not naturally available in biometrics. If someone's face is compromised from a database, they cannot cancel or reissue it. If the electronic biometric identifier is stolen, it is nearly impossible to change a biometric feature. This renders the person's biometric feature questionable for future use in authentication, such as the case with the hacking of security-clearance-related background information from the Office of Personnel Management (OPM) in the United States. Cancelable biometrics is a way in which to incorporate protection and the replacement features into biometrics to create a more secure system. It was first proposed by Ratha \"et al.\" \"Cancelable biometrics refers to the intentional and systematically repeatable distortion of biometric features in order to protect sensitive user-specific data. If a cancelable feature is compromised, the distortion characteristics are changed, and the same biometrics is mapped to a new template, which is used subsequently. Cancelable biometrics is one of the major categories for biometric template protection purpose besides biometric cryptosystem.\" In biometric cryptosystem, \"the error-correcting coding techniques are employed to handle intraclass variations.\" This ensures a high level of security but has limitations such as specific input format of only small intraclass variations. Several methods for generating new exclusive biometrics have been proposed. The first fingerprint-based cancelable biometric system was designed and developed by Tulyakov \"et al.\" Essentially, cancelable biometrics perform a distortion of the biometric image or features before matching. The variability in the distortion parameters provides the cancelable nature of the scheme. Some of the proposed techniques operate using their own recognition engines, such as Teoh \"et al.\" and Savvides \"et al.\", whereas other methods, such as Dabbah \"et al.\", take the advantage of the advancement of the well-established biometric research for their recognition front-end to conduct recognition. Although this increases the restrictions on the protection system, it makes the cancellable templates more accessible for available biometric technologies",
"Soft biometrics traits are physical, behavioral or adhered human characteristics that have been derived from the way human beings normally distinguish their peers (e.g. height, gender, hair color). They are used to complement the identity information provided by the primary biometric identifiers. Although soft biometric characteristics lack the distinctiveness and permanence to recognize an individual uniquely and reliably, and can be easily faked, they provide some evidence about the users identity that could be beneficial. In other words, despite the fact they are unable to individualize a subject, they are effective in distinguishing between people. Combinations of personal attributes like gender, race, eye color, height and other visible identification marks can be used to improve the performance of traditional biometric systems. Most soft biometrics can be easily collected and are actually collected during enrollment. Two main ethical issues are raised by soft biometrics. First, some of soft biometric traits are strongly cultural based; e.g., skin colors for determining ethnicity risk to support racist approaches, biometric sex recognition at the best recognizes gender from tertiary sexual characters, being unable to determine genetic and chromosomal sexes; soft biometrics for aging recognition are often deeply influenced by ageist stereotypes, etc. Second, soft biometrics have strong potential for categorizing and profiling people, so risking of supporting processes of stigmatization and exclusion.",
"Many countries, including the United States, are planning to share biometric data with other nations. In testimony before the US House Appropriations Committee, Subcommittee on Homeland Security on \"biometric identification\" in 2009, Kathleen Kraninger and Robert A Mocny commented on international cooperation and collaboration with respect to biometric data, as follows: According to an article written in 2009 by S. Magnuson in the National Defense Magazine entitled \"Defense Department Under Pressure to Share Biometric Data\" the United States has bilateral agreements with other nations aimed at sharing biometric data. To quote that article:",
"Certain members of the civilian community are worried about how biometric data is used but full disclosure may not be forthcoming. In particular, the Unclassified Report of the United States' Defense Science Board Task Force on Defense Biometrics states that it is wise to protect, and sometimes even to disguise, the true and total extent of national capabilities in areas related directly to the conduct of security-related activities. This also potentially applies to Biometrics. It goes on to say that this is a classic feature of intelligence and military operations. In short, the goal is to preserve the security of'sources and methods'.",
"Countries using biometrics include Australia, Brazil, Canada, Cyprus, Greece, China, Gambia, Germany, India, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Malaysia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Tanzania, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States and Venezuela. Among low to middle income countries, roughly 1.2 billion people have already received identification through a biometric identification program. There are also numerous countries applying biometrics for voter registration and similar electoral purposes. According to the International IDEA's ICTs in Elections Database, some of the countries using (2017) Biometric Voter Registration (BVR) are Armenia, Angola, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Colombia, Comoros, Congo (Democratic Republic of), Costa Rica, Ivory Coast, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Gambia, Ghana, Guatemala, India, Iraq, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Panama, Peru, The Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somaliland, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Uruguay, Venezuela, Yemen, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.",
"India's national ID program called Aadhaar is the largest biometric database in the world. It is a biometrics-based digital identity assigned for a person's lifetime, verifiable online instantly in the public domain, at any time, from anywhere, in a paperless way. It is designed to enable government agencies to deliver a retail public service, securely based on biometric data (fingerprint, iris scan and face photo), along with demographic data (name, age, gender, address, parent/spouse name, mobile phone number) of a person. The data is transmitted in encrypted form over the internet for authentication, aiming to free it from the limitations of physical presence of a person at a given place. About 550 million residents have been enrolled and assigned 480 million Aadhaar national identification numbers as of 7 November 2013. It aims to cover the entire population of 1.2 billion in a few years. However, it is being challenged by critics over privacy concerns and possible transformation of the state into a surveillance state, or into a Banana republic.§ The project was also met with mistrust regarding the safety of the social protection infrastructures. To tackle the fear amongst the people, India's supreme court put a new ruling into action that stated that privacy from then on was seen as a fundamental right. On 24 August 2017 this new law was established."
]
} |
Authentication | null | Authentication (from "authentikos", "real, genuine", from αὐθέντης "authentes", "author") is the act of proving an assertion, such as the identity of a computer system user. In contrast with identification, the act of indicating a person or thing's identity, authentication is the process of verifying that identity. It might involve validating personal identity documents, verifying the authenticity of a website with a digital certificate, determining the age of an artifact by carbon dating, or ensuring that a product or document is not counterfeit. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1326335 | en-train-1326335 | 1326335 | {
"title": [
"Methods.",
"Authentication factors.",
"Single-factor authentication.",
"Multi-factor authentication.",
"Authentication types.",
"Strong authentication.",
"Continuous authentication.",
"Digital authentication.",
"Product authentication.",
"Packaging.",
"Information content.",
"Literacy and literature authentication.",
"History and state-of-the-art.",
"Authorization.",
"Access control."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
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"1"
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"content": [
"Authentication is relevant to multiple fields. In art, antiques and anthropology, a common problem is verifying that a given artifact was produced by a certain person or in a certain place or period of history. In computer science, verifying a user's identity is often required to allow access to confidential data or systems. Authentication can be considered to be of three types: The first type of authentication is accepting proof of identity given by a credible person who has first-hand evidence that the identity is genuine. When authentication is required of art or physical objects, this proof could be a friend, family member or colleague attesting to the item's provenance, perhaps by having witnessed the item in its creator's possession. With autographed sports memorabilia, this could involve someone attesting that they witnessed the object being signed. A vendor selling branded items implies authenticity, while he or she may not have evidence that every step in the supply chain was authenticated. Centralized authority-based trust relationships back most secure internet communication through known public certificate authorities; decentralized peer-based trust, also known as a web of trust, is used for personal services such as email or files (pretty good privacy, GNU Privacy Guard) and trust is established by known individuals signing each other's cryptographic key at Key signing parties, for instance. The second type of authentication is comparing the attributes of the object itself to what is known about objects of that origin. For example, an art expert might look for similarities in the style of painting, check the location and form of a signature, or compare the object to an old photograph. An archaeologist, on the other hand, might use carbon dating to verify the age of an artifact, do a chemical and spectroscopic analysis of the materials used, or compare the style of construction or decoration to other artifacts of similar origin. The physics of sound and light, and comparison with a known physical environment, can be used to examine the authenticity of audio recordings, photographs, or videos. Documents can be verified as being created on ink or paper readily available at the time of the item's implied creation. Attribute comparison may be vulnerable to forgery. In general, it relies on the facts that creating a forgery indistinguishable from a genuine artifact requires expert knowledge, that mistakes are easily made, and that the amount of effort required to do so is considerably greater than the amount of profit that can be gained from the forgery. In art and antiques, certificates are of great importance for authenticating an object of interest and value. Certificates can, however, also be forged, and the authentication of these poses a problem. For instance, the son of Han van Meegeren, the well-known art-forger, forged the work of his father and provided a certificate for its provenance as well; see the article Jacques van Meegeren. Criminal and civil penalties for fraud, forgery, and counterfeiting can reduce the incentive for falsification, depending on the risk of getting caught. Currency and other financial instruments commonly use this second type of authentication method. Bills, coins, and cheques incorporate hard-to-duplicate physical features, such as fine printing or engraving, distinctive feel, watermarks, and holographic imagery, which are easy for trained receivers to verify. The third type of authentication relies on documentation or other external affirmations. In criminal courts, the rules of evidence often require establishing the chain of custody of evidence presented. This can be accomplished through a written evidence log, or by testimony from the police detectives and forensics staff that handled it. Some antiques are accompanied by certificates attesting to their authenticity. Signed sports memorabilia is usually accompanied by a certificate of authenticity. These external records have their own problems of forgery and perjury, and are also vulnerable to being separated from the artifact and lost. In computer science, a user can be given access to secure systems based on user credentials that imply authenticity. A network administrator can give a user a password, or provide the user with a key card or other access device to allow system access. In this case, authenticity is implied but not guaranteed. Consumer goods such as pharmaceuticals, perfume, fashion clothing can use all three forms of authentication to prevent counterfeit goods from taking advantage of a popular brand's reputation (damaging the brand owner's sales and reputation). As mentioned above, having an item for sale in a reputable store implicitly attests to it being genuine, the first type of authentication. The second type of authentication might involve comparing the quality and craftsmanship of an item, such as an expensive handbag, to genuine articles. The third type of authentication could be the presence of a trademark on the item, which is a legally protected marking, or any other identifying feature which aids consumers in the identification of genuine brand-name goods. With software, companies have taken great steps to protect from counterfeiters, including adding holograms, security rings, security threads and color shifting ink.",
"The ways in which someone may be authenticated fall into three categories, based on what are known as the factors of authentication: something the user \"knows\", something the user \"has\", and something the user \"is\". Each authentication factor covers a range of elements used to authenticate or verify a person's identity prior to being granted access, approving a transaction request, signing a document or other work product, granting authority to others, and establishing a chain of authority. Security research has determined that for a positive authentication, elements from at least two, and preferably all three, factors should be verified. The three factors (classes) and some of elements of each factor are:",
"As the weakest level of authentication, only a single component from one of the three categories of factors is used to authenticate an individual’s identity. The use of only one factor does not offer much protection from misuse or malicious intrusion. This type of authentication is not recommended for financial or personally relevant transactions that warrant a higher level of security.",
"Multi-factor authentication involves two or more authentication factors (\"something you know\", \"something you have\", or \"something you are\"). Two-factor authentication is a special case of multi-factor authentication involving exactly two factors. For example, using a bankcard (something the user has) along with a PIN (something the user knows) provides two-factor authentication. Business networks may require users to provide a password (knowledge factor) and a pseudorandom number from a security token (ownership factor). Access to a very-high-security system might require a mantrap screening of height, weight, facial, and fingerprint checks (several inherence factor elements) plus a PIN and a day code (knowledge factor elements), but this is still a two-factor authentication.",
"The most frequent types of authentication available in use for authenticating online users differ in the level of security provided by combining factors from the one or more of the three categories of factors for authentication:",
"The U.S. government's National Information Assurance Glossary defines strong authentication as layered authentication approach relying on two or more authenticators to establish the identity of an originator or receiver of information. The European Central Bank (ECB) has defined \"strong authentication\" as \"a procedure based on two or more of the three authentication factors\". The factors that are used must be mutually independent and at least one factor must be \"non-reusable and non-replicable\", except in the case of an inherence factor and must also be incapable of being stolen off the Internet. In the European, as well as in the US-American understanding, strong authentication is very similar to multi-factor authentication or 2FA, but exceeding those with more rigorous requirements. The Fast IDentity Online (FIDO) Alliance has been striving to establish technical specifications for strong authentication.",
"Conventional computer systems authenticate users only at the initial log-in session, which can be the cause of a critical security flaw. To resolve this problem, systems need continuous user authentication methods that continuously monitor and authenticate users based on some biometric trait(s). A study used behavioural biometrics based in writing styles as a continuous authentication method. Recent research has shown the possibility of using smartphones’ sensors and accessories to extract some behavioral attributes such as touch dynamics, keystroke dynamics and gait recognition. These attributes are known as behavioral biometrics and could be used to verify or identify users implicitly and continuously on smartphones. The authentication systems that have been built based on these behavioral biometric traits are known as active or continuous authentication systems.",
"The term \"digital authentication\", also known as \"electronic authentication\" or \"e-authentication\", refers to a group of processes where the confidence for user identities is established and presented via electronic methods to an information system. The digital authentication process creates technical challenges because of the need to authenticate individuals or entities remotely over a network. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has created a generic model for digital authentication that describes the processes that are used to accomplish secure authentication: The authentication of information can pose special problems with electronic communication, such as vulnerability to man-in-the-middle attacks, whereby a third party taps into the communication stream, and poses as each of the two other communicating parties, in order to intercept information from each. Extra identity factors can be required to authenticate each party's identity.",
"Counterfeit products are often offered to consumers as being authentic. Counterfeit consumer goods such as electronics, music, apparel, and counterfeit medications have been sold as being legitimate. Efforts to control the supply chain and educate consumers help ensure that authentic products are sold and used. Even security printing on packages, labels, and nameplates, however, is subject to counterfeiting. Products or their packaging can include a variable QR Code. A QR Code alone is easy to verify but offers a weak level of authentication as it offers no protection against counterfeits, unless scan data is analysed at the system level to detect anomalies. To increase the security level, the QR Code can be combined with a digital watermark or copy detection pattern that are robust to copy attempts, and can be authenticated with a smartphone. A secure key storage device can be used for authentication in consumer electronics, network authentication, license management, supply chain management, etc. Generally the device to be authenticated needs some sort of wireless or wired digital connection to either a host system or a network. Nonetheless, the component being authenticated need not be electronic in nature as an authentication chip can be mechanically attached and read through a connector to the host e.g. an authenticated ink tank for use with a printer. For products and services that these secure coprocessors can be applied to, they can offer a solution that can be much more difficult to counterfeit than most other options while at the same time being more easily verified.",
"Packaging and labeling can be engineered to help reduce the risks of counterfeit consumer goods or the theft and resale of products. Some package constructions are more difficult to copy and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Counterfeit goods, unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and tampering can all be reduced with these anti-counterfeiting technologies. Packages may include authentication seals and use security printing to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit; these too are subject to counterfeiting. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Anti-counterfeiting technologies that can be used with packaging include:",
"Literary forgery can involve imitating the style of a famous author. If an original manuscript, typewritten text, or recording is available, then the medium itself (or its packaging – anything from a box to e-mail headers) can help prove or disprove the authenticity of the document. However, text, audio, and video can be copied into new media, possibly leaving only the informational content itself to use in authentication. Various systems have been invented to allow authors to provide a means for readers to reliably authenticate that a given message originated from or was relayed by them. These involve authentication factors like: The opposite problem is detection of plagiarism, where information from a different author is passed off as a person's own work. A common technique for proving plagiarism is the discovery of another copy of the same or very similar text, which has different attribution. In some cases, excessively high quality or a style mismatch may raise suspicion of plagiarism.",
"In literacy, authentication is a readers’ process of questioning the veracity of an aspect of literature and then verifying those questions via research. The fundamental question for authentication of literature is – Does one believe it? Related to that, an authentication project is therefore a reading and writing activity which students documents the relevant research process (). It builds students' critical literacy. The documentation materials for literature go beyond narrative texts and likely include informational texts, primary sources, and multimedia. The process typically involves both internet and hands-on library research. When authenticating historical fiction in particular, readers consider the extent that the major historical events, as well as the culture portrayed (e.g., the language, clothing, food, gender roles), are believable for the period.",
"Historically, fingerprints have been used as the most authoritative method of authentication, but court cases in the US and elsewhere have raised fundamental doubts about fingerprint reliability. Outside of the legal system as well, fingerprints have been shown to be easily spoofable, with British Telecom's top computer-security official noting that \"few\" fingerprint readers have not already been tricked by one spoof or another. Hybrid or two-tiered authentication methods offer a compelling solution, such as private keys encrypted by fingerprint inside of a USB device. In a computer data context, cryptographic methods have been developed (\"see\" digital signature and challenge-response authentication) which are currently not spoofable if and only if the originator's key has not been compromised. That the originator (or anyone other than an attacker) knows (or doesn't know) about a compromise is irrelevant. It is not known whether these cryptographically based authentication methods are provably secure, since unanticipated mathematical developments may make them vulnerable to attack in future. If that were to occur, it may call into question much of the authentication in the past. In particular, a digitally signed contract may be questioned when a new attack on the cryptography underlying the signature is discovered.",
"The process of authorization is distinct from that of authentication. Whereas authentication is the process of verifying that \"you are who you say you are\", and verifying that \"you are permitted to do what you are trying to do\". While authorization often happens immediately after authentication (e.g., when logging into a computer system), this does not mean authorization presupposes authentication: an anonymous agent could be authorized to a limited action set.",
"One familiar use of authentication and authorization is access control. A computer system that is supposed to be used only by those authorized must attempt to detect and exclude the unauthorized. Access to it is therefore usually controlled by insisting on an authentication procedure to establish with some degree of confidence the identity of the user, granting privileges established for that identity."
]
} |
Authorization | null | Authorization is the function of specifying access rights/privileges to resources, which is related to information security and computer security in general and to access control in particular. More formally, "to authorize" is to define an access policy. For example, human resources staff are normally authorized to access employee records and this policy is usually formalized as access control rules in a computer system. During operation, the system uses the access control rules to decide whether access requests from (authenticated) consumers shall be approved (granted) or disapproved (rejected). Resources include individual files or an item's data, computer programs, computer devices and functionality provided by computer applications. Examples of consumers are computer users, computer Software and other Hardware on the computer. | null | [
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"title": [
"Overview.",
"Related interpretations.",
"Public policy.",
"Banking.",
"Publishing."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Access control in computer systems and networks rely on access policies. The access control process can be divided into the following phases: policy definition phase where access is authorized, and policy enforcement phase where access requests are approved or disapproved. Authorization is the function of the policy definition phase which precedes the policy enforcement phase where access requests are approved or disapproved based on the previously defined authorizations. Most modern, multi-user operating systems include access control and thereby rely on authorization. Access control also uses authentication to verify the identity of consumers. When a consumer tries to access a resource, the access control process checks that the consumer has been authorized to use that resource. Authorization is the responsibility of an authority, such as a department manager, within the application domain, but is often delegated to a custodian such as a system administrator. Authorizations are expressed as access policies in some types of \"policy definition application\", e.g. in the form of an access control list or a capability, or a policy administration point e.g. XACML. On the basis of the \"principle of least privilege\": consumers should only be authorized to access whatever they need to do their jobs. Older and single user operating systems often had weak or non-existent authentication and access control systems. \"Anonymous consumers\" or \"guests\", are consumers that have not been required to authenticate. They often have limited authorization. On a distributed system, it is often desirable to grant access without requiring a unique identity. Familiar examples of access tokens include keys, certificates and tickets: they grant access without proving identity. Trusted consumers are often authorized for unrestricted access to resources on a system, but must be verified so that the access control system can make the access approval decision. \"Partially trusted\" and guests will often have restricted authorization in order to protect resources against improper access and usage. The access policy in some operating systems, by default, grant all consumers full access to all resources. Others do the opposite, insisting that the administrator explicitly authorizes a consumer to use each resource. Even when access is controlled through a combination of authentication and access control lists, the problems of maintaining the authorization data is not trivial, and often represents as much administrative burden as managing authentication credentials. It is often necessary to change or remove a user's authorization: this is done by changing or deleting the corresponding access rules on the system. Using atomic authorization is an alternative to per-system authorization management, where a trusted third party securely distributes authorization information.",
"",
"In public policy, authorization is a feature of trusted systems used for security or social control.",
"In banking, an authorization is a hold placed on a customer's account when a purchase is made using a debit card or credit card.",
"In publishing, sometimes public lectures and other freely available texts are published without the approval of the author. These are called unauthorized texts. An example is the 2002 \" 'The Theory of Everything: The Origin and Fate of the Universe' \", which was collected from Stephen Hawking's lectures and published without his permission as per copyright law."
]
} |
Born to Make You Happy | null | "Born to Make You Happy" is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her debut studio album, "...Baby One More Time" (1999). It was released on December 6, 1999, by Jive Records, as the fourth single from the album in European countries. Spears —whose vision for her sound differed stylistically from that of her producer's— was unhappy with the sexual overtones of the song, and the song underwent at least one re-write before its release. The singer first recorded the vocals for the track in March 1998, which were later re-recorded the same year. The pop and teen pop song alludes to a relationship that a woman desires to correct, not quite understanding what went wrong, as she comes to realize that she was "born to make [her lover] happy". | null | [
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"title": [
"Background.",
"Composition.",
"Critical response.",
"Commercial performance.",
"Promotion.",
"Music video.",
"Live performances."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Before recording her debut album, Spears had originally envisioned it in style of \"Sheryl Crow music, but younger [and] more adult contemporary\". However, the singer agreed with her label's appointment of producers, who had the objective to reach a teen public at the time. She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden, where half of the album was recorded from May 1998, with producers Max Martin, Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub, among others. \"Born to Make You Happy\" was written and produced by Kristian Lundin, and co-written by Andreas Carlsson, and was the first work by the duo. Spears originally recorded the vocals for the song in 1998, at Battery Studios in New York City, New York. They were later re-recorded in May 1998 at Cheiron Studios, and used on the album version, while the original vocals were used on the \"Bonus Remix\" of the song. It was also mixed at Cheiron Studios by Max Martin. Esbjörn Öhrwall played the guitar, while keyboards and programming was done by Lundin. Background vocals were provided by Carlsson and Nana Hedin. \"Born to Make You Happy\" was released in Europe as the fourth single from \"...Baby One More Time\" on December 6, 1999. It was not released as a single in the United States, where \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" was released as the album's fourth single instead.",
"\"Born to Make You Happy\" is a teen pop and pop song that lasts for four minutes and three seconds. The song is composed in the key of B minor and is set in time signature of common time, with a moderately slow tempo of 88 beats per minute. Spears vocal range spans over an octave, from F to B. The song's lyrics are about a relationship that a woman desires to correct, not quite understanding what went wrong, as she comes to realize that \"I don't know how to live without your love/I was born to make you happy\". Writing for \"Pink News\", Mayer Nissim described its lyrics as being about \"capturing that pain, denial, and self-pitying misery right after things go south\". \"Born to Make You Happy\" has a basic sequence of Bm–G–D–A as its chord progression. David Gauntlett, author of \"Media, gender, and identity: an introduction\" (2002), noted that, despite wanting her lover next to her in the song, Spears' \"fans see her as assertive, strong and confident, and an example that young women can make it on their own\". The singer revealed in an interview with \"Rolling Stone\", the writers had to re-write the original lyrics of the song. \"I asked them to change the words to 'Born to Make You Happy.' It was a sexual song,\" she revealed. \"I said, 'This may be a little old for me.' Because of the image thing, I don't want to go over the top. If I come out being Miss Prima Donna, that wouldn't be smart. I want to have a place to grow\".",
"\"Born to Make You Happy\" received mixed to positive reviews from music critics. Kyle Anderson of MTV considered the song's chorus more than \"a little bit off-putting,\" saying the first lines of it \"could be a sentiment that a lovelorn 16-year-old can understand, but it also sounds like Spears is in training to be a geisha\". Craig MacInnis of \"Hamilton Spectator\" said \"[\"Born to Make You Happy\"] verges on the sort of boy-worshipping dreck that even Tiffany would have sniffed at\". Mike Ross of \"Edmond Sun\" said, as Spears emotes in the song, \"the message behind the music is worse than mere sweet nothings. [...] So much for Girl Power\". Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic considered \"Born to Make You Happy\" a \"proficient but entirely unrememberable song,\" while Andy Petch-Jex of musicOMH considered the song an \"early classic\". Christopher Rosa, from \"Glamour\", deemed it Spears' tenth best song, calling it an \"euphoric slice of late nineties bubblegum, featuring some of her fullest vocals and one of her most memorable bridges\". Shannon Barbour from \"Cosmopolitan\" called it a \"prime stare-out-the-widow-pretending-to-be-in-an-emotional-music-video song\". Digital Spy's Alim Kheraj praised \"Spears' pure vocals and the dreamlike production\". For Alex Macpherson from \"The Guardian\", it's one of the best examples of Spears' \"distressing vulnerability\" as well as her best song; \"a determined erasure of the autonomous self [...] 'Born to Make You Happy' is horrifying as text and irresistible as pop, and the two are inextricable\". While reviewing \"...Baby One More Time\" on its 20th anniversary, \"Billboard\"s Chuck Arnold felt that \"the old-fashioned sentiment of this song - that a girl is born to please her guy - feels even more antiquated 20 years later. Still, this song is a teen-pop dream\". For Daniel Megarry from \"Gay Times\", it was one of the \"standout tracks\" from \"...Baby One More Time\" and wrote that \"it’s impossible not to feel nostalgia when the melancholic beats of 'Born To Make You Happy' grace your eardrums\". Mayer Nissim pointed out that \"on the surface the lyrics are more than a little limp and pathetic, but [...] the powerful pop backing and unbreaking vocals show that Britney will more than live to fight (and love) another day\". Nicholas Hautman, from \"Us Weekly\", said that the song \"may not have aged well, but there is no question that it has some of Spears' best vocals\".",
"On January 29, 2000, \"Born to Make You Happy\" debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart. The song shipped over 200,000 copies in the United Kingdom, earning a silver certification by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). \"Born to Make You Happy\" has sold over 325,000 copies in the United Kingdom, according to The Official Charts Company. It is her sixth best-selling single in the country. In Ireland, the song also entered the Irish Singles Chart at number one on January 20, 2000, while peaking at number two on the European chart. In Sweden, \"Born to Make You Happy\" debuted at number four on December 23, 1999, peaking at number two in the following week. The song has shipped over 30,000 copies in the country, earning a platinum certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). In Germany, the song earned a gold certification by The Federal Association of Music Industry (BMVI), after peaking at number three on the charts. In France, \"Born to Make You Happy\" reached number nine, and was certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP).",
"",
"JIVE Records commissioned a music video for the song to be directed by Billie Woodruff. It was produced under Geneva Films, while the choreography was created by Wade Robson. The narrative of the video shows Spears dreaming as she sleeps in her room. As the dream begins, Spears is shown in a blue and silver futuristic room with several different levels, where she sings and walks around, and puts her feet on the wall while wearing a shiny silver outfit. MTV news reporter Ellen Thompson considered it the sexiest moment of the music video. As the video continues, Spears is seen on top of the apartment building she lives in, performing a dance segment in a red top and black skirt with a few backup dancers. The following scenes shows the singer wearing white clothes and singing in the room in which she is sleeping, while her love interest comes into her room to see her. Together, they start a pillow fight that shortly ends after Spears is shown again in her room still sleeping, however, now with a smile upon her face. A longer dance segment intercalates with all the scenes during the whole video. Anna Ben Yehuda, from \"Time Out\" magazine, called it Spears' eleventh best video; \"we don't know why Brit is dreaming of making someone happy by dancing on a stage in space, but we don't care, because that choreography is \"dope\"\". Negative criticism came from \"Bustle\"s Kaitlin Reilly, who panned it as \"patently ridiculous\".",
"Britney performs the song for the very first time at her \"The Hair Zone Mall Tour\" (promotional mini tour) in New York City, USA at July 1, 1998. \"Born to Make You Happy\" has been performed by Spears on four tours. On her first big tour,...Baby One More Time Tour, she sang the song seated on a staircase, while on her second tour, Crazy 2k Tour, the performance of the song included a full dance segment. On 2000s Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour, Spears performed \"Born to Make You Happy\" wearing pajamas and slippers, with a dance segment near the end. \"Born to Make You Happy\" was performed for the last time on Dream Within a Dream Tour, where Spears emerged from the middle of a giant musical box on the stage as a ballerina, to perform the song in a medley with \"Lucky\" and \"Sometimes\", right after the performance of \"Overprotected\". Spears also performed \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" and \"Born to Make You Happy\" on \"Disney Channel in Concert\" in 1999. The performances were recorded and included on Spears' first home video release, \"Time Out with Britney Spears\". Source:"
]
} |
Brazilian Navy | null | The Brazilian Navy () is the naval service branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces, responsible for conducting naval operations. The Brazilian Navy is the largest navy in South America and in Latin America, and the second largest navy in the Americas, after the United States Navy. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2373967 | en-train-2373967 | 2373967 | {
"title": [
"Mission.",
"History.",
"Origins.",
"Imperial Navy (1822–1889).",
"War of Independence.",
"Cisplatine War and rebellions (1825–1849).",
"Platine & Paraguayan wars (1849–1870).",
"Expansion and the end of the Empire (1870–1889).",
"Early republic (1889–1917).",
"Naval revolts.",
"South American naval rivalry.",
"Revolt of the Lash.",
"World Wars (1917–1945).",
"First World War (1917–1918).",
"Second World War (1942–1945).",
"Cold War period (1945–2000).",
"Lobster War (1961–1963).",
"1964 Coup d'état.",
"Notable search and rescue missions.",
"AFF447 (2009).",
"ARA \"San Juan\" (2017).",
"Peacekeeping operations (2004–present).",
"Haiti.",
"Lebanon.",
"Brazilian Navy today.",
"Personnel.",
"Ships and submarines.",
"Aircraft.",
"Marines.",
"Structure and organisation.",
"Branches.",
"Structure.",
"Naval Operations Command.",
"Support Formations.",
"Naval bases."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2"
],
"content": [
"In addition to the roles of a traditional navy, the Brazilian Navy also carries",
"",
"The origins of the Brazilian Navy date back to the Portuguese naval forces based in Brazil. The transfer of the Portuguese monarchy to",
"",
"The Brazilian Navy came into being with the independence of the country. Some of its members were native-born Brazilians, who under Portuguese rule had been forbidden to serve, while other members were Portuguese born who adhered to the cause of independence and foreign mercenaries. A number of establishments previously created by King João VI of Portugal were incorporated into the navy such as the Department of Navy, Headquarters of the Navy, the Intendancy and Accounting Department, the Arsenal (Shipyard) of the Navy, the Academy of Navy Guards, the Naval Hospital, the Auditorship, the Supreme Military Council, the powder plant, and others. The Brazilian-born Captain Luís da Cunha Moreira was chosen as the first minister of",
"The Navy blocked the estuary of the Río de la Plata hindering the contact of the United Provinces (as Argentina was then called) with the Cisplatine rebels who wanted Uruguay to join Argentina again or become an independent country, and the outside world. Several battles had occurred between Brazilian and Argentine ships until the defeat of an Argentine flotilla composed of two corvettes, five brigs and one barquentine near the Island of Santiago in 1827. The war came to a draw and in 1828 had to accept the independence of Uruguay. When Pedro I abdicated in 1831, he left a powerful navy made up of two ships of the line and ten frigates in addition to corvettes, steamships, and other ships for a total of at least 80 warships in peacetime. During the 58-year reign of Pedro II the Brazilian Navy achieved its greatest strength in relation to navies around the world. The Arsenal, Navy department, and the Naval Jail",
"The conflicts in the Platine region did not cease after the war of 1825. The anarchy caused by the despotic Rosas and his desire to subdue Bolívia, Uruguay and Paraguay forced Brazil to intercede. The Brazilian Government sent a naval force of 17 warships (a ship of the line, 10 corvettes and six steamships) commanded by the veteran John Pascoe Grenfell. The Brazilian fleet succeeded in passing through the Argentine line of defence at the Tonelero Pass under heavy attack and transported the troops to the theater of operations. The Brazilian Armada had a total of 59 vessels of various types in 1851: 36 armed sailing",
"During the 1870s, the Brazilian Government strengthened the navy as the possibility of a war against Argentina over Paraguay's future became quite real. Thus, it acquired a gunboat and a corvette in 1873; an ironclad and a monitor in 1874; and immediately afterwards two cruisers and another monitor. The improvement of the Armada continued during the 1880s. The Arsenals of the Navy in the provinces of Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, Pará and Mato Grosso continued to build dozens of warships. Also, four torpedo boats were purchased. On November 30, 1883, the Practical School of Torpedoes was created along with a workshop devoted to constructing and repairing torpedoes and electric devices in the Arsenal of Navy of Rio de Janeiro. This Arsenal constructed four steam gunboats and one schooner, all with iron and steel hulls (the first of these categories constructed in the country). The Imperial Armada reached its apex with the incorporation of the ironclad battleships and (both equipped with torpedo launchers) in",
"",
"The military coup that led to the proclamation of the Brazilian Republic (1889), accentuated the decline of shipbuilding in the country. For four decades, between 1890 and 1930 no new ships were built in Brazil. The focus of republican governments was to equip the army to fight internal uprisings in the new regime's early years. The Navy was perceived as a threat to the new",
"Brazil's navy fell into disrepair and obsolescence in the aftermath of the 1889 revolution, which deposed Emperor Pedro II, after naval officers led a revolt in 1893–94. Meanwhile, although the Argentine–Chilean agreement had limited their naval expansion, they still retained the numerous vessels built in the interim, so around the start of the 20th century the Brazilian Navy lagged far behind its Argentine and Chilean counterparts in quality and total tonnage, despite Brazil having nearly three times the population of Argentina and almost five times that of Chile. The navy had just forty-five percent of its authorized personnel in 1896, and the only modern armored ships were two small coast-defense vessels launched in 1898. Rising demand for coffee and rubber brought Brazil an influx of revenue",
"Soon after \"São Paulo\"s arrival, a major rebellion known as the Revolt of the Lash, or \"Revolta da Chibata\", broke out on four of the newest ships in the Brazilian Navy. The initial spark was provided on 21 November 1910 when Afro-Brazilian sailor Marcelino Rodrigues Menezes was brutally flogged 250 times for insubordination. Many Afro-Brazilian sailors were sons of former slaves, or were former slaves freed under the \"Lei Áurea\" (abolition) but forced to enter the navy. They had been planning a revolt for some time, and Menezes became the catalyst. Further preparations were needed, so the rebellion was delayed until 22 November. The crewmen of \"Minas Geraes\", \"São Paulo\", the twelve-year-old, and the new quickly took their vessels with only a minimum of bloodshed: two officers on \"Minas Geraes\" and one each on \"São Paulo\" and \"Bahia\" were killed. The ships were well-supplied with foodstuffs, ammunition, and coal, and the only demand of mutineers—led by João Cândido Felisberto—was the abolition of \"slavery as practiced by the Brazilian Navy\". They",
"",
"After the declaration of war on the Central Powers in October 1917 the Brazilian Navy participated in the war. On 21 December 1917 the British government requested that a Brazilian naval force of light cruisers be placed under Royal Navy control and a squadron comprising the cruisers \"Rio Grande do Sul\" and \"Bahia\", the destroyers \"Paraíba\", \"Rio Grande do Norte\", \"Piauí\", and \"Santa Catarina\", and the support ship \"Belmonte\" and the ocean-going tugboat \"Laurindo Pitta\" was formed, designated the \"Divisão Naval em Operações de Guerra\" (\"Naval Division in War Operations\"). The DNOG sailed on 31 July 1918 from Fernando",
"Despite U-boat operations in the region (centred in the Atlantic Narrows between Brazil and West Africa) beginning autumn 1940, only in the following year did these start to raise serious concern in Washington. This perceived threat caused the US to decide that the introduction of US forces along Brazil's coast would be valuable. After negotiations with Brazilian Foreign Minister Osvaldo Aranha (on behalf of dictator Getúlio Vargas), these were introduced in second half of 1941. Germany and Italy subsequently extended their submarine attacks to include Brazilian ships wherever they were, and from April 1942 were found in Brazilian waters. On 22 May 1942, the first Brazilian attack (although unsuccessful) was carried out by Brazilian Air Force aircraft on the. After a series of attacks on merchant vessels off the Brazilian coast by, Brazil officially entered the war on 22 August 1942, offering an important addition to the Allied strategic position in the South Atlantic. Having the Suez Canal blocked and the necessity to go beyond to the far East, Germany used the Atlantic Ocean to maintain its supply of material necessities.",
"",
"In 1961, some groups of French fishermen who were operating very profitably off the coast of Mauritania extended their search to the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, settling on a spot off the coast of Brazil where lobsters are found on submerged ledges at depths of. Local fishermen complained that large boats were coming from France to catch lobster off the state of Pernambuco, so the Brazilian Admiral Arnoldo Toscano ordered two corvettes to sail",
"Although corporal punishment was officially abolished after the Revolt of the Lash, or Revolta da Chibata, at the end of 1910, improvement in working conditions and career plans were still contentious in early 1960. The dissatisfaction with officialdom and conservative politicians, coupled with the lack of vision and inability of the general policy of then president João Goulart, led the sailors, encouraged by leaders such as Corporal Anselmo, to the military coup of 1964. The purges carried out later",
"",
"Flight 447 was due to pass from Brazilian airspace into Senegalese airspace at approximately 02:20 (UTC) on 1 June, and then into Cape Verdean airspace at approximately 03:45. Shortly after 04:00, when the flight had failed to contact air traffic control in either Senegal or Cape Verde, the controller in Senegal attempted to contact the aircraft. When he received no response, he asked the crew of another Air",
"On 15 November 2017, the submarine \"San Juan\" in service with the Argentine Navy, stopped communicating during a routine patrol in the South Atlantic off the coast of Argentina. A multi-nation search operation was mounted to try to locate the submarine, which was believed to have suffered an electrical malfunction. Within hours of \"San Juan\"s last transmission, reports describe an explosive noise, detected in the vicinity of the vessel's last known location. The frigate \"Rademaker\", the submarine relief ship NSS \"Felinto Perry\" and the polar ship NPo \"Almirante Maximiano\" of the Brazilian Navy participated in the multinational search for the lost submarine.",
"",
"On 28 May 2004 four Brazilian Navy ships (,,, ) departed from Rio de Janeiro bound for Haiti on a peace mission coordinated by the United Nations (UN). The ships transported part of the military contingent that was involved in Haitian reconstruction. In addition to 150 Marines and Army troops, the ships carried most of the materiel for",
"On 15 February 2011, Brazil assumed command of the Maritime Task Force (MTF) of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). On 4 October the Brazilian Ministries of Defence and Foreign Relations informed authorities that Brazil was sending a Navy vessel with up to 300 crew members, equipped with an aircraft, to join the fleet in Lebanon and the vessel was authorized by the National Congress. On 25 November 2011 the frigate \"União\" with 239 officers and sailors aboard joined the task force, bringing to nine the number of vessels assisting the Lebanese Navy in monitoring Lebanese territorial waters. The frigate served as the flagship for Rear Admiral Luiz Henrique",
"",
"As of 2011, the Brazilian Navy has a reported strength of 60,000",
"As of 2012, the Brazilian Navy had about 100 commissioned ships, with others undergoing construction, acquisition and modernization. Between 1996 and 2005 the Navy retired 21 ships. The Brazilian Navy operated one,, formerly the French Navy's. It was retired in 2017. Its possible replacements are presently in the early stage of planning and are not expected to be in service until at least 2025. Four \"Tupi\"-class and one \"Tikuna\"-class Type 209 submarines are in the fleet. The \"Tupi\"-class submarines will be upgraded by Lockheed Martin at a cost of $35 million. The modernization includes the replacement of existing torpedoes with new MK 48 units. On 14 March 2008, the Navy purchased four s from France. The Navy is currently developing its first nuclear submarine. The Navy planned to have the Scorpène-class submarines in service in 2017, and their first nuclear-powered submarine commissioned in 2023. In August 2008 the Navy incorporated the corvette, which was designed and built in Brazil at a cost of $263 million. In August 2012 the Navy requested four new ships based on the \"Barroso\" class but using a stealth",
"As of 2011, the Naval Aviation arm of the Navy",
"The Brazilian Marine Corps (Portuguese: Corpo de Fuzileiros",
"",
"The main branches of the Brazilian Navy are: On top of the naval chain of command stands the Commander of the Navy (\"Comandante da Marinha\" - \"CM\") with his directly subordinated administrative units. He also relies on the expertise of the Admiralty (\"Almirantado\"), which is a collective board without operational functions, but advises the Commander on",
"High Command: COMMANDER OF THE NAVY (Comandante da Marinha - CM)",
"Naval Operations Command (\"Comando de Operações Navais - ComOpNav\")",
"",
"As of 2009, the"
]
} |
MTV Video Music Award | null | An MTV Video Music Award (commonly abbreviated as a VMA) is an award presented by the cable channel MTV to honor the best in the music video medium. Originally conceived as an alternative to the Grammy Awards (in the video category), the annual MTV Video Music Awards ceremony has often been called the "Super Bowl for youth", an acknowledgment of the VMA ceremony's ability to draw millions of youth from teens to 20-somethings each year. By 2001, the VMA had become a coveted award. The statue given to winners is an astronaut on the moon, one of the earliest representations of MTV, and was colloquially called a "moonman". However, in 2017 Chris McCarthy, the President of MTV, stated that the statue would be called a "Moon Person" from then on. The statue was conceived by Manhattan Design—also designers of the original MTV logo—based on the 1981 "Top of the Hour" animation created by Fred Seibert, produced by Alan Goodman, and produced by Buzz Potamkin at Buzzco Associates. The statue is now made by New York firm, Society Awards. Since the 2006 ceremony, viewers are able to vote for their favorite videos in all general categories by visiting MTV's website. | null | [
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"title": [
"Notable moments.",
"1980s.",
"1984–1989.",
"1990s.",
"1990–1994.",
"1995–1999.",
"2000s.",
"2000–2004.",
"2005–2009.",
"2010s.",
"Ratings."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"",
"1984: At the first MTV Video Music Awards in 1984, Madonna performed her hit \"Like a Virgin\" wearing a combination bustier/wedding gown, including her trademark \"Boy Toy\" belt. During the performance, she rolled around on the floor, revealing lacy stockings and a garter. Cyndi Lauper spoke in \"\"Exorcist\"-esque gibberish\" to explain the VMA rules right before winning the Best Female video for \"Girls Just Want to Have Fun\". David Bowie, The Beatles and director Richard Lester were rewarded with the first ever Video Vanguard Awards for their work in pioneering the music video. 1987: At the fourth annual MTV Video Music Awards, Peter Gabriel won 10 awards, including the Video Vanguard Award and Video of the Year for his video \"Sledgehammer\", holding the VMA record for most Moonmen in a single night. 1988: At the 1988 Video Music Awards Michael Jackson appeared for the first time. A pre-recorded live performance of \"Bad\" was shown.\" He was also awarded the Video Vanguard Award. 1989: Controversial comic Andrew Dice Clay's appearance at the 1989 Video Music Awards to",
"",
"1990: At the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards, Madonna gave a memorable performance of her single \"Vogue,\" which featured Madonna and her dancers dressed in an 18th-century French theme, with Madonna bearing great resemblance to Marie Antoinette. The performance consisted of both a dramatic 18th-century reinterpretation of \"Vogue\" as well as her dramatically becorseted breasts. 1991: During the award show the MTV Video Vanguard Award was renamed to the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award from then on, in honor of his contributions to the culture of music videos by changing them from a mere promotional tool featuring musicians playing instruments and singing, to a \"short film\" with a storyline. His video \"Thriller\" influenced and changed music videos into what it is like today. A conflict between Poison's Bret Michaels and C.C. DeVille culminated in a fistfight",
"1995: At the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards, Hole perform the song \"Violet\" from their major-label debut album \"Live Through This\". This was one of the first major televised performances given by frontwoman Courtney Love following the death of her husband Kurt Cobain and the death of her band's bassist Kristen Pfaff in 1994. Before beginning the song, Love dedicated the performance to her husband and multiple people in the entertainment industry who had recently died: \"This is for Kurt, and Kristen, and River, and Joe, and today Joni Abbott, this is for you.\" Abbott worked in the Talent Relations department at MTV and had recently committed suicide. The song ended with Love throwing her guitar, knocking the microphone stand into the crowd and pushing over speaker-boxes with bandmate Eric Erlandson before exiting the stage. Love also caused a stir when she interrupted a post-ceremony interview with Kurt Loder and Madonna by throwing her make-up compacts at the singer as they broadcast outside the awards venue. Michael Jackson performed for over fifteen minutes to a medley of his main songs, including \"Scream\", and danced his signature moves, including the robot, moonwalk and the relatively unknown \"Bankhead Bounce\". While Slash accompanied Jackson and played guitar on \"Black or White and the beginning of Billie Jean.\" This performance was voted by the public as the Best VMA Pop Performance and Most Iconic VMA Performance in 2011 with more than half the votes. TLC was the big winner of the night winning four awards, including \"Viewer's Choice\", \"Best Group Video\", and \"Video of the Year\". 1996: On September 4, at the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards, the four original members of Van Halen received 20-second standing ovation when they made their first public appearance together since their break-up in April 1985. Backstage, after presenting an award to Beck, the reunion soured bitterly, and reportedly, David Lee Roth and Eddie Van Halen nearly came to blows. Several weeks later, the public learned that Van Halen would not reunite with Roth. Roth released a statement apologizing to fans, stating that he was an unwitting participant in a publicity stunt to sell more copies of the greatest hits album, \"Best Of Vol. 1\", and that he had been led to believe that he was rejoining Van Halen. The following day, Eddie and Alex Van Halen released a statement, stating that they had been honest with Roth, and never led him to believe that he had been re-hired. Oasis performed \"Champagne Supernova\", with lead vocalist Liam Gallagher making rude gestures at brother Noel as he was playing his guitar solo, then spitting beer all over the stage before storming off. Alanis Morissette performed \"Your House\", a hidden track from her bestseller album \"Jagged Little Pill\". The performance had nothing to do with her 1995 one. The beginning and the ending of the song were sung a cappella, while the rest was played with only one guitar on stage. At the end Morissette was close to tears. The recently reunited Kiss closed the show with a special concert aired from the Brooklyn Bridge. 1997: In 1997, Pat Smear announced that he was leaving Foo Fighters halfway through their performance and presented his replacement, Franz Stahl, who had been a member of the band Scream with Dave Grohl. Puff Daddy released his debut album \"No Way Out\", featuring the successful tribute single \"I'll Be Missing You\", dedicated to the recently murdered Notorious B.I.G. The song featured Puff Daddy, Biggie's widow Faith Evans and R&B group 112. The song sampled the melody of The Police's hit song \"Every Breath You Take.\" All these artists performed the song with former Police vocalist Sting. The odd pairing",
"",
"2000: At the 2000 Video Music Awards, Limp Bizkit won the award for Best Rock Video. As vocalist Fred Durst spoke, Rage Against the Machine bassist Tim Commerford climbed onto the scaffolding of the set. Durst egged Commerford on, saying \"Stage dive, dude\" and \"Take a dive,\" finally ending his speech with \"and [Commerford]'s a pussy 'cause he won't jump.\" Commerford and his bodyguard were sentenced to a night in jail. RATM vocalist Zack de la Rocha reportedly left the awards after Commerford's stunt. RATM guitarist Tom Morello recalled that Commerford related his plan to the rest of the band before the show, and that both de la Rocha and Morello advised him against it immediately after Bizkit was presented the award. Eminem performed his two singles \"The Real Slim Shady\" and \"The Way I Am\". The performance began with Eminem's single \"The Real Slim Shady\" which started outside the Radio City Music Hall on 6th Avenue, Manhattan. Eminem continued his performance into the arena and was followed by a hundred Eminem 'clones' wearing white tank tops and baggy jeans with dyed bleach blonde hair. Carson Daly and Napster co-founder Shawn Fanning introduced Britney Spears. Fanning wore a Metallica T-shirt, much to the displeasure of Metallica drummer and anti-Napster advocate Lars Ulrich. Britney performed \"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction\" and",
"2005: At the 2005 show, Green Day returned, taking home the Best Rock Video, Best Group Video, and Video of the Year Moonmen for \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams,\" which they performed during the broadcast. They also took the Viewer's Choice award for \"American Idiot.\" The 2005 VMAs were the first to have a performance in Spanish, when Shakira performed her single \"La Tortura\" with Alejandro Sanz. It was also the first time that Spanish videos were nominated at the awards. Also at the show, while introducing the reggaeton spot, Fat Joe made a disparaging comment about G-Unit: \"I'd like to tell the people home I feel so safe tonight with all this police protection courtesy of G-Unit...\" Later in the show, after G-Unit's performance, 50 Cent directed profanities at Fat Joe which were edited out before the shows airing although some broadcasts played the uncensored version of the show. Reggaeton artists Daddy Yankee, Tego Calderón and Don Omar performed. Actress Eva Longoria caused a stir when she appeared barely dressed to introduce Mariah Carey. Gwen Stefani and Snoop Dogg won best dressed female and male and received prizes to donate to a charity of their choice. Kelly Clarkson performed a high energy version of her song \"Since U Been Gone\" barefoot wearing a torn up halter top and Capri pants. Clarkson moved through the crowd during the performance, which culminated in the singer getting sprayed with water. By the end of the song, she and a portion of the audience were soaking wet. R. Kelly performed his rap opera, \"Trapped in the Closet.\" Beavis and Butt-head appeared in several Viewer's Choice award skits, saying to \"Vote to put Beavis and Butt-head back on MTV!\". Rather belatedly, the TV show returned to MTV in 2011. 2006: Justin Timberlake opened the 2006 Video Music Awards performing his singles \"My Love\" and \"SexyBack\". The awards were distributed evenly across all genres, as hip-hop, pop and rock artists alike all won Moonmen. 2006 was also the first time that viewers voted for all the performer's categories (Video of the Year, Best Male Video, Best Group Video, among others, except professional categories). When Panic! at the Disco won Video of the Year for \"I Write Sins Not Tragedies\", a man calling himself Sixx jumped onstage claiming that MTV had denied him his own TV show. Hosted by Jack Black, there were also performances by Shakira with Wyclef Jean, Beyoncé, Christina Aguilera and The Killers. 2007: The 2007 Video Music Awards was opened by Britney Spears performing her comeback single \"Gimme More\". Spears failed to live up to the pre-show hype about her appearance. She appeared to be intoxicated, with poor lip-synching and dancing, and showing",
"2010: At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards, Taylor Swift performed her song \"Innocent\", while West performed \"Runaway\" with Pusha T giving a stellar performance on the MPC2000. Eminem, who performed at the show, did not receive his awards in person, as he had to leave immediately to perform with Jay Z at The Home & Home Tour in New York City the next day. Additionally, will.i.am's \"blackface\" outfit sparked controversy among African-Americans. Florence + the Machine performed \"Dog Days Are Over\". Lady Gaga won eight awards, including Video of the Year, Best Female Video, and Best Pop Video for \"Bad Romance\"; she also won Best Collaboration for \"Telephone\" with Beyoncé. Upon accepting her Video of the Year award, Gaga wore a dress made entirely of raw meat, which drew criticism from PETA. Justin Bieber won Best New Artist, making him the youngest person to ever win a VMA. Overall, the show grabbed 11.4 million viewers—the largest audience for an MTV Video Music Awards since 2002, and until 2011's new record. 2011: The 2011 MTV Video Music Awards returned to the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles, California. In the entire history of the show, this was the third time no host was appointed, although Kevin Hart, who would receive the position a year later, delivered an opening monologue. The tribute to Britney Spears included performances by young talents, who danced to various hit singles by Spears including \"...Baby One More Time\" and \"Till the World Ends\". After the tribute, Lady Gaga went onstage to present Britney the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. While accepting her award she and Gaga (dressed as her alter ego Joe Calderone) teased a kiss. Spears rejected the exchange saying, \"I've done that already\", referring to her liplock with Madonna at the 2003 show. During Kanye West and Jay Z's surprise performance of \"Otis\", a man attempted to rush the stage but was quickly taken off by security. Katy Perry and Kanye West won the Award for Best Video for a Collaborative Single. As",
"Ratings are not available prior to 1994 because MTV was not subscribing to Nielsen Media Research's program ratings prior to 1994. The field \"Cumulative viewers\" shows the audience of the live simulcasts of the ceremony across many Viacom Media Networks channels as a whole."
]
} |
Marta Kubišová | null | Marta Kubišová (born 1 November 1942 in České Budějovice) is a Czech singer. By the time of the Prague Spring of 1968, with her song "Modlitba pro Martu" ("A prayer for Marta"), she was one of the most popular female singers in Czechoslovakia. | null | [
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"title": [
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],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"Born 1 November 1942 in České Budějovice, Kubišová's father was a cardiologist, her mother was a housewife, who later sold records in Celetná street in Prague. In 1952 the family moved to Poděbrady. Wanting to get to college after graduating from high school, she started to work in Poděbrady glassworks. Her singing career began with a dance group which performed in Nymburk at the afternoon teas. In 1961, she reached the finals in \"Hledáme nové talenty\" (\"The Search for Talent\"). In 1962, she lost her job in the glass factory, and auditioned for the Stop Theatre in Pardubice. In 1963, she moved to Theatre Alpha in Plzeň to perform in \"Black Dream\", a production by Ludvík Aškenazy. She began collaborating with Václav Neckář and Helena Vondráčková in December 1965, when preparing for performances of \"Waiting for Fame\". In 1967 she won \"Zlatý slavík\". A song, \"Prayer for Marta\", with lyrics by Petr Rada, became a symbol of national resistance against the occupation of Warsaw Pact troops in 1968. On 1 November of that year, she joined with Neckář and Vondráčková to create the popular group, 'Golden Kids'. In 1969 she won her second Zlatý slavík award and married film director Jan Němec. A year later, she won the Zlatý slavík a third time, but she had to receive the award in secrecy of the office of the \"Mladý svět\" magazine due to the commencing normalization. The last performance of the Golden Kids took place on 27 January 1970 in Ostrava. In February 1970, the government banned her from performing in the country on the pretext of alleged pornography, based on the three falsified photo-montages as evidence. She took the director of record label Supraphon, Hrabal, to court for libel, and although she won, she only had her rights fully restored 20 years later, after the Czechoslovak communist regime fell in 1989. During that time, she could only perform at underground invitation-only events. In the late 1980s, she auditioned to become singer of the group The Plastic People of the Universe, but this was disallowed by the secret police. In 1971, she suffered a miscarriage in the eighth month of pregnancy and survived clinical death. She married director Jan Moravec after divorcing her husband Jan Nemec, who had emigrated to the United States. After signing Charter 77, her persecution and monitoring by the communist state secret police escalated. From 1977 to 1978 she participated as a spokesperson for Charter 77. On 1 June 1979, she gave birth to her daughter Kateřina. On 10 December 1988 after a long absence from the public eye, she appeared at a demonstration on the 40th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, during which she sang the Czechoslovak national anthem. On 22 November 1989, during the Velvet Revolution, she sang \"Prayer for Martha\" and the Czechoslovak national anthem from a balcony on Wenceslas Square. Then followed the reissue of \"Songy a Balady\", and in 1990 she returned to the studio and the stage. On 2 June 1990 she performed the famous show \"Marta v Lucerně\", for which she was awarded the Golden Nightingale in 1970. The music was performed by the group Energit and directed by Lubos Andršt, with whom she then went on tour to perform 60 concerts around Czechoslovakia, as well as shows in Japan, Paris and Berlin. In 1991 she co-hosted Advent concerts. Two years later she rejoined with Vondráčková and Neckář in a Golden Kids comeback. On 28 October 1995 she received the a state award – the Medal of Merit – from President Václav Havel. Adam Georgiev released her biography, \"Chytat slunce\" (\"Catching the Sun\"), in 1995. On 7 March 1998, she was awarded the Honorary Medal of T.G. Masaryk at a ceremony in the ballroom of Prague Castle. In October 2002, she was bestowed with the St. Wenceslas Honours. Three years later, her second biographical book \"Asi to tak sám Bůh chtěl\", written by Luboš Nečas, was published. For several years, she regularly prepared recitals her home stage at the Prague Ungelt Theatre. There she also appeared in a chamber musical \"Líp se loučí v neděli\", and was awarded the Thalia prize for her performance. In 2005 she released a novelty album, \"Vítej, lásko\", the full text to which was written by John Schneider. In 2008 Supraphon released her first DVD. In 2011 the play by Małgorzata Sikorska-Miszczuk based on Kubišová's life was staged at International Theatre Festival DEMOLUDY in Olsztyn, Poland. On 1 January 2018 Kubišová received a state award the Order of the White Double Cross (second class) from President of Slovakia Andrej Kiska."
]
} |
Jean-Paul Costa | null | Jean-Paul Costa (born 3 November 1941) is a French jurist and was the President of the European Court of Human Rights since 19 January 2007. He was first appointed a judge of the Court on 1 November 1998, and in 2009 was elected to serve an additional three years as President. His term at the Court ended on 3 November 2011. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"European Court of Human Rights."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"Costa was born in Tunis, capital of Tunisia, and educated at the Lycée Carnot in the city, but his family left when the country declared independence in 1957. He was then educated at the prestigious Lycée Henri-IV in Paris, before studying at the Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris, better known as Sciences Po, graduating with an undergraduate diploma in 1961, Master of Laws in 1962 and Diploma of Superior Studies in Public Law in 1964. He then studied from 1964 to 1966 at the École nationale d'administration (National Management School).",
"In June 1966, Costa was appointed \"Auditeur\" in the Council of State, a body of the French national government that provides the executive branch with legal advice and acts as the administrative court of last resort. From 1968 to 1973, he lectured at Sciences Po, and from 1981 to 1984 was Director of the Office of the Minister of National Education, Alain Savary. From 1985 to 1986, he led the French delegation negotiating construction of the Channel Tunnel, and from 1985 to 1989 taught at the International Institute of Public Administration. He was then appointed Visiting Professor at the University of Orléans (1989-1998) and the Sorbonne (1992-1998). After end of his function as President of European Court of Human Rights, he is appointed the president of International Institute of Human Rights.",
"On 1 January, he was appointed the judge in respect of France at the newly-permanent European Court of Human Rights On 1 May 2000, he rose to become a Section President and on 1 November 2001 Vice-President of the Court. On 19 January 2007, he succeeded Swiss Luzius Wildhaber as President of the Court. He was re-elected to this post in 2009. His function as President ended on 3 November 2011. He was succeeded by Sir Nicolas Bratza."
]
} |
Hydrogeology | null | Hydrogeology ("hydro-" meaning water, and "-geology" meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). The terms groundwater hydrology, geohydrology, and hydrogeology are often used interchangeably. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1125156 | en-train-1125156 | 1125156 | {
"title": [
"Introduction.",
"Hydrogeology in relation to other fields.",
"Definitions and material properties.",
"Aquifer.",
"Hydraulic head.",
"Porosity.",
"Water content.",
"Hydraulic conductivity.",
"Specific storage and specific yield.",
"Contaminant transport properties.",
"Hydrodynamic dispersion.",
"Molecular diffusion.",
"Retardation by adsorption.",
"History and Development.",
"Henry Darcy: 19th century.",
"Oscar Edward Meinzer: 20th century.",
"Governing equations.",
"Darcy's law.",
"Groundwater flow equation.",
"Calculation of groundwater flow.",
"Analytic methods.",
"Numerical methods.",
"General properties of gridded methods.",
"Application of finite difference models.",
"Application of finite element models.",
"Application of finite volume models.",
"Other methods.",
"Water Wells.",
"Water Well Design and Construction.",
"Issues in groundwater engineering and hydrogeology.",
"Contamination.",
"Controversy.",
"Fracking.",
"California.",
"Colorado.",
"New Trends in Groundwater Engineering/Hydrogeology.",
"Topographical Mapping.",
"The Role of Technology.",
"Growing Populations.",
"Dependency on Groundwater in the United States."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
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"2",
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"1",
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"2",
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"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Hydrogeology is an interdisciplinary subject; it can be difficult to account fully for the chemical, physical, biological and even legal interactions between soil, water, nature and society. The study of the interaction between groundwater movement and geology can be quite complex. Groundwater does not",
"Hydrogeology, as stated above, is a branch of the earth sciences dealing with the flow of water through aquifers and other shallow porous media (typically less than 450 m below the land surface). The very shallow flow of water in the subsurface (the upper 3 m) is pertinent to the fields of soil science, agriculture and civil engineering, as well as to hydrogeology. The general flow of fluids (water, hydrocarbons, geothermal fluids, etc.) in deeper formations is also a concern of geologists, geophysicists and petroleum geologists. Groundwater is a slow-moving, viscous fluid (with a Reynolds number less than unity); many of the empirically derived laws of groundwater flow can be alternately derived in fluid mechanics from the special case of Stokes flow (viscosity and pressure terms, but",
"One of the main tasks a hydrogeologist typically performs is the prediction of future behavior of an aquifer system, based on analysis of past and present observations. Some hypothetical, but characteristic questions asked would be: Most of these questions can be addressed through simulation of the hydrologic system (using numerical models or analytic equations). Accurate simulation of the aquifer system requires knowledge of the aquifer properties and boundary conditions. Therefore, a common task of the hydrogeologist is determining aquifer properties using aquifer tests. In order to further characterize aquifers and aquitards some primary and derived physical properties are introduced below. Aquifers are broadly classified as being either confined or unconfined (water table aquifers), and either saturated or unsaturated; the type of aquifer affects what properties control the flow of water in that medium (e.g., the release of water from storage for confined aquifers is related to the storativity, while it is related to the specific yield for unconfined aquifers).",
"An aquifer is a collection of water underneath the surface, large enough to be useful in a spring or a well. Aquifers can be unconfined, where the top of the aquifer is defined by the water table, or confined, where the aquifer exists underneath a confining bed. There are three aspects that control the",
"Differences in hydraulic head (\"h\") cause water to move from one place to another; water flows from locations of high h to locations of low h. Hydraulic head is composed of pressure head (\"ψ\") and elevation head (\"z\"). The head gradient is the change in hydraulic head per length of flowpath, and appears in Darcy's law as being proportional to the discharge. Hydraulic head is a directly measurable property that can take on any value (because of the arbitrary datum involved in",
"Porosity (\"n\") is a directly measurable aquifer property; it is a fraction between 0 and 1 indicating the amount of pore space between unconsolidated soil particles or within a fractured rock. Typically, the majority of groundwater (and anything dissolved in it) moves through the porosity available to flow (sometimes called effective porosity). Permeability is an expression of the connectedness of the pores. For instance, an unfractured rock unit may have",
"Water content (\"θ\") is also a directly measurable property; it is the fraction of the total rock which is filled with liquid water. This is also a fraction between 0 and",
"Hydraulic conductivity (\"K\") and transmissivity (\"T\") are indirect aquifer properties (they cannot be measured directly). \"T\" is the \"K\" integrated over the vertical thickness (\"b\") of the aquifer (\"T=Kb\" when \"K\" is constant",
"Specific storage (\"S\") and its depth-integrated equivalent, storativity (\"S=Sb\"), are indirect aquifer properties (they cannot be measured directly); they indicate the amount of groundwater released from storage due to a unit depressurization of a confined aquifer. They are fractions between 0 and 1. Specific yield (\"S\") is also a ratio between",
"Often we are interested in how the moving groundwater will transport dissolved contaminants around (the sub-field of contaminant hydrogeology). The contaminants can be man-made (e.g., petroleum products, nitrate, Chromium or radionuclides) or naturally occurring (e.g., arsenic, salinity). Besides needing to understand where the groundwater is flowing, based on the other hydrologic properties discussed above, there are additional aquifer properties which affect how dissolved contaminants move with groundwater.",
"Hydrodynamic dispersivity (α, α) is an empirical factor which quantifies how much contaminants stray away from the path of the groundwater which is carrying it. Some of the contaminants will be \"behind\" or \"ahead\" the mean groundwater, giving rise to a longitudinal dispersivity (α), and some will be \"to the sides of\" the pure advective groundwater flow, leading to a transverse dispersivity (α). Dispersion in groundwater arises because each water \"particle\", passing beyond a soil particle, must choose where to go, whether left or right or up or down, so that the water \"particles\" (and their solute) are gradually spread in all directions around the mean path. This is",
"Diffusion is a fundamental physical phenomenon, which Albert Einstein characterized as Brownian motion, that describes the random thermal movement of molecules and small particles in gases and liquids. It is an important phenomenon for small distances (it is essential for the achievement of thermodynamic equilibria), but, as the time necessary to cover a distance by diffusion is proportional",
"The retardation factor is another very important feature that make the motion of the contaminant to deviate from the average groundwater motion. It is analogous to the retardation factor of chromatography. Unlike diffusion and dispersion, which simply spread the contaminant, the retardation factor changes its \"global average velocity\", so that it can be much slower than that of water. This is due to a chemico-physical effect: the adsorption to the soil, which holds the contaminant back and does not allow it to progress until the quantity corresponding to the chemical adsorption equilibrium has been adsorbed. This effect is particularly important for less soluble contaminants, which thus can move even hundreds or thousands times slower than water. The effect of this phenomenon is that only more soluble species can cover long distances. The retardation factor depends on the chemical nature of both the contaminant and the aquifer.",
"",
"Henry Darcy was a French scientist who made advances in flow of fluids through porous materials. He conducted experiments which studied the movement of",
"Oscar Edward Meinzer was an American scientist who is often called the \"father of modern groundwater hydrology\". He standardized key terms in the field as well as determined principles regarding occurrence, movement, and discharge. He proved that",
"",
"Darcy's law is a constitutive equation, empirically derived by Henry Darcy in 1856, which states that the",
"The groundwater flow equation, in its most general form, describes the movement of groundwater in a porous medium (aquifers and aquitards). It is known in mathematics as the diffusion equation, and has many analogs in other fields. Many solutions for groundwater flow problems were borrowed or adapted from existing heat transfer solutions. It is often derived from a physical basis using Darcy's law and a conservation of mass for a small control volume. The equation is often used to predict flow to wells, which have radial symmetry, so the flow equation",
"To use the groundwater flow equation to estimate the distribution of hydraulic heads, or the direction and rate of groundwater flow, this partial differential equation (PDE) must be solved. The most common means of analytically solving the diffusion equation in the hydrogeology literature are: No matter which method we use to solve the groundwater flow equation, we need both initial conditions (heads at time (\"t\") = 0) and boundary conditions (representing either the physical boundaries of the domain, or an approximation of the domain beyond that point). Often the initial conditions are supplied to a transient simulation, by a corresponding steady-state simulation (where the time derivative in the groundwater flow equation is set equal to 0). There are two broad categories of how the (PDE) would be solved; either analytical methods, numerical methods, or something possibly in between. Typically, analytic methods solve the groundwater flow equation under a simplified set of conditions \"exactly\", while numerical methods solve it under more general conditions to an \"approximation\".",
"Analytic methods typically use the structure of mathematics to arrive at a simple, elegant solution, but the required derivation for all but the simplest domain geometries can be quite complex (involving non-standard coordinates, conformal mapping,",
"The topic of numerical methods is quite large, obviously being of use to most fields of engineering and science in general. Numerical methods have been around much longer than computers have (In the 1920s Richardson developed some of the finite difference schemes still in use today, but they were calculated by hand, using paper and pencil, by human \"calculators\"), but they have become very important through the availability of fast and cheap personal computers. A quick survey of the main numerical methods used in hydrogeology, and some of the most basic principles are shown below and further discussed in the Groundwater model article. There are two broad categories of numerical methods: gridded or discretized methods and non-gridded or mesh-free methods. In the common finite difference method and finite element method (FEM) the domain is completely gridded (\"cut\" into a grid or mesh of small elements). The analytic element method (AEM) and the boundary integral equation method (BIEM — sometimes also called BEM, or Boundary Element Method) are only discretized at boundaries or along flow elements (line sinks, area sources, etc.), the majority of the domain is mesh-free.",
"Gridded Methods like finite difference and finite element methods solve the groundwater flow equation by breaking the problem area (domain) into many small elements (squares, rectangles, triangles, blocks, tetrahedra, etc.) and solving the flow equation for each element (all material properties are assumed constant or possibly linearly variable within an element), then linking together all the elements using conservation of mass across the boundaries between the elements (similar to the divergence theorem). This results in a system which overall approximates the groundwater flow equation, but exactly matches the boundary conditions (the head or flux is specified in the elements which intersect the boundaries). Finite differences",
"MODFLOW is a well-known example of a general finite difference groundwater flow model. It is developed by the US Geological Survey as a modular and extensible simulation tool for modeling groundwater flow. It is free software developed, documented and distributed by the USGS. Many commercial products",
"Finite Element programs are more flexible in design (triangular elements vs. the block elements most finite difference models use) and there are some programs available (SUTRA, a 2D or 3D density-dependent flow model by the USGS; Hydrus, a commercial unsaturated flow model; FEFLOW, a commercial modelling environment for subsurface flow, solute and heat transport processes;",
"The finite volume method is a method for representing and evaluating partial differential equations as algebraic equations. Similar to the finite difference method, values are calculated at discrete places on a meshed geometry. \"Finite volume\" refers to the small volume surrounding each node point on a mesh. In the finite volume method, volume integrals in a partial differential equation that contain a divergence term are converted to surface integrals, using the divergence theorem. These terms are then evaluated as fluxes at the surfaces of each finite volume. Because the",
"These include mesh-free methods like the Analytic Element Method (AEM) and the Boundary Element Method (BEM), which are closer to analytic solutions, but they do approximate the groundwater flow equation in some way. The BEM and AEM exactly solve the groundwater flow equation (perfect mass balance), while approximating the boundary conditions. These methods are more exact and can be much more elegant solutions (like analytic methods are), but have not seen as widespread use outside academic and research groups yet.",
"A water well is a mechanism for bringing groundwater to the surface by drilling or digging and bringing it up to the surface with a pump or by hand using buckets or similar devices. The first historical instance of water wells was in the 52nd century BC in modern-day Austria. Today, wells are used all over the world, from developing nations to suburbs in the United States. There are three main types of wells, shallow, deep, and artesian. Shallow wells tap into unconfined aquifers, and are, generally, shallow, less than 15 meters deep. Shallow wells have a small diameter, usually less than 15 centimeters. Deep wells access confined aquifers, and are always drilled by machine. All deep wells bring water to the surface using mechanical pumps. In artesian wells, water flows naturally without the use of a pump or some other mechanical device. This is due the top of the well being located below the water table.",
"One of the most important aspects of groundwater engineering and hydrogeology is water well design and construction. Proper well design and construction are important to maintain the health of the groundwater and the people which will use the well. Factors which must be considered in well design are: There are five main areas to be considered when planning and constructing a new water well, along with the factors above. They are: Aquifer suitability starts with determining possible locations for the well using \"USGS reports, well logs, and cross sections\" of the aquifer. This information should be used to determine aquifer properties such as depth, thickness, transmissivity, and well yield. In this stage, the quality of the water in the aquifer should also be determined, and screening should occur to check for contaminants. After factors such as depth and well yield are determined, the well design and drilling approach must be established. Drilling method is selected based on \"soil conditions, well depth, design, and costs.\" At this stage, cost estimates are prepared, and plans are adjusted to meet budgetary needs. Important parts of a well include the well seals, casings or liners, drive shoes, well",
"",
"Groundwater contamination happens when other fluids seep into the aquifer and mix with existing groundwater. Pesticides, fertilizers, and gasoline are common contaminants of aquifers. Underground storage tanks for chemicals such as gasoline are especially concerning sources of groundwater contamination. As these tanks corrode, they can leak, and their contents can contaminate nearby groundwater. For buildings which are not connected to a wastewater treatment system, septic tanks can be used to dispose",
"",
"Contamination of groundwater due to fracking has long been debated. Since chemicals commonly used in hydraulic fracturing are not tested by government agencies responsible for determining the effects of fracking on groundwater, laboratories at the United States Environmental",
"California sees some of the largest controversies in groundwater usage due to the dry conditions California faces, high population, and intensive agriculture. Conflicts generally occur over pumping groundwater and shipping it out of the area, unfair use of water by a commercial company, and contamination of groundwater by development projects. In Siskiyou County in northern California, the California Superior Court ruled poor groundwater regulations have allowed pumping to diminish the flows in the Scott River and disturbed the",
"Due to its arid climate, the state of Colorado gets most of its water from underground. Because of this, there have been issues regarding groundwater engineering practices. As many as 65,000 people were affected when high levels of PFCs were found in the Widefield Aquifer. Groundwater use in Colorado dates back to before the 20th century. Nineteen of Colorado's 63 counties depend mostly on groundwater for supplies and domestic uses. The Colorado Geological Survey has three significant reports on groundwater in the Denver Basin. The first report Geology of Upper Cretaceous, Paleocene and Eocene Strata in the Southwestern Denver Basin, The second report Bedrock Geology, Structure, and Isopach Maps of the Upper Cretaceous to Paleogene Strata between Greeley and Colorado Springs, The third publication Cross Sections of the Freshwater Bearing Strata of the Denver Basin between Greeley and Colorado Springs.",
"Since the first wells were made thousands of years ago, groundwater systems have been changed by human activity. Fifty years ago, the sustainability of these systems on a larger scale began to come into consideration, becoming one of the main focuses of groundwater engineering. New ideas and research are advancing groundwater engineering into the 21st century, while still considering groundwater conservation.",
"New advancements have arisen in topographical mapping to improve sustainability. Topographic mapping has been updated to include radar, which can penetrate the ground to help pinpoint areas of concern.",
"Technological improvements have advanced topographical mapping, and have also improved the quality of lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere simulations. These simulations are useful on their own; however, when used together, they help to give an even",
"As populations continue to grow, areas which were using groundwater at a sustainable rate are now beginning to face sustainability issues for the future. Populations of the size currently seen in large cities were not taken into consideration when the long term sustainability of aquifers. These large population sizes are beginning to stress groundwater supply. This has led to the need for new policies in some urban areas. These are known as proactive land-use management, where cities can move",
"In the United States, 51% of the drinking water comes from groundwater supplies. Around 99% of the rural population depends on groundwater. In addition, 64% of the total groundwater of the country is used for irrigation, and some of it is used"
]
} |
From the Bottom of My Broken Heart | null | "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart" is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her debut studio album, "...Baby One More Time" (1999). It was released on December 23, 1999 by Jive Records as the fifth and final single from the album. After Spears recorded an unused song from Toni Braxton and sent it through Larry Rudolph to several labels, executives from Jive Records commented that it was very rare to hear someone so young who could deliver emotional content and commercial appeal, appointing the singer to work with producer Eric Foster White. The teen pop ballad was written and produced by White, and features Spears singing about the loss of a first love and how breaking up can be hard. | null | [
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"title": [
"Background.",
"Composition.",
"Critical response.",
"Chart performance.",
"Music video.",
"Background and synopsis.",
"Reception.",
"Live performances.",
"Credits and personnel."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
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"2",
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"content": [
"In June 1997, Spears was in talks with manager Lou Pearlman to join female pop group Innosense. Her mother Lynne asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song along with some pictures. Rudolph decided he wanted to pitch her to record labels, therefore she needed a professional demo. He sent Spears an unused song from Toni Braxton; she rehearsed for a week and recorded her vocals in a studio with a sound engineer. Spears traveled to New York with the demo and met with executives from four labels, returning to Kentwood the same day. Three of the labels rejected her, arguing audiences wanted pop bands such as the Backstreet Boys and the Spice Girls, and \"there wasn't going to be another Madonna, another Debbie Gibson, or another Tiffany.\" Two weeks later, executives from JIVE Records returned calls to Rudolph. Senior vice president of A&R Jeff Fenster stated about Spears's audition that \"It's very rare to hear someone that age who can deliver emotional content and commercial appeal. [...] For any artist, the motivation—the 'eye of the tiger'— is extremely important. And Britney had that.\" They appointed her to work with producer Eric Foster White for a month, who reportedly shaped her voice from \"lower and less poppy\" delivery to \"distinctively, unmistakably Britney.\" After hearing the recorded material, president Clive Calder ordered a full album. \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" was written by Eric Foster White, for Spears' debut studio album, \"...Baby One More Time\" (1999). Spears recorded the vocals for the song in 1997 at 4MW East Studios in New Jersey and at Battery Studios in New York City, New York. Dan Petty played the guitar, while the bass guitar was done by Andy Hess. The song was later mixed by White and Chris Trevett, while background vocals were provided by Spears, Angie Simmons, Don Philip and Andrew Fromm. It was released on December 15, 1999 as the final single from \"...Baby One More Time\".",
"\"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" was produced by Eric Foster White. Described by Spears as a \"soulful\" ballad, it draws influence from teen pop and lasts for five minutes and ten seconds. Chuck Taylor of \"Billboard\" noted that the singer \"turn toward the sad side\" on the track, with its lyrics talking about the loss of a first love and how breaking up can be hard. As the song begins, Spears declares, \"'Never look back', we said / How was I to know I'd miss you so? / Loneliness up ahead, emptyness behind / Where do I go?\" During the chorus, she realizes that she has lost her true love, stating, \"From the bottom of my broken heart, even though time may find me somebody new / You were my real love, I never knew love, till there was you.\" According to sheet music published at musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" is composed in the key of G major and is set in time signature of common time with a slowly tempo of 76 beats per minute. The single's b-side, \"Thinkin' About You\", is also a teen pop influenced song. The song is composed in the key of G major and is set in time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute. Spears vocal range spans over two octaves from the low note of G to the high note D Craig McDennis of \"The Hamilton Spectator\" said the lyrics of \"Thinkin' About You\", along with \"Born to Make You Happy\", \"verge on the sort of boy-worshipping dreck that even Tiffany would have sniffedat\", while Jane Stevenson of \"Toronto Sun\" noted Spears \"puts some rather grownup heartfelt soul into [it]\".",
"\"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" received mixed to positive reviews from music critics. Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic considered the song a competent, but unremarkable single. Kyle Anderson of MTV criticized its lyrics, deeming it as \"another rejection ballad that references kissing but nothing else\". Caryn Ganz of \"Rolling Stone\" called \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" a \"further hit\" from \"...Baby One More Time\", along with \"Sometimes\" and \"(You Drive Me) Crazy\". The song was a Track Pick from the AllMusic review by Stephen Thomas Erlewine, who praised it along with the other singles from the album, saying, \"\"...Baby One More Time\" has its share of well-crafted filler, but the singles, combined with Britney's burgeoning charisma, make this a pretty great piece of fluff\". Author David Gauntlett considered its lyrics as \"slushy\", and noticed that the track was \"seen as less interesting and relevant [by the fans], although [they] clearly enjoyed [the song] too\". \"Billboard\" critic Chuck Taylor praised the song, and did a further review on his column: \"'From the Bottom of My Broken Heart' possesses a breezy air that is certain to continue her breakneck success on the singles charts. Eric Forster White is at the helm this time, writing and producing a song that will easily appeal to Miss Spears' young core, with the potential to chart the more mature AC audience, too. [...] Spears' star is shining brighter than ever, and this wholesome track will only serve to illuminate it all the more. An ace\". Also from \"Billboard\", Chuck Arnold wrote that \"there’s just not enough depth or texture to her voice, but the little quiver in her chirp does serve her well on the final single from the album, a weepie one about losing your first love\". The staff from \"Entertainment Weekly\" placed it at number 135 on their ranking of Spears's songs. \"Bustle\"s Alex Kristelis said that \"I can roll with cheesy, but ['From the Bottom of My Broken Heart'] is just too much!\". Nicholas Hautman, from \"Us Weekly\", was more positive and opined that \"this teenybopper torch song is no 'Sometimes', but it’s a classic in Spears’ catalog that some fans unfairly push to the side\".",
"On the chart issue dated February 19, 2000, \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" was at number 52 on United States' \"Billboard\" Hot 100. The following issue, the song peaked at number 14, after selling 78,000 physical units of the single, and became the Greatest Gainer/Sales title of that week. The song also went from number 73 to number 3 on the Hot Singles Sales chart, before peaking at number 1 on the chart issue dated March 4, 2000. \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" also appeared on several \"Billboard\" component charts, peaking at number 24 on Top 40 Tracks, number 17 on Pop Songs, and number 53 on Radio Songs. On March 28, 2000, \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for shipping 1,000,000 physical units of the single in the country. By the end of 2000, the song peaked at number 77 on \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Year-End chart. \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" was the 8th best selling physical single of the 2000s, according to Nielsen SoundScan. As of June 2012, \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" has sold 778,000 physical singles, with 33,000 paid digital downloads in the United States. It is Spears' second best-selling physical single in the country. In Australia, \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" entered the ARIA chart at number 47, before peaking at number 37 on the following issue. The song stayed a total of five weeks on the chart. It performed better in New Zealand, where it peaked at number 23. Through imports, \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" did manage to peak at number 174 in the United Kingdom, while in Canada, after staying for five weeks on the \"RPM\" Singles Chart, the song peaked at number 25 on the dated week of February 28, 2000.",
"",
"Jive Records commissioned a music video for the song to be directed by Gregory Dark. According to Dark, the label hired him with the intention of re-image Spears from the naughty schoolgirl persona of \"...Baby One More Time\", and stated that they \"wanted a much more story-oriented video without dance, one that was serious and emotional.\" He further stated that, during the filming, \"I'd joke with her so that she would loosen up and feel comfortable acting, as opposed to being Britney Spears at that moment.\" The video was produced by the FM Rocks Production Company. The music video portrays Spears packing up her belongings, as she readies herself to move away from home, and feeling upset because she knows that she is going to miss her first love. Throughout the video, scenes of the couple's past are also seen and Spears is sitting on a tire swing, including one where they climb up onto a windmill, with Spears singing the song, and Spears is standing by a billboard that reads \"Welcome to Cedar Springs Gardens\" similar to the video \"Lucky\". Before the end of the video, Spears is waiting at a bus stop while, at the same time, her first love is driving to come see her one last time. However, by the time he finally gets there, Spears had left him behind and taken the bus.",
"According to writer Linda Ruth Williams, the music video attracted attention from the press because of \"the clash between Spears' wholesome image and Dark's unwholesome back catalogue.\" A Spears representative spoke to the \"Sunday Sport\" and revealed, \"as far as I'm aware the director just does music videos. This is a video for young teenage girls and not sexy at all.\" Dark responded to the negative reviews saying, \"I don't deny that I did [adult films], it's just that I also like people to know that I don't currently and haven't in a long time.\" \"Billboard\" reporter Carla Hay also noted, \"I don't think people who buy records are too concerned about the background of the video's director.\" Lucy O'Brien, author of \"She Bop II: The Definitive History of Women in Rock, Pop and Soul\", noted that hiring Dark as the video director implied that Spears was not that innocent. \"Time\" journalists Briton Hadden and Henry Robinson Luce said that Spears \"may be the queen of pop tartiness, but her new video, 'From the Bottom of My Broken Heart', is an entirely wholesome affair,\" while Chris Ryan of MTV considered it \"a suitably soft-focus affair\". The video was also added to MTV's 2000 Yearbook, a list with the \"biggest, best, most memorable music videos of every year since the beginning of MTV.\" Alec Hanley Bemis of \"LA Weekly\" highly criticized Spears and the music video. He thought that the singer's \"lack of musical talent\" had begun to affect her career, after Dark was selected as the director of the video. Bemis commented, however, that Spears' already had \"a history of questionable decisions\", and cited her \"Rolling Stone\" photoshoot done in early 1999, which was condemned by the American Family Association, as an example. He continued to state that the plotline set the singer \"on the fast track to adulthood\" and questioned, \"who's in bed with Britney now? While a TV tabloid recently reported that an old bayou beau in Louisiana has mother Spears’ approval, fantasizing fans want to believe Britney‘s dallying with that braided moppet from N’Sync or a member of the Backstreet Boys. But the only verifiable fact we have to work with is that Spears has started running with a darker L.A. crowd.\" Bemis finished his review saying that \"no avant-garde film techniques [were used on it]. But Britney's lips glisten so... Speaking frankly, this light in our lives hurts us, from the fire in our loins to the bottom of our broken hearts.\"",
"\"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" was performed for the first time on the...Baby One More Time Tour in Pompano Beach, Florida, U.S.A at June 28, 1999. After its release as a single, Spears performed the song in a medley with \"...Baby One More Time\" at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards. Spears was wearing a turtleneck and a full tulle skirt at the beginning of the performance, while dancers surrounded her with enormous hand fans. After singing a shortened version of the song, she then took a few moments to shuffle into a form-fitting red rhinestone outfit (with side cutouts) and emerged onto a stage to perform \"...Baby One More Time.\" Jocelyn Vena of MTV included the performance on her list of Spears' Top 10 Best TV Performances. Spears also performed the song on her 2000s Crazy 2k Tour, where her dancers picked a boy from the audience and invited him onstage, while Spears dedicated the performance of \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" to the boy. The same year, the song was performed for the last time on Oops!... I Did It Again Tour. Wearing glittery jeans and an orange halter top, she performed an acoustic version of the song with her guitarist Skip. Spears also performed \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" and \"Born to Make You Happy\" on \"Disney Channel in Concert\" in 1999. The performances were recorded and included on Spears' first home video release, \"Time Out with Britney Spears\". The song was also performed in the television program \"Good Morning America\" on January 7, 2000 along with \"...Baby One More Time\".",
"Credits for \"From the Bottom of My Broken Heart\" are adapted from \"...Baby One More Time\"'s liner notes."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-2104989 | en-train-2104989 | 2104989 | {
"title": [
"Temperature.",
"Composition of the Sun.",
"Sun.",
"Other layers of the Sun."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The surface of a star is defined to have a temperature given by the effective temperature in the Stefan–Boltzmann law. Stars, except neutron stars, have no solid or liquid surface. Therefore, the photosphere is typically used to describe the Sun's or another star's visual surface.",
"The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium; they account for 74.9% and 23.8% of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere, respectively. All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass, with oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%) being the most abundant.",
"The Sun's photosphere has a temperature between (with an effective temperature of ) and a density of about 3 kg/m; increasing with depth into the sun. Other stars may have hotter or cooler photospheres. The Sun's photosphere is around 100 kilometers thick, and is composed of convection cells called granules—cells of plasma each approximately 1000 kilometers in diameter with hot rising plasma in the center and cooler plasma falling in the narrow spaces between them, flowing at velocities of 7 kilometer per second. Each granule has a lifespan of only about twenty minutes, resulting in a continually shifting \"boiling\" pattern. Grouping the typical granules are super granules up to 30,000 kilometers in diameter with lifespans of up to 24 hours and flow speeds of about 500 meter per second, carrying magnetic field bundles to the edges of the cells. Other magnetically-related phenomena include sunspots and solar faculae dispersed between the granules. These details are too fine to be seen when observing other stars from earth.",
"The Sun's visible atmosphere has other layers above the photosphere: the 2,000 kilometer-deep chromosphere (typically observed by filtered light, for example H-alpha) lies just between the photosphere and the much hotter but more tenuous corona. Other \"surface features\" on the photosphere are solar flares and sunspots."
]
} |
Metropolitan statistical area | null | In the United States, a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) is a geographical region with a relatively high population density at its core and close economic ties throughout the area. Such regions are neither legally incorporated as a city or town would be, nor are they legal administrative divisions like counties or separate entities such as states; because of this, the precise definition of any given metropolitan area can vary with the source. The statistical criteria for a standard metropolitan area were defined in 1949 and redefined as metropolitan statistical area in 1983. A typical metropolitan area is centered on a single large city that wields substantial influence over the region (e.g., New York City or Philadelphia). However, some metropolitan areas contain more than one large city with no single municipality holding a substantially dominant position (e.g., Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, Norfolk-Virginia Beach (Hampton Roads), Riverside–San Bernardino (Inland Empire) or Minneapolis–Saint Paul (Twin Cities)). MSAs are defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and used by the Census Bureau and other federal government agencies for statistical purposes. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1094942 | en-train-1094942 | 1094942 | {
"title": [
"Definitions."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"U.S. Census statistics for metropolitan areas are reported according to the following definitions. The U.S. Office of Management and Budget defines a set of core based statistical areas (CBSAs) throughout the country. CBSAs are delineated on the basis of a central urban area or urban clusterin other words: a contiguous area of relatively high population density. CBSAs are composed of counties and county equivalents. The counties containing the core urban area are known as the \"central counties\" of the CBSA. A central county is a county in which 50% of its population lives in urban areas of at least 10,000 in population, or where a population of 5,000 are located in a single urban area of at least 10,000 in population where that urban area is split between more than one county. Additional surrounding counties, known as \"outlying counties\", can be included in the CBSA if these counties have strong social and economic ties to the central counties as measured by commuting and employment. Outlying counties are included in the CBSA if 25% of the workers living in the county work in the central county or counties or, conversely, 25% of the employment in the county is held by workers who live in the central county or counties. All counties in a CBSA must be contiguous, and a county can only be included within one CBSA. In New England, towns have precedence over counties, so statistically similar areas are defined in terms of town-based units known as New England city and town areas (NECTAs). Adjacent CBSAs are merged into a single CBSA when the central county or counties of one CBSA qualify as an outlying county or counties to the other CBSAs. One or more CBSAs may be grouped together or combined to form a larger statistical entity known as a combined statistical area (CSA) when the employment interchange measure (EIM) reaches 15% or more. As well as MSAs, CBSAs are also subdivided into micropolitan statistical areas (μSAs) for CBSAs built around an \"urban cluster\" of at least 10,000 in population but less than 50,000 in population. Previous terms that are no longer used include \"standard metropolitan statistical area\" (SMSA) and \"primary metropolitan statistical area\" (PMSA)."
]
} |
Picardy | null | Picardy ( ; Picard and, ) is a historical territory and a former administrative region of France. Since 1 January 2016, it has been part of the new region of Hauts-de-France. It is located in the northern part of France. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-40184 | en-train-40184 | 40184 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Middle Ages.",
"Modern era.",
"Picardy today.",
"Geography.",
"Administration.",
"Language and culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"The historical province of Picardy stretched from north of Noyon to Calais, via the whole of the Somme department and the north of the Aisne department. The province of Artois (Arras area) separated Picardy from French Flanders.",
"From the 5th century the area formed part of the Frankish Empire, and in the feudal period it encompassed the six countships of Boulogne, Montreuil, Ponthieu, Amiénois, Vermandois, and Laonnois. In accordance with the provisions of the 843 Treaty of Verdun the region became part of West Francia, the later Kingdom of France. The name \"Picardy\" derives from the Old French \"pic,\" meaning \"pike\", the characteristic weapon used by people from this region in ancient times. The term \"Picardy\" was first used in the early 13th century, during which time the name applied to all lands where the Picard language was spoken, including territories from Paris to the Netherlands. In the Latin Quarter of Paris, people identified a \"Picard Nation\" (\"Nation Picarde\") of students at Sorbonne University, most of whom actually came from Flanders. During the Hundred Years' War, Picardy was the centre of the Jacquerie peasant revolt in 1358. Beginning in 1419, the Picardy counties (Boulogne, Ponthieu, Amiens, Vermandois) were gradually acquired by the Burgundian duke Philip the Good, acquisitions confirmed by King Charles VII of France at the 1435 Congress of Arras. In 1477 King Louis XI of France led an army and occupied key towns in Picardy. By the end of 1477, Louis would control all of Picardy and most of Artois.",
"In the 16th century, the \"government\" (military region) of Picardy was created. This became a new administrative region of France, separate from what was historically defined as Picardy. The new Picardy included the Somme \"département\", the northern half of the Aisne \"département\", and a small fringe in the north of the Oise \"département\". In 1557, Picardy was invaded by Habsburg forces under the command of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy. After a seventeen-day siege, St. Quentin would be ransacked, while Noyon would be burned by the Habsburg army. In the early 18th century, an infectious disease similar to English sweat originated from the region and spread across France. It was called \"Suette des picards\" or Picardy sweat. Sugar beet was introduced by Napoleon I during the Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century, in order to counter the United Kingdom, which had seized the sugar islands possessed by France in the Caribbean. The sugar industry has continued to play a prominent role in the economy of the region. One of the most significant historical events to occur in Picardy was the series of battles fought along the Somme during World War I. From September 1914 to August 1918, four major battles, including the Battle of the Somme, were fought by British, French, and German forces in the fields of Northern Picardy.",
"In 2009, the Regional Committee for local government reform proposed to reduce the number of French regions and cancel additions of new regions in the near future. Picardy would have disappeared, and each department would have joined a nearby region. The Oise would have been incorporated in the Île-de-France, the Somme would have been incorporated in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Aisne would have been incorporated in the Champagne-Ardenne. The vast majority of Picards were opposed to this proposal, and it was scrapped in 2010 (see newspaper: \"Courrier Picard\"). Today, the modern region of Picardy no longer includes the coastline from Berck to Calais, via Boulogne (Boulonais), that is now in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, but does incorporate the \"pays\" of Beauvaisis, Valois, Noyonnais, Laonnois, Soissonnais, Omois, among other departments of France. The older definition of Picardy survives in the name of the Picard language, which applies not only to the dialects of Picardy proper, but also to the Romance dialects spoken in the Nord-Pas de Calais \"région\", north of Picardy proper, and parts of the Belgian province of Hainaut.",
"Between the 1990 and 1999 censuses, the population of Oise increased 0.61% per year (almost twice as fast as France as a whole), while the Aisne department lost inhabitants, and the Somme barely grew with a 0.16% growth per year. Today, 41.3% of the population of Picardy live inside the Oise department. Picardy stretches from the long sand beaches of the Somme estuary in the west to the vast forests and pastures of the Thiérache in the east and down to the châteaux of Chantilly or Pierrefonds near the Paris Area and vineyards of the border with Champagne (\"Champagne picarde\") to the south.",
"The president of the regional council is Claude Gewerc, a Socialist in office since 2004. That year he defeated longtime UDF incumbent Gilles de Robien. Since 2008, the mayor of the city of Amiens, the regional capital, has been Socialist Gilles Demailly. He defeated longtime mayor Gilles de Robien of the New Centre party.",
"Historically, the region of Picardy has a strong and proud cultural identity. The Picard (local inhabitants and traditionally speakers of the Picard language) cultural heritage includes some of the most extraordinary Gothic churches (Amiens and Beauvais cathedrals or Saint-Quentin basilica), distinctive local cuisine (including \"ficelle picarde\", \"flamiche aux poireaux\", \"tarte au maroilles\"), beer (including from Péronne's de Clercq brewery) and traditional games and sports, such as the \"longue paume\" (ancestor of tennis), as well as \"danses picardes\" and its own bagpipes, called the \"pipasso\". The villages of Picardy have a distinct character, with their houses made of red bricks, often accented with a \"lace\" of white bricks. A minority of people still speak the Picard language, one of the languages of France, which is also spoken in Artois (Nord-Pas de Calais \"région\"). \"P'tit quinquin\", a Picard song, is a symbol of the local culture (and of that of Artois). Picardy is arguably the birthplace of Gothic architecture, housing six of the world's greatest examples of Gothic cathedrals, which span the history of Gothic architecture in its entirety. Amiens Cathedral, standing as the largest cathedral in Europe, which according to John Ruskin is the \"Pantheon of Gothic architecture\", could house Notre-Dame de Paris twice over. It was built in as little as 50 years. Picardy also holds the tallest transept in the history of the Gothic period; this transept is located in Saint-Pierre cathedral in Beauvais, Oise. The Museum of Picardy in Amiens, built between 1855 and 1867, houses a vast array of great works, spanning the centuries and ranging from archaeology from ancient Greece and Egypt to modern works of Pablo Picasso. The museum is closed until the end of 2019 for building work. Although Picardy is one of the least-known regions in France, its influence from art and most certainly architecture is vivid throughout the world."
]
} |
Open cluster | null | An open cluster is a group of up to a few thousand stars that were formed from the same giant molecular cloud and have roughly the same age. More than 1,100 open clusters have been discovered within the Milky Way Galaxy, and many more are thought to exist. They are loosely bound by mutual gravitational attraction and become disrupted by close encounters with other clusters and clouds of gas as they orbit the galactic center. This can result in a migration to the main body of the galaxy and a loss of cluster members through internal close encounters. Open clusters generally survive for a few hundred million years, with the most massive ones surviving for a few billion years. In contrast, the more massive globular clusters of stars exert a stronger gravitational attraction on their members, and can survive for longer. Open clusters have been found only in spiral and irregular galaxies, in which active star formation is occurring. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-774854 | en-train-774854 | 774854 | {
"title": [
"Historical observations.",
"Formation.",
"Morphology and classification.",
"Numbers and distribution.",
"Stellar composition.",
"Eventual fate.",
"Studying stellar evolution.",
"Astronomical distance scale.",
"Planets."
],
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"1",
"1",
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"1",
"1",
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"content": [
"The prominent open cluster the Pleiades has been recognized as a group of stars since antiquity, while the Hyades forms part of Taurus, one of the oldest constellations. Other open clusters were noted by early astronomers as unresolved fuzzy patches of light. In his \"Almagest\", the Roman astronomer Ptolemy mentions the Praesepe cluster, the Double Cluster in Perseus, the Coma Star Cluster, and the Ptolemy Cluster, while the Persian astronomer Al-Sufi wrote of the Omicron Velorum cluster. However, it would require the invention of the telescope to resolve these \"nebulae\" into their constituent stars. Indeed, in 1603 Johann Bayer gave three of these clusters designations as if they were single stars. The first person to use a telescope to observe the night sky and record his observations was the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1609. When he turned the telescope toward some of the nebulous patches recorded by Ptolemy, he found they were not a single star, but groupings of many stars. For Praesepe, he found more than 40 stars. Where previously observers had noted only 6–7 stars in the Pleiades, he found almost 50. In his 1610 treatise \"Sidereus Nuncius\", Galileo Galilei wrote, \"the galaxy is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in clusters.\" Influenced by Galileo's work, the Sicilian astronomer Giovanni Hodierna became possibly the first astronomer to use a telescope to find previously undiscovered open clusters. In 1654, he identified the objects now designated Messier 41, Messier 47, NGC 2362 and NGC 2451. It was realised as early as 1767 that the stars in a cluster were physically related, when the English naturalist Reverend John Michell calculated that the probability of even just one group of stars like the Pleiades being the result of a chance alignment as seen from Earth was just 1 in 496,000. Between 1774–1781, French astronomer Charles Messier published a catalogue of celestial objects that had a nebulous appearance similar to comets. This catalogue included 26 open clusters. In the 1790s, English astronomer William Herschel began an extensive study of nebulous celestial objects. He discovered that many of these features could be resolved into groupings of individual stars. Herschel conceived the idea that stars were initially scattered across space, but later became clustered together as star systems because of gravitational attraction. He divided the nebulae into eight classes, with classes VI through VIII being used to classify clusters of stars. The number of clusters known continued to increase under the efforts of astronomers. Hundreds of open clusters were listed in the New General Catalogue, first published in 1888 by the Danish-Irish astronomer J. L. E. Dreyer, and the two supplemental Index Catalogues, published in 1896 and 1905. Telescopic observations revealed two distinct types of clusters, one of which contained thousands of stars in a regular spherical distribution and was found all across the sky but preferentially towards the centre of the Milky Way. The other type consisted of a generally sparser population of stars in a more irregular shape. These were generally found in or near the galactic plane of the Milky Way. Astronomers dubbed the former globular clusters, and the latter open clusters. Because of their location, open clusters are occasionally referred to as \"galactic clusters\", a term that was introduced in 1925 by the Swiss-American astronomer Robert Julius Trumpler. Micrometer measurements of the positions of stars in clusters were made as early as 1877 by the German astronomer E. Schönfeld and further pursued by the American astronomer E. E. Barnard prior to his death in 1923. No indication of stellar motion was detected by these efforts. However, in 1918 the Dutch-American astronomer Adriaan van Maanen was able to measure the proper motion of stars in part of the Pleiades cluster by comparing photographic plates taken at different times. As astrometry became more accurate, cluster stars were found to share a common proper motion through space. By comparing the photographic plates of the Pleiades cluster taken in 1918 with images taken in 1943, van Maanen was able to identify those stars that had a proper motion similar to the mean motion of the cluster, and were therefore more likely to be members. Spectroscopic measurements revealed common radial velocities, thus showing that the clusters consist of stars bound together as a group. The first color-magnitude diagrams of open clusters were published by Ejnar Hertzsprung in 1911, giving the plot for the Pleiades and Hyades star clusters. He continued this work on open clusters for the next twenty years. From spectroscopic data, he was able to determine the upper limit of internal motions for open clusters, and could estimate that the total mass of these objects did not exceed several hundred times the mass of the Sun. He demonstrated a relationship between the star colors and their magnitudes, and in 1929 noticed that the Hyades and Praesepe clusters had different stellar populations than the Pleiades. This would subsequently be interpreted as a difference in ages of the three clusters.",
"The formation of an open cluster begins with the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud, a cold dense cloud of gas and dust containing up to many thousands of times the mass of the Sun. These clouds have densities that vary from 10 to 10 molecules of neutral hydrogen per cm, with star formation occurring in regions with densities above 10 molecules per cm. Typically, only 1–10% of the cloud by volume is above the latter density. Prior to collapse, these clouds maintain their mechanical equilibrium through magnetic fields, turbulence, and rotation. Many factors may disrupt the equilibrium of a giant molecular cloud, triggering a collapse and initiating the burst of star formation that can result in an open cluster. These include shock waves from a nearby supernova, collisions with other clouds, or gravitational interactions. Even without external triggers, regions of the cloud can reach conditions where they become unstable against collapse. The collapsing cloud region will undergo hierarchical fragmentation into ever smaller clumps, including a particularly dense form known as infrared dark clouds, eventually leading to the formation of up to several thousand stars. This star formation begins enshrouded in the collapsing cloud, blocking the protostars from sight but allowing infrared observation. In the Milky Way galaxy, the formation rate of open clusters is estimated to be one every few thousand years. The hottest and most massive of the newly formed stars (known as OB stars) will emit intense ultraviolet radiation, which steadily ionizes the surrounding gas of the giant molecular cloud, forming an H II region. Stellar winds and radiation pressure from the massive stars begins to drive away the hot ionized gas at a velocity matching the speed of sound in the gas. After a few million years the cluster will experience its first core-collapse supernovae, which will also expel gas from the vicinity. In most cases these processes will strip the cluster of gas within ten million years and no further star formation will take place. Still, about half of the resulting protostellar objects will be left surrounded by circumstellar disks, many of which form accretion disks. As only 30 to 40 per cent of the gas in the cloud core forms stars, the process of residual gas expulsion is highly damaging to the star formation process. All clusters thus suffer significant infant weight loss, while a large fraction undergo infant mortality. At this point, the formation of an open cluster will depend on whether the newly formed stars are gravitationally bound to each other; otherwise an unbound stellar association will result. Even when a cluster such as the Pleiades does form, it may only hold on to a third of the original stars, with the remainder becoming unbound once the gas is expelled. The young stars so released from their natal cluster become part of the Galactic field population. Because most if not all stars form in clusters, star clusters are to be viewed as the fundamental building blocks of galaxies. The violent gas-expulsion events that shape and destroy many star clusters at birth leave their imprint in the morphological and kinematical structures of galaxies. Most open clusters form with at least 100 stars and a mass of 50 or more solar masses. The largest clusters can have over 10 solar masses, with the massive cluster Westerlund 1 being estimated at 5 × 10 solar masses and R136 at almost 5 x 10, typical of globular clusters. While open clusters and globular clusters form two fairly distinct groups, there may not be a great deal of intrinsic difference between a very sparse globular cluster such as Palomar 12 and a very rich open cluster. Some astronomers believe the two types of star clusters form via the same basic mechanism, with the difference being that the conditions that allowed the formation of the very rich globular clusters containing hundreds of thousands of stars no longer prevail in the Milky Way. It is common for two or more separate open clusters to form out of the same molecular cloud. In the Large Magellanic Cloud, both Hodge 301 and R136 have formed from the gases of the Tarantula Nebula, while in our own galaxy, tracing back the motion through space of the Hyades and Praesepe, two prominent nearby open clusters, suggests that they formed in the same cloud about 600 million years ago. Sometimes, two clusters born at the same time will form a binary cluster. The best known example in the Milky Way is the Double Cluster of NGC 869 and NGC 884 (sometimes mistakenly called h and χ Persei; h refers to a neighboring star and χ to \"both\" clusters), but at least 10 more double clusters are known to exist. Many more are known in the Small and Large Magellanic Clouds—they are easier to detect in external systems than in our own galaxy because projection effects can cause unrelated clusters within the Milky Way to appear close to each other.",
"Open clusters range from very sparse clusters with only a few members to large agglomerations containing thousands of stars. They usually consist of quite a distinct dense core, surrounded by a more diffuse 'corona' of cluster members. The core is typically about 3–4 light years across, with the corona extending to about 20 light years from the cluster centre. Typical star densities in the centre of a cluster are about 1.5 stars per cubic light year; the stellar density near the Sun is about 0.003 stars per cubic light year. Open clusters are often classified according to a scheme developed by Robert Trumpler in 1930. The Trumpler scheme gives a cluster a three part designation, with a Roman numeral from I-IV indicating its concentration and detachment from the surrounding star field (from strongly to weakly concentrated), an Arabic numeral from 1 to 3 indicating the range in brightness of members (from small to large range), and \"p\", \"m\" or \"r\" to indication whether the cluster is poor, medium or rich in stars. An 'n' is appended if the cluster lies within nebulosity. Under the Trumpler scheme, the Pleiades are classified as I3rn (strongly concentrated and richly populated with nebulosity present), while the nearby Hyades are classified as II3m (more dispersed, and with fewer members).",
"There are over 1,000 known open clusters in our galaxy, but the true total may be up to ten times higher than that. In spiral galaxies, open clusters are largely found in the spiral arms where gas densities are highest and so most star formation occurs, and clusters usually disperse before they have had time to travel beyond their spiral arm. Open clusters are strongly concentrated close to the galactic plane, with a scale height in our galaxy of about 180 light years, compared to a galactic radius of approximately 50,000 light years. In irregular galaxies, open clusters may be found throughout the galaxy, although their concentration is highest where the gas density is highest. Open clusters are not seen in elliptical galaxies: star formation ceased many millions of years ago in ellipticals, and so the open clusters which were originally present have long since dispersed. In our galaxy, the distribution of clusters depends on age, with older clusters being preferentially found at greater distances from the galactic centre, generally at substantial distances above or below the galactic plane. Tidal forces are stronger nearer the centre of the galaxy, increasing the rate of disruption of clusters, and also the giant molecular clouds which cause the disruption of clusters are concentrated towards the inner regions of the galaxy, so clusters in the inner regions of the galaxy tend to get dispersed at a younger age than their counterparts in the outer regions.",
"Because open clusters tend to be dispersed before most of their stars reach the end of their lives, the light from them tends to be dominated by the young, hot blue stars. These stars are the most massive, and have the shortest lives of a few tens of millions of years. The older open clusters tend to contain more yellow stars. Some open clusters contain hot blue stars which seem to be much younger than the rest of the cluster. These blue stragglers are also observed in globular clusters, and in the very dense cores of globulars they are believed to arise when stars collide, forming a much hotter, more massive star. However, the stellar density in open clusters is much lower than that in globular clusters, and stellar collisions cannot explain the numbers of blue stragglers observed. Instead, it is thought that most of them probably originate when dynamical interactions with other stars cause a binary system to coalesce into one star. Once they have exhausted their supply of hydrogen through nuclear fusion, medium- to low-mass stars shed their outer layers to form a planetary nebula and evolve into white dwarfs. While most clusters become dispersed before a large proportion of their members have reached the white dwarf stage, the number of white dwarfs in open clusters is still generally much lower than would be expected, given the age of the cluster and the expected initial mass distribution of the stars. One possible explanation for the lack of white dwarfs is that when a red giant expels its outer layers to become a planetary nebula, a slight asymmetry in the loss of material could give the star a 'kick' of a few kilometres per second, enough to eject it from the cluster. Because of their high density, close encounters between stars in an open cluster are common. For a typical cluster with 1,000 stars with a 0.5 parsec half-mass radius, on average a star will have an encounter with another member every 10 million years. The rate is even higher in denser clusters. These encounters can have a significant impact on the extended circumstellar disks of material that surround many young stars. Tidal perturbations of large disks may result in the formation of massive planets and brown dwarfs, producing companions at distances of 100 AU or more from the host star.",
"Many open clusters are inherently unstable, with a small enough mass that the escape velocity of the system is lower than the average velocity of the constituent stars. These clusters will rapidly disperse within a few million years. In many cases, the stripping away of the gas from which the cluster formed by the radiation pressure of the hot young stars reduces the cluster mass enough to allow rapid dispersal. Clusters that have enough mass to be gravitationally bound once the surrounding nebula has evaporated can remain distinct for many tens of millions of years, but over time internal and external processes tend also to disperse them. Internally, close encounters between stars can increase the velocity of a member beyond the escape velocity of the cluster. This results in the gradual 'evaporation' of cluster members. Externally, about every half-billion years or so an open cluster tends to be disturbed by external factors such as passing close to or through a molecular cloud. The gravitational tidal forces generated by such an encounter tend to disrupt the cluster. Eventually, the cluster becomes a stream of stars, not close enough to be a cluster but all related and moving in similar directions at similar speeds. The timescale over which a cluster disrupts depends on its initial stellar density, with more tightly packed clusters persisting for longer. Estimated cluster half lives, after which half the original cluster members will have been lost, range from 150–800 million years, depending on the original density. After a cluster has become gravitationally unbound, many of its constituent stars will still be moving through space on similar trajectories, in what is known as a stellar association, moving cluster, or moving group. Several of the brightest stars in the 'Plough' of Ursa Major are former members of an open cluster which now form such an association, in this case, the Ursa Major Moving Group. Eventually their slightly different relative velocities will see them scattered throughout the galaxy. A larger cluster is then known as a stream, if we discover the similar velocities and ages of otherwise well separated stars.",
"When a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is plotted for an open cluster, most stars lie on the main sequence. The most massive stars have begun to evolve away from the main sequence and are becoming red giants; the position of the turn-off from the main sequence can be used to estimate the age of the cluster. Because the stars in an open cluster are all at roughly the same distance from Earth, and were born at roughly the same time from the same raw material, the differences in apparent brightness among cluster members are due only to their mass. This makes open clusters very useful in the study of stellar evolution, because when comparing one star to another, many of the variable parameters are fixed. The study of the abundances of lithium and beryllium in open cluster stars can give important clues about the evolution of stars and their interior structures. While hydrogen nuclei cannot fuse to form helium until the temperature reaches about 10 million K, lithium and beryllium are destroyed at temperatures of 2.5 million K and 3.5 million K respectively. This means that their abundances depend strongly on how much mixing occurs in stellar interiors. By studying their abundances in open cluster stars, variables such as age and chemical composition are fixed. Studies have shown that the abundances of these light elements are much lower than models of stellar evolution predict. While the reason for this underabundance is not yet fully understood, one possibility is that convection in stellar interiors can 'overshoot' into regions where radiation is normally the dominant mode of energy transport.",
"Determining the distances to astronomical objects is crucial to understanding them, but the vast majority of objects are too far away for their distances to be directly determined. Calibration of the astronomical distance scale relies on a sequence of indirect and sometimes uncertain measurements relating the closest objects, for which distances can be directly measured, to increasingly distant objects. Open clusters are a crucial step in this sequence. The closest open clusters can have their distance measured directly by one of two methods. First, the parallax (the small change in apparent position over the course of a year caused by the Earth moving from one side of its orbit around the Sun to the other) of stars in close open clusters can be measured, like other individual stars. Clusters such as the Pleiades, Hyades and a few others within about 500 light years are close enough for this method to be viable, and results from the Hipparcos position-measuring satellite yielded accurate distances for several clusters. The other direct method is the so-called moving cluster method. This relies on the fact that the stars of a cluster share a common motion through space. Measuring the proper motions of cluster members and plotting their apparent motions across the sky will reveal that they converge on a vanishing point. The radial velocity of cluster members can be determined from Doppler shift measurements of their spectra, and once the radial velocity, proper motion and angular distance from the cluster to its vanishing point are known, simple trigonometry will reveal the distance to the cluster. The Hyades are the best known application of this method, which reveals their distance to be 46.3 parsecs. Once the distances to nearby clusters have been established, further techniques can extend the distance scale to more distant clusters. By matching the main sequence on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for a cluster at a known distance with that of a more distant cluster, the distance to the more distant cluster can be estimated. The nearest open cluster is the Hyades: the stellar association consisting of most of the Plough stars is at about half the distance of the Hyades, but is a stellar association rather than an open cluster as the stars are not gravitationally bound to each other. The most distant known open cluster in our galaxy is Berkeley 29, at a distance of about 15,000 parsecs. Open clusters, especially super star clusters, are also easily detected in many of the galaxies of the Local Group and nearby: e.g., NGC 346 and the SSCs R136 and NGC 1569 A and B. Accurate knowledge of open cluster distances is vital for calibrating the period-luminosity relationship shown by variable stars such as cepheid stars, which allows them to be used as standard candles. These luminous stars can be detected at great distances, and are then used to extend the distance scale to nearby galaxies in the Local Group. Indeed, the open cluster designated NGC 7790 hosts three classical Cepheids. RR Lyrae variables are too old to be associated with open clusters, and are instead found in globular clusters.",
"The open cluster NGC 6811 contains two known planetary systems Kepler 66 and Kepler 67."
]
} |
Almaty | null | Almaty (; ; ;, ), formerly known as Alma-Ata and Verniy, is the largest city in Kazakhstan, with a population of about 2,000,000 people, about 11% of the country's total population, and more than 2.7 million in its built-up area that encompasses Talgar, Boraldai, Otegen Batyr and many other suburbs. It served as capital of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic and later independent Kazakhstan from 1929 to 1997. In 1997, the government relocated the capital to Astana (renamed Nur-Sultan in 2019) in the north of the country. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2460515 | en-train-2460515 | 2460515 | {
"title": [
"Status.",
"Etymology.",
"Culture.",
"History.",
"Prehistoric Almaty.",
"15th–18th centuries.",
"Foundation of Verniy.",
"Soviet era.",
"World War II.",
"Industrialisation in the Soviet period.",
"1945 to 1991 infrastructure.",
"Post-independence.",
"Administrative divisions.",
"Geography.",
"Climate.",
"Seismic activity in the territory of Kazakhstan.",
"Demographics.",
"Metropolitan area.",
"Economy.",
"Sights.",
"Kók Tóbe.",
"Fountains.",
"Medeu.",
"Shymbulak.",
"First President's Park.",
"Big Almaty Lake.",
"Park of 28 Panfilov Guardsmen.",
"Transportation.",
"Air.",
"Urban transport.",
"Education.",
"Universities.",
"Sport.",
"Olympic aspirations.",
"In popular culture.",
"Gallery.",
"Twin towns – sister cities.",
"International organizations.",
"See also."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
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"2",
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"3",
"3",
"2",
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"content": [
"From 1929 to 1936, Almaty was the capital of the Kazakh ASSR. From 1936 to 1991 it was the capital of the Kazakh SSR. After Kazakhstan became independent in 1991, Almaty continued as the capital until 1997, when Astana (renamed Nur-Sultan in 2019) was designated a return to the historic capital. Almaty remains the largest, most developed, and most ethnically and culturally diverse city in Kazakhstan. Due to development by the Soviet Union and relocation of workers and industries from European areas of the Soviet Union during World War II, the city has a high proportion of ethnic Russians and Ukrainians. The city lies in the foothills of Trans-Ili Alatau (or Zailiysky Alatau) in the extreme south-east. It has a relatively mild climate with warm and dry summers and quite cold winters. Since the city is in a tectonically active area, it has an endemic risk of earthquakes. Although most tremors do not cause any significant damage, Almaty has suffered some large destructive earthquakes. In 1997 the capital was moved to Astana (renamed Nur-Sultan in 2019) in the north-central part of the country. Since then Almaty has been referred to as the'southern capital' of Kazakhstan.",
"The name \"Almaty\" has its roots in the medieval settlement \"Almatu\", that existed near the present-day city. A disputed theory holds that the name is derived from the Kazakh word for 'apple' (алма), and is often translated as \"full of apples\". Originally it was Almatau which means Apple Mountain. The Russian version of the name was \"Alma-Ata\" (Kaz. Father of Apples). Since gaining its independence from the Soviet Union, the use of the Kazakh \"Almaty\" is accepted. There is great genetic diversity among the wild apples in the region surrounding Almaty; the region is thought to be the apple's ancestral home. The wild \"Malus sieversii\" is considered a likely candidate for the ancestor of the modern domestic apple. The city's name was written as \"Ālmātī\" in Persian and Urdu written with the Perso-Arabic script.",
"Almaty is largely considered to be the heart and soul of Kazakhstan's classical and popular cultures. Almaty region and city have a distinct vibe and pace than other regions and cities in Kazakhstan. Contemporary Almaty has a more European vibe due to more cafes and restaurants with outdoor seating and public green space.Kazakh culture and zeitgeist identify as the genetic origin, or fatherland, of the wild apple (Malus siversii). Almaty is the historical and contemporary capital of intellectualism in Kazakhstan as a result of Almaty's location along the Ancient Silk Road and that many Russian intellectuals were exiled to the region and to Karlag. The Abai Kazakh State Opera and Ballet Theatre has anchored the city's theater scene since 1934 and was founded around a community of local performance artists. The Kasteyev State Museum of Arts was founded in 1935, is the largest museum in Kazakhstan, and has the largest collection of artworks by Kazakh classic and contemporary artists.",
"",
"During 1000–900 BC in the Bronze Age, the first farmers and cattle-breeders established settlements in the territory of Almaty. During the Saka period (from 700 BC to the beginning of the Christian era), these lands were occupied by the Saka and later Wusun tribes, who inhabited the territory north of the Tian Shan mountain range. Evidence of these times can be found in the numerous burial mounds (tumuli) and ancient settlements, especially the giant burial mounds of the Saka tsars. The most famous archaeological finds have been \"The Golden Man\", also known as \"The Golden Warrior\", from the Issyk Kurgan; the Zhalauly treasure, the Kargaly diadem, and the Zhetysu arts bronzes (boilers, lamps and altars). During the period of Saka and Wusun governance, Almaty became an early education centre.",
"In the 15th–18th centuries, the city was in decline as trade activities were decreasing on this part of the Silk Road. European nations were conducting more trade by shipping overseas. This period was one of crucial ethnic and political transformations. The Kazakh state and nation were founded here, close to Almaty. The Dzungar invaded, dominating the Kazakh people for a period. The Kazakh fought to protect their land and preserve independence. In 1730 the Kazakh defeated the Dzungar in the Anyrakay mountains, north-west of Almaty. During the eighteenth century, the city and region was roughly on the border between the Khanate of Kokand and Qing Empire. It was then absorbed as part of the Russian Empire in the 1850s.",
"To defend its empire, Russia built Fort \"Verniy\" near the Zailiysky Alatau mountain range between the Bolshaya and Malenkaya Almatinka rivers. Construction began on 4 February 1854 and was nearly completed by the autumn of that year. The fort was a wooden palisade, shaped like a pentagon, with one side built along the Malaya Almatinka. Later, the wood fence was replaced with a brick wall with embrasures. The main facilities were erected around the large square for training and parading. In 1855 Kazakhs displaced from their nomadic territory appeared in Verniy. Since 1856, Verniy started accepting Russian peasants. They founded the Bolshaya Almatinskaya Stanitsa (Cossack village) near the fortification. The inflow of migrants was increasing and led to the construction of the Malaya Almatinskaya Stanitsa and Tatarskaya (Tashkentskaya) sloboda. It was the place of settlement for Tatar merchants and craftsmen. In 1867 Verniy Fort was developed as a town called \"Almatinsk\"; the town soon returned to the name Verniy. According to the First City Plan, developed by administrators of the Russian Empire, the city perimeters were on the south along Almatinka river, and on the west. The new city area was divided into residential parts, and the latter into districts. Three categories of city buildings were defined. Category I and II buildings were of one or two-storied construction with a high semi-basement; they were erected around and in the centre of the city, others on the outskirts. On 28 May 1887, at 4 a.m., an earthquake almost totally destroyed Verniy in 11–12 minutes. Brick buildings were damaged the most, as they broke apart because of lack of flexibility. As a result, people were afterward inclined to build one-storied buildings made of wood or adobe. By 1906 the population of the city had grown to 27,000, two-thirds of whom being Russians and Ukrainians.",
"In 1918 following the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Bolshevik government, Soviet power was established in Verniy. The city and the region became part of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (RSFSR). On 5 February 1921 Verniy was renamed Alma-Ata, one of the city's ancient names, by a joint consultation of regional government representatives, professional trade associations, and local faith-based groups. In 1926, the Council of Labor and Defence approved the construction of the Turkestan–Siberia Railway that was a crucial element of the future growth of Kazakhstan, especially in the east and southeast of the region. The Turkestan–Siberia Railway construction also had a decisive economic impact that strongly influenced the destiny of Alma-Ata as the capital of the Kazakh ASSR. In 1930 the construction of the highway and railway to Alma-Ata was completed. On 29 April 1927, the government decided to transfer the capital of the Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic from Kyzyl-Orda to Alma-Ata, within the RFSFR. This attracted more trade and people working with the government, stimulating intensive development in the city. On 31 January 1928, Leon Trotsky, leader of the 1917 October Revolution, accompanied by his wife Natalia Sedova and his son Lev Sedov, was exiled to Alma-Ata by Joseph Stalin, then head of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in Moscow. Trotsky was expelled from Alma-Ata to Turkey in February 1929, and went into exile in Mexico City. The Alma-Ata airport was opened in 1930, opening up a direct connection from Alma-Ata to Moscow, the center of the Soviet government. Alma-Ata became the main entry by air to Kazakhstan, a status which it retains today. Transformation of this small town into the capital of the Kazakh SSR was accelerated by the large-scale construction of new administrative and government facilities and housing. The Great Purge of 1936–38 extended to Kazakhstan, where numerous intellectuals, activists, leaders, teachers and others were killed. The Soviet government dominated the population. During the 1930s Kazakh nomads suffered starvation after disruption of their traditional living patterns. In 1936 the Architecture and Planning Bureau developed a plan to enhance Alma-Ata as the new cultural capital of the Kazakh SSR. The plan was based on the existing rectangular system of districts. They were to be strengthened and reconstructed.",
"During World War II the government dramatically affected the city's population and structures. To better organize the home front and concentrate industrial and material resources, the government evacuated 26,000 people and numerous industries from the European theatre of war. Alma-Ata hosted over 30 industrial facilities removed from the European section of the USSR, eight evacuated hospitals, 15 institutes, universities and technical schools; and around 20 cultural institutions. Motion picture production companies from Leningrad, Kiev, and Moscow were also moved to Alma-Ata at this time. This brought in so many ethnic Russians that the Kazakhs became a minority in the region. Over 52,000 Alma-Ata residents received the title: \"Gratitude for Your Self-Denying Labour\". Forty-eight residents were granted the title of \"Hero of The Soviet Union\". Three rifle divisions were raised in Alma-Ata, including the well-known 8th Guards Rifle Division 'Panfilov' (originally the 316th rifle division), along with two rifle battalions and three aviation regiments that were raised on the bases of the air club of Alma-Ata.",
"After 1941, due to the mass evacuation of factories and workers from the European part of the Soviet Union during World War II, Alma-Ata became an administrative and trading centre. Although it had an underdeveloped industrial base it became one of the largest industrial centres of the Soviet Union. It was to the rear of the wartime fronts. During the years 1941–1945 the industrial potential of the city increased significantly. Development increased during the postwar years. The population of the city grew from 104,000 in 1919 to 365,000 in 1968. By 1967 the city had 145 enterprises, with the bulk of these being light and food industries. The main industries in Alma-Ata were: food processing (36% of gross industrial output), based largely on locally abundant fruit and vegetable raw materials, light industry (31%), and heavy industry (33%). The main products of the region were:",
"From 1966 to 1971, 1,400,000 square metres of public and cooperative housing were built. Annually, around 300,000 square metres of dwellings were under construction. Most of the buildings constructed during this time were earthquake-proof multi-storey buildings. The Soviet government tried to diversify architectural forms to create a more varied cityscape. During this period, many schools, hospitals, cultural, and entertainment facilities were constructed, including Lenin's Palace, the Kazakhstan Hotel, and the \"Medeo\" sports complex. The Medeu Dam, designed to protect the city of Almaty and the Medeo skating rink from catastrophic mudflows during flood season, was built in 1966. It was reinforced a number of times in the 1960s and 1970s. The supersonic transport Tupolev Tu-144 went into service on 26 December 1975, carrying mail and freight between Moscow and Alma-Ata in preparation for passenger services; these began in November 1977. The Aeroflot flight on 1 June 1978 was the 55th and last scheduled passenger flight of the Tu-144. Alma-Ata was the host city for a 1978 international conference on Primary Health Care. The Alma Ata Declaration was adopted, marking a paradigm shift in global public health. On 16 December 1986, the Jeltoqsan riot took place in response to General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev's dismissal of Dinmukhamed Kunayev. On 7 September 1988, the |subway Almaty Metro project started construction; the subway was opened on 1 December 2011 after 23 years.",
"Kazakhstan declared its independence from the Soviet Union on 16 December 1991 (Kazakhstan Independence Day), and two years later, on 28 January 1993, the government renamed the city from the Russian \"Alma-Ata\" to the Kazakh name \"Almaty\". In 1997 the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev approved the Decree to transfer the capital from Almaty to Astana (now Nur-Sultan) in the north of the country. On 1 July 1998 a law was passed to establish the special status of Almaty as a scientific, cultural, historical, financial, and industrial centre. The new general plan of Almaty for 2030 was released in 1998. It is intended to create ecologically safe, secure, and socially comfortable living conditions in the city. The main objective is to promote Almaty's image as a garden-city. It proposes continued multi-storied and single-housing development, reorganization of industrial districts or territories, improving transport infrastructure, and expanding the Almaty Metro. The first line of the Almaty metro was launched on 1 December 2011, two weeks ahead of schedule. The extension of the line to Kalkaman was opened in 2015. Nevertheless, Almaty has developed a major problem with air pollution. Already in 1995, particulate emissions, then mostly from the city's thermal power station, exceeded Kazakh and EU standards by over 20 times. In 2008, Almaty was ranked the 9th most polluted city in the world. A 2013 study identified cars as a major source of pollution, and it was noted since 2003 and 2013 morbidity had increased by a factor of 1.5, and that the city takes the first place in the republic on respiratory, endocrine and blood diseases, cancer and bronchial asthma, even though there are no major industrial installations. An independent local air quality monitoring system with a mobile app was launched in 2017. The area of the city has been expanded during recent years with the annexation of the suburban settlements of Kalkaman, Kok Tube, Gorniy Gigant District (Mountain Giant). Numerous apartment blocks and office skyscrapers have transformed the face of the town, which has been built into the mountains. Almaty was the site of a notorious terrorist attack in July 2016, when Jihadist Ruslan Kulikbayev killed eight police officers and two civilians in a shootout and car chase. Kulikbayev was wounded during the shootout and later sentenced to death for the attack.",
"There are 8 official Almaty city districts : Alatau district Almaly district Auezov district Bostandyk district Medeu district Nauryzbay district Turksib district Jetysu district.",
"Almaty is located in south-eastern Kazakhstan, almost 1000 km from the capital Nur-Sultan (formerly Astana). Kyrgyzstan's capital Bishkek is 190 km to the west, while Ürümqi in China is almost 1000 km east.",
"The climate in Almaty is a humid continental (Köppen climate classification: \"Dsa\") with hot summers and cold winters. It is characterized by the influence of mountain–valley circulation. This is especially evident in the northern part of the city, located directly in the transition zone of the mountain slopes to the plains. Annual average air temperature is equal to, the coldest month is January, (on average), the warmest month (July) (on average). In average years frost starts on about 14 October and ends on about 18 April, with sustained extreme cold from about 19 December to about 23 February, a period of about 67 days. Weather with temperature above is average for about 36 days a year. In the center of Almaty, like any large city, there is a \"heat island\" – the average daily temperature contrast between the northern and southern suburbs of the city is 3.8% in the coldest days and 2.2% in the hottest five days. Therefore, frost in the city center starts about 7 days later and finishes 3 days earlier than in the northern suburbs. Annual precipitation is about. April and May are the wettest months, during which about a third of the city's annual precipitation is received. It is not uncommon to see snow or a cold snap hitting Almaty as late as the end of May. For example, in the last quarter century, such snowfalls were recorded on 13 May 1985, 1 May 1989, 5 May 1993 and 18 May 1998. The record latest snowfall in Almaty was on 17 June 1987. Almaty sometimes experiences winter rain, despite heavy preceding snowfall and low temperatures. The most memorable winter rain took place on 16 December 1996 during a military parade to celebrate the 5th anniversary of the Independence of the Republic. Almaty Weather Station's GM mostly records south-easterly wind (30%), its resistance increases during the summer (37%) and falls in winter (19%). Wind speeds exceed 15 m/s on about 15 days a year, on average.",
"Industrially developed and densely populated areas in the south and southeast of Kazakhstan are situated in the zones where the maximum magnitudes of expected earthquakes are from 6.0 to 8.3 (the intensity of I0=8–10). The south seismic active zone of Kazakhstan is a part of the North Tian-Shan ridge system. The main city of Almaty is located near the Zailiski Alatau mountain base. In recorded history prior to the late 19th century, three catastrophic earthquakes are known to have taken place there. The following are the dates of occurrence and extracts from the historical chronicles of the times: Within the past 125 years, three more strong destructive earthquakes occurred here, with centres not more than 20 – from the current city location. Their magnitudes were 9 and 11 on the MSK scale – 64, and their centres were located within. Centres were located in a south and south–east directions: K – indicates the energy of the earthquake. In each of these earthquakes, the city suffered wide destruction. The Territory of the Kyrgyz State adjoins North Tian-Shan.",
"Almaty is the most cosmopolitan city of Kazakhstan. As of 2018, ethnic Kazakhs made up 60% of the city population, representing an increase from 22% during the country's independence. Ethnic groups (2010): the national statistics committee reported Almaty's population as 1,797,431. This was a 37% increase upon the 1999 census figure of 1,129,400, and 44% higher than the 1989 USSR census figure of 1,071,900.",
"The metropolitan area centred upon Almaty includes the cities and towns of Esik, Kaskelen, Talgar, and Kapchagay, and much of Enbekshikazakh, Jambyl, Ile, and Talgar districts, all of which lie within 1.5 hours travel of Almaty city.",
"Almaty generates approximately 20 per cent of Kazakhstan's GDP (or $36 billion in 2010). The city accounts for above 20% of government revenues and 60% of bank credits. The nation is the most powerful economically in Central Asia and Almaty is a key financial center. It is considered to be a Beta- Global City as of the 2012 GaWC study. One of the largest industries in Almaty is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to Kazakhstan's balance of payments. Almaty is home to Halyk Bank, which is the largest bank in Central Asia, Kaspi Bank, and other major banks. The Kazakhstan Stock Exchange is based in Almaty. Almaty is also developing as a regional financial and business centre (RFCA). Under construction is the 'Almaty Financial District and Esentai Park'. This was designed by T.J. Gottesdiener, who designed both 7 World Trade Center in New York City and Time Warner Center in Tokyo Midtown, respectively. Its goal is to become the largest business centre in Central Asia. Esentai Tower, a 37-floor building in the park, is the tallest mixed-use building in Kazakhstan, housing offices of companies such as Ernst & Young, HSBC and Credit Suisse. The first Ritz-Carlton Hotel in Kazakhstan opened in 2013 in Esentai Tower. Along with professional services, media companies are concentrated in Almaty. The media distribution industry has been growing rapidly since 2006. Major broadcasting channels KTK and NTK are based in Almaty, as are several national newspapers. There are plans to construct a Western Europe-Western China highway, passing through Almaty. A new airport in Almaty expects to handle about 45 million tonnes of cargo each year. Air Astana is headquartered in the Air Astana Centre 1 in Almaty. Prior to their dissolution, Air Kazakhstan and Kazakhstan Airlines were also headquartered in Almaty. The economy of Almaty city and Almaty Region continues to grow, and is expected to increase by nearly 6.5 percent per year until 2020. To mitigate the rapidly increasing electricity demand caused by this growth, the Kazakh authorities decided to upgrade the power system by building the new transmission line and modernizing the substations. The Alma Transmission Project, supported by the World Bank, has helped achieve this goal.",
"",
"An aerial tramway line connects downtown Almaty with a popular recreation area at the top of Kók Tóbe (, which means 'Blue Hill'), a mountain just to the southeast. The city television tower, Almaty Tower, is located on the hill. It has a variety of tourist attractions, such as a zoo, amusement-park-style rides and restaurants.",
"According to the city's Department of Natural Resources and Resource Use Management, the city has 125 fountains. Among them is the \"Oriental Calendar\" Fountain, whose 12 sculptural figures represent the 12 animals of the Kazakh 12-year animal cycle (similar to its Chinese counterpart).",
"The Medeu is an outdoor speed skating and bandy rink. It is located in a mountain valley (Medeu Valley, or the valley of Malaya Alma-Atinka River) on the south-eastern outskirts of Almaty, Kazakhstan. Medeu sits 1,691 metres above sea level, making it one of the highest skating rinks in the world. It has 10,500 square meters of ice and utilizes a sophisticated freezing and watering system to ensure the quality of the ice.",
"Shymbulak is a ski resort near Almaty, located in the upper part of the Medeu Valley in the Zaiilisky Alatau mountain range, at the elevation of 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) above sea level. The resort area is about 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of Almaty city by the Medeo road. It is popular for its mild climate, a large quantity of sunny days and a great amount of snow through the winter (from November till May).",
"First President's Park is an urban park located in Almaty at the intersection of Navoi Street and Al-Farabi Avenue in the Bostandyk district. The park was opened in July 2010. Creation of the park began in 2001. The park is broken into three main areas - the avenue, boulevard, and dendrological areas. Greenery was planted according to dendrological plan. In honor of the participation of the city of Almaty in the Olympic torch relay of the Beijing Olympic Games, approximately one hundred spruces and birches were planted. In 2011, a hundred Tien-Shan spruces were also planted. Plans include a set of water projects over an area of 9.5 hectares.",
"Big Almaty Lake is a natural lake located in Trans-Ili Alatau mountains on 2511 above the sea level near Almaty (15 km South from Almaty). Like a majority of lakes in Trans-Ili Alatau, this lake formed as the result of an earthquake. The lake is a major source of drinking water for the region. People can access the lake by car (approximately 1 hour drive from the city center), bike, or hiking (approximately a half-day trip).",
"The Park of 28 Panfilov Guardsmen is a major park in Almaty, Kazakhstan. The park is located in east-central Almaty in the area surrounding Zenkov Cathedral. It is dedicated to and named after the Panfilov Heroes, 28 soldiers of an Almaty infantry unit who died fighting Nazi German invaders outside of Moscow in World War II. The group takes its name from Ivan Panfilov, the General commanding the 316th division which, in spite of heavy casualties, believed at that time managed to significantly delay the Germans' advance on the capital, buying time for the defenders of the city. An eternal flame commemorating the fallen of the Russian Civil War and the Great Patriotic War burns in front of the giant black monument of soldiers from all 15 Soviet republics. Central state museum of Kazakhstan Main article The largest museum in the city and one of the largest in Central Asia. Originally was located in Almaty Cathedral, then was moved to its current location in 1985. The museum contains most significant collection of Kazakhstan, archaeological, cultural, historical and political artifacts.",
"",
"The closest airport to Almaty is Almaty International Airport located to the northeast from the city center.",
"Sayran Bus Terminal provides intercity bus connections within Kazakhstan, as well as international connections to Kyrgyzstan and China and regional bus connections west of the city. Sayakhat bus terminal provides regional bus connections to places north and east of the city. Kazakhstan Temir Zholy's has two stations Almaty-1 (located 20 minutes drive from Almaty, and reserved mostly for cargo) and Almaty-2 located within the city and reserved mostly for passengers. In 2011 the Almaty Metro opened, and a light rail line is planned. A bicycle-sharing system, Almaty-bike, has been in operation since September 2016.. People can buy a card for a month and ride freely.",
"",
"Kazakh National Medical University, named after Asfendiyarov (former: Almaty Governmental Medical Institute (AGMI))",
"The historic bandy team Dinamo won the Soviet Championships in 1977 and 1990 and the European Cup in 1978. Their home ground was Medeu. Bandy was introduced for the first time at the 2011 Winter Asian Games. Medeu was the main arena at the 2012 Bandy World Championship. The second arena built for the championships is an alternative field at Almaty Central Stadium. The city is now a candidate to host also the 2020 Bandy World Championship. The Federation of International Bandy has opened an office for Asia, which is located in Almaty. Almaty will be the host of the 2017 Winter Universiade with bandy on the programme. The 2011 Asian Winter Games were held jointly in Almaty and Astana. The ice hockey and ski jumping competitions were held in the city at the Baluan Sholak Sports Palace and Sunkar International Ski Jumping Complex respectively. The biathlon, cross-country skiing and ski orienteering competitions were held at the nearby Soldatskoe Valley Cross Country Skiing and Biathlon Stadium; the Alpine skiing and bandy competitions were held in nearby Shymbulak and Medeo respectively. The Yenbek Almaty ice hockey team played from 1965 to 1985 and from 1999 to 2009. HC Almaty currently plays in the Kazakhstan Hockey Championship. The city's primary football team is FC Kairat founded in 1954 and one of the most successful Kazakh clubs. Futsal club AFC Kairat hs won the UEFA Futsal Cup in 2012–13 and 2014–15. Basketball team BC Almaty won the 2015 and 2016 editions of the Kazakhstan Basketball Cup.",
"Following the successful hosting of the 2011 Winter Asian Games, Almaty made a bid to host the XXII Olympic Winter Games in 2014, but was eliminated from consideration, not making the \"short list\" of candidate cities. Almaty was the 2017 Winter Universiade host. The city was exploring possible bids, such as the 2018 Winter Olympics, but did not submit one. Almaty submitted a bid to host the 2022 Winter Olympics in August 2013, but lost to Beijing.",
"The fictional espionage novel \"Performance Anomalies\" takes place in Almaty, Kazakhstan and many of the city's landmarks make an appearance, including Panfilov Park, Zenkov Cathedral, The Kazakh Museum of Folk Musical Instruments, Kok-Tob (Kök Töbe), Shymbulak, Zelyony Bazaar, and several well-known avenues.",
"",
"Almaty is twinned with:",
"The International Monetary Fund announced in October 2019 that it would launch a new regional technical assistance centre (RTAC) in Almaty. The centre will provide capacity development services to nine IMF member countries in the CCAM region. The centre is expected to cover the fiscal policy, central bank operations, financial sector supervision, and macroeconomic statistics.",
"Almaty International School"
]
} |
Heparin | null | Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin (UFH), is a medication and naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan. As a medication it is used as an anticoagulant (blood thinner). Specifically it is also used in the treatment of heart attacks and unstable angina. It is given by injection into a vein or under the skin. Other uses include inside test tubes and kidney dialysis machines. Common side effects include bleeding, pain at the injection site, and low blood platelets. Serious side effects include heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Greater care is needed in those with poor kidney function. Heparin appears to be relatively safe for use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Heparin is produced by basophils and mast cells in all mammals. The discovery of heparin was announced in 1916. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world, when used for prevention, is about US$9.63–37.95 per month. In the United States it costs about $25–50 per month. A fractionated version of heparin, known as low molecular weight heparin, is also available. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-542336 | en-train-542336 | 542336 | {
"title": [
"Medical use.",
"Adverse effects.",
"Contraindications.",
"Antidote to heparin.",
"Physiological function.",
"Evolutionary conservation.",
"Pharmacology.",
"Mechanism of action.",
"Administration.",
"Natural degradation or clearance.",
"Chemistry.",
"Heparin structure.",
"Three-dimensional structure.",
"Depolymerisation techniques.",
"Enzymatic.",
"Chemical.",
"Detection in body fluids.",
"History.",
"Society and culture.",
"Contamination recalls.",
"2008 recall due to adulteration in drug from China.",
"Use in homicide.",
"Overdose issues.",
"Production.",
"Research."
],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"Heparin acts as an anticoagulant, preventing the formation of clots and extension of existing clots within the blood. While heparin does not break down clots that have already formed (unlike tissue plasminogen activator), it allows the body's natural clot lysis mechanisms to work normally to break down clots that have formed. Heparin is generally used for anticoagulation for the following conditions: Heparin and its low-molecular-weight derivatives (e.g., enoxaparin, dalteparin, tinzaparin) are effective in preventing deep vein thromboses and pulmonary emboli in people at risk, but no evidence indicates any one is more effective than the other in preventing mortality.",
"A serious side-effect of heparin is heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), caused by an immunological reaction that makes platelets a target of immunological response, resulting in the degradation of platelets, which causes thrombocytopenia. This condition is usually reversed on discontinuation, and in general can be avoided with the use of synthetic heparins. Also, a benign form of thrombocytopenia is associated with early heparin use, which resolves without stopping heparin. Two non-hemorrhagic side-effects of heparin treatment are known. The first is elevation of serum aminotransferase levels, which has been reported in as many as 80% of patients receiving heparin. This abnormality is not associated with liver dysfunction, and it disappears after the drug is discontinued. The other complication is hyperkalemia, which occurs in 5 to 10% of patients receiving heparin, and is the result of heparin-induced aldosterone suppression. The hyperkalemia can appear within a few days after the onset of heparin therapy. More rarely, the side-effects alopecia and osteoporosis can occur with chronic use. As with many drugs, overdoses of heparin can be fatal. In September 2006, heparin received worldwide publicity when three prematurely born infants died after they were mistakenly given overdoses of heparin at an Indianapolis hospital.",
"Heparin is contraindicated in those with risk of bleeding (especially in people with uncontrolled blood pressure, liver disease, and stroke), severe liver disease, or severe hypertension.",
"Protamine sulfate has been given to counteract the anticoagulant effect of heparin (1 mg per 100 units of heparin that had been given over the past four hours). It may be used in those who overdose on heparin or to reverse heparin's effect when it is no longer needed.",
"Heparin's normal role in the body is unclear. Heparin is usually stored within the secretory granules of mast cells and released only into the vasculature at sites of tissue injury. It has been proposed that, rather than anticoagulation, the main purpose of heparin is defense at such sites against invading bacteria and other foreign materials. In addition, it is observed across a number of widely different species, including some invertebrates that do not have a similar blood coagulation system. It is a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan. It has the highest negative charge density of any known biological molecule.",
"In addition to the bovine and porcine tissue from which pharmaceutical-grade heparin is commonly extracted, it has also been extracted and characterised from: The biological activity of heparin within species 6–11 is unclear and further supports the idea that the main physiological role of heparin is not anticoagulation. These species do not possess any blood coagulation system similar to that present within the species listed 1–5. The above list also demonstrates how heparin has been highly evolutionarily conserved, with molecules of a similar structure being produced by a broad range of organisms belonging to many different phyla.",
"In nature, heparin is a polymer of varying chain size. Unfractionated heparin (UFH) as a pharmaceutical is heparin that has not been fractionated to sequester the fraction of molecules with low molecular weight. In contrast, low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) has undergone fractionation for the purpose of making its pharmacodynamics more predictable. Often either UFH or LMWH can be used; in some situations one or the other is preferable.",
"Heparin binds to the enzyme inhibitor antithrombin III (AT), causing a conformational change that results in its activation through an increase in the flexibility of its reactive site loop. The activated AT then inactivates thrombin, factor Xa and other proteases. The rate of inactivation of these proteases by AT can increase by up to 1000-fold due to the binding of heparin. Heparin binds to AT via a specific pentasaccharide sulfation sequence contained within the heparin polymer: The conformational change in AT on heparin-binding mediates its inhibition of factor Xa. For thrombin inhibition, however, thrombin must also bind to the heparin polymer at a site proximal to the pentasaccharide. The highly negative charge density of heparin contributes to its very strong electrostatic interaction with thrombin. The formation of a ternary complex between AT, thrombin, and heparin results in the inactivation of thrombin. For this reason, heparin's activity against thrombin is size-dependent, with the ternary complex requiring at least 18 saccharide units for efficient formation. In contrast, antifactor Xa activity via AT requires only the pentasaccharide-binding site. This size difference has led to the development of low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) and fondaparinux as anticoagulants. Fondaparinux targets anti-factor Xa activity rather than inhibiting thrombin activity, with the aim of facilitating a more subtle regulation of coagulation and an improved therapeutic index. It is a synthetic pentasaccharide, whose chemical structure is almost identical to the AT binding pentasaccharide sequence that can be found within polymeric heparin and heparan sulfate. With LMWH and fondaparinux, the risk of osteoporosis and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is reduced. Monitoring of the activated partial thromboplastin time is also not required and does not reflect the anticoagulant effect, as APTT is insensitive to alterations in factor Xa. Danaparoid, a mixture of heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and chondroitin sulfate can be used as an anticoagulant in patients having developed HIT. Because danaparoid does not contain heparin or heparin fragments, cross-reactivity of danaparoid with heparin-induced antibodies is reported as less than 10%. The effects of heparin are measured in the lab by the partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), one of the measures of the time it takes the blood plasma to clot. Partial thromboplastin time should not be confused with prothrombin time, or PT, which measures blood clotting time through a different pathway of the coagulation cascade.",
"Heparin is given parenterally because it is not absorbed from the gut, due to its high negative charge and large size. It can be injected intravenously or subcutaneously (under the skin); intramuscular injections (into muscle) are avoided because of the potential for forming hematomas. Because of its short biologic half-life of about one hour, heparin must be given frequently or as a continuous infusion. Unfractionated heparin has a half-life of about one to two hours after infusion, whereas LMWH has a half-life of four to five hours. The use of LMWH has allowed once-daily dosing, thus not requiring a continuous infusion of the drug. If long-term anticoagulation is required, heparin is often used only to commence anticoagulation therapy until an oral anticoagulant e.g. warfarin takes effect. The American College of Chest Physicians publishes clinical guidelines on heparin dosing.",
"Unfractionated heparin has a half-life of about one to two hours after infusion, whereas low-molecular-weight heparin's half-life is about four times longer. Lower doses of heparin have a much shorter half-life than larger ones. Heparin binding to macrophage cells is internalized and depolymerized by the macrophages. It also rapidly binds to endothelial cells, which precludes the binding to antithrombin that results in anticoagulant action. For higher doses of heparin, endothelial cell binding will be saturated, such that clearance of heparin from the bloodstream by the kidneys will be a slower process.",
"",
"Native heparin is a polymer with a molecular weight ranging from 3 to 30 kDa, although the average molecular weight of most commercial heparin preparations is in the range of 12 to 15 kDa. Heparin is a member of the glycosaminoglycan family of carbohydrates (which includes the closely related molecule heparan sulfate) and consists of a variably sulfated repeating disaccharide unit. The main disaccharide units that occur in heparin are shown below. The most common disaccharide unit is composed of a 2-O-sulfated iduronic acid and 6-O-sulfated, N-sulfated glucosamine, IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S). For example, this makes up 85% of heparins from beef lung and about 75% of those from porcine intestinal mucosa. Not shown below are the rare disaccharides containing a 3-O-sulfated glucosamine (GlcNS(3S,6S)) or a free amine group (GlcNH). Under physiological conditions, the ester and amide sulfate groups are deprotonated and attract positively charged counterions to form a heparin salt. Heparin is usually administered in this form as an anticoagulant. GlcA = β--glucuronic acid, IdoA = α--iduronic acid, IdoA(2S) = 2-\"O\"-sulfo-α--iduronic acid, GlcNAc = 2-deoxy-2-acetamido-α--glucopyranosyl, GlcNS = 2-deoxy-2-sulfamido-α--glucopyranosyl, GlcNS(6S) = 2-deoxy-2-sulfamido-α--glucopyranosyl-6-\"O\"-sulfate One unit of heparin (the \"Howell unit\") is an amount approximately equivalent to 0.002 mg of pure heparin, which is the quantity required to keep 1 ml of cat's blood fluid for 24 hours at 0 °C.",
"The three-dimensional structure of heparin is complicated because iduronic acid may be present in either of two low-energy conformations when internally positioned within an oligosaccharide. The conformational equilibrium is influenced by sulfation state of adjacent glucosamine sugars. Nevertheless, the solution structure of a heparin dodecasaccharide composed solely of six GlcNS(6S)-IdoA(2S) repeat units has been determined using a combination of NMR spectroscopy and molecular modeling techniques. Two models were constructed, one in which all IdoA(2S) were in the S conformation (A and B below), and one in which they are in the C conformation (C and D below). However, no evidence suggests that changes between these conformations occur in a concerted fashion. These models correspond to the protein data bank code 1HPN. In the image above: In these models, heparin adopts a helical conformation, the rotation of which places clusters of sulfate groups at regular intervals of about 17 angstroms (1.7 nm) on either side of the helical axis.",
"Either chemical or enzymatic depolymerisation techniques or a combination of the two underlie the vast majority of analyses carried out on the structure and function of heparin and heparan sulfate (HS).",
"The enzymes traditionally used to digest heparin or HS are naturally produced by the soil bacterium \"Pedobacter heparinus\" (formerly named \"Flavobacterium heparinum\"). This bacterium is capable of using either heparin or HS as its sole carbon and nitrogen source. To do so, it produces a range of enzymes such as lyases, glucuronidases, sulfoesterases, and sulfamidases. The lyases have mainly been used in heparin/HS studies. The bacterium produces three lyases, heparinases I (), II (no EC number assigned) and III () and each has distinct substrate specificities as detailed below. The lyases cleave heparin/HS by a beta elimination mechanism. This action generates an unsaturated double bond between C4 and C5 of the uronate residue. The C4-C5 unsaturated uronate is termed ΔUA or UA. It is a sensitive UV chromophore (max absorption at 232 nm) and allows the rate of an enzyme digest to be followed, as well as providing a convenient method for detecting the fragments produced by enzyme digestion.",
"Nitrous acid can be used to chemically depolymerise heparin/HS. Nitrous acid can be used at pH 1.5 or at a higher pH of 4. Under both conditions, nitrous acid effects deaminative cleavage of the chain. At both 'high' (4) and 'low' (1.5) pH, deaminative cleavage occurs between GlcNS-GlcA and GlcNS-IdoA, albeit at a slower rate at the higher pH. The deamination reaction, and therefore chain cleavage, is regardless of O-sulfation carried by either monosaccharide unit. At low pH, deaminative cleavage results in the release of inorganic SO, and the conversion of GlcNS into anhydromannose (aMan). Low-pH nitrous acid treatment is an excellent method to distinguish N-sulfated polysaccharides such as heparin and HS from non N-sulfated polysacchrides such as chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate not being susceptible to nitrous acid cleavage.",
"Current clinical laboratory assays for heparin rely on an indirect measurement of the effect of the drug, rather than on a direct measure of its chemical presence. These include activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and antifactor Xa activity. The specimen of choice is usually fresh, nonhemolyzed plasma from blood that has been anticoagulated with citrate, fluoride, or oxalate.",
"Heparin was discovered by Jay McLean and William Henry Howell in 1916, although it did not enter clinical trials until 1935. It was originally isolated from dog liver cells, hence its name (\"hepar\" or \"ήπαρ\" is Greek for \"liver\"; \"hepar\" + \"-in\"). McLean was a second-year medical student at Johns Hopkins University, and was working under the guidance of Howell investigating pro-coagulant preparations, when he isolated a fat-soluble phosphatide anticoagulant in canine liver tissue. In 1918, Howell coined the term 'heparin' for this type of fat-soluble anticoagulant. In the early 1920s, Howell isolated a water-soluble polysaccharide anticoagulant, which he also termed 'heparin', although it was different from the previously discovered phosphatide preparations. McLean's work as a surgeon probably changed the focus of the Howell group to look for anticoagulants, which eventually led to the polysaccharide discovery. In the 1930s, several researchers were investigating heparin. Erik Jorpes at Karolinska Institutet published his research on the structure of heparin in 1935, which made it possible for the Swedish company Vitrum AB to launch the first heparin product for intravenous use in 1936. Between 1933 and 1936, Connaught Medical Research Laboratories, then a part of the University of Toronto, perfected a technique for producing safe, nontoxic heparin that could be administered to patients, in a saline solution. The first human trials of heparin began in May 1935, and, by 1937, it was clear that Connaught's heparin was a safe, easily available, and effective as a blood anticoagulant. Prior to 1933, heparin was available in small amounts, was extremely expensive and toxic, and, as a consequence, of no medical value.",
"",
"Considering the animal source of pharmaceutical heparin, the numbers of potential impurities are relatively large compared with a wholly synthetic therapeutic agent. The range of possible biological contaminants includes viruses, bacterial endotoxins, transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) agents, lipids, proteins, and DNA. During the preparation of pharmaceutical-grade heparin from animal tissues, impurities such as solvents, heavy metals, and extraneous cations can be introduced. However, the methods employed to minimize the occurrence and to identify and/or eliminate these contaminants are well established and listed in guidelines and pharmacopoeias. The major challenge in the analysis of heparin impurities is the detection and identification of structurally related impurities. The most prevalent impurity in heparin is dermatan sulfate (DS), also known as chondroitin sulfate B. The building-block of DS is a disaccharide composed of 1,3-linked N-acetyl galactosamine (GalN) and a uronic acid residue, connected via 1,4 linkages to form the polymer. DS is composed of three possible uronic acid (GlcA, IdoA or IdoA2S) and four possible hexosamine (GalNAc, Gal- NAc4S, GalNAc6S, or GalNAc4S6S) building-blocks. The presence of iduronic acid in DS distinguishes it from chrondroitin sulfate A and C and likens it to heparin and HS. DS has a lower negative charge density overall compared to heparin. A common natural contaminant, DS is present at levels of 1–7% in heparin API, but has no proven biological activity that influences the anticoagulation effect of heparin. In December 2007, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recalled a shipment of heparin because of bacterial growth (\"Serratia marcescens\") in several unopened syringes of this product. \"S. marcescens\" can lead to life-threatening injuries and/or death.",
"In March 2008, major recalls of heparin were announced by the FDA due to contamination of the raw heparin stock imported from China. According to the FDA, the adulterated heparin killed nearly 80 people in the United States. The adulterant was identified as an \"over-sulphated\" derivative of chondroitin sulfate, a popular shellfish-derived supplement often used for arthritis, which was intended to substitute for actual heparin in potency tests. According to the New York Times: 'Problems with heparin reported to the agency include difficulty breathing, nausea, vomiting, excessive sweating and rapidly falling blood pressure that in some cases led to life-threatening shock'.",
"In 2006, Petr Zelenka, a nurse in the Czech Republic, deliberately administered large doses to patients, killing 7, and attempting to kill 10 others.",
"In 2007, a nurse at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center mistakenly gave the 12-day-old twins of actor Dennis Quaid a dose of heparin that was 1,000 times the recommended dose for infants. The overdose allegedly arose because the labeling and design of the adult and infant versions of the product were similar. The Quaid family subsequently sued the manufacturer, Baxter Healthcare Corp., and settled with the hospital for $750,000. Prior to the Quaid accident, six newborn babies at Methodist Hospital in Indianapolis, Indiana, were given an overdose. Three of the babies died after the mistake. In July 2008, another set of twins born at Christus Spohn Hospital South, in Corpus Christi, Texas, died after an accidentally administered overdose of the drug. The overdose was due to a mixing error at the hospital pharmacy and was unrelated to the product's packaging or labeling., the exact cause of the twins' death was under investigation. In March 2010, a two-year-old transplant patient from Texas was given a lethal dose of heparin at the University of Nebraska Medical Center. The exact circumstances surrounding her death are still under investigation.",
"Pharmaceutical-grade heparin is derived from mucosal tissues of slaughtered meat animals such as porcine (pig) intestines or bovine (cattle) lungs. Advances to produce heparin synthetically have been made in 2003 and 2008. In 2011, a chemoenzymatic process of synthesizing low molecular weight heparins from simple disaccharides was reported.",
"As detailed in the table below, the potential is great for the development of heparin-like structures as drugs to treat a wide range of diseases, in addition to their current use as anticoagulants. As a result of heparin's effect on such a wide variety of disease states, a number of drugs are indeed in development whose molecular structures are identical or similar to those found within parts of the polymeric heparin chain."
]
} |
Hijab | null | A hijab (;, in common English usage) is a veil worn by Muslim women in the presence of any male outside of their immediate family, which usually covers the head and chest. The term can refer to any head, face, or body covering worn by Muslim women that conforms to Islamic standards of modesty. "Hijab" can also refer to the seclusion of women from men in the public sphere, or it may denote a metaphysical dimension, for example referring to "the veil which separates man or the world from God." | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1346422 | en-train-1346422 | 1346422 | {
"title": [
"In Islamic scripture.",
"Quran.",
"Hadith.",
"Dress code.",
"Sunni.",
"Shia.",
"Miscellaneous.",
"Quranists.",
"Alternative views.",
"Contemporary practice.",
"History.",
"Pre-Islamic veiling practices.",
"During Muhammad's lifetime.",
"Later pre-modern history.",
"Modern history.",
"Academic studies on the hijab.",
"Canada.",
"United States.",
"Australia.",
"Britain.",
"France.",
"Turkey.",
"Compulsion and pressure.",
"Legal enforcement.",
"Legal bans.",
"Muslim world.",
"Europe.",
"Unofficial pressure to wear hijab.",
"Unofficial pressure against wearing hijab.",
"Workplace discrimination against hijab-wearing women."
],
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"2",
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"2",
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"2",
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"content": [
"",
"The Quran instructs both Muslim men and women to dress in a modest way, but there is disagreement on how these instructions should be interpreted. The verses relating to dress use the terms \"khimār\" (head cover) and \"jilbāb\" (a dress or cloak) rather than \"ḥijāb\". Of the more than 6,000 verses in the Quran, about half a dozen refer specifically to the way a woman should dress or walk in public. The clearest verse on the requirement of modest dress is Surah 24:31, telling women to guard their private parts and",
"The hadith sources specify the details of hijab (Islamic rules of dress) for men and women, exegesis of the Qur'anic verses narrated by sahabah, and are",
"",
"The four major Sunni schools of thought (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali) hold by consensus that it is obligatory for the entire body of the woman (see \"awrah\"), except her hands and face (and feet according to Hanafis) to be covered during prayer and in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members (whom one is forbidden to marry—see \"mahram\"). According to Hanafis and other scholars, these requirements extend to being around non-Muslim women as well, for fear that",
"Modern Muslim scholars believe that it is obligatory in Islamic law that men and women abide by the rules of hijab (as outlined in their respective school of thought). These include the Iraqi Shia Marja' (Grand Ayatollah) Ali al-Sistani; the Sunni Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Issuing Fatwas in Saudi Arabia; and others. In nearly all Muslim cultures, young girls are",
"In private, and in the presence of close relatives (\"mahrams\"), rules on dress relax. However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife.",
"Quranists are Muslims who view the Quran as the primary source of religious stipulation. Among the prerequisites which Quranists procure include the following verses: Nonetheless, since Quranism overall lacks a formulated and coordinated framework, adherents",
"Some Muslims take a relativist approach to hijab. They believe that the commandment to maintain \"modesty\" must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest or daring in one society might not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve. Along with scriptural arguments, Leila Ahmed argues that head covering should not be compulsory in Islam because the veil predates the revelation of the Qur'an. Head-covering was introduced into Arabia long before Muhammad, primarily through Arab contacts with Syria and Iran, where the hijab was a sign of social status. After all, only a woman who need not work in the fields could afford to remain secluded and veiled. Ahmed argues for a more liberal approach to hijab. Among her arguments is that while some Qur'anic verses enjoin women in general to \"draw their Jilbabs (overgarment or cloak) around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them\" and \"guard their private parts... and drape down \"khimar\" over their breasts [when in the presence of unrelated men]\", they urge modesty. The word \"khimar\"",
"The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world due to cultural influences An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim-majority countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia) which style of women's dress they considered to be most appropriate in public. The survey found that the headscarf (in its tightly- or loosely-fitting form) was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia and Turkey. In Saudi Arabia 63% gave preference to the \"niqab\" face veil; in Pakistan the \"niqab\", the full-length \"chador\" robe and the headscarf, received about a third of the votes each; while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample (which included Christians and Druze) opted for no head covering at all. The survey found \"no significant difference\" in the preferences between surveyed men and women, except in Pakistan, where more men favored conservative women's dress. However, women more strongly support women's right to choose how to dress. People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one, and more supportive of women's right to decide their dress style, except in Saudi Arabia. Some fashion-conscious women have been turning to non-traditional forms of hijab such as turbans. While some regard turbans as a proper head cover, others argue that it cannot be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed. According to a Pew Research Center survey, among the roughly 1 million Muslim women living in the U.S., 43% regularly wear headscarves, while about a half do not cover their hair. In another Pew Research Center poll (2011), 36% of Muslim American women reported wearing hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24% saying they wear it most or some of the time, while 40% said they never wore the headcover. In Iran, where wearing the hijab is legally required, many women push the boundaries of the state-mandated dress code, risking a fine or a spell in detention. The Iranian president Hassan Rouhani had vowed to rein in the morality police and their presence on the streets has decreased since he took office, but the powerful conservative forces in the country have resisted his efforts, and the dress codes are still being enforced, especially during the summer months. In Turkey the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools. The ban applied not to the scarf wrapped around the neck, traditionally worn by Anatolian peasant women, but to the head covering pinned neatly at the sides, called \"türban\" in Turkey, which has been adopted by a growing number of educated urban women since the 1980s. As of the mid-2000s, over 60% of Turkish women covered their head outside home, though only 11% wore a \"türban\". The ban was lifted from universities in 2008, from government buildings in 2013, and from schools in 2014.",
"",
"Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses precede all major Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), dating back as far as 2500 BCE. Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status. In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman's class, rank, and occupation in society. Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden",
"Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia by Muhammad, but already existed there, particularly in the towns, although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighboring countries such as Syria and Palestine. Similarly to the practice among Greeks, Romans, Jews, and Assyrians, its use was associated with high social status. In the early Islamic texts, term \"hijab\" does not distinguish between veiling and seclusion, and can mean either \"veil\" or \"curtain\". The only verses in the Qur'an that specifically reference women's clothing are those promoting modesty, instructing women to guard their private parts",
"The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during the Arab conquests of those empires. Reza Aslan argues that \"The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet's egalitarian reforms\". Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety. Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually",
"Western clothing largely dominated in Muslim countries the 1960s and 1970s. For example, in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran, many liberal women wore short skirts, flower printed hippie dresses, flared trousers, and went out in public without the hijab. This changed following the Soviet–Afghan War, military dictatorship in Pakistan, and Iranian revolution of 1979, when traditional conservative attire including the abaya, jilbab and niqab made a comeback. There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979, after the hijab law was brought in, decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house. However, this phenomenon did not happen in all countries with a significant Muslim population, in countries such as Turkey, there has been a decline on women wearing the hijab in recent years., although under Erdogan Turkey is becoming more conservative and Islamic, as Turkey repeals the ataturk-era hijab, and the founding of new fashion companies catering to women who want to dress more conservatively. In 1953, Egyptian leader President Gamal Abdel Nasser was told by the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, \"Sir, I know you have a daughter in college—and she doesn't wear a headscarf or anything! Why don't you make her wear the headscarf? So you can't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it?\" The late-twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of westernization. Already in the mid-1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith. This movement was named the Sahwah, or awakening, and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code. The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al-Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an \"al-jilbāb—an unfitted, long-sleeved, ankle-length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric—and al-khimār, a head cover",
"Although the field is quite new, several academic studies on the hijab have been conducted, and there is growing body of research. It is hypothesized that the beneficial mental health effects of the hijab is due to religiosity rather than the article of clothing itself, and the hijab acts as a proxy for religiosity, but it's also possible use of the hijab may protect Muslim women from appearance-based public scrutiny.",
"Muslim women who dressed more modestly were more secure about their body image, and less likely to be pressured by Western media beauty standards. Whereas Muslim women who did not wear hijabs and wore Western clothing were more insecure about their body. Non-Western cultures in the Middle East and Asia, which were incompatible with Islamic values, such as not properly wearing a hijab as is Islamically prescribed, also resulted in similar insecurity as wearing Western clothing.",
"In a study comparing Muslim women with non-Muslim women, Muslim women wearing conservative Islamic clothing (i.e., hijabs/abayas) had higher self-esteem, better body image, healthier body weight, felt less sexually objectified, and more respected, compared to non-Muslim Western women who wore Western clothing. Women who wore more conservative Islamic clothing felt less pressure to have an unhealthy thinner body, as well as in reality had a much healthier BMI on the more thinner side. Muslim women who wore Western clothing",
"Another study comparing Muslim and non-Muslim women, finds that Islamic values such as wearing more modest clothing protects",
"Other findings show effects appear to be driven by the hijab specifically, rather than religiosity, which was",
"A replication of these studies in a French setting finds Muslim women who wore the hijab reported lower weight discrepancy, body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, and pressure to conform to Western media",
"The first study done in a Muslim majority country; finds that both the hijab (the clothing itself) and religiosity are both major factors in of themselves, in contributing to positive",
"Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing hijab, including physical attacks.",
"The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia requires Muslim women to cover their hair and all women have to wear a full-body garment. Saudi women commonly wear the traditional \"abaya\" robe, while foreigners sometimes opt for a long coat. These regulations are enforced by the religious police and vigilantes. In 2002 the Saudi religious police were accused by Saudi and international press of hindering the rescue of schoolgirls from a fire because they were not wearing hijab, which resulted in 15 deaths. In 2018, the Saudi crown prince Mohammad bin Salman told CBS News that Saudi law requires women to wear \"decent, respectful clothing\", and that women are free to decide what form it should take. Iran went from banning all types of veils in 1936, to making Islamic dress mandatory for women following the Islamic Revolution in 1979. In April 1980, it was decided that women in government offices and educational institutions would be mandated to veil. The 1983 penal code prescribed punishment of 74 lashes for women appearing in public without Islamic hijab (\"hijab shar'ee\"), leaving the definition of",
"",
"The tradition of veiling hair in Iranian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins, but the widespread custom was forcibly ended by Reza Shah's regime in 1936, as he claimed hijab to be incompatible with his modernizing ambitions and ordered \"unveiling\" act or Kashf-e hijab. The police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it, and these policies outraged the Shi'a clerics, and ordinary men and women, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Many women refused to leave the house out",
"On March 15, 2004, France passed a law banning \"symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation\" in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city of Maaseik, the niqāb has been banned since 2006. On July 13, 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. It became the first European country to ban the full-face veil in public places, followed by Belgium, Latvia, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark and some cantons of Switzerland in the following years. Belgium banned the full-face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets. In September 2013, the electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas. In 2016, Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places. In October 2017, wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress. In 2016, Bosnia-Herzegovina's supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions, despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40% of the country. In 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols, including the hijab. However, if",
"Muslim girls and women have fallen victim to honor killings in both the Western world and elsewhere for refusing to wearing the hijab or for wearing it in way considered to be improper by the perpetrators. Successful informal coercion of women by sectors of society to wear hijab has been reported in Gaza where Mujama' al-Islami, the predecessor of Hamas, reportedly used \"a mixture of consent and coercion\" to restore' hijab\" on urban educated women in Gaza in the late 1970s and 1980s. Similar behaviour was displayed by Hamas itself during the First Intifada in Palestine. Though a relatively small movement at this time, Hamas exploited the political vacuum left by perceived failures in strategy by the Palestinian factions to call for a \"return\" to Islam as a path to success, a campaign that focused on the role of women. Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab alongside other measures, including insisting women stay at home, segregation from men and the promotion of polygamy. In",
"In recent years, women wearing hijab have been subject of verbal and physical attacks in Western countries, particularly following terrorist attacks. Louis A. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend. Some women stop wearing hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop",
"The issue of discrimination of Muslims is more prevalent among Muslim women due to the hijab being an observable declaration of faith. Particularly after the September 11 attacks and the coining of the term Islamophobia, some of Islamophobia's manifestations are seen within the workplace. Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes. Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them. As a result of the heightened discrimination, some Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts. A number of Muslim women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them. To be specific, Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination. The discrimination Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience, it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations. In result of discrimination Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion because it might mean they are rejected employment. Ali, Yamada, and Mahmoud (2015) state that women of color who also follow the religion of Islam are considered to be in what is called “triple jeopardy”, due to being a part of two minority groups subject to discrimination. Ali et al. (2015) study found a relationship between the discrimination"
]
} |
Samuel | null | Samuel is a figure who, in the narratives of the Hebrew Bible, plays a key role in the transition from the period of the biblical judges to the institution of a kingdom under Saul, and again in the transition from Saul to David. He is venerated as a prophet by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. In addition to his role in the Hebrew Scriptures, Samuel is mentioned in the New Testament, in rabbinical literature, and in the second chapter of the Qur'an (although here not by name). He is also treated in the fifth through seventh books of Josephus's "Antiquities of the Jews", written in the first century CE (AD). He is first called the Seer in 1 Samuel 9:9. | null | [
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"title": [
"Biblical account.",
"Family.",
"Name.",
"Calling.",
"Leader.",
"King-maker.",
"Critic of Saul.",
"Death.",
"Documentary hypothesis.",
"National prophet, local seer.",
"Deuteronomistic Samuel.",
"Perspectives on Samuel.",
"Judaism.",
"Christianity.",
"Islam.",
"Portrayals."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
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"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Samuel's mother was Hannah and his father was Elkanah. Elkanah lived at Ramathaim in the district of Zuph. His genealogy is also found in a pedigree of the Kohathites (1 Chronicles 6:3–15) and in that of Heman the Ezrahite, apparently his grandson (1 Chronicles 6:18–33). According to the genealogical tables in Chronicles, Elkanah was a Levite - a fact not mentioned in the books of Samuel. The fact that Elkanah, a Levite, was denominated an Ephraimite is analogous to the designation of a Levite belonging to Judah (Judges 17:7, for example). According to 1 Samuel 1:1–28, Elkanah had two wives, Peninnah and Hannah. Peninnah had children; Hannah did not. Nonetheless, Elkanah favored Hannah. Jealous, Penninah reproached Hannah for her lack of children, causing Hannah much heartache. The relationship of Penninah and Hannah recalls that between Hagar and Sarah. Elkanah was a devout man and would periodically take his family on pilgrimage to the holy site of Shiloh. The motif of Elkanah and Hannah as devout, childless parents will reoccur with Zachariah and Elizabeth and the birth of John the Baptist, and with Joachim and Saint Anne and the birth of Mary, mother of Jesus. On one occasion Hannah went to the sanctuary and prayed for a child. In tears, she vowed that if she were granted a child, she would dedicate him to God as a Nazirite. Eli, who was sitting at the foot of the doorpost in the sanctuary at Shiloh, saw her apparently mumbling to herself and thought she was drunk but was soon assured of her motivation and sobriety. Eli was the priest of Shiloh, and one of the last Israelite Judges before the rule of kings in ancient Israel. He had assumed the leadership after Samson's death. Eli blessed her and she returned home. Subsequently, Hannah became pregnant and gave birth to Samuel. Hannah's exultant hymn of thanksgiving resembles in several points Mary's later Magnificat. After the child was weaned, she left him in Eli's care, and from time to time she would come to visit her son.",
"According to, Hannah named Samuel to commemorate her prayer to God for a child. \"... [She] called his name Samuel, saying, Because I have asked him of the Lord\" (KJV). The Hebrew root rendered as \"asked\" in the KJV is \"sha’al\", a word mentioned seven times in 1 Samuel 1. Once it is even mentioned in the form \"sha’ul\", Saul’s name in Hebrew (1 Samuel 1:28). According to the \"Holman Bible Dictionary\", Samuel was a \"[p]ersonal name in the Ancient Near East meaning, 'Sumu is God' but understood in Israel as 'The name is God,' 'God is exalted,' or'son of God.'\"",
"Samuel worked under Eli in the service of the shrine at Shiloh. One night, Samuel heard a voice calling his name. According to the first-century Jewish historian Josephus, Samuel was about 11 years old. Samuel initially assumed it was coming from Eli and went to Eli to ask what he wanted. Eli, however, sent Samuel back to sleep. After this happened three times, Eli realised that the voice was the Lord's, and instructed Samuel on how to answer: Once Samuel responded, the Lord told him that the wickedness of the sons of Eli had resulted in their dynasty being condemned to destruction. In the morning, Samuel was hesitant about reporting the message to Eli, but Eli asked him honestly to recount to him what he had been told by the Lord. Upon receiving the communication, Eli merely said that the Lord should do what seems right unto him. This event established that Samuel was now \"established as a prophet of the Lord\" and \"all Israel from Dan to Beersheba\" became aware of his prophetic calling. Anglican theologian Donald Spence Jones comments that \"the minds of all the people were thus gradually prepared when the right moment came to acknowledge Samuel as a God-sent chieftain\"",
"During Samuel's youth at Shiloh, the Philistines inflicted a decisive defeat against the Israelites at Eben-Ezer, placed the land under Philistine control, and took the sanctuary's Ark for themselves. Upon hearing the news of the capture of the Ark of the Covenant, and the death of his sons, Eli collapsed and died. When the Philistines had been in possession of the Ark for seven months and had been visited with calamities and misfortunes, they decided to return the Ark to the Israelites. According to Bruce C. Birch, Samuel was a key figure in keeping the Israelites' religious heritage and identity alive during Israel's defeat and occupation by the Philistines. \"[I]t may have been possible and necessary for Samuel to exercise authority in roles that would normally not converge in a single individual (priest, prophet, judge).\" After 20 years of oppression, Samuel, who had gained national prominence as a prophet (1 Samuel 3:20), summoned the people to the hill of Mizpah, and led them against the Philistines. The Philistines, having marched to Mizpah to attack the newly amassed Israelite army, were soundly defeated and fled in terror. The retreating Philistines were slaughtered by the Israelites. The text then states that Samuel erected a large stone at the battle site as a memorial, and there ensued a long period of peace thereafter.",
"Samuel initially appointed his two sons Joel and Abijah as his successors; however, just like Eli's sons, Samuel's proved unworthy. The Israelites rejected them. Because of the external threat from other tribes, such as the Philistines, the tribal leaders decided that there was a need for a more unified, central government, and demanded Samuel appoint a king so that they could be like other nations. Samuel interpreted this as a personal rejection, and at first was reluctant to oblige, until reassured by a divine revelation. He warned the people of the potential negative consequences of such a decision. When Saul and his servant were searching for his father's lost asses, the servant suggested consulting the nearby Samuel. Samuel recognized Saul as the future king. Just before his retirement, Samuel gathered the people to an assembly at Gilgal, and delivered a farewell speech or coronation speech in which he emphasised how prophets and judges were more important than kings, that kings should be held to account, and that the people should not fall into idol worship, or worship of Asherah or of Baal. Samuel promised that God would subject the people to foreign invaders should they disobey. This is seen by some as a deuteronomic redaction; since archaeological finds indicate that Asherah was still worshipped in Israelite households well into the sixth century. However, and note that the Israelites fell into Asherah worship later on.",
"When Saul was preparing to fight the Philistines, Samuel denounced him for proceeding with the pre-battle sacrifice without waiting for the overdue Samuel to arrive. He prophesied that Saul's rule would see no dynastic succession. Samuel directed Saul to \"utterly destroy\" the Amalekites in fulfilment of the commandment in : During the campaign against the Amalekites, King Saul spared Agag, the king of the Amalekites, and the best of their livestock. Saul told Samuel that he had spared the choicest of the Amalekites' sheep and oxen, intending to sacrifice the livestock to the Lord. This was in violation of the Lord's command, as pronounced by Samuel, to \"... utterly destroy all that they have, and spare them not; but slay both man and woman, infant and suckling, ox and sheep, camel and ass\" (1 Samuel 15:3, KJV). Samuel confronted Saul for his disobedience and told him that God made him king, and God can unmake him king. Samuel then proceeded to execute Agag. Saul never saw Samuel alive again after this. Samuel then proceeded to Bethelehem and secretly anointed David as king. He would later provide sanctuary for David, when the jealous Saul first tried to have him killed.",
"Samuel is described in the biblical narrative as being buried in Ramah. According to tradition, this burial place has been identified with Samuel's tomb in the West Bank village of Nabi Samwil. Some time after his death, Saul had the Witch of Endor conjure Samuel's ghost in order to predict the result of an up-coming battle. This passage is ascribed by textual scholars to the Republican Source. Classical rabbinical sources say that Samuel was terrified by the ordeal, having expected to be appearing to face God's judgment, and had, therefore, brought Moses with him (to the land of the living) as a witness to his adherence to the mitzvot.",
"",
"Some authors see the biblical Samuel as combining descriptions of two distinct roles: Source-critical scholarship suggests that these two roles come from different sources, which later were spliced together to form the Book(s) of Samuel. The oldest is considered to be that marking Samuel as the local seer of Ramah, who willingly anointed Saul as king in secret, while the latter presents Samuel as a national figure, begrudgingly anointing Saul as king in front of a national assembly. This later source is generally known as the Republican Source, since it denigrates the monarchy (particularly the actions of Saul) and favours religious figures, in contrast to the other main source—the Monarchial Source—which treats it favourably. Theoretically if we had the Monarchial Source we would see Saul appointed king by public acclamation, due to his military victories, and not by cleromancy involving Samuel. Another difference between the sources is that the Republican Source treats the ecstatic prophets as somewhat independent from Samuel (1 Samuel 9:1ff) rather than having been led by him (). The passage in which Samuel is described as having exercised the functions of a (biblical) judge, during an annual circuit from Ramah to Bethel to Gilgal (the \"Gilgal\" between Ebal and Gerizim) to Mizpah and back to Ramah, is foreshadowed by Deborah, who used to render judgments from a place beneath a palm between Ramah and Bethel. Source-critical scholarship often considers it to be a redaction aimed at harmonizing the two portrayals of Samuel. The Book(s) of Samuel variously describe Samuel as having carried out sacrifices at sanctuaries, and having constructed and sanctified altars. According to the Priestly Code/Deuteronomic Code only Aaronic priests/Levites (depending on the underling tradition) were permitted to perform these actions, and simply being a nazarite or prophet was insufficient. The books of Samuel and Kings offer numerous examples where this rule is not followed by kings and prophets, but some critical scholars look elsewhere seeking a harmonization of the issues. In the Book of Chronicles, Samuel is described as a Levite, rectifying this situation; however critical scholarship widely sees the Book of Chronicles as an attempt to redact the Book(s) of Samuel and of Kings to conform to later religious sensibilities. Since many of the Biblical law codes themselves are thought to postdate the Book(s) of Samuel (according to the Documentary Hypothesis), this would suggest Chronicles is making its claim based on religious motivations. The Levitical genealogy of is not historical, according to most modern scholarship.",
"According to the documentary hypothesis of Biblical source criticism, which postulates that \"Deuteronomistic historians\" redacted the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings), the Deuteronomists idealized Samuel as a figure larger than life, like Joshua. For example, Samuel's father Elkanah is described as having originated from Zuph, specifically Ramathaim-Zophim, which was part of the tribal lands of Ephraim, while 1 Chronicles states that he was a Levite. Samuel is portrayed as a judge who leads the military, as the judges in the Book of Judges, and also who exercises judicial functions. In 1 Sam 12:6–17, a speech of Samuel that portrays him as the judge sent by God to save Israel may have been composed by the Deuteronomists. In 1 Samuel 9:6–20, Samuel is seen as a local \"seer\". According to documentary scholarship, the Deuteronomistic historians preserved this view of Samuel while contributing him as \"the first of prophets to articulate the failure of Israel to live up to its covenant with God.\" For the Deuteronomistic historians, Samuel would have been an extension of Moses and continuing Moses' function as a prophet, judge, and priest, which makes the nature of the historical Samuel uncertain.",
"",
"According to the Book of Jeremiah and one of the Psalms, Samuel had a high devotion to God. Classical Rabbinical literature adds that he was more than an equal to Moses, God speaking directly to Samuel, rather than Samuel having to attend the tabernacle to hear God. Samuel is also described by the Rabbis as having been extremely intelligent; he argued that it was legitimate for laymen to slaughter sacrifices, since the Halakha only insisted that the priests \"bring the blood\" (cf, Zebahim 32a). Eli, who was viewed negatively by many Classical Rabbis, is said to have reacted to this logic of Samuel by arguing that it was technically true, but Samuel should be put to death for making legal statements while Eli (his mentor) was present. Samuel is also treated by the Classical Rabbis as a much more sympathetic character than he appears at face value in the Bible; his annual circuit is explained as being due to his wish to spare people the task of having to journey to him; Samuel is said to have been very rich, taking his entire household with him on the circuit so that he didn't need to impose himself on anyone's hospitality; when Saul fell out of God's favour, Samuel is described as having grieved copiously and having prematurely aged. His yahrzeit is observed on the 28th day of Iyar.",
"For Christians, Samuel is considered to be a prophet, judge, and wise leader of Israel, and treated as an example of fulfilled commitments to God. On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, as well as the Lutheran calendar, his feast day is August 20. He is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the commemoration of the departure of Samuel the Prophet is celebrated on 9 Paoni. Herbert Lockyer and others have seen in Samuel's combined offices of prophet, priest, and ruler a foreshadowing of Christ.",
"Samuel () is seen as a prophet and seer in the Islamic faith. The narrative of Samuel in Islam focuses specifically on his birth and the anointing of Talut. Other elements from his narrative are in accordance with the narratives of other Prophets of Israel, as exegesis recounts Samuel's preaching against idolatry. He is not mentioned by name in the Qur’an, but referred to as a \"prophet\" instead. In the Islamic narrative, the Israelites after Moses wanted a king to rule over their country. Thus, God sent a prophet, Samuel, to anoint Talut as the first king for the Israelites. However, the Israelites mocked and reviled the newly appointed king, as he was not wealthy from birth. But, assuming Talut to be Saul, in sharp contrast to the Hebrew Bible, the Qur’an praises Saul greatly, and mentions that he was gifted with great spiritual and physical strength. In the Qur’anic account, Samuel prophesies that the sign of Talut's kingship will be that the Ark of the Covenant will come back to the Israelites.",
"Actors who have portrayed Samuel include Leonard Nimoy in the 1997 TV-film \"David\", Eamonn Walker in the 2009 TV-series \"Kings\" and Mohammad Bakri in the 2016 TV-series \"Of Kings and Prophets\"."
]
} |
Charles Rolls | null | Charles Stewart Rolls (27 August 1877 – 12 July 1910) was a Welsh motoring and aviation pioneer. With Henry Royce, he co-founded the Rolls-Royce car manufacturing firm. He was the first Briton to be killed in an aeronautical accident with a powered aircraft, when the tail of his Wright Flyer broke off during a flying display in Bournemouth. He was aged 32. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-826914 | en-train-826914 | 826914 | {
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Partnership with Royce.",
"Pioneer aviator.",
"Death."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Rolls was born in Berkeley Square, London, third son of the 1st Baron Llangattock and Lady Llangattock. Despite his London birth, he retained a strong family connection with his ancestral home of The Hendre, near Monmouth, Wales. After attending Mortimer Vicarage Preparatory School in Berkshire, he was educated at Eton College where his developing interest in engines earned him the nickname \"dirty Rolls\". In 1894 he attended a private crammer in Cambridge which helped him gain entry to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied mechanical and applied science. In 1896, at the age of 18, he travelled to Paris to buy his first car, a Peugeot Phaeton, and joined the Automobile Club of France. His Peugeot is believed to have been the first car based in Cambridge, and one of the first three cars owned in Wales. An early motoring enthusiast, he joined the Self-Propelled Traffic Association, which campaigned against the restrictions imposed on motor vehicles by the Locomotive Act, and became a founder member of the Automobile Club of Great Britain, with which the Association merged in 1897. Rolls was a keen cyclist and spent time at Cambridge bicycle racing. In 1896, he won a Half Blue and the following year became captain of the Cambridge University Bicycle Club. Rolls graduated from Cambridge in 1898 and began working on the steam yacht \"Santa Maria\" followed by a position at the London and North Western Railway in Crewe. However, his talents lay more in salesmanship and motoring pioneering than practical engineering; in January 1903, with the help of £6,600 provided by his father, he started one of Britain's first car dealerships, C. S. Rolls & Co. based in Lillie Hall, Fulham, to import and sell French Peugeot and Belgian Minerva vehicles.",
"Rolls was introduced to Henry Royce by a friend at the Royal Automobile Club, Henry Edmunds, who was also a director of Royce Ltd. Edmunds showed him Royce's car and arranged the historic meeting between Rolls and Royce at the Midland Hotel, Manchester, on 4 May 1904. In spite of his preference for three or four cylinder cars, Rolls was impressed with the two-cylinder Royce 10 and in a subsequent agreement of 23 December 1904 agreed to take all the cars Royce could make. These would be of two, three, four and six cylinders and would be badged as Rolls-Royces. The first Rolls-Royce car, the Rolls-Royce 10 hp, was unveiled at the Paris Salon in December 1904, although in the early advertising it was the name of Rolls that was emphasised over that of Royce. In 1906 Rolls and Royce formalised their partnership by creating Rolls-Royce Limited, with Rolls appointed Technical managing director on a salary of £750 per annum plus 4% of the profits in excess of £10,000. Rolls provided the financial backing and business acumen to complement Royce's technical expertise. In 1907 Rolls-Royce Limited bought out C. S. Rolls & Co. Rolls put much effort into publicising the quietness and smoothness of the Rolls-Royce, and at the end of 1906 travelled to the US to promote the new cars. The company was winning awards for the quality and reliability of its cars by 1907. But by 1909 Rolls' interest in the business was waning, and at the end of the year he resigned as Technical managing director and became a non-executive director.",
"Rolls was a pioneer aviator and initially, balloonist, making over 170 balloon ascents. In 1903 he won the Gordon Bennett Gold Medal for the longest single flight time. By 1907 Rolls' interest turned increasingly to flying and he tried to persuade Royce to design an aero engine. He became the second Englishman to go up in an aeroplane. Piloted by Wilbur Wright their flight on 8 October 1908 from Camp d'Auvours, eleven kilometres east of Le Mans, lasted four minutes and twenty seconds. He bought one of six Wright Flyer aircraft built by Short Brothers under licence from the Wright Brothers and from early October 1909 made more than 200 flights. Founder in 1901 with Frank Hedges Butler of the ballooning club that became the Royal Aero Club in March 1910 he was the second person they licensed to fly an aeroplane. He became the first man to make a non-stop double crossing of the English Channel by plane taking 95 minutes on 2 June 1910. For this feat, which included the first eastbound aerial crossing of the English Channel, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Aero Club. There is a statue in Monmouth to commemorate the flight and another, by Kathleen Scott, in Dover.",
"On 12 July 1910, at the age of 32, Rolls was killed in an air crash at Hengistbury Airfield, Southbourne, Bournemouth when the tail of his Wright Flyer broke off during a flying display. He was the first Briton to be killed in an aeronautical accident with a powered aircraft, and the eleventh person internationally. His was also the first powered aviation fatality in the United Kingdom. His grave lies at the churchyard of St Cadoc's Church, Llangattock-Vibon-Avel, where many of the Rolls family lie buried in various family tombs. His grave is just below Llangattock Manor and bears the inscription: \"Blessed are the pure in heart for they shall see God.\" A statue in his memory, in which he is seen holding a biplane model, was erected in Agincourt Square, Monmouth. A further memorial to him was unveiled in 1981 in the bottom playing field of St Peter's School, Bournemouth, which was developed on the site of Hengistbury Airfield. There is a stained-glass window in All Saints' Church, Eastchurch on the Isle of Sheppey, dedicated jointly to Rolls and to fellow pioneer aviator Cecil Grace."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-335553 | en-train-335553 | 335553 | {
"title": [
"Discovery and recognition.",
"Classification.",
"Distribution.",
"Properties.",
"Period-luminosity relationships.",
"Recent developments."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In surveys of globular clusters, these \"cluster-type\" variables were being rapidly identified in the mid-1890s, especially by E. C. Pickering. Probably the first star of definitely RR Lyrae type found outside a cluster was U Leporis, discovered by J. Kapteyn in 1890. The prototype star RR Lyrae was discovered prior to 1899 by Williamina Fleming, and reported by Pickering in 1900 as \"indistinguishable from cluster-type variables\". From 1915 to the 1930s, the RR Lyraes became increasingly accepted as a class of star distinct from the classical Cepheids, due to their shorter periods, differing locations within the galaxy, and chemical differences. RR Lyrae variables are metal-poor, Population II stars. RR Lyraes have proven difficult to observe in external galaxies because of their intrinsic faintness. (In fact, Walter Baade's failure to find them in the Andromeda Galaxy led him to suspect that the galaxy was much farther away than predicted, to reconsider the calibration of Cepheid variables, and to propose the concept of stellar populations.) Using the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope in the 1980s, Pritchet & van den Bergh found RR Lyraes in Andromeda's galactic halo and, more recently, in its globular clusters.",
"The RR Lyrae stars are conventionally divided into three main types, following classification by S.I. Bailey based on the shape of the stars' brightness curves:",
"RR Lyrae stars were formerly called \"cluster variables\" because of their strong (but not exclusive) association with globular clusters; conversely, over 80% of all variables known in globular clusters are RR Lyraes. RR Lyrae stars are found at all galactic latitudes, as opposed to classical Cepheids, which are strongly associated with the galactic plane. Because of their old age, RR Lyraes are commonly used to trace certain populations in the Milky Way, including the halo and thick disk. Several times as many RR Lyraes are known as all Cepheids combined; in the 1980s, about 1900 were known in globular clusters. Some estimates have about 85000 in the Milky Way. Though binary star systems are common for typical stars, RR Lyrae are very rarely observed in pairs.",
"RR Lyrae stars pulse in a manner similar to Cepheid variables, but the nature and histories of these stars is thought to be rather different. Like all variables on the Cepheid instability strip, pulsations are caused by the κ-mechanism, when the opacity of ionised helium varies with its temperature. RR Lyraes are old, relatively low mass, Population II stars, in common with W Virginis and BL Herculis variables, the type II Cepheids. Classical Cepheid variables are higher mass population I stars. RR Lyrae variables are much more common than Cepheids, but also much less luminous. The average absolute magnitude of an RR Lyrae star is about +0.75, only 40 or 50 times brighter than our Sun. Their period is shorter, typically less than one day, sometimes ranging down to seven hours. Some RRab stars, including RR Lyrae itself, exhibit the Blazhko effect in which there is a conspicuous phase and amplitude modulation.",
"Unlike Cepheid variables, RR Lyrae variables do not follow a strict period-luminosity relationship at visual wavelengths, although they do in the infrared K band. They are normally analysed using a period-colour-relationship, for example using a Wesenheit function. In this way, they can be used as standard candles for distance measurements although there are difficulties with the effects of metallicity, faintness, and blending. The effect of blending can impact RR Lyrae variables sampled near the cores of globular clusters, which are so dense that in low-resolution observations multiple (unresolved) stars may appear as a single target. Thus the brightness measured for that seemingly single star (e.g., an RR Lyrae variable) is erroneously too bright, given those unresolved stars contributed to the brightness determined. Consequently, the computed distance is wrong, and certain researchers have argued that the blending effect can introduce a systematic uncertainty into the cosmic distance ladder, and may bias the estimated age of the Universe and the Hubble constant.",
"The Hubble Space Telescope has identified several RR Lyrae candidates in globular clusters of the Andromeda Galaxy and has measured the distance to the prototype star RR Lyrae. The Kepler space telescope provided extended coverage of a single field with accurate photometric data. RR Lyrae itself was in Kepler field of view. The Gaia mission mapped 140,784 RR Lyraes, of which 50,220 were previously not known to be variable, and for which 54,272 interstellar absorption estimates are available."
]
} |
Henry Royce | null | Sir Frederick Henry Royce, 1st Baronet, (27 March 1863 – 22 April 1933) was an English engineer famous for his designs of car and aeroplane engines with a reputation for reliability and longevity. With Charles Rolls (1877 – 1910) and Claude Johnson (1864 – 1926), he founded Rolls-Royce. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Partnership with Rolls.",
"Development of Rolls-Royce.",
"Bentley, shock absorber and Merlin.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
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"content": [
"Royce was born in Alwalton, Huntingdonshire, near Peterborough in 1863 to James and Mary Royce (née King). He was the youngest of their five children. His father ran a flour mill which he leased from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners but the business failed and the family moved to London. His father died in 1872 and Royce had to go out to work selling newspapers and delivering telegrams after only one year of formal schooling. In 1878 he started an apprenticeship with the Great Northern Railway company at its works in Peterborough thanks to the financial help of an aunt. After three years the money ran out. After a short time with a tool-making company in Leeds he returned to London and joined the Electric Light and Power Company. He moved to their Liverpool office in 1882 working on street and theatre lighting. In 1884, with £20 of savings, he entered a partnership with Ernest Claremont, a friend who contributed £50, and they started a business making domestic electric fittings in a workshop in Cooke Street, Hulme, Manchester, called F. H. Royce and Company. In 1894 they started making dynamos and electric cranes and F. H. Royce & Company was registered as a limited liability company. The company was re-registered in 1899 as Royce Ltd with a public share flotation and a further factory opened in Trafford Park, Manchester.",
"Following a decline in trade after the Second Boer War, and the arrival of increasing competition by cranes and dynamos from Germany and the United States, Royce began considering the motor car as a potential new product for the company. With his fascination for all things mechanical he became increasingly focused on motor cars and bought first, in 1901, a small De Dion and in 1902 or 1903 a 1901 model two cylinder Decauville. This did not meet his high standards and so he first improved it and then decided to manufacture a car of his own which he did in a corner of the workshop in 1904. Two more cars were made. Of the three, which were called Royce and had two cylinder engines, one was given to Ernest Claremont and the other sold to one of the other directors, Henry Edmunds. Edmunds was a friend of Charles Rolls who had a car showroom in London selling imported models and showed him his car and arranged the historic meeting between Rolls and Royce at the Midland Hotel, Manchester, on 4 May 1904. In spite of his preference for three or four cylinder cars, Rolls was impressed with the two-cylinder Royce 10 and in a subsequent agreement of 23 December 1904 agreed to take all the cars Royce could make. These would be of two, three, four and six cylinders and would be badged as Rolls-Royce. The first Rolls-Royce car, the Rolls-Royce 10 hp, was unveiled at the Paris Salon in December 1904. In 1906 Rolls and Royce formalised their partnership by creating Rolls-Royce Limited, with Royce appointed chief engineer and works director on a salary of £1,250 per annum plus 4% of the profits in excess of £10,000. Royce thus provided the technical expertise to complement Rolls' financial backing and business acumen. By 1907 the company was winning awards for the engineering reliability of its cars. The Rolls-Royce Eagle was the first aircraft engine to be developed by Rolls-Royce Limited. It was introduced in 1915 to meet British military requirements during the First World War and proved to be one of only two aero engines made by the Allies that was neither a production nor a technical failure. Royce & Company remained in business as a separate company making cranes until 1932 when it was bought by Herbert Morris of Loughborough. The last Royce-designed crane was built in 1964. The partnership ended when Rolls died in 1910 in a crash of his Wright Flyer aircraft.",
"Royce had always worked hard and was renowned for never eating proper meals which resulted in his being taken ill first in 1902 and again in 1911. Ill health had forced his move away from Derby in 1912. In the same year, he had a major operation in London and was given only a few months to live by the doctors. In spite of this he returned to work but was prevented from visiting the factory, which had moved to larger premises, fitted out to detailed plans by Royce, in Derby in 1908. He insisted on checking all new designs and engineers and draughtsmen had to take the drawings to be personally checked by him, a daunting prospect with his well-known perfectionism. He had a villa built at Le Canadel in the south of France and a further home at Crowborough, East Sussex. In 1917, Royce moved to the village of West Wittering, West Sussex. In October 1928, he began design of the \"R\" engine while walking with some of his leading engineers on the beach at West Wittering, sketching ideas in the sand. Less than a year later, the \"R” engine, designed in his studio in the village, set a new world air speed record of 357.7 miles per hour and won the Schneider Trophy of 1929. When the Ramsay MacDonald government decided not to finance the next attempt in 1931, Lucy, Lady Houston, felt that Britain must not be left out of this contest and sent a telegram to the Prime Minister stating that she would guarantee £100,000, if necessary, towards the cost leading the Government to reverse their previous decision. The result was that Royce found that the \"R\" could be made to produce more power and the Supermarine S.6B seaplane won the Trophy at on 13 September 1931. Later that month on 29 September, the same aircraft with an improved engine flew at, becoming the first craft to fly at over and breaking the world's speed record.",
"In 1931 Rolls-Royce Ltd. bought out the famous firm of W. O. Bentley. A \"20/25\" engine was put into a chassis and a Bentley radiator fitted. An open four-seater body completed the picture. The engine was \"hotted-up\" and the car was taken down to West Wittering to get Royce's approval. They were somewhat apprehensive of what he would say, but he gave it his blessing. He told them that such a fast car should have a means of varying the stiffness of the springing. The night before he died he sat up in bed and drew a sketch on the back of an envelope which he gave to Miss Aubin (his nurse and housekeeper) telling her to see that the \"boys\" in the factory got it safely. He died before it reached Derby. This was the adjustable shock-absorber. Thus, in 1933 the first Bentley made by Rolls-Royce Ltd made its appearance and another famous name carried on. Following the success of the \"R” engine, it was clear that they had an engine that would be of use to the Royal Air Force. As no Government assistance was forthcoming at first, in the national interest they went ahead with development of what was called the \"PV-12\" engine (standing for Private Venture, 12-cylinder). The idea was to produce an engine of about the same performance as the \"R”, albeit with a much longer life. Royce launched the PV-12 in October 1933 and the engine completed its first test in 1934, the year after he died. The PV-12 became the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine.",
"Henry Royce married Minnie Punt in 1893 and they set up home together in Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester, and were joined by his mother, who lived nearby until her death in 1904, and Minnie's niece, Violet. The Royces moved to a newly built house in Knutsford, Cheshire in 1898. The couple separated in 1912. Royce, who lived by the motto \"Whatever is rightly done, however humble, is noble\", was awarded the OBE in 1918, and was created a baronet, of Seaton in the County of Rutland, in 1930 for his services to British Aviation. He had no children and the baronetcy became extinct on his death. After he fell ill, Royce was looked after by a nurse, Ethel Aubin. He died at his house Elmstead in West Wittering on 22 April 1933. His cremated remains were initially buried under his statue at the Rolls-Royce works in Derby, but in 1937 his urn was removed to the parish church of Alwalton, his birthplace. In 1962, a memorial window dedicated to his memory was unveiled in Westminster Abbey. The window is one of a series designed by Ninian Comper dedicated to the memory of eminent engineers. He is also commemorated in Royce Hall, student accommodation at Loughborough University, and until 2011 at one of Peterborough's Queensgate shopping centre car parks. The Sir Henry Royce Suite, a business suite, is named after him at the Peterborough Marriott Hotel in the Alwalton business park."
]
} |
Ouagadougou | null | Ouagadougou (,, ) is the capital of Burkina Faso and the administrative, communications, cultural, and economic centre of the nation. It is also the country's largest city, with a population of 2,200,000 in 2015. The city's name is often shortened to "Ouaga". The inhabitants are called "ouagalais". The spelling of the name "Ouagadougou" is derived from the French orthography common in former French African colonies. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1984893 | en-train-1984893 | 1984893 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Geography.",
"Climate.",
"Government.",
"Education.",
"Sport.",
"Health.",
"Transport.",
"Air transport.",
"Rail.",
"Economy.",
"International relations.",
"Twin towns – Sister cities.",
"Parks.",
"Culture.",
"Art and crafts.",
"Places of worship."
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"The name \"Ouagadougou\" dates back to the 15th century when the Ninsi tribes inhabited the area. They were in constant conflict until 1441 when Wubri, a Yonyonse hero and an important figure in Burkina Faso's history, led his tribe to victory. He then renamed the area from \"Kumbee-Tenga\", as the Ninsi had called it, to \"Wage sabre soba koumbem tenga\", meaning \"head war chief's village\". \"Ouagadougou\" is a Francophone spelling of the name. The city became the capital of the Mossi Empire in 1441 and became the permanent residence of the Mossi emperors (Moro-Naba) in 1681. The Moro-Naba Ceremony is still performed every Friday by the Moro-Naba and his court. In 1919 the French made Ouagadougou the capital of the Upper Volta territory (basically the same area as contemporary Burkina Faso). In 1954 the railroad line from Ivory Coast reached the city. Ouagadougou's population doubled from 1954 to 1960 and has been doubling about every ten years since. On 15 January 2016, gunmen armed with heavy weapons attacked central Ouagadougou at the Cappuccino restaurant and the Splendid Hotel. 28 people were killed, and at least 56 wounded; after a government counterattack, a total of 176 hostages were released the morning after the initial attack. Three of the perpetrators were also killed.",
"Ouagadougou, situated on the central plateau (), grew around the imperial palace of the Mogho Naaba. An administrative centre of colonial rule, it became an important urban centre in the post-colonial era. First the capital of the Mossi Kingdoms and later of Upper Volta and Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou became a veritable communal centre in 1995.",
"Ouagadougou's climate is hot semi-arid (\"BSh\") under Köppen-Geiger classification, and closely borders with tropical wet and dry (\"Aw\"). The city is part of the Sudano-Sahelian area, with annual rainfall of about. The rainy season stretches from May to October, its height from June to September, with an average temperature of. The cold season runs from December to January, with a minimum average temperature of. The maximum temperature during the hot season, which runs from March to May, can reach. The harmattan (a dry wind) and the monsoon are the two main factors that determine Ouagadougou's climate. Even though Ouagadougou is farther from the equator, its hottest months' temperatures are slightly hotter than those of Bobo-Dioulasso, the country's second most populous city.",
"Ouagadougou's first municipal elections were held in 1956. The city is governed by a mayor who is elected to a five-year term, two senior councillors, and 90 councillors. The city is divided into five arrondissements, consisting of 30 sectors, which are subdivided into districts. Districts of Ouagadougou include Gounghin, Kamsaoghin, Koulouba, Moemmin, Niogsin, Paspanga, Peuloghin, Bilbalogho, and Tiendpalogo. Seventeen villages comprise the Ouagadougou metropolitan area, which is about. The population of this area is estimated at 1,475,000, 48% of whom are men and 52% women. The rural population is about 5% and the urban population about 95% of the total, and the density is 6,727 inhabitants per square kilometre, according to the 2006 census. Ouagadougou's communes have invested in huge city-management projects. This is largely because Ouagadougou constitutes a 'cultural centre' by merit of holding the SIAO (International Arts and Crafts fair) and the FESPACO (Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou). Moreover, the villages' growing affluence allows for such investment, and the population's rapid growth necessitates it.",
"Though literacy in Ouagadougou is not high, there are three universities in the city. The largest is the state University of Ouagadougou, which was founded in 1974. In 2010 it had around 40,000 students (83% of the national population of university students). The city's official language is French and the principal local languages are More, Dyula and Fulfulde. The bilingual program in schools (French plus one of the local languages) was established in 1994. International schools include:",
"Ouagadougou's inhabitants play a wide array of sports, including association football, basketball, and volleyball. There are tournaments and activities organized by the local authorities. The Stade du 4-Août is the home of Étoile Filante de Ouagadougou, the city's main Football team.",
"Ouagadougou has both state and private hospitals. The two state hospitals in the city are the Centre hospitalier national Yalgado Ouedraogo (CHNYO) and the Centre hospitalier national pédiatrique Charles de Gaulle (CHNP-CDG). Despite that, the local population still largely can only afford traditional local medicine and the \"pharmacopée\".",
"Many residents travel on motorcycles and mopeds. The large private vendor of motorcycles JC Megamonde sells 50,000 motorbikes and mopeds every year. Ouagadougou's citizens also travel in green cabs, which take their passengers anywhere in town for 200 to 400 CFA, but the price is higher after 10:00 pm and can then reach 1000 CFA.",
"Ouagadougou Airport (code OUA) serves the area with flights to West Africa and Europe. Air Burkina has its head office in the Air Burkina Storey Building () in Ouagadougou.",
"Ouagadougou is connected by passenger rail service to Bobo-Dioulasso, Koudougou and Ivory Coast. As of June 2014, \"Sitarail\" operates a passenger train three times a week along the route from Ouagadougou to Abidjan. There are freight services to Kaya in the north of Burkina Faso and in 2014 plans were announced to revive freight services to the Manganese mine at Tambao starting in 2016.",
"The economy of Ouagadougou is based on industry and commerce. Some industrial facilities have relocated from Bobo-Dioulasso to Ouagadougou, which has made the city an important industrial centre of Burkina Faso. The industrial areas of Kossodo and Gounghin are home to several processing plants and factories. The industry of Ouagadougou is sector that fuels urban growth, as people move to the city from the countryside to find employment in industry. The Copromof workshop in Ouagadougou sews cotton lingerie for the French label \"Atelier Augusti.\" Ouagadougou is an important commercial centre. It is a centre where goods are collected and directed to rural areas. With a large consumer base, large amounts of energy sources, raw materials for buildings, agricultural products and livestock products are imported to the city. The economy is dominated by the informal sector, which is characterized by petty commodity production, and workers not necessarily having salaries. Traditional, informal trade is widespread and concentrated around markets and major roads, as well as in outlets in neighborhoods. There are also instances of modern economic practices with workplaces having qualified, stable labor forces, or more traditional forms of business such as family businesses. The tertiary sector is also an important part of the economy. This comprises communications, banking, transport, bars, restaurants, hotels, as well as administrative jobs.",
"",
"Ouagadougou is twinned with following cities:",
"The Bangr-Weoogo urban park (area: ), before colonialism, belonged to the Mosse chiefs. Considering it a sacred forest, many went there for traditional initiations or for refuge. The French colonists, disregarding its local significance and history, established it as a park in the 1930s. In 1985, renovations were done in the park. In January 2001, the park was renamed \"Parc Urbain Bangr-Weoogo\", meaning \"the urban park of the forest of knowledge\". Another notable park in Ouagadougou is the \"L'Unité Pédagogique\", which shelters animals in a semi-free state. This botanic garden/biosphere system stretches over and also serves as a museum for the country's history. \"Jardin de l'amitié Ouaga-Loudun\" (Garden of Ouaga-Loudun Friendship), with a green space that was renovated in 1996, is a symbol of the twin-city relationship between Ouagadougou and Loudun in France. It is situated in the centre of the city, near the \"Nation Unies' crossroads\".",
"There are a number of cultural and art venues, such as the Maison du Peuple and Salle des Banquets, in addition to performances of many genres of music, including traditional folk music, modern music, and rap.",
"Several international festivals and activities are organized within the municipality, such as FESPACO (Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou), which is Africa's largest festival of this type, SIAO (International Art and Craft Fair), FESPAM (Pan-African Music Festival), FITMO (International Theatre and Marionnette Festival) and FESTIVO.",
"Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Muslim mosques. There are also Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Ouagadougou (Catholic Church), Association of Reformed Evangelical Church of Burkina Faso (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Assemblies of God, Deeper Life Bible Church, International Evangelism Center)."
]
} |
Globular cluster | null | A globular cluster is a spherical collection of stars that orbits a galactic core. Globular clusters are very tightly bound by gravity, which gives them their spherical shapes, and relatively high stellar densities toward their centers. The name of this category of star cluster is derived from the Latin, "globulus"—a small sphere. Occasionally, a globular cluster is known simply as a "globular". | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1284055 | en-train-1284055 | 1284055 | {
"title": [
"Observation history.",
"Formation.",
"Composition.",
"Metallic content.",
"Exotic components.",
"Color-magnitude diagram.",
"Morphology.",
"Radii.",
"Mass segregation, luminosity and core collapse.",
"N-body simulations.",
"Intermediate forms.",
"Tidal encounters.",
"Orbits.",
"Planets."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
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"content": [
"The first known globular cluster, now called M 22, was discovered in 1665 by Abraham Ihle, a German amateur astronomer. However, given the small aperture of early telescopes, individual stars within a globular cluster were not resolved until Charles Messier observed M 4 in 1764. The first eight globular clusters discovered are shown in the table. Subsequently, Abbé Lacaille would list NGC 104, NGC 4833, M 55, M 69, and NGC 6397 in his 1751–1752 catalogue. When William Herschel began his comprehensive survey of the sky using large telescopes in 1782 there were 34 known globular clusters. Herschel discovered another 36 himself and was the first to resolve virtually all of them into stars. He coined the term \"globular cluster\" in his \"Catalogue of a Second Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars\" published in 1789. The number of globular clusters discovered continued to increase, reaching 83 in 1915, 93 in 1930 and 97 by 1947. A total of 152 globular clusters have now been discovered in the Milky Way galaxy, out of an estimated total of 180 ± 20. These additional, undiscovered globular clusters are believed to be hidden behind the gas and dust of the Milky Way. Beginning in 1914, Harlow Shapley began a series of studies of globular clusters, published in about 40 scientific papers. He examined the RR Lyrae variables in the clusters (which he assumed were Cepheid variables) and used their period–luminosity relationship for distance estimates. Later, it was found that RR Lyrae variables are fainter than Cepheid variables, which caused Shapley to overestimate the distances of the clusters. Of the globular clusters within the Milky Way, the majority are found in a halo around the galactic core, and the large majority are located in the celestial sky centered on the core. In 1918, this strongly asymmetrical distribution was used by Shapley to make a determination of the overall dimensions of the galaxy. By assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy’s center, he used the positions of the clusters to estimate the position of the Sun relative to the galactic center. While his distance estimate was in significant error (although within the same order of magnitude as the currently accepted value), it did demonstrate that the dimensions of the galaxy were much greater than had been previously thought. Shapley's measurements also indicated that the Sun is relatively far from the center of the galaxy, also contrary to what had previously been inferred from the apparently nearly even distribution of ordinary stars. In reality, most ordinary stars lie within the galaxy's disk and those stars that lie in the direction of the galactic centre and beyond are thus obscured by gas and dust, whereas globular clusters lie outside the disk and can be seen at much further distances.",
"The formation of globular clusters remains a poorly understood phenomenon and it remains uncertain whether the stars in a globular cluster form in a single generation or are spawned across multiple generations over a period of several hundred million years. In many globular clusters, most of the stars are at approximately the same stage in stellar evolution, suggesting that they formed at about the same time. However, the star formation history varies from cluster to cluster, with some clusters showing distinct populations of stars. An example of this is the globular clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) that exhibit a bimodal population. During their youth, these LMC clusters may have encountered giant molecular clouds that triggered a second round of star formation. This star-forming period is relatively brief, compared with the age of many globular clusters. It has also been proposed that the reason for this multiplicity in stellar",
"Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of low-metal, old stars. The type of stars found in a globular cluster are similar to those in the bulge of a spiral galaxy but confined to a volume of only a few million cubic parsecs. They are free of gas and dust and it is presumed that all of the gas and dust was long ago either turned into stars or blown out of the cluster during the initial burst of star formation. Globular clusters can contain a high density of stars; on average about 0.4 stars per cubic parsec, increasing to 100 or 1000 stars per cubic parsec in the core of the cluster. The typical distance between stars in a globular cluster is about 1 light year, but at its core, the separation is comparable to the size of the Solar System (100 to 1000 times closer than stars near the Solar System). Globular clusters are not thought to be favorable locations for the survival of planetary systems. Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the perturbations of passing stars. A planet orbiting at 1 astronomical unit around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster such as would only survive on the order of 10 years. There is a planetary system orbiting a pulsar (PSR B1620−26) that belongs to the globular cluster M 4, but these planets likely formed after the event that created the pulsar. Some globular clusters, like Omega Centauri in the Milky Way and G 1 in M 31, are extraordinarily massive, with several million solar masses () and multiple stellar populations. Both can be regarded as evidence that supermassive globular clusters are in fact the cores of dwarf galaxies that are consumed by the larger galaxies. About a quarter of the globular cluster population in the Milky Way may have been accreted along with their host dwarf galaxy. Several globular clusters (like M 15) have extremely massive cores which may harbor black holes, although simulations suggest that a less massive black hole or central concentration of neutron stars or massive white dwarfs explain observations equally well.",
"Globular clusters normally consist of Population II stars, which have a low proportion of elements other than hydrogen and helium when compared with Population I stars such as the Sun. Astronomers refer to these heavier elements as metals and to the proportions of these elements as the metallicity. These elements are produced by stellar nucleosynthesis and then are recycled into the interstellar medium, where they enter the next generation of stars. Hence the proportion of metals can be an indication of the age of a star, with older stars typically having a lower metallicity. The Dutch astronomer Pieter Oosterhoff noticed that there appear to be two populations of globular clusters, which became known as \"Oosterhoff groups\". The second group has a slightly longer period of RR Lyrae variable stars. Both groups have weak lines of metallic elements. But the lines in the stars",
"Globular clusters have a very high star density, and therefore close interactions and near-collisions of stars occur relatively often. Due to these chance encounters, some exotic classes of stars, such as \"blue stragglers\", \"millisecond pulsars\", and \"low-mass X-ray binaries\", are much more common in globular clusters. A “blue straggler” is thought to form from the merger of two stars, possibly as a result of an encounter with a binary system. The resulting star has a higher temperature than comparable stars in the cluster with the same luminosity, and thus differs from the main sequence stars formed at the beginning of the cluster. Astronomers have searched for black holes within globular clusters since the 1970s. The resolution requirements for this task, however, are exacting, and it is",
"The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR-diagram) is a graph of a large sample of stars that plots their visual absolute magnitude against their color index. The color index, B−V, is the difference between the magnitude of the star in blue light, or B, and the magnitude in visual light (green-yellow), or V. Large positive values indicate a red star with a cool surface temperature, while negative values imply a blue star with a hotter surface. When the stars near the Sun are plotted on an HR diagram, it displays a distribution of stars of various masses, ages, and compositions. Many of the stars lie relatively close to a sloping curve with increasing absolute magnitude as the stars are hotter, known as main-sequence stars. However the diagram also typically includes stars that are in later stages of their evolution and have wandered away from this main-sequence curve. As all the stars of a globular cluster are at approximately the same distance from the Earth, their absolute magnitudes differ from their visual magnitude by about the same amount. The main-sequence stars in the globular cluster will fall along a line that is believed to be comparable to similar stars in the solar neighborhood. The accuracy of this assumption is confirmed by comparable results obtained by comparing the magnitudes of nearby short-period variables, such as RR Lyrae stars and cepheid variables, with those in the cluster. By matching up these curves on the HR diagram the absolute magnitude of main-sequence stars in the cluster can also be determined. This in turn provides a distance estimate to the cluster, based on the visual magnitude of the stars. The difference between the relative and absolute magnitude, the \"distance modulus\", yields this estimate of the distance. When the stars of a particular globular cluster are plotted on an HR diagram, in many cases nearly all of the stars fall upon a relatively well-defined curve. This differs from the HR diagram of stars near the Sun, which lumps together stars of differing ages and origins. The shape of the curve for a globular cluster is characteristic of a grouping of stars that were formed at approximately the same time and from the same materials, differing only in their initial mass. As the position of each star in the HR diagram varies with age, the shape of the",
"In contrast to open clusters, most globular clusters remain gravitationally bound for time periods comparable to the life spans of the majority of their stars. However, a possible exception is when strong tidal interactions with other large masses result in the dispersal of the stars. After they are formed, the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other. As a result, the velocity vectors of the stars are steadily modified, and the stars lose any history of their original velocity. The characteristic interval for this to occur is the relaxation time. This is related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster as well as the number of stellar masses in the system. The value of the relaxation time varies by cluster, but the mean value is on the order of 10 years. Although globular clusters generally appear spherical in form, ellipticities can occur due to tidal interactions. Clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are typically oblate spheroids in shape, while those in the Large Magellanic Cloud are more elliptical.",
"Astronomers characterize the morphology of a globular cluster by means of standard radii. These are the core radius (\"r\"), the half-light radius (\"r\"), and the tidal (or Jacobi) radius (\"r\"). The overall luminosity of the cluster steadily decreases with distance from the core, and the core radius is the distance at which the apparent surface luminosity has dropped by half. A comparable quantity is the half-light radius, or the distance from the core within which half the total luminosity from the cluster is received. This is typically larger than the core radius. The half-light radius includes stars in the outer part of the cluster that happen to lie along the line of sight, so theorists will also use the",
"In measuring the luminosity curve of a given globular cluster as a function of distance from the core, most clusters in the Milky Way increase steadily in luminosity as this distance decreases, up to a certain distance from the core, then the luminosity levels off. Typically this distance is about 1–2 parsecs from the core. However about 20% of the globular clusters have undergone a process termed \"core collapse\". In this type of cluster, the luminosity continues to increase steadily all the way to the core region. An example of a core-collapsed globular is M15. Core-collapse is thought to occur when the more massive stars in a globular cluster encounter their less massive companions. Over time, dynamic processes cause individual",
"Computing the interactions between the stars within a globular cluster requires solving what is termed the N-body problem. That is, each of the stars within the cluster continually interacts with the other \"N\"−1 stars, where \"N\" is the total number of stars in the cluster. The naive CPU computational \"cost\" for a dynamic simulation increases in proportion to \"N\" (each of N objects must interact pairwise with each of the other N objects), so the potential computing requirements to accurately simulate such a cluster can be enormous. An efficient method of mathematically simulating the N-body dynamics of a globular cluster is done by subdividing into small volumes and velocity ranges, and using probabilities to describe the locations of the stars. The motions are then described by means of a formula called the Fokker–Planck equation. This can be solved by a simplified form of the equation, or by running Monte Carlo simulations and using random values. However the simulation becomes more difficult when the effects of binaries and the interaction with external gravitation forces (such as",
"The distinction between cluster types is not always clear-cut, and objects have been found that blur the lines between the categories. For example, BH 176 in the southern part of the Milky Way has properties of both an open and a globular cluster. In 2005, astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy, which is, in several ways, very similar to globular clusters. The new-found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number to that found in globular clusters. The",
"When a globular cluster has a close encounter with a large mass, such as the core region of a galaxy, it undergoes a tidal interaction. The difference in the pull of gravity between the part of the cluster nearest the mass and the pull on the furthest part of the cluster results in a tidal force. A \"tidal shock\" occurs whenever the orbit of a cluster takes it through the plane of a galaxy. As a result of a tidal shock, streams of stars can be pulled away from the cluster halo, leaving only the core part of the cluster. These tidal interaction effects create tails of stars that can extend up to several degrees of arc away from the cluster. These tails typically both",
"There are many globular clusters with a retrograde orbit round the Milky Way Galaxy.",
"Astronomers are searching for exoplanets of stars in globular star clusters. In 2000, the results of a search for giant planets in the globular cluster 47 Tucanae were announced. The lack of any successful discoveries suggests that the abundance of elements (other than hydrogen or helium) necessary to build these planets may need to be at least 40% of the abundance in the Sun. Terrestrial planets are built from heavier elements such as silicon, iron and magnesium. The very low abundance of these elements in globular clusters means that the member stars have a far lower likelihood of hosting Earth-mass planets, when compared with stars in the neighborhood of the Sun. Hence the halo region of the Milky Way galaxy, including globular cluster members, are unlikely to host habitable terrestrial planets. In spite of the lower likelihood of giant planet formation, just such an object has been found in the globular cluster Messier 4. This planet was detected orbiting a pulsar in the binary star system PSR B1620-26. The eccentric and highly inclined orbit of the planet suggests it may have been formed around another star in the cluster, then was later \"exchanged\" into its current arrangement. The likelihood of close encounters between stars in a globular cluster can disrupt planetary systems, some of which break loose to become free floating planets. Even close orbiting planets can become disrupted, potentially leading to orbital decay and an increase in orbital eccentricity and tidal effects."
]
} |
Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 | null | The Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 was a British biplane fighter aircraft of the First World War. It was developed at the Royal Aircraft Factory by a team consisting of Henry Folland, John Kenworthy and Major Frank Goodden. It was one of the fastest aircraft of the war, while being both stable and relatively manoeuvrable. According to aviation author Robert Jackson, the S.E.5 was: "the nimble fighter that has since been described as the 'Spitfire of World War One'". | null | [
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"title": [
"Development.",
"Origins.",
"S.E.5a.",
"S.E.5b.",
"Design.",
"Operational history.",
"Surviving aircraft and replicas.",
"Originals.",
"Reproductions.",
"Fictional portrayals."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"The S.E.5 (Scout Experimental 5) was designed by Henry Folland, John Kenworthy and Major Frank Goodden of the Royal Aircraft Factory in Farnborough. It was built around the new 150 hp (112 kW) Hispano-Suiza 8, a V8 engine that, while providing excellent performance, was initially underdeveloped and unreliable. The first of three prototypes flew on 22 November 1916. The first two prototypes were lost in crashes (the first killing the chief test pilot at the Royal Aircraft Factory, Major Frank Goodden on 28 January 1917) due to a weakness in their wing design. The third prototype underwent modification before production commenced; the S.E.5 was known in service as an exceptionally strong aircraft which could be dived at very high speed – the squarer wings also gave much improved lateral control at low airspeeds. Like the other significant Royal Aircraft Factory aircraft of the war (B.E.2, F.E.2 and R.E.8) the S.E.5 was inherently stable, making it an excellent gunnery platform, but it was also quite manoeuvrable. It was one of the fastest aircraft of the war at 138 mph (222 km/h), equal at least in speed to the SPAD S.XIII and faster than any standard German type of the period. While the S.E.5 was not as agile and effective in a tight dogfight as the Camel it was much easier and safer to fly, particularly for novice pilots. According to \"Dodge\" Bailey, Chief Test Pilot of the Shuttleworth Collection, it had \"somewhat similar handling characteristics to a de Havilland Tiger Moth, but with better excess power\".",
"Only 77 original S.E.5 aircraft had been completed prior to production settling upon an improved model, designated as the \"S.E.5a\". The initial models of the S.E.5a differed from late production examples of the S.E.5 only in the type of engine installed – a geared 200 hp Hispano-Suiza 8b, often turning a large clockwise-rotation four-bladed propeller, replacing the 150 hp H.S. 8A model. In total 5,265 S.E.5s were constructed by six manufacturers: Austin Motors (1,650), Air Navigation and Engineering Company (560), Curtiss (1), Martinsyde (258), the Royal Aircraft Factory (200), Vickers (2,164) and Wolseley Motors Limited (431). Shortly following the American entry into World War I, plans were mooted for several American aircraft manufacturers to commence mass production of aircraft already in service with the Allied powers, one such fighter being the S.E.5. In addition to an order of 38 Austin-built S.E.5a aircraft which were produced in Britain and assigned to the American Expeditionary Force to equip already-deployed US Army squadrons, the US Government issued multiple orders to the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company for the manufacture and delivery of around 1,000 S.E.5s to be produced in the United States. However, only one Curtiss-built aircraft would be completed prior to the end of the conflict, after which demand for the S.E.5 had effectively evaporated, production being quickly halted after a further 56 aircraft were assembled using already-delivered components. At first, airframe construction outstripped the very limited supply of French-built Hispano-Suiza engines and squadrons earmarked to receive the new fighter had to soldier on with Airco DH 5s and Nieuport 24s until early 1918. The troublesome geared \"-8b\" model was prone to have serious gear reduction system problems, sometimes with the propeller (and even the entire gearbox on a very few occasions) separating from the engine and airframe in flight, a problem shared with the similarly-powered Sopwith Dolphin. The introduction of the 200 hp (149 kW) Wolseley Viper, a high-compression, direct-drive version of the Hispano-Suiza 8a made under licence by Wolseley Motors Limited, solved the S.E.5a's engine problems and was promptly adopted as the type's standard powerplant. A number of aircraft were subsequently converted to a two-seat configuration in order to serve as trainer aircraft.",
"The S.E.5b was a variant of the S.E.5 with a streamlined nose and upper and lower wings of different span and chord. The single example, a converted S.E.5a, first flew in early April 1918. It had a spinner on the propeller and a retractable underslung radiator. Its performance was little better than the S.E.5a, with the extra drag of the big upper wing offsetting gains from the more streamlined fuselage. The S.E.5b was not considered for production. In January 1919, it was tested with standard S.E.5a wings and in this form survived as a research aircraft into the early twenties.",
"The Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 was a conventional tractor biplane fighter aircraft. The fuselage was a wire-braced box girder structure while the wings were furnished with wooden spars and internal ribs. The fuselage was narrower than many contemporary aircraft, which provided the pilot with good all-round visibility. The aircraft had considerable structural strength, which was credited with improving the type's crashworthiness and survivability. It could also withstand high-g manoeuvres and was relatively resistant to battle-damage. Unlike many of its peers, which were highly agile but unforgiving, the S.E.5 was comparatively stable and easy to fly; its stability enabling pilots to more readily fire upon enemies from further away with a greater degree of accuracy. It had a noticeably lower accident rate than comparable aircraft. The cockpit was set amidships, making it difficult to see over the long front fuselage, but otherwise visibility was good. One of its greatest advantages over the Camel was its superior performance at altitude, making it a much better match for the Fokker D.VII when that fighter arrived at the front. Aviation authors Donald Nijboer and Dan Patterson describe the S.E.5 as \"arguably the best British-built fighter of World War I\". The S.E.5 was powered by various engines, initially adopting a Hispano-Suiza 8 V8 engine. The Hispano-Suiza engine was advanced for the era, incorporating such features as an aluminium cylinder block with steel liners, dual ignition and forced lubrication that aided cooling; especially compared with contemporary rotary engines, it had the advantage of being easy to operate by most pilots. An expansion tank for the cooling system was integrated into the leading edge of the upper wing's centre section. The S.E.5 was relatively easy to fly, albeit with the exception of an excessive amount of adverse yaw. The yaw could be compensated for by balanced application of the aileron and rudder, whilst adjustment of the elevator trim made it possible to fly in a 'hands off' manner. The S.E.5 was armed with a single synchronised.303-inch Vickers machine gun in contrast to the Camel's two, but it also had a wing-mounted Lewis gun fitted on a Foster mounting, which enabled the pilot to fire at an enemy aircraft from below. This armament configuration was much appreciated by the pilots of the first S.E.5 squadrons as the new hydraulic-link \"C.C.\" synchronising gear for the Vickers machine gun was unreliable at first. The Vickers gun was mounted on the forward left dorsal surface of the fuselage with the breech inside the cockpit, at a slight upwards angle. Typically, spare magazines for the Lewis gun would have been placed within most of the free space in the cockpit including the forward areas, such as the instrumentation panel. The standard instrument panel included a compass, altimeter, tachometer, oil pressure indicator, airspeed gauge, radiator temperature dial, fuel air pressure indicator, fuel selector, and air exchange; these were somewhat difficult to view due to their low-set position in the cockpit. According to \"Dodge\" Bailey, Chief Test Pilot of the Shuttleworth Collection, the S.E.5's cockpit was \"the best of the bunch from the era\". Individual in-service S.E.5s would often receive customisations and user-specified tweaks at the request of their pilots. Popular changes included reducing the dihedral of the wings in order to increase its manoeuvrability and the removal of the head fairing to increase the pilot's visibility to the rear. James McCudden, an ace pilot, was famous for his prolific fine-tuning of his aircraft in order to produce improved performance from it; McCudden was able to increase the top speed by 9 mph and to raise the service ceiling from the standard 17,000 ft to 20,000 ft. His adaptions included replacing the standard pistons with high compression versions, shortening the exhaust (saving weight and improving exhaust scavenging), and changes to mixture, ignition and other engine settings as well as fitting a salvaged German propeller spinner (which he himself credited as gaining 3 mph alone).",
"In March 1917, the S.E.5 entered service with No. 56 Squadron RFC, although the squadron did not deploy to the Western Front until the following month. Everyone was suspicious of the large \"greenhouse\" windscreens fitted to the first production models. These were designed to protect the pilot in his unusually high seating position, which was in turn intended to improve vision over the upper wing. The squadron did not fly its first patrol with the S.E.5 until 22 April, by which time, on the insistence of Major Blomfield, 56 squadron's commanding officer, all aircraft had been fitted with small rectangular screens of conventional design. The problem of the high seating position was solved by simply lowering it, pilots in any case preferring a more conventional (and comfortable) seating position. No complaints seem to have been made about the view from the cockpit; in fact, this was often cited as one of the strong points of the type. While pilots, some of whom were initially disappointed with the S.E.5, quickly came to appreciate its strength and fine flying qualities, it was popularly judged to have been underpowered; this failing was addressed by the introduction of the more powerful S.E.5a. In June 1917, the S.E.5a entered service and quickly began to replace the S.E.5. At this time 56 Squadron was still the only unit flying the new fighter; in fact it was the only operational unit to be fully equipped with the initial 150 hp S.E.5 – all other S.E.5 squadrons officially used the 200 hp S.E.5a from the outset – although a few S.E.5s were issued to other squadrons due to an acute shortage of the S.E.5a. Deliveries of the S.E.5a suffered from delays due to a shortage of available engines with which to power the type. Due to the shortage of aircraft, there was a very slow initial build-up of new S.E.5a squadrons, which lasted well into 1918. Once the Wolseley Viper-powered model became plentiful, many more units were re-equipped with the type. By the end of the war, the S.E.5a was employed by a total of 21 British Empire squadrons as well as two U.S. units. Many of the top Allied aces of the Great War flew this fighter, including Billy Bishop, Andrew Beauchamp-Proctor, Edward Mannock and James McCudden. Legendary British ace Albert Ball was initially disparaging of the S.E.5, but in the end claimed 11 of his 44 victories flying it. McCudden wrote of the S.E.5: \"It was very fine to be in a machine that was faster than the Huns, and to know that one could run away just as things got too hot.\" Sholto Douglas who commanded No. 84 Squadron RFC which was initially equipped with the S.E.5a, listed the type's qualities as being: \"Comfortable, with a good all-round view, retaining its performance and manoeuvrability at high level, steady and quick to gather speed in the dive, capable of a very fine zoom, useful in both offence and defence, strong in design and construction, [and] possessing a reliable engine\". Soon after the Armistice the S.E.5a was withdrawn from RAF service. It was retained for a time in Australia and Canada, and in 1921 a Viper-engined S.E.5a was taken to Japan by the British Aviation Mission to the Imperial Japanese Navy. A number of machines found roles in civilian flying after the war. On 30 May 1922, the first use of skywriting for advertising occurred when Cyril Turner, a former RAF officer, spelt out \"London Daily Mail\" in black smoke from an S.E.5a at The Derby. Others were used for air racing; one such privately owned aircraft won the Morris Cup race in 1927.",
"",
"An original S.E.5a may be seen at the Shuttleworth Collection at Old Warden, England, UK. This aircraft was originally serial \"F904\" of No. 84 Squadron RAF, then flew as \"G-EBIA\" from September 1923 to February 1932. It was stored between 1933 and 1955, before being restored to a flightworthy condition by staff at the Royal Aircraft Establishment and then passed onto the Shuttleworth Collection. An extensive refurbishment of this aircraft was performed in 2007. It has been re-registered as \"G-EBIA\", it was first painted as \"D7000\", then as \"F904\". An original S.E.5e may be seen in the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Dayton, Ohio, USA. The museum acquired the S.E.5e through a donation by the estate of Lt. Col. William C. Lambert, USAF Ret, a First World War ace with 21.5 victories. Lambert flew the S.E.5a as an American member of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Air Force. The Air Force Museum Foundation also helped buy the aircraft. It is painted to represent an S.E.5e of the 18th Headquarters Squadron, Bolling Field, Washington, D.C., in 1925. Another four original airframes are statically displayed at: the Science Museum, London, UK; Royal Air Force Museum, London, UK; South African National Museum of Military History, Johannesburg, South Africa; and the Australian War Memorial, Canberra, Australia.",
"Two full-scale replica S.E.5a aircraft were built by Miles Aircraft in 1965 for use in film making and were transferred to the Irish civil aircraft register in 1967 while the two were employed in flying scenes for the 1966 war movie The Blue Max. Three flightworthy reproductions (designated SE5a-1), along with a single static example, were constructed by The Vintage Aviator Limited in New Zealand. According to the group, the reproduction aircraft, which was the company's first project, combined some authentic components, such as the Hispano engines used, with newly-fabricated parts based on original archived drawings. The Museum of Flight in Seattle, Washington displays the reproduction SE.5a that Florida craftsman Bobby Strahlman and his partners completed for collector Doug Champlin in 1989. This reproduction features one.303 Vickers and one.303-caliber Lewis machine gun, and carries the paint scheme of American ace George Vaughn, who served with the Royal Flying Corps. The SE.5 was displayed at Champlin's fighter museum at Mesa, Arizona until the collection was transferred to Seattle in 2003.",
"The Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 has been portrayed, both by original and replica aircraft, in various movies. These include \"Wings\" (1927), \"Hell's Angels\" (1930), \"Flying Down to Rio\" (1933), \"Crimson Romance\" (1934), \"Test Pilot\" (1939) and \"The Aviator\" (2004). Converted \"Stampe et Vertongen\" SV.4 trainer/tourer aircraft were used to portray S.E.5s in the 1976 Anglo-French production \"Aces High\". The 1971 film \"Zeppelin\" makes reference to the use of the S.E.5 as a weapon to defend against the German Zeppelins that were attacking Britain during the First World War. The film, however, is set in the fall of 1915, a full year-and-a-half before the S.E. 5 entered squadron service. The dogfight scene near the film's conclusion features S.E.5a replicas."
]
} |
Brigid | null | Brigit, Brigid or Bríg (, Old Irish ; meaning 'exalted one') is a goddess of pre-Christian Ireland. She appears in Irish mythology as a member of the Tuatha Dé Danann, the daughter of the Dagda and wife of Bres, with whom she had a son named Ruadán. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2415128 | en-train-2415128 | 2415128 | {
"title": [
"Familial relations.",
"Overview.",
"Brigid and Saint Brigid.",
"Festivals.",
"Neo-Pagan revival.",
"Other names and etymology."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
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"content": [
"She is identified in \"Lebor Gabála Érenn\" as a daughter of the Dagda and a poet. The same passage mentions that she has two oxen, Fe and Men, that graze on a plain named after them, Femen; elsewhere Fe and Men are described as the two oxen of Dil, \"radiant of beauty,\" which may be a byname for Brigid. She also possessed the \"king of boars\", Torc Triath, and Cirb, king of wethers (sheep), from whom Mag Cirb is named. The animals were said to cry out a warning and thus Brigid is considered the guardian of domesticated animals. As the daughter of Dagda, she is also the half sister of Cermait, Aengus, Aed and Bodb Derg.",
"In \"Cath Maige Tuireadh\", Bríg invents keening, a combination of weeping and singing, while mourning for her son Ruadán, after he is slain while fighting for the Fomorians. She is credited in the same passage with inventing a whistle used for night travel. Brigid is considered the patroness of poetry, smithing, medicine, arts and crafts, cattle and other livestock, sacred wells, serpents (in Scotland) and the arrival of early spring. In the Christian era, nineteen nuns at Kildare tended a perpetual flame for the Saint, which is widely believed to be a continuation of a pre-Christian practice of women tending a flame in her honour. Her festival day, Imbolc is traditionally a time for weather prognostication: In her English retellings of Irish myth, Lady Augusta Gregory describes Brigit as \"a woman of poetry, and poets worshipped her, for her sway was very great and very noble. And she was a woman of healing along with that, and a woman of smith's work, and it was she first made the whistle for calling one to another through the night.\" A possible British and continental counterpart Brigantia seems to have been the Celtic equivalent of the Roman Minerva and the Greek Athena. goddesses with very similar functions and apparently embodying the same concept of \"elevated state\", whether physical or psychological. She is the goddess of all things perceived to be of relatively high dimensions such as high-rising flames, highlands, hill-forts and upland areas; and of activities and states conceived as psychologically lofty and elevated, such as wisdom, excellence, perfection, high intelligence, poetic eloquence, craftsmanship (especially blacksmithing), healing ability, druidic knowledge and skill in warfare. A number of these associations are attested in \"Cormac's Glossary\".",
"In the Middle Ages, the goddess Brigid was syncretized with the Christian saint of the same name. According to medievalist Pamela Berger, Christian \"monks took the ancient figure of the mother goddess and grafted her name and functions onto her Christian counterpart,\" St. Brigid of Kildare. St. Brigid is associated with perpetual, sacred flames, such as the one maintained by 19 nuns at her sanctuary in Kildare, Ireland. The sacred flame at Kildare was said by Giraldus Cambrensis and other chroniclers to have been surrounded by a hedge, which no man could cross. Men who attempted to cross the hedge were said to have been cursed to go insane, die or be crippled. The tradition of female priestesses tending sacred, naturally occurring \"eternal flames\" is a feature of ancient Indo-European pre-Christian spirituality. Other examples include the Roman goddess Vesta, and other hearth-goddesses, such as Hestia. Both the goddess and saint are associated with holy wells, at Kildare and many other sites in the Celtic lands. Well dressing, the tying of clooties to the trees next to healing wells, and other methods of petitioning or honoring Brigid still take place in some of the Celtic lands and the diaspora.",
"Saint Brigid's feast day is on 1 February celebrated as St Brigid's Day in the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and by the Anglican Communion. The Gaelic festival coincides with Imbolc, which is a pagan festival associated with the goddess Brigid.",
"Brigid is an important figure for modern pagans, who emphasize her triple aspect. She is sometimes worshipped in conjunction with Cernunnos.",
"Old Irish \"Brigit\" came to be spelled \"Briġid\" and \"Brighid\" by the modern Irish period. Since the spelling reform of 1948, this has been spelled \"Bríd\". The earlier form gave rise to various forms in the languages of Europe, starting from the Medieval Latin \"Brigit\", suggested by the written form, and from there to various modern forms, such as English \"Bridget\" and \"Bridgit\" (now commonly seen as \"Brigid),\" French \"Brigitte,\" Swedish \"Birgitta,\" Italian \"Brigida\" and Finnish \"Piritta.\" The name is derived from Proto-Celtic \"*Brigantī\" and means \"The High One\", cognate with the name of the ancient British goddess Brigantia (goddess), the Old High German personal name \"Burgunt,\" and the Sanskrit word \"Bṛhatī\" (बृहती) \"high\", an epithet of the Hindu dawn goddess Ushas. The ultimate source is Proto-Indo-European \"*bhr̥ǵhéntih2\" (feminine form of \"*bhérǵhonts\", \"high\"), derived from the root \"*bherǵh-\" (\"to rise\"). Xavier Delamarre, citing E. Campanile suggests that Brigid could be a continuation of the Indo-European dawn goddess."
]
} |
Triangulum Galaxy | null | The Triangulum Galaxy is a spiral galaxy 2.73 million light-years (ly) from Earth in the constellation Triangulum. It is catalogued as Messier 33 or NGC 598. The Triangulum Galaxy is the third-largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, behind the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. It is one of the most distant permanent objects that can be viewed with the naked eye. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1606013 | en-train-1606013 | 1606013 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Visibility.",
"Observation history.",
"Properties.",
"Location.",
"Structure.",
"Star formation.",
"Discrete features.",
"Relationship with the Andromeda Galaxy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The galaxy gets its name from the constellation Triangulum, where it can be spotted. It is sometimes informally referred to as the \"Pinwheel Galaxy\" by some amateur astronomy references, in some computerized telescope software, and in some public outreach websites. However, the SIMBAD Astronomical Database, a professional database, collates formal designations for astronomical objects and indicates that Pinwheel Galaxy refers to Messier 101, which several amateur astronomy resources including public outreach websites identify by that name, and that is within the bounds of Ursa Major.",
"Under exceptionally good viewing conditions with no light pollution, the Triangulum Galaxy can be seen with the 20/20 vision naked eye; to those viewers, it will sometimes be the farthest permanent entity visible without magnification. Its light diffuses (spreads) across a little more than a pinprick of the unmagnified sky, the cause of which is its broadness – this astronomers term a diffuse, rather than compact, object. Observers range from finding the galaxy easily visible by direct vision in a truly dark (and impliedly dry, cloud-free) sky to needing to use averted vision in rural or suburban skies with good viewing conditions. It has been chosen as one of the critical sky marks of the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, supported by its relative unvariability, reasonable northern declination and brightness described.",
"The Triangulum Galaxy was probably discovered by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Battista Hodierna before 1654. In his work \"De systemate orbis cometici; deque admirandis coeli caracteribus\" (\"About the systematics of the cometary orbit, and about the admirable objects of the sky\"), he listed it as a cloud-like nebulosity or obscuration and gave the cryptic description, \"near the Triangle \"hinc inde\"\". This is in reference to the constellation of Triangulum as a pair of triangles. The magnitude of the object matches M33, so it is most likely a reference to the Triangulum galaxy. The galaxy was independently discovered by Charles Messier on the night of August 25–26, 1764. It was published in his \"Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters\" (1771) as object number 33; hence the name M33. When William Herschel compiled his extensive catalogue of nebulae, he was careful not to include most of the objects identified by Messier. However, M33 was an exception and he catalogued this object on September 11, 1784, as H V-17. Herschel also catalogued the Triangulum Galaxy's brightest and largest H II region (diffuse emission nebula containing ionized hydrogen) as H III.150 separately from the galaxy itself; the nebula eventually obtained NGC number 604. As seen from Earth, NGC 604 is located northeast of the galaxy's central core. It is one of the largest H II regions known, with a diameter of nearly 1500 light-years and a spectrum similar to that of the Orion Nebula. Herschel also noted three other smaller H II regions (NGC 588, 592, and 595). It was among the first \"spiral nebulae\" identified as such by Lord Rosse in 1850. In 1922–23, John Charles Duncan and Max Wolf discovered variable stars in the nebulae. Edwin Hubble showed in 1926 that 35 of these stars were classical Cepheids, thereby allowing him to estimate their distances. The results were consistent with the concept of spiral nebulae being independent galactic systems of gas and dust, rather than just nebulae in the Milky Way.",
"With a diameter of about 60,000 light-years, the Triangulum galaxy is the third largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, roughly 60% the size of the Milky Way. It may be a gravitationally bound companion of the Andromeda Galaxy. Triangulum may be home to 40 billion stars, compared to 400 billion for the Milky Way, and 1 trillion stars for Andromeda Galaxy. The disk of Triangulum has an estimated mass of solar masses, while the gas component is about solar masses. Thus the combined mass of all baryonic matter in the galaxy may be 10 solar masses. The contribution of the dark matter component out to a radius of is equivalent to about solar masses.",
"Estimates of the distance to the Triangulum galaxy range from (or 2.38 to 3.07 Mly), with most estimates since the year 2000 lying in the middle portion of this range, making it slightly more distant than the Andromeda Galaxy (at 2,540,000 light-years). At least three techniques have been used to measure distances to M 33. Using the Cepheid variable method, an estimate of was achieved in 2004. In the same year, the tip of the red-giant branch (TRGB) method was used to derive a distance estimate of. In 2006, a group of astronomers announced the discovery of an eclipsing binary star in the Triangulum Galaxy. By studying the eclipses of the stars, astronomers were able to measure their sizes. Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars they were able to measure the absolute magnitude of the stars. When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known, the distance to the star can be measured. The stars lie at the distance of. The average of 102 distance estimates published since 1987 gives a distance modulus of 24.69, or.883 Mpc (2,878,000 light-years). The Triangulum galaxy is a source of HO maser emission. In 2005, using observations of two water masers on opposite sides of Triangulum via the VLBA, researchers were, for the first time, able to estimate the angular rotation and proper motion of Triangulum. A velocity of relative to the Milky Way was computed, which means Triangulum is moving towards Andromeda Galaxy and suggesting it may be a satellite of the larger galaxy (depending on their relative distances and margins of error). In 2004, evidence was announced of a clumpy stream of hydrogen gas linking the Andromeda Galaxy with Triangulum, suggesting that the two may have tidally interacted in the past. This discovery was confirmed in 2011. A distance of less than 300 kiloparsecs between the two supports this hypothesis. The Pisces Dwarf (LGS 3), one of the small Local Group member galaxies, is located from the Sun. It is 20° from the Andromeda Galaxy and 11° from Triangulum. As LGS 3 lies at a distance of from both galaxies, it could be a satellite galaxy of either Andromeda or Triangulum. LGS 3 has a core radius of and solar masses.",
"In the French astronomer Gérard de Vaucouleurs' revised Hubble Sandage (VRHS) system of galaxy morphological classification, the Triangulum galaxy is classified as type SA(s)cd. The \"S\" prefix indicates that it is a disk-shaped galaxy with prominent arms of gas and dust that spiral out from the nucleus—what is commonly known as a spiral galaxy. The \"A\" is assigned when the galactic nucleus lacks a bar-shaped structure, in contrast to \"SB\" class barred spiral galaxies. American astronomer Allan Sandage's \"(s)\" notation is used when the spiral arms emerge directly from the nucleus or central bar, rather than from an inner ring as with an (r)-type galaxy. Finally, the \"cd\" suffix represents a stage along the spiral sequence that describes the openness of the arms. A rating of \"cd\" indicates relatively loosely wound arms. This galaxy has an inclination of 54° to the line of sight from the Earth, allowing the structure to be examined without significant obstruction by gas and dust. The disk of the Triangulum galaxy appears warped out to a radius of about 8 kpc. There may be a halo surrounding the galaxy, but there is no bulge at the nucleus. This is an isolated galaxy and there are no indications of recent mergers or interactions with other galaxies, and it lacks the dwarf spheroidals or tidal tails associated with the Milky Way. Triangulum is classified as unbarred, but an analysis of the galaxy shape shows what may be a weak bar-like structure about the galactic nucleus. The radial extent of this structure is about 0.8 kpc. The nucleus of this galaxy is an H II region, and it contains an ultraluminous X-ray source with an emission of, which is the most luminous source of X-rays in the Local Group of galaxies. This source is modulated by 20% over a 106-day cycle. However, the nucleus does not appear to contain a supermassive black hole, as an upper limit of 3,000 solar masses is placed on the mass of a central black hole based upon the velocity of stars in the core region. The inner part of the galaxy has two luminous spiral arms, along with multiple spurs that connect the inner to the outer spiral features. The main arms are designated IN (north) and IS (south).",
"In the central 4′ region of this galaxy, atomic gas is being efficiently converted to molecular gas, resulting in a strong spectral emission of CO. This effect occurs as giant molecular clouds condense out of the surrounding interstellar medium. A similar process is taking place outside the central 4′, but at a less efficient pace. About 10% of the gas content in this galaxy is in the molecular form. Star formation is taking place at a rate that is strongly correlated with the local gas density, and the rate per unit area is higher than in the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy. (The rate of star formation is about 3.4 Gyr pc in the Triangulum galaxy, compared to 0.74 in Andromeda.) The total integrated rate of star formation in the Triangulum galaxy is about. It is uncertain whether this net rate is currently decreasing or remaining constant. Based on analysis of the chemical composition of this galaxy, it appears to be divided into two distinct components with differing histories. The inner disk within a radius of has a typical composition gradient that decreases linearly from the core. Beyond this radius, out to about, the gradient is much flatter. This suggests a different star formation history between the inner disk and the outer disk and halo, and may be explained by a scenario of \"inside-out\" galaxy formation. This occurs when gas is accumulated at large radii later in a galaxy's life space, while the gas at the core becomes exhausted. The result is a decrease in the average age of stars with increasing radius from the galaxy core.",
"Using infrared observations from the Spitzer Space Telescope, a total of 515 discrete candidate sources of 24 μm emission within the Triangulum galaxy have been catalogued as of 2007. The brightest sources lie within the central region of the galaxy and along the spiral arms. Many of the emission sources are associated with H II regions of star formation. The four brightest HII regions are designated NGC 588, NGC 592, NGC 595, and NGC 604. These regions are associated with molecular clouds containing solar masses. The brightest of these regions, NGC 604, may have undergone a discrete outburst of star formation about three million years ago. This nebula is the second most luminous HII region within the Local Group of galaxies, at times the luminosity of the Sun. Other prominent HII regions in Triangulum include IC 132, IC 133, and IK 53. The northern main spiral arm contains four large HII regions, while the southern arm has greater concentrations of young, hot stars. The estimated rate of supernova explosions in the Triangulum Galaxy is 0.06 Type Ia and 0.62 Type Ib/Type II per century. This is equivalent to a supernova explosion every 147 years, on average. As of 2008, a total of 100 supernova remnants have been identified in the Triangulum Galaxy, the majority of which lies in the southern half of the spiral galaxy. Similar asymmetries exist for H I and H II regions, plus highly luminous concentrations of massive, O type stars. The center of the distribution of these features is offset about two arc minutes to the southwest. M33 being a local galaxy, the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT) tracks novae in it along with M31 and M81. About 54 globular clusters have been identified in this galaxy, but the actual number may be 122 or more. The confirmed clusters may be several billion years younger than globular clusters in the Milky Way, and cluster formation appears to have increased during the past 100 million years. This increase is correlated with an inflow of gas into the center of the galaxy. The ultraviolet emission of massive stars in this galaxy matches the level of similar stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud. In 2007, a black hole about 15.7 times the mass of the Sun was detected in this galaxy using data from the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The black hole, named M33 X-7, orbits a companion star which it eclipses every 3.5 days. It is the largest stellar mass black hole known.",
"As mentioned above, M33 is linked to M31 by several streams of neutral hydrogen and stars, which suggests that a past interaction between these two galaxies took place from 2 to 8 billion years ago, and a more violent encounter will occur 2.5 billion years in the future. The fate of M33 was sketchy in 2009 beyond seeming to be linked to its larger neighbor M31. Suggested scenarios include being torn apart and absorbed by the greater companion, fueling the latter with hydrogen to form new stars; eventually exhausting all of its gas, and thus the ability to form new stars; or participating in the collision between the Milky Way and M31, likely ending up orbiting the merger product and fusing with it much later. Two other possibilities are a collision with the Milky Way before the Andromeda Galaxy arrives or an ejection out of the Local Group. Astrometric data from Gaia appears to rule out the possibility that M33 and M31 are in orbit. If correct, M33 is on its first infall proper into the Andromeda Galaxy (M31)."
]
} |
Jim Davis (cartoonist) | null | James Robert Davis (born July 28, 1945) is an American cartoonist, best known as the creator of the comic strips "Garfield" and "U.S. Acres" (a.k.a. "Orson's Farm"). Published since 1978, "Garfield" is one of the world's most widely syndicated comic strips. Davis's other comics work includes "Tumbleweeds", "Gnorm Gnat" and "Mr. Potato Head". | null | [
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"title": [
"Personal life.",
"Career."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"James Robert Davis was born in Marion, Indiana, on July 28, 1945. Davis grew up on a small farm in Fairmount, Indiana, with his father James William \"Jim\" Davis, mother Anna Catherine \"Betty\" (née Carter) Davis, and his brother, Dave Davis. Davis's childhood on a farm parallels the life of Garfield's owner, Jon Arbuckle, who was also raised on a farm with his parents and a brother, Doc Boy. Jon is a cartoonist, who also celebrates his birthday on July 28. Davis attended Ball State University where he studied art and business. While attending Ball State, he became a member of the Theta Xi fraternity. He worked for various things for his high school, such as his schools newspaper called Breeze in 1962 and his senior yearbook in 1963 Senior Wills. The first character he made was called Herbie, a senior. The earliest comic strip appeared in the yearbook on May 21, 1963. Davis has been married twice, first to Carolyn (Altekruse), who was allergic to cats, though they owned a dog named Molly. They have a son. On July 16, 2000, Davis married Jill, who had two children from a previous marriage. Davis joined the faculty of Ball State University in Muncie as an adjunct professor in fall 2006, lecturing on the creative and business aspects of the comics industry. Davis resides in Albany, Indiana, where he and his staff produce \"Garfield\" under his Paws, Inc. company, launched in 1981. Paws, Inc. employs nearly 50 artists and licensing administrators, who work with agents around the world managing Garfield's vast licensing, syndication, and entertainment empire. Davis is a former president of the Fairmount, Indiana FFA chapter. In December 2019, Davis announced that he would be holding weekly auctions for all hand-painted Garfield comics made from 1978 to 2011. As Davis explained, he started drawing comics digitally using a graphics tablet in 2011. Older comics remained sealed in a climate-controlled safe, and Davis had to figure out what to do with them.",
"Prior to creating Garfield, Davis worked for an advertising agency, and in 1969, he began assisting Tom Ryan's comic strip, \"Tumbleweeds\". He then created a comic strip, \"Gnorm Gnat\", that ran for three years (1973–1975) in \"The Pendleton Times\", a newspaper in Pendleton, Indiana. When Davis attempted to sell it to a national comic strip syndicate, an editor told him: \"Your art is good, your gags are great, but bugs—nobody can relate to bugs!\" He then began studying the comic strips; still firmly believing that animals were funny, he took note of how Snoopy was not only a scene stealer in the \"Peanuts\" comic strips, but that he was far more of a marketing success than his owner Charlie Brown. Deciding that the comic market was oversaturated with dogs, he decided to create a cat character as the lead of his next strip instead. From 1976 to early 1978, Davis then published a strip titled \"Jon\" in \"The Pendleton Times\" which would later become \"Garfield\", starting syndication in 41 newspapers on June 19, 1978. Today it is syndicated in 2,580 newspapers and is read by approximately 300 million readers every day. In the 1980s, Davis created the barnyard slapstick comic strip \"U.S. Acres\". Outside the U.S., the strip was known as \"Orson's Farm\". Davis, along with Brett Koth, also made a 2000–03 strip based on the Mr. Potato Head toy. Davis founded the Professor Garfield Foundation to support children's literacy. His influences include Mort Walker's \"Beetle Bailey\" and \"Hi and Lois\", Charles M. Schulz's \"Peanuts\", Milton Caniff's \"Steve Canyon\" and Johnny Hart's \"B.C\"."
]
} |
Oasis | null | In geography, an oasis (, plural oases, ) is a fertile area (often having a date palm grove) in a desert or semi-desert environment. Oases also provide habitats for animals and plants. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1417490 | en-train-1417490 | 1417490 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Description.",
"Historical significance.",
"Growing plants."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"The word \"oasis\" came into English from, from,, which in turn is a direct borrowing from Demotic Egyptian. The word for \"oasis\" in the later attested Coptic language (the descendant of Demotic Egyptian) is \"wahe\" or \"ouahe\" which means a \"dwelling place\".",
"Oases are made fertile when sources of freshwater, such as underground rivers or aquifers, irrigate the surface naturally or via man-made wells. The presence of water on the surface or underground is necessary and the local or regional management of this essential resource is strategic, but not sufficient to create such areas: continuous human work and know-how (a technical and social culture) are essential to maintain such ecosystems. Rain showers provide subterranean water to sustain natural oases, such as the Tuat. Substrata of impermeable rock and stone can trap water and retain it in pockets, or on long faulting subsurface ridges or volcanic dikes water can collect and percolate to the surface. Any incidence of water is then used by migrating birds, which also pass seeds with their droppings which will grow at the water's edge forming an oasis. It can also be used to plant crops.",
"The location of oases has been of critical importance for trade and transportation routes in desert areas; caravans must travel via oases so that supplies of water and food can be replenished. Thus, political or military control of an oasis has in many cases meant control of trade on a particular route. For example, the oases of Awjila, Ghadames and Kufra, situated in modern-day Libya, have at various times been vital to both north–south and east–west trade in the Sahara Desert. The Silk Road across Central Asia also incorporated several oases. In North American history, oases have been less prominent since the desert regions are smaller, however several areas in the deep southwestern United States have oases regions that served as important links through the hot deserts and vast rural areas. While present day desert cities like Las Vegas, Phoenix, Palm Springs, and Tucson are large modern cities, many of these locations were once small, isolated farming areas that travelers through the western desert stopped for food and supplies. Even today, there are several roads that go through western deserts like U.S. Route 50 through southern Nevada, and the Mojave Desert that feature small green fields, citrus groves and small isolated supply towns.",
"People who live in an oasis must manage land and water use carefully; fields must be irrigated to grow plants like apricots, dates, figs, and olives. The most important plant in an oasis is the date palm, which forms the upper layer. These palm trees provide shade for smaller trees like peach trees, which form the middle layer. By growing plants in different layers, the farmers make best use of the soil and water. Many vegetables are also grown and some cereals, such as barley, millet, and wheat, are grown where there is more moisture. In summary, an oasis palm grove is a highly anthropized and irrigated area that supports a traditionally intensive and polyculture-based agriculture. The oasis is integrated into its desert environment through an often close association with nomadic transhumant livestock farming (very often pastoral and sedentary populations are clearly distinguished). However, the oasis is emancipated from the desert by a very particular social and ecosystem structure. Responding to environmental constraints, it is an integrated agriculture that is conducted with the superposition (in its typical form) of two or three strata creating what is called the \"oasis effect\":"
]
} |
Gustavo Kuerten | null | Gustavo Kuerten (; born 10 September 1976), nicknamed Guga, is a retired World No. 1 tennis player from Brazil. He won the French Open singles title three times (1997, 2000, and 2001), and was the Tennis Masters Cup champion in 2000. Kuerten suffered many problems with injuries which resulted in his non-attendances at many tournaments in 2002 and between 2004 and 2008. After two hip surgeries and a few failed attempted comebacks, he retired from top-level tennis in May 2008. During his career he won 20 singles and 8 doubles titles. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-33711 | en-train-33711 | 33711 | {
"title": [
"Professional career.",
"1997: Entering the top 10.",
"1999: Top 5 debut.",
"2000: World No. 1.",
"2001: Continued dominance, start of injuries.",
"2004.",
"2006.",
"2007.",
"2008.",
"Retirement.",
"Playing style.",
"Davis Cup.",
"Equipment and sponsors.",
"Personal life.",
"Awards and honors."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
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"content": [
"As a junior player in South America, Guga won many of the most important tournaments in the region. He often played in an age group above his. After two years as a professional, Kuerten rose to the position of No. 2 player in Brazil, behind Fernando Meligeni, and he had his then highest point by helping the Brazil Davis Cup team defeat Austria in 1996 and reach the competition's first division, the World Group. Following his unexpected victory in the 1997 French Open - which was not only his maiden ATP Tour victory but also the first time he had reached a professional ranking final - Kuerten had a difficult year and a half, adjusting to his sudden fame and the pressure of being expected to win. 1998 was the worst year in his career that was not related to injuries. The pressure for him to become an \"ambassador\" for tennis in Brazil was made evident after his early defeat to a then unknown Marat Safin in the 1998 French Open: the entire body of Brazilian journalists that had been dispatched to Paris to cover the event immediately returned home, leaving the rest of the tournament unaccounted for in Brazil. Like many South American players, his favorite court surface is clay. He won three Grand Slam titles, all of them at the French Open, played on the red clay courts of Roland Garros. He won these titles in 1997, 2000 and 2001. In every one of the three French Open victories he defeated Russia's Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the quarterfinals and two top 10 players on his way to the title. Kuerten became the world No. 1 player in 2000. Kuerten won at least one title a year between 1997 and 2004. The streak came to an end in 2005, when injuries and below-average performances kept him from winning tournaments. He was also a regular participant for Brazil in the Davis Cup.",
"Fresh from winning a Challenger title, Kuerten unexpectedly won the 1997 French Open, the first Brazilian to win a Grand Slam singles title since Maria Bueno at the 1966 U.S. Open. The tournament was only his third grand slam, setting a record for any player in the open era, tied with Mats Wilander. He remains the only player to win a Challenger and a Grand Slam in consecutive weeks. Victories over former champions of the previous four French Opens - Thomas Muster (1995) in the third round in five sets, Yevgeny Kafelnikov (1996) in the quarterfinals in five sets and Sergi Bruguera (1993, 1994) in the final - make him the third-lowest ranked Grand Slam Champion (ranked 66th), and his victory led to him entering the Association of Tennis Professionals top 20. Only Mark Edmondson (ranked 212th) and Goran Ivanišević (ranked 125th) were ranked lower than Kuerten when winning a Grand Slam singles title. He received his French Open trophy from former champions Björn Borg and Guillermo Vilas. When called to the stage to receive the winner's trophy, Kuerten reverently bowed a few times to his childhood idol Borg, who was waiting at the top of the stairs to shake his hand. Later, during the ceremony, Vilas whispered something in Kuerten's ear that caused him to laugh during the speech of the chairman of the event. Kuerten later refused to reveal what it was that Vilas had said, claiming it would be inelegant to do so, but journalists that were equipped with powerful lenses were able to read Vilas's lips, and it was revealed that he had said in Spanish something like: \"Get ready kid, it's going to rain women on your lap!\".",
"He established himself as the leading clay court player of his generation in 1999, and he became one of three South Americans to complete the year in the top 10 in all the history of the ATP rankings. In April he won the Monte-Carlo Masters beating the chilean Marcelo Rios. In May he won the Rome Masters, beating Patrick Rafter in the final. In June he reached the quarterfinals at the French Open. losing to unseeded eventual runner-up Andriy Medvedev. At Wimbledon, he became the first Brazilian to reach the quarterfinals since Thomaz Koch in 1968. He was defeated by Andre Agassi in the quarterfinals, but had lost just one set until that stage. In July, he defeated Sébastien Grosjean 9–7 in the fifth set of the 1999 Davis Cup quarterfinal between Brazil and France. That match lasted 4 hours and 43 minutes. He also became the first Brazilian to qualify for the ATP Tennis Masters Cup, today known as the ATP World Tour Finals, winning a match but failing to get past round robin.",
"After another solid clay court swing, Kuerten won his second French Open title by defeating Magnus Norman (who had beaten him a few weeks earlier in the final of the Rome Masters) on his 11th match point. Kuerten became the first South American to finish the year as World No. 1 in the history of the ATP rankings (since 1973). It was a close contest with young up-and-comer Marat Safin at the year's last event, the Tennis Masters Cup (in its first year under that name) in Lisbon, Portugal, with one loss meaning that Safin would have been No. 1. Despite Safin having 4 chances to finish the year as world No. 1, Kuerten defied all odds and finished the year at No. 1 by beating Pete Sampras and Andre Agassi in back-to-back matches on an indoor hard court. He broke an eight-year hold of players from the U.S. on the year-end No. 1 position. He also became the first South American to finish in Top 5 in consecutive years since Guillermo Vilas of Argentina in 1977–78.",
"In 2001, he won his third French Open crown, joining former greats Björn Borg (6), Ivan Lendl (3) and Mats Wilander (3) with three or more French Open titles in the Open Era; former champion Jim Courier presented him with the trophy. His road to the title saw him save a match point against fourth round opponent Michael Russell. He also won the biggest hardcourt title of his career in August at the Cincinnati Masters, where he defeated Patrick Rafter in the final. At the US Open he was seeded first but lost in the quarterfinals in straight sets to seventh-seeded Yevgeni Kafelnikov. Injuries started to plague Kuerten as he lost 8 of the next 9 matches to conclude the year. Despite being the favorite to finish as world No. 1 for the second consecutive year, his poor season ending showing saw Lleyton Hewitt overtake him. He led the ATP in prize money for the second straight year, with US$4,091,004.",
"At the Australian Open Kuerten reached the third round for the first, and only, time in his career by defeating Ivan Ljubičić in the second round in four sets but subsequently lost to Paradorn Schrichapan. In an injury-ridden year, Kuerten won one ATP Tour title, which he did at home, by winning the Brasil Open for the second time. In that year, the tournament had been moved from September to February, and the surface had been changed from hard to clay, as a result of a compromise with the Buenos Aires Open, in Argentina, and the Viña del Mar Open, in Chile, to tighten up a clear South American tournament circuit. With his victory, Kuerten became the only player to win the title on both surfaces, having previously won it in 2002. Kuerten was responsible for the only defeat of Roger Federer in a Grand Slam event in 2004. In Kuerten's only previous encounter against Federer on clay, in the Hamburg Masters 2002, Federer defeated Kuerten 6–0, 1–6, 6–2. When they met again in the third round at the French Open in 2004, it was Federer who was in dominant form, the world no. 1, and expected to win against the injury-ridden Kuerten. Instead, it was Kuerten who overpowered and dominated Federer, beating him in straight sets. This would remain the last time that Federer was defeated in any Grand Slam prior to the quarterfinals stage until his round 2 loss against Serhiy Stakhovsky at Wimbledon in 2013. On 1 September Kuerten announced that he would be withdrawing from the ATP Tour for an indefinite period of time, in order to undergo detailed exams of his operated hip, which had reportedly started to bother him again. He did not play again for the rest of the year.",
"In the first months of 2006, injuries and weak performances kept Kuerten from reclaiming his status as a top world player. Ranked out of the top 200, Kuerten was no longer the top player in Brazil (currently behind Ricardo Mello and Flávio Saretta) and was expected to need wildcards to play any of the main tournaments of the season. His main attempt to come back, at the 2006 Brasil Open, was cut short in the first round. Following this debacle, Kuerten managed to obtain wildcards to play in the two North American Masters Series events, Miami and Indian Wells, but injuries forced Kuerten to withdraw from both. The French Tennis Federation had announced that Kuerten, as a three-time champion, would have every chance of being granted a wildcard to play at the 2006 French Open, provided that he managed to remain active throughout the 2006 season leading up to the French Open. Because Kuerten had been inactive in the Men's Tour since mid-February, he was not granted the wildcard to play, thus missing the French Open for the first time in his professional career.",
"Kuerten's form did not improve in 2007. Because his ranking was not high enough to qualify for ATP Tour tournaments, Kuerten relied on wild cards to enter those events. Kuerten finished with a 2–7 win–loss record for the year. In November, Gustavo Kuerten's younger brother, Guilherme, who had cerebral palsy, died.",
"Kuerten made an announcement that he expected 2008 to be his final year of play. Kuerten chose to devise his schedule around tournaments that had sentimental value to him, such as the French Open, the Brasil Open, and the Miami Masters. After two first-round defeats in singles (Costa do Sauípe, l. to Berlocq and Miami, l. to Grosjean), Kuerten won his first ATP Masters Series level match in a long time, partnering Nicolás Lapentti, in Miami, against Feliciano López and Fernando Verdasco.",
"On 25 May 2008, Gustavo Kuerten played his last professional singles match in front of 15,000 spectators at Roland Garros. He arrived on court wearing his 'lucky' uniform, the same blue & yellow one that he wore in 1997 when he won his first French Open tournament. Despite saving a match point against his opponent Paul-Henri Mathieu, he finally lost in three sets (6–3, 6–4, 6–2)—his result in the final of French Open in 1997. He was honored after the game by the tournament organizers and by all the fans present for what he has achieved throughout his career.",
"Kuerten embraced the baseline style of play, with heavy topspin on his ground strokes and a solid serve that enabled him to wear down his opponents from the back of the court. Kuerten, however, emphasized offensive baseline play as opposed to the traditional defensive baseline play favoured by classic clay court specialists, and unlike them, his first serve was his biggest weapon. He played right-handed with a single-handed backhand using a western grip. The arcing backhand played with topspin was his trademark shot. He was one of the earliest adopters to play with polyester strings which allowed him to swing for pace and at the same time create the topspin needed to control the ball.",
"Kuerten was first called to play for Brazil in the Davis Cup in 1996, when he became the second-best ranked player in the country (to Fernando Meligeni). Since then, Kuerten has always answered the invitations to play, claiming that it was a unique opportunity to represent his country. In the 1999 and 2000 seasons, Kuerten took criticism from his fans, who accused him of not giving 100% in the Davis Cup matches. They claimed he was more concerned with sparing his energy for the ATP tournaments. At one point, Kuerten interrupted a match to argue with a fan who had shouted out for him to apply himself to the match at hand. In 2004, following the country's unexpected defeat to Canada in the Repechage match, and the country's demotion to the American Group I after having been defeated by Sweden in that year's First Round, discontent with the politics of the Brazilian Tennis Confederation spilled over. Kuerten refused to play for Brazil in the American Group I. The unexpected firing of then captain of the Brazilian team, Ricardo Accioly, was the trigger. Kuerten thought it was an arbitrary decision, since it was made without consulting the players. In his view that was just the last in a sequence of questionable decisions made by organization's board. All other professional Brazilian players followed Kuerten's lead, as well as the newly appointed captain, former player Jaime Oncins. As a result, Brazil had to play the first round in the Zonal Group with a team made up of junior players (which was only possible after much negotiation, during which time the country was at risk of forfeiting the Round, which would have resulted in automatic demoting to the American Group II), which resulted in a defeat and the possibility of demotion to the American Group II. The protest continued, and as a result, Brazil had to play the Repechage match again with a junior team, and was demoted to the American Group II for the 2005 season. As of 2005, following the fall of the BTC board in the aftermath of the protest, Kuerten and the other players have decided to return to the team, now captained by former player Fernando Meligeni. Kuerten, however, had to delay his return beyond the end of the players' strike, since his hip injuries kept him off courts between September 2004 and May 2005. He returned in the Tie with the Netherlands Antilles, valid for the Second Round of the American Zonal Group II, which was played in Santa Catarina, Brazil (on clay) between July 15 and July 17, 2005.",
"During his career, Guga used Head racquets with Luxilon polyester strings. He wore Diadora clothes, changing them on a short period for Olympikus and Head. In 2012, after his retirement, he signed a sponsor deal with French brands Lacoste (for clothes) and Peugeot (for TV commercials). Guga also has his own clothes and glasses brand, named \"Guga Kuerten\".",
"Kuerten was born in Florianópolis in southern Brazil. He began playing tennis when he was six, an early start to a life and career marked by family tragedy. His father, Aldo, a former amateur tennis player, died of a heart attack in 1985 while umpiring a junior tennis match in Curitiba, when Kuerten was eight years old. His older brother, Raphael, is currently his business manager. His youngest brother, Guilherme, suffered prolonged oxygen deprivation and consequently irreparable brain damage during birth, and as a result suffered from mental retardation and severe physical disability until his death in 2007. Kuerten was deeply affected by his brother's daily struggles, later donating the entire prize money from one tournament he has won every year of his professional career so far to a hometown NGO that provides assistance for people suffering from similar disabilities. He gave every trophy he won to his younger brother as a souvenir, including the three miniature replicas of the French Open men's singles trophy. As a young player, Kuerten first learned from Carlos Alves. Alves would continue to coach Kuerten for the next 8 years. When he was 14 years old, Kuerten met Larri Passos who would be his coach for the following 15 years. Passos convinced Kuerten and his family that the youth was talented enough to make a living out of playing tennis. The two started traveling all over the world to participate in junior tournaments. Kuerten turned professional in 1995. In 2000, he founded the Gustavo Kuerten Institute, a non-profit philanthropic association based in Florianópolis in support of children and disabled people. Since retirement he has settled down in his place of birth, the Brazilian island of Florianópolis, where he is an active member in the lakeside district of Lagoa da Conceição. He still enjoys teaching and playing tennis with the local enthusiasts. In his hometown, he is known as the \"Cachorro Grande\" (\"Big Dog\"). He is an avid surfer. Kuerten was accepted to a drama course at CEART, the Center of Arts of Santa Catarina State University (UDESC) in Florianópolis. He began his studies there on 16 February 2009. In November 2010, on his brother Guilherme's birthday, he married Mariana Soncini and the couple have a daughter and a son. In October 2016 he was in court for tax evasion, related to income earned from copyright and image rights between 1995 and 2002, and in November was ordered to pay 7 million R$ (appr. US$2 million). His favourite football team is Brazilian Avaí Futebol Clube. He is a distant cousin to model and TV presenter, Renata Kuerten.",
"In 1998, 2002 and 2004 Kuerten received the Prix Orange Roland Garros Award for sportsmanship from the association of tennis journalists. In his homeland Brazil he was awarded the Prêmio Brasil Olímpico in 1999 and was named Athlete of the Year in 1999 and 2000. He received the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year Award in 2003. Kuerten was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2012. In June 2016 he became their global ambassador, representing the organisation, especially in South America. In 2005, \"Tennis Magazine\" put him in 37th place in its list of \"The 40 Greatest Players of the \"Tennis\" Era\". On 16 February 2016, the central court of Rio Open was named after him, officially Guga Kuerten court. On 5 August 2016, he relayed the Olympic Torch into Maracanã Stadium during the Opening Ceremonies for 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, relaying off to Hortencia Marcari."
]
} |
Thomas Muster | null | Thomas Muster (born 2 October 1967) is a former world No. 1 tennis player from Austria. One of the world's leading clay court players in the 1990s, he won the 1995 French Open and at his peak was known as "The King of Clay." In addition, he won eight Masters 1000 Series titles. Muster is one of the nine players to win Super 9/ATP Masters Series/ATP World Tour Masters 1000 titles on clay, hardcourt and indoors. | null | [
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"title": [
"Tennis career.",
"Juniors.",
"Pro tour.",
"Equipment.",
"Records.",
"Singles performance timeline.",
"Record against No. 1 players.",
"Private life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
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"content": [
"",
"Muster first came to prominence when he reached the final of the French Open junior tournament and the Orange Bowl juniors tournament in 1985.",
"Muster played his first matches at the top-level in 1984, as a junior player, at the age of 16. In 1984, he played his first match for Austria in the Davis Cup. He also played at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, and in two tournaments on Austrian soil, the clay-court event in Kitzbühel and the indoor carpet event in Vienna. Muster turned professional in 1985, regularly playing in Challenger tournaments throughout the year, winning in Belo Horizonte, as well as continuing to play in many top-level tournaments. Muster won his first top-level tournament at the Dutch Open in Hilversum in 1986. In 1988, Muster reached six top-level tournament finals, winning four of them, in Boston, Bordeaux, Prague and Bari. Muster finished the year ranked 16th in the world. Early in 1989, he became the first Austrian to reach the semifinals of the Australian Open, eventually losing in four sets to world No. 1, Ivan Lendl. Shortly after that, he became the first Austrian to reach the world top 10. On the night of 31 March 1989, he defeated Yannick Noah in five sets in the semifinals of the Lipton International Players Championships in Key Biscayne, Florida, to set up a final against Lendl. However, in the early hours of 1 April 1989, just hours after his semifinal victory, he was struck by a drunk driver, severing ligaments in his left knee and forcing him to default the final. Muster flew back to Vienna to undergo surgery. With the aid of a special chair designed to allow him to practice hitting balls while recovering from knee surgery, he returned to competitive tennis in September 1989. Muster's comeback continued in 1990, when he won three top-level tournaments on clay (including the Italian Open, defeating Andrés Gómez in the semifinals and Andrei Chesnokov in the final) and one title on hardcourt. Muster reached the semifinals of the 1990 French Open, losing in straight sets to the eventual champion, Andrés Gómez. He also helped Austria reach the semifinals of the Davis Cup, where they were eliminated 3–2 by the United States, despite winning both of his singles rubbers against Michael Chang and Andre Agassi. That year, he was named the ATP Tour's \"Comeback Player of the Year.\" In 1990, Muster won the Austrian Sportsman of the Year award. Muster won two more top-level tournaments in 1991, and three more in 1992 (all on clay courts), with the biggest of these titles being the 1992 Monte Carlo title, where he defeated Aaron Krickstein in the final. In 1993, Muster won seven titles. Muster's win-loss record on clay in 1993 was 55–10, although he failed to win any of the four big clay-court events of the year. At both the 1992 and 1993 French Opens, Muster was defeated by the reigning French Open and Australian Open champion Jim Courier. At the 1994 French Open, he won his second round match against Andre Agassi in five sets but was then defeated by the serve-and-volley play of Patrick Rafter in the next round, with Rafter's four set victory denying Muster a match against the reigning French Open champion Sergi Bruguera. Muster won three clay-court titles in 1994. In March 1994, he defeated Michael Stich of Germany in a first round Davis Cup tie in Graz, 6–4, 6–7, 4–6, 6–3, 12–10, after saving a match point when trailing at 7–8 in the fifth set. Despite Muster's win over Stich bringing Austria level at 2–2 in the tie, it was Germany who eventually won the decisive fifth rubber. In 1995, Muster enjoyed the best year of his career winning 12 tournaments, with 11 of those tournaments won on clay-courts. Between February and June 1995, Muster won 40 consecutive matches on clay (the longest winning streak on the surface since Björn Borg had won 46 matches between 1977–79). At the 1995 Monte Carlo Masters, he defeated Andrea Gaudenzi in the semifinals, despite struggling heavily in the latter stages of the match due to having a shortage of glucose in his blood and suffering a 40° fever, which required a brief spell in hospital after the match. The next day, he won the final against Boris Becker, after a tough match, by 4–6, 5–7, 6–1, 7–6, 6–0, with Muster surviving two championship points in the fourth set tiebreak, the first of which saw Becker double-faulting after going for a big second serve. He went on to win his second Italian Open title, defeating Sergi Bruguera in the final. At the 1995 French Open, Muster won his first and only Grand Slam singles title, defeating Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the semifinals and comfortably beating 1989 champion Michael Chang in the final. Muster is the only Austrian to win a Grand Slam singles title. His win-loss record on clay in 1995 was a remarkable 65–2. Although his record on other surfaces was less impressive, a late season victory over Pete Sampras on fast indoor carpet, during his run to the title of the Masters event in Germany, gave Muster an outside chance at finishing the year no. 1; however, Sampras finished the year at no. 1. Of the 12 tournaments that Muster won in 1995, Muster saved at least one match point held against him during six of them, with those six tournaments being held in Estoril, Barcelona, Monte Carlo, St. Pölten, Stuttgart Outdoor and Umag. In 1995, Muster won the Austrian Sportsman of the Year award for the second time. Muster continued to rack up clay-court victories in 1996. He won seven tournaments, six of them titles he successfully defended after winning them the year before. These 1996 tournament victories included his third Monte Carlo title, where he defeated clay court specialist Albert Costa in the final, and his third Italian Open title, defeating Richard Krajicek in the final. Muster's win-loss record on clay in 1996 was an impressive 46–3. This made his 1995–96 record on the surface 111–5, which was, at the time, the best two-year clay-court record since the open era began in 1968. Despite Muster's continued dominance on clay-courts in 1996, he was upset in the Round of 16 at the 1996 French Open, losing to eventual finalist Michael Stich. In July 1996, in the final of the 1996 Mercedes Cup in Stuttgart, Muster defeated the French Open champion Yevgeny Kafelnikov in three straight sets. In February 1996, Muster attained the world no. 1 ranking for the first time. He held the ranking initially for just one week, and then regained it for five weeks over March and April 1996. The validity of Muster's number one ranking was called into question by top Americans Pete Sampras and Andre Agassi, who argued that he had achieved the top spot based almost solely on his clay court results, although Muster had beaten Sampras on indoor carpet at the 1995 Masters event in Germany, and Agassi had only won tournaments on hardcourt in 1995. In 1997, Muster enjoyed the best results of his career on hardcourt. He reached the semifinals of the 1997 Australian Open, losing to eventual champion Pete Sampras. He then went on to win the tournament in Dubai, defeating Goran Ivanišević in the final. Muster went on to win his biggest title on hardcourt at the 1997 Miami Masters, the same tournament where his career had nearly ended eight years earlier, by defeating Sergi Bruguera in three straight sets in the final, after Bruguera had defeated Sampras in the semifinals. Muster was also the runner-up at the Cincinnati Masters, where he lost in the final to Sampras. He achieved a 29–8 win-loss record on hardcourt during 1997, although he only won nine out of 18 matches on clay in the same year. Muster's 1997 French Open campaign ended in the third round, when the unseeded Gustavo Kuerten, then ranked at 66 in the world, defeated him. Kuerten went on to win the 1997 French Open title and usher in a new era on clay. Muster reached his last top-level tournament final in Estoril (on clay) in 1998, losing to Alberto Berasategui. At the 1998 French Open, Muster reached the quarterfinals, before losing to Félix Mantilla in four sets, with Mantilla getting revenge for his 1998 Italian Open defeat. Muster's 1998 results faded after the spring, as he reached just one semifinal (Mallorca), and one quarterfinal (Boston), for the remainder of the year. Muster opened 1999 with a semifinal showing in Sydney, but then struggled over the next few months, winning just 2 of his 12 matches after Sydney. Following his first-round loss to Nicolás Lapentti at the 1999 French Open, he hung up his racquet at the age of 31. Muster remains the only world No. 1 singles player who has never managed to win a men's singles match at Wimbledon throughout his whole career. Muster only lost one Davis Cup singles match on clay in his career, when Goran Ivanišević defeated him in April 1997, 6–7, 7–5, 6–7, 6–2, 7–5, despite Muster having won 112 of his previous 117 matches on clay going into the match. Muster's overall Davis Cup win-loss record, counting both singles and doubles matches, was 45–18. Muster's win-loss record in Davis Cup singles matches was 36–8, while his win-loss record in Davis Cup singles matches on clay was 29–1. Muster has more match wins in Davis Cup than any other Austrian tennis player. After he stopped playing tennis after the 1999 French Open, Muster moved to Noosa Heads, Queensland, Australia, where he had officially resided since 1996, and married television presenter Jo Beth Taylor in 2000. The couple have a son, Christian, who was born in 2001. Muster and Taylor separated in 2002 and divorced in 2005. In 2003, Muster moved back to Austria, to work as a coach and captain of the Austrian Davis Cup team. He has played tennis on the ATP Champions Tour. In April 2010, Muster married Caroline Ofner, and they have a daughter, Maxim, who was born in 2009. On 16 June 2010, at the age of 42, Muster announced his comeback to professional tennis. In July 2010, he played the first match of his comeback in a Challenger tournament in Braunschweig, where he lost in the first round. He went on to play in three Challenger tournaments in Kitzbühel, Como, and Rijeka. Eventually, in his fifth Challenger tournament in Ljubljana, Muster won his first comeback match, against Borut Puc of Croatia, which brought Muster back into the ATP singles ranking list at world number 988. Muster finished 2010 ranked at world number 980. On 13 September 2011, Muster won a second match after his comeback, in the Todi Challenger, against the fifth seeded Argentinian Leonardo Mayer. His next opponent was countryman Martin Fischer, to whom Muster lost. On 19 September 2011, Muster reached world No. 847. He then lost his next match, at the Challenger tournament in Palermo, to Alessio di Mauro. In October 2011, at the age of 44, Muster decided that he would play his last tennis match before retirement at the top-level Vienna tournament, where Muster lost to countryman, Dominic Thiem, in straight sets. However, three weeks after playing in Vienna, Muster was back again, this time in a Challenger tournament in Salzburg, playing against Dennis Blömke. He lost a close three-set battle. This was his last match to date.",
"During his 1990s heyday, Muster wore Lotto clothing. From 1986 to 1993, Muster played with the Head Prestige Pro 600 racquet. During the summer of 1993, he switched to playing with the Head Prestige 600 racquet. During 1994 and 1995, Muster played with the Head Pro Tour 630 racquet. At the start of 1996, he switched to using a Kneissl racquet, which was closely modelled on his old Pro Tour 630. At the start of 1997, he switched his racquet again to the white Kneissl Tom's Reach Machine racquet, which had a longer handle and a 28-inch frame. In 1998, he used his Kneissl Tom's Reach Machine racquet on hardcourt, grass and carpet, but went back to his old 1996 Kneissl racquet on clay. When Muster came back to the ATP Tour in 2010, he used the Head Pro Tour 630 racquet, before switching to the Babolat AeroPro Drive GT racquet, and then went back to the Head Pro Tour 630 racquet again before playing his last matches in late 2011. Muster wore Adidas clothing throughout his comeback.",
"In the 1995 season, Muster won 12 single tournament titles, a record that is still in place. Since 2006 he shares the record with Roger Federer who achieved it as well. Muster has the highest winning percentage of single tournament finals of all players who reached a minimum of 25 finals. Of his 55 finals, he won 44 with only 11 defeats (80%).",
"\"Note: Muster played no professional matches between 2000 and 2009.\"",
"Muster's match record against players who have been ranked world No. 1.",
"Thomas Muster was married to Jo Beth Taylor, an Australian television personality, from 2000 to 2005, having separated in 2002. They have a son, Christian, who was born in 2001. In 2010, Muster married Caroline Ofner and they have a daughter, Maxim, born in 2009. Thomas Muster lives in Styria, a province in southern Austria, and also has a villa on the Adriatic Sea in Croatia."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1034960 | en-train-1034960 | 1034960 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Usage context.",
"Patches in software development.",
"Advanced diffs.",
"Usage examples.",
"Ports of patch."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The original patch program was written by Larry Wall (who went on to create the Perl programming language) and posted to mod.sources (which later became comp.sources.unix) in May 1985. A variant of the program (but not the only one) is part of the GNU project and is maintained by the FSF.",
"Developed by a programmer for other programmers, patch was frequently used for updating of source code to a newer version. Because of this, many people came to associate patches with source code, whereas patches can in fact be applied to any text. \"Patched\" files do not accumulate any unneeded text, which is what some people perceive based on the English meaning of the word; patch is as capable of removing text as it is of adding it. Patches described here should not be confused with binary patches, which, although can be conceptually similar, are distributed to update binary files comprising the program to a new release.",
"The diff files that serve as input to patch are readable text files, which means that they can be easily reviewed or modified by humans before use. In addition to the \"diff\" program, diffs can also be produced by other programs, such as Subversion, CVS, RCS, Mercurial and Git. Patches have been the crucial component of many source control systems, including CVS.",
"When more advanced diffs are used, patches can be applied even to files that have been modified in the meantime, as long as those modifications do not interfere with the patch. This is achieved by using \"context diffs\" and \"unified diffs\" (also known as \"unidiffs\"), which surround each change with \"context\", which is the text immediately before and after the changed part. Patch can then use this context to locate the region to be patched even if it has been displaced by changes earlier in the file, using the line numbers in the diffs as a starting point. Because of this property, context and unified diffs are the preferred form of patches for submission to many software projects. The above features make diff and patch especially popular for exchanging modifications to open-source software. Outsiders can download the latest publicly available source code, make modifications to it, and send them, in diff form, to the development team. Using diffs, the development team has the ability to effectively review the patches before applying them, and can apply them to a newer code base than the one the outside developer had access to.",
"To create a patch, one could run the following command in a shell: To apply a patch, one could run the following command in a shell: This tells patch to apply the changes to the specified files described in mods.diff. Patches to files in subdirectories require the additional -p\"number\" option, where \"number\" is 1 if the base directory of the source tree is included in the diff, and 0 otherwise. Patches can be undone, or reversed, with the '-R' option: In some cases when the file is not identical to the version the diff was generated against, the patch will not be able to be applied cleanly. For example, if lines of text are inserted at the beginning, the line numbers referred to in the patch will be incorrect. patch is able to recover from this, by looking at nearby lines to relocate the text to be patched. It will also recover when lines of context (for context and unified diffs) are altered; this is described as fuzz.",
"Originally written for Unix and Unix-like systems, patch has also been ported to Windows and many other platforms. Windows ports of patch are provided by GnuWin32 and UnxUtils. A codice_1 command is also part of ASCII's \"MSX-DOS2 Tools\" for MSX-DOS version 2."
]
} |
Rolls-Royce Limited | null | Rolls-Royce was a British luxury car and later an aero-engine manufacturing business established in 1904 by the partnership of Charles Rolls and Henry Royce. Building on Royce's reputation established with his cranes they quickly developed a reputation for superior engineering by manufacturing the "best car in the world". The First World War brought them into manufacturing aero-engines. Joint development of jet engines began in 1940 and they entered production. | null | [
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"title": [
"Motor cars.",
"Rolls-Royce 40/50.",
"Rolls-Royce Eagle aero-engine.",
"Springfield USA.",
"Rolls-Royce Twenty.",
"Rolls-Royce Phantom.",
"Bentley.",
"Crewe.",
"Second World War.",
"Postwar diversification.",
"Motor bodies.",
"Diesel engines Shrewsbury.",
"Aero-engines.",
"RB211—the 1971 receivership and nationalisation.",
"New board.",
"Lockheed and Rolls-Royce take-off.",
"1973 Rolls-Royce Motors.",
"Car Division.",
"Diesel Division.",
"Flotation of Rolls-Royce Motors Holdings.",
"Vickers Limited merger.",
"Perkins.",
"1977 Rolls-Royce drops (1971) from its name.",
"1987 privatisation.",
"Customers.",
"Competition.",
"Divisions and products.",
"Products.",
"Cars."
],
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"content": [
"Henry Royce started an electrical and mechanical business in 1884. He made his first car, a two-cylinder Royce 10, in his Manchester factory in 1904. Henry Royce was introduced to Charles Rolls at the Midland Hotel, Manchester on 4 May of that year. Rolls was proprietor of an early motor car dealership, C.S. Rolls & Co. in Fulham. In spite of his preference for three- or four-cylinder cars, Rolls was impressed with the Royce 10, and in a subsequent agreement on 23 December 1904 agreed to take all the cars Royce could make. There would be four models: All would be badged as Rolls-Royces, and be sold exclusively by Rolls. The first Rolls-Royce car, the Rolls-Royce 10 hp, was unveiled at the Paris Salon in December 1904. Rolls-Royce Limited was formed on 15 March 1906, by which time it was apparent that new premises were required for production of cars. After considering sites in Manchester, Coventry, Bradford and Leicester, it was an offer from Derby's council of cheap electricity that resulted in the decision to acquire a site on the southern edge of that city. The new factory was largely designed by Royce, and production began in early 1908, with a formal opening on 9 July 1908 by Sir John Montagu. The investment in the new company required further capital to be raised, and on 6 December 1906 £100,000 of new shares were offered to the public. In 1907, Rolls-Royce bought out C.S. Rolls & Co. (The non-motor car interests of Royce Ltd. continued to operate separately).",
"During 1906 Royce had been developing an improved six-cylinder model with more power than the Rolls-Royce 30 hp. Initially designated the 40/50 hp, this was Rolls-Royce's first all-new model. In March 1908, Claude Johnson, Commercial Managing Director and sometimes described as the hyphen in \"Rolls-Royce\", succeeded in persuading Royce and the other directors that Rolls-Royce should concentrate exclusively on the new model, and all the earlier models were duly discontinued. Johnson had an early example finished in silver and named, as if it were a yacht, \"Silver Ghost\". Unofficially the press and public immediately picked up and used Silver Ghost for all the 40/50 cars made until the introduction of the 40/50 Phantom in 1925. The new 40/50 was responsible for Rolls-Royce's early reputation with over 6,000 built. Its chassis was used as a basis for the first British armoured car used in both world wars.",
"Aero-engine manufacturing began in 1914 at the government's request. The first model, the Rolls-Royce Eagle, entered production in 1915. Two Eagles powered Alcock and Brown's first non-stop trans-Atlantic crossing by aeroplane mounted on their converted Vickers Vimy bomber.",
"In 1921, Rolls-Royce opened a new factory in Springfield, Massachusetts in the United States (to help meet demand) where a further 1,701 \"Springfield Ghosts\" were built. This factory operated for 10 years, closing in 1931. It was located at the former American Wire Wheel factory on Hendee Street, with the administration offices at 54 Waltham Ave. Springfield was the earlier location for the Duryea Motor Wagon Company, the location where the first American gasoline-powered vehicle was built. Their first chassis was completed in 1921. Bodies were supplied by Rolls-Royce Custom Coachwork and by Brewster & Co. in Long Island City, New York.",
"After the First World War, Rolls-Royce successfully avoided attempts to encourage British car manufacturers to merge. Faced with falling sales of the 40/50 Silver Ghost in short-lived but deep postwar slumps Rolls-Royce introduced the smaller, cheaper Twenty in 1922, effectively ending the one-model policy followed since 1908.",
"The new 40/50 hp Phantom replaced the Silver Ghost in 1925. The Phantom III, introduced in 1936, was the last large pre-war model. A strictly limited production of Phantoms for heads of state recommenced in 1950 and continued until the Phantom VI ended production in the late 1980s.",
"In 1931, Rolls-Royce acquired Bentley, the small sports/racing car maker and potential rival, after the latter's finances failed to weather the onset of the Great Depression. Rolls-Royce stopped production of the new Bentley 8 Litre, which was threatening sales of their current Phantom, disposed of remaining Bentley assets and made use of just the Bentley name and its repute. After some years of development Rolls-Royce produced a new quite different ultra-civilised medium-size range of Bentleys, advertising them as \"the silent sports car\". They were very much in the Rolls-Royce mould. From soon after World War II, until 2002, standard Bentley and Rolls-Royce cars were usually nearly identical – Bentleys were badge engineered; only the radiator grille and minor details differed. In 1933, the colour of the Rolls-Royce radiator monogram was changed from red to black because the red sometimes clashed with the coachwork colour selected by clients, and not as a mark of respect for the death of Royce as is commonly stated.",
"The British government built a shadow factory in Crewe in 1938 for Rolls-Royce where they could build their Merlin and Griffon aero engines. Car production was moved there in 1946 for space to construct bodies and to leave space for aero engines at Derby. The site was bought from the government in 1973. It is now Bentley Crewe.",
"In 1940, a contract was signed with the Packard Motor Car Company in Detroit, Michigan, for the production of Merlin aero-engines for World War II in the USA. Production focused on aero engines but a variant of the Merlin engine, known as the Meteor, was developed for the Cromwell tank. The Meteor's development completed in 1943 the same team at the Belper foundry restarted work on an eight-cylinder car engine widening its uses and it became the pattern for the British Army's B range of petrol engines for post war combat vehicles in particular in Alvis's FV600 range, Daimler's Ferret, Humber's Hornet and Pig and Austin's Champ.",
"",
"After the war, in 1946, Rolls-Royce and Bentley car production moved to Crewe where they began to assemble complete Bentley cars with body pressings made by Pressed Steel Company. Previously they had built only the chassis, leaving the bodies to specialist coach-builders. In 1939, Rolls-Royce brought one of the specialist coachbuilders completely in-house by buying the remaining capital of Park Ward Limited which, since 1936, in conjunction with Rolls-Royce had been building short production runs of all-metal saloon bodies on Bentley chassis. In 1959, Rolls-Royce bought coachbuilder H J Mulliner and the two businesses were put together as H J Mulliner Park Ward.",
"Luxury cars did not fit with the new mood of post-war austerity. After starting design and development of what became their C series diesel engine range in 1948, Rolls-Royce began to produce diesel engines in 1951. By 1955, it provided diesel engines for automotive, railway, industrial, earth-moving and marine use. Sentinel (Shrewsbury) Limited was bought in 1956. Sentinel made machine tools and industrial locomotives. Rolls-Royce took over Sentinel's Shrewsbury factory for diesel engine production and all its diesel work was transferred there. West Riding manufacturer of diesel shunting locomotives, Thomas Hill (Rotherham) Limited, was added to the group in 1963. In 1973, when Shrewsbury activities were put under the umbrella of new owner, Rolls-Royce Motors, the range of diesel engines included:",
"In 1907, Charles Rolls, whose interests had turned increasingly to flying, tried unsuccessfully to persuade Royce and the other directors to design an aero engine. When World War I broke out in August 1914, Rolls-Royce (and many others) were taken by surprise. As a manufacturer of luxury cars, Rolls-Royce was immediately vulnerable, and Claude Johnson thought the bank would withdraw its overdraft facility on which Rolls-Royce depended at that time. Nevertheless, believing that war was likely to be short-lived the directors initially decided not to seek government work making aero engines. However, this position was quickly reversed and Rolls-Royce was persuaded by the War Office to manufacture fifty air-cooled V8 engines under licence from Renault. Meanwhile, the Royal Aircraft Factory asked Rolls-Royce to design a new engine. Despite initial reluctance, they agreed, and during 1915, developed Rolls-Royce's first aero engine, the twelve-cylinder Eagle. This was quickly followed by the smaller six-cylinder Hawk, the Falcon and, just before the end of the war, the larger Condor. Throughout World War I, Rolls-Royce struggled to build aero engines in the quantities required by the War Office. However, with the exception of Brazil Straker in Bristol Rolls-Royce resisted pressure to license production to other manufacturers, fearing that the engines' much admired quality and reliability would risk being compromised. Instead the Derby factory was extended to enable Rolls-Royce to increase its own production rates. By the late 1920s, aero engines made up most of Rolls-Royce's business. Henry Royce's last design was the Merlin aero engine, which was first flown in prototype form in 1935, although he had died in 1933. This was developed from the R engine, which had powered a record-breaking Supermarine S.6B seaplane to almost in the 1931 Schneider Trophy. The Merlin was a powerful supercharged V12 engine and was fitted into many World War II aircraft: the British Hawker Hurricane, Supermarine Spitfire, de Havilland Mosquito (twin-engine), Avro Lancaster (four-engine) (a development of the Avro Manchester with its unreliable Rolls-Royce Vulture engines), Vickers Wellington (twin-engine); it also transformed the American North American P-51 Mustang into a competitor for the best fighter of its time, its engine a Merlin engine built by Packard under licence. Over 160,000 Merlin engines were produced, including over 30,000 by the Ford Motor Company at Trafford Park, Manchester. During the war most Rolls-Royce flight testing of engines was carried out from Hucknall Aerodrome. The Merlin crossed over into military land-vehicle use as the Meteor powering the Centurion tank among others. Many Meteor engines used engine blocks and parts that failed requirements for high performance engines, but were suitable for use in the derated Meteor. In December 1942 over a “five-shilling meal” at the Swan and Royal in Clitheroe, Stanley Hooker and Ernest Hives of Rolls-Royce agreed with Spencer Wilks of the Rover Car Company that Rolls-Royce would take over top secret work on the development of the jet engine. An exchange of assets followed with Rover and in the post-World War II period Rolls-Royce made significant advances in gas turbine engine design and manufacture. The \"Dart\" and \"Tyne\" turboprop engines were particularly important, enabling airlines to cut times for shorter journeys whilst jet airliners were introduced on longer services. The Dart engine was used in Armstrong Whitworth AW.660 Argosy, Avro 748, Fokker F27 Friendship, Handley Page Herald and Vickers Viscount aircraft, whilst the more powerful Tyne powered the Breguet Atlantique, Transall C-160, Short Belfast, and Vickers Vanguard, and the SR.N4 hovercraft. Many of these turboprops are still in service. Amongst the jet engines of this period was the RB163 Spey, which powers the Hawker Siddeley Trident, BAC One-Eleven, Grumman Gulfstream II and Fokker F28 Fellowship. During the late 1950s and 1960s there was a significant rationalisation of all aspects of British aerospace and this included aero-engine manufacturers. In 1966 Rolls-Royce acquired Bristol Siddeley (which had resulted from the merger of Armstrong Siddeley and Bristol Aero Engines in 1959) and incorporated it as the Bristol Siddeley division. Bristol Siddeley, with its principal factory at Filton, near Bristol, had a strong base in military engines, including the Olympus, Viper, Pegasus (vectored thrust) and Orpheus. They were also manufacturing the Olympus 593 Mk610 to be used in Concorde in collaboration with SNECMA. They also had a turbofan project with SNECMA. Leavesden Aerodrome, Watford was originally owned by the Ministry of Defence and used during World War II for the manufacture of Mosquito and Halifax aircraft. For a number of years, Rolls-Royce used the site for the manufacture of helicopter engines until the site closed in June 1993. The former Rolls-Royce factory at Watford is now known as the Leavesden Film Studios and has produced world-famous films, including the James Bond, \"Star Wars\" and \"Harry Potter\" series.",
"The amalgamations and disappearances of the 1950s and 1960s left a small number of major airframe manufacturers based in only a few countries. The competition for the very large contracts to supply their engines grew intense. Expensive research and development became vital. Real profits came from the maintenance contracts which might peak a whole human generation later. By the 1980s it was said that each generation of aero engines cost around 10 times that of its parent. At this time Rolls-Royce employed 80,000 people and it was Britain's 14th largest company in terms of manpower. It was generally known that problems had recently arisen requiring government support of the RB211 programme as one outcome of intense financial competition with Pratt & Whitney and General Electric for the original RB211 contract. In the new year of 1971 financial problems caused largely by development of this new RB211 turbofan engine designed and developed for Lockheed Aircraft Corporation's new L-1011 TriStar led, after several government-provided cash subsidies, to the recognition Rolls-Royce had no resources left and it voluntarily entered receivership 4 February 1971. There were said to have been acrimonious telephone conversations between US president Richard Nixon and the British prime minister Edward Heath but these were subsequently denied. Responding to questions as to how the situation could have arisen the chief executive advised that in their calculations they were guided by the success of their estimates in the launching of their Spey engine. Had the government simply nationalised Rolls-Royce it would have been unable to avoid the obligations to Lockheed. The situation was handled in the usual manner with the assets being sold for cash, in this case to the government, leaving the massive liabilities to be dealt with by Rolls-Royce Limited using the funds realised by the sale. However the government would not fix a purchase price for the assets until the situation became clearer because without a continuing business many of them might be worthless. In the meantime the government would use the assets to continue the activities of the aero-engine, marine and industrial gas turbine and small engine divisions that were important to national defence, the collective programmes with other countries and to many air forces and civil airlines. A new company (1971) was incorporated that May to purchase substantially the whole of the undertakings and assets of the four divisions of Rolls-Royce connected with gas turbine engines. The original company, Rolls-Royce Limited, was placed in liquidation on 4 October 1971. Asking their own government for support Lockheed warned that a switch to either Pratt & Whitney or General Electric engines would delay production by an extra six months and might force Lockheed into bankruptcy. The receiver negotiated with Lockheed which consented to waive damages allowing the plant to be shut down. The continuing support of the trade creditors was also achieved by the receiver in spite of threats to demand immediate payments in full and to withdraw supplies. The first asset sold was British Aircraft Corporation bought equally by Vickers and GEC. The receiver floated Rolls-Royce Motors in 1973.",
"The new owner, Rolls-Royce (1971) Limited, had among its board members Lord Cole (a former chairman of Unilever), Sir Arnold Weinstock (managing director of GEC), Hugh Conway (managing director Rolls-Royce Gas Turbines), Dr Stanley Hooker (Rolls-Royce Bristol), Sir William Cook (an adviser to the Minister of Defence), Sir St. John Elstub (managing director of Imperial Metal Industries), and Sir Charles Elworthy (former Chief of Defence Staff).",
"The new aircraft with its three RB211 engines left USA for the first time and arrived in Paris on 1 June 1971. At Palmdale California the L-1011 received its US Federal Aviation Administration's certificate of airworthiness on 14 April 1972, nine months late. On the day the chairman of Lockeed said \"...we know that in airline service it (RB211) will prove itself to be one of the leading power plants in aviation history\". The first airliner was delivered to Eastern Air Lines on 5 April 1972 but it had been beaten in the race to production by McDonnell Douglas's DC-10.",
"Rolls-Royce Motors Limited was incorporated on 25 April 1971, two and a half months after Rolls-Royce fell into receivership. Under the ownership of the receiver it began to trade in April 1971 manufacturing motor cars, diesel and petrol engines, coachwork and other items previously made by Rolls-Royce's motor car and diesel divisions and Mulliner Park Ward. It continued to take precision engineering work on sub-contracts. In June 1971 it acquired all the business and assets used by the motor car and diesel divisions of Rolls-Royce and Mulliner Park Ward. Rolls-Royce Motors' permitted uses of the various Rolls-Royce trade marks was very precisely defined. At the end of 1972 Rolls-Royce Motors employees in the United Kingdom were 5,855 in the car division and 2,311 in the Diesel division, a total of 8,166 people. In May 1973 it was sold to Rolls-Royce Motors Holdings Limited in preparation for its public flotation.",
"At that time the Car Division as well as making cars and special coachwork carried out investment foundry work and the machining of aero-engine components and produced piston engines for light aircraft together with other petrol and multi-fuel engines. Both divisions carried out development work for H M Government. The car division's headquarters were in Pym's Lane and Minshull New Road, Crewe, bespoke coachbuilding remained in Hythe Road and High Road Willesden London. The Crewe former shadow factory premises were bought from the Government at this time.",
"The Diesel Division made several types of diesel engine at its premises in Whitchurch Road, Shrewsbury as well as combustion equipment for aero turbine engines.",
"In the event the flotation met with a disappointing public response and more than 80 percent of the issue was left in the hands of the underwriters.",
"On 6 August 1980 the shareholders agreement to the merger of Rolls-Royce Motors Holdings and Vickers Limited became unconditional.",
"The Rolls-Royce diesel business was acquired from Vickers in 1984 by Perkins. Perkins further developed the Eagle Diesels into the Perkins TX series of engines.",
"The name of Rolls-Royce (1971) Limited was changed to Rolls-Royce Limited on 31 December 1977 the end of the company's financial year. The original Rolls-Royce Limited incorporated in 1906 and still in liquidation had been renamed Rolls-Royce Realisations Limited and had consented in March 1977 to the (1971) company being named Rolls-Royce Limited Limited was replaced by plc (public limited company) in the summer of 1986 so shares could be offered to the public and traded on sharemarkets.",
"In April 1987 the government offered for sale all Rolls-Royce plc shares. The heavily advertised issue was a remarkable success. Rolls-Royce's was an exceptionally long term business. Before a civil aero engine went into service its development could take 4 to 6 years, military engines often longer. Production might then extend a further 50 years including the manufacture of spare parts required long after complete engine production ends.",
"According to the prospectus published for the 1987 issue of shares to members of the public Rolls-Royce was by then one of only three enterprises outside USSR and China able to design develop and produce large gas turbine engines. At that time its engines were installed in the aircraft of more than 270 civil carriers and were used by 110 armed services and 700 operators of executive and corporate aircraft. In addition its turbines powered the naval vessels of 25 different nations. Over 175 industrial customers operated Rolls-Royce gas turbines for power generation, gas and oil pumping and other industrial purposes. Its single most important customer was the United Kingdom's government. In the preceding five years about 70 percent of production went outside the United Kingdom.",
"Rolls-Royce's competitors were GE and Pratt & Whitney (UTC). Aero engines were then only a part of GE and UTC activities as major industrial groups.",
"At that time Rolls-Royce was organised into five business groups:",
"",
"Bentley Models (from 1933) – chassis only"
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1239000 | en-train-1239000 | 1239000 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Algorithm.",
"Usage.",
"Variations.",
"Edit script.",
"Context format.",
"Unified format."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The utility was developed in the early 1970s on the Unix operating system which was emerging from Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey. The final version, first shipped with the 5th Edition of Unix in 1974, was entirely written by Douglas McIlroy. This research was published in a 1976 paper co-written with James W. Hunt who developed an initial prototype of. The algorithm this paper described became known as the Hunt–Szymanski algorithm. McIlroy's work was preceded and influenced by Steve Johnson's comparison program on GECOS and Mike Lesk's program. also originated on Unix and, like, produced line-by-line changes and even used angle-brackets (\">\" and \"<\") for presenting line insertions and deletions in the program's output. The heuristics used in these early applications were, however, deemed unreliable. The potential usefulness of a diff tool provoked McIlroy into researching and designing a more robust tool that could be used in a variety of tasks but perform well in the processing and size limitations of the PDP-11's hardware. His approach to the problem resulted from collaboration also with individuals at Bell Labs including Alfred Aho, Elliot Pinson, Jeffrey Ullman, and Harold S. Stone. In the context of Unix, the use of the line editor provided with the natural ability to create machine-usable \"edit scripts\". These edit scripts, when saved to a file, can, along with the original file, be reconstituted by into the modified file in its entirety. This greatly reduced the secondary storage necessary to maintain multiple versions of a file. McIlroy considered writing a post-processor for where a variety of output formats could be designed and implemented, but he found it more frugal and simpler to have be responsible for generating the syntax and reverse-order input accepted by the command. Late in 1984 Larry Wall created a separate utility, patch, releasing its source code on the \"mod.sources\" and \"net.sources\" newsgroups. This program generalized and extended the ability to modify files with output from. Modes in Emacs also allow for converting the format of patches and even editing patches interactively. In's early years, common uses included comparing changes in the source of software code and markup for technical documents, verifying program debugging output, comparing filesystem listings and analyzing computer assembly code. The output targeted for was motivated to provide compression for a sequence of modifications made to a file. The Source Code Control System (SCCS) and its ability to archive revisions emerged in the late 1970s as a consequence of storing edit scripts from.",
"The operation of is based on solving the longest common subsequence problem. In this problem, given two sequences of items: and we want to find a longest sequence of items that is present in both original sequences in the same order. That is, we want to find a new sequence which can be obtained from the first original sequence by deleting some items, and from the second original sequence by deleting other items. We also want this sequence to be as long as possible. In this case it is From a longest common subsequence it is only a small step to get -like output: if an item is absent in the subsequence but present in the first original sequence, it must have been deleted (as indicated by the '-' marks, below). If it is absent in the subsequence but present in the second original sequence, it must have been inserted (as indicated by the '+' marks).",
"The codice_1 command is invoked from the command line, passing it the names of two files: codice_2. The output of the command represents the changes required to transform the \"original\" file into the \"new\" file. If \"original\" and \"new\" are directories, then will be run on each file that exists in both directories. An option, codice_3, will recursively descend any matching subdirectories to compare files between directories. Any of the examples in the article use the following two files, \"original\" and \"new\": \"original\": This part of the document has stayed the same from version to version. It shouldn't be shown if it doesn't change. Otherwise, that would not be helping to compress the size of the changes. This paragraph contains text that is outdated. It will be deleted in the near future. It is important to spell check this dokument. On the other hand, a misspelled word isn't the end of the world. Nothing in the rest of this paragraph needs to be changed. Things can be added after it. \"new\": This is an important notice! It should therefore be located at the beginning of this document! This part of the document has stayed the same from version to version. It shouldn't be shown if it doesn't change. Otherwise, that would not be helping to compress the size of the changes. It is important to spell check this document. On the other hand, a misspelled word isn't the end of the world. Nothing in the rest of this paragraph needs to be changed. Things can be added after it. This paragraph contains important new additions to this document. The command codice_4 produces the following \"normal diff output\": In this traditional output format, <samp>a</samp> stands for \"added\", <samp>d</samp> for \"deleted\" and <samp>c</samp> for \"changed\". Line numbers of the original file appear before <samp>a</samp>/<samp>d</samp>/<samp>c</samp> and those of the new file appear after. The less-than and greater-than signs (at the beginning of lines that are added, deleted or changed) indicate which file the lines appear in. Addition lines are added to the original file to appear in the new file. Deletion lines are deleted from the original file to be missing in the new file. By default, lines common to both files are not shown. Lines that have moved are shown as added at their new location and as deleted from their old location. However, some diff tools highlight moved lines.",
"Changes since 1975 include improvements to the core algorithm, the addition of useful features to the command, and the design of new output formats. The basic algorithm is described in the papers \"An O(ND) Difference Algorithm and its Variations\" by Eugene W. Myers and in \"A File Comparison Program\" by Webb Miller and Myers. The algorithm was independently discovered and described in \"Algorithms for Approximate String Matching\", by Esko Ukkonen. The first editions of the diff program were designed for line comparisons of text files expecting the newline character to delimit lines. By the 1980s, support for binary files resulted in a shift in the application's design and implementation.",
"An edit script can still be generated by modern versions of diff with the codice_5 option. The resulting edit script for this example is as follows: In order to transform the content of file \"original\" into the content of file \"new\" using, we should append two lines to this diff file, one line containing a codice_6 (write) command, and one containing a codice_7 (quit) command (e.g. by ). Here we gave the diff file the name \"mydiff\" and the transformation will then happen when we run.",
"The Berkeley distribution of Unix made a point of adding the \"context format\" () and the ability to recurse on filesystem directory structures (), adding those features in 2.8 BSD, released in July 1981. The context format of diff introduced at Berkeley helped with distributing patches for source code that may have been changed minimally. In the context format, any changed lines are shown alongside unchanged lines before and after. The inclusion of any number of unchanged lines provides a \"context\" to the patch. The \"context\" consists of lines that have not changed between the two files and serve as a reference to locate the lines' place in a modified file and find the intended location for a change to be applied regardless of whether the line numbers still correspond. The context format introduces greater readability for humans and reliability when applying the patch, and an output which is accepted as input to the patch program. This intelligent behavior isn't possible with the traditional diff output. The number of unchanged lines shown above and below a change \"hunk\" can be defined by the user, even zero, but three lines is typically the default. If the context of unchanged lines in a hunk overlap with an adjacent hunk, then diff will avoid duplicating the unchanged lines and merge the hunks into a single hunk. A \"\" represents a change between lines that correspond in the two files. A \"\" represents the addition of a line, while a blank space represents an unchanged line. At the beginning of the patch is the file information, including the full path and a time stamp delimited by a tab character. At the beginning of each hunk are the line numbers that apply for the corresponding change in the files. A number range appearing between sets of three asterisks applies to the original file, while sets of three dashes apply to the new file. The hunk ranges specify the starting and ending line numbers in the respective file. The command produces the following output: --- /path/to/new timestamp --- 1,9 ---- + This is an important + notice! It should + therefore be located at + the beginning of this + document! compress the size of the - This paragraph contains - text that is outdated. - It will be deleted in the - near future. ! check this dokument. On --- 14,21 ---- ! check this document. On --- 23,29 ---- + This paragraph contains + important new additions + to this document.",
"The \"unified format\" (or \"unidiff\") inherits the technical improvements made by the context format, but produces a smaller diff with old and new text presented immediately adjacent. Unified format is usually invoked using the \"codice_8\" command line option. This output is often used as input to the patch program. Many projects specifically request that \"diffs\" be submitted in the unified format, making unified diff format the most common format for exchange between software developers. Unified context diffs were originally developed by Wayne Davison in August 1990 (in unidiff which appeared in Volume 14 of comp.sources.misc). Richard Stallman added unified diff support to the GNU Project's diff utility one month later, and the feature debuted in GNU diff 1.15, released in January 1991. GNU diff has since generalized the context format to allow arbitrary formatting of diffs. The format starts with the same two-line header as the context format, except that the original file is preceded by \"<samp>---</samp>\" and the new file is preceded by \"<samp>+++</samp>\". Following this are one or more change hunks that contain the line differences in the file. The unchanged, contextual lines are preceded by a space character, addition lines are preceded by a plus sign, and deletion lines are preceded by a minus sign. A hunk begins with range information and is immediately followed with the line additions, line deletions, and any number of the contextual lines. The range information is surrounded by double-at signs, and combines onto a single line what appears on two lines in the context format (above). The format of the range information line is as follows:"
]
} |
Norwegian heavy water sabotage | null | Norwegian heavy water sabotage (; ) was a series of Allied-led efforts to halt German heavy water production via hydroelectric plants in Nazi Germany-occupied Norway during World War II. It was successfully undertaken by Norwegian commandos and Allied bombing raids. During the war, the Allies sought to inhibit the German development of nuclear weapons with the removal of heavy water and the destruction of heavy-water production plants. The Norwegian heavy water sabotage was aimed at the 60 MW Vemork power station at the Rjukan waterfall in Telemark. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1681675 | en-train-1681675 | 1681675 | {
"title": [
"Background.",
"Approaches to developing a weapon.",
"Plutonium production.",
"Heavy-water production.",
"Operations to limit German access to heavy water.",
"Pre-invasion efforts.",
"Operations Grouse and Freshman.",
"Operation Gunnerside.",
"Resumed operation and Allied air raids.",
"Sinking of the SF \"Hydro\".",
"Historical perspective.",
"Agents.",
"Histories.",
"In popular culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
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"1"
],
"content": [
"Enrico Fermi and his colleagues studied the results of bombarding uranium with neutrons in 1934. That year, Ida Noddack first mentioned the concept of nuclear fission. In December 1938, four years after the Fermi publication, Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch correctly interpreted Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann's radiochemical experimental results as evidence of nuclear fission. News of the discovery spread quickly among physicists and it was realized that if chain reactions could be controlled, fission might be a new source of great power. What was needed was a substance which could moderate the energy of the secondary neutrons emitted by fission, so they could be captured by other fissile nuclei. Heavy water and graphite were the prime candidates for moderating neutron energy. When Nazi Germany investigated the production of an atomic bomb, a range of options was identified. Although historical records provide limited detail on the German decision to pursue the heavy-water approach, it became clear after the war that they had explored that option. Although ultimately unsuccessful, the approach chosen has been demonstrated as technically viable. Plutonium-239 (Pu) makes effective weapons material, although requiring an implosion-type mechanism as a simpler Thin Man gun-type bomb is not feasible. Heavy water has been demonstrated as an effective moderator for Pu production, and may be separated from ordinary water by electrolysis.",
"In nuclear-weapon development, the main problem is securing sufficient weapons-grade material; it is particularly difficult to acquire fissile isotopes of uranium-235 (U) or Pu. Weapons-grade uranium requires mining, extracting and enriching natural ore. Plutonium can be \"bred\" in reactors fueled by unenriched uranium, which requires chemical separation of the Pu produced.",
"Although the most common isotope of uranium, uranium-238 (U), can be used as secondary fissile material in hydrogen (fusion) bombs, it cannot be used as the primary fissile material for an atomic (fission-only) bomb. U can be used to produce Pu through the fission of U, which produces neutrons (some of which will be absorbed by U, creating U). The U will decay after a few days, turning into weapons-usable Pu. The Germans found that a chain reaction could not be sustained if graphite was used as a moderator, and abandoned it. Unaware that this was due to impurities, they did not test ultra-pure graphite (which would have been suitable). Instead, they settled on a heavy-water-based reactor design. A heavy-water-moderated nuclear reactor could be used for nuclear-fission research and, ultimately, to breed the plutonium with which a bomb could be made.",
"In normal water, there is only one deuterium atom for every 6,400 hydrogen atoms; deuterium is more prevalent in the residue of water used as an electrolyte. An analysis of residues from the Vemork hydroelectric plant, a large-scale nitrate production plant using the Haber process, showed a hydrogen-to-deuterium ratio of 48 (most of the deuterium bound in HDO molecules). Norwegian Institute of Technology lecturer Leif Tronstad and Jomar Brun, head of the hydrogen plant, proposed a project in 1933 (the year heavy water was first isolated). It was accepted by Norsk Hydro, and production began in 1935. The technology is straightforward. Heavy water (DO) is separated from normal water by electrolysis, because the difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a slight difference in the speed at which the reaction proceeds. To produce pure heavy water by electrolysis requires a large cascade of electrolysis chambers, and consumes large amounts of power. Since excess power was available, heavy water could be purified from the existing electrolyte. Norsk Hydro became the heavy-water supplier for the world's scientific community, as a by-product of fertilizer production for which the ammonia was used. Hans Suess, a German adviser on the production of heavy water, had assessed the Vemork plant as incapable of producing militarily-useful quantities of heavy water in less than five years at its capacity at the time.",
"",
"French research considered the production of Pu using reactors moderated by heavy water and graphite. Preliminary French research indicated that the graphite then available commercially was not pure enough to serve the purpose, and heavy water would be required. The German research community had reached a similar conclusion, and had procured additional heavy water from Vemork in January 1940. The German firm IG Farben, a partial owner of Norsk Hydro, had ordered per month; Norsk Hydro's maximum production rate was then limited to per month. The Deuxième Bureau (French military intelligence) directed three French agents (Captain Muller and Lieutenants Mossé and Knall-Demars) to remove the world's extant supply,, of heavy water from the Vemork plant in then-neutral Norway in 1940. Norsk Hydro general director Axel Aubert agreed to lend the heavy water to France for the duration of the war, noting that if Germany won the war he would probably be shot. Transportation was difficult, since the Abwehr (German military intelligence) was present in Norway and had been alerted of ongoing French activities in Norway (although they were not specifically warned about heavy water). If they had become aware of the shipment, they might have tried to intercept it. The French transported it secretly to Oslo, then to Perth, Scotland, and finally to France. When France was invaded, French nuclear scientist Frédéric Joliot-Curie took charge of the material and hid it in a Banque de France vault and then in a prison. Joliot-Curie moved it to Bordeaux, where it, research papers and most of the scientists (Joliot-Curie remained in France) boarded the British tramp steamer (one of the many merchant ships involved in saving over 200,000 troops and civilians in the three weeks after the Dunkirk evacuation). The ship already had industrial diamonds, machinery and a number of British evacuees aboard. The \"Broompark\" delivered its passengers and cargo, including the global stockpile of heavy water, to Falmouth, Cornwall on 21 June. The award of an OBE to Captain Paulsen was recorded in \"The London Gazette\" of 4 February 1941. Crucial to the success of the mission was the role played by Charles Howard, 20th Earl of Suffolk. Although the supply of heavy water had been removed, the plant was capable of producing more. The Norsk Hydro management's collaboration with the Germans was examined during investigations of collaborationism begun by Norwegian authorities after the war, but Aubert's cooperation with the French aided the company's case.",
"In October 1942, Combined Operations Headquarters began operations to destroy the Vemork plant. There were two operations; the first (Operation Grouse) would drop a number of Norwegians in the area as an advance force. When they were in place, a party of British engineers would be landed by military glider to attack the plant itself (Operation Freshman). On 19 October 1942, a four-man team of Special Operations Executive (SOE)-trained Norwegian commandos parachuted into Norway. Since they had to ski a long distance to the plant from their drop point in the wilderness, considerable time was allotted for Operation Grouse. Unlike previous failed plans, Grouse required the team to memorize blueprints. The British were suspicious, because the Norwegian Grouse team were delayed in contacting SOE team; the Norwegians had been dropped at the wrong place, however, and had gone off course several times. The secret question was, \"What did you see in the early morning of (a day)?\" The Grouse team replied, \"Three pink elephants.\" The British were ecstatic at the success of Grouse, and the next phase of the operations began. On 19 November 1942, Operation Freshman followed with a planned glider-borne landing on the frozen lake Møsvatn near the plant. Two Airspeed Horsa gliders, towed by Handley Page Halifax bombers (each glider carrying two pilots and 15 Royal Engineers of the 9th Field Company, 1st British Airborne Division), took off from RAF Skitten near Wick, Caithness, Scotland. The towing of gliders, always hazardous, was worse in this case because of the long flight distance to Norway and poor visibility. One of the Halifax tugs crashed into a mountain, killing all seven aboard; its glider cast off but crashed nearby, resulting in several casualties. Although the other Halifax arrived at the vicinity of the landing zone, the zone could not be precisely identified because the link between the Eureka (ground) and Rebecca (aircraft) radar beacons failed. After many tries and with fuel running low, the Halifax pilot decided to abort the operation and return to base. Shortly afterward, the tug and glider experienced heavy turbulence and the tow rope broke. The glider crash-landed near the crash site of the other glider, killing and injuring several more people. The Norwegians were unable to reach the crash sites in time; the survivors were captured by the Gestapo, who tortured and later had them executed under Adolf Hitler's Commando Order. The unsuccessful raid alerted the Germans to Allied interest in their heavy-water production. The surviving Norwegian Grouse team had a long wait in their mountain hideaway, subsisting on moss and lichen until they captured a reindeer just before Christmas.",
"British authorities, aware that the Grouse team was still operational, decided to mount another operation with them; by this time, the Grouse team was known as Swallow. On the night of 16 February 1943, in Operation Gunnerside (named after the village of Gunnerside, where SOE head Charles Jocelyn Hambro and his family used to shoot grouse), an additional six Norwegian commandos were dropped by parachute by a 138 Squadron Halifax bomber from RAF Tempsford. They landed successfully, and found the Swallow team after a few days of searching on cross-country skis. The combined team made final preparations for their assault, scheduled for the night of 27–28 February 1943. Supplies required by the commandos were dropped with them in special CLE containers. One container was buried in the snow by a Norwegian patriot to hide it from the Germans; he later recovered it, and gave it to an officer of the British Army Air Corps (which was conducting exercises in the area) in August 1976. The container was brought back to England and displayed at the Airborne Museum at Aldershot, which became part of the Imperial War Museum Duxford. After the failed Freshman attempt, the Germans placed mines, floodlights, and additional guards around the plant. Although the mines and lights remained in place, security at the plant had weakened over the winter. The bridge spanning the deep ravine above the river Måna, however, was fully guarded. The force decided to descend into the ravine, ford the icy river and climb the steep hill on the far side. The winter river level was very low, and on the far side (where the ground leveled) they followed a single railway track straight into the plant without encountering any guards. Even before Grouse landed in Norway, SOE had a Norwegian agent in the plant who supplied detailed plans and schedules. The demolition party used this information to enter the main basement by a cable tunnel and through a window. The only person they encountered in the plant was a Norwegian caretaker named Johansen, who was very willing to cooperate with them. The saboteurs then placed explosive charges on the heavy-water electrolysis chambers, and attached a fuse which allowed sufficient time for their escape. In an attempt to avoid reprisals, a Thompson submachine gun was purposely left behind to indicate that this was the work of British forces and not the local resistance. When the fuses were about to be lit, the caretaker was worried about his spectacles (which were somewhere in the room; during the war, new eyeglasses were nearly impossible to obtain). A frantic search ensued; the spectacles were found, and the fuses lit. The explosive charges detonated, destroying the electrolysis chambers. The raid was considered successful. The entire inventory of heavy water produced during the German occupation, over, was destroyed with equipment critical to the operation of the electrolysis chambers. Although 3,000 German soldiers were dispatched to search the area for the commandos, all escaped; five skied to Sweden, two proceeded to Oslo (where they assisted Milorg), and four remained in the region for further resistance work.",
"The attack halted production for several months, although it did not permanently damage the Vemork plant. The plant was repaired by April; SOE concluded that a repeat commando raid would be extremely difficult, since German security was considerably improved. Almost as soon as production resumed, the USAAF began a series of raids on Vemork. The plant was attacked in November by a massive daylight bombing raid of 143 B-17 heavy bombers, which dropped 711 bombs. Although the raid caused extensive damage, at least 600 bombs missed the plant. On 16 and 18 November, 35 B-24 heavy bombers from the 392nd Bomber Group (based at Wendling, Station 118) extensively attacked the hydro-electric power station at Rjukan. The missions, the bomber group's longest, lasted and hours respectively. There was less need for ground assaults than a year earlier, since night bombing (previously unrealistic due to German air cover) was now an alternative. The Germans, convinced that air raids would result in further serious damage, decided to abandon the plant and move its remaining stocks and critical components to Germany in 1944.",
"Knut Haukelid (the only trained commando in the immediate area) was informed of the German plan to remove the heavy water, and was advised to muster support and destroy the shipment. Haukelid recruited two people, and they decided to sabotage a ferry which would be carrying the heavy water across Lake Tinn. One of his recruits recognized a ferry-crew member and spoke with him, taking an opportunity to slip into the bottom of the ship, plant the bomb and slip away. Eight-and-a-half kilograms of plastic explosives (with two alarm-clock fuses) were fixed to the keel of the, which would transport railway cars with drums of the heavy water across Lake Tinn. The ferry and its cargo sank in deep water shortly after its departure around midnight on 20 February 1944. Witnesses reported seeing steel drums floating after the ferry sank, leading to speculation that they did not really contain heavy water; an examination of records after the war showed that some barrels were only half-full, however, and would have floated. A few may have been salvaged and transported to Germany. Despite the mission's intention to minimize casualties, 18 people were killed; 29 survived. The dead were 14 Norwegian crew and passengers and four German soldiers. A 2005 expedition retrieved a barrel, numbered \"26\", from the bottom of the lake. Its heavy-water contents matched the concentration noted in German records, confirming that the shipment was not a decoy. The concentration of heavy water in a number of the barrels was too small to be of value to a weapons program, however, which might explain the lack of tight security around the shipment and why the ferry was not searched for bombs. In the film \"The Heroes of Telemark\", the locomotive and train is shown (somewhat implausibly) covered with German soldiers. According to Ray Mears' BBC Television coverage, the general in command had ordered this disposition of troops.",
"Recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel which was salvaged in 2004 indicated that although the barrels in this shipment contained pH 14 water (suggestive of the alkaline electrolytic-refinement process), they did not contain high concentrations of DO. Despite the apparent shipment size, the total quantity of pure heavy water was limited; most barrels contained only 0.5–1.0 percent heavy water, confirming the success of Operation Gunnerside in destroying higher-purity heavy water. The Germans would have needed a total of about of heavy water to operate a nuclear reactor, and the manifest indicated that there was only of heavy water being transported to Germany. The \"Hydro\" was carrying too little heavy water to supply one reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons of heavy water needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon. The historical consensus about the German nuclear weapons program is that it was a long way from producing a bomb, even if the Norwegian heavy water had been produced and shipped at the maximum rate. However, the unsuccessful Operation Freshman and the efforts of the saboteurs in Swallow, Grouse and Gunnerside made the secret war on heavy-water production internationally known.",
"Joachim Rønneberg, the last surviving member of the Gunnerside team, died on 21 October 2018 at age 99. \"The New York Times\" reported that at 95, Rønneberg was \"still mentally sharp... and possessed of the unflappable calm that so impressed British military commanders more than 70 years ago\". Einar Skinnarland was the first agent inside.",
"\"But For These Men\" (), a 1962 book by John D. Drummond, recounts two dramatic raids: on the Norsk Hydro heavy-water factory at Vemork and another the railway ferry \"Hydro\". \"The Real Heroes of Telemark: The True Story of the Secret Mission to Stop Hitler's Atomic Bomb\", a 2003 book by Ray Mears (), emphasises the Norwegian commandos' unique survival skills. The book is a companion volume to \"The Real Heroes of Telemark\", a BBC television documentary series. \"Skis Against the Atom\" () is a first-hand account by Knut Haukelid, one of the Gunnerside raiders who remained behind. Jens-Anton Poulsson (Swallow and Grouse) wrote \"The Heavy Water Raid: The Race for the Atom Bomb 1942–1944\" (), a 2009 book. Operation Freshman is covered in two books: Richard Wiggan's 1986 \"Operation Freshman: The Rjukan Heavy Water Raid 1942\" () and Jostein Berglyd's 2007 \"Operation Freshman: The Actions and the Aftermath\" (). Richard Rhodes's Pulitzer Prize-winning book, \"The Making of the Atomic Bomb\", includes details of the events. Leo Marks' 1998 book, \"Between Silk and Cyanide: A Codemaker's Story 1941–1945\" (), also details the story. Marks (SOE's cryptographer) knew the Norwegian team, trained them in cryptography so they could communicate with SOE in England, and followed their progress after they were dropped in Norway. The raid is the subject of \"Assault in Norway: Sabotaging the Nazi Nuclear Program\" (), a 2002 book by Thomas Gallagher based on interviews with many of the commandos. An account of Operation Gunnerside is part of Neal Bascomb's 2016 \"The Winter Fortress: The Epic Mission to Sabotage Hitler's Atomic Bomb\" (). Damien Lewis's book \"Hunting Hitler's Nukes: The Secret Race to Stop the Nazi Bomb\" (), also published that year, details the raid and the sinking of the SF \"Hydro\". The 2018 book, \"Heroes of Telemark; Sabotaging Hitler's atomic bomb, Norway 1942–44\" by David Greentree (), describes the operation's planning, execution and aftermath.",
"\"\" (\"Kampen om tungtvannet\"), a 1948 Norwegian film based on Operations Freshman and Grouse, includes several participants in the raid. \"The Heroes of Telemark\", a 1965 British film based on Operation Gunnerside, features one of the original participants in the raid as the Nazi pursuer of the escapees. On 8 November 2005, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting's WGBH-TV in Boston aired a documentary about the work of underwater archaeologists exploring the sunken SF \"Hydro\" in Lake Tinn. BBC News interviewed Joachim Rønneberg, the leader and last surviving member of the Gunnerside team, in 2013 for the 70th anniversary of Operation Gunnerside. \"The Heavy Water War\" (\"The Saboteurs\" in the UK), a six-episode TV mini-series, emphasises the role of Leif Tronstad. The Norwegian–Danish–British co-production was initially broadcast on 4 January 2015. The operations to sabotage Heavy Water in Norway appear as a 'War Story' in the 2018 shooter Battlefield V. The player takes control of Solveig Fia Bjørnstad, a Norwegian resistance fighter who wages a one-woman guerrilla war against the Wehrmacht, during the German Occupation in the winter of 1943. The escape of the commandos, across Norway, to get to Sweden is covered in National Geographic Channel's 'Ultimate Survival WWII' where Hazen Audel re-creates their escape route and survival techniques."
]
} |
OmegaT | null | OmegaT is a computer-assisted translation tool written in the Java programming language. It is free software originally developed by Keith Godfrey in 2000, and is currently developed by a team led by Aaron Madlon-Kay. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Development and software releases.",
"How OmegaT works.",
"Features of OmegaT.",
"Document formats support.",
"Indirectly supported formats.",
"Support for XLIFF.",
"Support for Gettext PO.",
"Support for Office Open XML and ODF.",
"Support for Trados®.ttx files.",
"Supported memory and glossary formats.",
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"The OmegaT Project.",
"Localization of OmegaT.",
"User-created programs.",
"Other software built on OmegaT.",
"Autshumato translation suite.",
"Benten.",
"Boltran.",
"OmegaT+.",
"OmegaT in DGT."
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"OmegaT was first developed by Keith Godfrey in 2000. It was originally written in C++. The first public release in February 2001 was written in Java. This version used a proprietary translation memory format. It could translate unformatted text files, and HTML, and perform only block-level segmentation (i.e. paragraphs instead of sentences).",
"The development of OmegaT is hosted on SourceForge. The development team is led by Aaron Madlon-Kay. As with many open source projects, new versions of OmegaT are released frequently, usually with 2-3 bugfixes and feature updates each. There is a \"standard\" version, which always has a complete user manual and a \"latest\" version which includes features that are not yet documented in the user manual. The updated sources are always available from the SourceForge code repository.",
"OmegaT handles a translation job as a project, a hierarchy of folders with specific names. The user copies non-translated documents into one named /source/ (or subfolders thereof). The Editor pane displays the source documents as individual “segments” for translation one segment at a time. OmegaT, when directed, generates the (partially) translated versions in the /target/ subfolder. Other named folders include ones for automatic consultation within the program: /tm/ for existing translation pairs in.tmx format, /tm/auto/ for automatic translation of 100% matches, /glossary/ for glossaries, /dictionary/ for StarDict (and.tbx) dictionaries. When the user goes to translate a segment in the Editor pane, OmegaT automatically searches the.tmx files in the /tm/ hierarchy for previous translation pairs with similar source sentences and displays them in the Fuzzy Matches pane for insertion into the Editor pane with a keyboard shortcut. The Glossary and Dictionary panes provide similar automatic look-up functions for any glossaries and dictionaries in the corresponding named folders in the project. The optional Machine Translation pane shows machine translations from Google Translate and similar services. When the user leaves a segment, OmegaT normally first adds the source-target pair to its database in memory. It subsequently saves that database to disk in Translation Memory eXchange (.tmx) format for use another day, in other projects, by other translators, and even with other CAT tools. No change, naturally enough, means no such update. Version 3.1 added a setting for blocking targets equal to their sources, a common slip, plus a keyboard shortcut for overriding it—numbers, source code in programming manuals, etc. At any point, the user can create partially translated versions of the source files. Note that OmegaT copies source segments verbatim if they have yet to be translated. Before doing so, however, the user is advised to use the Validate menu command to check for tag and other errors. Version 3.1 added a menu command (and keyboard shortcut) for limiting operation to the current file—for partial delivery or quick update, for example.",
"OmegaT shares many features with mainstream CAT tools. These include creating, importing and exporting translation memories, fuzzy matching from translation memories, glossary look-up, and reference and concordance searching. OmegaT also has additional features that are not always available in other CAT tools. These include:",
"Several file types can be translated directly in OmegaT. OmegaT determines the file type by the file extension. The file extension handling and preferred encoding can be customised to override default settings. OmegaT handles formatted documents by converting formatting to tags, similar to other commercial CAT tools.",
"There are two processes that allow OmegaT to handle unsupported formats:",
"The program Rainbow from the Okapi Framework can convert certain file formats to an XLIFF format that OmegaT does support. Rainbow can also create complete OmegaT project folders from such documents, for easier handling in OmegaT.",
"A number of file formats can be converted to Gettext Portable Object (PO) files, which can be translated in OmegaT. The Debian program po4a can convert formats such as LaTeX, TeX and POD to Gettext PO. The Translate Toolkit can convert Mozilla.properties and dtd files, CSV files, certain Qt.ts files, and certain XLIFF files to Gettext PO.",
"Microsoft Word, Excel and PowerPoint documents from version 97 to 2003 can be converted to Office Open XML (Microsoft Office 2007/2010) or ODF (OpenOffice.org) format. Conversion is not entirely lossless and may lead to loss of formatting.",
"Trados®.ttx files can be treated using the Okapi TTX Filter.",
"",
"OmegaT's internal translation memory format is not visible to the user, but every time it autosaves the translation project, all new or updated translation units are automatically exported and added to three external TMX memories: a native OmegaT TMX, a level 1 TMX and a level 2 TMX. Exported level 2 files include OmegaT's internal tags encapsulated in TMX tags which allows such TMX files to generate matches in TMX level 2 supporting CAT tools. Tests have been positive in Trados and SDLX. OmegaT can import TMX files up to version 1.4b level 1 as well as level 2. Level 2 files imported in OmegaT will generate matches of the same level since OmegaT converts the TMX level 2 tags of the foreign TMX. Here again, tests have been positive with TMX files created by Transit.",
"For glossaries, OmegaT mainly uses tab-delimited plain text files in UTF-8 encoding with the.txt extension. The structure of a glossary file is extremely simple: the first column contains the source language word, the second column contains the corresponding target language words, the third column (optional) can contain anything including comments on context etc. Such glossaries can easily be created in a text editor. Similarly structured files in standard CSV format are also supported, as well as TBX files.",
"",
"OmegaT is open-source software and benefits from the help of volunteers. Programming is certainly the most important function, but it would benefit from greater support from volunteers in almost all areas. If you feel so inclined, you may also modify OmegaT to suit your own requirements.",
"OmegaT's user interface and documentation have been translated into about 30 languages. Volunteer translators can translate either the user interface, the \"Instant Start\" short tutorial, or the entire user manual (or all three components). All the language files and all translations of the user manual are included in the standard distribution of OmegaT.",
"A characteristic of the OmegaT user community is that deficiencies in OmegaT often prompt users to create macros, scripts and programs that perform those functions, although sometimes those features later become available in OmegaT itself. When OmegaT offered only paragraph segmentation, a user created OpenOffice.org macros for segmenting by sentence. When automatic leveraging of TMs in OmegaT still required TMs to be merged, a user created a TMX merging script. When OmegaT offered no spell-checking support, several users created scripts or found solutions to provide spell-checking as part of an OmegaT based translation process.",
"",
"Autshumato consists of a CAT tool, an aligner, a PDF extractor, a TMX editor, and a public TM based on crawled data. The finished version will include a terminology manager and a machine translator. The CAT tool element is built upon OmegaT, and requires OpenOffice.org to run. Development is funded by the South African government's Department of Arts and Culture.",
"Benten is an Eclipse-based XLIFF editor. It uses OmegaT code to handle the TM matching process. It is partly funded by the Japanese government.",
"Boltran is a web-based tool that mimicks the workflow of an OmegaT project. It is built upon the source code of OmegaT and can export OmegaT projects.",
"OmegaT+ is a CAT tool that was forked from OmegaT version 1.4.5 in 2005. OmegaT+ works in a way similar to OmegaT. It has developed its own features but projects are not compatible with OmegaT.",
"The Directorate-General for Translation of the European Commission (DGT) uses OmegaT as an alternative CAT tool alongside a mainstream commercial tool. DGT maintains a fork of OmegaT (DGT-OmegaT) with adaptations/improvements/new features that meet DGT-specific requirements as well as a number of helper-applications to integrate OmegaT in its workflow: a Wizard to automate the creation, updating, revision and delivery of projects, Tagwipe to clean useless tags in docx documents and TeamBase to allow the sharing of memories in real-time. Those applications are made available by DGT as free open source software."
]
} |
Miroslav Komárek | null | Miroslav Komárek (20 April 1924 – 15 August 2013) was a Czech historical linguist and professor emeritus of the Faculty of Arts at Palacký University in Olomouc. His academic publications focused on the morphology and phonology of the Czech language from the diachronic perspective. | null | [
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"title": [
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],
"content": [
"Komárek was born in the Moravian village of Lazníky near Přerov. He graduated from a gymnasium in Olomouc (Olmütz) in 1943, but was deployed as a labourer until the end of the wartime occupation. After the war he majored in Czech and Russian at Charles University in Prague, then returned to Olomouc, and obtained a doctor of philosophy (PhDr.) degree from Palacký University in 1949.",
"Komárek began to teach at the Faculty of Arts () at Palacký University after completing his doctorate, where he went on to spend his entire professional career, spanning over six decades. His first major work, published in 1958, was the first in a series of textbooks on Czech historical linguistics, focused on phonetics. In 1962 he habilitated and twenty years later obtained the title of Doctor of Science (DrSc.). In 1979 he published \"Příspěvky k české morfologii\" (Contributions to Czech morphology), which became an oft cited work in papers on Czech morphology. In 2005 he became a professor emeritus at Palacký University. A year before his death, in 2012 he published \"Dějiny českého jazyka\" (History of the Czech language), which was a summary of his academic work. He was heavily influenced by the Prague linguistic circle, and represented their school of thought, structural linguistics, on the international stage within the field of Slavic studies. He also cited prominent Czech philologist Jan Gebauer as a major influence; his 1982 work outlining the phonological development of Czech referenced and commented on Gebauer's historical grammar extensively. He was a regular contributor to the Czech Language Institute's journal \"Slovo a slovesnost\" (Word and Literature), eventually joining the editorial board of that journal."
]
} |
Ivan Pilip | null | Ivan Pilip (born 4 August 1963 in Prague) is a Czech politician and economist who was Finance Minister from June 1997 to July 1998, after having been the Minister of Education, Youth and Sport from 1994 to 1997. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Political career.",
"Arrest in Cuba.",
"Later career."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Ivan Pilip gained a degree in international business and trade at the University of Economics in Prague and did post-graduate studies at the Complutense University of Madrid. Before the Velvet Revolution at the end of 1989, Pilip was not involved in politics, having jobs at the university in Prague and at the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. However following the end of Communism in 1989 Pilip became manager of a medical equipment factory and joined the Christian Democratic Party after it was founded in 1990. Pilip is married to Lucie Pilipova, who was a foreign ministry spokesperson, until she left the role when her husband became chairman of the KDS to avoid any conflict of interest.",
"The KDS fought the 1992 Czech election in alliance with the Civic Democrats and became a junior partner in a coalition led by the Civic Democrats. In August 1992 Pilip was appointed deputy education minister in the coalition government, before becoming Education Minister in 1994, replacing Petr Pitha who had brought him into the government. Pilip was elected chairman of the KDS in December 1993, succeeding Vaclav Benda, after winning an election for the party leadership. However in 1995 the KDS agreed to merge with the Civic Democrats, with 5 of the 10 KDS deputies, including Pilip, joining the Civic Democrats. Pilip stayed as Education Minister after the merger, but became seen as a leading figure within the Civic Democrats, before becoming Finance Minister in the summer of 1997. In the second half of 1997 pressure built on the Prime Minister Václav Klaus, over a donation to the Civic Democrats from a businessman who had recently gained a significant stake in a company privatised by the government. After the Foreign Minister, Josef Zieleniec, resigned in October 1997, Ivan Pilip called on Klaus to resign on 28 November and around the same time the 2 junior parties in the coalition quit the government. Klaus resigned as Prime Minister on 30 November and Pilip said he would challenge Klaus for the leadership of the Civic Democratic Party if no one else did. On 7 December a bomb exploded outside Pilip's house, causing no injuries, but alarming many. Klaus was re-elected as leader of the Civic Democrats, but Pilip continued on as Finance Minister, along with 3 other rebel Civic Democrats, in a caretaker government led by the Governor of the Czech National Bank, Josef Tošovský. The rebel members of the Civic Democrats, including Pilip and 30 of the 69 deputies from the Civic Democratic Party, founded a new political party, the Freedom Union, under the leadership of the former Interior Minister Jan Ruml. However at the 1998 election Freedom Union only won 19 seats, compared to 63 for the Civic Democrats, with Ivan Pilip being one of the elected deputies. Following the election Freedom Union went into opposition, after the Czech Social Democratic Party formed a minority government, which was tolerated by the Civic Democrats.",
"On 12 January 2001 Ivan Pilip and Jan Bubenik, a former student leader, were arrested in Ciego de Ávila in Cuba. The Cubans said this was because they had met Cuban dissidents on a trip partly funded by the American organisation Freedom House and as a result the Cuban authorities charged them with subversion. They were taken to a jail in Havana and Cuba threatened to keep them in prison for a long time, potentially up to 20 years, as an example to others. The detention of Pilip and Bubenik caused international outrage, with countries in Europe and Latin America calling for their release, and relations between Cuba and the Czech Republic broke down over the issue. Meanwhile Ivan Pilip's wife, Lucie, came to Cuba and met her husband while he was being detained in Havana and called for international help to obtain his release. However the Cuban government said they had been \"conspiring against the revolution\" and the official Communist Party newspaper, Granma, called them \"agents working for the Cuban-American Mafia in the United States.\" At the beginning of February the President of the Czech Senate, Petr Pithart came to Cuba and met the Cuban leader, Fidel Castro, for six hours to try and obtain the release of Pilip and Bubenik. Pithart returned home on 4 February without Pilip and Bubenik, but he was later credited with paving the way for their release. On 5 February Pilip and Bubenik were released after a meeting at the Cuban Foreign Ministry, where they admitted breaking Cuban law unwittingly. The meeting was attended by members of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, who said Pilip and Bubenik then left Cuba as tourists.",
"At the 2002 election Freedom Union fought the election in an alliance with the Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party, but the parties were reduced to 31 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, 8 down on what the parties had won separately in 1998. Pilip was not elected as a deputy, but as first deputy chairman of Freedom Union, became acting leader of the party after the resignation of Hana Marvanova during post-election talks on the formation of a new government. Freedom Union became a junior party in a coalition led by the Social Democratic Party, while Pilip remained acting leader of the party until Petr Mares was elected as the new leader in January 2003. In June 2004 Pilip was appointed as one of eight Vice-Presidents of the European Investment Bank, the first from any of the states that joined the European Union in 2004. Pilip served a 3-year term as Vice-President until the summer of 2007."
]
} |
Millard Fillmore | null | Millard Fillmore (January 7, 1800 – March 8, 1874) was the 13th president of the United States (1850–1853), the last to be a member of the Whig Party while in the White House. A former U.S. representative from New York, Fillmore was elected the nation's 12th vice president in 1848, and succeeded to the presidency in July 1850 upon the death of President Zachary Taylor. He was instrumental in the passing of the Compromise of 1850, a bargain that led to a brief truce in the battle over slavery. He failed to win the Whig nomination for president in 1852, but he gained the endorsement of the nativist Know Nothing Party four years later, finishing third in the 1856 presidential election. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life and career.",
"Buffalo politician.",
"Congressman.",
"First term; return to Buffalo.",
"Second through fourth terms.",
"National figure.",
"Election of 1848.",
"Nomination.",
"General election campaign.",
"Vice president (1849–1850).",
"Presidency (1850–1853).",
"Succession amid crisis.",
"Domestic affairs.",
"Foreign relations.",
"Election of 1852 and completion of term.",
"Post-presidency.",
"Tragedy and political turmoil (1853–1855).",
"1856 campaign.",
"Remarriage, later life, and death.",
"Legacy and historical view."
],
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"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
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"1"
],
"content": [
"Millard Fillmore was born on January 7, 1800, in a log cabin, on a farm in what is now Moravia, Cayuga County, in the Finger Lakes region of New York. His parents were Phoebe Millard and Nathaniel Fillmore—he was the second of eight children and the oldest son. Nathaniel Fillmore was the son of Nathaniel Fillmore Sr. (1739–1814), a native of Franklin, Connecticut, who became one of the earliest settlers of Bennington, Vermont, when it was founded in the territory then called the New Hampshire Grants. Nathaniel Fillmore and Phoebe Millard moved from Vermont in 1799, seeking better opportunities than were available on Nathaniel's stony farm, but the title to their Cayuga County land proved defective, and the Fillmore family moved to nearby Sempronius, where they leased land as tenant farmers, and Nathaniel occasionally taught school. Historian Tyler Anbinder described Fillmore's childhood as \"... one of hard work, frequent privation, and virtually no formal schooling\". Over time, Nathaniel became more successful in Sempronius, though during Millard's formative years the family endured severe poverty. Nathaniel became sufficiently regarded that he was chosen to serve in local offices including justice of the peace. In hopes his oldest son would learn a trade, he convinced Millard at age fourteen not to enlist for the War of 1812 and apprenticed him to cloth maker Benjamin Hungerford in Sparta. Fillmore was relegated to menial labor; unhappy at not learning any skills, he left Hungerford's employ. His father then placed him in the same",
"Other members of the Fillmore family were active in politics and government in addition to Nathaniel's service as a justice of the peace. Millard's grandfather, Nathaniel Sr., served in local offices in Bennington—as hayward (\"hedge warden\"), highway surveyor and tax collector. Millard then also became interested in politics—the rise of the Anti-Masonic Party in the late 1820s provided his initial attraction and entry. Many Anti-Masons were opposed to the presidential candidacy of General Andrew Jackson, a Mason. Fillmore was a delegate to the New York convention that endorsed President John Quincy Adams for re-election and also served at two Anti-Masonic conventions in the summer of 1828. At the conventions, Fillmore and one of the early political bosses, newspaper editor Thurlow Weed, met and impressed each other. By then, Fillmore was the leading citizen in East Aurora. He successfully sought election to the New York State Assembly and served in Albany for three one-year terms (1829 to 1831). Fillmore's 1828 election was in contrast to the victories",
"",
"In 1832, Fillmore ran successfully for the House of Representatives. The Anti-Masonic presidential candidate, William Wirt, former attorney general, won only Vermont, as President Jackson easily gained re-election. At the time, Congress convened its annual session in December, and so Fillmore had to wait more than a year after his election to take his seat. Fillmore, Weed, and others realized that opposition to Masonry was too narrow a foundation on which to build a national party. They formed the broad-based Whig Party from National Republicans, Anti-Masons, and disaffected Democrats. The Whigs were initially united by their opposition to Jackson, but became a major party by expanding their platform to include support for economic growth through rechartering the Second Bank of the United States and federally funded internal improvements including roads, bridges, and canals. Weed joined the Whigs before Fillmore and became a power within the party; his anti-slavery views were stronger than Fillmore's (who disliked slavery but considered the federal government powerless over it), and closer to those of another prominent New York Whig, William H. Seward of Auburn, who was also seen as a Weed protégé. In Washington, Fillmore urged",
"Van Buren, faced with the economic Panic of 1837, caused in part by lack of confidence in private banknote issues after Jackson had instructed the government to accept only gold or silver, called a special session of Congress. Government money had been held in so-called \"pet banks\" since Jackson had withdrawn it from the Second Bank; Van Buren proposed to place funds in sub-treasuries, government depositories that would not lend money. Believing that government funds should be lent to develop the country, Fillmore felt this would lock the nation's limited supply of gold money away from commerce. Van Buren's sub-treasury and other economic proposals passed, but as hard times continued, the Whigs saw an increased vote in the",
"Out of office, Fillmore continued his law practice and made long-neglected repairs to his Buffalo home. He remained a major political figure, leading the committee of notables that welcomed John Quincy Adams to Buffalo. The former president expressed his regret at Fillmore's absence from the halls of Congress. Some urged Fillmore to run for vice president with Clay, the consensus Whig choice for president in 1844. Horace Greeley wrote privately that \"my own first choice has long been Millard Fillmore\"; others thought Fillmore should try to win back the governor's mansion for the Whigs. Seeking to return to Washington, Fillmore wanted the vice presidency. Fillmore hoped to gain the endorsement of the New York delegation to the national convention, but Weed wanted the vice presidency for Seward, with Fillmore as governor. Seward, however, withdrew before the 1844 Whig National Convention. When Weed's replacement vice presidential hopeful, Willis Hall, fell ill, Weed sought to defeat Fillmore's candidacy to force him to run for governor. Weed's attempts to boost Fillmore as a gubernatorial candidate caused the former congressman to write, \"I am not willing to be treacherously killed by this pretended kindness... do not suppose for a minute that I think they desire my nomination for governor.\" New York sent a delegation to the convention in Baltimore pledged to support Clay, but with no instructions as to how to vote for vice president. Weed told out-of-state delegates that the New York party preferred to have Fillmore as its gubernatorial candidate, and after Clay was nominated for president, the second place on the ticket fell to former New Jersey senator Theodore Frelinghuysen. Putting a good face on his defeat, Fillmore met and publicly appeared with Frelinghuysen, quietly spurning Weed's offer to get him nominated as governor at the state convention. Fillmore's position in opposing slavery, but only at the state level, made him acceptable",
"",
"President Polk had pledged not to seek a second term, and with gains in Congress during the 1846 election cycle, the Whigs were hopeful of taking the White House in 1848. The party's perennial candidates, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, each wanted the nomination and amassed support from congressional colleagues. Many rank and file Whigs backed the Mexican War hero, General Zachary Taylor, for president. Although Taylor was extremely popular, many northerners had qualms about electing a Louisiana slaveholder at a time of sectional tension over whether slavery should be allowed in the territories ceded by",
"It was customary in mid-19th century America for a candidate for high office not to appear to seek it. Thus, Fillmore remained at the comptroller's office in Albany and made no speeches; the 1848 campaign was conducted in the newspapers and with addresses made by surrogates at rallies. The Democrats nominated Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan for president, with General William O. Butler as his running mate, but it became a three-way fight as the Free Soil Party, opposed to the spread of slavery, chose former president Van Buren. There was a crisis among the Whigs when Taylor also accepted the presidential nomination of a group of dissident South Carolina Democrats. Fearing that Taylor would be a party apostate like Tyler, Weed in late August scheduled a rally in Albany aimed at electing an",
"Millard Fillmore was sworn in as vice president on March 5, 1849, in the Senate Chamber. March 4 (then Inauguration Day) fell on a Sunday, so the swearing-in was postponed until the following day. Fillmore took the oath from Chief Justice Roger B. Taney and in turn swore in the senators beginning their terms, including Seward, who in February had been elected by the New York legislature. Fillmore had spent the four months between the election and swearing-in being feted by the New York Whigs and winding up affairs in the comptroller's office. Taylor had written to him, promising influence in the new administration; the president-elect mistakenly thought that the vice president was a cabinet member, which was not true in the 19th century. Fillmore, Seward and Weed had met and come to general agreement on how to divide federal jobs in New York. Once he went to Washington, Seward made friendly contact with Taylor's cabinet nominees, advisers, and the general's brother. An alliance between the incoming administration and the Weed machine was soon under way behind Fillmore's back. In exchange for support, Seward and Weed were allowed to designate who was to fill federal jobs in New York, with Fillmore given far less influence than had been agreed. When Fillmore discovered this after the election, he went to Taylor, which only made the warfare against Fillmore's influence more open. Fillmore supporters like Collier, who had nominated him at the convention, were passed over for candidates backed by Weed, who was triumphant even in Buffalo. This greatly increased Weed's influence in New York politics and diminished Fillmore's. According to Rayback, \"by mid-1849, Fillmore's situation had become desperate.\" Despite his lack of influence, office seekers pestered him, as did those with a house to lease or sell, for there was then no official vice-presidential residence. He enjoyed one aspect of his office, due to his lifelong love of learning: he became deeply involved in the administration of the",
"",
"July 4, 1850 was a very hot day in Washington, and President Taylor, who attended Fourth of July ceremonies to lay the cornerstone of the Washington Monument, refreshed himself, likely with cold milk and cherries. What he consumed probably gave him gastroenteritis, and he died on July 9. Taylor, nicknamed \"Old Rough and Ready\", had gained a reputation for toughness through his military campaigning in the heat, and his sudden death came as a shock to the nation. Fillmore had been called from his chair presiding over the Senate on July 8 and had sat with members of the cabinet in a vigil outside Taylor's bedroom at the White House. He received the formal notification of the president's death, signed by",
"The Fugitive Slave Act remained contentious after its enactment: Southerners complained bitterly about any leniency in its application, but its enforcement was highly offensive to many Northerners. Abolitionists recited the inequities of the law: anyone aiding an escaped slave was punished severely, and it granted no due process to the escapee who could not testify before a magistrate. The law also permitted higher payment to the hearing magistrate for deciding the escapee was a slave rather than free. Nevertheless, Fillmore believed himself bound by his oath as president and by",
"Fillmore oversaw two highly competent Secretaries of State, Daniel Webster, and after the New Englander's 1852 death, Edward Everett, looking over their shoulders and making all major decisions. The president was particularly active in Asia and the Pacific, especially with regard to Japan, which at the time still prohibited nearly all foreign contact. American merchants and shipowners wanted Japan \"opened up\" for trade. This would not only allow commerce, but would also permit American ships to call there for food and water,",
"As the election of 1852 approached, Fillmore remained undecided whether to run for a full term as president. Secretary Webster had long coveted the presidency and, though past seventy, planned a final attempt to gain the White House. Fillmore, sympathetic to the ambitions of his longtime friend, issued a letter in late 1851 stating that he did not seek a full term, but he was reluctant to rule it out, fearing the party would be captured by the Sewardites. Thus, approaching the",
"",
"Fillmore was the first president to return to private life without independent wealth or possession of a landed estate. With no pension to anticipate, he needed to earn a living and felt it should be in a way that would uphold the dignity of his former office. His friend Judge Hall assured him it would be proper for him to practice law in the higher courts of New York, and Fillmore so intended. The Fillmores had planned a tour of the South after leaving the White House, but Abigail caught a cold at President Pierce's inauguration, developed pneumonia, and died in Washington on March 30, 1853. A saddened Fillmore returned to Buffalo for the burial. The fact that",
"Fillmore's allies were in full control of the American Party, and they arranged for him to get its presidential nomination while he was in Europe. The Know Nothing convention chose Andrew Jackson Donelson of Kentucky to be Fillmore's running mate; he was the nephew by marriage and onetime ward of President Jackson. Fillmore made a celebrated return in June 1856, speaking at a series of welcomes, which began with his arrival at a huge reception in New York City and continued across the state to Buffalo. These addresses were portrayed as expressions of thanks for his reception, rather than as campaign speeches, which might be considered illicit office-seeking if made by a presidential hopeful. Fillmore warned that electing the Republican candidate, former California senator John C. Frémont, who had no support in the South, would divide the Union and lead to civil war. Both Fillmore and the Democratic candidate, former Pennsylvania senator James Buchanan, agreed that slavery was principally a matter for state and not federal government. Fillmore rarely spoke about the immigration question, and focused on the sectional divide, urging preservation of the Union. Once Fillmore was back home",
"Fillmore considered his political career to be at an end with his defeat in 1856. He again felt inhibited from returning to the practice of law. However, his financial worries were removed on February 10, 1858, when he married Caroline McIntosh, a well-to-do widow. Their combined wealth allowed them to purchase a large house on Niagara Square in Buffalo, where they lived for the remainder of his life. There, the Fillmores devoted themselves to entertaining and philanthropy; according to historian Smith, \"they generously supported almost every conceivable cause\". Among these were the Buffalo Historical Society and the Buffalo General Hospital,",
"According to biographer Scarry: \"No president of the United States... has suffered as much ridicule as Millard Fillmore\". He ascribed much of the abuse to a tendency to denigrate the presidents who served in the years just prior to the Civil War as lacking in leadership. For example, later president Harry S. Truman \"characterized Fillmore as a weak, trivial thumb-twaddler who would do nothing to offend anyone\", and as responsible in part for the war. Anna Prior, writing in \"The Wall Street Journal\" in 2010, said that Fillmore's very name connotes mediocrity. Another Fillmore biographer, Finkelman, commented, \"on the central issues of the age his vision was myopic and his legacy is worse... in the end, Fillmore was always on the wrong side of the great moral and political issues\". Rayback, however, applauded \"the warmth and wisdom with which he had defended the Union\". Although Fillmore has become something of a cult figure as America's most forgettable chief executive, Smith found him to be \"a conscientious president\" who chose to honor his oath of office and enforce the Fugitive Slave Act, rather than govern based on his personal preferences. Steven G. Calabresi and Christopher S. Yoo, in their study of presidential power, deemed Fillmore \"a faithful executor of the laws of the United States—for good and for ill\". But, according to Smith, the enforcement of the act has given Fillmore an undeserved pro-southern reputation. Fillmore's place in history has also suffered because \"even those who give him high marks for his support of the compromise have done so almost grudgingly, probably because of his Know-Nothing candidacy in 1856\". Smith argued that Fillmore's association with the Know Nothings looks far worse in retrospect than it did at the time and that the former president was not motivated by nativism in his candidacy. Benson Lee Grayson suggested that the Fillmore administration's ability to avoid potential problems is too often overlooked. Fillmore's constant attention to Mexico avoided a resumption of the Mexican–American War and laid the groundwork for the Gadsden Treaty during Pierce's presidency. Meanwhile, the Fillmore administration resolved a controversy with Portugal left over from the Taylor administration, smoothed over a disagreement with Peru over guano islands, and peacefully resolved disputes with Britain, France, and Spain over Cuba. All of these crises were resolved without the United States going to war or losing face. Grayson also applauded Fillmore's firm stand against Texas' ambitions in New Mexico during the 1850 crisis. Fred I. Greenstein and Dale Anderson praised Fillmore for his resoluteness in his early months in office, noting that Fillmore \"is typically described as stolid, bland, and conventional, but such terms underestimate the forcefulness evinced by his handling of the Texas–New Mexico border crisis, his decision to replace Taylor's entire cabinet, and his effectiveness in advancing the Compromise of 1850\". Millard Fillmore, with his wife Abigail, established the first White House library. There are a number of remembrances of Millard Fillmore; his East Aurora house still stands, and sites honor him at his birthplace and boyhood home, where a replica log cabin was dedicated in 1963 by the Millard Fillmore Memorial Association. A statue of Fillmore stands outside Buffalo City Hall. At the university he helped found, now University at Buffalo, Millard Fillmore Academic Center and Millard Fillmore College bear his name. On February 18, 2010, the United States Mint released the thirteenth coin in the Presidential $1 Coin Program, bearing Fillmore's likeness. According to the assessment of Fillmore by the Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia:"
]
} |
Whig Party (United States) | null | The Whig Party was a political party active in the middle of the 19th century in the United States. Alongside the Democratic Party, it was one of the two major parties in the United States during the late 1830s, the 1840s, and the early 1850s, part of the Second Party System. Four U.S. presidents were affiliated with the Whig Party for at least part of their respective terms. Other influential party leaders include Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, William Seward, John J. Crittenden, and Truman Smith. | null | [
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"title": [
"Background.",
"History.",
"Creation, 1833–1836.",
"Rise, 1836–1841.",
"Harrison and Tyler, 1841–1845.",
"Polk and the Mexican–American War, 1845–1849.",
"Taylor and Fillmore, 1849–1853.",
"Collapse, 1853–1856.",
"Ideology and policies.",
"Whig thought.",
"Whig policies.",
"Base of support.",
"Party leaders.",
"Factions.",
"Legacy.",
"Historical reputation.",
"Namesakes.",
"In popular culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"During the 1790s, the first major U.S. parties arose in the form of the Federalist Party, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson. After 1815, the Democratic-Republicans emerged as the sole major party at the national level but became increasingly polarized. A nationalist wing, led by Henry Clay, favored policies such as the Second Bank of the United States and the implementation of a protective tariff. A second group, the Old Republicans, opposed these policies, instead favoring a strict interpretation of the United States Constitution and a weak federal government. In the 1824 presidential election, Speaker of the House Henry Clay, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, and General Andrew Jackson all sought the presidency as members of the Democratic-Republican Party. Crawford favored state sovereignty and a strict constructionist view of the Constitution, while Clay, and Adams favored high tariffs and the national bank; Jackson held more ambiguous policy stances. Jackson won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote in the 1824 election, but, with Clay's support, Adams was elected as president in a contingent election held in the House of Representatives. In the years following the 1824 election, the Democratic-Republican Party split into two groups. Supporters of President Adams and Clay joined with many former Federalists such",
"",
"Shortly after Jackson's re-election, South Carolina passed a measure to \"nullify\" the Tariff of 1832, beginning the Nullification Crisis. Jackson strongly denied the right of South Carolina to nullify federal law, but the crisis was resolved after Congress passed the Tariff of 1833. The Nullification Crisis briefly scrambled the partisan divisions that had emerged after 1824, as many within the Jacksonian coalition opposed President Jackson's threats of force against South Carolina, while some opposition leaders like Daniel Webster supported them. In South Carolina and other states, those opposed to Jackson began to form small \"Whig\" parties. The Whig label implicitly compared \"King Andrew\" to King George III, the King of Great Britain at the time of the American Revolution. Jackson's decision to remove government deposits from the national bank ended any possibility of a Webster-Jackson alliance and helped to solidify partisan lines. The removal of the deposits drew opposition from both pro-bank National Republicans and states' rights Southerners like Willie Person Mangum of North Carolina, the latter",
"Early successes in various states made many Whigs optimistic about victory in 1836, but an improving economy bolstered Van Buren's standing ahead of the election. The Whigs also faced the difficulty of uniting former National Republicans, Anti-Masons, and states' rights Southerners around one candidate, and the party suffered an early blow when Calhoun announced that he would refuse to support any candidate opposed to the doctrine of nullification. Northern Whigs cast aside both Clay and Webster in favor of General William Henry",
"With the election of the first Whig presidential administration in the party's history, Clay and his allies prepared to pass ambitious domestic policies such as the restoration of the national bank, the distribution of federal land sales revenue to the states, a national bankruptcy law, and increased tariff rates. Harrison died just one month into his term, thereby elevating Vice President Tyler to the presidency. Tyler had never accepted much of the Whig economic program and he soon clashed with Clay and",
"In the final weeks of Tyler's presidency, a small group of Southern Whigs joined with congressional Democrats to pass a joint resolution providing for the annexation of Texas, and Texas subsequently became a state in 1845. Following the annexation of Texas, Polk began preparations for a potential war with Mexico, which still regarded Texas as a part of its republic and contended that Texas's true southern border was the Nueces River rather than the Rio Grande. After a skirmish is known as the Thornton Affair broke out on the northern side of the Rio Grande, Polk called on Congress to declare war against Mexico, arguing that Mexico had invaded American territory by",
"Reflecting the Taylor administration's desire to find a middle ground between traditional Whig and Democratic policies, Secretary of the Treasury William M. Meredith issued a report calling for an increase in tariff rates, but not to the levels seen under the Tariff of 1842. Even Meredith's moderate policies were not adopted, and, partly due to the strong economic growth of the late 1840s and late 1850s, traditional Whig economic stances would increasingly lose their salience after 1848. When Taylor assumed office, the organization of state and territorial governments and the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession remained the major issue facing Congress. To sidestep the issue of",
"Despite their decisive loss in the 1852 elections, most Whig leaders believed the party could recover during the Pierce presidency in much the same way that it had recovered under President Polk. However, the strong economy still prevented the Whig economic program from regaining salience, and the party failed to develop an effective platform on which to campaign. The debate over the 1854 Kansas–Nebraska Act, which effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise by allowing slavery in territories north of the 36°30′ parallel, shook up traditional partisan alignments. Across the Northern states, opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act gave rise to anti-Nebraska coalitions consisting of Democrats focused on this opposition along with Free Soilers and Whigs. In Michigan and Wisconsin, these two coalitions labeled themselves as the Republican Party, but similar groups in other states initially took on different names. Like their Free Soil predecessors, Republican leaders generally did not call for the abolition of slavery, but instead sought to prevent the extension of slavery into the",
"",
"Historian Frank Towers writes that \"Democrats stood for the'sovereignty of the people' as expressed in popular demonstrations, constitutional conventions, and majority rule as a general principle of governing, whereas Whigs advocated the rule of law, written and unchanging constitutions, and protections for minority interests against majority tyranny.\" Historian Daniel Walker Howe argues the Whigs were modernizers, \"who attached a great deal of importance to protecting property, maintaining social order, and preserving a distinct cultural heritage, three characteristic conservative concerns.\" The Whigs themselves adopted the word \"conservative,\" which they associated with \"'law and order', social caution, and moral restraint.\" Political scientists John H. Aldrich and John D. Griffin note that the labeling of Whig ideology as conservative is \"somewhat",
"The Whigs celebrated Clay's vision of the American System, which promoted rapid economic and industrial growth in the United States through support for a national bank, high tariffs, a distribution policy, and federal funding for infrastructure projects. After the Second Bank of the United States lost its federal charter in 1836, the Whigs favored the restoration of a national bank that could provide a uniform currency, ensure a consistent supply of credit, and attract private investors. Through high tariffs, Clay and other Whigs hoped to generate revenue and encourage the establishment of domestic manufacturing, thereby freeing the United States from dependence on foreign imports. High tariffs were also designed to prevent a negative balance of trade and prevent the flow of currency and credit from the country. Whigs generally opposed Democratic efforts to reduce federal land prices, implement a \"preemption\" policy that would allow squatters the right to purchase land before it came to auction and transfer ownership of western lands to the states. Instead, Whigs favored a \"distribution\" policy that would distribute revenues",
"Political scientist A. James Reichley writes that the Democrats and Whigs were \"political institutions of a kind that had never existed before in history\" because they commanded mass membership among voters and continued to function between elections. Both parties drew support from voters of various classes, occupations, religions, and ethnicities. Nonetheless, the Whig Party was based among middle-class conservatives. The central fault line between the parties concerned the emerging market economy, as Whigs embraced the economic and social changes caused by the market economy and Democrats rejected them. Whigs drew strength from the economic elites in both Northern cities and Southern plantation regions, but they also attracted support from other classes in most cities. In many states, local rivalries pushed groups into one party or the other, though areas that favored internal improvements tended to favor Whigs. Catholics overwhelmingly voted Democrat, while Protestants were split between the two parties. Recent Irish and German immigrants generally supported the Democrats, but recent immigrants from England, Scotland, and Wales tended to support the Whigs. Although the Whigs and the rival Democratic Party established party structures that were unprecedented in terms of mass membership and continued functionality, both parties were still essentially coalitions of state party organizations and lacked strong cohesion at the national level. The Whigs built on the strength of National Republicans and the Anti-Masonic Party to build up party organizations in Delaware, Maryland, and much of New England. Appealing to voters with a mix of economic and social policies, the Whigs established capable party organizations in Northeastern states like New York and Pennsylvania. Unlike the Federalists and the National Republicans, the Whigs were competitive in the South, building strong state parties in Tennessee and Kentucky, and competitive parties in Louisiana, Georgia, and Virginia. By emphasizing their moral conservatism, the Whigs were also able to expand into the Old Northwest and win elections in a state like Ohio and Indiana. The Whigs were generally not as competitive in Democratic strongholds like New Hampshire, Maine, Illinois, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Missouri, and Texas.",
"Henry Clay of Kentucky was the congressional leader of the party from the time of its formation in 1833 until his resignation from the Senate in 1842, and he remained an important Whig leader until his death in 1852. His frequent rival for leadership of the party was Daniel Webster, who represented Massachusetts in the Senate and served as Secretary of State under three Whig presidents. Clay and Webster each repeatedly sought the Whig presidential nomination, but, excepting Clay's nomination in 1844, the Whigs consistently nominated individuals who had served as generals, specifically William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, and Winfield Scott. Harrison, Taylor, John Tyler, and Millard Fillmore all served as president, though Tyler was expelled from the Whig Party shortly after taking office in 1841. Benjamin Robbins Curtis was the lone Whig to serve on the Supreme Court of the United States, though later Supreme Court justices like John Marshall Harlan affiliated with the Whig Party early in their career before joining the Court as members of another party. During the time of the party's existence, numerous other Whig leaders emerged, including Truman Smith of Connecticut, who Holt describes as",
"The Whigs suffered greatly from factionalism throughout their existence as well as weak party loyalty that stood in contrast to the strong party discipline that was the hallmark of a tight Democratic Party organization. Forged out of opposition to Jackson's perceived executive tyranny, the early Whig Party was divided between former National Republicans who favored federal measures to promote economic development and Southern states' rights advocates who wished to keep federal intervention in the economy to a minimum. By the 1840s, Southern Whigs like John M. Berrien of Georgia and John Botts of Virginia endorsed interventionist measures, but other Southern Whigs like William Cabell Rives of Virginia actively sought to shift the party away",
"",
"Historian Allen C. Guelzo writes that \"no major political movement...has suffered more sheer dismissal, more impatient contempt at the hands of political historians than the American Whigs\". Guelzo traces the start of this \"dismissal\" to the writings of Henry Adams, who dismissed the Whigs as bereft of ideas, and through to the writings of historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., who labeled the period during which the Whigs were active as the \"age of Jackson\". The Whigs' historical reputation began to recover with the publication of \"The Political Culture of the American Whigs\" by historian",
"After the dissolution of the Whig Party, the term Whig remained part of the name of various newspapers, including the \"Quincy Herald-Whig\". Several small parties in the United States, including the Florida",
"Two alternative history works depicting a history where the Confederacy won the American Civil War include a Whig Party having a major role in the post-war world."
]
} |
Nanjing Massacre | null | The Nanjing Massacre or the Rape of Nanjing, alternately written as the Nanking Massacre or the Rape of Nanking, was an episode of mass murder and mass rape committed by Imperial Japanese troops against the residents of Nanjing (Nanking), then the capital of China, during the Second Sino-Japanese War. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2337665 | en-train-2337665 | 2337665 | {
"title": [
"Military situation.",
"Relocation of the capital.",
"Strategy for the defense of Nanjing.",
"Approach of the Imperial Japanese Army.",
"Japanese war crimes on the march to Nanjing.",
"Retreating Chinese Troops' Scorched-Earth Policy.",
"Establishment of the Nanjing Safety Zone.",
"Prince Asaka appointed as commander.",
"Battle of Nanjing.",
"Siege of the city.",
"Demand for surrender.",
"Assault and capture of Nanjing.",
"Pursuit and mopping-up operations.",
"Civilian evacuation.",
"Evacuation and flight of civilians.",
"Massacre.",
"Massacre contest.",
"Rape.",
"Massacre of civilians.",
"Extrajudicial killing of Chinese prisoners of war.",
"Theft and arson.",
"Nanjing Safety Zone and the role of foreigners.",
"Causes.",
"Matsui's reaction to the massacre.",
"End of the massacre.",
"Recall of Matsui and Asaka.",
"Death toll estimates.",
"War crimes tribunals.",
"Grant of immunity to Prince Asaka.",
"Evidence and testimony.",
"Matsui's defense.",
"Verdict.",
"Sentence.",
"Memorials.",
"Controversy.",
"Cold War.",
"Debate in Japan.",
"Apology and condolences by the Prime Minister and Emperor of Japan.",
"Denials of the massacre by public officials in Japan.",
"Legacy.",
"Effect on international relations.",
"As a component of national identity.",
"Japan.",
"China.",
"Australia.",
"Records.",
"References."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"2",
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],
"content": [
"In August 1937, the Japanese army invaded Shanghai where they met strong resistance and suffered heavy casualties. The battle was bloody as both sides faced attrition in urban hand-to-hand combat. By mid-November the Japanese had captured Shanghai with",
"After losing the Battle of Shanghai, Chiang Kai-shek knew that the fall of Nanjing was a matter of time. He and his staff realized that they could not risk the annihilation of their elite troops in a symbolic but hopeless defense of the capital. To preserve the army for future battles, most of it was withdrawn. Chiang's strategy was to follow the suggestion of his German advisers to draw the Japanese army deep into China and use China's vast territory as a defensive strength. Chiang planned to fight a protracted war of attrition to wear down the Japanese in the hinterland of China.",
"In a press release to foreign reporters, Tang Shengzhi announced the city would not surrender and would fight to the death. Tang gathered about 100,000 soldiers, largely untrained, including Chinese troops who had participated in the Battle of Shanghai. The Chinese government left for relocation on December 1, and the president left on December 7, leaving the fate of Nanjing to an International Committee led by John Rabe. In an attempt to secure permission for this cease-fire from Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, a German national by the name of John Rabe who was living in Nanjing and had been acting as the Chairman of the Nanjing International Safety Zone Committee, boarded the USS Panay on December 9. From this gunboat, Rabe sent two telegrams. The first was through an American ambassador in Hankow to Chiang, asking that Chinese forces \"undertake no military operations\" within Nanjing.",
"",
"Although the massacre is generally described as having occurred over a six-week period after the fall of Nanjing, the crimes committed by the Japanese army were not limited to that period. Many atrocities were reported to have been committed as the Japanese army advanced from Shanghai to Nanjing. According to one Japanese journalist embedded with Imperial forces at the time, \"The reason that the [10th Army] is advancing to Nanjing quite rapidly is due to the tacit consent among the officers and men that they could loot and rape as they wish.\" Novelist Tatsuzō Ishikawa vividly described how the 16th Division of the Shanghai Expeditionary Force committed atrocities on the march between Shanghai and Nanjing in his novel \"Ikiteiru Heitai\" (Living Soldiers), which was based on interviews that Ishikawa conducted with troops in Nanjing",
"The Nanjing garrison force set fire to buildings and houses in the areas close to Xiakuan to the north as well as in the environs of the eastern and southern",
"Many Westerners were living in the city at that time, conducting trade or on missionary trips. As the Japanese army approached Nanjing, most of them fled the city, leaving 27 foreigners. Five of these were journalists who remained in the city a few days after it was captured, leaving the city on December 16. Fifteen of the remaining 22 foreigners formed a committee, called the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone in the western quarter of the city. German businessman",
"In a memorandum for the palace rolls, Hirohito singled Prince Yasuhiko Asaka out for censure as the one imperial kinsman whose attitude was \"not good\". He assigned Asaka to Nanjing as an opportunity to make amends. It appears that Hirohito had never learned about, or had refused to admit, Asaka's role in the ensuing massacre. On December 5, Asaka left Tokyo by plane and arrived at the front three days later. He met with division commanders, lieutenant-generals Kesago Nakajima and Heisuke Yanagawa, who informed him that the Japanese troops had almost completely surrounded 300,000 Chinese troops in the vicinity of Nanjing and that preliminary",
"",
"The Japanese military continued to move forward, breaching the last",
"At noon on December 9, the Japanese military dropped leaflets into the city, urging the city of Nanjing to surrender within 24 hours, promising \"no mercy\" if the offer is refused. In the meantime, members of the Committee contacted Tang",
"The Japanese awaited an answer to their demand for surrender but no response was received from the Chinese by the deadline on December 10. General Iwane Matsui waited another hour before issuing the command to take Nanjing by force. The Japanese army mounted its assault on the Nanjing walls from multiple directions; the SEF's 16th Division attacked three gates on the eastern side, the 6th Division of the 10A launched its offensive on the western walls, and the SEF's 9th",
"Japanese troops pursued the retreating Chinese army units, primarily in the Xiakuan area to the north of the city walls and around the Zijin Mountain in the east. Although most sources suggest that the final phase of the battle consisted of a one-sided slaughter of Chinese troops by the Japanese, some Japanese historians maintain that the remaining Chinese military still posed a serious threat to the Japanese. Prince Yasuhiko Asaka told a war correspondent later that he was in a very perilous position when his headquarters was ambushed by",
"",
"With the relocation of the capital of China and the reports of Japanese brutality, most of the civilian population fled Nanjing out of fear. Wealthy families were the first to flee,",
"Eyewitness accounts of Westerners and Chinese present at Nanjing in the weeks after the fall of the city say that, over the course of six weeks following the fall of Nanjing, Japanese troops engaged in mass rape, murder, torture, theft, arson, and other war crimes. Some of these primary accounts, including the diaries of John Rabe and American Minnie Vautrin, came from foreigners who opted to stay behind to protect the Chinese civilians from harm. Other accounts include first-person testimonies of Nanjing Massacre survivors, eyewitness reports of journalists (both Western and Japanese), as well as the field diaries of military personnel. American missionary John Magee stayed behind to provide a 16 mm film documentary and first-hand photographs of the Nanjing Massacre. A group of foreign expatriates headed by Rabe had formed a 15-man International Committee on November 22 and mapped out the Nanjing Safety Zone in order to safeguard civilians in the city. The city population of Nanjing inflated drastically during the mid-1930s, as many refugees fled from the Japanese aggression in the north. Rabe and American missionary Lewis S. C. Smythe, secretary of the International Committee and a professor of sociology at the University of Nanking, recorded the actions of the Japanese troops and filed complaints with the Japanese embassy.",
"In 1937, the \"Osaka Mainichi Shimbun\" and its sister newspaper, the \"Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun\", covered a contest between two Japanese officers, Toshiaki Mukai and Tsuyoshi Noda of the Japanese 16th Division. The two men were described as vying to be the first to kill 100 people with a sword before the capture of Nanjing. From Jurong to Tangshan (two cities in Jiangshu Province, China), Mukai had killed 89 people while Noda had killed",
"The International Military Tribunal for the Far East estimated that 20,000 women, including some children and the elderly, were raped during the occupation. A large number of rapes were done systematically by the Japanese soldiers as they went from door to door, searching for girls, with many women being captured and gang raped. The women were often killed immediately after being raped, often through explicit mutilation or by penetrating vaginas with bayonets, long sticks of bamboo, or other objects. Young children were not exempt from these atrocities and were cut open to allow Japanese soldiers to rape them. On 19 December 1937,",
"Following the capture of Nanjing, a massacre, which was perpetrated by the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), led to the deaths of up to 60,000 residents in the city, a figure difficult to precisely calculate due to the many bodies deliberately burnt, buried in mass graves, or deposited in the Yangtze River by the IJA. Japanese ultra-nationalists have strongly disputed such death tolls, with some claiming that no more than several hundred civilians were killed during the massacre. B. Campbell, in an article published in the journal \"Sociological Theory\", has described the Nanjing Massacre as a genocide, given the fact that residents were still slaughtered \"en masse\" during the aftermath, despite the successful and certain outcome in battle. On 13 December 1937, John Rabe wrote in his diary:It is not until we tour the city that we learn the extent of destruction. We come across corpses every 100 to 200 yards. The bodies of civilians",
"On 5 August 1937, the Deputy Minister of Military of Japan notified Japanese Troops in Shanghai of the army's proposition to remove the constraints of international law on the treatment of Chinese prisoners (\"Riku Shi Mitsu No.198\"). The directive also advised staff officers to no longer to use the term Prisoner of War. Soon after the fall of the city, Japanese troops made a thorough search for Chinese soldiers and summarily arrested thousands of young Chinese men. Many were taken to the Yangtze River, where they were machine-gunned to death. What was probably the single largest massacre of Chinese troops, the Straw String Gorge Massacre, occurred along the banks of the Yangtze River on December 18. For most of the morning, Japanese soldiers tied the POWs' hands together. At dusk, the soldiers divided POWs into four columns and opened fire. Unable to escape, the POWs could only scream and thrash desperately. It took an hour for the sounds of death to stop and even",
"One-third of the city was destroyed as a result of arson. According to reports, Japanese troops torched newly built government buildings as well as the homes of many civilians. There was considerable destruction to areas outside the city walls. Soldiers pillaged from the poor and the wealthy alike. The lack of resistance from Chinese troops and civilians in Nanjing meant that the Japanese soldiers were free to divide up the city's valuables as they saw fit. This resulted in the widespread looting and burglary. On 17 December, chairman John Rabe wrote a complaint to Kiyoshi Fukui, second secretary of the Japanese Embassy. The following is",
"The Japanese troops did respect the Zone to an extent; until the Japanese occupation, no shells entered that part of the city except a few stray shots. During the chaos following the attack of the city, some were killed in the Safety Zone, but the crimes that occurred in the rest of the city were far greater by all accounts. The Japanese soldiers committed actions in the Safety Zone that were part of the larger Nanjing Massacre.",
"Jonathan Spence writes \"there is no obvious explanation for this grim event, nor can one be found. The Japanese soldiers, who had expected easy victory, instead had been fighting hard for months",
"On December 18, 1937, as General Iwane Matsui began to comprehend the full extent of the rape, murder, and looting in the city, he grew increasingly dismayed. He reportedly told one of his civilian aides: \"I now realize that we have unknowingly wrought a most grievous effect on this city. When I think of the feelings and sentiments of many of my Chinese friends who",
"In late January 1938, the Japanese army forced all refugees in the Safety Zone to return home, immediately claiming to have \"restored order\". After the establishment of the \"weixin zhengfu\" (the collaborating government)",
"In February 1938 both Prince Asaka and General Matsui were recalled to Japan. Matsui returned to retirement, but Prince Asaka remained",
"Estimates of the number of victims vary based on the definitions of the geographical range and the duration of the event. The extent of the atrocities is debated, with numbers ranging from some Japanese claims of several hundred, to the Chinese claim of a non-combatant death toll of 300,000. Historian Tokushi Kasahara states \"more than 100,000 and close to 200,000, or maybe more\", referring to his own book. This estimation includes the surrounding area outside of the city of Nanjing, which is objected to by a Chinese researcher (the same book, p. 146). Hiroshi Yoshida concludes \"more than 200,000\" in his book. Tomio Hora writes of 50,000–100,000 deaths. Mainstream scholars consider figures from 40,000 to over 300,000 to be an accurate estimate. According to the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, estimates made at a later date indicate that the total number of civilians and prisoners of war murdered in Nanjing and its vicinity during the first six weeks of the Japanese occupation was up to 200,000. These estimates are borne out by the figures of burial societies and other organizations, which testify to over 155,000 buried bodies. These figures also do not take into account those persons whose bodies were destroyed by burning, drowning or other means, or whose bodies were interred in mass graves. According to the verdict of the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal on 10 March 1947, there are \"more than 190,000 mass slaughtered civilians and Chinese soldiers killed by machine gun by the Japanese army, whose corpses have been burned to destroy proof. Besides, we count more than 150,000 victims of barbarian acts buried by the charity organizations. We thus have a total of more than 300,000 victims.\" However, this estimate includes an accusation that the Japanese Army murdered 57,418 Chinese POWs at Mufushan, though the latest research indicates that between 4,000 and 20,000 were massacred, and it also includes the 112,266 corpses allegedly buried by the Chongshantang, a charitable association, though today mainstream historians agree that the Chongshantang's records were at least greatly exaggerated if not entirely fabricated. Bob Wakabayashi concludes from this that estimates of over 200,000 are not credible. Ikuhiko Hata considers the number 300,000 to be a \"symbolic figure\" representative of China's wartime suffering and not a figure to be taken literally. Some researchers estimate that between 40,000 and 60,000 people were killed, which corresponds to the figures from three sources; one is the Red Army's official journal of the time, Hangdibao and another is that of Miner Searle Bates of the International Safety Zone Committee, and the third is the aforementioned figure written by John Rabe in a letter. John Rabe, Chairman of the International Committee and Nanjing Safety Zone, estimated that between 50,000 and 60,000 (civilians) were killed. However, Erwin Wickert, the editor of \"The diaries of John Rabe\", points out that \"It is likely that Rabe's estimate is too low, since he could not have had an overview of the entire municipal area during the period of the worst atrocities. Moreover, many troops of captured Chinese soldiers were led out of the city and down to the Yangtze, where they were summarily executed. But, as noted, no one actually counted the dead.\" The casualty count of 300,000 was first promulgated in January 1938 by Harold Timperley, a journalist in China during the Japanese invasion, based on reports from contemporary eyewitnesses. Other sources, including Iris Chang's \"The Rape of Nanking\", also conclude that the death toll reached 300,000. In December 2007, newly declassified U.S. government archive documents revealed that a telegraph by the U.S. ambassador to Germany in Berlin sent one day after the Japanese army occupied Nanjing, stated that he heard the Japanese ambassador in Germany boasting that the Japanese army had killed 500,000 Chinese soldiers and civilians as the Japanese army advanced from Shanghai to Nanjing. According to the archives research \"The telegrams sent by the U.S. diplomats [in Berlin] pointed to the massacre of an estimated half a million people in Shanghai, Suzhou, Jiaxing, Hangzhou, Shaoxing, Wuxi and Changzhou\". In the 2010 Japan-China Joint History Research Committee meeting, scholars from the Japanese side set the maximum possible number of civilian victims at 200,000, with estimates of around 40,000 or 20,000. The Chinese scholars of the committee maintained that at least 300,000 were killed.",
"Shortly after the surrender of Japan, the primary officers in charge of the Japanese troops at Nanjing were put on trial. General Matsui was indicted before the International Military Tribunal for the Far East for \"deliberately and recklessly\" ignoring his legal duty \"to take adequate steps to secure the observance and prevent breaches\" of the Hague Convention. Hisao Tani, the lieutenant general of the 6th Division of the Imperial Japanese Army in Nanjing, was tried by the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal. Other Japanese military leaders in charge at the time of the Nanjing Massacre were not tried. Prince Kan'in Kotohito, chief of staff of the Imperial Japanese Army during the massacre, had died before the end of the war in May 1945. Prince Asaka was granted immunity because of his status as a member of the imperial family. Isamu Chō, the aide to Prince Asaka, and whom some historians believe issued the \"kill all captives\" memo, had committed suicide during the Battle of Okinawa.",
"On May 1, 1946, SCAP officials interrogated Prince Asaka, who was the ranking officer in the city at the height of the atrocities, about his involvement",
"The prosecution began the Nanjing phase of its case in July 1946. Dr. Robert O. Wilson, a surgeon and a member of the International Committee for the Nanjing Safety Zone, took the witness stand first. Other members of the International Committee for the Nanjing Safety Zone who took the witness stand included Miner Searle Bates and John Magee. George A. Fitch, Lewis S. C. Smythe, and James McCallum filed affidavits with their diaries and letters. Another piece of evidence that was submitted to the tribunal was Harold Timperley's telegram regarding the Nanjing Massacre which had been intercepted and decoded by the Americans on January 17, 1938. One of the books by",
"Matsui's defence varied between denying the mass-scale atrocities and evading his responsibility for what had happened. Eventually, he made numerous conflicting statements. Interrogated in Sugamo prison before the trial, Matsui admitted that he heard about the many outrages committed by his troops from Japanese diplomats when he entered Nanjing on December 17, 1937. In court, he contradicted the earlier testimony and told the judges that he was not \"officially\" briefed at the consulate about the evil-doings, presumably to avoid admitting any contact with the consulate officials such as Second Secretary (later Acting Consul-General) Fukui Kiyoshi and Attaché Fukuda Tokuyasu who",
"Kōki Hirota, who had been the Foreign Minister when Japan conquered Nanjing, was convicted of participating in \"the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy\" (count 1), waging \"a war of aggression and a war in violation of international laws, treaties, agreements and assurances against the Republic of China\" (count 27) and count 55. Matsui was convicted by a majority of the judges at the",
"On November 12, 1948, Matsui and Hirota, along with five other convicted Class-A war criminals, were sentenced to death by hanging. Eighteen others received lesser sentences. The death sentence imposed on Hirota,",
"On October 9, 2015, Documents of Nanjing Massacre",
"China and Japan have both acknowledged the occurrence of wartime atrocities. Disputes over the historical portrayal of these events continue to cause tensions between Japan on one side and China and other East Asian countries on the other side.",
"Before the 1970s, China did relatively little to draw attention to the Nanjing massacre. In her book \"Rape of",
"The major waves of Japanese treatment of these events have ranged from total cover-up during the war, confessions and documentation by the Japanese soldiers during the 1950s and 1960s, minimization of the extent of the Nanjing Massacre during the 1970s and 1980s, official Japanese government distortion and rewriting of history during the 1980s, and total denial of the occurrence of the Nanjing Massacre by some government officials in 1990. The debate concerning the massacre took place mainly in the 1970s. During this time, the Chinese government's statements about the event were attacked by the Japanese because they were said to rely too heavily on personal testimonies and anecdotal evidence. Aspersions were cast regarding the authenticity and accuracy of burial records and photographs presented in the Tokyo War Crime Court, which the Japanese government claimed were fabrications by the Chinese",
"On August 15, 1995, the fiftieth anniversary of the Surrender of Japan, the Japanese prime minister Tomiichi Murayama gave the first clear and formal apology for Japanese actions during the war. He apologized for Japan's aggression and the great suffering that it inflicted in Asia. He offered his apology to all survivors and to the relatives and friends of the victims.",
"In May 1994, Justice Minister Shigeto Nagano called the Nanjing Massacre a \"fabrication\". On June 19, 2007, a group of around 100 Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) lawmakers again denounced the Nanjing Massacre as a fabrication, arguing that there was no evidence to prove the allegations of mass killings by Japanese soldiers. They accused Beijing of using the alleged incident as a \"political advertisement\". On February 20, 2012, Takashi Kawamura, mayor of Nagoya, told a visiting delegation from Nanjing that the massacre \"probably never happened\". Two days later he defended his remarks, saying, \"Even",
"",
"The memory of the Nanjing Massacre has been a stumbling block in Sino-Japanese relations since the early 1970s. Bilateral exchanges on trade, culture and education have increased greatly since the two countries normalized their bilateral relations and Japan became China's most important trading partner. Trade between the two nations is worth over $200 billion annually. Despite this, many Chinese people still have a strong sense of mistrust and animosity toward Japan that originates from the memory of Japanese war crimes such as the Nanjing Massacre. This sense of mistrust is strengthened by the belief that Japan is unwilling to admit to and apologize for the atrocities. Takashi Yoshida described how changing political concerns and perceptions of the \"national interest\" in Japan, China, and the U.S. have shaped collective memory of the Nanjing massacre. Yoshida contended that over time the event has acquired different meanings to different people. People from mainland China saw themselves as the victims. For Japan,",
"Yoshida asserts that \"Nanjing has figured in the attempts of all three nations [China, Japan and the",
"In Japan, the Nanjing Massacre touches upon national identity and notions of \"pride, honor and shame\". Yoshida argues that \"Nanking crystallizes a much larger conflict over what should constitute the ideal perception of the nation: Japan, as a nation, acknowledges its past and apologizes for its wartime wrongdoings; or... stands firm against foreign pressures and teaches Japanese youth about the benevolent and courageous martyrs who fought a just war to save Asia from Western aggression.\" Recognizing the Nanjing Massacre as such can be viewed in some circles in Japan as \"Japan bashing\" (in the case of foreigners) or \"self-flagellation\" (in the case of Japanese). The government of Japan believes it can not be denied that the killing of a large number of noncombatants, looting and other acts by the Japanese army occurred. However, the actual number of victims is hard to determine, according to government of Japan. In the 2010 Japan-China Joint History Research Committee meeting, scholars from the Japanese side set the maximum possible number of civilian victims at 200,000, with estimates of around 40,000 or 20,000. The Chinese scholars of the committee maintained that at least 300,000",
"The Nanjing massacre has emerged as one fundamental keystone in the construction of the modern Chinese national identity. Modern Chinese (including citizens of the",
"Dockworkers in Australia were horrified at the massacre, and refused",
"In December 2007, the PRC government published the names of 13,000 people who were killed by Japanese troops in the Nanking Massacre. According to Xinhua News Agency, it is the most complete record to date. The report consists of eight volumes and was released to mark the 70th anniversary of the start of the massacre.",
"Notes Citations Bibliography"
]
} |
Jan Ladislav Dussek | null | Jan Ladislav Dussek (baptized Jan Václav Dusík, with surname also written as Duschek or Düssek; 12 February 176020 March 1812) was a Czech composer and pianist. He was an important representative of Czech music abroad in the second half of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Some of his more forward-looking piano works have traits often associated with Romanticism. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2431040 | en-train-2431040 | 2431040 | {
"title": [
"Life.",
"Early years.",
"Netherlands and Hamburg.",
"Eastern and Central Europe.",
"France and Italy.",
"London.",
"Business failure.",
"Later years.",
"Style.",
"Solo piano works.",
"Piano concertos.",
"Innovations to the piano.",
"Works list."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"2",
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"content": [
"",
"The Dussek family had a long history as professional musicians, starting at least as early as Jan Ladislav's grandfather Jan Josef Dusík (b. 1712), and lasting in the Moravian branch of the family at least into the 1970s. Jan Ladislav's mother, Veronika Dusíková (née Štěbetová), played the harp, an instrument, along with the piano, for which her son went on to write much music. His father, Jan Josef, was also a well-known organist and composer. His sister, Katerina Veronika Anna Dusíkova, was also a musician and composer. Jan Ladislav, the oldest of three children, was born on 12 February 1760 in the Bohemian town of Čáslav, where his father taught and played the organ. His first musical instruction came from his father, who began teaching him piano at 5, and organ at age 9. His voice was also found to be good, so he also sang in the church choir. He studied music at the Jesuit gymnasium in Jihlava, where he studied with Ladislav Špinar, its choir director; his grades were reported to be poor. From 1774 to 1776 he studied at the Jesuit gymnasium in Kutná Hora, where he also served as organist in the Santa Barbara Jesuit church. In 1776 he went to the New City Gymnasium in Prague, where he was again reported to be a lazy student. In 1777 he enrolled in the University of Prague, where he lasted one semester.",
"After these early studies in Bohemia he entered the services of one Captain Männer, an Austrian military man, in 1778. Dussek traveled with the Captain to what has since become Belgium in 1779, where he became the organist at the St. Rumbold's cathedral in Mechelen. In Mechelen he gave his first public recital, playing his own compositions. He then travelled to the Dutch Republic, where a well-received concert in Amsterdam brought him to the royalty's attention. He was invited to The Hague, where he gave lessons to the three children of Stadtholder William V. While at the Hague he gave a performance before Kaiser Joseph II of Austria, who acknowledged Dussek's prowess. By 1782, after leaving Männer's service, he was in Hamburg, where he gave a concert on the \"new English fortepiano\". While in Hamburg, he may have studied with C. P. E. Bach. He also published his first works, three piano concertos and 3 violin sonatas (C 2–7), all of which were assigned Opus 1.",
"From Hamburg he moved to St. Petersburg, where he was a favorite of Catherine the Great. While there he was introduced to a technician named Hessel, who had developed a keyboard version of the glass harmonica, an instrument Dussek went on to master. Dussek was forced to leave Russia quite abruptly, just ahead of Catherine's secret police, amid suspicions of his involvement in a plot to assassinate Catherine. In a possibly apocryphal tale surrounding his departure, he was en route to play for Catherine when he found a ring, which he put on. Catherine recognized the ring as belonging to a known conspirator, raising her suspicions about Dussek. After Dussek left St. Petersburg, he took a position as music director for Prince Antoni Radziwiłł in Lithuania, where he stayed about a year. His departure from Lithuania may have been prompted by an affair he was rumored to have with the Prince's wife, the Princess of Thurn und Taxis. He toured Germany for the next few years as a virtuoso performer on the piano and on the glass harmonica, eventually arriving in Paris in 1786. The German tour was a significant success for him. One review of a Berlin concert said, \"He obtained great distinction as a pianist, and was little less admired for his playing on the [glass] harmonica... some critics pretend to trace to his skill upon this instrument many of his specialities of style both as a pianist and composer\". Another reviewer wrote, of a concert in Kassel, \"He entranced all listeners with a slow, harmonic, and studiously modulated prelude and chorale.\" He may also have been in Ludwigslust in 1786, where he would have performed his \"Extract from an Easter Canata\" (C 26) for the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.",
"In Paris Dussek became a favorite of Marie Antoinette, who tried to dissuade him from going on a performing tour to Milan in 1788. However, she was unsuccessful, as Dussek wanted to visit his brother Franz in Milan. Dussek's trip to Milan was quite successful; his performances \"produce[d] quite a sensation\". He returned to Paris, where he stayed until shortly before the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789. During his time in Paris he may have met and played with a violinist by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte. He also published a series of violin sonatas (C 27–29) dedicated to Eugénie de Beaumarchais, daughter of writer Pierre Beaumarchais.",
"Dussek left France for England in May or June 1789, where he settled in London. It is sometimes alleged that he took with him the harpist wife of the composer Jean-Baptiste Krumpholtz, who drowned himself into the Seine as a consequence; however, this is likely untrue, as Anne-Marie Krumpholtz went to London in 1788. It is also uncertain whether he left Paris \"because\" of the looming crisis in France, or if it was merely coincidental. Early biographers have generally claimed that he left because of the impending revolution. He is reported to have had a concert engagement in London in early June 1789; this would have required his departure from Paris before some of the critical steps early in the Revolution. Dussek made London his home until 1799. By 1790 he was well established as a performer and teacher. He was in such demand that Davison, in an 1860 biographic sketch, noted that \"he became one of the most fashionable professors of the day, and his lessons were both sought with avidity and remunerated at a rate of payment which knew no precedent except in the instance of John Cramer.\" He had also established a relationship with pianomaker John Broadwood, taking delivery of one of the very first 5 1⁄2 octave pianos (FF-c4): Broadwood noted in his business journal for 13 November 1793: \"We have made some 5 1⁄2 octave grands these three years past, the first to please Dussek, which being liked, Cramer junior had one\". His collaboration with Broadwood would continue to bear fruit when, in 1794, he also received the first 6-octave (CC-c4) piano In the spring of 1791, Dussek appeared in a series of concerts, a number of which featured Sophia, the young daughter of music publisher Domenico Corri. In a concert on 15 June that year, the pair played a piano duet together; they were married in September 1792. Sophia Corri was a singer, pianist, and harpist who became known in her own right. They had a daughter, Olivia, but the marriage was not happy, involving liaisons by both parties. Some of the concerts in 1791 and 1792 featured both Dussek and Joseph Haydn; the older Haydn wrote quite favorably of Dussek in a letter to the latter's father following one of the 1792 concerts. The other highlights of 1792 (above and beyond his marriage to Sophia) included the beginning of a music publishing venture with Sophia's father Domenico. This business, while successful at first, fared poorly in later years, and the circumstances of its failure spurred Dussek to leave London in 1799, leaving Corri in debtors' prison. Dussek's business acumen apparently had little impact on his performing and composing while in London. Every year, he performed in a series of concerts, at least some of which also featured Sophia, and which frequently featured new works. Some works were so successful they were repeated at later concerts in the series. Of one work, a reviewer wrote in 1798, \"Dussek's Military Concerto was repeated. We think it very deserving of encomium.\" The concerto (C 153), which the reviewer reported as having been a repeat performance, was played \"again\" the following week. In 1796, Dussek and his wife began having serious marital troubles. In an account of uncertain veracity, it was reported that Sophia, who had fallen in love with another man, asked Dussek for money to repair her harp. She then used the money to leave the house, removing her belongings in her harp case, and claiming to have left for dinner with a female friend. A suspicious Dussek went with his father-in-law to the man's house, where Sophia locked herself in. She and Dussek argued, and she cursed him, claiming to be pregnant by the other man. Dussek, relenting, promised her freedom to do what she wanted; this led to a reconciliation of sorts. It seems unlikely that Dussek ever saw Sophia and his daughter Olivia after he left London in 1799; Sophia had to wait until she knew Dussek had died before she could remarry, which she did in 1812. Some of Dussek's compositions included arrangements of operatic and theatrical overtures for piano. He decided to try his hand at opera in 1798; the result was The Captive of Spilberg, with a libretto by Prince Hoare. The opera opened at Drury Lane on 14 November 1798, and the music was well received, with the \"European Magazine\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s critic writing, \"the music, by Mr. Dussek, was such as to intitle him to rank with the first composers of the time.\"",
"In 1799, the business venture with Corri, which had never been very successful, ran into financial difficulties. Dussek and Corri managed to convince the librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte to lend them money to cover their debts. The failure to repay this debt put Corri into Newgate Prison and caused Dussek to flee. Da Ponte believed that Dussek fled to Paris; in fact he returned to Hamburg. The affair ended up bankrupting both Corri and Da Ponte. Dussek then toured Germany, where he became one of the first \"glamour\" pianists, preceding Franz Liszt. According to Louis Spohr, Dussek was the first to turn the piano sideways on the stage \"so that the ladies could admire his handsome profile.\" Before long he took up a position with Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, who treated him more as a friend and colleague than as an employee. Together, they sometimes enjoyed what were called \"musical orgies.\" When Prince Louis Ferdinand was killed in the Battle of Saalfeld, Dussek wrote the moving Sonata in F sharp minor, \"Elégie harmonique\", Op. 61 (C 211).",
"In 1807, despite his earlier affiliation with Marie Antoinette, Dussek returned to Paris in the employ of Talleyrand, the powerful French foreign minister. Having no doubt made the acquaintance of Sébastien Érard in London, he became closely associated with the Érard brothers' piano-making activities, signing an Érard grand piano of 1808 still to be seen at Talleyrand's château at Valençay, and giving the first public performance on their new stirrup-action grand in 1810. He wrote a powerful sonata (Sonata in A flat major, Op. 64, C 221) called \"Le Retour à Paris\" (The Return to Paris). This imposing sonata also received the nickname \"Plus Ultra\" in heated response to a piano sonata by Joseph Woelfl, said to be the last word in pianistic difficulties, entitled \"Non Plus Ultra\". The remainder of his life he spent performing, teaching and composing in Prussia and France. His personal beauty had faded and he became grossly fat. He also developed a fondness for strong drink which probably hastened his death. Dussek died of gout on 20 March 1812, in Saint-Germain-en-Laye.",
"Dussek was a predecessor of the Romantic composers for piano, especially Chopin, Schumann and Mendelssohn. Many of his works are strikingly at odds with the prevailing late Classical style of other composers of the time. The evolution of style found in Dussek's piano writing suggests he pursued an independent line of development, one that anticipated but did not influence early Romanticism. His more notable works include several large-scale solo piano pieces, piano sonatas, many piano concertos, sonatas for violin and piano, a musical drama, and various works of chamber music, including a \"Trio for piano, horn and violin\", and the highly unusual sonata for piano, violin, cello and percussion entitled \"The Naval Battle and Total Defeat of the Dutch by Admiral Duncan\" (1797, C 152), which is an extremely rare example of pre-20th-century chamber music that includes percussion.",
"Dussek was one of a number of foreign-born composers, including Muzio Clementi and John Field, who contributed significantly to the development of a distinct \"London\" school of pianoforte composition. In part, this was due to the particular nature of piano manufacture in England. Joseph Haydn, for instance, composed his famous E-flat sonata after playing a piano of greater range lent to him by Dussek. Much of Dussek's piano writing drew upon the more modulable and powerful tonal qualities and greater keyboard range of English-manufactured pianofortes. The enhanced possibilities offered by the instrument help explain some of his stylistic innovations. Dussek wrote numerous solo piano works, including 34 Piano Sonatas as well as a number of programmatic compositions. His \"The Sufferings of the Queen of France\" (composed in 1793, C 98), for example, is an episodic account of Marie Antoinette with interpolated texts relating to the Queen's misfortunes, including her sorrow at being separated from her children and her final moments on the scaffold before the guillotine. Along with Clementi, Dussek may have been a source of stylistic inspiration and influence for Beethoven, whose expansion upon the idiomatic innovations of the London school led to their rapid penumbration with the appearance of Beethoven's own keyboard works. Stylistic, melodic, dynamic and even structural similarities have been observed, for instance, between Beethoven's Sonata Opus 10, No. 3 and Dussek's Sonatas Opus 31, No. 2 and Opus 35, No. 2. Similarly, the opening of Beethoven's Sonata Opus 10, No. 1 quotes directly Dussek's Sonata Opus 39, No. 3 (see image). It is also possible that Dussek's influence can be seen in Beethoven's famous Sonata Opus 81a, \"les Adieux\": \"both the program and the realization owed a great deal to Dussek's The Farewell, Opus 44.\"",
"Dussek composed a number of piano concertos between 1779 and 1810, eighteen of which survive. Dussek introduced one noteworthy stylistic innovation to the piano concerto form. In variance with the prevailing classical concerto style, exemplified by Mozart's piano concertos, Dussek eliminated the soloist cadenza in the opening movement in all of his concertos written after 1792. Other individual characteristics are also noteworthy. His Concerto in C major, Op. 29, published in 1795, starts with an introductory Larghetto in 3/8 time, a solemn thematic declamation that is unique to the classical concerto. His last surviving work in the genre, Opus 70 in E-flat major, was one of the first to lengthen substantially the opening movement: at 570 measures long, it is roughly a third longer than his previous contributions, and foreshadows the practice of a dominant opening movement in concerto writing, found, for example, in the concertos of Chopin and the two minor concerti Opus 85 and Opus 89 by Johann Nepomuk Hummel as well as Beethoven's fifth.",
"Apart from his own music, Dussek is important in the history of music because of his friendship with John Broadwood, the developer of the \"English Action\" piano. Because his own music demanded strength and range not available in the then current pianos, he pushed Broadwood into several extensions of the range and sonority of the instrument. It was a Broadwood instrument with Dussek's improvements that was sent to Beethoven. Dussek was also the first composer to write indications for using piano pedals.",
"The vast majority of Dussek's music involves the piano or harp in some way. He wrote 35 sonatas for piano and 11 for piano duet, as well as numerous other works for both configurations. His chamber music output includes 65 violin sonatas, 24 piano (or harp) trios, and a variety of works for harp, harp or piano, or harp and piano. Some sonatas had trio parts added by J. B. Cramer. Orchestral works were limited to concertos, including 16 for piano (one of them had lost and two of them are remained dubious attribution), six for harp (three of them lost), and one for two pianos. He wrote a modest number of vocal works, include 12 songs, a cantata, a mass, and one opera, \"The Captive of Spilberg\". His compositions also included arrangements of other works, especially opera overtures, for piano. Cataloging Dussek's compositions has a history of its own. Dussek's oeuvre has historically been difficult to organize, due in part to the number of publishers who originally published his work, and to the fact that some of his works were published by more than one publisher. Some works published by multiple publishers were assigned different opus numbers; sometimes different works were given then same opus number by different publishers. Dussek further complicated this by arranging works for different instrument combinations. The Artaria Company published a thematic catalog of his works that is incomplete, prompting Howard Craw to develop a new thematic catalog in 1964. Works are numbered in the order they were written prefixed by \"C\" or \"Craw\"; works of dubious origin are listed in a separately numbered section prefixed by \"Craw D\"."
]
} |
Martin Van Buren | null | Martin Van Buren ( ; born Maarten Van Buren; December 5, 1782 – July 24, 1862) was an American statesman who served as the eighth president of the United States from 1837 to 1841. He was the first president to have English as a second language – his mother tongue was Dutch – and the first born after the United States had declared its independence from Great Britain. A founder of the Democratic Party, he had previously served as the ninth governor of New York, the tenth United States secretary of state, and the eighth vice president of the United States. He won the 1836 presidential election with the endorsement of popular outgoing President Andrew Jackson and the organizational strength of the Democratic Party. He lost his 1840 reelection bid to Whig Party nominee William Henry Harrison, thanks in part to the poor economic conditions surrounding the Panic of 1837. Later in his life, Van Buren emerged as an elder statesman and an important anti-slavery abolitionist leader who led the Free Soil Party ticket in the presidential election of 1848. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life and education.",
"Early political career.",
"Jackson administration.",
"Secretary of State.",
"Vice-presidency.",
"Presidential election of 1836.",
"Presidency, 1837–1841.",
"Cabinet.",
"Panic of 1837.",
"Indian removal.",
"Texas.",
"Britain.",
"\"Amistad\" case.",
"Judicial appointments.",
"White House hostess.",
"Presidential election of 1840.",
"Later life.",
"Election of 1844.",
"Election of 1848.",
"Retirement.",
"Legacy.",
"Historical reputation.",
"Memorials and popular culture."
],
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"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"content": [
"Van Buren was born as Maarten Van Buren on December 5, 1782, in Kinderhook, New York, about south of Albany on the Hudson River. By American law, he was the first U.S. president not born a British subject, nor of British ancestry. His father, Abraham Van Buren, was a descendant of Cornelis Maessen of the village of Buurmalsen in Netherlands, who had come to North America in 1631, and purchased a plot of land on Manhattan Island. Abraham Van Buren had been a Patriot during the American Revolution, and he later joined the Democratic-Republican Party. He owned an inn and tavern in Kinderhook and served as Kinderhook's town clerk for several years. In 1776, he married Maria Hoes Van Alen in the town of Kinderhook, also of Dutch extraction and the widow of Johannes Van Alen. She had three children from her first marriage, including future U.S. Representative James I. Van Alen. Her second marriage produced five children, including Martin. Van Buren spoke English as a second language, unlike any other president; his primary language in youth was Dutch. Van Buren received a basic education at the village schoolhouse and briefly studied Latin at the Kinderhook Academy and at Washington Seminary in Claverack. His formal education ended in 1796, when he began reading law",
"Upon returning to Kinderhook in 1803, Van Buren formed a law partnership with his half-brother, James Van Alen, and became financially secure enough to increase his focus on politics. Van Buren had been active in politics from age 18, if not before. In 1801, he attended a Democratic-Republican Party convention in Troy, New York where he worked successfully to secure for John Peter Van Ness the party nomination in a special election for the 6th Congressional District seat. Upon returning to Kinderhook, Van Buren broke with the Burr faction, becoming an ally of both DeWitt Clinton and Daniel D. Tompkins. After the faction led by Clinton and Tompkins dominated the 1807 elections, Van Buren was appointed Surrogate of Columbia County, New York. Seeking to find a better base for his political and legal career, Van Buren and his family moved to the town of Hudson, the seat of Columbia County, in 1808. Van Buren's legal practice continued to flourish, and he traveled all over the state to represent various clients. In 1812, Van Buren won his party's nomination for a seat in the New York State Senate. Though several Democratic-Republicans, including John Peter Van Ness, joined with the Federalists to oppose his candidacy, Van Buren won election to the state senate in mid-1812. Later in the year, the United States entered the War of 1812 against Great Britain, while Clinton launched an unsuccessful bid to defeat President James Madison in the 1812 presidential election. After the election, Van Buren became suspicious that Clinton was working with the Federalist Party, and he broke from his former political ally. During the War of 1812, Van Buren worked with Clinton, Governor Tompkins, and Ambrose Spencer to support the Madison administration's prosecution of the war. In addition, he was a special judge advocate appointed to serve as a prosecutor of William Hull during Hull's court-martial following the surrender of Detroit. Anticipating another military campaign, he collaborated with Winfield Scott on ways to reorganize the New York Militia in the winter of 1814–1815, but their work was halted by the end of the war in early 1815. Van Buren was so favorably impressed by Scott that he named his fourth son after him. Van Buren's strong support for the war boosted his standing, and in 1815, he was elected to the position of New York Attorney General. Van Buren moved from Hudson to the state capital of Albany, where he established a legal partnership with Benjamin Butler, and shared a house with political ally Roger Skinner. In 1816, Van Buren won re-election to the state senate, and he would continue to simultaneously serve as both state senator and as the state's attorney general. In 1819, he played an active part in prosecuting the accused murderers of Richard Jennings, the first murder-for-hire case in the state of New York.",
"",
"In February 1829, Jackson wrote to Van Buren to ask him to become Secretary of State. Van Buren quickly agreed, and he resigned as governor the following month; his tenure of forty-three days is the shortest of any Governor of New York. No serious diplomatic crises arose during Van Buren's tenure as Secretary of State, but he achieved several notable successes, such as settling long-standing claims against France and winning reparations for property that had been seized during the Napoleonic Wars. He reached",
"In August 1831, Jackson gave Van Buren a recess appointment as the ambassador to Britain, and Van Buren arrived in London in September. He was cordially received, but in February 1832, he learned his nomination had been rejected by the Senate. The rejection of Van Buren was essentially the work of Calhoun. When the vote on Van Buren's nomination was taken, enough pro-Calhoun Jacksonians refrained from voting to produce a tie, which allowed Calhoun to cast the deciding vote against Van Buren. Calhoun was elated,",
"President Andrew Jackson declined to seek another term in the 1836 presidential election, but he remained influential within the Democratic Party as his second term came to an end. Jackson was determined to help elect Van Buren in 1836 so that the latter could continue the Jackson administration's policies. the two men-–the charismatic \"Old Hickory\" and the super-efficient \"Sly Fox\"--had entirely different personalities but had become an effective team in eight years in office together. With Jackson's support, Van Buren won the presidential nomination of the 1835 Democratic National Convention without opposition. Two names",
"",
"Van Buren retained much of Jackson's cabinet and lower-level appointees, as he hoped that the retention of Jackson's appointees would stop Whig momentum in the South and restore confidence in the Democrats as a party of sectional unity. The cabinet holdovers represented the different regions of the country: Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury came from New England, Attorney General Benjamin F. Butler and Secretary of the Navy Mahlon Dickerson hailed from mid-Atlantic states, Secretary of State John Forsyth represented the South, and Postmaster General Amos Kendall of Kentucky represented the West. For the lone open position of Secretary of War, Van Buren first approached William Cabell Rives, who had sought the vice presidency in 1836. After Rives declined to join the cabinet, Van Buren appointed Joel Roberts Poinsett, a South Carolinian who had opposed secession during the Nullification Crisis. Van Buren's cabinet choices",
"When Van Buren entered office, the nation's economic health had taken a turn for the worse and the prosperity of the early 1830s was over. Two months into his presidency, on May 10, 1837, some important state banks in New York, running out of hard currency reserves, refused to convert paper money into gold or silver, and other financial institutions throughout the nation quickly followed suit. This financial crisis would become known as the Panic of 1837. The Panic was followed by a five-year depression in which banks failed and unemployment reached record highs. Van Buren blamed the economic collapse on greedy American and foreign business and financial institutions, as well as the over-extension of credit by U.S. banks. Whig leaders in Congress blamed the Democrats, along with Andrew Jackson's economic policies, specifically his 1836 Specie Circular. Cries of \"rescind the circular!\" went up and former president Jackson sent word to Van Buren asking him not to rescind the order, believing that it had to be given enough time to work. Others, like Nicholas Biddle, believed that Jackson's dismantling of the Bank",
"Federal policy under Jackson had sought to move Indian tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River through the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and the federal government negotiated 19 treaties with Indian tribes during Van Buren's presidency. The 1835 Treaty of New Echota signed by government officials and representatives of the Cherokee tribe had established terms under which the Cherokees ceded their territory in the southeast and agreed to move west to Oklahoma. In 1838, Van Buren directed General Winfield Scott to forcibly move all those who had not yet complied with the treaty. The Cherokees were herded violently into internment camps where they were kept for the summer of 1838. The actual transportation west was delayed by intense heat and drought, but they were forcibly marched west in the fall. Under the treaty, the government was supposed to provide wagons, rations, and even medical doctors, but it did not. Some 20,000 people were relocated against their will during",
"Just before leaving office in March 1837, Andrew Jackson extended diplomatic recognition to the Republic of Texas, which had gained de facto independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution. By suggesting the prospect of quick annexation, Jackson raised the danger of war with Mexico and heightened sectional tensions at home. New England abolitionists charged that there was a \"slaveholding conspiracy to acquire Texas\", and Daniel Webster eloquently denounced annexation. Many Southern leaders, meanwhile, strongly desired the expansion of slave-holding territory in the United States. Boldly reversing Jackson's",
"British subjects in Lower Canada (now Quebec) and Upper Canada (now Ontario) rose in rebellion in 1837 and 1838, protesting their lack of responsible government. While the initial insurrection in Upper Canada ended quickly (following the December 1837 Battle of Montgomery's Tavern), many of the rebels fled across the Niagara River into New York, and Canadian leader William Lyon Mackenzie began recruiting volunteers in Buffalo. Mackenzie declared the establishment of the Republic of Canada and put into motion a plan whereby volunteers would invade Upper Canada from Navy Island on the Canadian side of the Niagara River. Several hundred volunteers traveled to Navy Island in the weeks that followed. They procured the steamboat \"Caroline\" to deliver supplies",
"The \"Amistad\" case was a freedom suit that involved international issues and parties, as well as United States law, resulting from the rebellion of Africans on board the Spanish schooner \"La Amistad\" in 1839. Van Buren viewed abolitionism as the greatest threat to the nation's unity, and he resisted the slightest interference with slavery in the states where it existed. His administration supported the Spanish government's demand that the ship and its cargo (including the Africans) be turned over to them. A federal district court judge ruled that the Africans were legally",
"Van Buren appointed two Associate Justices to the Supreme Court: John McKinley, confirmed September 25,",
"For the first half of his presidency, Van Buren, who had been a widower for many years, did not have a specific person fill the role of White House hostess at administration social events, but tried to assume such duties himself. When his eldest son Abraham Van Buren married Angelica Singleton in 1838, he quickly acted to install his daughter-in-law as his hostess. She solicited the advice of her distant relative, Dolley Madison, who had moved back to Washington after her husband's death, and soon the president's parties livened up. After the 1839 New Year's Eve reception, the \"Boston Post\" raved: \"[Angelica Van Buren is a]",
"Van Buren easily won renomination for a second term at the 1840 Democratic National Convention, but he and his party faced a difficult election in 1840. Van Buren's presidency had been a difficult affair, with the U.S. economy mired in a severe downturn, and other divisive issues, such as slavery, western expansion, and tensions with Great Britain, providing opportunities for Van Buren's political opponents—including some of his fellow Democrats—to criticize his actions. Although Van Buren's renomination was never in doubt, Democratic strategists began to question the",
"",
"On the expiration of his term, Van Buren returned to his estate of Lindenwald in Kinderhook. He continued to closely watch political developments, including the battle between Clay and President Tyler, who took office after Harrison's death in April 1841. Though undecided on another presidential run, Van Buren made several moves calculated to maintain his support, including a trip to the South and West during which he met with Jackson, former Speaker of the House James K. Polk, and others. President Tyler, James Buchanan, Levi Woodbury, and others loomed as potential challengers for the 1844 Democratic nomination, but it was Calhoun who posed the most formidable obstacle. Van Buren remained",
"Though he had previously helped maintain a balance between the Barnburners and Hunkers, the two factions of the New York Democratic Party, Van Buren moved closer to the Barnburners after the 1844 Democratic National Convention. The split in the state party worsened during the Polk's presidency, as his administration lavished patronage on the Hunkers. In his retirement, Van Buren also grew increasingly opposed to slavery. As the Mexican–American War brought the debate over slavery in the territories to the forefront of American politics, Van Buren published an anti-slavery manifesto. In it, he refuted the notion that Congress did not have the power to regulate slavery in the territories, and argued the Founding Fathers had favored the eventual abolition of slavery. The document, which became known as the \"Barnburner Manifesto,\" was edited at Van Buren's request by John Van Buren and Samuel Tilden, both of whom were leaders of the Barnburner faction. After the publication of the Barnburner Manifesto, many Barnburners urged the former president to seek his old",
"Van Buren never sought public office again after the 1848 election, but he continued to closely follow national politics. He was deeply troubled by the stirrings of secessionism in the South and welcomed the Compromise of 1850 as a necessary conciliatory measure despite his opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Van Buren also worked on a history of American political parties and embarked on a tour of Europe, becoming the first former American head of state to visit Britain. Though still concerned about slavery, Van Buren and his followers returned to the Democratic fold, partly out of the fear that a continuing Democratic split would help the Whig Party. He also attempted to reconcile the Barnburners and the Hunkers, with mixed results. Van Buren supported Franklin Pierce for president in 1852, James Buchanan in 1856, and Stephen A. Douglas in 1860. Van Buren viewed the fledgling Know Nothing movement with contempt and felt that the anti-slavery Republican Party exacerbated sectional tensions. He considered Chief Justice Roger Taney's decision in the 1857 case of \"Dred Scott v. Sandford\"",
"",
"Van Buren's most lasting achievement was as a political organizer who built the Democratic Party and guided it to dominance in the Second Party System, and historians have come to regard Van Buren as integral to the development of the American political system. According to historian Robert Remini: However, his presidency",
"Van Buren's home in Kinderhook, New York, which he called Lindenwald, is now the Martin Van Buren National Historic Site. Counties are named for Van Buren in Michigan, Iowa, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Mount Van Buren,, three state parks and numerous towns were named after him. During the 1988 presidential campaign, George H. W. Bush, a Yale University graduate and member of the Skull and Bones secret society, was attempting to become the first incumbent vice president to win election to the presidency since Van Buren. In the comic strip \"Doonesbury\", artist Garry Trudeau depicted members"
]
} |
Carpal bones | null | The carpal bones are the eight small bones that make up the wrist (or carpus) that connects the hand to the forearm. The term "carpus" is derived from the Latin carpus and the Greek καρπός (karpós), meaning "wrist". In human anatomy, the main role of the wrist is to facilitate effective positioning of the hand and powerful use of the extensors and flexors of the forearm, and the mobility of individual carpal bones increase the freedom of movements at the wrist. | null | [
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"title": [
"Accessory bones.",
"Development.",
"Function.",
"Ligaments.",
"Movements.",
"Radial abduction/ulnar adduction.",
"Palmar flexion/dorsiflexion.",
"Combined movements.",
"Accessory movements.",
"In other animals.",
"Etymology."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Occasionally accessory bones are found in the carpus, but of more than 20 such described bones, only four (the central, styloid, secondary trapezoid, and secondary pisiform bones) are considered to be proven accessory bones. Sometimes the scaphoid, triquetrum, and pisiform bones are divided into two.",
"The carpal bones are ossified endochondrally (from within the cartilage) and the ossific centers appear only after birth. The formation of these centers roughly follows a chronological spiral pattern starting in the capitate and hamate during the first year of life. The ulnar bones are then ossified before the radial bones, while the sesamoid pisiform arises in the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris after more than ten years.",
"",
"There are four groups of ligaments in the region of the wrist:",
"The hand is said to be in straight position when the third finger runs over the capitate bone and is in a straight line with the forearm. This should not be confused with the midposition of the hand which corresponds to an ulnar deviation of 12 degrees. From the straight position two pairs of movements of the hand are possible: abduction (movement towards the radius, so called radial deviation or abduction) of 15 degrees and adduction (movement towards the ulna, so called ulnar deviation or adduction) of 40 degrees when the arm is in strict supination and slightly greater in strict pronation. Flexion (tilting towards the palm, so called palmar flexion) and extension (tilting towards the back of the hand, so called dorsiflexion) is possible with a total range of 170 degrees.",
"During radial abduction the scaphoid is tilted towards the palmar side which allows the trapezium and trapezoid to approach the radius. Because the trapezoid is rigidly attached to the second metacarpal bone to which also the flexor carpi radialis and extensor carpi radialis are attached, radial abduction effectively pulls this combined structure towards the radius. During radial abduction the pisiform traverses the greatest path of all carpal bones. Radial abduction is produced by (in order of importance) extensor carpi radialis longus, abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis longus, flexor carpi radialis, and flexor pollicis longus. Ulnar adduction causes a tilting or dorsal shifting of the proximal row of carpal bones. It is produced by extensor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi ulnaris, extensor digitorum, and extensor digiti minimi. Both radial abduction and ulnar adduction occurs around a dorsopalmar axis running through the head of the capitate bone.",
"During palmar flexion the proximal carpal bones are displaced towards the \"dorsal\" side and towards the \"palmar\" side during dorsiflexion. While flexion and extension consist of movements around a pair of transverse axes — passing through the lunate bone for the proximal row and through the capitate bone for the distal row — palmar flexion occurs mainly in the radiocarpal joint and dorsiflexion in the midcarpal joint. Dorsiflexion is produced by (in order of importance) extensor digitorum, extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor indicis, extensor pollicis longus, and extensor digiti minimi. Palmar flexion is produced by (in order of importance) flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor digitorum profundus, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor pollicis longus, flexor carpi radialis, and abductor pollicis longus.",
"Combined with movements in both the elbow and shoulder joints, intermediate or combined movements in the wrist approximate those of a ball-and-socket joint with some necessary restrictions, such as maximum palmar flexion blocking abduction.",
"Anteroposterior gliding movements between adjacent carpal bones or along the midcarpal joint can be achieved by stabilizing individual bones while moving another (i.e. gripping the bone between the thumb and index finger).",
"The structure of the carpus varies widely between different groups of tetrapods, even among those that retain the full set of five digits. In primitive fossil amphibians, such as \"Eryops\", the carpus consists of three rows of bones; a proximal row of three carpals, a second row of four bones, and a distal row of five bones. The proximal carpals are referred to as the radiale, intermediale, and ulnare, after their proximal articulations, and are homologous with the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetal bones respectively. The remaining bones are simply numbered, as the first to fourth centralia (singular: centrale), and the first to fifth distal carpals. Primitively, each of the distal bones appears to have articulated with a single metacarpal. However, the vast majority of later vertebrates, including modern amphibians, have undergone varying degrees of loss and fusion of these primitive bones, resulting in a smaller number of carpals. Almost all mammals and reptiles, for example, have lost the fifth distal carpal, and have only a single centrale - and even this is missing in humans. The pisiform bone is somewhat unusual, in that it first appears in primitive reptiles, and is never found in amphibians. Because many tetrapods have less than five digits on the forelimb, even greater degrees of fusion are common, and a huge array of different possible combinations are found. The wing of a modern bird, for example, has only two remaining carpals; the radiale (the scaphoid of mammals) and a bone formed from the fusion of four of the distal carpals. The carpus and tarsus are both described as podial elements or (clusters of) podial bones. In some macropods, the scaphoid and lunar bones are fused into the scapholunar bone. In crustaceans, \"carpus\" is the scientific term for the claws or \"pincers\" present on some legs. (See Decapod anatomy)",
"The Latin word \"carpus\" is derived from Greek meaning \"wrist\". The root \"carp-\" translates to \"pluck\", an action performed by the wrist."
]
} |
Mats Wilander | null | Mats Arne Olof Wilander (; born 22 August 1964) is a former World No. 1 tennis player from Sweden. From 1982 to 1988, he won seven Grand Slam singles titles (three at the French Open, three at the Australian Open, and one at the US Open), and one Grand Slam men's doubles title (at Wimbledon). His breakthrough came suddenly and unexpectedly (even in Sweden) when he won the 1982 French Open. This occurred, more or less, simultaneously with countryman Björn Borg's decision to quit tennis. | null | [
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"title": [
"Career.",
"Juniors.",
"1980–1988.",
"1989–1996.",
"Failed drug test and suspension.",
"Davis Cup.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Born in Växjö, Sweden, Wilander first came to the tennis world's attention when he won the French Open junior title, the European under-16 and under-18 championships, and the Orange Bowl under-16 event in Miami.",
"Wilander made his debut on the professional tour at the clay court tournament in Båstad, Sweden in 1980. In September 1981, he lost his only career match against Björn Borg, losing in the first round of the Geneva Open in straight sets. Wilander surprised the tennis world at the 1982 French Open. As an unseeded player, he upset second seed Ivan Lendl in the fourth round, fifth seed Vitas Gerulaitis in the quarterfinals, fourth seed José Luis Clerc in the semifinals, and third seed Guillermo Vilas in a four-set final that lasted 4 hours and 42 minutes. At the end of the semifinal against Clerc he requested replay of the match ball as he did not want to win the game due to a questionable referee decision. This was seen as an extraordinary display of fair play and garnered him the Pierre de Coubertin World Fair Play Trophy. He was the youngest ever male Grand Slam singles champion at 17 years, 9 months, a record since broken by Boris Becker and Michael Chang. In only his third entry in a Grand Slam tournament, Wilander also became the player who needed the fewest attempts to win one, a record since equaled by Gustavo Kuerten at the 1997 French Open. Wilander then lost in the fourth round at both Wimbledon, to Brian Teacher, and the US Open to Lendl. Wilander won three additional tournaments in 1982 and finished the year ranked no. 7. During that year, Wilander was awarded the Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal. Wilander returned to the French Open in 1983, where he lost to Yannick Noah after defeating John McEnroe in a quarterfinal. He lost in the third round at Wimbledon to Roscoe Tanner and in the quarterfinals of the US Open to Lendl. Wilander won his second Grand Slam title later that year at the Australian Open, played on grass at Kooyong Stadium, where he defeated McEnroe in a semifinal and Lendl in the final. He won eight other tournaments in 1983, including two Grand Prix Championship Series titles, and finished the year ranked no. 4. Wilander retained his Australian Open title in 1984, beating Stefan Edberg in the quarterfinals and Kevin Curren in the final. He lost in the semifinals of the French Open to Lendl, the second round at Wimbledon to Pat Cash, and the quarterfinals of the US Open to Cash. He won three tournaments in 1984 including his third Championships Series title and again finished the year ranked no. 4. In 1985, Wilander won the French Open for the second time, beating Lendl in the final, and again reached the Australian Open final, where he lost to Edberg. However, he lost in the first round at Wimbledon to Slobodan Živojinović and the semifinals of the US Open to McEnroe. He won three tournaments in 1985 and finished the year ranked no. 3. Wilander rose to the no. 2 ranking, behind Lendl, on 28 April 1986. He then lost in the third round of the French Open to Andrei Chesnokov, the fourth round of Wimbledon to Cash, and the fourth round of the US Open to Miloslav Mečíř. His consistency at other tournaments, however, allowed him to again finish the year ranked no. 3. Wilander partnered with countryman Joakim Nyström to win the men's doubles title at Wimbledon in 1986. He also won his fourth Grand Prix Championship Series title. The 1987 season saw Wilander unveil a more potent service and a new highly effective one-handed slice backhand, the latter a somewhat remarkable development for a mid-career top-level tennis professional. Despite the improvements, however, Wilander was defeated by Lendl in the finals of both the French Open and the US Open in 1987. Cash again proved to be Wilander's nemesis at Wimbledon, winning their quarterfinal match in straight sets. Wilander won five tournaments in 1987 including two Grand Prix Tennis Championship Series titles and six overall, finishing the year ranked third in the world for the third consecutive year. 1988 was the pinnacle of Wilander's career. In January, he won his third Australian Open singles title, this time on Melbourne Park's hardcourts, defeating Edberg in a five-set semifinal and home town favourite Cash in a five-set final. In doing so, he became the only player to win the Australian Open on both grass and hardcourt. Wilander faced another home crowd favourite, Henri Leconte, in the final of the French Open. Wilander won in straight sets, missing only two out of 73 first serves in the entire match. At Wimbledon, Wilander reached the quarterfinals where he lost to Mečíř. At the US Open, he reached his third Grand Slam final of the year. In a repeat match-up of the previous year's final, he defeated Lendl in five sets in close to 5 hours and ended Lendl's three-year reign at the top of the world rankings. This was Wilander's seventh Grand Slam singles title and resulted in his receiving the number one ranking, having won three of the year's Grand Slam tournaments, two more Grand Prix Championship Series titles at Key Biscayne and Cincinnati, and one other title in Palermo. He held the top ranking for a total of 20 weeks until Lendl reclaimed it at the end of January 1989. His 1988 title at Cincinnati was his fourth there, at the time making him one of only three players since 1899 to win four titles in Cincinnati, along with Bobby Riggs and George Lott. Roger Federer has since joined the list.",
"Wilander's motivation, results, and ranking suffered in 1989. He lost in the second round of the Australian Open to Ramesh Krishnan, the quarterfinals of the French Open to Andrei Chesnokov, the quarterfinals of Wimbledon to John McEnroe (7–6, 3–6, 6–3, 6–4), and the second round of the US Open to Pete Sampras (5–7, 6–3, 1–6, 6–1, 6–4). He did not win a tournament during 1989 and he finished the year ranked World No. 12. Wilander briefly moved back into the top 10 rankings on 12 February 1990, but by the end of the year, his ranking had slumped to World No. 41. He defeated Boris Becker in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, only to lose to Stefan Edberg in straight sets in the semifinals. He skipped the French Open and Wimbledon and lost in the first round of the US Open to Brad Gilbert. Wilander played only the first half of 1991. He lost in the fourth round of the Australian Open and the second round of the French Open. He finished the year ranked World No. 159. Wilander was absent from the tour in 1992. He played seven tournaments in 1993, losing in the first round of five of them. At the US Open, he lost in the third round to Cédric Pioline. He finished the year ranked World No. 330. Except for Wimbledon, Wilander played a full schedule in 1994. He lost in the fourth round of the Australian Open to MaliVai Washington, the first round of the French Open to Andre Agassi (6–2, 7–5, 6–1), and the first round of the US Open to Guy Forget. His only victory over a top ten player was in the second round of the tournament in Indianapolis against Todd Martin. He finished the year ranked World No. 129. Wilander's results improved slightly in 1995 as he finished the year ranked World No. 46. After losing in the first round of the Australian Open to Jacco Eltingh, he lost in the second round of the French Open to eighth ranked Wayne Ferreira 6–7, 7–6, 6–3, 6–7, 8–6. He then lost in the third round of Wimbledon to Eltingh and the second round of the US Open to Martin. In other tournaments, he had wins against tenth ranked Marc Rosset, eighth ranked Ferreira, and sixth ranked Yevgeny Kafelnikov. He also won his final tour match against Edberg, in the second round of the Canadian Open in Montreal. In 1996, Wilander played only one Grand Slam tournament, losing in the second round of the French Open to Martin. He retired from the tour after losing his final match to Martin Damm in Beijing in October. During most of his career, Wilander used the Rossignol F-200 Carbon tennis racquet, an early fiberglass model.",
"During the 1995 French Open he and Karel Nováček tested positive for cocaine. They appealed the initial three-month suspension by the International Tennis Federation, claiming flawed test procedures but withdrew their appeals in May 1997 and on 15 May 1997 received a three month suspension from the ATP Tour for failing a drugs test. Additionally Wilander had to return his prize money since May 1995, amounting to $289,005, and forfeit ranking points.",
"Wilander was an integral member of Sweden's highly successful Davis Cup team throughout the 1980s. He reached his first final with Sweden in 1983, which they lost 3–2 to Australia (despite Wilander winning both his singles rubbers in the final). In 1984, Sweden (with Wilander) won the cup, beating the United States 4–1 in the final. Sweden retained the cup in 1985, with a 3–2 final victory over West Germany. Wilander helped Sweden reach the final again in 1986 but declined to play in the final because he was getting married (Sweden lost 3–2 to Australia). Wilander played in his fourth final in 1987, where Sweden beat India 5–0. Two more finals followed in 1988 and 1989, but Sweden lost both to West Germany. Wilander last played in Davis Cup in the 1995 semifinals, where he lost to Andre Agassi 7–6, 6–2, 6–2 and Pete Sampras 2–6, 7–6, 6–3. Wilander compiled a 36–16 record in singles and a 7–2 record in doubles in the Davis Cup for Sweden. However, Wilander's most memorable Davis Cup match came in defeat. In a July 1982 quarterfinal tie against the United States on carpet in St. Louis, Missouri, Wilander was defeated in the deciding fifth rubber by John McEnroe 9–7, 6–2, 15–17, 3–6, 8–6. At 6 hours and 32 minutes, it remains the longest match in Davis Cup history.",
"Wilander, who won $8 million as a pro and more in endorsements, now spends much of his time living on an 81-acre estate in Hailey, Idaho, United States (part of the Sun Valley ski resort) with his wife Sonya (née Mulholland), a South African-born model. He competes from time to time on the senior tour. Since retiring as a player, he has served as captain of the Swedish Davis Cup team. Wilander also served as commentator for tennis matches on Eurosport. Wilander has four children, Emma, Karl, Erik, and Oskar. His son Erik suffers from a comparatively mild form of epidermolysis bullosa, which benefits from Idaho's cool and dry air, and Wilander and his wife have worked to raise funds for research into cures for the disease. Wilander created a minor controversy during the 2006 French Open when he criticized several top players, including Roger Federer and Kim Clijsters, as lacking the competitive edge to beat their toughest rivals. After Federer's 1–6, 6–1, 6–4, 7–6 loss to Nadal in the final, Wilander said that \"Federer, today, unfortunately came out with no balls... you don't find too many champions in any sport in the world without heart or balls. He might have them, but against Nadal they shrank to a very small size and it's not once, it's every time.\" In the aftermath of these comments, fans coined the neologism \"Wilanders\" as a humorous synonym for \"balls\", denoting a competitive spirit and tenacity to win. Wilander began coaching Tatiana Golovin in July 2007. After working with Golovin in the later part of 2007, Wilander began coaching Paul-Henri Mathieu. His brother, Anders Wilander, has been Mayor of Tranås Municipality since 2006."
]
} |
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"title": [
"Etymology.",
"History.",
"Casings.",
"Ingredients.",
"Classifications.",
"National varieties.",
"Africa.",
"North Africa.",
"South Africa.",
"Asia.",
"China.",
"Japan.",
"Korea.",
"Philippines.",
"Thailand.",
"Eurasia.",
"Turkey.",
"Europe.",
"Britain and Ireland.",
"Bulgaria.",
"Croatia.",
"Denmark.",
"Finland.",
"France and Belgium.",
"Germany.",
"Greece.",
"Hungary.",
"Iceland.",
"Italy.",
"Macedonia.",
"Malta.",
"Netherlands.",
"Nordic countries.",
"Norway.",
"Poland.",
"Portugal and Brazil.",
"Serbia.",
"Spain.",
"Sweden.",
"Switzerland.",
"Latin America.",
"Argentina and Uruguay.",
"Chile.",
"Colombia.",
"Mexico.",
"El Salvador.",
"North America.",
"Oceania.",
"Australia.",
"New Zealand.",
"Other variations.",
"Vegetarian versions."
],
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"content": [
"The word \"sausage\" was first used in English in the mid-15th century, spelled \"sawsyge\". This word",
"Sausage making is an outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers salted various tissues and organs such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat to help preserve them. They then stuffed them into tubular casings made from the cleaned intestines of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees. An Akkadian cuneiform tablet records a dish of intestine casings filled with some sort of forcemeat. A Chinese type of sausage has been described, \"lup cheong\" () from the Northern and Southern dynasties (589 BC420 BC), made from goat and lamb meat with",
"Traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by",
"A sausage consists of meat cut into pieces or ground, mixed with other ingredients, and filled into a casing. Ingredients may include a cheap starch filler such as breadcrumbs or grains, seasoning and flavourings such as spices, and sometimes others such as apple and leek. The meat may be from any animal but is often pork, beef or veal, or poultry. The lean meat-to-fat ratio depends upon the style and producer. The meat content as labelled may exceed 100%; which happens when the weight of meat exceeds the total weight of the sausage after it has been made, sometimes including a drying process which reduces water content. In some jurisdictions foods described as sausages must meet regulations governing their content. For example, in the United States The Department of Agriculture specifies that the fat content of different defined types of sausage may not exceed 30%, 35%",
"Sausages classification is subject to regional differences of opinion. Various metrics such as types of ingredients, consistency, and preparation are used. In the English-speaking world, the following distinction between \"fresh\", \"cooked\", and \"dry\" sausages seems to be more or less accepted: The distinct flavor of some sausages is due to fermentation by \"Lactobacillus\", \"Pediococcus\", or \"Micrococcus\" (added as starter cultures) or natural flora during curing. Other countries use different systems of",
"Many nations and regions have their own characteristic sausages, using meats and other ingredients native to the region and employed in traditional dishes.",
"",
"Merguez is a red, spicy sausage from Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, North Africa. It is also popular in France, Israel, and the German state of Saarland, where it is often grilled on a Schwenker. Merguez is made with lamb, beef, or a mixture of both.",
"In South Africa, traditional sausages are known as \"boerewors\", or farmer's sausage. Ingredients include game and beef, usually mixed with pork or lamb and with a high percentage of fat. Coriander and vinegar are the two most common seasoning ingredients, although many variations exist. The coarsely-ground nature of the meat as well as the long continuous spiral of sausage are two of its recognisable qualities. Boerewors is traditionally cooked on a \"braai\" (barbecue). Droë wors is an uncooked sausage similar to boerewors made in a dry-curing process similar to biltong. A local variant of the hot dog is the \"Wors roll\", or boerewors roll. This is a hotdog bun with a piece of boerewors in, served with a tomato and onion relish called \"seshebo\". Seshebo can include chilli, atchaar or curries, depending on the area within the country.",
"",
"A European-style smoked savory \"hóng cháng\" ( \"red sausage\") is produced in Harbin, China's northernmost major city. It is similar to Lithuanian and Polish sausages including kiełbasa and \"podhalańska\" and tends to have a more European flavour than other Chinese sausages. This kind of sausage was",
"Although Japan is not traditionally known for beef, pork, venison, or even blood sausages, the Japanese do consume a fish-based log called kamaboko, which could be considered a type of sausage. Kamaboko is made with cured ground fish paste called surimi. It is usually shaped into half-moons on top of a small plank",
"Sundae, a form of blood sausage, is a traditional Korean sausage. A popular street food, sundae is normally prepared by steaming or boiling cow or pig intestines stuffed with various",
"In the Philippines, sausages are generally called \"longaniza\" (Filipino: \"longganisa\") in the northern regions and \"chorizo\" (Visayan: \"choriso\", \"tsoriso\" or \"soriso\") in the southern regions. They are usually fresh or smoked sausages, distinguished primarily by either being sweet (\"jamonado\" or \"hamonado\") or garlicky (\"de recado\" or \"derecado\").",
"There are many varieties of sausages known to Thai cuisine, some of which are specialities of a specific region of Thailand. From northern Thailand comes \"sai ua\", a grilled minced pork sausage flavored with curry paste and fresh herbs. Another grilled sausage is called \"sai krok Isan\", a fermented sausage with a distinctive slightly sour taste from northeastern Thailand (the region also known as Isan). Both sausages are commonly eaten with sticky rice, fresh vegetables, and a fresh \"nam phrik\" (Thai chilli paste) or some raw bird's eye chilies. They might also be served together with a refreshing Thai salad such as \"som tum\" (green papaya salad). Also very popular in Thailand is \"naem\", a raw fermented pork sausage",
"",
"In Turkey, sausage is known as \"sosis\", which is made of beef. Sucuk (pronounced tsudjuck or sujuk with accent on the last syllable) is a type of sausage made in Turkey and neighboring Balkan countries. There are many types of sucuk, but it is mostly made from beef. It is fermented, spiced (with garlic and pepper) and filled in an inedible casing that needs to be peeled off before consuming. Slightly smoked sucuk is considered superior. The taste is spicy, salty and a little raw, similar to pepperoni. Some varieties are extremely hot and/or greasy. Some are \"adulterated\" with turkey, water buffalo meat, sheep fat or chicken. There are many dishes made with sucuk, but grilled sucuk remains the most popular. Smoke dried varieties are consumed \"raw\" in sandwiches. An intestinal loop is one sucuk. Smoked sucuk is usually straight.",
"",
"In the UK and Ireland, sausages are a very popular and common feature of the national diet and popular culture. British sausages and Irish sausages are normally made from raw (i.e., uncooked, uncured, unsmoked) pork, beef, venison or other meats mixed with a variety of herbs and spices and cereals, many recipes of which are traditionally associated with particular regions (for example Cumberland sausages). They normally contain a certain amount of rusk or bread-rusk, and are traditionally cooked by frying, grilling or baking. They are most typically long, the filling compressed by twisting the casing into concatenated \"links\" into the sausage skin, traditionally made from the prepared intestine of the slaughtered animal; most commonly a pig. Due to their habit of often exploding due to shrinkage of the tight skin during cooking, they are often referred to as \"bangers\", particularly when served with the most common accompaniment of mashed potatoes to form a bi-national dish known as bangers and mash. Famously, they are an essential component of a full English or Irish breakfast. Some are made to traditional regional recipes such as those from Cumberland or Lincolnshire and, increasingly, to modern recipes which combine fruit such as apples or apricots with the meat or are influenced by other European styles such as the Toulouse sausage or chorizo. Vegetarian sausages are also now very widely available, although traditional meatless recipes such as the Welsh \"Selsig Morgannwg\" also exist. A popular and widespread snack is the sausage roll made from sausage-meat rolled in puff",
"Lukanka (луканка) is a spicy salami sausage unique",
"Kulen is a type of flavored sausage made of minced pork that is traditionally produced in Croatia (Slavonia) and Serbia (Vojvodina), and its designation of origin has been protected. The meat is low-fat, rather brittle and",
"\"See the",
"The generic word for sausage in Finnish is \"makkara\". Several types of Finnish makkara are similar in appearance to Polish sausages or bratwursts but have a very different taste and texture. Most makkara have very little spice and are therefore frequently eaten with mustard, ketchup, or other table condiments without a bun. Makkara is usually grilled, roasted over coals or open fire, steamed (called \"höyrymakkara\") or cooked on sauna heating stones. \"Nakki\" is a tinier edition of makkara. There are many types of nakki, with almost as much varieties as larger types of makkara. The closest relative to nakki in North-American cuisine is the thin knackwurst. \"Siskonmakkara\", a finely ground light-colored sausage, is usually encountered as the main ingredient of a soup named \"siskonmakkarakeitto\". Another variety is \"mustamakkara\", lit. black sausage, a specialty of Tampere. It is",
"French distinguishes between \"saucisson (sec)\", cured sausage eaten uncooked, and \"saucisse\", fresh sausage that needs cooking. Saucisson is almost always made of pork cured with salt, spices, and occasionally wine or spirits,",
"For the enormous variety of German sausages follow the specific links on the German",
"Loukániko (Greek: λουκάνικο) is the common Greek word",
"Hungarian sausages, when smoked and cured, are called kolbász – different types are often distinguished by their typical regions, e.g. \"gyulai\" and \"csabai\" sausage. As no collective word for \"sausage\" in the English sense exists in Hungarian, local salamis (see e.g. winter",
"\"See the",
"Italian sausages (\"salsiccia\" – plural \"salsicce\") are often made of pure pork. Sometimes they may contain beef. Fennel seeds and chilli are generally used as the primary spices in the South of Italy, while in the center and North of the country black pepper and garlic",
"Macedonian sausages (\"kolbas, lukanec\") are made",
"Maltese sausage (\"Maltese\": \"Zalzett tal-Malti\") is made of pork, sea salt, black peppercorns, coriander seeds and parsley. It is short and thick",
"Dutch cuisine is not known for its abundant use of sausages in its traditional dishes. Nevertheless, the Dutch have a number of sausage varieties, such as the \"rookworst\" (smoked sausage) and the dried \"slagersworst\" (lit. \"butchers sausage\") mostly found at the specialist butcher shops",
"Nordic sausages (,,, ) are usually made of 60–80% very finely ground pork, very sparsely spiced with pepper, nutmeg, allspice or similar sweet spices (ground mustard seed, onion and sugar may also be added). Water, lard, rind, potato starch flour and soy or milk protein are often added for binding and filling. In southern Norway, grill and wiener sausages are often wrapped in a \"lompe\", a potato flatbread somewhat similar to a \"lefse\". Virtually all sausages will be industrially precooked and either fried or warmed in hot water by the consumer or at the hot dog stand. Since hot dog stands are ubiquitous in Denmark (known as \"Pølsevogn\") some people regard \"pølser\" as one of the national dishes, perhaps along with medisterpølse, a fried, finely ground pork and bacon sausage. The most noticeable aspect of Danish boiled sausages (never the fried ones) is",
"\"See the",
"Polish sausages, kiełbasa, come in a wide range of styles such as swojska, krajańska, szynkowa (a ham sausage), biała, śląska, krakowska, podhalańska, kishka and others. Sausages in Poland are generally made of pork, rarely beef. Sausages with low meat content and additions like soy protein, potato flour or water binding additions are regarded as of low quality. Because of climate conditions, sausages were traditionally preserved by smoking, rather than drying, like in Mediterranean countries. Since the 14th century, Poland excelled in the production of sausages, thanks in part to",
"Embutidos (or enchidos) and linguiça generally contain hashed meat, particularly pork,",
"Types of sausages in",
"In Spain, fresh sausages, \"salchichas\", which are eaten cooked, and cured sausages, \"embutidos\", which are eaten uncooked, are two distinct categories. Among the cured sausages are found products like chorizo, salchichón, and sobrasada. Blood sausage, morcilla, is found in both cured and fresh varieties. They are made with pork meat and blood, usually adding rice, garlic, paprika and",
"\"See the",
"The cervelat, a cooked sausage, is often referred to as Switzerland's national sausage. A great number of regional sausage specialties exist as well.",
"In most of Latin America, a few basic types of sausages are consumed, with slight regional variations on each recipe. These are \"chorizo\" (raw, rather than cured and dried like its Spanish namesake), \"longaniza\" (usually very similar to \"chorizo\" but longer and thinner), \"morcilla\" or \"relleno\" (blood sausage), and \"salchichas\" (often similar to hot dogs or Vienna sausages). Beef tends to be more predominant than in the pork-heavy Spanish equivalents.",
"In Argentina and Uruguay, many sausages are consumed. Eaten as part of the traditional \"asado\", \"chorizo\" (beef and/or pork, flavored with spices) and \"morcilla\" (blood sausage or black pudding) are the most popular. Both share a Spanish origin. One local variety is the \"salchicha argentina\" (Argentine sausage), \"criolla\" or \"parrillera\" (literally, barbecue-style), made",
"\"Longaniza\" is the most common type of sausage, or at least the most common name in Chile for sausages that also could be classified as chorizo. The Chilean variety is made of four parts pork to one part bacon (or less) and seasoned with finely ground garlic, salt, pepper, cumin, oregano, paprika and chilli sauce. The cities of Chillán and",
"A grilled chorizo served with a buttered \"arepa\" is one of the most common street foods in Colombia. Butifarras Soledeñas are sausages from Soledad, Atlántico, Colombia. In addition to the standard Latin American sausages, dried pork",
"The most common Mexican sausage by far is \"chorizo\". It is fresh and usually deep red in color (in most of the rest of Latin America, chorizo is uncolored and coarsely chopped). Some chorizo is so",
"In El Salvador, chorizos are quite common, and the ones from the city of Cojutepeque are particularly well known there. The links, especially of those from Cojutepeque, are separated with corn husks tied in knots (see photo). Like most chorizos in Latin America, they are sold raw and must be cooked.",
"North American breakfast or country sausage is made from uncooked ground pork, breadcrumbs and salt mixed with pepper, sage, and other spices. It is widely sold in grocery stores in a large synthetic plastic casing, or in links which may have a protein casing. It is also available sold by the pound without a casing. It can often be found on a smaller scale in rural regions, especially in southern states, where it is either in fresh patties or in links with either natural or synthetic casings as well as smoked. This sausage is most similar to English-style sausages and has been made in the United States since colonial days. It is commonly sliced into small patties and pan-fried, or cooked and crumbled into scrambled eggs or gravy. Other uncooked sausages are available in certain regions in link form, including Italian, bratwurst, chorizo, and linguica. Several varieties of meat-and-grain sausages developed in the US. Scrapple is a pork-and-cornmeal sausage that originated in the Mid-Atlantic States. Goetta is a pork-and-oats sausage that originated in Cincinnati. Livermush, originating in North Carolina, is",
"",
"Australian sausages have traditionally been made with beef, pork and chicken, while recently game meats such as kangaroo have been used that typically have much less fat. English style sausages, known colloquially as \"snags\", come in two varieties: thin, that resemble an English 'breakfast' sausage, and thick, known as 'Merryland' in South Australia. These types of sausage are popular at barbecues and can be purchased from any butcher or supermarket. Devon is a spiced pork sausage",
"Sausage rolls are a popular snack and party food, as are saveloys, cheerios, and are locally manufactured cabanossi. Traditional sausages similar to English bangers are eaten throughout the country; these are usually made of finely ground beef or mutton with breadcrumbs, very mildly spiced, stuffed into an edible collagen casing which crisps and splits when fried. These may be eaten for breakfast, lunch or dinner. In recent years, many international and exotic sausages have also become widely available in NZ.",
"Sausages may be served as hors d'œuvres, in a sandwich, in a bread roll as a hot dog, wrapped in a tortilla, or as an ingredient in dishes such as stews and casseroles. It can be served on a stick (like the corn dog) or on a bone as well. Sausage without casing is called \"sausage meat\" and can be fried or used as stuffing for poultry, or for wrapping foods like Scotch eggs. Similarly, sausage meat encased",
"Vegetarian and vegan sausages are also available in some countries, or can be made from scratch at home. These may be made from tofu, seitan, nuts, pulses, mycoprotein, soya protein, vegetables or any combination of similar ingredients that will hold together during cooking. These sausages, like most meat-replacement products, generally fall into two categories: some are shaped, colored, flavored, and spiced to replicate the taste and texture of meat as accurately as possible; others such as the Glamorgan sausage rely on spices and vegetables to lend their natural flavor to the product and no attempt is made to imitate meat. While not vegetarian, the soya sausage was invented 1916 in Germany. First known as \"Kölner Wurst\" (\"Cologne Sausage\") by later German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (1876–1967)."
]
} |
Battle of Savo Island | null | The Battle of Savo Island, also known as the First Battle of Savo Island and, in Japanese sources, as the, and colloquially among Allied Guadalcanal veterans as The Battle of the Five Sitting Ducks, was a naval battle of the Pacific Campaign of World War II between the Imperial Japanese Navy and Allied naval forces. The battle took place on August 8–9, 1942, and was the first major naval engagement of the Guadalcanal campaign, and the first of several naval battles in the straits later named Ironbottom Sound, near the island of Guadalcanal. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-740773 | en-train-740773 | 740773 | {
"title": [
"Background.",
"Operations at Guadalcanal.",
"Japanese response.",
"Battle.",
"Prelude.",
"Action south of Savo.",
"Action north of Savo.",
"Mikawa's decision.",
"Aftermath.",
"Allied.",
"Japanese.",
"Tactical result.",
"U.S. Navy board of inquiry."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"On August 7, 1942, Allied forces (primarily U.S. Marines) landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Island in the eastern Solomon Islands. The landings were meant to deny their use to the Japanese as bases, especially the nearly completed airfield at Henderson Field that was being constructed on Guadalcanal. If Japanese air and sea forces were allowed to establish forward operating bases in the Eastern Solomons they would be in a position to threaten the supply shipping routes between the U.S. and Australia.",
"Unprepared for the Allied operation at Guadalcanal, the initial Japanese response included airstrikes and an attempted reinforcement. Mikawa, commander of the newly formed Japanese Eighth Fleet headquartered at Rabaul, loaded 519 naval troops on two transports and sent them towards Guadalcanal on August 7. However, when the Japanese learned that Allied forces at Guadalcanal were stronger than originally reported, the transports were recalled. Mikawa also assembled all the available warships in the area to attack the Allied forces at",
"",
"Mikawa decided to take his fleet north of Buka Island and then down the east coast of Bougainville. The fleet would pause east of Kieta for six hours on the morning of August 8. (This would avoid daytime air attacks during their final approach to Guadalcanal.) They would then proceed along the dangerous channel known as \"The Slot\", hoping that no Allied plane would see them in the fading light. The Japanese fleet was in fact sighted in St George Channel, where their column almost ran into, lying in ambush. She was too close to fire torpedoes, but her captain, Lieutenant Commander H.G. Munson, radioed: \"Two destroyers and three larger ships of unknown type heading one four zero true at high speed eight miles west of Cape St George\" The warnings, however, were considered vague and the size of the force reported did not suggest an attack was pending. Once at Bougainville, Mikawa spread his ships out over a wide area to mask the composition of his force and launched four floatplanes from his cruisers to scout for Allied ships in the southern Solomons. At 10:20 and 11:10, his ships were spotted by Royal Australian Air Force Hudson reconnaissance aircraft based at Milne Bay in New Guinea. The first Hudson misidentified them as \"three cruisers, three destroyers,",
"To avoid \"Blue\", Mikawa changed course to pass north of Savo Island. He also ordered his ships to slow to, to reduce wakes that might make his ships more visible. Four minutes later, Mikawa's lookouts spied either \"Ralph Talbot\" about 16 kilometres (10 mi) away or a small schooner of unknown nationality. The Japanese ships held their course while pointing more than 50 guns at \"Blue\", ready to open fire at the first indication that \"Blue\" had sighted them. When \"Blue\" was less than 2 kilometres (1 mi) away from Mikawa's force, she suddenly reversed course, having reached the end of her patrol track, and steamed away, apparently oblivious to the long column of large Japanese ships sailing by her. Seeing that his ships were still undetected, Mikawa turned back to a course south of Savo Island and increased speed, first to, and then to. At 01:25, Mikawa released his ships to operate independently of his flagship, and at 01:31, he ordered, \"Every ship attack.\" At about this time, \"Yūnagi\" detached from the Japanese column and reversed direction, perhaps because she lost sight of the",
"When Mikawa's ships attacked the Allied southern force, the captains of all three U.S. northern force cruisers were asleep, with their ships steaming quietly at. Although crewmen on all three ships observed flares or gunfire from the battle south of Savo or else received \"Patterson\"s warning of threatening ships entering the area, it took some time for the crews to go from Condition II to full alert. At 01:44, the Japanese cruisers began firing torpedoes at the northern force. At 01:50, they aimed powerful searchlights at the three northern cruisers and opened fire with their guns. \"Astoria\"s bridge crew called general quarters upon sighting the flares south of Savo, around 01:49. At 01:52, shortly after",
"At 02:16 Mikawa conferred with his staff about whether they should turn to continue the battle with the surviving Allied warships and try to sink the Allied transports in the two anchorages. Several factors influenced his ultimate decision. His ships were scattered and would take some time to regroup. His ships would need to reload their torpedo tubes, a labor-intensive task that would take some time. Mikawa also did not know the number and locations of any remaining",
"",
"At 04:00 on August 9 \"Patterson\" came alongside \"Canberra\" to assist the cruiser in fighting her fires. By 05:00, it appeared that the fires were almost under control, but Turner, who at this time intended to withdraw all Allied ships by 06:30, ordered the ship to be scuttled if she was not able to accompany the fleet. After the survivors were removed, the destroyers and sank \"Canberra\" which took some 300 shells and five torpedoes. Later in the morning of August 9, General Vandegrift advised Admiral Turner",
"In the late evening of August 9, Mikawa on \"Chōkai\" released the four cruisers of Cruiser Division 6 to return to their home base at Kavieng. At 08:10 on August 10, \"Kako\" was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine 110 kilometers (70 mi) from her destination. The other three Japanese cruisers picked up all but 71 of her",
"From the time of the battle until several months later, almost all Allied supplies and reinforcements sent to Guadalcanal came by transports in small convoys, mainly during daylight hours, while Allied aircraft from the New Hebrides and Henderson Field and any available aircraft carriers flew covering missions. During this time, Allied forces on Guadalcanal received barely enough ammunition and provisions to withstand the several Japanese drives to retake the islands. Despite their defeat in this battle, the Allies eventually won the battle for",
"A formal United States Navy board of inquiry, known as the Hepburn Investigation, prepared a report of the battle. The board interviewed most of the major Allied officers involved over several months, beginning in December 1942. The report recommended official censure for only one officer, Captain Howard D. Bode of the \"Chicago\", for failing to broadcast a warning to the fleet of encroaching enemy ships. The report stopped short of recommending formal action against other Allied officers, including Admirals Fletcher, Turner, McCain, and Crutchley, and Captain Riefkohl. The careers of Turner, Crutchley, and McCain do not appear to have been affected by the defeat or the mistakes they made in contributing to it. Riefkohl, however, never commanded ships again. Captain Bode, upon learning that the report was going to be especially critical of his actions, shot himself in his quarters at Balboa, Panama Canal Zone, on April 19, 1943, and died the next day. Crutchley was gazetted with the Legion of Merit (Chief Commander) in September 1944. Admiral Turner assessed why his forces were so soundly defeated in the battle: Historian Richard B. Frank adds that \"This lethargy of mind would not be completely shaken off without some more hard blows to (U.S.) Navy pride around Guadalcanal, but after Savo, the United States picked itself up off the deck and prepared for the most savage combat in its history.\" The report of the inquiry caused the US Navy to make many operational, and structural, changes. All the earlier models of US Navy cruisers was retrofitted with emergency diesel-electric generators. The fire mains of the ships were changed to a vertical loop design that could be broken many times and still function. During the battle at Savo, many ship fires were attributed to aviation facilities filled with gas, oil, and planes. Motorboats were filled with gasoline and also caught fire. In some cases, these facilities were dead amidships, presenting a perfect target for enemy ships at night. Ready-service lockers[1] added to the destruction, and it was noted that these lockers were never close to being depleted, i.e. they contained much more dangerous ammunition than they needed to. A focus was put on removing or minimizing flammable amidship materials. The Naval Commander in Chief Admiral King would order sweeping changes be made before ships entered surface combat in the future."
]
} |
Naval ram | null | A ram was a weapon fitted to varied types of ships, dating back to antiquity. The weapon comprised an underwater prolongation of the bow of the ship to form an armoured beak, usually between six and 12 feet (2–4 m) in length. This would be driven into the hull of an enemy ship to puncture it, sinking or disabling the ship. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1715903 | en-train-1715903 | 1715903 | {
"title": [
"Ancient rams.",
"The Athlit ram.",
"Decline.",
"Steam rams.",
"Twentieth century.",
"Torpedo ram.",
"Civilian use."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The ram was a naval weapon in the Greek/Roman antiquity and was used in such naval battles as Salamis and Actium. Naval warfare in the Mediterranean rarely used sails, and the use of rams specifically required oarsmen over sails in order to maneuver with accuracy and speed, and particularly to reverse the movement of a ramming ship to disentangle it from its sinking victim, lest it be pulled down when its victim sank. The Athenians were especially known for their diekplus and periplus tactics that disabled enemy ships with speed and ramming techniques. Rams were first recorded in use at the battle of Alalia in 535 BC. There is evidence available to suggest that it existed much earlier, probably even before the 8th century BC. They appear first on stylized images found on Greek pottery and jewelry and on Assyrian reliefs and paintings. The ram most likely evolved from cutwaters, structures designed to support the keel-stem joint and allow for greater speed and dynamism in the water. Many other historical vessels were used as rams, such as the Korean Turtle ship.",
"The Athlit ram, found in 1980 off the coast of Israel near Atlit, is an example of an ancient ram. Carbon 14 dating of timber remnants date it to between 530 BC and 270 BC. Rams were thought to be one of the main weapons of war galleys after c. 700 BC, and the Athlit ram's construction implies advanced technology that was developed over a long period of time. Heavy timbers were shaped and attached to the hull, and then the bronze ram was created to fit around the timbers for added strength. The evidence for this lies in the remnants of timbers found inside the Athlit ram when it was discovered. The blunt edge of the ram and the patterned protrusion were intended to break open the seams of the target ship while at the same time dispersing the force of impact on the attacking ship to prevent the ram from twisting off and damaging the attacking ship. It was also less likely to become stuck in the hull of its target. The Athlit ram consists of a single bronze casting weighing. It is long with a maximum width of and a maximum height of. The bronze that makes up the shell is a high-quality alloy containing 9.78% tin with traces of lead and other elements. The shell was cast as a single piece to perfectly fit the timbers it protects. The casting of an object as large as the Athlit ram was a complicated operation at the time, and would have been a considerable expense in the construction of a war galley. The ram comprises three sections – the driving centre, the bottom plate, and the cowl. The driving centre is long and wide. This is the area of the ram that makes contact with enemy vessels in battle. The front wall of the head of the ram has the thickest layer of casting at for extra protection during battle. The surface of the ram was decorated with several symbols. On both sides, there is an eagle head, a helmet, and an eight-point star. These symbols are similar in dimension, but contain many inconsistencies with each other, suggesting they were made from the same mold. The ram has a handle depicting a tri-form thunderbolt. It is attached with mortise and tenon joints and strengthened with oak pegs. The wales and the ramming timber are designed to interlock for extra strength. The bottom of the ram features a mortise cut into the ramming timber to fit the most forward end of the keel which was formed into a thick and long tenon.",
"A key element in the design and construction of a ramming vessel is the ability to stop its forward progress and reverse course, the better to allow the rammed ship to sink without her crew boarding the ramming vessel. As navies became more dependent on sailing ships, which do neither well, rams were generally discarded, particularly as gunpowder increased the range at which ships could effectively attack one another. Only a few instances of non-accidental ramming are recorded from the Age of Sail.",
"With the development of steam propulsion, the speed, power and maneuverability it allowed again enabled the use of the ship's hull, which could be clad in iron, as an offensive weapon. As early as 1840, the French admiral Nicolas Hippolyte Labrousse proposed building a ram steamship, and by 1860, Dupuy de Lôme had designed an ironclad with a ram. The quick success of CSS \"Virginia\"'s ramming attack on at the Battle of Hampton Roads in 1862 attracted much attention and caused many navies to re-think the ram. The first coastal battleship, France's \"Taureau\", was built in 1863, for the purpose of attacking warships at anchor or in narrow straits, and was armed with a ram. Many ironclad ships were designed specifically to ram opponents; in ships of this type, the armour belt was extended forward to brace both sides of the ram to increase structural integrity. Several wooden steamships were purpose-built as rams, or converted from existing commercial vessels, such as. The theory behind the revival of the weapon derived from the fact that, in the period around 1860, armour held superiority over the ship-mounted cannon. It was believed that an armoured warship could not be seriously damaged by the naval artillery in existence at the time, even at close range. To achieve a decisive result in a naval engagement, therefore, alternative methods of action were believed to be necessary. As it followed, from the same belief, that a ship armed with a ram could not be seriously damaged by the gunfire of its intended victim, the ram became, for a brief period, the main armament of many battleships. It was observed that the guns placed on the \"Taureau\" were there \"with the sole function of preparing the way for the ram.\" The frequent use of ramming as a tactic in the Battle of Lissa and, to a lesser extent, at the Battle of Iquique also led to many late 19th-century naval designers equipping their warships with ram bows. This only really aggravated a number of incidents of ships being sunk by their squadron-mates in accidental collisions as ramming never featured as a viable battle tactic again. The fixation on ramming may also have inhibited the development of gunnery. Toward the end of the 19th century, the breech-loading cannon could effectively hit enemy ships at several thousand yards range, and the ineffectiveness in battle of the ram became clear; ships were no longer fitted with them. Battleships and cruisers instead had inverted bows which superficially resembled rams. These were not, however, reinforced, and were fitted in order to improve ship speed by increasing the waterline length. They also served to decrease the length of forecastle that was exposed to muzzle flash when the guns were fired directly ahead. No other ironclad was ever sunk by wartime ramming by an enemy ship, although the ram was regarded by all major navies for some 30 years as primary battleship armament. A number of ships were, however, rammed in peacetime by ships of their own navy. The most serious of these same-navy collisions in terms of loss of life was the collision between and, which took place in the Mediterranean in 1893. However, that death toll was dwarfed by the 562 deaths (plus two rescuers) ensuing from the sinking of the passenger liner, which accidentally collided with the ram bow of the anchored in 1891.",
"During both world wars, there were several occasions when surfaced submarines were rammed and sunk by surface ships. If successful, such an attack could cut the submarine in two, such as the 1914 sinking of by. The only battleship-over-submarine victory in history occurred during World War I, when the battleship rammed and sank U-boat \"U-29\". Submarines were strongly built to resist water pressure at depth, so the ramming ship could be badly damaged by the attack. This happened to, which foundered in 1918, after sinking the U-boat. In March 1943, the destroyer was badly damaged after ramming the. She was sunk by another U-boat the next day as she sat helpless, without working engines. Ramming attacks during the Second World War included the ramming of by. The U-boat was not critically damaged and there followed a small-arms battle between the vessels as they were locked together and the U-boat was too close for \"Borie\" to bring her main guns to bear. The submarine eventually sank but \"Borie\" was too badly damaged by the ramming to be salvaged, so she was abandoned and deliberately sunk by Allied forces. Other submarines sunk by ramming included,,, the Italian submarines \"Tembien\" and \"Cobalto\", the and the Royal Navy submarine. The herself rammed and sank Soviet submarine ShCh-305 on 5 November 1942. As ramming was the only weapon available to unarmed merchant ships, there were occasions when they attempted to ram U-boats. The British Admiralty in the First World War expected that some merchant captains might try to ram U-boats as much as twice the size of their own vessel and capable of much greater speed, if the situation favoured such a tactic. In 1915, attempted, but failed, to ram. Her captain, Charles Fryatt, was captured by the Germans a year later. He was court-martialled and executed as they considered his act to be that of a franc-tireur. The French steamer \"Molière\" sank the U-boat in 1917. Old British paddle steamer SS Mona's Queen rammed and sank a U-boat in February 1917. In May 1918 SM \"UC-78\" was sunk by the steamer \"Queen Alexandra\", and rammed and sank. During World War II, was struck by the British tanker SS \"Ensis\". The submarine survived the ramming but had to return to port for repair. The Italian merchant ship \"Antonietta Costa\" rammed and sank submarine HMS \"Rainbow\" while on a convoy from Bari to Durazzo. Accidental ramming can also occur during wartime, such as in October 1942 when, during escort duty, the light cruiser was accidentally sliced in half and sunk by the significantly heavier (15x) ocean liner, with the loss of 337 men. On August 2, 1943, IJN Destroyer \"Amagiri\" rammed and sank a smaller, faster, and more maneuverable, USN PT boat commanded by LtJG John F. Kennedy. Explosive motor boats which usually detonated after ramming their target were employed by the Italian and the Japanese navies in WWII. Italian type MTM boats rammed and crippled the cruiser HMS \"York\" and a Norwegian tanker at Suda Bay in 1941, while Shinyo suicide boats sank a number of US amphibious craft in the Pacific Theatre of operations in 1945. Late in the century, ramming by major warships became the tactic of choice during the Cod Wars conflict between the Icelandic Coast Guard and the Royal Navy. At least 15 British frigates, five Icelandic patrol boats and one British supply ship were damaged by ramming between 1975 and 1976. Towing tests of warships found that a below-water ram reduced resistance through the water, which led to the development of a non-reinforced bulbous bow where rams were formerly fitted.",
"The torpedo ram was a hybrid torpedo boat combining a ram with torpedo tubes. Incorporating design elements from the cruiser and the monitor, it was intended to provide a small and inexpensive weapon systems for coastal defence and other littoral combat. Like monitors, torpedo rams operated with very little freeboard, sometimes with only inches of hull rising above the water, exposing only their funnels and turrets to direct enemy fire. They were equipped with torpedoes and guns in turrets. Early designs incorporated a spar torpedo that could be extended from the bow and detonated by ramming a target. Later designs used tube-launched self-propelled torpedoes, but retained the concept of ramming, resulting in designs like, which had five torpedo tubes, two each port and starboard and one mounted in the centre of her reinforced ram bow.",
"Rams have also been used on civilian vessels. The Seattle fireboat \"Duwamish\", built in 1909, was designed to ram burning wooden vessels, as a last resort."
]
} |
Time trouble | null | In chess played with a time control, time trouble, time pressure, or its German translation Zeitnot, is the situation where a player has little time to complete the required moves. When forced to play quickly, the probability of making blunders is increased, so handling the clock is an important aspect of chess playing. The last move of the time control (often move 40) is especially prone to blunders if players only have a few seconds to play it, and many games have been lost due to poor time management in time pressure. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1558207 | en-train-1558207 | 1558207 | {
"title": [
"Practical aspects.",
"Rules governing time trouble.",
"US Chess version."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Players often spend large amounts of time after the opening as they consider their plans and calculate various tactical variations. In many cases, spending this time to find the correct path is worth the risk of time trouble later on if the position is simplified to a point where it can be played quickly. However, spending large amounts of time in simple positions on non-forcing matters is often excessive. In time trouble, players are usually focused on maintaining the integrity of their position. Lars Bo Hansen's principles are to ensure that pieces remain protected, avoid unnecessary pawn moves, and avoid analyzing unnecessary tactics. Webb advises players to keep track of the number of moves played, and work out a provisional response to each of the opponent's moves on the opponent's time. This trick is called \"permanent brain\" or \"pondering\". When the \"opponent\" is in time trouble, Webb advocated the \"barrage technique\" which involves planning two or more moves ahead, and then playing them in rapid succession. The idea is to give the opponent little time to prepare for the second move, increasing the probability of that move being a mistake. Playing a barrage of moves does increase the chance of a blunder from the barrager as well, and the technique is inadvisable in a winning position where a player should focus on winning on the board.",
"FIDE has some additional rules regarding players in time trouble. The first rule regards the recording of moves. A player with less than five minutes remaining, in a game where there is not a 30-second or greater time increment per move, is not required to keep score as usual. However, if the player makes the time control, he must update the scoresheet before making a move as soon as the flag falls, marking expiry of the first, and now passed, time control. If only one player is in time trouble and not recording moves, the opponent's scoresheet may be used to update the score. In the case of \"mutual\" time pressure, where both players have stopped recording the moves, the tournament director or an assistant should be on hand to record the moves as they are played, and their notes can be used to update the scoresheets upon passage of the time control. If the game score is not recorded by anybody during the time pressure period, the players shall endeavor to reconstruct the moves of the game, under the control of the tournament director; if this is not possible the game continues with the next move being regarded as the first move of the next time control. The second rule regards the arbiter's possibility of ending a game as drawn due to a player's lack of effort in winning the game by \"normal means\". Occasionally it happens in a sudden death time control without increments that a player has trouble in physically executing an indefinite series of moves in the time remaining. The opponent could try playing on this, and continue to play on in the hopes of winning by time forfeit, rather than by winning the position on the board. To prevent this FIDE allows tournament organizers to apply the guidelines in articles III.4 or III.5. A tournament played with article III.4 allows a player with less than two minutes remaining to summon the arbiter and request that a five-second increment be introduced. Invoking III.4 constitutes a draw offer which the opponent may accept. Otherwise, if the arbiter agrees to introduce the increment, the opponent is awarded two minutes in addition to the increment. In a tournament played with article III.5 a player with less than two minutes may summon an arbiter and request that the game be declared drawn \"on the basis that his opponent cannot win by normal means, and/or that his opponent has been making no effort to win by normal means\". The arbiter may accept the claim (which ends the game immediately as a draw), reject the claim (after which the game continues, with the opponent receiving two additional minutes), or postpone the decision. In this case the opponent may be given two minutes extra, and the game continues until the arbiter makes a call or the claimant's flag falls after which the arbiter makes a decision. The rules allowing an arbiter to declare a game drawn do not apply to blitz chess. Several high level blitz tournaments, such as the 2009 World Blitz Championship, are played with a two-second increment which allows players time to execute moves and discourages attempts to win on time in trivially drawn positions such as king and knight versus king and knight.",
"Tournaments governed under the rules of the United States Chess Federation have a similar rule to FIDE's guidelines that can be used if this variation is announced beforehand, called the \"insufficient losing chances\" rule. A player with less than two minutes remaining without time delay or increment can petition the tournament director for a draw on the grounds that the opponent has no reasonable chance of winning the position, had both players had ample time. In US Chess guidelines, this would mean an average tournament player (class C) having a less than a 10% probability of losing the position against a master, with both players having sufficient time. The tournament director may accept the claim (ending the game as drawn), reject the claim and penalize the claimant with one minute less time, or postpone the decision. If the tournament director postpones the decision, there is the option of substituting a non-delay clock with a delay clock with the claimant having his remaining time halved. Since the insufficient losing chances rules calls upon discretion from the tournament director, clocks with the time delay or increment feature are preferred over clocks without them."
]
} |
Robert Trujillo | null | Robert Trujillo (, ; born October 23, 1964) is an American musician and songwriter. He has been the bassist of the American heavy metal band Metallica since 2003. He was a member of crossover thrash band Suicidal Tendencies, funk metal supergroup Infectious Grooves, heavy metal band Black Label Society, and has worked with Jerry Cantrell and Ozzy Osbourne. | null | [
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"title": [
"Life and career.",
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"Personal life.",
"Other projects.",
"Technique.",
"Equipment.",
"Bass guitars.",
"Effects.",
"Video game appearances."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Trujillo was born in Santa Monica, California on October 23, 1964. He is of Mexican and Native American descent. He grew up in Culver City, California, where his father was a teacher at Culver City High School. Trujillo garnered interest in music during his childhood; his mother was a huge fan of Motown, particularly musicians like Marvin Gaye, James Brown, and Sly and the Family Stone. Trujillo stated that \"Jaco [Pastorius] was my hero growing up\", and that the iconic jazz bassist changed his view of what the instrument could play: \"Hearing him was like hearing Eddie Van Halen doing \"Eruption\" for the first time: You thought, 'What instrument is that?' I loved jazz fusion and branched out from there. But Jaco had an edge that far exceeded his jazz persona. He was funk, he was rock, he was soul. And his whole attitude was punk.\" He began playing in \"a lot of backyard party bands\", playing music by Black Sabbath, Ozzy, Rush, and Led Zeppelin. He went to jazz school when he was 19 with the intention of becoming a studio musician, but he maintained his passion for rock and metal.",
"Trujillo gained prominence when he replaced Bob Heathcote as the bassist for California crossover thrash band Suicidal Tendencies. Initially billed as \"Stymee\" on the 1989 album \"Controlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit...Déjà Vu\", Trujillo remained in the band until the mid-1990s. Concurrent to his work with Suicidal Tendencies, Trujillo was a member of the band's side project, Infectious Grooves, along with vocalist Mike Muir. Trujillo was a member of Ozzy Osbourne's band for a number of years starting in the late 1990s. In contrast to his earlier jazz and funk inspired playing, Osbourne's band was more straightforward to hard rock and metal. Trujillo co-wrote several songs on the \"Down to Earth\" album. He was the subject of controversy for re-recording Bob Daisley's bass tracks for reissued versions of Osbourne's first two solo albums \"Blizzard of Ozz\" (1980) and \"Diary of a Madman\" (1981) after Daisley claimed that he was not paid proper royalties. During this time, Trujillo formed an experimental supergroup, Mass Mental, with then Dub War singer Benji Webbe, whose \"ragga-punk-metal\" outfit had just disbanded. The band released one studio album in Japan and one live album of their performance in Tokyo before disbanding. Zakk Wylde, a personal friend and bandmate from the Ozzy days, recruited him to play with Black Label Society for a few shows. Trujillo joined Metallica on February 24, 2003, two years after Jason Newsted resigned. He had previously met and befriended his future bandmates when Suicidal Tendencies supported Metallica during the Nowhere Else to Roam tour in 1993, and again during the Shit Hits the Sheds Tour one year later. Trujillo received one million dollars from the band as an advance for joining Metallica. His audition and hiring as well as his million dollar payment offer appeared in the documentary film \"\". As the current bassist for Metallica, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame alongside all current members of the band, as well previous bassists Jason Newsted and Cliff Burton.",
"Trujillo is married and has a son, Tye, and daughter, Lullah. In April 2017, Tye performed with Korn during their South American tour, filling in for longtime bassist Reginald Arvizu. Trujillo's wife, Chloé, has created a pyrography design of the Aztec calendar on one of his basses.",
"In 2012, Trujillo produced a documentary about jazz bassist Jaco Pastorius entitled \"Jaco\", directed by Stephen Kijak and Paul Marchand. The film was named Official Film of Record Store Day 2014 and was released in November 2014.",
"Trujillo is primarily a finger-style player, but has been well-documented playing with a pick. Trujillo's predecessor in Metallica, Jason Newsted, was predominantly a pick-style player, while Cliff Burton, Newsted's predecessor and bassist on Metallica's first three albums (\"Kill 'Em All\", \"Ride The Lightning\", \"Master Of Puppets\"), played finger-style exclusively. Trujillo is known for playing \"massive chords\" and \"chord-based harmonics\" on the bass. Trujillo uses the slap bass technique, seen mostly in his work with Suicidal Tendencies and Infectious Grooves. At many of the shows during Metallica's 2004 Madly in Anger with the World Tour, Trujillo would often play an extended bass solo (dubbed \"Jungle Essence\" on recordings), which made extensive use of slap bass and other techniques and effects. For recording purposes, Trujillo uses his own code for writing down bass arrangements. Inspired by an article by Pino Palladino, he developed this during the recording sessions for Jerry Cantrell's \"Degradation Trip\", which, according to Trujillo, had him working from \"little hoodrat demos\" with nearly inaudible bass.",
"",
"With Metallica, Trujillo has primarily been playing Warwick Streamer bass guitars, both 5 and 4-strings. His signature model Streamer bass was released in March 2010. He often plays Fernandes Gravity 5-string basses, particularly a model with a silver finish, blue flame decals, and EMG pickups. In addition to his signature Warwick basses, Zon Guitars produce a signature bass model, the Sonus RT. Prior to Metallica, he was most often seen playing Tobias, ESP and MusicMan basses (all 5-strings), as well as a Fender Precision Bass with Black Label Society and Ozzy Osbourne. Trujillo has been seen in concert playing a Yamaha TRB5-P2 5-string bass, a customized green Rickenbacker 4001/4003 4-string bass modified with EMG pickups, various Nash P-Bass Copy guitars, and both a classic Fender Precision Bass and Fender Jazz Bass. Trujillo is the custodian of Jaco Pastorius' legendary \"Bass Of Doom\" (the sunburst fretless 1962 Jazz Bass used by Pastorius on most of his recordings and live appearances). He has performed onstage with Metallica with the instrument. For amplification, he uses Ampeg amplifiers and cabinets. In 2010, Trujillo collaborated with Jim Dunlop to create his new Icon signature bass strings – these strings are taper-core stainless steel, with a non-tapered B string in gauges 45–130 (5-string).",
"Trujillo's pedal board consists of an Electro Harmonix Q-Tron, a Tech 21 SansAmp Bass Driver DI, a Tech 21 XXL, an MXR m-135 SmartGate, a Morley Mark Tremonti wah pedal, and a Boss OC-2 Octave Pedal; all powered by a Voodoo Lab Pedal Power.",
"Trujillo appears in \"\"."
]
} |
Vladimir Obruchev | null | Vladimir Afanasyevich Obruchev (;, Klepenino near Rzhev, Tver Oblast, Russian Empire – June 19, 1956, Moscow, USSR) was a Russian and Soviet geologist who specialized in the study of Siberia and Central Asia. He was also one of the first Russian science fiction authors. | null | [
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"title": [
"Scientific research.",
"Popular fiction.",
"Family."
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"content": [
"Vladimir Obruchev graduated from the Petersburg Mining Institute in 1886. His early work involved the study of gold-mining, which led him to come up with a theory explaining the origin of gold deposits in Siberia. He also gave advice on construction of the Central Asian and Trans-Siberian Railways and consulted Sven Hedin on his projected journey to Siberia. While working for the railway, Obruchev explored the Karakum Desert, the shores of the Amu Darya River, and the old riverbeds of the Uzbois. He also worked as a geologist on Lake Baikal, on the Lena River, and in gold fields near the Vitim. Between 1892 and 1894, Obruchev \"was a member of the Grigory Potanin's expedition into... Mongolia, [and] to the mountains of Nan Shan and Northern China.\" He also explored the Transbaikal area, Dzhungaria, and Altai. Largely as a result of his participation in this expedition he became interested in loess and made considerable contributions to the study of loess deposits. In 1929, Obruchev was elected to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Having spent half a century in exploring Siberia and Inner Asia, Obruchev summarized his findings with a three-volume monograph, \"The Geology of Siberia\" (1935–1938), followed by \"The History of Geological Exploration of Siberia\". Many of his works deal with the origins of loess in Central Asia and Siberia, ice formation and permafrost in Siberia, problems of Siberian tectonics, and Siberian goldfields. He also authored many popular scientific works, such as \"Formation of Mountains and Ore Deposits\" (1932), \"Fundamentals of Geology\" (1944), \"Field Geology\" (1927), \"Ore Deposits\" (1928–1929), and others. All together, Obruchev authored over a thousand scientific works, among which are a most extensive geological study of Siberia and a five-volume history of the geological exploration of Siberia, which have been awarded the Lenin Prize as well as the prizes and medals of several scientific societies. During 1954, he completed an extensive geographical study of Nan Shan Mountains in China based on his own and previous expeditions to the region and spent his last years working up a geological study of the mountains.",
"In his native country Obruchev is best known as the author of two perennially popular science fiction novels, \"Plutonia\" (\"Плутония\", 1915) and \"Sannikov Land\" (\"Земля Санникова\", 1924). Both of these stories, imitating the pattern of Arthur Conan Doyle's \"The Lost World\", depict in vivid detail the discovery of an isolated world of prehistoric animals in hitherto unexplored large islands north of Alaska or Siberia. In \"Plutonia\", dinosaurs and other Jurassic species are found in a fictional underground area north of Alaska. The descriptive passages are made more credible by Obruchev's extensive knowledge of paleontology. \"Sannikov Land\" is named for a phantom island of the Arctic Ocean, reported historically by Yakov Sannikov in 1811. Paul J. McAuley praised the novel in a 1999 column, saying \"It's true that the characters are indistinguishably wooden mouthpieces for the author's opinions, and the plot is pure pulp, but all this is redeemed by the novel's rigorous scientific sensibility.\" During the Soviet period, Obruchev attempted to emulate Edwardian models of boys' adventure stories in his novels \"Golddiggers in the Desert\" (1928) and \"In the Wilds of Central Asia\" (1951).",
"Two of his sons also became notable scientists:"
]
} |
Louis de Bonald | null | Louis Gabriel Ambroise, Vicomte de Bonald (2 October 1754 – 23 November 1840), was a French counter-revolutionary philosopher and politician. Mainly, he is remembered for developing a set of social theories that exercised a powerful influence in shaping the ontological framework from which French sociology would emerge. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-476956 | en-train-476956 | 476956 | {
"title": [
"Life.",
"Ideas.",
"Anti-Semitism.",
"References."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Bonald came from an ancient noble family of Provence. He was educated at the Oratorian college at Juilly, and after serving with the Artillery, he held a post in the local administration of his native province. Elected to the States General of 1789 as a deputy for Aveyron, he strongly opposed the new legislation on the civil status of the clergy and emigrated in 1791. There he joined the army of the Prince of Condé, soon settling in Heidelberg. There he wrote his first important work, the highly conservative \"Theorie du Pouvoir Politique et Religieux dans la Societe Civile Demontree par le Raisonnement et l'Histoire\" (3 vols., 1796; new ed., Paris, 1854, 2 vols.), which the Directory condemned. Upon returning to France, he found himself an object of suspicion and at first lived in retirement. In 1806, he, along with Chateaubriand and Joseph Fiévée, edited the \"Mercure de France\". Two years later, he was appointed counsellor of the Imperial University, which he had often attacked previously. After the Bourbon Restoration he was a member of the council of public instruction. From 1815 to 1822, de Bonald served as a deputy in the Chamber of Deputies. His speeches were extremely conservative and he advocated literary censorship. In 1825, he argued strongly in favor of the Anti-Sacrilege Act, including its prescription of the death penalty under certain conditions. In 1822, de Bonald was made Minister of State, and presided over the censorship commission. In the following year, he was made a peer, a dignity which he had lost by refusing to take the required oath in 1803. In 1816, he was appointed to the French Academy. In 1830, he retired from public life and spent the remainder of his days on his estate at Le Monna. De Bonald had four sons, two of whom, Victor and Louis, led lives of some note.",
"Bonald was one of the leading writers of the theocratic or traditionalist school, which included de Maistre, Lamennais, Ballanche and baron Ferdinand d'Eckstein. His writings are mainly on social and political philosophy, and are based ultimately on one great principle, the divine origin of language. In his own words, \"L'homme pense sa parole avant de parler sa pensée\" (man thinks his speech before saying his thought); the first language contained the essence of all truth. From this he deduces the existence of God, the divine origin and consequent supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures, and the infallibility of the Catholic Church. While this thought lies at the root of all his speculations, there is a formula of constant application. All relations may be stated as the triad of cause, means and effect, which he sees repeated throughout nature. Thus, in the universe, he finds the first cause as mover, movement as the means, and bodies as the result; in the state, power as the cause, ministers as the means, and subjects as the effects; in the family, the same relation is exemplified by father, mother and children. These three terms bear specific relations to one another; the first is to the second as the second to the third. Thus, in the great triad of the religious world—God, the Mediator, and Man—God is to the God-Man as the God-Man is to Man. On this basis, he constructed a system of political absolutism.",
"Bonald published one of the most violent anti-Semitic texts of the post-French Revolutionary period, \"Sur les juifs\". In it, the Philosophes are condemned for fashioning the intellectual tools used to justify Jewish emancipation during the Revolution. Bonald accuses the Jews of not becoming \"authentic\" French citizens and disrupting traditional society. Michele Battini writes:According to Bonald [...] the Constituent Assembly had committed \"the enormous mistake of knowingly putting laws in conflict with religion and customs,\" but, sooner or later, the government would have to change its mind, as would \"the friends of the blacks\" who regretted \"the haste with which they called for freedom for a people who had always been alien.\" [...] The Jews, by their \"nature,\" are a nation destined to remain alien to other peoples. This \"foreignness\" appears—this seems the sense of the reference to the \"noirs\" —to be an objective fact, permanent and \"physical,\" and for this reason analogous to the racial difference with the blacks.Bonald calls for the reversal of Jewish emancipation and endorses new discriminatory measures:such as the imposition of identifying marks on the clothes of the enemy who had become \"invisible\" because of emancipation. The identification mark (\"la marque distinctive\") would be fully justified by the need to identify those responsible for behavior hostile to the \"bien public\". The return to the past almost sounds like a premonition of Hitler’s decrees.",
"Attribution:"
]
} |
Mari Boine | null | Mari Boine (born Mari Boine Persen, 8 November 1956) is a Norwegian singer. She combined traditional yodeling folk music, or yoik, with rock. In 2008, she became a professor of musicology at Nesna University College. | null | [
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"title": [
"Biography.",
"Anti-racism.",
"Musical style.",
"Reception.",
"Awards.",
"Discography.",
"Also appears on."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Boine was born and raised in Gámehisnjárga, a village on the river Anarjohka in Karasjok municipality in Finnmark, in the far north of Norway. Boine's parents were Sami. They made a living from salmon fishing and farming. She grew up steeped in the region's natural environment, but also amidst the strict Laestadian Christian movement with discrimination against her people: for example, singing in the traditional Sami joik style was considered \"the devil's work\". The local school that Boine attended reflected a very different world from her family's. All the teaching was in Norwegian.",
"As Boine grew up, she started to rebel against the prejudiced attitude of being an inferior \"Lappish\" woman in Norwegian society. For instance, the booklet accompanying the CD 'Leahkastin' (Unfolding) is illustrated with photographs with racist captions like \"\"Lapps report for anthropological measurement\"\", \"\"Typical female Lapp\"\", \"\"A well-nourished Lapp\"\"; and it ends with a photo of Boine herself as a girl, captioned \"\"Mari, one of the rugged Lapp-girl types\"\" and attributed \"\"(Photo: Unidentified priest)\"\". When Boine's album \"Gula Gula\" was first released on Peter Gabriel's RealWorld label in July 1990, its front cover (see illustration) showed an iconic image of the tundra of the far north, the eye of a snowy owl. The front cover curiously did not show the name of the album, or the name or face of Mari Boine herself; the back cover printed the name 'Mari Boine Persen', the Persen surname identifying her as a Norwegian rather than a Sami. On the 2007 release on her own Lean label, the album cover explicitly names Mari Boine with her Sami surname, and shows her (see illustration) in full Sami costume as a shamanistic dancer of her own people, while the white background, like the snowy owl of the original release, hints at the snows of the north. Boine was asked to perform at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, but refused because she perceived the invitation as an attempt to bring a token minority to the ceremonies.",
"Boine's songs are strongly rooted in her experience of being in a despised minority. For example, the song 'Oppskrift for Herrefolk' (\"Recipe for a Master Race\") on her breakthrough CD 'Gula Gula', sung in Norwegian unlike the rest of the songs which are in Sami, speaks directly of 'discrimination and hate', and recommends ways of oppressing a minority: \"\"Use bible and booze and bayonet\"\"; \"\"Use articles of law against ancient rights\"\". Boine's other songs are more positive, often singing of the beauty and wildness of Sapmi (Lapland). The title track of 'Gula Gula' asks the listener to remember 'that the earth is our mother'. Boine sings in a traditional Saami style, using the 'yoik' voice, with a range of accompanying instruments and percussion. For example, on 'Gula Gula' the instruments used are drum, guitar, electric bass clarinet, dozo n'koni, ganga, claypot, darboka, tambourine, seed rattles, cymbal, clarinet, piano, frame drum, saz, drone drum, hammered dulcimer, bosoki, overtone flute, bells, bass, quena, charango and antara.",
"Rootsworld, interviewing Boine in 2002, described her as \"\"an unofficial Sami cultural ambassador\"\". The Guardian, in its 2010 F&M playlist of songs \"they just can't turn off\", describes \"My Friend of Angel Tribe\" with the words \"\"Norwegian Sami singer Boine, with this soft, melancholy and utterly mesmerising song.\"\" Johnny Loftus, reviewing Boine's \"Eight Seasons\", wrote that \"Boine seems to have been inspired, collaborating with producer Bugge Wesseltoft for a collection of pieces weaving her alternately supple and intimate, angry and otherworldly vocals into moody arrangements tinged with jazz influence and electronic programming.\" While there was a degree of cliché in that, wrote Loftus, it worked well, concluding: \"Boine's voice, filtered at first behind the halting notes of a guitar, builds in strength over the brooding electronic rhythm, until her Joik overtakes the electronics completely, becoming fully responsible for the song's deep, chilly atmosphere. Let's see a keyboard's hard drive do that.\"",
"In 2003, Boine was awarded the Nordic Council Music Prize. She was appointed knight, first class in the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav for her artistic diversity on 18 September 2009. On 7 October 2012, Boine was appointed as a \"statsstipendiat\", an artist with national funding, the highest honour that can be bestowed upon any artist in Norway. Boine has received other awards as follows:",
"",
"With Jan Garbarek"
]
} |
Iztaccihuatl | null | Iztaccíhuatl (alternative spellings include Ixtaccíhuatl, or either variant spelled without the accent) ( or, as spelled with the x, ), is a dormant volcanic mountain in Mexico located on the border between the State of Mexico and Puebla within Izta-Popo Zoquiapan National Park. It is the nation's third highest, after Pico de Orizaba at, and Popocatépetl at. | null | [
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"title": [
"Geology.",
"Legend of Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl.",
"Elevation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The summit ridge of the massive volcano is a series of overlapping cones constructed along a NNW-SSE line to the south of the Pleistocene Llano Grande caldera. There have been andesitic and dacitic Pleistocene and Holocene eruptions from vents at or near the summit. Areas near the El Pecho summit vent are covered in flows and tuff beds post-dating glaciation, approximately 11,000 years ago. The most recent vents are at El Pecho and a depression at along the summit ridge midway between El Pecho and Los Pies.",
"In Aztec mythology, \"Iztaccíhuatl\" was a princess who fell in love with one of her father's warriors, Popocatépetl. The emperor sent Popocatépetl to war in Oaxaca, promising him Iztaccíhuatl as his wife when he returned (which Iztaccíhuatl's father presumed he would not). Iztaccíhuatl was falsely told that Popocatépetl had died in battle, and believing the news, she died of grief. When Popocatépetl returned to find his love dead, he took her body to a spot outside Tenochtitlan and kneeled by her grave. The gods covered them with snow and changed them into mountains. Iztaccíhuatl's mountain is called \"White Woman\" (from Nahuatl \"white\" and \"woman\") because it resembles a woman lying on her back, and is often covered with snow — the peak is sometimes nicknamed \"\", \"The Sleeping Woman\". Popocatépetl became an active volcano, raining fire on Earth in blind rage at the loss of his beloved.",
"Iztaccihuatl is usually listed at, but SRTM data and the Mexican national mapping survey assert that a range of is more accurate. The Global Volcanism Program cites."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1013182 | en-train-1013182 | 1013182 | {
"title": [
"File format.",
"Versions.",
"Software.",
"Operating system support.",
"Creating RAR files.",
"Third-party software for extracting RAR files."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The filename extensions used by RAR are codice_1 for the data volume set and codice_2 for the recovery volume set. Previous versions of RAR split large archives into several smaller files, creating a \"multi-volume archive\". Numbers were used in the file extensions of the smaller files to keep them in the proper sequence. The first file used the extension codice_1, then codice_4 for the second, and then codice_5, codice_6, etc. RAR compression applications and libraries (including GUI based WinRAR application for Windows, console rar utility for different OSes and others) are proprietary software, to which Alexander L. Roshal, the elder brother of Eugene Roshal, owns the copyright. Version 3 of RAR is based on Lempel-Ziv (LZSS) and prediction by partial matching (PPM) compression, specifically the PPMd implementation of PPMII by Dmitry Shkarin. The minimum size of a RAR file is 20 bytes. The maximum size of a RAR file is 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (2−1) bytes, which is 8 exbibytes minus 1 byte.",
"The RAR file format revision history:",
"",
"Software is available for Microsoft Windows (named WinRAR), Linux, FreeBSD, macOS, and Android; archive extraction is supported natively in Chrome OS. WinRAR supports the Windows graphical user interface (GUI); other versions named RAR run as console commands. Later versions are not compatible with some older operating systems previously supported:",
"RAR files can be created only with commercial software WinRAR (Windows), RAR for Android, command-line RAR (Windows, MS-DOS, macOS, Linux, and FreeBSD), and other software that has written permission from Alexander Roshal or uses copyrighted code under license from Roshal. The software license agreements forbid reverse engineering.",
"Several programs can unpack the file format., however, some third-party programs claiming to \"support the RAR format\" did not recognise RAR5 files."
]
} |
Plutarch | null | Plutarch (;, "Ploútarkhos"; ; AD 46–after 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo. He is known primarily for his "Parallel Lives" and "Moralia". Upon becoming a Roman citizen, he was named Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (). | null | [
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"title": [
"Life.",
"Early life.",
"Work as magistrate and ambassador.",
"Late period: Priest at Delphi.",
"Works.",
"Lives of the Roman emperors.",
"\"Parallel Lives\".",
"\"Life of Alexander\".",
"\"Life of Caesar\".",
"\"Life of Pyrrhus\".",
"\"Moralia\".",
"Spartan lives and sayings.",
"\"Questions\".",
"\"On the Malice of Herodotus\".",
"Other works.",
"Lost works.",
"Philosophy.",
"Influence.",
"Translations of \"Lives\" and \"Moralia\".",
"French translations.",
"English translations.",
"Italian translations.",
"Latin translations.",
"German translations.",
"Hieronymus Emser.",
"Gottlob Benedict von Schirach.",
"Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser.",
"Hebrew translations.",
"Pseudo-Plutarch."
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"",
"Plutarch was born to a prominent family in the small town of Chaeronea, about east of Delphi, in the Greek region of Boeotia. His family was wealthy. The name of Plutarch's father has not been preserved, but based on the common Greek custom of repeating a name in alternate generations, it was probably Nikarchus (). The name of Plutarch's grandfather was Lamprias, as he attested in \"Moralia\" and in his \"Life of Antony\". His brothers, Timon and Lamprias, are frequently mentioned in his essays and dialogues, which speak of Timon in particular in the most affectionate terms. Rualdus, in his 1624 work \"Life of Plutarchus\", recovered the name of Plutarch's wife, Timoxena, from internal evidence afforded by his writings. A letter is still extant, addressed by Plutarch to his wife, bidding her not to grieve too much at the death of their two-year-old daughter, who was named Timoxena after her mother. He hinted at a belief in reincarnation in that letter of consolation. The exact number of his sons is not certain, although two of them, Autobulus and the second Plutarch, are often mentioned. Plutarch's treatise \"De animae procreatione in Timaeo\" is dedicated to them, and the marriage of his son Autobulus is the occasion of one of the dinner parties recorded in the \"Table Talk\". Another person, Soklarus, is spoken of in terms which seem to imply that he was Plutarch's son, but this is nowhere definitely stated. His treatise on marriage questions, addressed to Eurydice and Pollianus, seems to speak of the latter as having been recently an inmate of his house, but without any clear evidence on whether she was his daughter or not. Plutarch was the uncle of Sextus of Chaeronea, who was one of the teachers of Marcus Aurelius, and who may have been the same person as the philosopher Sextus Empiricus. Plutarch studied mathematics and philosophy at the Academy of Athens under Ammonius from 66 to 67. At some point, Plutarch received Roman citizenship. As evidenced by his new name, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, his sponsor for citizenship was Lucius Mestrius Florus, a Roman of consular status whom Plutarch also used as a historical source for his \"Life of Otho\". He lived most of his life at Chaeronea, and was initiated into the mysteries of the Greek god Apollo. For many years Plutarch served as one of the two priests at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the site of the famous Delphic Oracle, twenty miles from his home. He probably took part in the Eleusinian Mysteries. By his writings and lectures Plutarch became a celebrity in the Roman Empire, yet he continued to reside where he was born, and actively participated in local affairs, even serving as mayor. At his country estate, guests from all over the empire congregated for serious conversation, presided over by Plutarch in his marble chair. Many of these dialogues were recorded and published, and the 78 essays and other works which have survived are now known collectively as the \"Moralia\".",
"In addition to his duties as a priest of the Delphic temple, Plutarch was also a magistrate at Chaeronea and he represented his home town on various missions to foreign countries during his early adult years. Plutarch held the office of archon in his native municipality, probably only an annual one which he likely served more than once. He busied himself with all the little matters of the town and undertook the humblest of duties. The \"Suda\", a medieval Greek encyclopedia, states that Emperor Trajan made Plutarch procurator of Illyria. However, most historians consider this unlikely, since Illyria was not a procuratorial province, and Plutarch probably did not speak Illyrian. According to the 8th/9th-century historian George Syncellus, late in Plutarch's life, Emperor Hadrian appointed him nominal procurator of Achaea – which entitled him to wear the vestments and ornaments of a consul.",
"Plutarch spent the last thirty years of his life serving as a priest in Delphi. He thus connected part of his literary work with the sanctuary of Apollo, the processes of oracle-giving and the personalities who lived or traveled there. One of his most important works is the \"Why Pythia does not give oracles in verse\" (Moralia 11) ( \"Περὶ τοῦ μὴ χρᾶν ἔμμετρα νῦν τὴν Πυθίαν\"). Even more important is the dialogue \"On the E in Delphi\" (\"Περὶ τοῦ Εἶ τοῦ ἐν Δελφοῖς\"), which features Ammonius, a Platonic philosopher and teacher of Plutarch, and Lambrias, Plutarch's brother. According to Ammonius, the letter E written on the temple of Apollo in Delphi originated from the following fact: the wise men of antiquity, whose maxims were also written on the walls of the vestibule of the temple, were not seven but actually five: Chilon, Solon, Thales, Bias and Pittakos. However, the tyrants Cleobulos and Periandros used their political power in order to be incorporated in the list. Thus, the E, which corresponds to number 5, constituted an acknowledgment that the Delphic maxims actually originated from the five real wise men. The portrait of a philosopher exhibited at the exit of the Archaeological Museum of Delphi, dating to the 2nd century AD, had been in the past identified with Plutarch. The man, although bearded, is depicted at a relatively young age. His hair and beard are rendered in coarse volumes and thin incisions. The gaze is deep, due to the heavy eyelids and the incised pupils. The portrait is no longer thought to represent Plutarch. But a fragmentary hermaic stele next to the portrait probably did once bear a portrait of Plutarch, since it is inscribed, \"The Delphians along with the Chaeroneans dedicated this (image of) Plutarch, following the precepts of the Amphictyony\" (\"Δελφοὶ Χαιρωνεῦσιν ὁμοῦ Πλούταρχον ἔθηκαν | τοῖς Ἀμφικτυόνων δόγμασι πειθόμενοι\" \"Syll\". 843=\"CID\" 4, no. 151).",
"Plutarch's surviving works were intended for Greek speakers throughout the Roman Empire, not just Greeks.",
"Plutarch's first biographical works were the Lives of the Roman Emperors from Augustus to Vitellius. Of these, only the Lives of Galba and Otho survive. The Lives of Tiberius and Nero are extant only as fragments, provided by Damascius (Life of Tiberius, cf. his Life of Isidore) and Plutarch himself (Life of Nero, cf. Galba 2.1), respectively. These early emperors’ biographies were probably published under the Flavian dynasty or during the reign of Nerva (AD 96–98). There is reason to believe that the two Lives still extant, those of Galba and Otho, \"ought to be considered as a single work.\" Therefore, they do not form a part of the Plutarchian canon of single biographies – as represented by the Life of Aratus of Sicyon and the Life of Artaxerxes II (the biographies of Hesiod, Pindar, Crates and Daiphantus were lost). Unlike in these biographies, in \"Galba-Otho\" the individual characters of the persons portrayed are not depicted for their own sake but instead serve as an illustration of an abstract principle; namely the adherence or non-adherence to Plutarch's morally founded ideal of governing as a Princeps (cf. Galba 1.3; Moralia 328D–E). Arguing from the perspective of Platonic political philosophy (cf. Republic 375E, 410D-E, 411E-412A, 442B-C), in \"Galba-Otho\" Plutarch reveals the constitutional principles of the Principate in the time of the civil war after Nero's death. While morally questioning the behavior of the autocrats, he also gives an impression of their tragic destinies, ruthlessly competing for the throne and finally destroying each other. \"The Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium, received in a shorter space of time no less than four Emperors\", Plutarch writes, \"passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for another to enter\" (Galba 1). \"Galba-Otho\" was handed down through different channels. It can be found in the appendix to Plutarch's \"Parallel Lives\" as well as in various Moralia manuscripts, most prominently in Maximus Planudes' edition where Galba and Otho appear as \"Opera\" XXV and XXVI. Thus it seems reasonable to maintain that \"Galba-Otho\" was from early on considered as an illustration of a moral-ethical approach, possibly even by Plutarch himself.",
"Plutarch's best-known work is the \"Parallel Lives\", a series of biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans, arranged in pairs to illuminate their common moral virtues, vices, thus it being more of an insight into human nature than a historical account. The surviving \"Lives\" contain 23 pairs, each with one Greek \"Life\" and one Roman \"Life\", as well as four unpaired single \"Lives\". As is explained in the opening paragraph of his \"Life of Alexander\", Plutarch was not concerned with history so much as the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of men. Whereas sometimes he barely touched on epoch-making events, he devoted much space to charming anecdote and incidental triviality, reasoning that this often said far more for his subjects than even their most famous accomplishments. He sought to provide rounded portraits, likening his craft to that of a painter; indeed, he went to tremendous lengths (often leading to tenuous comparisons) to draw parallels between physical appearance and moral character. In many ways, he must be counted amongst the earliest moral philosophers. Some of the \"Lives\", such as those of Heracles, Philip II of Macedon, Epaminondas, Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus and possibly Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus no longer exist; many of the remaining \"Lives\" are truncated, contain obvious lacunae or have been tampered with by later writers. Extant \"Lives\" include those on Solon, Themistocles, Aristides, Agesilaus II, Pericles, Alcibiades, Nicias, Demosthenes, Pelopidas, Philopoemen, Timoleon, Dion of Syracuse, Eumenes, Alexander the Great, Pyrrhus of Epirus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Coriolanus, Theseus, Aemilius Paullus, Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Julius Caesar, Cicero, Cato the Elder, Mark Antony, and Marcus Junius Brutus.",
"Plutarch's \"Life of Alexander\", written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of only five extant tertiary sources on the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great. It includes anecdotes and descriptions of events that appear in no other source, just as Plutarch's portrait of Numa Pompilius, the putative second king of Rome, holds much that is unique on the early Roman calendar. Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favourite sculptor, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance. When it comes to his character, Plutarch emphasizes his unusual degree of self-control and scorn for luxury: \"He desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory.\" As the narrative progresses, however, the subject incurs less admiration from his biographer and the deeds that it recounts become less savoury. The murder of Cleitus the Black, which Alexander instantly and deeply regretted, is commonly cited to this end.",
"Together with Suetonius's \"The Twelve Caesars\", and Caesar's own works \"de Bello Gallico\" and \"de Bello Civili\", this \"Life\" is the main account of Julius Caesar's feats by ancient historians. Plutarch starts by telling of the audacity of Caesar and his refusal to dismiss Cinna's daughter, Cornelia. Other important parts are those containing his military deeds, accounts of battles and Caesar's capacity of inspiring the soldiers. However, this \"Life\" shows few differences between Suetonius' work and Caesar's own works (see \"De Bello Gallico\" and \"De Bello Civili\"). Sometimes, Plutarch quotes directly from the \"De Bello Gallico\" and even tells us of the moments when Caesar was dictating his works. In the final part of this \"Life\", Plutarch recounts details of Caesar's assassination. The book ends by telling the destiny of his murderers, just after his detailed account of the scene when a phantom appeared to Brutus at night.",
"Plutarch's \"Life of Pyrrhus\" is a key text because it is the main historical account on Roman history for the period from 293 to 264 BC, for which neither Dionysius nor Livy have surviving texts.",
"The remainder of Plutarch's surviving work is collected under the title of the \"Moralia\" (loosely translated as \"Customs and Mores\"). It is an eclectic collection of seventy-eight essays and transcribed speeches, including \"On Fraternal Affection\"—a discourse on honour and affection of siblings toward each other, \"On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great\"—an important adjunct to his Life of the great king, \"On the Worship of Isis and Osiris\" (a crucial source of information on Egyptian religious rites), along with more philosophical treatises, such as \"On the Decline of the Oracles\", \"On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance\", \"On Peace of Mind\" and lighter fare, such as \"Odysseus and Gryllus\", a humorous dialogue between Homer's Odysseus and one of Circe's enchanted pigs. The \"Moralia\" was composed first, while writing the Lives occupied much of the last two decades of Plutarch's own life.",
"Since Spartans wrote no history prior to the Hellenistic period — their only extant literature is fragments of 7th-century lyrics — Plutarch's five Spartan lives and \"Sayings of Spartans\" and \"Sayings of Spartan Women\", rooted in sources that have since disappeared, are some of the richest sources for historians of Lacedaemonia. But while they are important, they are also controversial. Plutarch lived centuries after the Sparta he writes about (and a full millennium separates him from the earliest events he records) and even though he visited Sparta, many of the ancient customs he reports had been long abandoned, so he never actually saw what he wrote of. Plutarch's sources themselves can be problematic. As the historians Sarah Pomeroy, Stanley Burstein, Walter Donlan, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts have written, \"Plutarch was influenced by histories written after the decline of Sparta and marked by nostalgia for a happier past, real or imagined.\" Turning to Plutarch himself, they write, \"the admiration writers like Plutarch and Xenophon felt for Spartan society led them to exaggerate its monolithic nature, minimizing departures from ideals of equality and obscuring patterns of historical change.\" Thus the Spartan egalitarianism and superhuman immunity to pain that have seized the popular imagination are likely myths, and their main architect is Plutarch. While flawed, Plutarch is nonetheless indispensable as one of the only ancient sources of information on Spartan life. Pomeroy et al. conclude that Plutarch's works on Sparta, while they must be treated with skepticism, remain valuable for their \"large quantities of information\" and these historians concede that \"Plutarch's writings on Sparta, more than those of any other ancient author, have shaped later views of Sparta\", despite their potential to misinform. He was also referenced in saying unto Sparta, “The beast will feed again.”",
"Book IV of the \"Moralia\" contains the \"Roman and Greek Questions\" (Αἰτίαι Ῥωμαϊκαί and Αἰτίαι Ἑλλήνων). The customs of Romans and Greeks are illuminated in little essays that pose questions such as 'Why were patricians not permitted to live on the Capitoline?' (no. 91) and then suggests answers to them.",
"In \"On the Malice of Herodotus\" Plutarch criticizes the historian Herodotus for all manner of prejudice and misrepresentation. It has been called the \"first instance in literature of the slashing review.\" The 19th-century English historian George Grote considered this essay a serious attack upon the works of Herodotus, and speaks of the \"honourable frankness which Plutarch calls his malignity.\" Plutarch makes some palpable hits, catching Herodotus out in various errors, but it is also probable that it was merely a rhetorical exercise, in which Plutarch plays devil's advocate to see what could be said against so favourite and well-known a writer. According to Plutarch scholar R. H. Barrow, Herodotus’ real failing in Plutarch's eyes was to advance any criticism at all of those states that saved Greece from Persia. “Plutarch”, he concluded, “is fanatically biased in favor of the Greek cities; they can do no wrong.”",
"\"Symposiacs\" (Συμποσιακά); \"Convivium Septem Sapientium\".",
"The lost works of Plutarch are determined by references in his own texts to them and from other authors' references over time. Parts of the \"Lives\" and what would be considered parts of the \"Moralia\" have been lost. The 'Catalogue of Lamprias', an ancient list of works attributed to Plutarch, lists 227 works, of which 78 have come down to us. The Romans loved the \"Lives\". Enough copies were written out over the centuries so that a copy of most of the lives has survived to the present day, but there are traces of twelve more Lives that are now lost. Plutarch's general procedure for the \"Lives\" was to write the life of a prominent Greek, then cast about for a suitable Roman parallel, and end with a brief comparison of the Greek and Roman lives. Currently, only 19 of the parallel lives end with a comparison, while possibly they all did at one time. Also missing are many of his \"Lives\" which appear in a list of his writings: those of Hercules, the first pair of \"Parallel Lives\", Scipio Africanus and Epaminondas, and the companions to the four solo biographies. Even the lives of such important figures as Augustus, Claudius and Nero have not been found and may be lost forever. Lost works that would have been part of the \"Moralia\" include \"Whether One Who Suspends Judgment on Everything Is Condemned to Inaction\", \"On Pyrrho’s Ten Modes\", and \"On the Difference between the Pyrrhonians and the Academics\".",
"Plutarch was a Platonist, but was open to the influence of the Peripatetics, and in some details even to Stoicism despite his criticism of their principles. He rejected only Epicureanism absolutely. He attached little importance to theoretical questions and doubted the possibility of ever solving them. He was more interested in moral and religious questions. In opposition to Stoic materialism and Epicurean atheism he cherished a pure idea of God that was more in accordance with Plato. He adopted a second principle (\"Dyad\") in order to explain the phenomenal world. This principle he sought, however, not in any indeterminate matter but in the evil world-soul which has from the beginning been bound up with matter, but in the creation was filled with reason and arranged by it. Thus it was transformed into the divine soul of the world, but continued to operate as the source of all evil. He elevated God above the finite world, and thus daemons became for him agents of God's influence on the world. He strongly defends freedom of the will, and the immortality of the soul. Platonic-Peripatetic ethics were upheld by Plutarch against the opposing theories of the Stoics and Epicureans. The most characteristic feature of Plutarch's ethics is, however, its close connection with religion. However pure Plutarch's idea of God is, and however vivid his description of the vice and corruption which superstition causes, his warm religious feelings and his distrust of human powers of knowledge led him to believe that God comes to our aid by direct revelations, which we perceive the more clearly the more completely that we refrain in \"enthusiasm\" from all action; this made it possible for him to justify popular belief in divination in the way which had long been usual among the Stoics. His attitude to popular religion was similar. The gods of different peoples are merely different names for one and the same divine Being and the powers that serve it. The myths contain philosophical truths which can be interpreted allegorically. Thus Plutarch sought to combine the philosophical and religious conception of things and to remain as close as possible to tradition. Plutarch was the teacher of Favorinus.",
"Plutarch's writings had an enormous influence on English and French literature. Shakespeare paraphrased parts of Thomas North's translation of selected \"Lives \"in his plays, and occasionally quoted from them verbatim. Jean-Jacques Rousseau quotes from Plutarch in the 1762 \"Emile, or On Education\", a treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. Rousseau introduces a passage from Plutarch in support of his position against eating meat: \"'You ask me,' said Plutarch, 'why Pythagoras abstained from eating the flesh of beasts...'\" Ralph Waldo Emerson and the Transcendentalists were greatly influenced by the \"Moralia\" and in his glowing introduction to the five-volume, 19th-century edition, he called the \"Lives\" \"a bible for heroes\". He also opined that it was impossible to \"read Plutarch without a tingling of the blood; and I accept the saying of the Chinese Mencius: 'A sage is the instructor of a hundred ages. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined.'\" Montaigne's \"Essays\" draw extensively on Plutarch's \"Moralia\" and are consciously modelled on the Greek's easygoing and discursive inquiries into science, manners, customs and beliefs. \"Essays\" contains more than 400 references to Plutarch and his works. James Boswell quoted Plutarch on writing lives, rather than biographies, in the introduction to his own \"Life of Samuel Johnson\". Other admirers included Ben Jonson, John Dryden, Alexander Hamilton, John Milton, Louis L'amour, and Francis Bacon, as well as such disparate figures as Cotton Mather and Robert Browning. Plutarch's influence declined in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it remains embedded in the popular ideas of Greek and Roman history. One of his most famous quotes was one that he included in one of his earliest works. \"The world of man is best captured through the lives of the men who created history.\"",
"There are translations, from the original Greek, in Latin, English, French, German, Italian, Polish and Hebrew. British classical scholar H. J. Rose writes “One advantage to a modern reader who is not well acquainted with Greek is, that being but a moderate stylist, Plutarch is almost as good in a translation as in the original.”",
"Jacques Amyot's translations brought Plutarch's works to Western Europe. He went to Italy and studied the Vatican text of Plutarch, from which he published a French translation of the \"Lives\" in 1559 and \"Moralia\" in 1572, which were widely read by educated Europe. Amyot's translations had as deep an impression in England as France, because Thomas North later published his English translation of the \"Lives\" in 1579 based on Amyot's French translation instead of the original Greek.",
"Plutarch's \"Lives\" were translated into English, from Amyot's version, by Sir Thomas North in 1579. The complete \"Moralia\" was first translated into English from the original Greek by Philemon Holland in 1603. In 1683, John Dryden began a life of Plutarch and oversaw a translation of the \"Lives\" by several hands and based on the original Greek. This translation has been reworked and revised several times, most recently in the 19th century by the English poet and classicist Arthur Hugh Clough (first published in 1859). One contemporary publisher of this version is Modern Library. Another is Encyclopædia Britannica in association with the University of Chicago,, 1952,. In 1770, English brothers John and William Langhorne published \"Plutarch's Lives from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a new life of Plutarch\" in 6 volumes and dedicated to Lord Folkestone. Their translation was re-edited by Archdeacon Wrangham in the year 1819. From 1901 to 1912, an American classicist, Bernadotte Perrin, produced a new translation of the \"Lives\" for the Loeb Classical Library. The \"Moralia\" is also included in the Loeb series, translated by various authors. Penguin Classics began a series of translations by various scholars in 1958 with \"The Fall of the Roman Republic\", which contained six Lives and was translated by Rex Warner. Penguin continues to revise the volumes.",
"Note: just main translations from the second half of 15th century.",
"There are multiple translations of \"Parallel Lives\" into Latin, most notably the one titled \"Pour le Dauphin\" (French for \"for the Prince\") written by a scribe in the court of Louis XV of France and a 1470 Ulrich Han translation.",
"",
"In 1519, Hieronymus Emser translated \"De capienda ex inimicis utilitate\" (wie ym eyner seinen veyndt nutz machen kan, Leipzig).",
"The biographies were translated by Gottlob Benedict von Schirach (1743–1804) and printed in Vienna by Franz Haas, 1776–80.",
"Plutarch's \"Lives and Moralia\" were translated into German by Johann Friedrich Salomon Kaltwasser:",
"Following some Hebrew translations of selections from Plutarch's \"Parallel Lives\" published in the 1920s and the 1940s, a complete translation was published in three volumes by the Bialik Institute in 1954, 1971 and 1973. The first volume, \"Roman Lives\", first published in 1954, presents the translations of Joseph G. Liebes to the biographies of Coriolanus, Fabius Maximus, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus, Cato the Elder and Cato the Younger, Gaius Marius, Sulla, Sertorius, Lucullus, Pompey, Crassus, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Brutus and Mark Anthony. The second volume, \"Greek Lives\", first published in 1971 presents A. A. Halevy's translations of the biographies of Lycurgus, Aristides, Cimon, Pericles, Nicias, Lysander, Agesilaus, Pelopidas, Dion, Timoleon, Demosthenes, Alexander the Great, Eumenes and Phocion. Three more biographies presented in this volume, those of Solon, Themistocles and Alcibiades were translated by M. H. Ben-Shamai. The third volume, \"Greek and Roman Lives\", published in 1973, presented the remaining biographies and parallels as translated by Halevy. Included are the biographies of Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Agis and Cleomenes, Aratus and Artaxerxes, Philopoemen, Camillus, Marcellus, Flamininus, Aemilius Paulus, Galba and Otho, Theseus, Romulus, Numa Pompilius and Poplicola. It completes the translation of the known remaining biographies. In the introduction to the third volume Halevy explains that originally the Bialik Institute intended to publish only a selection of biographies, leaving out mythological figures and biographies that had no parallels. Thus, to match the first volume in scope the second volume followed the same path and the third volume was required.",
"Some editions of the \"Moralia\" include several works now known to have been falsely attributed to Plutarch. Among these are the \"Lives of the Ten Orators\", a series of biographies of the Attic orators based on Caecilius of Calacte; \"On the Opinions of the Philosophers\", \"On Fate\", and \"On Music\". These works are all attributed to a single, unknown author, referred to as \"Pseudo-Plutarch\". Pseudo-Plutarch lived sometime between the third and fourth centuries AD. Despite being falsely attributed, the works are still considered to possess historical value."
]
} |
Ehud Olmert | null | Ehud Olmert (, ; born 30 September 1945) is an Israeli politician and lawyer. He served as the 12th Prime Minister of Israel from 2006 to 2009 and before that as a cabinet minister from 1988 to 1992 and from 2003 to 2006. Between his first and second stints as a cabinet member, he served as mayor of Jerusalem from 1993 to 2003. After serving as PM he was sentenced to serve a prison term over convictions for accepting bribes and for obstruction of justice during his terms as mayor of Jerusalem and as trade minister. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Education and Military Service.",
"MK and Minister.",
"Mayor of Jerusalem.",
"Deputy leader of Israel.",
"Acting prime minister.",
"Prime Minister.",
"Addresses U.S. Congress.",
"Loses popularity, controversial statements.",
"Annapolis peace talks.",
"Operation Orchard.",
"Negotiations with Syria.",
"Gaza rocket attacks increase.",
"IDF bombs, invades Gaza.",
"Controversial UN vote.",
"Stepping down.",
"Corruption and bribery criminal investigations.",
"Personal life.",
"Activity after prison term."
],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"Olmert was born near Binyamina in the British Mandate of Palestine. According to Olmert, his parents, Bella (Wagman) and Mordechai Olmert, escaped \"persecution in Ukraine and Russia, and found sanctuary in Harbin, China. They emigrated to Israel to fulfill their dream of building a Jewish and democratic state living in peace in",
"Olmert graduated from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem with degrees in psychology, philosophy and law. He opened a successful law partnership in Jerusalem. Olmert served with the Israel Defense Forces in the Golani Brigade. While in service he was",
"In 1966, during the Gahal party convention (a predecessor to today's Likud), party leader Menachem Begin was challenged by the young Olmert, who called for his resignation. Begin announced that he would retire from party leadership, but soon reversed his decision when the crowd emotionally pleaded with him to stay. Olmert was first elected to the Knesset in",
"Between 1993 and 2003, Olmert served two terms as mayor of Jerusalem, the first member of Likud or its precursors to hold the position. During his term in office, he devoted himself to the initiation and advancement of major projects in the city, the development and improvement of the education system, and the development of road infrastructure. He also spearheaded the development of the light rail system in Jerusalem, and the investment of millions of shekels in the development of mass transportation options for the city. While mayor of Jerusalem,",
"Olmert was elected as a member of the sixteenth Knesset in January 2003. He served as the head of the election campaign for Likud in the elections, and subsequently was the chief negotiator of the coalition agreement. Following the elections he was appointed as Designated Acting Prime Minister and Minister of Industry, Trade and Labor. From 2003 to 2004, he also served as Minister of Communications. On 7 August 2005, Olmert was appointed acting finance minister, replacing Benjamin Netanyahu, who had resigned in protest",
"On 4 January 2006, as the designated Acting Prime Minister, Olmert became Acting Prime Minister as a result of the serious stroke suffered by then Prime Minister Ariel Sharon. This occurred after consultations took place between Cabinet Secretary Yisrael Maimon and Attorney General Menachem Mazuz, who declared Sharon \"temporarily incapable to carry out the duties of his office\", while only officially in office. Then, Olmert and the cabinet reaffirmed in an announcement that the 28 March elections would be held as scheduled. During the days following the stroke, Olmert met with Shimon Peres and other Sharon supporters to try to convince them to stay with Kadima, rather than return to Likud or, in Peres' case, Labor. On 16 January 2006, Olmert was elected chairman of Kadima, and Kadima's candidate for prime minister in the upcoming election. In his first major policy address on 24 January 2006 after becoming caretaker Prime Minister, Olmert",
"On 4 May 2006, Olmert presented his new government to the Knesset. Olmert became prime minister and minister for welfare. Control over the Welfare Ministry was expected to be given to United Torah Judaism if it would join the government. The post was later given to Labor's Isaac Herzog. Olmert took over as acting prime minister of Israel after Ariel Sharon suffered a stroke.",
"On 24 May 2006, Olmert was invited to address a joint session of the U.S. Congress. He stated that his government would",
"Following the 2006 Lebanon War, Olmert's popularity ratings fell and, on 15 September 2006, former chief of staff Moshe Ya'alon publicly stated that Olmert should resign. In May 2007, Olmert's approval rating fell to 3%, and he became the subject of a Google Bomb for the Hebrew for \"miserable failure\". On 9 December 2006, Olmert stated that he could not rule out the possibility of a military attack against Iran, and called for the international community to step up action against that country. He called Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's repeated threats to destroy Israel \"absolutely criminal\",",
"Olmert welcomed the Arab League's 2007 re-endorsement of the Arab Peace Initiative. Olmert wrote in \"The Guardian\" newspaper that Israel was ready to make \"painful concessions\" to achieve peace with the Palestinians. \"I take the offer of full normalization of relations between Israel and the Arab world seriously; and I am ready to discuss the Arab peace initiative in an open and sincere manner. Working with our Jordanian and Egyptian partners, and hopefully other Arab states, we must pursue a comprehensive peace with energy and vision... But the talks must be a discussion, not an ultimatum.\" On 4",
"On 6 September 2007, Israel launched Operation Orchard, an airstrike against a suspected nuclear reactor in Syria, allegedly being built with North Korean and Iranian assistance. The strike was preceded by years of covert operations by Israeli special forces and the Mossad. Details of the strike were censored in Israel, and the attack was not confirmed to have taken place until 2 October. Following the attack, Olmert's approval",
"In May 2008, Israel opened Turkish-brokered indirect peace talks with Syria. Olmert stated that the resumption of peace",
"Rocket and mortar attacks by Palestinian terrorists from the Hamas-controlled Gaza Strip on Israel occurred frequently throughout the spring and summer of 2008, until a ceasefire was agreed between Hamas and Israel in June. Rocket attacks increased sharply in November after an Israeli raid on an Hamas-built",
"On 25 December 2008, Olmert delivered a \"last minute\" warning to Gaza in direct appeal to Gaza's people via the Arabic language satellite channel al-Arabiya, to pressure their leaders to stop the rocket barrages. \"I am telling them now, it may be the last minute, I'm telling them stop it. We are stronger\", he",
"The UN Security Council passed a resolution on 8 January 2009 calling for an immediate ceasefire to the hostilities in the Gaza Strip. It passed 14–0–1, with one abstention from the United States. Olmert told reporters, \"[U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice] was left shamed. A resolution that she prepared and arranged, and in the end she did not vote in favor. In the night between Thursday and Friday, when the Secretary of State wanted to lead the vote on a ceasefire at the Security Council, we did not want her to vote",
"On 30 July 2008, Olmert announced that he would not contest the Kadima party leadership election in September and would resign from office once his party elects a new leader. In his resignation speech, he addressed the cases of corruption of which he is being accused, saying he is \"proud to be a citizen of a country in which a Prime Minister can be investigated like any other citizen\", but also stated he \"was forced to defend [himself] from ceaseless attacks by the self-appointed soldiers of justice, who sought to oust [him] from [his] position\". The move has been interpreted as signaling the end of Olmert's political career. Many politicians across the political spectrum praised Olmert's decision to resign. Foreign Minister Tzipi Livni",
"Beginning in the mid-1980s, Olmert was subjected to a string of corruption allegations that resulted in multiple police investigations. According to Israeli journalist Yossi Melman, the repeated investigations led some to believe that Olmert was corrupt but a master at covering his tracks, while others believed that the authorities were simply obsessed with harassing him. On 7 March 2006, it was disclosed that an inquiry was being carried out on the 1999 sale and lease-back of a Jerusalem property purchased by Olmert in 2004, which allegedly was done on financial terms very favorable to Olmert, in what would amount to an illegal campaign contribution and/or bribe. Olmert was alleged to have paid $325,000 below market value. A criminal investigation regarding the matter was formally launched on 24 September 2007. The investigation closed in August 2009 due to lack of evidence. On 16 January 2007, a criminal investigation was initiated against Olmert. The investigation focused on suspicions that during his tenure as finance minister, Olmert tried to steer the tender for the sale of Bank Leumi in order to help Slovak-born Australian real estate baron Frank Lowy, a close personal associate. Israeli Finance Ministry Accountant General Dr. Yaron Zelekha was as a key witness, according to the State Comptroller's office. The state comptroller testified against Olmert. Israeli Police who investigated the case eventually concluded that the evidence that was collected was insufficient for indictment, and no recommendations were made to press charges. In October 2007, he was questioned for five hours by three officers from the National Fraud Investigations Unit in his Jerusalem residence. State Prosecutor Moshe Lador closed the case in December 2008 due to lack of evidence. In April 2007, it was further alleged that, during his office as Minister of Trade, Industry and Labor, Olmert may have been guilty of criminal behavior by taking an active part in an investment center. Prosecutors said that Olmert placed himself in a conflict of interest by personally dealing with issues involving business figures represented by his friend and former business partner, lawyer Uri Messer. Olmert was alleged to have changed some decisions made by his ministry in their favor. During a parliamentary inquest in July 2007, Olmert flatly denied these accusations. In October 2007, Attorney General Mazuz ordered a police investigation into allegations that Olmert, when he held the positions of trade minister, communications minister and finance minister, had improperly appointed associates from the Likud party to posts on government bodies. Police completed their investigation in 2009, and concluded that there was a basis to indict Olmert and others for fraud and breach of trust. In July 2008, \"Haaretz\" reported that in 1992, Olmert took a loan from U.S. businessman Joe Almaliah, but never repaid it, and concealed the true size of the loan from the State Comptroller. In March 2003, State Comptroller Eliezer Goldberg asked Olmert to submit the wealth-declaration statement required of all cabinet ministers. Olmert disclosed that he had taken a loan from Almaliah, but did not say when it was due. In 2004, Olmert conceded that he had taken $75,000, and stressed that Almaliah had not asked for repayment of the loan. At Goldberg's insistence, Olmert signed a contract with Almaliah undertaking to repay the loan in January 2009. According to an indictment, Olmert had actually taken another $100,000 from Almaliah, which was deposited into his personal bank account. The State Prosecutor's office said that it was not aware of Olmert's repayment of either loan.",
"Olmert's wife, Aliza, is a writer of novels and theater plays, as well as an artist. Aliza is more left-leaning in her politics than her husband. She claimed to have voted for him for the first time in 2006. The couple has four biological children and an adopted daughter. The oldest daughter, Michal, holds a master's in psychology and leads workshops in creative thinking. Another daughter Dana is a lecturer in literature at the Tel Aviv University, and the editor of a literature series. She is a lesbian and lives with her partner in Tel Aviv. Her parents are accepting of her sexual orientation and partner. Dana is active in the Jerusalem branch of the Israeli human rights organization",
"In 2009, Olmert spoke at various colleges throughout the United States to mixed receptions. In October 2009, he visited Magnolia, Arkansas, and spoke about Israeli farming, technology and Israel's view on Iran. The speech was given at Southern Arkansas University, where he also invited the rural university to form a partnership with Israel's Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 2012, he expressed opposition to a military strike on Iran. In July 2019, he canceled a planned visit to Switzerland after the country's authorities notified Israel he would be taken for questioning for committing potential war crimes in Operation Cast Lead. In 2020 Olmert is present in the media as a very harsh, outspoken and strong-worded critic of the Netanyahu administration and the Likud party.<ref>Ex-PM Olmert, who was jailed for graft, says ‘thief’ Netanyahu to face same fate, Times of Israel, staff-written, 25 May 2020. Accessed 13 June 2020.</"
]
} |
Lockheed P-38 Lightning | null | The Lockheed P-38 Lightning is a World War II–era American piston-engined fighter aircraft. Developed for the United States Army Air Corps, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms and a central nacelle containing the cockpit and armament. Allied propaganda claimed it had been nicknamed the fork-tailed devil () by the Luftwaffe and "two planes, one pilot" by the Japanese. Along with its use as a general fighter, the P-38 was utilized in various aerial combat roles including as a highly effective fighter-bomber, a night fighter, and as a long-range escort fighter when equipped with drop tanks. The P-38 was also used as a bomber-pathfinder, guiding streams of medium and heavy bombers; or even other P-38s, equipped with bombs, to their targets. Used in the aerial reconnaissance role, the P-38 accounted for 90 percent of the aerial film captured over Europe. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2133212 | en-train-2133212 | 2133212 | {
"title": [
"Design and development.",
"Operational history.",
"Entry to the war.",
"European theater.",
"North Africa and Italy.",
"Western Europe.",
"Pacific theater.",
"Service record.",
"Postwar operations.",
"Production.",
"P-38D and P-38Es.",
"P-38Fs and P-38Gs.",
"P-38J, P-38L.",
"Pathfinders, night-fighter and other variants.",
"Operators.",
"Noted P-38s.",
"YIPPEE.",
"Glacier Girl.",
"'Maid of Harlech'.",
"Noted P-38 pilots.",
"Richard Bong and Thomas McGuire.",
"Charles Lindbergh.",
"Charles MacDonald.",
"Martin James Monti.",
"Robin Olds.",
"John H. Ross.",
"Antoine de Saint-Exupéry.",
"Clay Tice.",
"Adrian Warburton.",
"Popular culture."
],
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"Lockheed designed the P-38 in response to a February 1937 specification from the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC). Circular Proposal X-608 was a set of aircraft performance goals authored by First Lieutenants Benjamin S. Kelsey and Gordon P. Saville for a twin-engine, high-altitude \"interceptor\" having \"the tactical mission of interception and attack of hostile aircraft at high altitude.\" Forty years later, Kelsey explained that he and Saville drew up the specification using the word \"interceptor\" as a way to bypass the inflexible Army Air Corps requirement for pursuit aircraft to carry no more than of armament including ammunition, and to bypass the USAAC restriction of single-seat aircraft to one engine. Kelsey was looking for a minimum of of armament. Kelsey and Saville aimed to get a more capable fighter, better at dog-fighting and at high-altitude combat. Specifications called for a maximum airspeed of at least at altitude, and a climb to within six minutes, the toughest set of specifications USAAC had ever presented. The unbuilt Vultee XP1015 was designed to the same requirement, but was not advanced enough to merit further investigation. A similar single-engine proposal was issued at the same time, Circular Proposal X-609, in response to which the Bell P-39 Airacobra was designed. Both proposals required liquid-cooled Allison V-1710 engines with turbo-superchargers and gave extra points for tricycle landing gear. The Lockheed design team, under the direction of Hall Hibbard and Clarence \"Kelly\" Johnson, considered a range of twin-engine configurations, including both engines in a central fuselage with push–pull propellers. The eventual configuration was rare in terms of contemporary fighter aircraft design, with the preceding Fokker G.1, the contemporary Focke-Wulf Fw 189 Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft, and the later Northrop P-61 Black Widow night fighter having a similar planform, along with a few other unusual aircraft. The Lockheed team chose twin booms to accommodate the tail assembly, engines, and turbo-superchargers, with a central nacelle for the pilot and armament. The XP-38 gondola mockup was designed to mount two.50-caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns with 200 rounds per gun (rpg), two.30-caliber (7.62 mm) Brownings with 500 rpg, and a T1 Army Ordnance 23 mm (.90 in) autocannon with a rotary magazine as a substitute for the non-existent 25 mm Hotchkiss aircraft autocannon specified by Kelsey and Saville. In the YP-38s, a 37 mm (1.46 in) M9 autocannon with 15 rounds replaced the T1. The 15 rounds were in three five-round clips, an unsatisfactory arrangement according to Kelsey, and the M9 did not perform reliably in flight. Further armament experiments from March to June 1941 resulted in the P-38E combat configuration of four M2 Browning machine guns, and one Hispano 20 mm (.79 in) autocannon with 150 rounds. Clustering all the armament in the nose was unusual in U.S. aircraft, which typically used wing-mounted guns with trajectories set up to crisscross at one or more points in a convergence zone. Nose-mounted guns did not suffer from having their useful ranges limited by pattern convergence, meaning that good pilots could shoot much farther. A Lightning could reliably hit targets at any range up to, whereas the wing guns of other fighters were optimized for a specific range. The rate of fire was about 650 rounds per minute for the 20×110 mm cannon round (130-gram shell) at a muzzle velocity of about, and for the.50-caliber machine guns (43-gram rounds), about 850 rpm at velocity. Combined rate of fire was over 4,000 rpm with roughly every sixth projectile a 20 mm shell. The duration of sustained firing for the 20 mm cannon was approximately 14 seconds while the.50-caliber machine guns worked for 35 seconds if each magazine was fully loaded with 500 rounds, or for 21 seconds if 300 rounds were loaded to save weight for long distance flying. The Lockheed design incorporated tricycle undercarriage and a bubble canopy, and featured two turbosupercharged 12-cylinder Allison V-1710 engines fitted with counter-rotating propellers to eliminate the effect of engine torque, with the turbochargers positioned behind the engines, the exhaust side of the units exposed along the dorsal surfaces of the booms. Counter-rotation was achieved by the use of \"handed\" engines: the crankshafts of the engines turned in opposite directions, a relatively easy task for the V-1710 modular-design aircraft powerplant. The P-38 was the first American fighter to make extensive use of stainless steel and smooth, flush-riveted butt-jointed aluminum skin panels. It was also the first military airplane to fly faster than in level flight.",
"The first unit to receive P-38s was the 1st Fighter Group. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the unit joined the 14th Pursuit Group in San Diego to provide West Coast defense.",
"The first Lightning to see active service was the F-4 version, a P-38E in which the guns were replaced by four K17 cameras. They joined the 8th Photographic Squadron in Australia on 4 April 1942. Three F-4s were operated by the Royal Australian Air Force in this theater for a short period beginning in September 1942. On 29 May 1942, 25 P-38s began operating in the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. The fighter's long range made it well-suited to the",
"",
"After the Battle of Midway, the USAAF began redeploying fighter groups to Britain as part of Operation Bolero and Lightnings of the 1st Fighter Group were flown across the Atlantic via Iceland. On 14 August 1942, Second Lieutenant Elza Shahan of the 27th Fighter Squadron, and Second Lieutenant Joseph Shaffer of the 33rd Squadron operating out of Iceland shot down a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 \"Condor\" over the Atlantic. Shahan in his P-38F downed the \"Condor\"; Shaffer, flying either a P-40C or a P-39, had already set an engine on fire. This was the first Luftwaffe aircraft destroyed by the USAAF. After 347 sorties with no enemy contact, the 1st and 14th Fighter Groups transferred from the UK to the 12th Air Force in North Africa as part of the force being built up for Operation Torch. The Lightning's long range allowed the pilots to fly their fighters over the Bay of Biscay, skirting neutral Spain and Portugal to refuel in Morocco. The P-38s were initially based at Tafaroui airfield in Algeria alongside P-40 Warhawks and the rest of the 12th Air Force. P-38s were first involved in North African combat operations on 11 November 1942. The first North African P-38 kill was on 22 November when Lieutenant Mark Shipman of the 14th downed an Italian airplane with twin engines. Shipman later made two more kills: a Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter and a very large Me 323 \"Gigant\" transport. Early results in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations were mixed. Some P-38 pilots scored multiple kills to become aces, while many others were shot down due to inexperience or tactical strictures. Overall, the P-38 suffered its highest losses",
"Experiences over Germany had shown a need for long-range escort fighters to protect the Eighth Air Force's heavy bomber operations. The P-38Hs of the 55th Fighter Group were transferred to the Eighth in England in September 1943, and were joined by the 20th, 364th and 479th Fighter Groups soon after. P-38s and Spitfires escorted Fortress raids over Europe. Because its distinctive shape was less prone to cases of mistaken identity and friendly fire, Lieutenant General Jimmy Doolittle, Commander of the 8th Air Force, chose to pilot a P-38 during the invasion of Normandy so that he could watch the progress of the air offensive over France. At one point in the mission, Doolittle flick-rolled through a hole in the cloud cover, but his wingman, then-Major General Earle E. Partridge, was looking elsewhere and failed to notice Doolittle's quick maneuver, leaving Doolittle to continue on alone on his survey of the crucial battle. Of the P-38, Doolittle said that it was \"the sweetest-flying plane in the sky\". A little-known role of the P-38 in the European theater was that of fighter-bomber during the invasion of Normandy and the Allied advance across France into Germany. Assigned to the IX Tactical Air Command, the 370th",
"The P-38 was used most extensively and successfully in the Pacific theater, where it proved more suited, combining exceptional range with the reliability of two engines for long missions over water. The P-38 was used in a variety of roles, especially escorting bombers at altitudes of. The P-38 was credited with destroying more Japanese aircraft than any other USAAF fighter. Freezing cockpit temperatures were not a problem at low altitude in the tropics. In fact the cockpit was often too hot since opening a window while in flight caused buffeting by setting up turbulence through the tailplane. Pilots taking low altitude assignments often flew stripped down to shorts, tennis shoes, and parachute. While the P-38 could not out-turn the A6M Zero and most other Japanese fighters when flying below, its superior speed coupled with a good rate of climb meant that it could use energy tactics, making multiple high-speed passes at its target. In addition, its tightly grouped guns were even more deadly to lightly armored Japanese warplanes than to German aircraft. The concentrated, parallel stream of bullets allowed aerial victory at much longer distances than fighters carrying wing guns. Dick Bong, the United States' highest-scoring World",
"The P-38's service record shows mixed results, which may reflect more on its employment than on flaws with the aircraft. The P-38's engine troubles at high altitudes only occurred with the Eighth Air Force. One reason for this was the inadequate cooling systems of the G and H models; the improved P-38 J and L had tremendous success flying out of Italy into Germany at all altitudes. Until the -J-25 variant, P-38s were easily avoided by German fighters because of the lack of dive flaps to counter compressibility in dives. German fighter pilots not wishing to fight would perform the first half of a Split S and continue into steep dives because they knew the Lightnings would be reluctant to follow. On the positive side, having two engines was a built-in insurance policy. Many pilots made it safely back to base after having an engine failure en route or in combat. On 3 March 1944, the first Allied fighters reached Berlin on a frustrated escort mission. Lieutenant Colonel Jack Jenkins of 55th Fighter Group led the group",
"The end of the war left the USAAF with thousands of P-38s rendered obsolete by the jet age. The last P-38s in service with the United States Air Force were retired in 1949. A total of 100 late-model P-38L and F-5 Lightnings were acquired by Italy through an agreement dated April 1946. Delivered, after refurbishing, at the rate of one per month, they finally were all sent to the Aeronautica Militare by 1952. The Lightnings served in the 4° \"Stormo\" and other units including 3° \"Stormo\", flying reconnaissance over the Balkans, ground attack, naval cooperation and air superiority missions. Due",
"Over 10,000 Lightnings were manufactured, becoming the only U.S. combat aircraft that remained in continuous production throughout the duration of American participation in World War II. The Lightning had a major effect on other aircraft; its wing, in a scaled-up form, was used on the Lockheed Constellation.",
"Delivered and accepted Lightning production variants began with the P-38D model. The few \"hand made\" YP-38s initially contracted were used as trainers and test aircraft. There were no Bs or Cs delivered to the government as the USAAF allocated the 'D' suffix to all aircraft with self-sealing fuel tanks and armor. Many secondary but still initial teething tests were conducted using the earliest D variants. The first combat-capable Lightning was the P-38E (and its photo-recon variant the F-4) which featured improved instruments, electrical, and hydraulic systems. Part-way through production, the older Hamilton Standard Hydromatic hollow steel propellers were replaced by new Curtiss Electric duraluminum propellers. The definitive (and now famous) armament configuration was settled upon, featuring four",
"After 210 P-38Es were built, they were followed, starting in February 1942, by the P-38F, which incorporated racks inboard of the engines for fuel tanks or a total of of bombs. Early variants did not enjoy a high reputation for maneuverability, though they could be agile at low altitudes if flown by a capable pilot, using the P-38's forgiving stall characteristics to their best advantage. From the P-38F-15 model onwards, a \"combat maneuver\" setting was added to the P-38's Fowler flaps. When deployed at the 8° maneuver setting, the flaps allowed the P-38 to out-turn many contemporary single-engined fighters at the cost of some added drag. However, early variants were hampered by high aileron control forces and a low initial rate of roll, and",
"The P-38J was introduced in August 1943. The turbo-supercharger intercooler system on previous variants had been housed in the leading edges of the wings and had proven vulnerable to combat damage and could burst if the wrong series of controls were mistakenly activated. In the P-38J series, the streamlined engine nacelles of previous Lightnings were changed to fit the intercooler radiator between the oil coolers, forming a \"chin\" that visually distinguished the J model from its predecessors. While the P-38J used the same V-1710-89/91 engines as the H model, the new core-type intercooler more efficiently lowered intake manifold temperatures and permitted a substantial increase in rated power. The leading edge of the outer wing was fitted with fuel tanks, filling the space formerly occupied by intercooler tunnels, but these were omitted on early P-38J blocks due to limited availability. The final 210 J models, designated P-38J-25-LO, alleviated the compressibility problem through the addition of a set of electrically actuated dive recovery flaps just outboard of the",
"The Lightning was modified for other roles. In addition to the F-4 and F-5 reconnaissance variants, a number of P-38Js and P-38Ls were field-modified as formation bombing \"pathfinders\" or \"droopsnoots\", fitted with a Norden bombsight or an H2X radar system. Such pathfinders would lead a formation of medium and heavy bombers; or of other P-38s, each loaded with two bombs; the entire formation releasing their ordinance when the pathfinder did. A number of Lightnings were modified as night fighters. There were several field or experimental modifications with different equipment fits that finally led to the \"formal\" P-38M night fighter, or \"Night Lightning\". A total of 75 P-38Ls were modified to the Night Lightning configuration, painted flat-black with conical flash hiders on the guns, an AN/APS-6 radar pod below the nose,",
"",
"",
"The 5,000th Lightning built, a P-38J-20-LO, \"44-23296\", was painted bright vermilion red, and had the name \"YIPPEE\" painted on the underside of the wings in big white letters as well as the signatures of",
"On 15 July 1942, a flight of six P-38s and two B-17 bombers, with a total of 25 crew members on board, took off from Presque Isle Air Base in Maine headed for the UK. What followed was a harrowing and life-threatening landing of the entire squadron on a remote ice cap in Greenland. None of the crew was",
"This plane crashed in September 1942, and is buried in the sea off the coast",
"",
"The American ace of aces and his closest competitor both flew Lightnings and tallied 40 and 38 victories respectively. Majors Richard I. \"Dick\" Bong and Thomas B. \"Tommy\" McGuire of the USAAF competed for the top position. Both men were awarded the Medal of Honor. McGuire",
"The famed aviator Charles Lindbergh toured the South Pacific as a civilian contractor for United Aircraft Corporation, comparing and evaluating performance of single- and twin-engined fighters for Vought. He worked to improve range and load limits of the Vought F4U Corsair, flying both routine and combat strafing missions in Corsairs alongside Marine pilots. Everywhere Lindbergh went in the South Pacific, he was accorded the normal preferential treatment of a visiting colonel, although he had resigned his Air Corps Reserve colonel's commission three years before. In Hollandia, Lindbergh attached himself to the 475th FG, flying P-38s. Although new to the aircraft, Lindbergh was instrumental in extending the range of the P-38 through improved throttle settings, or engine-leaning techniques, notably by reducing engine speed to 1,600 rpm, setting the carburetors for auto-lean and flying at indicated airspeed which reduced fuel consumption",
"The third-ranking American ace of the pacific theater, Charles H. MacDonald, flew",
"Martin James Monti was an American pilot who defected to the Axis",
"Robin Olds was the last P-38 ace in the Eighth Air Force and the last in the ETO. Flying a P-38J, he downed five German fighters",
"Ross is a decorated World War II pilot who flew 96 missions for the U.S. Army Air Forces under the U.S. 8th Air Force's 7th Reconnaissance Group in the 22nd Reconnaissance",
"At midday on 31 July 1944, the noted aviation pioneer and writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry (\"Night Flight\", \"Wind, Sand and Stars\" and \"The Little Prince\") vanished in his P-38 of the French \"Armée de l'Air's\" \"Groupe de Chasse II/33\", after departing Borgo-Porreta, Corsica. His health, both physically and mentally, had been deteriorating. Saint-Exupéry was said to be intermittently subject to depression and there had been talk of taking him off flying status. He was on a flight over the Mediterranean, from Corsica to mainland France, in an unarmed F-5B photoreconnaissance variant of the P-38J, described",
"A P-38 piloted by Clay Tice was the first American aircraft to land in",
"The RAF's notable photoreconnaissance pilot, Wing Commander Adrian Warburton (DSO w/Bar, DFC w/2 Bars) was posted as the RAF Liaison Officer to the USAAF 7th Photographic Reconnaissance Group.",
"Harley Earl arranged for several of his designers to view a YP-38 prototype shortly before World War II, and its design directly inspired the tail fins of the 1948–1949 Cadillac. The P-38 was also the inspiration for Raymond Loewy and his design team at Studebaker for the 1950 and 1951 model-year Studebakers. The whine of the speeder bike engines in \"Return of the Jedi\" was partly achieved by recording the engine noise of a P-38, combined with that of a North American P-51 Mustang."
]
} |
Zip (file format) | null | ZIP is an archive file format that supports lossless data compression. A ZIP file may contain one or more files or directories that may have been compressed. The ZIP file format permits a number of compression algorithms, though DEFLATE is the most common. This format was originally created in 1989 and was first implemented in PKWARE, Inc.'s PKZIP utility, as a replacement for the previous ARC compression format by Thom Henderson. The ZIP format was then quickly supported by many software utilities other than PKZIP. Microsoft has included built-in ZIP support (under the name "compressed folders") in versions of Microsoft Windows since 1998. Apple has included built-in ZIP support in Mac OS X 10.3 (via BOMArchiveHelper, now Archive Utility) and later. Most have built in support for ZIP in similar manners to Windows and Mac OS X. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-806671 | en-train-806671 | 806671 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Version history.",
"Standardization.",
"Design.",
"Structure.",
"File headers.",
"Local file header.",
"Data descriptor.",
"Central directory file header.",
"End of central directory record (EOCD).",
"Compression methods.",
"Encryption.",
"ZIP64.",
"Combination with other file formats.",
"Limits.",
"Proprietary extensions.",
"Extra field.",
"Strong encryption controversy.",
"Implementation.",
"Legacy.",
"Concerns.",
"External links."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The file format was designed by Phil Katz of PKWARE and Gary Conway of Infinity Design Concepts. The format was created after Systems Enhancement Associates (SEA) filed a lawsuit against PKWARE claiming that the latter's archiving products, named PKARC, were derivatives of SEA's ARC archiving system. The name \"zip\" (meaning \"move at high speed\") By distributing the zip file format within APPNOTE.TXT, compatibility with the zip file format proliferated widely on the public Internet during the 1990s. PKWARE and Infinity Design Concepts made a joint press release on February 14, 1989 releasing the file format into the public domain.",
"The.ZIP File Format Specification has its own version number, which does not necessarily correspond to the version numbers for the PKZIP tool, especially with PKZIP 6 or later. At various times, PKWARE has added preliminary features that allow PKZIP products to extract archives using advanced features, but PKZIP products that create such archives are not made available until the next major release. Other companies or organizations support the PKWARE specifications at their own pace. The.ZIP file format specification is formally named \"APPNOTE -.ZIP File Format Specification\" and it is published on the PKWARE.com website since the late 1990s. Several versions of the specification were not published. Specifications of some features such as BZIP2 compression, strong encryption specification and others were published by PKWARE a few years after their creation. The URL of the online specification was changed several times on the PKWARE website. A summary of key advances in various versions of the PKWARE specification: WinZip, starting with version 12.1, uses the extension for ZIP files that use compression methods newer than DEFLATE; specifically, methods BZip, LZMA, PPMd, Jpeg and Wavpack. The last 2 are applied to appropriate file types when \"Best method\" compression is selected.",
"In April 2010, ISO/IEC JTC 1 initiated a ballot to determine whether a project should be initiated to create an ISO/IEC International Standard format compatible with ZIP. The proposed project, entitled \"Document Packaging\", envisaged a ZIP-compatible'minimal compressed archive format' suitable for use with a number of existing standards including OpenDocument, Office Open XML and EPUB. In 2015, ISO/IEC 21320-1 \"Document Container File — Part 1: Core\" was published which states that \"Document container files are conforming Zip files\". It requires the following main restrictions of the ZIP file format:",
"files are archives that store multiple files. ZIP allows contained files to be compressed using many different methods, as well as simply storing a file without compressing it. Each file is stored separately, allowing different files in the same archive to be compressed using different methods. Because the files in a ZIP archive are compressed individually it is possible to extract them, or add new ones, without applying compression or decompression to the entire archive. This contrasts with the format of compressed tar files, for which such random-access processing is not easily possible. A directory is placed at the end of a ZIP file. This identifies what files are in the ZIP and identifies where in the ZIP that file is located. This allows ZIP readers to load the list of files without reading the entire ZIP archive. ZIP archives can also include extra data that is not related to the ZIP archive. This allows for a ZIP archive to be made into a self-extracting archive (application that decompresses its contained data), by prepending the program code to a ZIP archive and marking the file as executable. Storing the catalog at the end also makes possible hiding a zipped file by appending it to an innocuous file, such as a GIF image file. The format uses a 32-bit CRC algorithm and includes two copies of the directory structure of the archive to provide greater protection against data loss.",
"A ZIP file is correctly identified by the presence of an \"end of central directory record\" which is located at the end of the archive structure in order to allow the easy appending of new files. If the end of central directory record indicates a non-empty archive, the name of each file or directory within the archive should be specified in a \"central directory\" entry, along with other metadata about the entry, and an offset into the ZIP file, pointing to the actual entry data. This allows a file listing of the archive to be performed relatively quickly, as the entire archive does not have to be read to see the list of files. The entries within the ZIP file also include this information, for redundancy, in a \"local file header\". Because ZIP files may be appended to, only files specified in the central directory at the end of the file are valid. Scanning a ZIP file for local file headers is invalid (except in the case of corrupted archives), as the central directory may declare that some files have been deleted and other files have been updated. For example, we may start with a ZIP file that contains files A, B and C. File B is then deleted and C updated. This may be achieved by just appending a new file C to the end of the original ZIP file and adding a new central directory that only lists file A and the new file C. When ZIP was first designed, transferring files by floppy disk was common, yet writing to disks was very time consuming. If you had a large zip file, possibly spanning multiple disks, and only needed to update a few files, rather than reading and re-writing all the files, it would be substantially faster to just read the old central directory, append the new files then append an updated central directory. The order of the file entries in the central directory need not coincide with the order of file entries in the archive. Each entry stored in a ZIP archive is introduced by a \"local file header\" with information about the file such as the comment, file size and file name, followed by optional \"extra\" data fields, and then the possibly compressed, possibly encrypted file data. The \"Extra\" data fields are the key to the extensibility of the ZIP format. \"Extra\" fields are exploited to support the ZIP64 format, WinZip-compatible AES encryption, file attributes, and higher-resolution NTFS or Unix file timestamps. Other extensions are possible via the \"Extra\" field. ZIP tools are required by the specification to ignore Extra fields they do not recognize. The ZIP format uses specific 4-byte \"signatures\" to denote the various structures in the file. Each file entry is marked by a specific signature. The end of central directory record is indicated with its specific signature, and each entry in the central directory starts with the 4-byte \"central file header signature\". There is no BOF or EOF marker in the ZIP specification. Conventionally the first thing in a ZIP file is a ZIP entry, which can be identified easily by its \"local file header signature\". However, this is not necessarily the case, as this not required by the ZIP specification - most notably, a self-extracting archive will begin with an executable file header. Tools that correctly read ZIP archives must scan for the end of central directory record signature, and then, as appropriate, the other, indicated, central directory records. They must not scan for entries from the top of the ZIP file, because (as previously mentioned in this section) only the central directory specifies where a file chunk starts and that it has not been deleted. Scanning could lead to false positives, as the format does not forbid other data to be between chunks, nor file data streams from containing such signatures. However, tools that attempt to recover data from damaged ZIP archives will most likely scan the archive for local file header signatures; this is made more difficult by the fact that the compressed size of a file chunk may be stored after the file chunk, making sequential processing difficult. Most of the signatures end with the short integer 0x4b50, which is stored in little-endian ordering. Viewed as an ASCII string this reads \"PK\", the initials of the inventor Phil Katz. Thus, when a ZIP file is viewed in a text editor the first two bytes of the file are usually \"PK\". (DOS, OS/2 and Windows self-extracting ZIPs have an EXE before the ZIP so start with \"MZ\"; self-extracting ZIPs for other operating systems may similarly be preceded by executable code for extracting the archive's content on that platform.) The specification also supports spreading archives across multiple file-system files. Originally intended for storage of large ZIP files across multiple floppy disks, this feature is now used for sending ZIP archives in parts over email, or over other transports or removable media. The FAT filesystem of DOS has a timestamp resolution of only two seconds; ZIP file records mimic this. As a result, the built-in timestamp resolution of files in a ZIP archive is only two seconds, though extra fields can be used to store more precise timestamps. The ZIP format has no notion of time zone, so timestamps are only meaningful if it is known what time zone they were created in. In September 2007, PKWARE released a revision of the ZIP specification providing for the storage of file names using UTF-8, finally adding Unicode compatibility to ZIP.",
"All multi-byte values in the header are stored in little-endian byte order. All length fields count the length in bytes.",
"The extra field contains a variety of optional data such as OS-specific attributes. It is divided into chunks, each with a 16-bit ID code and a 16-bit length. This is immediately followed by the compressed data.",
"If the bit at offset 3 (0x08) of the general-purpose flags field is set, then the CRC-32 and file sizes are not known when the header is written. The fields in the local header are filled with zero, and the CRC-32 and size are appended in a 12-byte structure (optionally preceded by a 4-byte signature) immediately after the compressed data:",
"The central directory entry is an expanded form of the local header:",
"After all the central directory entries comes the end of central directory (EOCD) record, which marks the end of the ZIP file: This ordering allows a ZIP file to be created in one pass, but the central directory is also placed at the end of the file in order to facilitate easy removal of files from multiple-part \"(e.g. \"multiple floppy-disk\")\" archives, as previously discussed.",
"The.ZIP File Format Specification documents the following compression methods: Store (no compression), Shrink (LZW), Reduce (levels 1-4; RLE + probabilistic), Implode, Deflate, Deflate64, bzip2, LZMA, WavPack, PPMd, and a LZ77 variant provided by IBM z/OS CMPSC instruction. The most commonly used compression method is DEFLATE, which is described in IETF RFC 1951. Other methods mentioned, but not documented in detail in the specification include: PKWARE DCL Implode (old IBM TERSE), new IBM TERSE, IBM LZ77 z Architecture (PFS), and a JPEG variant. A \"Tokenize\" method was reserved for a third party, but support was never added. The word \"Implode\" is overused by PKWARE: the DCL/TERSE Implode is distinct from the old PKZIP Implode, a predecessor to Deflate. The DCL Implode is undocumented partially due to its proprietrary nature held by IBM, but Mark Adler has nevertheless provided a decompressor called \"blast\" alongside zlib.",
"ZIP supports a simple password-based symmetric encryption system generally known as ZipCrypto. It is documented in the ZIP specification, and known to be seriously flawed. In particular, it is vulnerable to known-plaintext attacks, which are in some cases made worse by poor implementations of random-number generators. New features including new compression and encryption (e.g. AES) methods have been documented in the ZIP File Format Specification since version 5.2. A WinZip-developed AES-based open standard (\"AE-x\" in APPNOTE) is used also by 7-Zip and Xceed, but some vendors use other formats. PKWARE SecureZIP (SES, proprietary) also supports RC2, RC4, DES, Triple DES encryption methods, Digital Certificate-based encryption and authentication (X.509), and archive header encryption. It is, however, patented (see ). File name encryption is introduced in.ZIP File Format Specification 6.2, which encrypts metadata stored in Central Directory portion of an archive, but Local Header sections remain unencrypted. A compliant archiver can falsify the Local Header data when using Central Directory Encryption. As of version 6.2 of the specification, the Compression Method and Compressed Size fields within Local Header are not yet masked.",
"The original format had a 4 GiB (2 bytes) limit on various things (uncompressed size of a file, compressed size of a file, and total size of the archive), as well as a limit of 65,535 (2) entries in a ZIP archive. In version 4.5 of the specification (which is not the same as v4.5 of any particular tool), PKWARE introduced the \"ZIP64\" format extensions to get around these limitations, increasing the limits to 16 EiB (2 bytes). In essence, it uses a \"normal\" central directory entry for a file, followed by an optional \"zip64\" directory entry, which has the larger fields. The File Explorer in Windows XP does not support ZIP64, but the Explorer in Windows Vista and later do. Likewise, some extension libraries support ZIP64, such as DotNetZip, QuaZIP and IO::Compress::Zip in Perl. Python's built-in zipfile supports it since 2.5 and defaults to it since 3.4. OpenJDK's built-in java.util.zip supports ZIP64 from version Java 7. Android Java API support ZIP64 since Android 6.0. Mac OS Sierra's Archive Utility notably does not support ZIP64, and can create corrupt archives when ZIP64 would be required. However, the ditto command shipped with Mac OS will unzip ZIP64 files. More recent versions of Mac OS ship with info-zip's zip and unzip command line tools which do support Zip64: to verify run zip -v and look for \"ZIP64_SUPPORT\".",
"The file format allows for a comment containing up to 65,535 (2−1) bytes of data to occur at the end of the file after the central directory. Also, because the central directory specifies the offset of each file in the archive with respect to the start, it is possible for the first file entry to start at an offset other than zero, although some tools, for example gzip, will not process archive files that do not start with a file entry at offset zero. This allows arbitrary data to occur in the file both before and after the ZIP archive data, and for the archive to still be read by a ZIP application. A side-effect of this is that it is possible to author a file that is both a working ZIP archive and another format, provided that the other format tolerates arbitrary data at its end, beginning, or middle. Self-extracting archives (SFX), of the form supported by WinZip, take advantage of this, in that they are executable () files that conform to the PKZIP AppNote.txt specification, and can be read by compliant zip tools or libraries. This property of the format, and of the JAR format which is a variant of ZIP, can be exploited to hide rogue content (such as harmful Java classes) inside a seemingly harmless file, such as a GIF image uploaded to the web. This so-called GIFAR exploit has been demonstrated as an effective attack against web applications such as Facebook.",
"The minimum size of a file is 22 bytes. Such an \"empty zip file\" contains only an End of Central Directory Record (EOCD): <br>codice_2 The maximum size for both the archive file and the individual files inside it is 4,294,967,295 bytes (2−1 bytes, or 4 GiB minus 1 byte) for standard ZIP. For ZIP64, the maximum size is 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 bytes (2−1 bytes, or 16 EiB minus 1 byte).",
"",
"file format includes an extra field facility within file headers, which can be used to store extra data not defined by existing ZIP specifications, and which allow compliant archivers that do not recognize the fields to safely skip them. Header IDs 0–31 are reserved for use by PKWARE. The remaining IDs can be used by third-party vendors for proprietary usage.",
"When WinZip 9.0 public beta was released in 2003, WinZip introduced its own AES-256 encryption, using a different file format, along with the documentation for the new specification. The encryption standards themselves were not proprietary, but PKWARE had not updated APPNOTE.TXT to include Strong Encryption Specification (SES) since 2001, which had been used by PKZIP versions 5.0 and 6.0. WinZip technical consultant Kevin Kearney and StuffIt product manager Mathew Covington accused PKWARE of withholding SES, but PKZIP chief technology officer Jim Peterson claimed that certificate-based encryption was still incomplete. In another controversial move, PKWare applied for a patent on describing a method for combining ZIP and strong encryption to create a secure file. In the end, PKWARE and WinZip agreed to support each other's products. On, PKWARE announced the support of WinZip-based AES compression format. In a later version of WinZip beta, it was able to support SES-based ZIP files. PKWARE eventually released version 5.2 of the.ZIP File Format Specification to the public, which documented SES. The Free Software project 7-Zip also supports AES, but not SES in ZIP files (as does its POSIX port p7zip). When using AES encryption under WinZip, the compression method is always set to 99, with the actual compression method stored in an AES extra data field. In contrast, Strong Encryption Specification stores the compression method in the basic file header segment of Local Header and Central Directory, unless Central Directory Encryption is used to mask/encrypt metadata.",
"There are numerous.ZIP tools available, and numerous.ZIP libraries for various programming environments; licenses used include proprietary and free software. WinZip, WinRAR, Info-ZIP, 7-Zip, PeaZip and B1 Free Archiver are well-known.ZIP tools, available on various platforms. Some of those tools have library or programmatic interfaces. Some development libraries licensed under open source agreement are libzip, libarchive, and Info-ZIP. For Java: Java Platform, Standard Edition contains the package \"java.util.zip\" to handle standard.ZIP files; the Zip64File library specifically supports large files (larger than 4 GB) and treats.ZIP files using random access; and the Apache Ant tool contains a more complete implementation released under the Apache Software License. The Info-ZIP implementations of the.ZIP format adds support for Unix filesystem features, such as user and group IDs, file permissions, and support for symbolic links. The Apache Ant implementation is aware of these to the extent that it can create files with predefined Unix permissions. The Info-ZIP implementations also know how to use the error correction capabilities built into the.ZIP compression format. Some programs do not, and will fail on a file that has errors. The Info-ZIP Windows tools also support NTFS filesystem permissions, and will make an attempt to translate from NTFS permissions to Unix permissions or vice versa when extracting files. This can result in potentially unintended combinations, e.g..exe files being created on NTFS volumes with executable permission denied. Versions of Microsoft Windows have included support for.ZIP compression in Explorer since the Microsoft Plus! pack was released for Windows 98. Microsoft calls this feature \"Compressed Folders\". Not all.ZIP features are supported by the Windows Compressed Folders capability. For example, encryption is not supported in Windows 10 Home edition, although it can decrypt. Unicode entry encoding is not supported until Windows 7, while split and spanned archives are not readable or writable by the Compressed Folders feature, nor is AES Encryption supported. Microsoft Office started using the zip archive format in 2006 for their Office Open XML.docx,.xlsx,.pptx, etc. files, which became the default file format with Microsoft Office 2007.",
"There are numerous other standards and formats using \"zip\" as part of their name. For example, zip is distinct from gzip, and the latter is defined in an IETF RFC (RFC 1952). Both zip and gzip primarily use the DEFLATE algorithm for compression. Likewise, the ZLIB format (IETF RFC 1950) also uses the DEFLATE compression algorithm, but specifies different headers for error and consistency checking. Other common, similarly named formats and programs with different native formats include 7-Zip, bzip2, and rzip.",
"The theoretical maximum compression factor for a raw DEFLATE stream is about 1032 to one, but by exploiting the ZIP format in unintended ways, ZIP archives with compression ratios of billions to one can be constructed. These \"zip bomb\"s unzip to extremely large sizes overwhelming the capacity of the computer it is running on.",
"Format Specifications:"
]
} |
Felix Klein | null | Christian Felix Klein (; 25 April 1849 – 22 June 1925) was a German mathematician and mathematics educator, known for his work with group theory, complex analysis, non-Euclidean geometry, and on the associations between geometry and group theory. His 1872 Erlangen program, classifying geometries by their basic symmetry groups, was an influential synthesis of much of the mathematics of the time. | null | [
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"title": [
"Life.",
"Work.",
"Erlangen program.",
"Complex analysis."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Felix Klein was born on 25 April 1849 in Düsseldorf, to Prussian parents; his father, Caspar Klein (1809–1889), was a Prussian government official's secretary stationed in the Rhine Province. Klein's mother was Sophie Elise Klein (1819–1890, née Kayser). He attended the Gymnasium in Düsseldorf, then studied mathematics and physics at the University of Bonn, 1865–1866, intending to become a physicist. At that time, Julius Plücker had Bonn's professorship of mathematics and experimental physics, but by the time Klein became his assistant, during 1866, Plücker's interest was geometry. Klein received his doctorate, supervised by Plücker, from the University of Bonn during 1868. Plücker died during 1868, leaving his book concerning the basis of line geometry incomplete. Klein was the obvious person to complete the second part of Plücker's \"Neue Geometrie des Raumes\", and thus became acquainted with Alfred Clebsch, who had relocated to Göttingen during 1868. Klein visited Clebsch the next year, along with visits to Berlin and Paris. During July 1870, at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War, he was in Paris and had to leave the country. For a brief time he served as a medical orderly in the Prussian army before being appointed lecturer at Göttingen during early 1871. Erlangen appointed Klein professor during 1872, when he was only 23 years old. For this, he was endorsed by Clebsch, who regarded him as likely to become the best mathematician of his time. Klein did not desire a school at Erlangen where there were few students, and so he was pleased to be offered a professorship at Munich's Technische Hochschule during 1875. There he and Alexander von Brill taught advanced courses to many excellent students, including, Adolf Hurwitz, Walther von Dyck, Karl Rohn, Carl Runge, Max Planck, Luigi Bianchi, and Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro. During 1875 Klein married Anne Hegel, the granddaughter of the philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. After five years at the Technische Hochschule, Klein was appointed to a chair of geometry at Leipzig. There his colleagues included Walther von Dyck, Rohn, Eduard Study and Friedrich Engel. Klein's years at Leipzig, 1880 to 1886, fundamentally changed his life. During 1882, his health collapsed; during 1883–1884, he was plagued by depression. Nonetheless his research continued; his seminal work on hyperelliptic sigma functions dates from around this period, being published during 1886 and 1888. Klein accepted a professorship at the University of Göttingen during 1886. From then until his 1913 retirement, he sought to re-establish Göttingen as the world's main mathematics research center. Yet he never managed to transfer from Leipzig to Göttingen his own primacy as a developer of geometry. At Göttingen, he taught a variety of courses, mainly concerning the interface between mathematics and physics, such as mechanics and potential theory. The research facility Klein established at Göttingen served as a model for the best such facilities throughout the world. He introduced weekly discussion meetings, and created a mathematical reading room and library. During 1895, Klein hired David Hilbert away from the University of Königsberg; this appointment proved fateful, because Hilbert continued Göttingen's good reputation until his own retirement during 1932. With Klein's editorship, \"Mathematische Annalen\" became one of the best mathematics journals in the world. Founded by Clebsch, only with Klein's management did it first rival then surpass \"Crelle's Journal\" based in the University of Berlin. Klein established a small team of editors who met regularly, making democratic decisions. The journal specialized in complex analysis, algebraic geometry, and invariant theory (at least until Hilbert ended the subject). It also provided an important outlet for real analysis and the new group theory. During 1893 in Chicago, Klein was a major speaker at the International Mathematical Congress held as part of the World's Columbian Exposition. Due partly to Klein's efforts, Göttingen began admitting women during 1893. He supervised the first Ph.D. thesis in mathematics written at Göttingen by a woman; she was Grace Chisholm Young, an English student of Arthur Cayley's, whom Klein admired. During 1897 Klein became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. About 1900, Klein began to become interested in mathematical instruction in schools. During 1905, he was decisive in formulating a plan recommending that analytic geometry, the rudiments of differential and integral calculus, and the function concept be taught in secondary schools. This recommendation was gradually implemented in many countries around the world. During 1908, Klein was elected president of the International Commission on Mathematical Instruction at the Rome International Congress of Mathematicians. With his guidance, the German part of the Commission published many volumes on the teaching of mathematics at all levels in Germany. The London Mathematical Society awarded Klein its De Morgan Medal during 1893. He was elected a member of the Royal Society during 1885, and was awarded its Copley Medal during 1912. He retired the next year due to ill health, but continued to teach mathematics at his home for some years more. Klein was one of the 93 signatories of the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three, a document penned in support of the German invasion of Belgium in the early stages of World War I. Klein had the title of Geheimrat (trusted-advisor). He died in Göttingen during 1925.",
"Klein's dissertation, on line geometry and its applications to mechanics, classified second degree line complexes using Weierstrass's theory of elementary divisors. Klein's first important mathematical discoveries were made during 1870. In collaboration with Sophus Lie, he discovered the fundamental properties of the asymptotic lines on the Kummer surface. They later investigated W-curves, curves invariant under a group of projective transformations. It was Lie who introduced Klein to the concept of group, which was to have a major role in his later work. Klein also learned about groups from Camille Jordan. Klein devised the \"Klein bottle\" named after him, a one-sided closed surface which cannot be embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space, but it may be immersed as a cylinder looped back through itself to join with its other end from the \"inside\". It may be embedded in the Euclidean space of dimensions 4 and higher. The concept of a Klein Bottle was devised as a 3-Dimensional Möbius strip, with one method of construction being the attachment of the edges of two Möbius strips. During the 1890s, Klein began studying mathematical physics more intensively, writing on the gyroscope with Arnold Sommerfeld. During 1894, he initiated the idea of an encyclopedia of mathematics including its applications, which became the Enzyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften. This enterprise, which endured until 1935, provided an important standard reference of enduring value.",
"During 1871, while at Göttingen, Klein made major discoveries in geometry. He published two papers \"On the So-called Non-Euclidean Geometry\" showing that Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries could be considered metric spaces determined by a Cayley-Klein metric. This insight had the corollary that non-Euclidean geometry was consistent if and only if Euclidean geometry was, giving the same status to geometries Euclidean and non-Euclidean, and ending all controversy about non-Euclidean geometry. Arthur Cayley never accepted Klein's argument, believing it to be circular. Klein's synthesis of geometry as the study of the properties of a space that is invariant under a given group of transformations, known as the \"Erlangen program\" (1872), profoundly influenced the evolution of mathematics. This program was initiated by Klein's inaugural lecture as professor at Erlangen, although it was not the actual speech he gave on the occasion. The program proposed a unified system of geometry that has become the accepted modern method. Klein showed how the essential properties of a given geometry could be represented by the group of transformations that preserve those properties. Thus the program's definition of geometry encompassed both Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. Presently the significance of Klein's contributions to geometry is more than evident, but not because those contributions are now considered strange or wrong. On the contrary, those contributions have become so much a part of our present mathematical thinking that it is difficult for us to appreciate their novelty, and the way in which they were not immediately accepted by all his contemporaries.",
"Klein saw his work on complex analysis as his major contribution to mathematics, specifically his work on: Klein showed that the modular group moves the fundamental region of the complex plane so as to tessellate that plane. During 1879, he examined the action of PSL(2,7), considered as an image of the modular group, and obtained an explicit representation of a Riemann surface now termed the Klein quartic. He showed that that surface was a curve in projective space, that its equation was \"x\"\"y\" + \"y\"\"z\" + \"z\"\"x\" = 0, and that its group of symmetries was PSL(2,7) of order 168. His \"Ueber Riemann's Theorie der algebraischen Funktionen und ihre Integrale\" (1882) treats complex analysis in a geometric way, connecting potential theory and conformal mappings. This work drew on notions from fluid dynamics. Klein considered equations of degree > 4, and was especially interested in using transcendental methods to solve the general equation of the fifth degree. Building on the methods of Charles Hermite and Leopold Kronecker, he produced similar results to those of Brioschi and later completely solved the problem by means of the icosahedral group. This work enabled him to write a series of papers on elliptic modular functions. In his 1884 book on the icosahedron, Klein established a theory of automorphic functions, associating algebra and geometry. However Poincaré published an outline of his theory of automorphic functions during 1881, which resulted in a friendly rivalry between the two men. Both sought to state and prove a grand uniformization theorem that would establish the new theory more completely. Klein succeeded in formulating such a theorem and in describing a strategy for proving it. But while doing this work his health decreased, as mentioned above. Klein summarized his work on automorphic and elliptic modular functions in a four volume treatise, written with Robert Fricke during a period of about 20 years."
]
} |
Parallel Lives | null | Plutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called Parallel Lives or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of 48 biographies of famous men, arranged in tandem to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings, probably written at the beginning of the second century AD. The surviving "Parallel Lives" (Greek: Βίοι Παράλληλοι, "Bíoi Parállēloi") comprises 23 pairs of biographies, each pair consisting of one Greek and one Roman of similar destiny, such as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, or Demosthenes and Cicero. It is a work of considerable importance, not only as a source of information about the individuals described, but also about the times in which they lived. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2265893 | en-train-2265893 | 2265893 | {
"title": [
"Motivation.",
"Contents.",
"Biographies.",
"Reception."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"As he explains in the first paragraph of his \"Life of Alexander\", Plutarch was not concerned with writing histories, but with exploring the influence of character, good or bad, on the lives and destinies of famous men. He wished to prove that the more remote past of Greece could show its men of action and achievement as well as the nearer, and therefore more impressive, past of Rome. His interest was primarily ethical, although the lives have significant historical value as well. The \"Lives\" was published by Plutarch late in his life after his return to Chaeronea and, if one may judge from the long lists of authorities given, it must have taken many years to compile.",
"The chief manuscripts of the \"Lives\" date from the 10th and 11th centuries, and the first printed edition appeared in Rome in 1470. Thomas North's 1579 English translation was an important source-material for Shakespeare. Jacob Tonson printed several editions of the \"Lives\" in English in the late 17th century, beginning with a five-volume set printed in 1688, with subsequent editions printed in 1693, 1702, 1716, and 1727. The most generally accepted text is that of the minor edition of Carl Sintenis in the \"Bibliotheca Teubneriana\" (five volumes, Leipzig 1852-1855; reissued without much change in 1873–1875). There are annotated editions by I. C. Held, E. H. G. Leopold, Otto Siefert and Friedrich Blass and Carl Sintenis, all in German; and by Holden, in English. Two of the lives, those of Epaminondas and Scipio Africanus or Scipio Aemilianus, are lost, and many of the remaining lives are truncated, contain obvious lacunae and/or have been tampered with by later writers. Plutarch's \"Life of Alexander\" is one of the few surviving secondary or tertiary sources about Alexander the Great, and it includes anecdotes and descriptions of incidents that appear in no other source. Likewise, his portrait of Numa Pompilius, an early Roman king, contains unique information about the early Roman calendar. Plutarch has been criticized for his lack of judicious discrimination in his use of authorities, and consequent errors and inaccuracies, but he gives an abundance of citations and, incidentally, a large number of valuable pieces of information, which fill up numerous gaps in historical knowledge obtained elsewhere. He has been praised for the liveliness and warmth of his portrayals, and his moral earnestness and enthusiasm, and the \"Lives\" have attracted a large circle of readers throughout the ages.",
"Plutarch structured his \"Lives\" by pairing lives of famous Greeks with those of famous Romans. After such a set of two (and one set of four) lives he generally writes out a comparison of the preceding biographies. The table below gives the list of the biographies. Its order follows the one found in the \"Lamprias Catalogue\", the list of Plutarch's works made by his hypothetical son Lamprias. The table also features links to several English translations of Plutarch's \"Lives\" available online. The LacusCurtius site has the complete set; the others are incomplete to varying degrees. All dates are BC. -The Dryden translation two volume edition contains the following biographies: Volume 1. Theseus, Romulus, Lycurgus, Numa, Solon, Publicola, Themistocles, Camillus, Pericles, Fabius, Alcibiades, Coriolaunus Timeolon, Aemilus Paulus, Pelopidas, Marcellus, Aristides, Cato the elder, Philopemen, Flaminius, Pyrrus, Marius, Lysander, Sulla, Cimon, Lucullus, Nicias, Crassus. Volume 2. Seutouris, Eumenes, Agesilaus, Pompey, Alexander the Great, Julius Ceasar, Phocion, Cato the Younger, Agis, Cleomones, Tiberius Graccus and Gaius Graccus, Demosthenes, Cicero, Demetrius, Mark Anthony, Dion, Marcus Brutus, Aratus Artaxerxes II, Galba, Otho.",
"Of the biographies in \"Parallel Lives\", that of Antonius has been cited by multiple scholars as one of the masterpieces of the series. In 1895, George Wyndham wrote that the first rank consists of the biographies of Themistocles, Alcibiades, Marius, Cato the Elder, Alexander, Demetrius, Antonius, and Pompey. Peter D'Epiro praised Plutarch's depiction of Alcibiades as \"a masterpiece of characterization.\" Academic Philip A. Stadter singled out Pompey and Caesar as the greatest figures in the Roman biographies. In a review of the 1859 A. W. Clough translation, Plutarch’s depictions of Antony, Coriolanus, Alcibiades, and the Cato the Elder were praised as deeply drawn. The reviewer found the sayings of Themistocles to be “snowy and splendid”, those of Phocion to be “curt and sharp”, and those of Cato “grave and shrewdly humorous”. Carl Rollyson lauded the biography of Caesar as proof Plutarch is “loaded with perception” and stated that no biographer “has surpassed him in summing up the essence of a life — perhaps because no modern biographer has believed so intensely as Plutarch did in ‘the soul of men’."
]
} |
Ho Chi Minh City | null | Ho Chi Minh City (; or ), commonly known by its previous name, Saigon, (; or ) is the most populous city in Vietnam with a population of 9 million (13 million in the metropolitan area) as of 2019. Located in southeastern Vietnam, the city surrounds the Saigon River and covers about. From 1955-1975, Saigon was briefly the capital of South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam). Nowadays, Saigon is commonly used to refer to the city's central business districts, whereas Ho Chi Minh City is used to refer to the whole city. | null | [
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"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Saigon.",
"Ho Chi Minh City.",
"History.",
"Khmer period.",
"Nguyễn Dynasty rule.",
"French colonial era.",
"Republic of Vietnam era.",
"Post-Vietnam War and today.",
"Geography.",
"Climate.",
"Flooding.",
"Administration.",
"City government.",
"Demographics.",
"Ethnic groups.",
"Religion.",
"Economy.",
"2006.",
"2007.",
"2008.",
"2012.",
"2013.",
"2014.",
"Sectors.",
"New urban areas.",
"Tourism.",
"Transport.",
"Air.",
"Rail.",
"Water.",
"Public transport.",
"Metro.",
"Bus.",
"Private transport.",
"Expressway.",
"Healthcare.",
"Education.",
"High schools.",
"Universities.",
"Culture.",
"Museums and art galleries.",
"Media.",
"Sports.",
"International relations.",
"Sister cities."
],
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"content": [
"Ho Chi Minh City has gone by several different names during its history, reflecting settlement by different ethnic, cultural and political groups. Originally a trading port city of the Khmer Empire known as Prey Nokor (), it is still known as \"Prey Nokor\" to Cambodians today. In time, under the control of the Vietnamese, it was officially renamed Gia Dinh (), a name that was retained until the time of the French conquest in the 1860s, when it adopted the name, westernized as \"Saïgon\", although the city was still indicated as 嘉定 on Vietnamese maps written in Chữ Hán until at least 1891. The current name, Ho Chi Minh City, was given after the Fall of Saigon in 1975 to honor Ho Chi Minh. Even today, however, the informal name of \"Sài Gòn\" remains in daily speech both domestically and internationally, especially among the Vietnamese diaspora. However, there is a technical difference between the two terms: \"Sài Gòn\" is commonly used to refer to the city center in District 1 and the adjacent areas, while \"Ho Chi Minh City\" refers more to the entire modern city with all its urban and rural districts.",
"An etymology of \"Saigon\" (or Sài Gòn in Vietnamese) is that Sài is a Sino-Vietnamese word (Hán tự: 柴) meaning \"firewood, lops, twigs; palisade\", while Gòn is another Sino-Vietnamese word (Hán tự: 棍) meaning \"stick, pole, bole\", and whose meaning evolved into \"cotton\" in Vietnamese (\"bông gòn\", literally \"cotton stick\", i.e., \"cotton plant\", then shortened to \"gòn\"). This name may refer to the many kapok plants that the Khmer people had planted around Prey Nokor, and which can still be seen at Cây Mai temple and surrounding areas. It may also refer to the dense and tall",
"The current official name, ', adopted in 1976 and abbreviated TP.HCM, is translated as \"Ho Chi Minh City\", abbreviated HCMC, and in French as'(the circumflex is sometimes omitted), abbreviated HCMV. The name commemorates Ho Chi",
"",
"The earliest settlement in the area was a Funan temple at the location of the current Phụng Sơn Buddhist temple, founded in the 4th century AD. A settlement called Baigaur was established on the site in the 11th century by the Champa. When the Cham Empire was invaded by the Khmer people, Baigaur was renamed Prey Nokor, which meant \"Forest City\". An alternative name was Preah Reach Nokor which, according to a Khmer Chronicle, meant \"Royal City\". Prey Nokor grew on the site of a small fishing village and area of forest. This area is likely where modern Ho Chi Minh City now lies, and was inhabited by Khmer people",
"In 1698, Nguyễn Hữu Cảnh, a Vietnamese noble, was sent by the Nguyễn rulers of Huế by sea to establish Vietnamese administrative structures in the area, thus detaching the area from Cambodia, which was not strong enough to intervene. He is often",
"Colonized by France and Spain in 1859, and ceded to France by the 1862 Treaty of Saigon, the city was influenced by the French during their colonisation of Vietnam, and a number of classical Western-style buildings and French villas in the city reflect this. Saigon had,",
"The Viet Minh proclaimed the independence of Vietnam in 1945 after a combined occupation by Vichy France and Japan, and before the Communist revolution in China. They were led by Ho Chi Minh. The Viet Minh-held sections of Vietnam were more concentrated in rural areas. Following the death of Franklin Roosevelt and the abandonment of anti-colonialist policies, the U.S. (in an attempt to control the spread of communism) supported France in regaining its control over the country, with effective control spanning mostly in the Southern half and parts of the Red River Delta region like Hanoi, Haiphong and Thái Bình. Former Emperor Bảo Đại made Saigon the capital of the State of Vietnam in 1949 with himself as head of state. In 1954, the Geneva Agreement partitioned Vietnam along the 17th",
"In the conclusion of the Vietnam War on 30 April 1975, the city came under the control of the Vietnamese People's Army. Among Vietnamese diaspora communities and particularly the U.S. (which had fought the communists), this event is commonly called the \"Fall of Saigon\", while the Socialist Republic of Vietnam refers to it as the \"Liberation",
"Ho Chi Minh City is located in the south-eastern region of Vietnam, south of Hanoi. The average elevation is above sea level. It borders Tây Ninh Province and Bình Dương Province to the north, Đồng Nai Province and Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu Province to the east, Long An Province to the west and the East Sea to the south with a coast long. The city covers an area of 2,095 km (809 sq mi or 0.63% of the surface of Vietnam), extending up to Củ Chi District ( from the Cambodian border) and down to Cần Giờ on the Eastern Sea. The distance from the northernmost point (Phú Mỹ Hưng Commune, Củ Chi District) to the southernmost one (Long Hòa Commune, Cần Giờ District) is, and from the easternmost point (Long Bình ward, District Nine) to the westernmost one (Bình Chánh Commune, Bình Chánh District) is.",
"The city has a tropical climate, specifically a tropical savanna climate, with an average humidity of 78–82%. The year is divided into two distinct seasons. The rainy season, with an average rainfall of about annually (about 150 rainy",
"Ho Chi Minh City is considered one of the cities most vulnerable to the effects of climate change, in particular flooding. During the rainy season, a combination",
"Ho Chi Minh City is a municipality at the same level as Vietnam's provinces, which is subdivided into 24 district-level sub-divisions (as of 2003): They are further subdivided into 5 commune-level towns (or townlets), 58 communes, and 259 wards (, see List of HCMC administrative units below).",
"The Ho Chi Minh City People's Committee is a 13-member executive branch of the city. The current chairman is Nguyễn Thành Phong. There are several vice chairmen and chairwomen on the committee with responsibility over various city departments. The legislative branch of the city is the Ho Chi Minh City People's Council and consists of 95 members. The current",
"The population of Ho Chi Minh City, as of the 1 October 2004 census, was 6,117,251 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,140,412 residents and 5 suburban districts had 976,839 inhabitants). In mid-2007, the city's population was 6,650,942 – with the 19 inner districts home to 5,564,975 residents and the five suburban districts containing 1,085,967 inhabitants. The result of the 2009 Census shows that the city's population was 7,162,864 people, about 8.34% of the total population of Vietnam, making it the highest population-concentrated city in the country. As of the end of 2012, the total population of the city was 7,750,900 people, an increase of 3.1% from 2011. As an administrative unit, its population is also the largest at the provincial level. The city's population is expected to grow to 13.9 million by 2025. The population of the city is expanding faster than earlier predictions. In August 2017 the city's mayor, Nguyen Thanh Phong, admitted that previous estimates of 8–10 million were drastic underestimations. The actual population (including those who have not officially registered) was estimated 13 million in 2017. The Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area, a metropolitan area covering most parts of the southeast region plus Tiền Giang Province and Long An Province under planning, will have an area of with a population of 20 million inhabitants by 2020. Inhabitants of Ho Chi Minh City are usually known as \"Saigonese\" in English and \"dân Sài Gòn\" in Vietnamese.",
"The majority of the population are ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh) at about 93.52%. Ho Chi Minh City's largest minority ethnic group are the Chinese (Hoa) with 5.78%. Cholon – in District 5 and parts of",
"The three most prevalent religions in Ho Chi Minh City are Mahayana Buddhism with Taoism and Confucianism (via ancestor worship), which are often celebrated together in the same temple. Most",
"Ho Chi Minh City is the economic center of Vietnam and accounts for a large proportion of the economy of Vietnam. Although the city takes up just 0.6% of the country's land area, it contains 8.34% of the population of Vietnam, 20.2% of its GDP, 27.9% of industrial output and 34.9% of the FDI projects in the country in 2005. In 2005, the city had 4,344,000 labourers, of whom 130,000 are over the labour age norm (in Vietnam, 60 for male and 55 for female workers). In 2009, GDP per capita reached $2,800, compared to the country's average level of $1,042.",
"As of June 2006, the city has been home to three export processing zones and twelve industrial parks. Ho Chi Minh City",
"In 2007, the city's GDP was estimated at $14.3 billion, or about $2,180 per capita, up 12.6 percent from 2006 and accounting for 20% of the country's GDP. The GDP adjusted to Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) reached $71.5 billion, or about $10,870 per capita (approximately three times higher than the country's average). The city's Industrial Product Value was $6.4 billion,",
"In 2008, it attracted $8.5 billion in FDI. In 2010, the",
"By the end of 2012, the city's GDP was estimated around $28,595 billion, or about",
"In 2013, GDP of the city grew 7.6% by Q1, 8.1% by Q2, and",
"By the end of 2014, the",
"The economy of Ho Chi Minh City consists of industries ranging from mining, seafood processing, agriculture, and construction, to tourism, finance, industry and trade. The state-owned sector makes up 33.3% of the economy, the private sector 4.6%, and the remainder in foreign investment. Concerning its economic structure, the service sector accounts for 51.1%, industry and construction account for 47.7% and forestry, agriculture and others make up just 1.2%. Quang Trung Software Park is a software park situated in District 12. The park is approximately from downtown Ho Chi Minh City and hosts software enterprises as well as dot.com companies. The park also includes a software training school. Dot.com investors here are supplied with other facilities and services such as residences and high-speed access to the internet as well as favourable taxation. Together with the Hi-Tech Park in District 9, and the 32 ha. software park inside Tan Thuan Export Processing Zone in District 7 of the city, Ho Chi Minh City aims to become an important hi-tech",
"With a population now of 8,382,287 (as of Census 2010 on 1 April 2010) (registered residents plus migrant workers as well as a metropolitan population of 10 million), Ho Chi Minh City needs increased public infrastructure. To this end, the city and central governments have embarked on an effort to develop new urban centres. The two most prominent projects are the Thu Thiem city centre in District 2 and the Phu My Hung Urban Area, a new city",
"Tourist attractions in Ho Chi Minh City are mainly related to periods of French colonization and the Vietnam War. The city's center has some wide American-style boulevards and a few French colonial buildings. The majority of these tourist spots are located in District 1 and are a short distance from each other. The most prominent structures in the city centre are the Reunification Palace (\"Dinh Thống Nhất\"), City Hall (\"Ủy ban nhân dân Thành phố\"), Municipal Theatre (\"Nhà hát thành phố\", also known as the Opera House), City Post Office (\"Bưu điện thành phố\"), State Bank Office (\"Ngân hàng nhà nước\"), City People's Court (\"Tòa án nhân dân thành phố\") and Notre-Dame Cathedral (\"Nhà thờ Đức Bà\") the cathedral was constructed between 1863 and 1880. Some of the historic hotels are the Hotel Majestic, dating from the French colonial era, and the Rex and Caravelle hotels are former hangouts for American officers and war correspondents in the 1960s & '70s. The city has various museums including the Ho Chi Minh City Museum, Museum of Vietnamese History, the Revolutionary Museum, the Museum of south-eastern Armed Forces, the War Remnants Museum, the Museum of Southern Women,",
"",
"The city is served by Tân Sơn Nhất International Airport, the largest airport in Vietnam in terms of passengers handled (with an estimated number of over 15.5 million passengers per year in 2010, accounting for more than half of",
"Ho Chi Minh City is also a terminal for many Vietnam Railways train routes in the country. The Reunification Express (tàu Thống Nhất) runs from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi from Saigon Railway Station in District 3, with",
"The city's location on the Saigon River makes it a bustling commercial and passenger port; besides a constant stream of cargo ships, passenger boats operate regularly between Ho Chi Minh City and various destinations in Southern Vietnam and Cambodia, including Vũng Tàu, Cần Thơ and the Mekong Delta,",
"",
"The Ho Chi Minh City Metro, a rapid transit network, is being built in stages. The first line is under construction, and expected to be completed by the end of 2021. This first line will connect",
"Public buses run on many routes and tickets can be purchased on the bus. Ho Chi Minh City has a number of coach houses, which house coach buses to and from other areas in Vietnam. The largest coach station – in terms of passengers handled – is the Mien Dong Coach Station in the Bình Thạnh District.",
"The main means of transport within the city are motorbikes, buses, taxis, and bicycles. Motorbikes remain the most common way to move around the city. Taxis are plentiful and usually have meters, although it is also common to agree on a price before taking a long trip, for example, from the airport to the city centre. For short trips, \"xe ôm\" (literally, \"hug vehicle\") motorcycle taxis are available",
"Ho Chi Minh City has two expressways making up the North-South Expressway system, connecting the city with other provinces. The first expressway is Ho Chi Minh City - Trung Luong Expressway, opened in 2010, connecting Ho Chi Minh City",
"The health care system of the city is relatively developed with a chain of about 100 government owned hospitals or medical centres and",
"",
"Notable high schools in Ho Chi Minh City include Lê Hồng Phong High School for the Gifted, Phổ Thông Năng Khiếu High School for the Gifted, Trần Đại Nghĩa High School for the Gifted, Nguyễn Thượng",
"Higher education in Ho Chi Minh City is a burgeoning industry; the city boasts over 80 universities and colleges with a total of over 400,000 students. Notable universities include Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, with 50,000 students distributed among six schools; The University of Technology (Vietnamese: Đại học Bách khoa, formerly Phú Thọ National Center of Technology); The University of Sciences (formerly Saigon College of Sciences); The University of Social Sciences and Humanities (formerly Saigon College of Letters); The International University; The University of Economics and Law; and the newly established University of Information Technology. Some other important higher education establishments include HCMC University of Pedagogy, University of Economics, University of Architecture, Pham Ngoc Thach University of",
"",
"Due to its history, artworks have generally been inspired by both Western and Eastern styles. Famous art locations in",
"The city's media is the most developed in the country. At present, there are seven daily newspapers: \"Sai Gon Giai Phong\" (\"Liberated Saigon\"), and its Vietnamese, investment and finance, sports, evening and weekly editions; \"Tuổi Trẻ\" (\"Youth\"), the highest circulation newspaper in Vietnam; \"Thanh Nien\" (\"Young People\"), the second largest circulation in the south of Vietnam; \"Nguoi Lao Dong\" (\"Labourer\"); \"The Thao\" (\"Sports\"); \"Phap Luat\" (\"Law\") and \"The Saigon Times Daily\", an English-language newspaper as well as more than 30 other newspapers and magazines. The city has hundreds of printing and publishing houses, many bookstores and a widespread network of public and school libraries; the city's General Library houses over 1.5 million books. Locally based Ho Chi Minh City Television (HTV) is the second largest",
", Ho Chi Minh City was home to 91 football fields, 86 swimming pools, 256 gyms. The largest stadium in the city is the 25,000-seat Thống Nhất Stadium, located on Đào Duy Từ Street, in Ward 6 of District 10. The next largest is Army Stadium, located near Tan Son Nhat Airport in Tân Bình district. Army Stadium was of the venues for the 2007 AFC Asian Cup finals. As well as being a sporting venue, it is also the site of a music school. Phú Thọ Racecourse, another notable sporting venue established during colonial times, is the only racetrack in Vietnam. The city's Department of Physical Education and Sports also manages a number of clubs, including Phan Dinh Phung, Thanh Da, and Yet Kieu. Ho Chi Minh City is home to a number of association football clubs. One of the",
"",
"There are 25 sister"
]
} |
Richard Bach | null | Richard David Bach (born June 23, 1936) is an American writer widely known as the author of some of the 1970s' biggest sellers, including "Jonathan Livingston Seagull" (1970) and "Illusions: The Adventures of a Reluctant Messiah" (1977). Bach has written numerous works of fiction, and also non-fiction flight-related titles. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Aviation career.",
"Literary career.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Bach was born in Oak Park, Illinois, to Roland R. and Ruth Shaw Bach. His father was an American Red Cross chapter manager. Bach attended Long Beach State College in 1955. Bach's first airplane flight occurred at age 14, when his mother was campaigning for a seat on the council of Long Beach, California. Her campaign manager, Paul Marcus, mentioned that he flew airplanes and invited Richard on a flight in his Globe Swift.",
"Bach served in the United States Navy Reserve, then in the New Jersey Air National Guard's 108th Fighter Wing, 141st Fighter Squadron (USAF), as a Republic F-84F Thunderstreak fighter pilot. He then worked at a variety of jobs, including as a technical writer for Douglas Aircraft and as a contributing editor for \"Flying\" magazine. He served in the USAF reserve and was deployed in France in 1960. He later became a barnstormer. During the summer of 1970, Bach and his friend Chris Cagle traveled to Ireland, where they participated in flying sequences for Roger Corman's film, \"Von Richthofen and Brown\". They flew a variety of World War I aircraft of the Blue Max collection owned by ex-RCAF pilot Lynn Garrison. Bach and Garrison first met when Bach wrote articles for \"Avian\", Garrison's aviation publication. Most of Bach's books involve flight in some way, from the early stories which are purely about flying aircraft, to \"Stranger to the Ground\", his first book, to his later works, in which he used flight as a philosophical metaphor.",
"Richard Bach's first book, the autobiographical \"Stranger to the Ground\" (1963) described the deployment to France of his Air National Guard unit, and was received favorably, for example, by Edmund Fuller in the \"Wall Street Journal\". In 1970, \"Jonathan Livingston Seagull\", a story about a seagull who flew for the love of flying rather than merely to catch food, was released by Macmillan Publishers after the manuscript was turned down by several others. It had first been published in \"Soaring\", the magazine of the Soaring Society of America. The book, which included photos of seagulls in flight by photographer Russell Munson, became a number-one bestseller. Containing fewer than 10,000 words, the book sold more than one million copies in 1972 alone. The surprise success of the book was widely reported in the media in the early 1970s. In 1973, \"Jonathan Livingston Seagull\" was adapted into a film of the same name, produced by Paramount Pictures Corporation, with a soundtrack by Neil Diamond. In 1975, Bach was the driving force behind \"Nothing by Chance\", a documentary film based on his book of the same name. The film centers on modern barnstorming around the United States in the 1970s. Bach recruited a group of his friends who were pilots to recreate the era of the barnstormer. A second novel, \"Illusions: The Adventures of a Reluctant Messiah\", published in 1977, tells of an encounter with a modern-day messiah who has decided to quit. On August 31, 2012, Bach was injured in an aircraft landing accident on San Juan Island in Washington. He was landing a 2008 Easton Gilbert G Searey (N346PE) that he had nicknamed \"Puff\" at a private airport when the landing gear clipped some power lines. He crashed upside down in a field about two miles from Friday Harbor, taking down two poles and sparking a small grass fire. The day after the accident, Bach was reported to be in serious but stable condition with a head injury and broken shoulder. Bach was hospitalized for four months. He reported that his near-death experience inspired him to finish the fourth part of \"Jonathan Livingston Seagull\", which had been originally published in three parts. In December 2012, \"Publishers Weekly\" reported that \"Travels with Puff\" had been sent to his publisher the day before his accident. \"Travels with Puff\" was released on March 19, 2013. In 2014, Bach published his sequel to \"Illusions: The Adventures of a Reluctant Messiah\", which he called \"\". The book incorporates the story of Bach's real-life aircraft crash, with the author imagining he is being visited by the \"messiah\", Don Shimoda, who helps him through his difficult medical recovery.",
"Bach had six children with his first wife, Bette Jeanne Franks. Also a pilot, she is the author of \"Patterns: Tales of Flying and of Life\", a book about her life as a pilot and single mother. She typed and edited most of Richard's aviation writing. They divorced in 1970, and Bach spent years without seeing his children. Richard and Bette's son Jonathan, named after the titular character in Bach's bestseller, \"Jonathan Livingston Seagull,\" is a software engineer and journalist. He wrote the 1993 book \"Above the Clouds,\" about growing up without knowing his father and then later meeting him as a college student. Richard gave his approval, although he noted that it included some personal history he would \"rather not see in print.\" Their other children are Robert, a commercial airline pilot; Kristel; James Marcus Bach, a computer expert and writer; Erika; and their youngest daughter, Bethany, who was killed in an accident at the age of 15 in 1985. In 1977, Bach married actress Leslie Parrish, whom he met during the making of the film \"Jonathan Livingston Seagull\". She featured significantly in two of his subsequent books: \"The Bridge Across Forever\" and \"One\", which primarily focused on their relationship and Bach's concept of soulmates. They divorced in 1997. Bach married his third wife, Sabryna Nelson-Alexopoulos, in April 1999."
]
} |
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